UNIV. OF TORONTO Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/forestryquarterlO6newy FORESTRY QUARTERLY VOLUME VI ‘PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION of a BOARD OF EDITORS 3 io Or 4 | 4 a fF we With Twenty-six Plates, One Map, and Four Diagrams ITHACA, N. Y. 1908 BOARD OF EDITORS B. E. FERnow, LL. D., Editor-in-Chief HENRY S. GRAVES, M. A., Yale Forest School. RICHARD T. FISHER, A. B., Harvard University. ERNEST A. STERLING, F. E., Forester, Penna. R. R. Co. FREDERICK DUNLAP, F. E., Forest Service. FILIBERT ROTH, B. S.. University of Michigan. Hueu P. BAKER, M. F., State College of Pennsylvania. RAPHAEL ZON, F..E., Forest Service. CLypE Leavitt, M.S. F., Forest Service. CONTENTS. Aer ITP CIID ca ete sale wr cradte ole eon onaee a eieia piallelaieis ais # siejeie'e By Asa S. Williams. Notes on the Girard Estate Forest Plantations, ...............02005 By J. F. Bond. Wagiional Notes’ by FP) Baker 0322.5. 228 otk eco icld coe eee Management of Spruce and Hemlock Lands in West Virginia, ..... By Max Rothkugel. extencitie 2) Loe Mrdlen tree ot acute e eine cae een at(a'e went te ee By Edward A. Braniff. Structural Characteristics of some Philippine Woods, .............. By .C. Hi Goetz. The Study of Natural Reproduction of Forests, ..............0005- By Henry S. Graves. The Forest Problem of a Rich Agricultural County of Ohio, ....... By Oliver E. Baker. Conversion of Coppice under Standards to High Forests in Eastern TEER VEER Ae Wie HRS aE BeBe SOR SIERO EARS EC RISE Rope Heme Te By A. F. Hawes. The Sprouting of Shortleaf Pine in the Arkansas National Forest, By W. R. Mattoon. Gtiicia bP CHEGOUCHON GL POLestS, (so scc: os. ce See eda cinenmeecacas By E. A. Sterling. Suggestions for the Handling of Pulpwood Lands in Eastern Canada, By Reginald R. Bradley. The Results of Systematic Forest Management, ...............0005 By B. E. Fernow. BOQEESEEY Cl) WETINIONE! ; 6 cic cic siatercie'< ccsteic'e aise) ciate s PeSinece reat bee By L. R. Jones, Professor of Botany, University of Vermont. AGE WMO SerOt NWiASte ME LOGUCES oraecelcielsieici tee ciecas ols ob vay sieterel Shanes Mechanicalmlinbemabstimatoner inca rae daclacanie see okie. one Omitheu Course of erices: in POresth ye tes .cc ca scecicocls soe Saye iaesloce By Ernest Bruncken, Sacramento Library, California. The Light Requirements of Forest Trees and the Methods of Meas- Tope aKes ALTA atk RRL S i ee ea eh Ee aE By Dr. C. Zederbaur. Translated by R. Zon and B. T. Boisen. Principles Involved in Determining Forest Types, ................. By Raphael Zon. An Analysisgat @anada’s ‘Timber Wealthy... 0 ..6.2.526 e000) ce. By B. E. Fernow. ‘The Mechanica Draction. OF SlcdS.\. 2a) ick bac ache c.ciesenseaeiee ee anal olace By Asa S. Williams. hen Sawmill fete iste’ ayackoe ase ty cote i a ata tite siete 35 By E. A. Sherman. 115 138 I5I 158 211 220 229 234 237 240 241 255 263 337 354 364 iv Page Schedule for Forest _Desctiption, ...\....cscs sess sn o% Velen x/a hate Wate ann ane Taxation oF Timber dans, vse cect rear edeeu ous ove cc csae's 383 By F. G. Fairchild. Forest ek and Conservation as Practised in Canada, ........ 388 B. E. Fernow. MieRENT LITERATURE, ‘cscs cede taser eae ee 58, 160, 272, 393 OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE, 286 r SEAMISUICE) 1.0 Soc a vies secre cath owe Bee eke me rion ciateie ng gaia tinea 199 RARER HAP, Rrtcle oo. Urerct tate ane shine hoe e er esta autour 38 MAKER WE) article 0. Gece bis t caeee eee oe ee et Re k 138 Bark Beetles, biology, Bt Oi te rent Bbet lor Mar eet iglesia ea eee 176, 417 baiting EXPETIMICHIS, fates ik eee at pc's cs cee See eee IQI Bavaria, SEGssHes er aie eseot wer de tee weer R Eee eee ee 99, 203, 311 Gale HanestS: EUR SIR, hen eile as et RBM NC ea mee 285 Birds (as PrOpasalOLs, ALN soe Saale ocheaees ine Seg eee evan sataw 419 Black Forest mianacetent, o..2..0.) ips anseets es bose teeuseres 286 Black Locusian Huneaty, . oo ste is ae ase cus ws ctele oe Peed ote cab 299 BOND, ids, Weer ee eae te atc ome ke Hes > ak leper Nem eeced 34 Box manwractire, mMmprovemMment, ./\s osc ow ++ ee cea oe te eee See 308 Botany and Zoology, en hs's thetahec Mand a tials wa es nice sted ke a ely 73, 174, 287, 414 RRADLICY. Ry RR, BEC eGe lira aa boc seater «noe ad eel emeEn 220 BIZANIF EE: (A: article, pice ecw cco x on heen ee eee cece 47 Brazil. -expott, < .. .cvce heat oe we ei uich «bias «settee own Ce eee nee 308 BRUNCEK BN, Ey, article: flee a Ga os ta) vcs ieteees k= stele oe pea 241 eatigaria, TOrests, is sensi wed a gets ocesi o sk s opae eae nln ee 412 Cable-way skidder, yet cntic chara Ciera omeide isin vw nies we barale 4 Sa Wake aide 70 ADeririan kee LOO Smee Ayre ea aiacicis sale loere Siar arc ovahe io are a be aid be siete 188 DescreapMants wre latOrs NEO uSOtls 2.5.5 eee ndie oe cetnieheieed e coGiaeckele tle sa waters 308 WWesermtton sc re dilens gti ecveevsres ccmicie loins eae ae Oars: lode ee 370 Mana eA AAA el! aes oie so) cake eas ancl heals ae nee One De Rainey > bate 309 Ecology, OMA EDEDACHE OW SOUL: «/cclascti aes memisioaeiainiaaie b's 0% aide a's sae 177 EPIORPE NS 21S bg ROSS RONEN Ed le BARC IERnER o R 173 EAP AAOME IRC ASTIN EICTINS, (7, oon 6 shsia's,oss elas Sard <8 Aas Rha Sale whe. © 2 180 Ae atte Pes GUAR Fodor ae au ched nica ew ae Kero bm ayes 6 315, 441 FAIRCHILD, F. Re Fi uci [ou aa eI A ARON ang ake eC i ORRIN, ARO 4 gate 383 Farm soils, reforesting, bed ct is ely Ad taps 2 ERS Dc al OMe ockL Pa par pea ay 78 Mertlizer i Forest) Experiments, 6.62. bc Sk ec iedew ns ockce eae cine ces 80, 300 raw humus, BP PPM ra rere thay Sta Ae eet ses eke he ae en ee eam 291 ee MON anise 4b athicles. \-- wh eid went eaeeee fective. 229, 337, 3&8 CECE RES TU IST Fi 2 Sia IR Se ec 0 2 ie Sk a A as A 434 UDOT EL To Ligh: Cale ati ORS le ena i Et Aaa LAR es Care RR RET 302 Forest Geography and Description, ...............-22005- 70, 173, 282, 412 Forest BCRELINIION—SCICU IGS oo alo ord oad wish bald wi dlarclasvlaralas biodewclamet acl 370 ECS Maye tor eres ara Aoi cle Selatan ot MITA Ue ale eras ite 327, 328 Pe OMEAGCE ADCOCY ANG PEACHECE, occiala ba svn. cies /dute nies cicle els Sade se 196 Mee iiience ou! waterilows ify RUSSIA, saan coecincciecoee et Oe mew ones 272 EMT SH CESI OME TINO Se 34 oct 5 oie oui nicl ee ens cin LS io ee 182 suminanaoement, and ‘business conditions: °..3.. cesses ses aslo een 197 MEME SEL VICCH! CRABS ES yas aeraay halt acters Setanta ee cw Gn Se EN ars 324 pe C ABBA AMER cn gaan a eee sela/e lee gegen ans «ds es 325 Brancey rouversion Gf coppice, article: (o. 3).4..o. ss eecmi es oc aeees 151 es LV SOT ae WOE O DRO UID GEE BR Oe: Sita E nC os Aner ine 312 “ RIXIIOLES SEMEN Nae 5 Ae ecco AACS Wie bo Oa Le ene te be 310 x PAE IECSEN he oh ak Sa GMS ulaiknts Soot Ae oe alae 282 - TRU BME TR ATIS SCS Ey 2 Soe eS ae Cease wad ants goS eee 04 Fumes, damage SGT OS.” BEERS ge Senta a OM ang ue raps pcp 92 ROIMIVeRTESISEATICC As V4 hae ace cine ae eto eae Se ate 194 Se SCR OUMATNCIEE INST P OLAEIAOONot y/ 55, iN cteginis sca: hot Lalwraccaiale Be Soe-ea 427 Galicia, twemrteaeent atone st ted oe Duc a Pols ud ober aawee snes 436 os FGI EE eee? oh oer Oecd ee tes sn ele Me oR Sees Oe 436 Games mnGeniiaMyesee 4 os Kase ee ees aes CE cee cid wee eases 206 ges |) Vile Nee SPIE oe Os AC ae e Teele dab ee od Rik b le Sa Me SL a dee 104 SREY Iitia HCY eSisy PASMEEICAT BITIES) » 72 la o2 ks.ota god 6 xls clom Lic & kielfias vic a « 205 Mies tl) OSEaeENCr eR TAINS 2 a aad Mir ee vn dW Nereida ott mn casas ahi 34 SEEN GB DSR & AS S's] (Sa a eg an a TI5 Mebeies ISTIC itty MAPLES ft 60 925.50) Soha cise tara aceto bine sees axe onda Oude oe 435 Page Growth rate of gine and beech, suvissdnmne ceweaw tal vee vey enaneoe 430 GOETZ. C. He article, 2... ysnnbncnt Boa ee eee EEL Gals cinwidin'e oo 34 5 52 Coypey, Moth on Sprtice, .:.i: + . x SOO me a sg a Bilao ein. oa 79 Bieight growth, law and formula, ..).'si2 mamta ite wicwssis én sie eae 304 Preredity: 412) S€Gd,. os ic.c 5s aes abale 6.64 eo ¥ Ae DaRREERES icp oo ol 82 Piemiis: as fertilizer, .. 0.0045. ¢ sie «anew lala Gn ase Sirs 291 PAV DSOMICEET,: 0 6 656-3 oe we'd 's',0 0 ¥,6'sierb:e!y boy bs digit als iM TET p00 wid 1. 6 240 Implements in forest culftiré, \:..4 i's cau seos a aged MOE: we be 188 . plant lifter, .. xis..5 20 ssp pier lp h CRW © Oe teen ot Ain 300 Impregnation, NEW “PLOCESH, | oo civ sce edison pepe a: hk Ala aE nn 5s 109 Of railroad it1eS, 535 als ethan lel sos Dae en ee eines 332 India ‘forest. wtilization, 96 6/se4s SRGMreMenis Of tTees, ATHECLE. sivacke ewe > ees saanae eee eee 255 iaghining, selecting 4rees, \..2va 6 ova «see's aw tea vee ve ne see a ae wae 313 Lochagier, Lombard steatt,)|.cciac vs pan ects eeee wa dene pean a's een slely 354 DS ABARETS. Oo aides cig enna ee ae eee & Oe ee ie rkete Ts STi Rita ie 6 22 Logging, by steam, article, 2.0.0... 6s cose gece en ne nenenwecscrooess I engine manufacturers, Ne ea Seatehsyee ste Nan oed are tara lore: SA phe Lo detctte @ oe 32 . SECA |SIEAS, i heideas ciety Me heise onere. ae herel he tarere inant deiaaerevalopatetacetaia alee 354 Log rule, extending, ‘article, Se ets Oe Oe eee atS ane nee tale ella ett etal 47 Louisiana, decwslation; is giaats ives ah ele cee » wivlee pi oe aoe oe 328 Market imftiencing, ywieldareetiation: oy icwewici els /tsckeeicio ee si-einaiela 431 Massachusetts srOrest areServessn lai oe tale notes tase folios avidin leteiateie talots eve ay atate eis 330 MAEChES, \COMBHEND EON; Su wisn’ en's Csi oss a aie cee dacs hel oad 333 MAT TOC VER Ge Beats POR Ue AL eet Sag back oh leas 158 Mensuration, ECU AIpS ienesie a eis ics mee ney Pee oes oa ee nolalate eo hate: Stele 430 Finance and Management, ...............0% 93, 196, 303, 428 ¥ by Space AUINeE: U asine tienes wand eee crake eee 428 cs Zetzsche method, Lh. pe PG TH AO RTE IY 429 Minerals and? tree ro wthitocs -ttariiamon ans 2a. cee lesioeit eae ees 81, 179 Miscellaneous, i.e cia omredtiois Dara erres OTe take oisreta mnelain sj amietarat 104, 205, 313 Mixed’ forest, objections uit inc wus 06 sais mips» Se ride asin eee 421 Moor :Soils, ‘forest cilire) tun ies. c meinlic naenten «secrets yas ane 186 Moors and forest in. Swedeny i y5 cis.e5 ne. ois s:hmceiad ates hooks i 187 National ‘Forests, plantitigy \i\jcc% 0s) soles viomeeete re nis cc ee 3190 Natural regeneration versus artificial, .............ceseeseees seit ir 20 Natural regeneration, article, ......... satu cops tate palate ise, br bow te Stokes ta hae IIs NewYork State. forest: planting, \2./cns 4c cesets eh lee eee 207, 318 IN@wsvatid NOLES, «sci Pie sche ate sine ate baer eia aces ne penne 105, 207, 315, 438 vii Page Nitrogen, eTICrEC NY AMIEL, . . Seve ep Oa ae nine ee sie wabtcldp a 291 PIE EC CIO Loree hota a's. c ewe eee el PSTD Sieelek eb cca ts 2g0 Nitteremeornisaeitio tae lola tert... . ola estar acta eneeree tas oetetet in ee eitteloele\s 76 IM OnwavertOneES? (DPLACHICES, © 5 ¢.'.\/\. clover a eels sen AMEE © +2 seb sin ces 71 @alasOcestsatit Opessart,: sa...3. 4s oe eee oe ka se whee aD toes’ Ce seea sss 285, 437 Mhriowrorests proplems; article; -'.5. 2:1 Masee see eee nae curls pels a eats 138 RE CHSWOOG MUSES (acc So aia-dcls Slee sche He tae Sete a oes aiiaiemione cenlee 333 Pennsylvania Iatlrodd: forestry. sya ee ee eee setae ees 207 forest ‘planting!\:: Asses eee eee eee oot ee sles 316 ORIN EMCTALUTE, °. .i..2:52 dz ae Ove Ran eee ee eee 86, 107, 312, 412 Philippines, forest conditions, Fags che eae ets or Se OTE OIE Eo Sarde 208 THbber “Caley ae es ae ete Ee chee III Philippine’ Woods}: charactertsties» article! (royssc2 seaenine oe ease canine 52 PANUSS “ ATIGCESERY) <6 ole ATE rk reaches a eee as ae lca ae STEARIC PERS. 417 Pines, American, SerminatiOns sos sans cc.cels's siete s oa hel sneer ale ie 205 Pine, Color variationson Seeds 2 passes ssicle anne e ete ees cogs reece 415 TOOETEORLY 2 oN ee etre Sie aisle aiid Salome le iene a aid Hate oisrs 302 Say form of, EE ne SSRIS DS CIOS CE aCe Toa hae te ee 303 pot RMSE CAMP ECIIERE CPS te col he \S Sal od vio aS ieiolk oub.slo'e's'o o's sev a ho ete 432 COSC BOTA DICNS Ua ta ae nee ne Aa ua ne ae BaINE De as ae oa eee Staite 7 MENSA MAAS De 52 Asc rds So's 2 sininale hieelala< Sale elo,perncavatys 194 EREACCSE UCT SAA inl sor Se MM ak te a RR IR ld oa 287, 206 SIMONA ee SOLON. |< Jh08 6 ale stucco boa cate ls uaa ck canede bern 158 MERU ALISON My Mat Lk ans Swe ee Gen pat eee aN 414 PRE EEICNEUEON Cer oct ne onto tees wien cd bes os Buea wacie one 86 Planting COSUS to EN Rae na VAs aed Co eae Ree teehee 217 wersus “tataral regeneralois sees. boeken sc heat ae 0 420 Plantations, Pietitiebe me leer aan Sante cnc eune iad ohare Ta ec carat tela eta ee 316 Nees State, AOL BSNS 9 Stes Spr emeea a3 de eee Sh Fee ee eo | 207, 318 National Forests, Ie ae A Oa fy Coes aeeen ed ers cea eat oe 319 s Bivtte state: (AttiCle® J00 oy gon ese eh sure deat 34 Pomees aaee Merisiatici ss 0)'s ss ccnvsearauates sieeassaeedeca cess 103 LAGE Leh pee a1 Sa ee ee ee ary cee eee BS Seep aa te mien sacs ee 176 Paria Hee IOMSEE solos. eS Vee ceo lks cae eae aede ce se sneebess 7 Prices, PaMSeRALEICS c cc ses aA senso Saal wee Valse ee awe eee om 241 is SEES SE IEE IS FRE ACORN ihe Sopeeg Goce T e Gn GMB PE PP 311 Seat Switzerland, SEE ASE EET PAPI eR BATE RE At ee Sb Sera a a 204 SM RERE ieee te SY oie ee ose DYE ate eae ena Wahl oakee Jee Grit 437 men aISTAIMEEEC EIEMES FCS ON alge g lis yk eee ieee tse eR AN. 2 100 eters ECOMMS TON TAAMIOCRICHE, \2 4 c/o S).4 4c naande cco soles euayecas ote 229 PMP ISEAMNL AS h Oe Ks weet 52 Sola Say bid a eee ate the saa denen cate 202 Peencctsues species, seedimes. 2 2.38232. oo de aes ee eee che 287 Pulpwood lands management, article, 220 Oya SPAISEICS 3 ye Vas Oe ek ak Arne ae te Ene aero 100 JETS DEL Wie a eee Nee eae a ie an A 237 Quebec, forest reservations, Pf teh eae TOO PO eT As tienes cee ny Spee Rea te FAV 108 eee a ee IMC OIE ere Lo eh etc Gen Dn ye be a 287, 206 PELE CONROE mer ie Ra WiC Leh ee teed seh Mas Se eee 175 iedtspmietsia INAMGIEN Pe@eestS: 4.0226 oc ose bo flee we eee edewce 326 GIG eure OLE SOMGON Ata! 5222278 acu 25s odd us nobles side adele 78 REVIEWS: Bowie sb eaerical: Paaratiote y 25.225 ook et ohh one sloans ace 403 Pip Gees RP PANCAISES Is 56 Sue sh 3 eas ass se Deiowe cman 65 Brittdins watts Amerein: Prees.. 656.2 oc). eS eb ot cae ene 307 Caceii a « Pemunticds Perimegs fer eee ee os en sede cls Savas 405 Castillo and Dey, Jeographia Rio Valdivia, .................. 408 Colotaneesenoolcat Horesicy 220". See SSI on ne 170 Delebavigeera Esra ye cic Oe eek rie Ae so 5 Fernald’s Soil Preference of Alpine Plants, o)4'a eB, Oe pe aide a'g se o(e viii Foxworthy, Philippine "Woods," ,scauwetesehenisentrcccasvae Furst’s Paanzenzacht, «\5.< <<. yale Ea e Ldle bdo vieeee Gillander's Forest Entomology) \\Gerueeusnt bs o> dese cacesens Gray’e New Manual .of Botany, (ce euwlii abs ee ences « aes Groom's: ‘Trees, . << 2:5:.o/vele'siae Seater eae acts Wc. doh ara Harvey’s Floral Succession in Prairie, .........-..ccececees Hawes, Foresters’ Report,’ soe cases peepee sceien en aoe Indian Forest Law, «sss cvidy cele nen en aeMEN lalate on brew o a Soy Indian Manual of Silviculture; J inceuse see eeeeees yas se Livingston’s. Relation of Desert: Plants, iocwseeeere: -- bees Maryland, Board of Forestry, «i+. 0.0 astern ene ni ay ae Minnesota School. of Forestry, 4c. 2s oe eee ce ieee le ee New Hampshire Forest Commission, ..........seceeeccecees New Jersey Forest Commission, °i.+: 5» 02+ oss See Oppokov’s Rivertlow, /o).:f.0's).> abies» b's seeders els scl ee Ohio, Agricultural Experiment Station, Forest Conditions,. . Forestry: Suggestions, <:..:...« «s/s meioee Quarterly Journal of ‘Forestry, London, -. 2. .../sc. ics seem ae Quebec, Minister, of Lands, ».\ssieisie'ois sess o's ule sisi venous Ore Maine Borester Ss \Reporty: 45.56 cscs eis cee besa duieoe c:ce ene Schwappach’s Geraint SEAtISHES! © 2s. sis\s sintnieiy's pines DOR es Bee Wald wad, Forstwirthschaft, 2.05 65.60hisee es Secretary of Agriculture, Appalachian and White Mountain, WaAterSlted ity Petia wats ele eere sun ste tekaters wits ttre saree atea ev ncaceaT ee Sudworth’s Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope, .............. ‘Troup's (Indian Forest. URMZation,.:.2, 0% seek tase ores oan United States, Production of Lumber 1907, ...............-- Waener's, Griandlageny| 6 4's ae, sists hn win ie intel ciaeatpip ene eit in wee Weed = One Treese poo Cou oitealrea ee hacen cians eee alee eae Wietrel’s:| Herbaritimigy Win ar eb were trai ine ere ais cen tctote sos at eves Waslicenus’ | Rauchschadeny)).cc acisaine siete enaietnaiaeir see aciee ielas ROMA 1 HGAGALY, 0's sees os o's GSS be areiha eee & Liber tere dae anetapte DOES, TORI MPECES, Loe ids wheeled le 5 iets hon oie cere ol ass ee eet : BROGE TOTS tats csc cistate aaah aie ale le evetaitait ie ove iiatc etaveis lover tctevarsteie ees te estima nist Rot damage ‘calculations iii sitorcs ecto cloeieicieeie wire stelle rete es ate tetmeneres orate ROLHICUGEL, (MAX article aie va. hiatitas sac deka eee nem ye RMD DSL PCMIEUFES occu Naan epee cre eisai ia aie era ace ierhcie Me pa erie eee te RRUIOL. ANG: TOTESES yoy shot ects ohatote ce eh erate erellage ie date eoala lence ane ete REESE fol oay MATUALUENCE TOL TOFESES! 2s. esos haereicsaerie ec weteue nied can a eee ee Russia tlharch/ fOrest, (6s dace eee oie cicisfan ate ciate ete aere Bere eee aaa is ot SILVICUIETITS Omi Platnasys cth saclay wis coeyotelenalevaletelclites: «ore cstonatetatetet cata Sawriill of the ature, aceicle,: esis hee ccieaaiees neces ede e ine Biers Saxony,’ FOLESt CONGHIONS Hs .15 Asia's tows ys < civ w)erehee era Mise a eins Ww nyereh ania Sa mOny, “STALISUIES, fe tec acu eb alana come ep intaiet miaeaie potas aerate eee tiara a Scandinavia forest, practices, acon ences cablatelevyd vi aewie ec wie elite a e/eearae Seasoning lumber) new: Process. v4) sors stint saix weet Pe gels s Wen amie e a aca Seed, influence of locality, oi )iec tek cde sein dv ad gee wehcemecnane SV CUUIATTELEV RUT telicer errata) areal aise (oie alous laos ehasiersiohs stelearaye iasiade “ SUpply, soe cccsec cece cece cece ne teeeeteeseweeene Colors Variation ce We ea ann ahalere wi aislerot 2a epaite tera of arte chee pokes Selection forest, pea BOT Ae aie Oe Ua aes KEES Du tay ains pic ane tere production, MS HE ale he Aaieee witcha ala Je tela dee oie ac eye SETIP: SV SEEMS Waa veopse aisle siSiahel sie) coer sl choke tears is kev otk tae nara SEERMAN, BE. .A., aptiele nti. Peek She dh daw cle ee «vie 'ble oe vn THOS in. TOLESt CUILUTE, \.:.:. 5s sco’ as MIR bc gieiet oly die ae as 9 aoe 188 PMA CHEECER) isis's uv oc bn. bse n bast PS MERE SS nh doin ve 73 Types, principles in determining, \AriClec, crue tens anes © aco ccs oe 263 Weiieation an India, & ob sects ie sate let earner Dem ope hi c0b au Avo/e oo 403 Utilization, Market and Technology; yeeindevics Manes ker ae 96, 307, 433 Marmont, LOTEStKY) oc sic. os sn'sele side bole Malta SPREE TIEAL A ola ae ene a. 234 Volunteer STOWE, USE OF,” . s 51 \noie yb alent e ene ae las 9 4 a'sb ©» 425 Walnut, Black, forest of, in Germany, ..........s0.eeeeeeeeeeeeeee 206 CE England, REMAP ORE Ee Hi ohare ies. hea CRRA ae 298 Vaste land ‘planting, cOSt, \ i/.)) s/sc/aauteiintenteereoes eae eka n ei 427 products, Mew. USE, 2\si0is 5 va cae dion iy siete ne ee ed 9 237 SOM . Platten, oo. laie% 0, oho. o>s eves porn sleie ove Inala alent aeRO 78 West Virginia, timber sale, 0. s.'s. 2+ sca co wtenes hein a eo aie a ee I, 354 g forestyschool, veo wee taine cate oie tice ee create 329 White Pine in Switzerland yous. ssa cecie win adiciaes' ou aisles Reena 188 WILLIAMS, ASA &., articles, Sain nS lots eran berecda spied ais 's elo Sen ae I, 354 Winds. of Lake (RestOomh vies i viveie soils hii beni otal eievo Slate ia aves ne igi ee 183 IWinidbrealxsnisttacivan Were ctetens terete erate te reiel sie nets cole'e lalate Wl oheieeesesvers Cental enamts 322 Wire POPE) TAM MEACHILELS, ©." Haze ain gin eo ala sae ote piste semen te oink Deanne 32 eae cio f Ke) ge ge Rel EY LM ELS teria tote Ee SOLE HAR AIRE ao RR me le 31 Wood, humification influencing working, ...............seeeeeeeee 434 eh) (ORISHED IO, MAEOR ISEB: 4) 2 pre eee ute ot Wide haw alvigath lure bm cme 333 te" W tupeieCRG OU: MITIAMIEIER,. fers a was ive eos ¢ alcra eiviaie Mek piasmae mieteomnels AVODART RES MOTTO SES chee cod Sin ecumrel atest gibi a tatace eh alain ole G1 DOs a ant a aaa 97 Worltine-ot wood prevented cores aiste sis ce wns 'cauiejersna'ssvanmnicna gs bojnere 434 NaCl remuisiton \and MAKE | Ga diulns's sea eisieis oe remiere mineine mak aceiara os 431 ZED ERA ED Co) errtichen COG Se cite Ob Sans See eats 2 255 LR Mp WER RL CIGI Sy, CACO SP SNES fea di ga valts Watcha at ae oy aR Ran Ca nat 263 (agyndysyjS SurAydypnyjy-1omog YWA\) AVMO]QL) SUI[PULf{-6O'T as-~ FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vol. VI] MARCH, 1908. [No. 1 LOGGING BY STEAM.* The object of this paper is to present to those interested in the exploitation of forests an account of the methods of wire rope logging, generally or comprehensively called steam logging, in such a manner as to enable them to judge of the suitability of these methods to their own conditions. These methods, while having been developed largely during the last decade as regards efficiency, are by no means in infancy, but in vigorous youth. To find a reason for their being, the rapid westward and soutiward spread of our great lumber industry furnishes the clue. The progress from the Northeastern States westward to the J,akes brought to the logger no new problems. All difficul- ties could be overcome as in the past by main strength and de- termination; using axe, saw, animal and man, with snow and water as invaluable assistants. Moreover the labor was less- ened in that stumpage was cheap and only the best and easily available timber was logged. With the movement of the investor to the far West and South came great change in the question of supply and demand, and a call for timber previously considered undesirable or in- accessible. - In the West, trees were found of great size; men accus- tomed to pull twenty logs with a yoke of cattle were confronted with the problem of moving one log with twenty yoke. It was slow, cumbersome, expensive work, often very difficult, and where ground conditions were rough, in the absence of the great leveller, snow, exploitation was often impossible. * The above article was compiled from data secured by the Editor, and from personal investigation by Mr. Williams, who has just been appointed Forest Engineer to the Lidgerwood Manufacturing Company, the fore- most builders of logging machinery. 2 Forestry Quarterly In the South the severest problem was that of the extensive swamps, impassable throughout most of the year, and holding immense stores of valuable pine, cypress, cedar and hardwood; again there were higher portions of the southern mountains where the conditions were too rough for animal hauling and the streams were not driveable. The experienced operator finding tried methods of the past unsuitable to the several new condi- tions, was ready to actively welcome new solutions of the diffi- culties, and upon the introduction of the steam logging engine lent energy and inventive aid to its improvement. EARLY DEVELOPMENT. The origin of the steam skidder, which in its various forms is the main topic here to be treated, may be found in the grant- ing to Mr. Horace Butters, of Ludington, Michigan, of letters patent for the first steam skidder. This original type of ma- chine was devised to get logs out of low, wet places, and the curious surface formations found in many of the glaciated re- gions of the Lake States, known as pot holes. Mr. Butters wisely foresaw the wide field possible to cover with his invention. Soon he replaced the Manila rope originally used by wire rope, and numerous important changes were made in the construction of the machine. In a circular in 1886 the possibilities of the steam skidding methods were first presented to the public. Like many other operators of the Lake States Mr. Butters foresaw the approaching depletion of that region of timber, and on investigation of the magnificent undeveloped resources of the South acquired holdings in the Green Swamp of North Caro- lina, where he foresaw the ideal conditions for the application of his invention. Cypress, cedar, gum and other swamp trees were becoming valuable; but their exploitation had been difficult and expensive. Cypress for months at a time often stands in water or mud; to haul it by cattle, horses, or mules was generally impossible. Along river, bayou or other waterway it was frequently dead- ened and on flood water poled to the open, and rafted to the market. This was a slow, trivial and unreliable process, more- - Logging by Steam. 3 over only possible on local areas; adequate log supplies could seldom be obtained for a continued period to fulfill the needs of the modern saw mill. Gum also rapidly coming into use pre- sented the further difficulty of not floating. This holding of Mr. Butters had, in common with many other Southern swamps, numerous waterways through which after some cleaning and dredging a scow would float. Here, in connection with the Lidgerwood Manufacturing Com- pany of New York, and their engineer, Mr. Spencer Miller, the first really effective type of cableway or overhead skidder was installed; this was mounted on a scow and worked through the various waterways made available; it was known as the But- ters-Miller type and one of these pioneer machines is still at work near the scene of the original installation. This invention was immediately adopted by the Suwanee Canal Company of southeast Georgia, placing three plants suc- cessively in operation on scows; suitable waterways were made for their passage by heavy dredges. This Butters-Miller type consisted of a two drum engine, one drum for the skidding line and one for the receding line, a light carriage suspended on suitable wheels hung from the overhead cable stretched from a tower on the scow or a nearby tree to a “tail” tree several hundred feet away in the woods; the skidding line passing from head block through dependent block on the carriage thence to the logs; the receding line through another head block, through idle sheaves on the carriage, thence to tail block slung to tail tree and back to fastening on the carriage. This contrivance was effective but had some drawbacks, two main ones being the time required to rig the cables, blocks, etc., at each new setting, and the pulling of slack in the skidding line to get it back from the carriage to the logs to be skidded, five and six men often being required for this; these and other minor hindrances have been overcome in the improved Lidgerwood Cableway Skidder of to-day hereinafter discussed. This overhead system was limited in scope of operation to a strip of 700 to 1,000 feet in width each side of the waterway, and thus necessitated great expense in canal construction, or waste of timber left in the woods. To overcome this Mr. William Baptist, of New Orleans, in- 4 Forestry Quarterly vented the pull boat system proper in 1889; developing a boat that would pull one-half of a mile, and later building two others to reach 3,000 feet. The rights of Mr. Baptist were also acquired by the Lidgerwood Company. ‘This system made use of the tight rope; which was operated by a reverse link motion en- gine with two drums, of the same diameter. The pulling cable passes around these drums several times to secure proper fric- tion and the ends of the cable are coupled together by a small messenger rope passing through a block suitably placed in the woods, thus forming an endless line. When one side of this endless line is pulling in one or more logs on the ground, the other side is carrying the empty tongs, dogs, cones, etc., back to the stump. This system has now almost entirely been replaced by the slack rope system which does away with many of the difficulties experienced by the original method, the main being that variable lengths of haul were difficult, that two swamped roads were nec- essary, and that the unloading of the line interfered with the loading. The slack rope haulage engine has two friction drums, one drum is geared for power and holds the heavy pulling line, the other drum has high speed, and holds the lighter outhaul line which is a little more than twice the length of the pulling line; this line passes through tail blocks at the rear end of the haul and is fastened to the end of the pulling line; by this arrange- ment with friction drums variable lengths of haul are possible and the empty line is returned to the stump at high speed, thus avoiding unnecessary loss of time in operating. In 1891 or 1892 the Ruddock Cypress Company of Louisiana and also the Louisiana Cypress Company replaced the pull boat and canal by the railroad and skidded on a car, thus inaugur- ating the present method of railroad swamp logging which by reason of cheapness and efficiency has almost entirely replaced all other methods in those difficult conditions. Coincident with the southern movement of lumbermen was one towards the far west; here also were found new conditions. Steam was introduced; the main haul from sled road or wagon road, slide or stream was replaced by railroad. The difficulty of the skidding road was solved on the Columbia River by Mr. soovrjq ASSog 10 4JOS JO yo sso’y Suryeug surjesjsnyy + 4 om. Logging by Steam. 5 Saldern who introduced a small Lidgerwood hoisting engine 61” x 8”, with two drums, using a return or receding line on the upper drum. The initial experiment was here also very success- ful; from this he developed very extensive logging operations and his example has been followed to such an extent that there are now nearly 4,000 logging engines in use in the Pacific forests. These, besides the original type of a smaller yarder include the powerful long haul road and bull donkey engines, original in the West, but now being gradually introduced in the eastern mountains. SNAKERS. These early skidder types, it will be observed, were all intro- duced to overcome physical difficulties. In the Southern pine woods there are broadly speaking no physical difficulties; the ground is flat, railroad or log wagon can go anywhere, there are no rocks or cliffs, little mud, generally no underbrush. Common logging is cheap, easy and efficient. Then why the skidder? Because it is inanimate, does not die, eats nothing when it does not work, is unaffected by the weather, disease or insects, is constant and tireless, and gets cheap logs: in other words, there is money in it. The Semi-portable Snaker was the first type developed for use in the pine woods; this by Vanderbilt and Hopkins in south Georgia. It is a type, inexpensive and simple and still largely used by operators of small capacity. It consists of a one-, two-, or three-drum engine, mounted on flat car, which is run off on a short side track at each setting, with a spar tree at end; from this spar tree are slung skidding blocks through which the skid- ding lines are run to secure proper lead and the “rise” to the log, which is so advantageous in rough ground conditions. A mule or horse is generally used to return the line with the tongs on end to the log to be skidded, and when attached the engine reels the log. in to the track; it is here loaded by being rolled up on inclined skids or by line from an extra drum passing through a block suspended from an overhead guy. When long heavy pulls are made the spar tree is guyed to prevent its being pulled over. The principle disadvantages of this simple, cheap and efficient 6 Forestry Quarterly equipment are the amount of time and trouble necessary to place and rig at each new setting which disadvantage diminishes as the stumpage per acre increases, or the desired daily capacity decreases. ‘To overcome this disadvantage Mr. W. A. Fletcher, a practical operator of Beaumont, Texas, about 1895, devised the Portable Pine Logger in its primitive form. This first installation of a new type consisted of separate Lidgerwood skidding and loading engines mounted on a long platform; loading and skidding booms in rather complex form were raised overhead with suitable blocks for leading the lines through. ‘The machine remained on the track during operations, being raised to allow empty cars to pass underneath by a system of engine-operated levers, and then blocked in running position. When to be moved to a new setting it was lowered to an ayail- able flat car and shifted by locomotive, or else by a line from the drum of the machine itself. This, as with the semi-portable machines, was a device for snaking logs, the line and tongs as before stated being returned to the stump by horse or mule. It was followed by the “Baptist type” built by Woodward, Wight & Co., of New Orleans, in which the general Fletcher principle was followed but construction of booms much simpli- fied. The skidding engine had three drums for pulling lines, and the loading engine two, one for loading and the other for spotting the cars. Baptist, also, early recognized the vital neces- sity of a swing loading boom, securing this by a direct acting steam cylinder, a primitive method that was soon improved ‘and is now found in only one modern type of machine. The Baptist type was raised to allow for passage of empties underneath by being pulled up a slightly inclined auxiliary track by the locomo- tive where it remained until all logs tributary to that setting were skidded and loaded. The “Dequede” was a similar portable type, with some modi- fications in the arrangement of the skidding boom, and with the loading boom swinging by an arrangement of ropes at the foot of the boom. It was raised into operating position to allow empties to pass by an arrangement of screw jacks operated by link belting from the skidding engine. The patents on these several portable machines were all ac- quired by the Lidgerwood Manufacturing Company, the va- - “S30 (a) “Al } >. yo 4 a 2 oul vy ye d (a) S OF} pe os fall fl So os 10 H aie) apr Oo pt 1e nt) opp Iy INS SG pu no ate wae oyqe 24.10 d ~TUU 2) S QUIyOVIY Opus ss¥q sav MOPT ple SpooM oY} OFT sour] SuIyeT, Sosiop{ Surmoys ‘sopvo’] pue toppryg punosy syqey1od Logging by Steam. 7 rious details and general principles combined, modified, and im- proved resulting in the most efficient of all skidding machines for dry ground and short haul, the Lidgerwood Portable Logger and Loader. It is the standard, almost the only large capacity machine used to-day in the Long Leaf Pine belt, and for original investment and operating cost is by far the cheapest means of logging, be it compared with oxen, horses, mules, or other ma- chinery. The Portable Pine Logger in the newest form remains on the track when in operation; but is raised above the track to allow for the passage of empty log cars beneath, by four steam op- erated hydraulic jacks. It is built in several sizes with two, three, or four skidding lines, a loading line, a car spotting line. The loading and skidding engines are separate so that there is no interference in operating; further the skidding lines are on a boom separate from the loading boom; these booms are how- ever so located that the skidding lines bring the logs directly to the loading boom, thus not requiring rehandling as :s the case with forms having the skidding boom too far to the rear. All lines pull directly against guys instead of the boom or other solid part of the machine; a valuable, even necessary point for the long life of a machine; this elasticity is increased fur- ther by coil springs in the block hangers. The swinging of the loading boom is accomplished by having the engine mounted on a turntable; from two pony drums the skidding lines extend from the end of the boom to the skidding guys. Owing to this end control, the longer the boom the easier it swings; thus it can be constructed for logs of any length. These machines, as the name indicates, are mainly used in the southern pine belt; and are well suited to the conditions there met, and by proper modifications, to other flat, dry ground logging. In considering their financial efficiency, there is to be counted an original expenditure of from six to ten thousand dollars de- pending on the size of the machine. An average daily hauling capacity of from 20 to 35 M feet to each skidding line may be always secured, depending on the amount of timber to the acre, and various details of ground and labor conditions. From experience, this cost of skidding and loading, it is 8 Forestry Quarterly known, will be from 50 to go cents per M feet in timber averag- ing 5 M feet or better to the acre, a figure that cannot be ap- proached by any other method known to the writer. Logs are most cheaply skidded in full lengths and cut at the mill, this has the further advantage of saving the waste usually occurring by the lack of judgment of the sawyers in cutting up logs in the woods. The daily cost of operating a three line machine of this type will have items somewhat as follows: Foreman, $4.00, $4.00 Engineer, 3.00, 3.00 3 Levermen, 2.00 6.00 Fireman, 1.50, 1.50 3 Riggers 1.50, 4.50 3 Tong men, 1.50, 4.50 3 Signal men, 1.50, 4.50 2 Loaders, 1.50, 3.00 2 Unhookers, 1.50, ; 3.00 5 Mules, 1.00 5.00 Fuel, water, oil, 6.00 Cable and machine repairs, 5.00 Retirement of cost, 2.00 Total, $52.00 This for a machine of average daily capacity of from 75 to 100 M feet per day. The haul is best reduced to 800 feet, although scattering timber is easily picked up at twelve hundred feet or so. ‘The short haul in the flat pine land is no serious objection, as rail can be laid in any direction at will and at slight expense; three tracks to the section is the rule, generally followed in the pine belt with the best success. It is understood of course that all snakers are restricted in use to short hauls, because of the manner in which the line is returned to the stump—one thousand feet being the practical working limit to which a single horse or mule can return a line; two animals are sometimes thus used for longer distances, but this is awkward, slow and expensive. During the past year a portable snaker and loader has been introduced by the Russell Wheel and Foundry Company, well known as builders of logging cars. This machine uses the screw jack principle for rising to allow for the passage of empty cars underneath. The skidding lines lead from an A frame placed Logging by Steam. 9 diagonally over the body of the machine, and supported in opera- tion by side guys. The loading boom is stiff and generally adapted for loading full length trees. The main drawback to this type is in the comparative location of loading and skidding booms, they being so far apart that skidding must always take place from the front of the machine instead of in complete circle, as logs skidded from the rear must be dropped beyond reach of loading boom unless rehandled with snatch block. The stiff ioading boom presents the usual objections of such, which will be discussed in considering loaders. The Double Ended Snaker, as its name implies, snakes at both ends, although it does not load; it is a type of machine that as yet has been little used, although it undoubtedly has a good if somewhat limited future. There are two engines taking steam from the boiler mounted on the bed of the rear one. It is strictly portable, being self-propelling by a chain drive from the front engine. At each end there are two skidding lines and a decking line; these drop from overhanging booms which are steadied when in operation by two guys. The major points of advantage are the great portability, no locomotive being re- quired even for long distance movement. Settings may be made at frequent intervals along the track without loss of time as with other types, this loss being virtually reduced to the mere time of attaching and tightening guys; where the timber is thin this ability to make settings quickly is of extreme import- ance. As the logs skidded are merely decked along the side of the track, this machine must be followed by a loader. Whether this slight additional operative expense and trouble is more than bal- anced by other advantages will of course depend on the condi- tions in the operation in question. Machines of this type are built by the Clyde Iron Works and the Lidgerwood Manufacturing Company, the construction being on the same general lines, with detail difference mainly in boom support and block suspension; further the Clyde machine has small hand winches for guy tightening, while the Lidgerwood machine accomplishes this by changing the boom position by the engines. In very small numbers, various operators and others have con- Io Forestry Quarterly structed other forms of more or less portable snakers, generally utilizing features of the machines just described. ‘The design | of a somewhat novel one, named the Pearl River Logger of the Wilmot Machine Company is one of them. ‘This consists of a drum snaking engine and boiler mounted on a flat car, and ahead of it on another car is mounted a horizontal spar or boom, from which at intervals hang the skidding blocks. ‘There was no in- tention of loading with this machine, but simply to pull the logs to side of right of way. I am not aware that any plant was constructed from this design; the possible drawback is its cum- bersome size, and low hanging skidding blocks, thus lacking the desirable “‘rise” to the line necessary in proper skidding and deck- ing. This conception is simply mentioned to indicate the va- riety of design possible in this line. The Pond Snaker, so called because of its frequent use in pulling logs across the ponds or sloughs of the pine woods, is a light, inexpensive and under certain conditions, efficient ma- chine. It is very simple, consisting of a one or two drum en- gine with boiler, generally of twenty to thirty horsepower, which is mounted on broad tired wheels, or long runners or skids simi- jar to Coast yarders, and similarly pulls itself about the woods. Skidding blocks are generally hung to a tree for proper line lead in various directions and the logs hauled out of impossible places to the machine, from whence they can be taken by team or traction engine. ‘This type can very aptly be combined with the small portable sawmill, tie mill, or pulp wood cutter; the skidding being done direct to the mill, and when the area within reach is logged, the entire equipment by the power of the skidder is moved to a new location. As to the method of snaking in general, as previously said, it is a short haul method and therefore only suited to conditions where the vehicles of main haul, be they railroad, tram, wagon road, roading trail, or waterway, are placed close together. This is usually only the case in a flat country. It is not to be under- stood.that a snaking system is never of value in irregular to pography, for it often is, but its usual employment is as an auxil- iary for the shorter hauls or as a feeder or yarder to other systems. Since it is used in connection with animals for return of line, it is restricted to ground conditions where such animals : : Logging by Steam. II can go, therefore is not of use on very rough ground or where excessive amounts of water or of mud occur. For thin timber snaking is surely the cheapest method: the amount of auxiliary equipment required is small, the time and trouble required in making new settings are little, and there is general simplicity of operations. Ideally it is suited to the south- ern pine belt, to the hardwood river bottoms in the dry season, to the pine and hardwood forests of the Lake States, to the flat spruce forests of eastern Maine and the Provinces, and to a large variety of local conditions. Furthermore, as an auxiliary, it is a method of wide adaptability. CABLEWAY SKIDDER. The general principle of the cableway skidder, otherwise known variously as the overhead, suspended, swamp, cypress, Lidgerwood, and high-ball skidder has perhaps been gathered from the previous mention of the early form, the “Butters- Miller.” The subsequent development has been mainly in the line of greater portability, and in detail devices for slack pulling, guy tightening, main cable tension and in general engine effic- iency. To trace broadly this development to the most efficient type yet designed, the Portable Spar Skidder with swinging boom or with self-propelling device, may be of interest. The first cableway skidding engines, for railroad logging, were mounted on a flat car which, as with the semi-portable snaker, was run off at each setting on short spurs beside the main line. This obviously entailed considerable expense, but with properly trained construction gang, less than would seem on casual consideration. ‘The steel car with swivel trucks and ratchet jacks reduced the expense greatly. The method of oper- ation with it is, to lay at the selected setting, short lengths of rails properly spaced at right angles to the main line; the skidder on arriving at the setting is jacked up until the wheel flanges are above the rail face, the trucks are then turned at right angles and the machine pushed on to the short rail lengths to position in front of the spar tree. Obviously, considerable time is required to rig the head spar tree, and furthermore, care 12 Forestry Quarterly must be used in its selection. The second step, therefore, towards portability was the placing on the skidder car of a steel tower or spar to replace the spar tree. This tower carried the several skidding blocks in permanent position, suitable support for the main cable, and bearing for the necessary guys to properly carry them to auxiliary drums or winches for tightening. Thus, with this spar skidder, the labor of rigging was eliminated, and the time required to make a setting greatly reduced. It will be readily understood that, both the tree-rigged and semi-portable spar skidders, log at each setting a circular area, the radius of which approximately equals the length of the main cable span; so that any area logged by this method would show recurring circular areas partially overlapping, and also small “wedges” of unskidded ground. The amount of this twice skid- ded, or unskidded ground would practically vary with the even- ness of the stumpage distribution, and be governed by the dis- tance between the settings; the choice of settings so as to secure all desirable timber with the smallest number of settings lies in the judgment of the foreman. Table Showing Area Tributory to Skidding Line of Given Length (Circle Skidding). 500 15.5 600 26. 700 35: 800 46. goo 58. 1,000 a2. 1,500 162. 2,000 288. 2,500 450. 3,000 658. 3,500 860. 4,000 1,154. 4,500 1,4 5,300 2,025. The strictly portable spar skidder practically skids a continu- ous strip of constant width along the railroad, as it remains on the main line during operations, requires no prepared setting, and from the short time required to make settings they can take place at very short intervals. Various forms of portable cable- way skidders have been designed; those with loading boom provide for the passage of the empty log cars, as do the portable snakers, by jacking up and allowing them to pass underneath. - Jopprys Aemorqeg surpodo1g-Jpos Dovian¥? On 00)K8 OMIM MOVIE 2 ou - ae eae Bays Tt ‘Baw. YvdS OYIH Jappryg Aemotqeg Aq sedojsg ysnoy Sursso’] % Logging by Steam. 13 The first important development in the cableway skidder en- gine design since the Butters-Miller conception was the intro- duction of the inter-locking and reversing device. This is a sys- tem of duplicate gears by which while the engine runs in positive direction only, and while at practically constant speed, the loaded carriage is brought in to the machine at a slow speed, suitable for proper skidding, and having been unloaded, returns to the stump at a high speed, thus avoiding unnecessary loss of time in operating. As the positions of the load and of the carriage at any moment are controlled by the tension of two lines, it is important that these lines be under delicate control and at the same time act in harmony, so that one is paying out automatically as fast as the other is reeled in; this is accomplished by the friction drums with the interlocking device. Slack pulling, that is pulling the skidding line towards the carriage so that the tongs may be carried to the stump free of the entire weight of the skidding line, has been the subject of much experimentation, and is now accomplished by two similar methods. Both of these require an extra or slack pulling drum on the skidding engine, this should have an automatic slipping friction so that while inter-locking with the other two drums it slips on excessive line tension. In both systems of slackpulling this drum carries a light slack- pulling line. In the spliced line system, the line passes from the spar block to the carriage of the “Butters-Miller” type in which is placed an extra sheave, the line passes over this and thence back the distance of the maximum length of slack required, at which point it is spliced or swiveled to the skidding line. It will be seen that if the skidding line be released and the slack pulling line reeled in, the tongs will drop to the ground, and be carried to the stump free of all weight or strain other than the length of line between the splice and the tongs. The second method makes use of the “Miller-Dickinson’”’ slack- pulling carriage. This patented carriage has a small drum in the rear providetl with three line compartments of different di- ameters. Here the receding line is attached to the end of the carriage as usual, but the skidding line proper passes around the drum a number of times in its compartment; the slackpulling line in its compartment is in the opposite direction, while in the 14 Forestry Quarterly third a skidding extension line is wound, so that if the slack- pulling line be pulled the drum will revolve, thus winding in the skidding line and unwinding the extension or tong line; and inversely the pulling in of the skidding line winds up the ex- tension line. These slackpulling devices are savers of much time, usually in- creasing the machine capacity 20 per cent. and reducing the necessary labor of three to six men. The cableway skidding engine proper of the most efficient type is, therefore, one of three drums with inter-locking, reversing and slackpulling de- vices. In the complete cableway skidder of the more portable forms, as previously mentioned, additional engines or drums for load- ing, locomotion, guy tightening, main cable automatic tension and general utility purposes are provided. In a paper of this nature it would avail nothing to go into their details, and the knowledge of their existence is perhaps sufficient. Nearly every logging proposition presents peculiar difficulties or differences of its own, not only physical but due to labor conditions, or methods of general management or procedure; each presents a special engineering problem, and new features or combinations must be incorporated in a plant suitable for the work. The suspended system of logging has its limitations and suit- ability to various conditions; the system is, to be sure, a short haul system, its length depending on the height of the head and tail spars, and the maximum load; practically the working length is 800 to 1,000 feet on level ground, and increasing to a maxi- mum of 1,600 feet in regions of broken topography. As it is operated in the air it is independent of ground condi- tions absolutely; and is therefore eminently suitable to all rough or broken bottom, to woods with thick and tangled undergrowth, or covered with mud or water, or to other conditions rendering the ground impassable. In practice, it reduces the expense for swamping to a negligible amount. As a conveying or carrying system it is_especially suited to exploitation where small products like tan bark, pe wood, cord wood and faggots are to be gotten out. Under conditions where a snaking system might be used it is Logging by Steam. 15 often to be chosen; where the timber is small, where the stump- age is heavy, that is over 10,000 feet to the acre, and where logs free of dirt or grit are necessary. Considering its actual use and suitability to conditions, it might be said that it is the method almost universally used in logging the southern cypress and juniper swamps; there it will skid and load logs otherwise practically unavailable for a contract price usually less than one dollar per thousand feet. In the Louisiana cypress belt the tree-rigged skidder, as usually oper- ated, is expected to log a million feet a month, with an average crew of seventeen men, additional expenses being fuel, oil and general repairs. The best machine record for a day’s operation for this tree-rigged type the writer has in mind was 119,600 feet in timber that averaged over 500 feet to the log. It is here cited as a most exceptional showing. Further, the cableway skidder is the most efficient form for operators in the “Lake” hardwood and hemlock section, and in the pulpwood forest of the north-east. A light form mounted on suitable sleds or runners in broken topography will secure logs usually considered inaccessible; it is specifically of value in securing the scattered remnants in the mountains of New England, the Adirondacks, and the Appa- lachian region, standing on broken rough bluffs, and by the usual local methods unobtainable. In more permanent form it is extremely serviceable in trans- ferring logs across ravines, gorges, streams and other breaks in topography SiAcK Ropg SKIDDERS. Slack rope skidding, as briefly mentioned in speaking of the éarly development, is not in extensive use in the east and south; in the west is is practically the only system used. The complete skidder for this system varies in its form very much as does the cableway skidder; it may be merely the bare engine with the necessary blocks, cables and small fittings, or it may be completely portable, on self- propelling car with spar and loading boom. Slack rope skidding is primarily a long distance system; thus on the coast it is used for yarding to extreme hauls of 2,500 feet, 16 Forestry Quarterly in pull boat logging for long hauls of one mile, and in mountain roading for several thousand feet. Required capacity in a slack rope system is obtained by haul- ing large loads rather than by making many trips; for the pur- pose of gathering suitable loads, side lines of various lengths, rope slings, chains with dogs or Shaw sockets ‘and similar de- vices are used. Another interesting detail device that has been used for swamp slack rope work is the Baptist cone. ‘This fits over the front end of a log and serves the same purpose as snip- ing, that is preventing the log from catching or hanging up on ground obstructions. The principle objection to the slack rope method where ground and timber conditions are suitable is the labor of changing lines to a new course; ordinarily in one course a strip of from 100 to- 400 feet is skidded. In very long hauls therefore the practice often changes the slack rope system from a skidding to a main haul system by the use of a small auxiliary machine to feed it, and thus the method of roading is approached. Tur Roap ENGINE. The road engine is a slack rope machine but must not be con- founded with the slack rope skidder, for it does not go to the stump direct or by side line but simply hauls logs brought to it by other means, as teams, men, or the yarding engine. It is a main haul engine, that is it takes the place of tram, or slide, or flume, or sled road, and as such is seldom shifted but is semi-per- manent. In its largest and most permanent form it is the Bull- donkey of the Coast and is often placed at the mill itself, thus rendering railroad unnecessary, or is placed at the main railroad and replaces the usual spur road. In such cases, it is an equipment of some pretensions. Fine slides of fore-and-aft skid roads are built and where large log quantities are to be moved the road mileage construction cost may approach that of a branch railroad in similar conditions. The cost of the road will generally be in proportion to the amount of timber to be hauled over it. If only a small stumpage be tribu- tary, only impassable places in the selected right of. way will be bridged, skidded, or corduroyed; if a large amount is to be (twoysKQ ddor-yor[g) sursuiy [nVy~_ Suo’T 0} Surpav x surrey) Sug Meyg Ssuryoeyyy jo souURY Suresysnyyy Logging by Steam. ty moved ground conditions may be harmfully disturbed by re- peated hauling, and a continuous slide be desirable. Generally the better the road is the longer the possible haul, the greater the possible load, and the larger the number of trips; all factors in the capacity achieved. It will be seen, therefore, that a high constructive cost may mean proportionally a low op- erating one, per thousand feet. The road engine is generally a long haul engine, that is for hauls from twenty-five hundred to seven thousand feet; if longer pulls be necessary a battery of engines should be used. As with other wire rope engines it is the length of haul rather than the pay load that influences the required engine power. Capacity should wherever possible be secured by increasing the load rather than the number of trips. Here the excessive rope weight and friction, the large size of drums required to hold the rope, the large boiler capacity requisite for long hauls, are all factors necessitating great size and power of machine. For example an efficient engine for a haul of 4,000 feet should have a boiler at least 60” x 120”, with 10” x 12” cylinders, and would weigh from 16 to 17 tons; the plant complete with all ropes, blocks, curve rollers, etc., would represent an expenditure of five thousand to seven thousand dollars. The running expenses will vary primarily with the suitability of the road, or slide provided, and with the size and quantity of the logs; naturally cheapest logs are secured when a plant is operated to its full capacity. It is useless to attempt without care- ful survey of specific conditions, even an approximation of cost of hauling, but where conditions are suitable a saving over other methods will almost without exception be effected. As to results achieved, as before stated, they would depend primarily on the length of haul, nature of road and size of timber. For most efficient work a mile haul engine should pull at least 5,000 feet board measure per trip, for shorter hauls smaller loads may be pulled and a good capacity still kept up. Running expenses will consist of wages of engineer, fireman, doggers, signalmen, chaser, etc., fuel, oil and water; cable, block, and sundry repairs; taken together they will sum up from 15 to 2 18 Forestry Quarterly 30 dollars per day, depending on size of plant and working con- ditions. With suitable engine and other equipment the installa- tion and operation of the road engine is to the experienced a simple matter; although the road or slide permits ample oppor- tunity for exercise of judgment in selection of course and amount of labor to be bestowed thereon. The outhaul line, as in other slack line machines, must pass through tail blocks; furthermore it will often leave the course of the road and pass through the woods at some distance, thus to be out of the way of operations or to secure a better or (in the event of curves in the main course) a shorter line. A number of snatch blocks suitably slung on trees will in such event keep it in position and prevent entanglement on ground obstructions. The pulling line and load are kept in the proper route by suitable skids, shear logs, curve rollers or road spools. The load is composed of logs dogged in tandem; especially large, straight, and smooth logs usually being chosen for front and rear. Whether the front or rear log or both be attached to the pulling line will depend on the smoothness of the road, and whether the logs tend to run away whenever a down grade oc- curs. All dogs, chains, slings, hooks, etc., are sent back to the woods on a small boat or pig. In regions, as from Pennsylvania south along the Appalach- ians, where the gravity or partial gravity slide or skid road is used, the light road engine is a satisfactory substitute. The con- structive cost is lessened as such a careful continuous road is unnecessary; it need not be built to grade, therefore there is less cribbing, it may be straighter and therefore shorter, tow paths not being required further expense is saved, and where rough ground conditions occur that would be impassable for animals small difficulty is met. It is a satisfactory substitute for the branch railroad in small valleys or othér tributary areas where stumpage is found in such small amounts as to render allotted cost of such branch excessive ; or where extreme grades are encountered, or where ground con- ditions render railroad construction over-expensive. Compared with the spur or branch railroad or tram the road engine is non-destructive. The amount of small timber or low grade timber used in the construction of the requisite trail or siouuny 10 pays uodA poyunoyy oursuy oyesedag & YWAA Surury opis Logging by Steam. 19 road is far less than with the spur railroad; this in a day of high values of even the poorest of forest products is of import. Further the necessary right of way is much narrower and conse- quently there is less merchantable or growing stock destroyed. INCLINES. The use of wire rope haulage on incline is one very familiar to mining engineers; in logging it is being used to a rapidly grow- ing extent in the mountainous regions. What is an incline? Simply a track up which a car is hauled by a rope wound on a drum. In very primitive form it is found in the Southern Appalachians, with wood rails, Manila rope and a wooden drum turned by animal power; thus pulling logs out of coves, gullies and over low ridges. The incline for logging purposes has generally regular steel rails laid as for a railroad, although general construction need not be so heavy, as the weight and pounding of the locomotives has not to be provided for. Usually at the height to which the load is to be pulled a hoisting engine of special design, large drums, etc., is placed. As resistance to wear is of greater im- port for this purpose then flexibility, a wire rope of six strands of seven wires each is generally used for haulage; to reduce the friction and wear on the rope, rollers are best placed between the rails for the rope to run on. But, as the wear is great, in any event a factor of safety of at least five on the maximum working load should be provided for. It may happen, especially on a long incline where the grade is slight, that the empty cars in them- selves have not sufficient weight to return to the end; in such cases a return line is necessary, passing from the engine to the incline and, through a block and thence to rear empty. This line obviously must be twice the length of the incline, but may gen- erally be smaller than the in-haul line. It is possible to haul almost any load up any grade by this method, engine of requisite power being provided; but it is the length of the Haul with apparatus now used, that presents the difficulty. It will be seen that there are three separate loads, 1. e.; the paying load, the logs to be moved; the constant dead-load, being the car-weight and friction, and the varying loads, being the weight and friction of the rope. When it is considered, that 20 Forestry Quarterly one mile of one inch wire rope weighs over 4 tons, some idea of the difficulty of long hauls is gained. By the present method it may be said, that, with the semi-per- manent logging incline 14 miles of in-haul is the practical limit; the distance the load is moved, when it is dropped on the further side of the height as pulling over a ridge may be of course double. The longest logging incline the writer has in mind has a loaded in-haul of 8,000 feet and lowers on an incline of 4,000 feet. Longer inclines are best operated by a relay of engines. Changes in gradient are undesirable but of no serious import unless sufficient to stop the returning car, and thus render a re- turn line necessary. Curves, especially sharp ones, are very un- desirable, changing the direction of the pull, thus rendering curve rollers necessary and increasing the required engine capacity. There has been produced very recently an engine that elimi- nates several of the draw-backs of the present drop rope incline. This engine winds itself up the incline, pulling the load after it; the cable fastened at both ends being laid permanently between the tracks, passes around specially designed drums and is dropped behind. By this method wear and tear on the rope is reduced to the possible minimum; rope of much smaller size can be used for long hauls; less power, hence less cost of equipment, is required for moving the same load, return lines are never required and almost any length of incline is possible. In a general way it may be said, that, the operator having any large body or bodies of timber lying on the further side of a ridge, hill, mountain or other divide, or in a gulch, ravine, sag or deep valley, or any other similar site from which it cannot be hauled without prohibitive expense by the ordinary methods of animal, steam skidder, or locomotive; if this timber can be reasonably yarded at one or several places in large quantities or along given lines, the incline offers a possible and often cheap method of securing it. Furthermore, with a logging railroad, the practical operator finds 6 per cent. an unpleasant working grade, ten per cent. very undesirable and anything over 15 per cent. an impossibility. In many mountain regions there will be found breaks in the natural line of right of way, that will give these excessive or impossible grades that cannot be reduced without prohibitive expense. By “AVMIIVA OUL[OUT SULSSO’T Logging by Steam. 21 creating an incline on this portion of the line, this difficulty is in- expensively overcome. Again, in small brook valleys it is generally the custom to push back spur track as far as the grade will permit. This often leaves an undesirably long haul for the skidders, teams, or road engine in order to reach the extreme timber. If an incline were made of a further portion of the spur track this haul could be reduced to a suitable length, the empties pulled up and when loaded lowered to the locomotive waiting below. The man in the woods often finds his conditions producing difficulties often not duplicated elsewhere. The above generali- ties may perhaps serve as suggestions for practical application ; and a thorough knowledge of the possibilities of the incline must strengthen the opinion becoming general, that there is no tree that cannot be secured and no timber that has not a stumpage value. The following table is appended for reference in computing the strength of rope or engine capacity necessary for incline work, allowing for rolling friction; additional allowance must of course be made for weight of rope used. A factor of safety of six or seven should be allowed for use in inclines, as wear is usually great. 8 = 3° 8 = 3° a 2 ado a = £¢ 00,5 S5 00,5 =e g ay QO é = =a B.5 g =e) : ? pen Ta Geek. wea ee > - Wad ] e Fi) eh % G4 % i § tor” ; as : ee 1 sarmmsgy nd ” % « ae i." I. Forét de Chaux Coppice just removed. II. Forét Ponta Mousson. Coppice beginning to el-sprout. : a4 Coppice 60 years old. III. Forét Pont a Mousson. Three years more advanced than III. First Regeneration Cutting IV. Conversion of Coppice. 155 998191 er O20 Oo Be Oe Ser Oo Hee O e+ G9 G++ Oo © e+ Oo Ses Oe Ber B21 Ws G++ Oe Or We, © oe Gee Gordo Oo Gee Ger Dor Bor Grr Bo Oe er Hor Os Ger Ber GoGo B+ Gor Go . . e e e H ; i I 3 II : H 1870-1900 H 1900-1930 H : : 3 ¢ Ce hl a a a a a e H Ill i IV 3 Ny H H 1930-60 H 1960-90 H 1990-2020 3 ¢ e ° ° 2O 1909029 Ore Oo e+ Oe O er ee e+ O01 Ber Go Ger Ose Ger Ges G o> Gor Oe Ber Oo+ Os e+ O ++ Ges O11 Ore Ges Gor er OOo Oe Be Oe er Go B+ e+ Oe Oe 1 Oe Oe We Orr Oe Theoretical arrangement of compartments in Forest de Haye. When the underwood of the first compartment reaches the age of thirty years, it is thinned instead of being cut nearly clean, as before. Most of the small, and all the defective trees, especially of the beech, are cut, always favoring oak on the better soils. Trees having the largest crowns are left so as to protect the soil, and because they bear the greatest amount of seed. The second compartment now enters upon the period of conversion, although the first thirty years, as has been shown, is the same as under the old system. Photograph III shows a part of the same forest as that shown in No. II, but sixty years further advanced toward conversion. The sprouts which are just starting in No. II are here large trees, and the wood has been marked for the first regeneration cutting. This removes practically all the trees whose reproduc- tion is not desired, and opens up small areas to sunlight,—seldom over one-sixteenth of an acre in extent. Photograph IV shows an adjoining cutting area to that shown in No. III, in which the first regeneration cutting has been made three years ago. It is therefore sixty-three years later than No. II. These sprouts run from five to twenty inches in diameter, and sixty to seventy feet high. This was the portion of the forest covering the arcient quarries. About eight years after this first opening up of the crown, a second cutting is made, extending the holes. It must be re- membered that the trees are too old to sprout, and that the canopy is never opened enough to admit the growth of under- brush, so regeneration is certain. Of course these cuttings are made when good seed crops are assured. 156 Forestry Quarterly Photograph V shows another part of the same forest fifteen years more advanced than No. III. The guards are standing in the thicket of seedlings that resulted from the first cutting, and which are now fourteen to sixteen feet high. This forest is now marked for the third regeneration cutting. Photograph VI shows advanced beech growth thirty years old filling an opening of one-half acre. This area is therefore ninety years more advanced than No. II. Photograph VII illustrates another part of this forest at about the same stage as the last view, except that here the regeneration is complete and all the old trees have been removed, so this is called the “‘coup definitive.” Photograph VIII illustrates the most advanced coup in this forest de Pouvenelle. It is a stand of seedlings, mostly beech, fifty to sixty years old and therefore one hundred and twenty years in advance of Nos. I and II. The diameters range from six to ten inches, and heights from thirty to forty feet. The first improvement thinning has just been made, the mud hut being the home of the charcoal burners who coaled the wood that was taken out. Thinnings will be made in this forest every ten years until regeneration is desired. It is evident that the ages of these trees vary by some thirty years, which is the length of the re- generation period. The density of these stands may be judged by a growth of oak at Champenoux where there are sixteen hun- dred trees per acre at twenty-five years. Above I have given the revenue from the Forest de Chaux, which is mostly under the old method. The revenue from the high forest at Pont a Mousson is $2.64 per acre where it is mostly beech, and $3.20 where oak predominates. The revenue gradually increases, although the running expenses have also in- creased. The prices received here per cubic meter are—twenty francs for beech; thirty francs for second class oak, and forty francs for best ash and oak. These prices were about one-fourth higher in 1906 than they were in 1890. Cordwood throughout Europe is measured by the stere—one meter cube of stacked wood. The price of beach per stere at-Pont a Mousson was eight francs in 1890 and nine francs in 1906. At Dole, in 1906, beech was ten and a half francs; oak, nine francs; birch, eight and a half francs; poplar, seven francs. There is another system somewhat in vogue’ for transforming - Cad V. Advanced regeneration, about fifteen years old, and the wood is now marked for third thining. VI. Advanced Beech, growth thirty years old, with two guards in opening. Regeneration 10-25 years old ; oe es oe i erew ote a ee a , second affectation ; regeneration finished. in which all old trees have been cut. VII. Coup definitive, “el Beech Seedling Stand, 50 to 60 years old. VIII. Conversion of Coppice. 157 a coppice under standards system to a high forest. This is the so-called “Jardinage,”’ resulting in a selection forest. By this method they go through every six or eight years, removing the defective standards and any sprouts which may be interfering with seedlings. All trees are cut with high stumps, so as to dis- courage sprouting. Comparative experiments with the two sys- tems of conversion have been under way for twenty years in the Forest of Champenoux, but no conclusive results are as yet at hand as to their relative merits. Most of the forests are laid out in a most regular manner, the compartments separated by roads two to four meters wide, from which all the underbrush is cleared every year. About every fifth year these earth roads are grubbed out. All the most im- portant roads have either been paved or are in process of build- ing. The main road through the Forest de Chaux is straight for thirteen miles. In these calcareous regions the roads are very hard, though not as smooth as the trap rock roads of the Black Forest. Geological formation has a very important influence on roads. The sandstone of the Vosges disintegrates so easily that the roads of these mountains are very poor, although many of them are not over ten years old. The cost of macadamizing in these level calcareous formations is $1.40 a meter of length, lay- ing the stone twenty centimeters deep and three meters wide, while the clearing is eight meters wide. This is at the rate of about $2,500 a mile. Just a word about the administration. The Forest de Chaux, consisting of 50,000 acres, which is one of the largest in France, has eighteen guards under four brigadiers. The “‘inspecteur” and “sous-inspecteur” live in Dole, a city on the edge of the . forest. There are eleven forest houses in this forest owned by the administration. All of the guards are very intelligent and polite, and the higher officers make a visit to any of these forests both instructive and enjoyable for any one who has obtained the permission from the Minister at Paris. THE SPROUTING OF SHORTLEAF PINE IN THE ARKANSAS NATIONAL FOREST. W. R. Marroon. The forest possibilities of the Arkansas National Forest rank high in several important respects. Among these are its acces- sibility and central location within the United States, and the very favorable climatic conditions for forest growth. On the other hand, the forest has been subjected to fires, which in the past, have been of almost annual occurrence throughout the whole areas of the National Forest, presenting a serious condition in regard to forest production. In this light, the fact that the Shortleaf Pine within this Na- tional Forest sprouts readily and commonly after the burning of seedlings is of large significance in the problems of silviculture and future forest management. The Shortleaf is the only pine in the forest, and in importance and value it leads all others, of which white oak holds second place. The sprouting of Shortleaf Pine occurs commonly throughout the Arkansas National Forest. The sprouts occur usually in colonies of from four to eight, and make a height growth during the first season of from eight to fifteen inches. Colonies with from twenty-five to thirty sprouts were observed on several occasions. The root system is thus immediately called into action and large, well developed root systems from former saplings, three to five years old, were noted to be in full vigor at the end of the first season’s growth of sprouts. The sprout colonies rapidly decimate after the first few years, and some one of the more vigorous members usually remains solitary after the first two seasons. Saplings of intermediate height up to six feet were identified from sprout origin, after which time all traces of the origin generally becomes obliterated. Another feature of interest was the common occurrence of the second generation of sprouts, each due to the killing by fire of the portion of the pine above the surface of the ground. The sprouting occurs freely and is very noticeable from mere casual observation from one end of the forest to the other. The Cd Conversion of Coppice. 159 factors which influence the vigor of the sprouting capacity of Shortleaf Pine, as, for example, the season of the year, the age of the parent seedling, and the local site qualities, were not investigated. The supposition that sprouting occurs more vigorously following fires in winter is borne out by the testimony of several inhabitants of the mountains given to the writer that midsummer is the best time for clearing land because then the pine does not sprout. The observations given above refer, however, to sprouting subsequent to the killing of tops due to fire. CURRENT LITERATURE. Henry S. GrRAvEs, in Charge. Die Grundlagen der raiumlichen Ordnung im Walde. Von Prof. C. Wagner, Tiibingen, 1907. Pp. 320. Price $3.00. This volume, whose simple title, “Principles of Local Order in the Forest,’ does not at once allow a guess at its contents, may perhaps be called the most important and most valuable publi- cation that has appeared in book form in the German forestry literature since the beginning of the new century and for a num- ber of years before that time. It is not a handbook or a refer- ence book for the student, of the usual pattern, but a critical and illuminating discussion of modern practice, covering the whole field of technical forestry, in most original treatment, clear and thorough, circumspect and suggestive, written for the ripe and experienced manager. It was Cotta, the clear-sighted, who first accentuated the great value of order and systematic procedure as usually much more important than yield regulation, but the author finds, that the “raumliche Ordung” (local order) as the decisive basis for the entire management has not had sufficient recognition, and pro- ceeds to prove that it is the key to a full realization of managerial success. He points out that in the timber forest the districting, the age class distribution, and the formation of felling series had been considered independent of the form of management and method of regeneration; that the Jocal order (the side by side), had been mainly imposed upon the forest out of consideration of a temporal order (the one after the other), in the yield. The author proposes a reversal of this procedure, considering the local order a function of the temporal. The simple stand in its position in space, its extent and its outline is an object of local order, in its increment, its age, which determines its matur- ity, and in its volume, it is an object of temporal order. The col- location of several stands into a felling series is an operation of local order even though the age has an influence on it, but the disposition of its yield, its distribution in time, is a temporal roe Current Literature. 161 operation. The author occupies himself then with the require- ments of silviculture, protection, utilization, and finally yield regulation in formulating the principles of the local order, and in doing so many problems of these branches are illuminated in clear and attractive style. The chapter on choice of methods of regeneration is especially worth reading, as it pays close tribute to all modern biological development. The author is speaking with special reference to spruce, which he finds, in agreement with many others, can on most sites not be naturally regenerated on a large scale by exist- ing methods. The same may be said of the pine. Yet he tries to prove on twelve pages of cogent reasoning that planting of spruce is an offense against nature, mainly on account of its shallow root system. In this connection the following unortho- dox position is worth quoting: “Fron says: ‘Conifer seedlings should not be transplanted in nursery rows since this increases cost and the transplants are not better than the untransplanted,’ and Wagner, speaking for spruce, says, ‘because transplants are Jess good than uncransplanted.’”’ The author, therefore, advocates return to natural regenera- tion, and hence he has set himself the task of devising a method “which even under the most difficult conditions assures suc- cess.” This he finds in a special form of the selection forest which he calls ““Blendersaumschlag,’ and which we may trans- late into selection strip system. It is a combination of selection and nurse tree or group method, or sometimes even clearing in stripwise progression, by which a more or less even-aged timber forest with the desired localization of age classes can be secured. In speaking of the selection form as the “natural” one, the author fails to remember that pure even-aged forests of pine and of spruce, in which the middle age classes are almost en- tirely absent, cover thousands of square miles as a natural form. Altogether in* advocating this new form of management for regeneration, which is done with great command of all the silvicultural as well as administrative arguments, the author becomes somewhat one-sided, as all inventors are apt to be when speaking of their invention. Nevertheless the volume is rich in suggestiveness and, since the author speaks not only from practical experience but with 162 Forestry Quarterly. a thorough knowledge of the whole literature, it is a mine of information. Bea Wald und Forstwirtschaft, in Der Mensch und die Erde. By Dr. A. Schwappach, Bong & Company, Berlin. 1908, pp. 203- 332. Lllustrated. The third volume of the monumental encyclopaedic work, which, under the editorship of Hans Kraemer, discusses the treasures of the earth as basis of modern culture, contains a popular disquisition, copiously and beautifully illustrated, on the place which forests and forestry occupy in the household of man, from the facile pen of Dr. Schwappach. The first part of the article deals with forest types of the world, the general ecological conditions producing them and the influence which man has exercised upon them. This is un- doubtedly the most interesting reading for a forester, and this part is also well illustrated, covering all parts of the world. A statistical color chart brings from Germany the latest knowledge of distribution of forest areas and species by counties in graphi- cal manner, with text by Dr. A. Dengler. The value of forests and the aims of forestry are also interest- ingly stated, and the author has been able to present this hack- neyed subject in a new dress. ‘The reboisement work of France and in Turkestan, as well as the sanddune planting in various countries is fully discussed and illustrated. The technicalities of the forester’s art are rather too briefly touched to give a lay- man a good idea of its contents, but the whole book is most readable, and to be recommended for reading by all who have an interest in the propaganda of forestry, and also to professional foresters who desire a broad knowledge of the whole subject. Bh. FF: Report of the Minister of Lands and Forests of the Province of Quebec, 1907. 318 pp. The main interest in this report lies in the statement that dur- ing the year the forest reserves have been increased to 12 in number, comprising 107,821,653 acres, extending over the whole > - ad Current Literature. 163 of that part of the basin of the River and Gulf of St. Lawrence outside the arable and inhabited sections of the Province. There remain unreserved, according to the Minister, the basins of James Bay and Hamilton River with an area of about 93,000,000 acres, of which 4o per cent. are “well timbered.” Of the char- acter of this timber, however, nothing is said, but we are very doubtful whether the total area of ‘‘well timbered’? land in Quebec totals up, as these figures suggest, to 145,000,000 acres. Further interest is found in several appendices by the two forest engineers of the department, Mr. A. Bédard and Mr. G. C. Piché. In one of these Mr. Bédard attempts to answer the question of the increment of spruce forests with suggestions as to their handling. In the absence of any volume or yield tables for white spruce, reliance is placed on tables for the Adirondack spruce (authority not stated, put probably Pinchot and Graves). With very doubtful reasoning the author comes to the concep- tion that the increment might be what by the proper reductions appears as somewhat less than 12 cubic feet per acre, or say 4 of a cord, which would indeed be a poor performance. The arguments are not very convincing and the conclusions are also rather lame. Mr. Piché, on account of the difficulty (the author claims impossibility) of distinguishing black spruce and white spruce, and because black spruce may attain the same size (which it probably never does in Canada), proposes an amendment to the regulations under which license holders operate, to the effect of restricting the cutting of pine to not less than 12 inches, of spruce to not less than 11 inches, other trees to not less than 9 inches, but to cut swamp spruce to 6 inches. _ Examinations of various townships or sections of country lead the engineers to recommend that they be not opened to settlement as beirg unfit, also to expose the practice of the timber pirates which is notoriously ousting the government of many timber dues. » The establishment of a nursery to grow plant material for distribution to farmers is advocated. A useful list of the French-Canadian names of trees is appended. The report is an earnest that a sane forest policy will soon be established in the Province of Quebec. B. B. F. II oo Forestry Quarterly Philippine Woods. By F. W. Foxworthy. Reprint from Phil- ippine Journal of Science, 1907, pp. 351-403. This is a very useful piece of work, having in view the easy identification of the many useful Philippine woods, some 75 species by names—the same species having many different names,—and by structure. The latter is well illustrated by photomicrographs, with a uniform magnification of five diam- eters, on five plates, and is used in making a key. In the notes the use of the woods is given, as well as their physical character- istics. Most of them are, of course, heavy woods, yet there are nine species cited as light, with a specific weight of .50 or less. Our Trees. How to Know Them. By Clarence M. Weed. Philadelphia, 1908. 295 pp. This is a popular book on trees, very profusely illustrated by photographs of the standing tree, leaves, flowers, and fruit. It is designed for the ready identification of trees by those who have no knowledge of botany. Many exotic species are included and the arrangement is entirely without reference to the economic value of the different species. It is, therefore of no value to the forester. HH. Sime. Trees and Their Life Histories. By Percy Groom. Illus- trated from photographs by Henry Irving. Cassell & Co., London and New York, 1907. 407 pp. This is a sumptuous work beautifully illustrated describing the trees which are ordinarily found in gardens and parks. The title leads one to believe that he will find an account, not only of the botanical, but also of the silvical characteristics of the trees. The author does not, however, have in mind the life history of the trees from the forester’s standpoint and there is very little in the book which touches the practical side of forestry. Different trees from all over the world which are planted in the temperate zone are included, and by description and photograph a full account is given of the characteristics of the foliage, buds, fowers. fruit, hark. and tree form, chiefly from the standpoint a - Current Literature. 165 of the trees growing in the open. There is occasionally a refer- ence to the climate, soil, and light requirements of the trees, but the so-called life history consists of morphological rather than silvical data. The book is, however, of distinct value to the popular student of trees who wishes to identify the species commonly planted for aesthetic purposes. The illustrations are clear and well chosen, and the language is simple and very intelligible to one who does not have a knowledge of the scientific language of botany. H. S. G. First Report of Forest Conditions in Ohio. Bulletin 188. Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. Wooster, Ohio. 1907. 14 pp. A progress report of the work in forestry conducted by the Experiment Station. This work includes a study of the char- acter and extent of the forests in Ohio, investigations of the silvical character of the trees, propaganda work among the farmers, and experimentation in practical silviculture. The re- port outlines the policy of the Station, but there has not yet been time to secure much positive information, and the réport is, therefore, an account of what is being done rather than a des- cription of results. mS. G: Forestry Suggestions. Bulletin 189, Ohio Agricultural Ex- periment Station. Wooster, Ohio. 1908, 21 pp. A discussion of the silvicultural problems in Ohio with general suggestions to the woodlot owner. The bulletin is illustrated by a large number of photographs which help to make the text plain to the popular reader. As the title indicates, the bulletin gives suggestions for forestry, rather than any specific directions for work under different conditions. It will undoubtedly be of value in interesting farmers in forestry, but there is needed a bulletin, or rather a number of bulletins, taking up the specific practical problems of silviculture in Ohio, and explaining how they should be solved. Fi: SG. 166 Forestry Quarterly Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station for the Year 1907. Part IV. Report of the Forester. Forestry Publication No. 4. Austin F. Hawes. 55 pp. Plates VI. Map I. The Forester is to be complimented on the excellent report recently issued entitled “Forest Plantations.” As a contribution to practical forestry in Connecticut it has a substantial and last- ing value. The main purpose of the report is to present a de- tailed record of the planting experiments which have been carried on by the State since 1901. Ninety-five experiments in seeding and planting, covering 26 different species are described. It is too early yet for the results of these experiments to be fully shown, but the following conclusions can be drawn at this time: 1. The best trees for planting on sandy land are pines: White Scotch, Norway, and Pitch Pine. 2. Of the deciduous species those best adapted for planting on sandy land are Chestnut, Red Oak, and Black Locust. 3. As to the character of the plant material, we recommend: For the pines; three year old transplants when they can be procured for $5.50 per thousand or less, otherwise two year old transplants or seedlings may be used satisfactorily. For Chestnut and Black Locust; one year old seedlings. For Red Oak; acorns, but preferably one year old seed- lings. 4. Experience has shown that, when the plantations have been seriously threatened by field and forest fires, proper supervision and fire lines furnished adequate protection. One of the interesting features of the report is a summary of the experiments by species, enabling the reader to make easily a comparative study of the species. One account of the existing plantations in the State brings out the fact that within the last two years 550,000 seedlings (mostly White Pine) have been planted by individuals and 85,- ooo by the State on its reserves. Besides the recent plantations, there are several older ones now containing merchantable timber. Measurements in these plantations are given showing the number of trees per acre, the amount of timber, and the annual growth. In the case of White Pine an annual growth of from 550 to 850 B. M. feet per annum was found; the smaller figure being - - Current Literature. 167 for a 22 year old plantation, the higher for one 70 years old. In the case of two hardwood plantations (Chestnut chiefly) a growth of only about 175 B. M. feet per annum was secured at 70 to go years. However, the Forester with the aid of a yield table estimates that chestnut plantations will produce between 400 and 500 B. M. ft. per annum. The comparison between the annual growth per acre of the pine and chestnut is instructive. R,, @) E- Fourth Annual Report of the State Forester of Massachusetts jor the Year r907. Frank William Rane. Boston, 1908. 43 pp. The report shows that considerable progress has been made during the last year. The new law regarding forest wardens is the most important forward step. Under this law the town forest wardens not only are charged with the prevention and suppression of forest fires, but can be called upon by the State Forester for work along broader lines; such as gathering in- formation regarding the town forest acreage, the harm done by insects, and by fungi, etc. The wardens are paid for all work of this class. This principle of utilizing the town fire wardens for all sorts of forest work is one which can advantageously be developed both by Massachusetts and other States. A third of the report is occupied by statistics concerning the forest area of the State. The forest area is classified in three main types and a few subordinate types. Figures are given separately for each town and county. About 38 per cent. of the whole State is forested. 36.9 per cent. of the forested area is _ covered by hardwoods. On 5.1 per cent., or approximately 100,- 000 acres, white pine forms over seventy-five per cent. of the stand. The remaining forest is mixed growth (52 per cent.) or other subordinate types (6%). The report> closes with a summary of recommendations for new legislation. Among other things, funds are desired for the purchase and maintenance of forest reserves. An extra appropriation of $15,000 is asked for, to be used chiefly in de- veloping the work of the forest wardens and in enlarging the State nursery. It would seem unwise for the State to expend more money for 168 Forestry Quarterly this latter object, especially as the nursery is carried on ata loss; and, inasmuch as private forest nurseries are now rapidly increasing in the East Bao oh Report of the State Board of Forestry for 1906 and 1907. Baltimore, Md. 1907. Pp. 40. This is a progress report showing that a good start in forestry has been made in Maryland under Mr. Besley’s management. It is treated under the headings: Educational Work; Assistance to Woodland Owners; Study of Forest Conditions; Fire Pro- tection; State Reserves; Conclusions; and contains also six leaflets which have previously been issued for public instruction. The Maryland law provides that the State Forester shall give instruction at the Agricultural College, and Mr. Besley is to be congratulated for grasping the need of practical training for the prospective farmer, rather than in attempting to train tech- nical foresters. During the year sixteen woodlots were examined, aggregating an area of 2,615 acres, and representing a farm acreage of 6,465 acres. ‘This would seem to indicate that the average woodlot and farm in Maryland is larger than in New England. Under the provisions of the fire law fifty-seven wardens were recom- mended to the Governor for commission, and it is estimated that this force is largely responsible for decreasing the amount of damage due to this cause, from $250,000 in 1906 to $50,000 in 1907. There are four small state reserves, aggregating 1,957 acres. ‘These are all gifts by private owners. Mr. Besley esti- mates that 40% of the state is in woodland, and that 219 million feet of lumber were cut in the State in 1906. Ay He OE Third Annual Report of the Forest Park Preservation Com- mission of New Jersey for 1907. Trenton, N. J., 1908. Pp. 134. This is a series of reports by the Administrative Officer of the Commission, the State Fire Warden, and Mr. Gaskill, Forester of the Commission. There are at present three State forests in New Jersey aggre- - es a . -% | Current Literature. 169 gating 7,438 acres, two in the southern part, and one in the extreme north. In Mr. Gaskill’s report he points out that in all sections of the State there is opportunity for the practice of intensive silviculture, much like that which has made Central Europe the model for all the world. It is this fact which makes: forestry in a few of the eastern States so attractive. Besides emphasizing the value of the State reserves for timber produc- tion and examples of forestry, the author rightly advocates util- izing them for other purposes, as sites for tuberculosis camps and pleasure parks. The success of the Pocono Protective Fire Association in Penn- sylvania is worthy of the account which is given in this report, but is is questionable whether the work of the McCloud Lum- ber Co., in California, is of great value as an example to land owners in the East. An interesting table is given of the results of planting ex- periments with several thousand trees procured in Germany, showing 50% alive in the case of a beech plantation, to 95% in case of Sycamore Maple, European Ash, Red Oak, Locust and Norway Spruce. The reviewer can hardly agree with the author in advocating the planting of hickory by farmers. It seems to him that fast growing species should be advised for private planters and these slow growing species planted only by the State or corporations. Mr. Gaskill is of the opinion that with the proper fire protec- tion in South Jersey, natural reproduction will make planting unnecessary. He points out that some of these second growth pine stands bear an income of 5% on a valuation of $4.40 per acre for the land. He also says that much of the so-called scrub oak consists of sprouts of valuable species which would make a forest if properly protected from fire. Some space is given to a consideration of the Chestnut Blight and the White Pine Disease, and it is recommended that no White Pine be planted until more is known of the disease. In one part of the report Mr. Gaskill gives a comparison of chestnut as described by Zon, in Maryland, and Hawes, in Con- necticut. The heading of Table II is a little misleading, since the lay-reader might suppose that the number of trees per acre throughout Connecticut and Maryland had been averaged. A comparison of volumes in ties shows slightly more in Connecticut 170 lorestry Quarterly than in Maryland,—probably due to closer cutting. From these tables it appears that the height growth, both in seedlings and sprouts, is considerably greater in Maryland than Connecticut. Some diagrams illustrate methods of handling woodlots. There is also a chapter on tree planting, containing a table showing species suitable for planting on various classes of soil. We cannot agree with the author in limiting the use of White Pine to the poorer soils, for we believe that on the best soils it will bring better returns than either European Larch or Norway Spruce, which are advocated. The most interesting feature of the State Fire Warden’s report is that relating to five cases which have been prosecuted. A summary of fires follows, arranged according to counties. At the end of the report is a Bibliography of New Jersey forest literature. Altogether this is one of the most complete publications which has yet been issued by any State on forestry work. A. F. BG Prospectus of the Colorado School of Forestry for 1908. The School of Forestry at Colorado College was founded in 1905. Starting in a small way, the School has now developed a full course of forestry covering a period of three years, in- cluding two summer terms. The work during the college year is conducted at Colorado Springs, and the summer work on Manitou Park, the tract of 13,000 acres presented to the School by General William J. Palmer and Dr. William A. Bell. The course leads to the degree of Bachelor of Forestry. The School has an excellent opportunity to give in its summer course in- struction in practical forestry to rangers. The pamphlet is illus- trated and issued in a very attractive form. [is eek, C2 Bulletin of the Swmmer School of Forestry of the University of Minnesota. ; This is an account of the newly established summer school of the Minnesota forestry department. The.course covers a period of six weeks and will be conducted at the Itaska State - oo ( Other Current Literature. 171 Park which has been turned over to the University as a demon- stration ground for the Forest School. Six courses are offered: Elementary Silviculture, Forest Mensuration, Botany, Ento- mology, Geology, and Surveying. This summer school will be of great value to those who wish to take a summer course in forestry. The Department of Forestry in the University of Minnesota is to be congratulated on the acquisition of this demonstration forest and on its energy and foresight in the establishment of this summer school. HH, SG: OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. Preliminary Check List of the Principal Commercial Timbers of the Philippine Islands. By H. N. Whitford. Bulletin No. 7. 1907-1908. Year Book of the Rubber Planters’ Association of Me-ico, 1907-1908. Mexico, D. F. 45 pp. Review of Forest Administration in British India for the year 1905-1906. By S. Eardley-Wilmot. Calcutta, 1907. 56 pp. Report of the Forester for 1907. By Gifford Pinchot. Wash- ington, 1908. 40 pp. List of the National Forests. Leaflet of the U. S. Forest Ser- vice, Washington, March 1, 1908. This leaflet shows that the total number of National forests is 164, with an aggregate area of 164,154,923 acres. To Preserve the Nation’s Heritage. American Civic Asso- ciation, Providence, 1908. 12 pp. A circular of the American Civic Association containing ar- ticles and quotations with reference to the Appalachian bill. 172 Forestry Quarterly Calendar of the Imperial Forest College, Dehra Dun, India. Calcutta, 1908. 124 pp. Second Annual Report of the Commissioner of Forestry of Rhode Island. Providence, 1908. 15 pp. Illustrated. Constitutionality of the Appalachian Bill. Sudwarth Company, Washington, D. C., 1908. 8 pp. Wood Paving in the United States. By C. L. Hill. Circular No. 141, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. 1908. Pp. 24. Tests of Vehicle and Implement Woods. By H. B. Holroyd and H. S. Betts. Circular No. 142, U. S. Forest Service, Wash meton, DiC. TooS. Lp. 120: The Relation of the Southern Appalachian Mountains to In- land Water Navigation. By M. O. Leighton and A. H. Horton. Circular No. 143, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. 1908. Pp. 38. The Relation of the Southern Appalachian Mountains to the Development of Water Power. By M. O. Leighton, M. R. Hall and R. H. Bolster. Circular No. 144, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. 1908. Pp. 54. Forest Planting on the Northern Prairies. By James M. Fetherolf. Circular No. 145, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, IDC, res. Pp: 28. Practical Resuits in Basket Willow Culture. By C. D. Mell Circular No. 148, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. 1908. Ep, oy: Forest Products of the United States, 1906. Bulletin No. 77. U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. 1908. Pp. 99. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. B. E. Fernow, in Charge. FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. The latest issue of the Experiment Station Swedish brings a most interesting study by Ander- Forest son and Hesselman of the ecological condi- Ecology. tions in the northern Swedish virgin forest, an almost untouched area of nearly Io0,- ooo acres, not more than 3 per cent. being under cultivation and the settlement known to be not more than 300 years old. This area is located above 61° 32’, 1,500 feet above sea level on gneiss, granite and porphyr covered with glacial drift. There are only 180 days of vegetation period with an average July tem- perature of about 56° and the annual precipitation 20 inches. Climate and soil predicate a coniferous plant society, namely, Pinus silvestris and Picea excelsa, not less than 64% being cov- ered by the former in two types, the true pine heath characterized by a lichen and moss cover with Calluna, Vaccimum, Myrtillus, Linnaea as soil cover; the open pine forest with a dense heather cover (Andromeda) and turf layer where natural regeneration finds difficulties and the plants characteristic of Alpine moors thrive, Carex globularis, Scirpus caespitosus, Dicranum bergeri. Mixed forests of pine and spruce are rare, and usually only near settlements as a result of unsystematic logging. While the pine forest is poor in species, only 27 phanerogams, the spruce forest is more varied, and can be divided into four types: the mossy type on good, not too humid soil; the weedy type on declivities, rich in herbs;* the swampy type produced by springs where drainage is impeded in which sphagnum mosses are prominent, with the roots raised above the ground; and the real spruce swamp, where water (not springs) is found near the surface. Following the watercourses in a fringe is found a forest type comparatively rich in species of deciduous trees, shrubs, grasses and herbs. Nearly one-third of the area is occupied by moors, 174 Forestry Quarterly not only in valleys but on quite steep slopes, just as in Alaska, due to surface waters accumulating and to groundwater break- ing out. The more humid portions are covered with sphagnum, the drier with Carices, and the driest with mosses, Myrtillus, Empetrum, Androméda Oxycoccus. Betula nana and Rubus chamaemorus are characteristic woody plants. The influence of man on the small territory occupied has con- sisted in adding about 86 species to the original 175, or 30 per cent., and to create in the neighborhood of the settlements a selection-forest-like appearance and mixture of pine and spruce. The plant societies of the virgin forest are much more constant and definite than those influenced by man. Considering the de- gree of upper crown cover or the number of trees of 8-inch diameter as a measure of the productive capacity of the site, the following results of countings give an insight into the different values of productivity in the untouched forest: Spruce Forest. Pine Forest. Trees per Re- Treesper Re- Acre. lation. Acre. lation. Block I. Granite, Gneiss. ..... 100 165 56 135 II. Porphyr, Granite, GIGISS ile cates eniples 59 110 45 104 III. Gneiss, Granite, ...... 76 125 64 161 TV; SPOrOnYVE, seeeave cose « 57 100 44 100 These show the prophyr formation, as one would expect, the least favorable. A full list of the flora and good illustrations help to make the picture of this northern forest complete. Vegetation und Flora im Staatsforst “Hamra Kronopark.” Skogsvard féreningens Tidskrift Heft 2, 1907. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. An illustrated note by Schmuziger gives Chlorosis account of a Norway Spruce, which has m received the form name Picea excelsa fo. Spruce. versicolor Wittz., characterized by pale foliage. No difference of anatomical structure was found from the normal; but, while the old needles are full of green chlorophyll, these are entirely abseat in the - Periodical Literature. 175 new crop, they contain leucoplasts but no green color, which only comes later, perhaps, it is suggested, due to an apparently thicker epidermis permitting light to penetrate only with diffi- culty. The influence of the light as cause is also supported by a comparison of the color of differently lighted branches. By July 4 the formation of chlorophyll had progressed on the better lighted branches, but only by October had the color difference vanished. Other spruces of similar character are reported from Carinthia, Finland and Sweden as well as from Viamale, Switzerland. Eine bleichsjjchtige Fichte. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, Feb. 1908, pp. 43-46. The question of the significance of races Races in forest growing attracts more and more of attention. The long time which must elapse Trees before an answer to the question of racial differences can be made on the basis of trials, differences especially in qualitative and quantitative de- velopment, is a deterrent to this inquiry, but is nevertheless taken up timely by the Swedish Experiment Station, by noting and observing individuals exhibiting botanical mutations. Among those lately observed is a spruce exhibiting chlorosis like the one cited above, in which white leaves remained white until the next spring, namely those closely shaded ones. Although 7o years old, the tree has never flowered. Another spruce of Alpine habitat is noted with a crown unusually dense for the habitat, and luxuriant, of pyramidal form. ’ Among the normal pines of Norrland which bear seed rarely and scantily, there are occasionally found some which excel by unusually early and plentiful seed production, they are “sexual” individuals, which are characterized by a short stem and a crown of stout branches, which, therefore are apt to be cut out to make room for those of better form, thereby injuring the chances of reproduction. It is proposed to propagate this race for seed production. Material zur Erforschung der Rassen der Schwedischen Waldbatime. Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsforsoksanstalt. Haftet 3, 1906, pp. 65-82. 176 Forestry Quarterly The observation that pyramid poplars have Female within recent years been frequently dying Pyramid has led to the belief that this was due to Poplars. continual non-sexual propagation, the belief having been held that no female trees existed. Dr. Cederbauer has lately investigated the question and finds that while female trees are exceedingly rare, they are in exist- ence, can be readily recognized by the angle of branching, being from 30 to 40° instead of 10 to 20° as in the true pyramid form. ‘The proportion of females to males is by some authors given as 200 or 300 to I, by others, however, as equal. Ceder- bauer found in a row of 30 poplars 4 females readily recognized by their habits. From these he secured seeds, which germinated in June six days after sowing, reached in the same year heights of from 4 to I1 inches, and, transplanted the next year, heights from 32 to 57 inches, and in the third year were over 6 feet high, developing the true pyramidal form and the female form with spreading branches. Other experimenters have also found that seedlings grow more rapidly than cuttings, develop stout tap roots like the oak, while cuttings develop 2 to 4 oblique heart roots. In the severe winter of 1879-80 the trees grown from cuttings died at Karlsruhe, while those grown from seedlings did not suffer at all. Regarding the home of the pyramid poplar (Populus pyra- midalis Roz. = dilatata Ait. = Italica Ludw.) nothing is defi- nitely known. For a long time it was supposed to have come from Italy, and hence its name Italica, then it was supposed to come from Asia Minor and since it could not be found growing wild there, Persia was supposed to be its home. But even in that country it has not been found except cultivated in towns and their surroundings. The probability is that it is a variety of Populus nigra. Die weibliche Pyramidenpappel. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen March, 1908, pp. 113-114. Besides giving a historical and critical ac- Biology count of the literature on this important of family of beetles, the Scolytids, the author Bark Bectizs. advances the biological knowledge of the evroup by his*own conscientious observa- tions. Periodical Literature. 177 The most important and interesting of these is the recog- nition of the influence which the feeding habit has on the regen- erative capacity of the beetles. He divides the group into those in which the young beetles after emerging from the pupa con- tinue to feed either from their cradle, or, after flying, in aban- doned galleries, and those which do not need this ripening pro- cess before copulation. The feeding of old beetles after breeding, he finds, has for its object to restore the lost power of regeneration. In this manner summer broods may originate, which formerly were supposed to be a second generation. Dendroctonus, for instance, after laying the first brood burrows on until the sexual organs are regener- ated and then deposits another brood. In this way two sister galleries are formed at different times but connected by the sterile part of the mother gallery. Notable, too, is the observation that the intense insolation in the mountains produces even in the absence of the supposedly needed temperatures two generations of Jps typographus, this species, like all others of the genus, belonging to those who also produce two broods. By this two-brood phenomena the danger and damage from these species is increased. According to the behavior as regards generations the bark beetles may be divided into (1) those who exist only where con- ‘ditions favorable to a double generation are offered (Eccopto- gaster); (2) those who may have a double generation (Jpimac) ; (3) those who have never a double generation (Hylesinus fraxini). The historical review and excellent illustrations on ten plates are of special interest. Baiting is referred to as the only means of protection. ~ Ueber die Fortpflanzungs verhdltnisse der _rindenbriitenden Borken- Rafer. By Dr. Gilbert Fuchs. Miinich, 1907. Price K 7.20. Centralblatt 4. d. g. Forstwesen, April, 1908, pp. 164-167. SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE. Of late years the soil physicists, especially Flora in this country, have emphasized the physi- Dependent on cal properties of the soil—the degree of Soil. fineness and coarseness of soils, the water contents—as the most essential qualities upon which the growth of both agricultural plants and forest 178 Forestry Quarterly trees depend almost exclusively. It is interesting, therefore, to record some of the facts which were brought out in a recent study of the distribution of certain alpine and sub-alpine plants by Dr. M. L. Fernald. In studying the distribution of some 250 alpine and sub-alpine plants, Dr. Fernald found that a number of species are confined very definitely to certain alpine areas and are entirely absent from certain others. He was able to group all areas character- ized by distinctive floras into three major groups and a fourth or minor group (of a single area) characterized by a mixed flora containing plants which are otherwise confined exclusively to one or the other of two of major groups or areas. Of these 258 alpine and sub-alpine plants studied by him, 70 species, or 27.1 per cent., he found exclusively confined to definite areas which he named as Group I; 94 species, or 36.4 per cent., which: were not found anywhere else but in the areas included in Group II, and 21 species, or 8.15 per cent., which were strictly localized in the areas given by him as Group III; 61 species, or 23.7 per cent., were found in two groups but not in the third, and only 12 species, or 4.65 per cent., were found in all three groups of mountains and cliffs. In other words, more than 95: per cent. of all the plants showed a decided preference either for one group or alpine area, or for two of the groups, and less thar 5 per cent. showed an inclination to occur on all alpine areas. In searching for an explanation of this peculiar distribution, Dr. Fernald discards precipitation, exposure, and the physical structure of the soil as the cause of it. He found on closely adjacent slopes and summits with no apparent difference in the amount of precipitation having very dissimilar floras, also plants distinctive of two different groups remarkably indifferent to coarseness or fineness, dryness or humidity of their supporting soils. On examining, however, the lithological character of the different groups he found a very striking coincidence between the soil-forming rocks of the mountains and cliffs and the dis- tribution of plants which cover them. Thus the mountains and cliffs of Group I are composed almost exclusively of granite and gneiss, which yield a soil, the chief element of which is potassium. Those of Group II are chiefly limestone, calcareous sandstones, limestone conglomerates, and calcareous slates which produce a distinctly calcareous soil. The area of Group III forms a con- - Periodical Literature. 179 siderable extension of serpentine which produces a soil rich in magnesium but exceedingly poor in potassium and calcium. Such a soil is, as a rule, unfavorable to plant growth and the area belonging to this group has therefore a meager flora repre- sented by only 21 species. Foresters will be especially interested in the following illus- tration of the effect of the chemical constituents of the soil upon forest growth. The north slope of Mt. Albert is composed of potassic rocks (belonging to Group I) and coniferous trees occur on the slope as a luxuriant forest nearly to the summit, reaching an altitude of 3,300 feet feet, and forming extensive forests on the high table land at 3,500 to 4,000 feet of Table-top mountain. On the portion of Mt. Albert which is composed of serpentine the coniferous species occur only as scattered and uncharacteristic dwarf trees and shrubs, and no forest of appreciable character is seen in the area above the level of Ruisseau a la Neige at an altitude of about 1,900 feet where the forest consists of meager and valueless Spruce (Picea mariana). Dr. Fernald finds further proof of the relation between the alpine plants and the chief soil constituents in the fact that the species which were found within the area especially under consideration to have a preference for certain chemical constituents of the soil, in their range outside of these areas showed a preference for the same soils. These facts must have a somewhat sobering effect upon the extremists who deny entirely the effect of the chemical con- stituents of the soil upon plant growth. The areas for the study of this effect were especially suited for this purpose. On high summits with exposed rocks the derivation of the thin soil from . the underlying rock can be easily traced, whereas at lower eleva- tions the surface soil and the underlying rock may have little in common since the soil may either be a transported soil or a washed-out soil Jacking the chemical elements present in the underlying rock. Kz. The Soil Preferences of Certain Alpine and Sub-alpine Plants. Con- tributions from the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, New Series No. XXXV—Reprinted from Rhodora. Vol. IX, September, 1907. 180 Forestry Quarterly In a series of analyses of new red sand- Soil stone soils taken from Kattenbihl the value Tests. of the practical method of judging soils on the basis of clay content is shown to be considerable. It appears not improbable that the proportion of soluble matter to clay is a constant one for the greatest variety of soils so long as they are derived from the same source, and if we exclude calcareous and similar soils where the soluble content is very high. In clay soils, calcination for determining the humus content cannot be employed owing to residual water which is driven off when the humus is burned out. It is usual to burn with copper oxide and determine the carbon dioxide obtained. A quicker method has been proposed, namely, of treating the soil with a solution of caustic soda. Tests prove that such an extraction does not completely remove the humus, but it may serve a useful purpose in affording an indication of the form of humus com- pounds present, when taken in connection with analyses by accepted methods. Pr. Ein Beitrag sur Kenntnis der Zusammensetzung von Buntsandstein- béden. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagdwesen, February, 1908. Pp. 94- 102. Mr. E. N. Transeau, whose very sug- Evaporation gestive paper on Forest Centers based on Measurements. the transpiration factor was briefed in Vol. IV, p. 38, of the QuaRTERLY, has begun, at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, a series of measurements of the evaporation taking place under different plant associations and other conditions upon which depend habitat differentiation and the succession of plant societies, a subject of great interest to the forester from more than one point of view. Porous cups, standardized with the vaporimeter at Tucson, were used and, moreover, a standard of evaporation was estab- lished by reference to the vaporimeter in the garden of the station, the readings from which can then be compared with readings from different habitats. The data so far secured are, of course, only preliminary and refer only to air strata within one meter of the surface. - Periodical Literature. 181 “In the forest as we go from soil to treetop this relative evaporation must increase; but it is in the lowest stratum that the seedlings, which are to determine the future of the area, have their struggle with the environment. With these data in hand it is not difficult to see why seedlings of Trillium, Arisaema and Veratrum are successful in the swamp with its Io per cent. evaporation; why they fail in the open hillside forest with its 50 per cent. rate; and why they are never seen on the nearby gravel slide with its relative rate of 100 per cent. in addition to its unstable character.” | The data are for comparison graphically described as follows: Per Cent. of Standard. “i 3 - i Ti 120 Salt Marsh, outer, Gravel Slide, open, Garden, standard, Upper beach, Salt marsh, inner, Gravel slide, invaded, Forest, open, Fresh water marsh, Forest, mesophytic, — Forest, ravine, = Forest, swamp, — The gravel slide station represents the pioneer in the reforesta- tion of a denuded area, and these percentages have a larger interest when compared with the stations representing later stages in this process. The invaded gravel slide contained an open association of scrubby forest composed of P. rigida, Quercus coccinea, marylandica, prinus, Castanea dentata, huckleberries, etc. In spite of the southern aspect the invading vegetation has reduced the evaporation by 40 per cent. The open forest on top of a moraine consisted of various oaks, chestnut, beech, birch, hickory, maple with trees up to 60 feet and hardly any undergrowth, the further development of the forest having re- duced evaporation by another 10 per cent. With the increase of undergrowth in the typical mesophytic forest a further reduction of 15 per cent. is noted, and on the whole as reforestation pro- ceeds in that region the evaporation has fallen from 100 to 33 per cent. when the climax forest has been reached. Still further reductions from the rate of wooded hilltop and slope is experi- enced in the ravine and in the swamp forest. This last record 182 Forestry Quarterly seemed surprising but is explained by the difference in air move- ment in the latter situation as compared with the garden. The comparison helps to emphasize the importance and efficiency of this method as a means of differentiating habitats. The Relation of Plant Societies to Evaporation. Botanical Gazette, April, 1908, pp. 217-231. In an article appearing in the Nouvelle Forest Revue Payen states that the floods of last and fall in Southern France, especially in the Runoff. Department Ardeche, have revived interest in the reboisement work. A typical ex- ample of the effects of deforestation is cited: The Department of East-Pyrenées contains three water basins, the Agly with 13% fall, the Tét and Tech each with 20% fall. Although the slopes of the Agly basin are the least steep the waters rise most rapidly and to the highest points, namely 20 to 40 inches per hour, while the other two rise only 14 to 20 inches in the same time. The first basin is forested to only 4%, while the other two show 23 to 24% forest cover. The Agly has in 12 years been flooded over its banks 18 times, the other two had occasioned no damage. Similarly and for the same reason the large rivers of Seine, Loire and Garonne. In the Seine high water is 30 times, in the latter two goo times the amount of the low stage. The Loire, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, was navigable, it is not so to-day. Government activity in reforesting and the legislation on which it is based is criticized and found insufficient, especially with reference to the central plateau region, where private initiative is a condition for the application of the reboisement law. Lately, however, several associations have begun propaganda for greater activity. In Bordeaux the Association pour lamen- agement des Montagnes rents for long time lands belonging to village corporations to manage the pastures rationally. The Association du sud-onest Navigable, the Amis des arbres, the Association forestiere de Franche Comté, and especially the “Touring Club,” are active in the propaganda.. Aufforstungen. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, April, 1908. pp. IIQ-124. - Periodical Literature. 183 From a study by Professor Henry of the W mds winds around the region of the Great of Lakes it appears that during the cold sea- Lake Region. son the winds, which come mainly from Northwest, are controlled chiefly by the meteorological conditions prevailing in the continental interior. In spring, the winds become more variable due to great variation of temperature conditions; but the lake influence is mainly con- fined to the summer months. On-shore winds form about 20% of the total winds observed. On Lake Michigan, lake winds occur on the West shore mostly in the forenoon of quiet summer days, although the prevailing winds are Southwest to South, ex- cept on Lake Superior, where local influences seem to be strong. In autumn, the Lakes have their minimum effect on wind direc- tion, when over the lower Lakes the general direction is South- west, and over Lake Superior Northwest to West. The Lower Lakes provide an easy passage for the winds, especially the West and North winds follow this depression. Spring and summer winds are less steady than the more uniform winter winds. The Northern winds over Lake Superior are the least dangerous, while those from South to Southwest are apt to become gales. The total precipitation due to the presence of the Lakes is believed by the author to be not more than two or three inches annually, while at a single station the difference between the year of least rainfall and greatest rainfall may not be any more than 30 inches. The Winds of the Lake Region—Monthly Weather Review, Nov. 1907. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION. Since the composite forest is largely an in- Conversion voluntary transition form in our country Ofna. which will sooner or later call for conver- Composite sion into timber forest, Oberforstmeister Forest. Ney’s discussion of his experience with the problem in Alsace-Lorraine may be of interest. After stating that both financially and silviculturally the com- posite forest had proved a failure in Alsace and that the French had already in 1830 made provision for conversion, he describes 184 Forestry Quarterly. the conditions as mostly very unsatisfactory under the French proposition to leave the standards, cutting only the defective and dying and leaving plants of coppice shoots at the end of each 20- year cut, when in 40 years the conversion was expected to have been accomplished. When in 1871 these forests came into Ger- man hands, to save what could still be saved was the first duty. All fellings could only be improvement cuttings, removing the damaging overwood from promising young growth and carrying on a rational thinning practice. Working plans were not made until 1883, when the combined area and volume allotment was adopted. In the first plans the mistake was made of assigning to the first period especially those stands which could probably be easily reproduced by natural re- generation instead of taking in hand areas which already had a young regeneration giving them more light and room, and which got spoiled under the cover of the overwood. Later it was at- tempted to correct this mistake by opening up and planting oak poles into the openings, but this proved a failure, the planted trees developing slowly and being soon overgrown; the result was mismanaged stands. In 1889 new working plans were made, breaking with any given schematic arrangement and practicing silviculture pure and simple without considering sustained yield principles, simply introducing management of smallest area and laying stress on improvement cuttings which were to bring the oak to the front and planting wherever need existed, all with excellent results. In the ten propositions which the author formulates for these operations, he points out that no attempt at evenaged stands should be made, that the main aim should be to foster the well- formed stems of the overwood and seedling trees of the under- wood of the species which are fit for timberwood rotations (oak, ash, maple), also preserving for nursecrop the seedling growth of beech. Only where seedling trees are lacking coppice sprouts are also to be fostered. To this end as long as the overwood is not ripe and ready for regeneration its crowns are to be kept free by thinnings returning at least every eight years, taking care to leave the underwood as. little disturbed as possible, espe- cially not attempting any reduction of sprouts from one stump to one or two which has been so often advocated, but which usually results in soil deterioration. Cod Periodical Literature. 185 Regeneration cuttings are to be made only when and where age and condition of the underwood promises not to produce any more vigorous sprouts under a sufficient cover, and then only in the really fully ripe parts of the stands. Meanwhile planting is to be done where advisable, but not into the small openings oc- casioned by the removal of single standards, which is useless. The regeneration should be a natural one or else by under- planting or sowing, leaving a shelterwood evenly distributed composed of parts of the underwood. The kinds of this which are apt to sprout most vigorously are to be cut last. Fail places in the natural regeneration are to be planted with tolerant species, but the author excludes conifers (fir, spruce, Douglas Fir), which, he says, are admissible only where good deciduous stands on account of unfavorable site cannot be grown, and on larger openings where also lightneeding species of value, like ash, walnut and larch, may be used. Special stress is laid upon the injunction to treat every part of the stands according to their special individuality. Deutscher Forstverein: Welche Erfahrwngen liegen vor bei der Um- wandlung von Mittelwalde in Hochwald? Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, Feb., 1908, pp. 77-80. A careful series of sowings with pine and Seed spruce to determine the desirable quantity Quantities. of seeds per unit area has been carried on by the Swedish Experiment Stations for two years. In the second year’s counting of seedlings an allow- ance was made for the easier counting of two-year-olds over one-year-olds of 2.8% for pine and 1.6% for spruce, and the _ one-year-olds found in the plats the second year were considered as from lying-over seed, of which the pine seems capable, the spruce more doubtfully so. The quantities were varied from 5 to 40 grains per plot of 12 inches square. The end result leads to the conclusion that 10 to 20 grains are for both species most satisfactory, provided a germination per cent. of 70 is guaranteed. It was also found that in open sow- ings, even if good seed is used, from 10 to 50 or in the average only 30% of germination may be counted on, while the number of plants in the second year shows in the average only 20 to 25% 186 Forestry Quarterly of the seed grains. This also supports the judgment that 10 to 20 grains form a desirable amount per square foot. With the larger number, the number of plots which showed results was also increased. An increase per plot of from 5 to 10 grains re- sulted in an increase of 16% and 17% of successful plots; an increase to 20 grains only of 8% to 5%, while an increase to 40 grains increased the number of plots successfully stocked by only 6% in the average. The article is illustrated by samples of seedlings showing their development. Die Zu_ Kiefern-und Fichtenplattensaaten erforderliche Samenmenge. Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsférsdksanstalt. Haftet 4, 1907, pp. I-35. While we talk about absolute forest soils Forest Growing as if they included every kind of waste on land, there are some of these waste lands Moors. that will for a long time be too expensive to handle under forest culture except under special circumstances and to a limited extent; such are the alpine moors, including the extensive northern bogs in which Canada abounds. Dr. Graf has studied some of the Bavarian moors carefully with a view to their possible use for forest growing. He finds that sharp distinction must be made between alpine (Hoch) moors and plains(Flach) moors or swamps, the first characterized by Sphagnum, Calluna, Eriophorum, Vacci- nium uliginosum, etc., the latter by sedge grasses, Hypnum, Molinia coerulea, etc. The former are a result of climate, the latter of drainage, their greater fertility being a result of over- flows; the former are inimical to treegrowth and timber grows only on its margins, where the plain moor begins; especially when this latter is located at the base of a hill or declivity, watered by springs or covered with mineral washed soil, is it favorable to tree growth. A large number of ash analyses is given. First requisite for forestgrowing is drainage, which also means access to oxygen whereby nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid is liberated in ac- cessible form from the not easily soluble organic compounds. When after several years the moor has become dry and the soil settled, planting can begin with species adapted to the situa- tion, which must be frosthardy. Fertiziler is usually necessary to add, the plants showing by their aspect the need. Lime is the - Periodical Literature. 187 best material and potash compounds which disintegrate slowly (ground feldspar, basalt). For plains moor planting, ash, alder, spruce, pine and birch are applicable; Pinus montana for alpine moors, which offer more difficulty than the former. Die Waldvegetation praalpiner bayerischer Moore. Naturwissenschaft- liche Zeitschrift fir Forst u. Landwirtschaft, 1907. In connection with the foregoing study an Moors article by Hesselman on the forestgrowth and on Swedish moors is of interest. In Sweden Forest. very active work is going on to bring the extensive and numerous moors to use by drainage and forestplanting. Some of these operations date back 50 years, some with excellent results, others without satis- factory development. The study of the causes of this difference is, therefore, important. Of special interest are characteristic water holes, called Flarks, within the moors which are without vegetation. Their soil is a loose half decayed deep turf, which upon draining shrinks considerably, but, although all the rest of the moor may bear good forest these spots remain without vege- tation. After draining a cover of thick felt resembling a gray filter paper forms, which breaks up in regular patches, which peel off from the soil strata. This felt is a ‘“‘meteor paper,” formed by diatomeaegyttya, and prevents contact of seed with soil. These spots are also liable to frost, being covered by a porous icesheet, two to three inches below surface, which causes a heaving and breaking up of the turf, and a tearing of roots of any plants of pine, spruce or birch that might have established themselves. Pictures of the trees show remarkable root curvatures and a remarkable age for their small size. Draining is the best means against heaving, however only indi- rectly, namely by permitting the development of certain mosses, Polytrichum juperinum and strictum, which when covering the soil prevent the freezing. The study of the life history of these mosses becomes thereby an important need of Norrlandish for- estry. Studien tiber die Bewaldung von Mooren. Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsforsoksanstalt. Haftet 3, 1906, pp. 85-110. 188 Forestry Quarterly A brief account by Litscher, with excellent White Pine illustrations, shows that the White Pine is in so thoroughly at home at 1,200 to 1,500 Switzerland. feet elevation in the canton of St. Gallen that the author says it may not any more be considered as exotic. The introduction of the species dates to the fifties of last century, when in the city forest of Rappers- wil a plantation was made in rows with alternating rows of beech, elm, maple, ash, pine, spruce, 5 feet apart and 4 feet in the rows. The rapidly growing White Pine has crowded out almost all the admixture, so that the picture of the 54-year-old stand appears pure. At twenty years the White Pine began to bear seed and natural regeneration established itself in 1876 on open spots, as well as in the densest beech and fir regeneration, on dry forest margins and on marshy places; only not under the mother trees. The growth of the natural regeneration is in no way inferior to the planted stock, which in 52 years makes diam- eters of 25 inches, over go feet in height and 150 cubic feet, and an average measurement per acre at 80 years of over 340 cubic feet per year. Curiously enough the author wants to grow this species with a spacing of 10 feet, and early thinning practice, after the tenth year. We would prefer his other prescription not to grow this pine in pure stand but single or in groups among other species, especially beech, which he proposes in order to overcome its enemy, the Agaricus melleus, which kills out 20 to 40-year-old stands. Die Weymouthskiefer in den Stadtwaldungen von Rapperswil. Schweiz- erische Zeitschrift f. Forstwesen, Jan., 1908, pp. 7-II. The reception which the Danish rolling Tools harrow had obtained in Germany led the for foreign office to study other Danish imple- Forest Culture. ments for forest culture and to have a re- port prepared. This was printed in abbre- viated form as a public document. Now we have the entire re- port by Dr. Metzger, including the illustrations which were then omitted. The different implements are discussed in the order in which they are usually used in natural regeneration of beech. A leaf-rake is used to gather the dry leaves into windrows. This implement is part harrow and part rake, for the leaf cover _ cod Periodical Literature. 189 must first be broken and torn loose from the soil before it can readily be gathered in the rake. The leaf rake lays the soil bare of its covering of dry litter and so makes subsequent cultivation easier. Where reproduction is started the leaves are again al- lowed to be scattered over the whole area. The rolling harrow is a heavy harrow with curved and shovel pointed teeth revolving, six on a disc. The discs are mounted on two axles, one following the other. In Denmark the rolling har- row has a definite and limited use, and is but one of a series of implements for preparing the soil for seed. Since its introduc- tion into Germany attempts have been made to use it everywhere and to adapt it to all sorts of conditions. Its limited value has been overlooked and the other tools used in Denmark for such work have not been introduced. Smith’s cultivator is a lighter form of rolling harrow with blades flattened in the same direction as the disc on which they are mounted. It is hung between wheels and requires but one horse so that its use is correspondingly cheaper than the rolling harrow which is drawn by two horses. It replaces the heavier implement and is used for a variety of purposes besides. The seed coverer is an A-harrow with two rollers attached behind. The harrow teeth are straight and provided at the point with a small wing like a plowshare. These four implements are for use in open soils free from too heavy sod and from stones. Stony, heavily sodded and very dry, compact soils cannot be opened for seeding by any of these and must first be plowed. The ease with which a soil may be opened is sometimes such as to require an implement heavier than any of these and still not require plowing. The three-toothed harrow stands between the plows and the harrows. A heavy, iron-bound, wooden frame narrower in front carries three stout, shovel-tipped teeth. A tiller-like handle extends backword for guiding. The three toothed harrow is drawn by two horses and requires an extra man as driver. Two styles of plow are used for preparing the more refractory soils for seeding. In any plow for use in the woods provision must be made to prevent as much as possible the plow from hang- ing up on obstructions in the soil, root, stones, etc. In the lighter form the beam is jointed and the share is lifted over construc- > 190 Forestry Quarterly tions almost automatically by a straight cutter attached to the beam forward of the joint and suitably inclined. The heavier plow has a wooden beam with a broad wheel well forward to serve as a fulcrum in lifting the share over obstruc- tions. There is a revolving disc cutter instead of a straight cutter and smaller roots are severed before they reach the share. When the cutter does not pass through the larger roots it rises up over them lifting the share with it. Roots which pass between the cutter and the point meet a sickle-shaped knife set in the beam and dropping along the front edge of the share. With so many implements at hand the cultivation in any par- ticular case depends upon the readiness with which the soil can be broken and made into a good seed-bed. Where plowing is done it comes first and the soil can advantageously be broken a year before further cultivation, the furrows lying over winter exposed to freezing. Successive cultivation is with lighter and lighter implements until the soil is ready for the mast. After the mast has fallen it is necessary in Denmark to work it into the soil, as otherwise during the damp rainy winter the seed would spoil. The cost of cultivation with each of these implements is tabu- lated and the cultivation required for a few typical conditions in Denmark is shown, which ranges from the simplest of $1.70 to the most expensive of $14.40. The value of these careful and costly practices is best judged from stands of beech obtained and the latter half of this paper brings forward and discusses typical areas of seedling, thicket and polewood stands. Half a score of representative stands from different parts of Denmark are described in detail respect- ing the culture, its cost and success. The results are well illus- trated in seven stereoscopic views. The very high cost of such intensive cultivation is the first ob- jection that will be raised against it. Upon analysis the cost is found to consist not alone in cultivation, but liming of the soil and seed for insuring a full stand from roughly one-half of the outlay. Neither of these expenses will be so great in Germany and in this way the Danish procedure could be made cheaper by one-half. On the whole the more southern continental climate is more favorable to beech seedlings and renders less necessary such thorough cultivation as is usual in Denmark. Compara- Periodical Literature. IQI tive tests in the forest are what are needed in Germany to show to what extent and how closely more intensive cultivation with these Danish implements may be followed. A great many points in the celebrated Danish practice in silvi- culture are brought out, which make the article worth reading in full. Fo Ds Déanische Gerate zur Bodenbearbeitung in Buchensamenschlagen. Zeit- schrift fur Forst-und Jagdwesen, Jan. and Feb., 1908. Pp. 7-31 and 73-93. An important contribution to the chapter Baiting on combating bark beetles is contained in of a longer article by Sedlaczek reporting ex- Bark Beetles. periments from the Austrian Station with baiting trees of various. descriptions, namely felled and standing trees. The latter, of various species, were more or less deeply ringed of girdled at breast height to the width of a hand, or with several rings or cuts. The felled trees were either left with their branches to prevent too rapid drying, or else lopping these, and some girdled. Some 85 trees were used, and conditions surrounding the experiments are elaborately stated. Without considering the results conclusive for practical use, some interesting observations are worth recording. The effect of the different treatment of the bait trees is stated as follows: On standing trees deep incisions produce rapid dry- ing out, shallower incisions or merely barking results in a stag- nating of the sap in the bast and gradual drying of sapwood and finally of cambium. On felled trees, the leaving of branches produces rapid drying out of all parts; removing branches re- sults in slow drying of sapwood and bastlayers. Further modifi- cations result from the time chosen for the operation and the position of the bait tree on exposed or shady places. The bark beetles with relation to the bait tree can be divided into those which attack (1) wilting trees; (2) sick trees due to drying up or stagnation of the sap; (3) dry or moist but dying trees; (4) decomposing wood. ‘To bait any given species, then, it is desirable to maintain the bait trees as long as possible in that condition which is most favorable to the species or to choose the time for preparing it so that it is at the time of the 192 Forestry Quarterly flying of the beetle most acceptable. Unfortunately, since it has been found that there are several flying periods and the dura- tion of the periods vary with site and season, the latter expedient is hardly practicable, hence the maintenance of the bait trees in baiting condition must be looked to. It has been found that (1) a tree remains in wilted condition best, if it is merely barked for 3 or 4 inches at breast height; (2) prolonged sickness with con- sequent drying up is secured by making two incisions at moder- ate distance from each other, and by the depth of the cut the condition can be secured more or less rapidly; (3) continued sickness with stagnation of sap is best secured by felling and lopping of branches; (4) rapid dying and drying is secured by leaving branches on the felled trees and peeling off strips of bark lengthwise, or making deep ring cuts; (5) early death with stag- nation of sap is secured by “ringing” (incision) the tree some time before felling and then lopping the branches. The author then gives a tabulation of results with explana- tions, showing how different species behaved on different trees. We can give only a sample of the discussion. A fir, 12 inches in diameter, was barked by taking a 4-inch ring at breast height on April 18; by the middle of May it was attacked; during June the bast layer was completely dried; in about the middle of the 65-foot tree there were 82 galleries per foot, while the felled check tree for the same length contained only 32 galleries. This very satisfactory result for the standing tree was undoubtedly partly due to its position on the southern border of the stand, that exposure being most attractive. With firs mere ringing at breastheight prepares trees quickly and efficiently for baiting, while with pines this procedure is in- effective. With these ringing at greater height, just below the crown, and partial lengthwise removal of bark on felled trees gave better results. With spruce, much uncertainty as to results seems to have been experienced. A double ring (two incisions) kills the trees only slowly but certainly. They become attractive to beetles only the next year. Felled trees often remain ineffective. Hence stand- ing trees may only be useful in stands which are continuously en- dangered, preparing a few bait trees every year. Yet, the re- vision of standing bait trees is made difficult, because the beetle attacks first the upper region, although the lower portions will Periodical Literature. 193 probably also always have some beetles which will indicate the necessity of felling and barking the trees. With felled bait trees the question whether to top the branches or not, or to partially bark them, must be answered according to the species to be caught. The behavior of different species of beetles on different species of trees is then at length discussed, and finally advice is deduced from the observations for different species. Of these we give a few, to show the manner of differentiation. Pine: Hylastes palliatus.—Girdle trees the year before felling and peel stump in spring. Hylastes ater.—Felled trees, partially barked, with branches; examine after twelve weeks. Myelophilus piniperda.—Standing trees girdled below crown, or felled in spring and branches lopped. Spruce: Hylastes cunicularius.—Double ring incision, fell after a few months and peel off a few strips of bark and again after a few months; the upper side to be barked earlier since [ps typographus occasionally locates here. Hylastes palliatus—Felled trees with lopped branches, located in shade. Inspect after six or eight weeks. Pityogenes chalcographus.—Brush and small billets on not too exposed places. Trees felled and lopped, unless located with branches in shade. Girdling makes trees attractive only next year. Ips typographus.—Felled trees must not be allowed to dry up in the cambial region. For quick result girdle in winter and fell shortly before flying time. If not girdled, lop branches, become attractive later, or, if felled late, leave branches. Keep in shade. When top side strongly attacked, bark and toll over to expose fresh side of log, which will also attract on lower side other species. Girdled trees require a full year before becoming attractive; are then very effective. ‘The best and surest results in practice will probably be se- 194 Forestry Quarterly cured by employing several methods side by side, which will also: increase biological knowledge of the pests. Versuche mit verschiedenen Arten von Fangbaéumen zur Bekampfung der Borkenkdafer. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, Feb., 1908, pp. 45-73. The earliest record of the appearance of the Pine Moth pine moth (Gastropacha pini) in Ebers- Damage. walde dates from the year 1862. In 1868: the first serious damage was done, and in 1888 the pest returned. In 1907 a second recurrence could be predicted from the abundance of cocoons. Protection was had by smearing upon the trunks a ring of tar preparation to stop the larvae in their ascent. This preparation must be of the proper consistency and remain so throughout the summer and even throughout the year if possible. The results with the brand used were entirely satisfactory and the method of gauging the amount required, of applying and the cost are given in detail. F.-D. Der Frass und Bekampfung von Gastropacha pini im Lehrrevier Freienwalde. Zeitschrift fir Forst-und Jagdwesen, Jan., 1908. Pp. 35-42. Spruce is generally found to suffer more Resistance from smoke and fumes and atmospheric to poisons than does the fir, but that this may Fumes. be reversed is shown by a study of a dam- aged forest at Stadtsteinach in Bavaria. The spruce shows to the practiced eye only the barest trace of injury in the slightly changed color of the leaves, but the fir is. seriously affected, and in cases most of the foliage has fallen. Chemical analysis of the leaves for sulphuric acid shows that the smoke and fumes from the neighboring factory are accountable for the damage. Undoubtedly different species of trees can be put down as smoke-hardy or sensitive, but local conditions may change the order of species, making the hardier suffer more. Courts are called upon to decide claims for smoke damage and the easy course is to assume that a just decision can be based on a few facts. Smoke damage is not completely understood, and too great Periodical Literature. 195 care cannot be taken to inquire deeply into the individual case. Generalizations will lead to injustice. H.:D. Waldbeschadigung durch Rauch (Fichte und Tanne) Zeitschrift fur Forst-und Jagdwesen, January, 1908. Pp. 32-35. The results of preliminary experiments in Damping off combating the damping off with a number in of chemicals are briefly stated by Dr. Per- Coniferous ley Spaulding. The results, while not con- Seedlings. clusive, may serve as an aid to nurserymen until further careful tests can be made. The experiments were carried on in the nurseries of the New York, Forest, Fish and Game Commission and in the Forest Ex- periment Station at Saranac Inn, N. Y., also in the Vermont State Nursery at Burlington. The following powders were used: dry Bordeaux mixture; powdered copper sulphate diluted with pow- dered lime at the rate of 1 to 10; washed sulphur; resublimed sulphur; and precipitated sulphur. The powders were applied as a thin coating after the seedlings were up. The washed sul- phur proved to be the most efficient of the sulphurs; the cop- per sulphate and lime mixture the best of the powders tested and no injury was noticed. The following solutions were tested: potassium sulphide; potassium permanganate; formalin; and sulphuric acid. The first two gave poor results. The formalin test indicated that it will be valuable for treating the soil before the seed is sown, but is not satisfactory for use after the seedling comes up; the sul- phuric acid gave very good results and also seems to be good for soil treatment before sowing seed. For soil treatment it is used at the rate of one ounce of acid to one gallon of water, but for use on the seedlings about I to 500 parts would be best. CoRR FP: Circular No. 4, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1908. Pp. 8. An interesting biological relation is brought Remedy out by FE. R. Burdon, who found that for various species of Chermes feeding on the Larch Blight. larch are instrumental in spreading the fungus Pesiza Willkommuii which causes the 13 196 Forestry Quarterly larch canker. A similar relation is found between these and other insects and the spruce gall caused by Septoria Parasitica. By attacking the insects, therefore, the fungus disease is at the same time attacked. Spraying in winter with a strong soap solu- tion or kerosene emulsion seemed effective. A remedy for the spruce gall and larch blight diseases caused by Chermes. Journal Economic Biology, 1907. No. 2, pp. 54-67. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT. A very full, critical review of the teachings Sotlrent of the soilrent theory by the competent pen im of Schiffel needs to be recorded for those Theory who like to understand more clearly the and methods and their value in forest finance Practice. management of that theory or indeed of any theory.. He discusses in detail the question of forest value, soil value and stock value, calculations and rate of interest, with propositions for their practical use, and finally the financial rotation. The position of the author is clearly stated as opposed to the fine-spun soilrent theory and as favoring the forestrent method. ‘The question of profitableness of forest is not a purely statical one. The most important factor in it is silviculture. Improvements, cheapening of production, increasing value of product in a given time are the elements of profitableness. But, to be sure, the not less important question is: When are stands to be cut so that the most favorable interest on the capital involved may be secured? Hence the determination of the proper rotation cannot be neglected and it is for this, that ex- periments in planting, thinning, yield tables, methods, etc., are made, but the simple formula of forestal statics remains x = C, which determines correctly the forest value. Prac- tically difficult is merely the determination of R, the rent which may be expected in equal amount as continuous interest on the wood capital C. ‘ The basis of all value and profit calculations is furnished by the money yield table. But not all foresters have a clear idea of the applicability of such tables; they employ them with the same confidence with which they employ an area or log table. - - Periodical Literature. 197 He who knows that every tree has really its own cube formula, each stand its own volume yield table and still more money yield table; that it is difficult and unsafe to average such divergences into groups (sites); that the value increment of stands, de- pendent on unit prices of sizes proceeds unlawfully—will place only very limited confidence in money tables and index percents. “Perhaps there are foresters who use the Pressler borer to de- termine the a, b, c, w of a stand from a few splinters; but their work is, in my opinion, perfectly valueless.” For the proofs of this position we must refer the reader to the article itself. Kritische Betrachtungen tiber Theorie und Praxis der Bodenreiner- tragslehre. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, March, April, 1908, pp. 93- 118, 137-156. Weise laments the unbusinesslike methods Business of forestry in Germany. First there is the and dominance of the regular annual yield which Forest is inelastic and unyielding to the demands Management. of industry. There are good years and bad years in business, but each year the same amount cf wood is put upon the market regardless of demand. The navy yard at Kiel depends upon imported wood rather than to accommodate itself to the conditions under which native timber would be supplied. In Baden a brush factory in the forest draws its wood from wholesalers and not from the adjacent forests because the supply from these might be insufficient just when trade was most flourishing. Dealing with wholesalers the management can at any time double its order and depend upon * supply. Even silviculturally the regular annual cut is not above criti- cism. It has made impossible the coppice-with-standards, does not accord with natural regeneration and has more than any other cause favored coniferous at the expense of deciduous forests in Germany. ‘The regular annual yield was devised to secure a sus- tained supply of wood to local users. It has done this and done well, but now need is for greater freedom to admit of adjustment to changing market conditions. The remedy lies in the creation of a reserve stock which can be 198 Forestry Quarterly built up while prices are low and disposed of when prices are high. #2 'D; Zur zeitgemassen Betrietbsregelung. Zeitschrift fiir Forst-und Jagd- wesen. Jan., 1908. Pp. 2-7. STATISTICS AND HISTORY. One of the reasons of an early de- Early History velopment of forestry in Germany was of undoubtedly the fact that the country Artificial Reforestation. was divided into many small principali- ties in which the forest areas were the property of the reigning prince, and hence a conservative man- agement was readily enforcible. A very interesting detailed account of the development of silvi- culture in the Palatinate by Dr. Hausrath shows that artificial reforestation was already practiced in the fourteenth century, the Count of Nurnberg making the first attempt with conifer plants. In 1556 Frederic of the Upper Palatinate ordered that the old choppings, which do not seed up naturally, and other waste lands were to be plowed and sowed with conifers, oak and beech, and to be guarded against pasture until the tops had grown out of the reach of the cattle. In 1585 further extension of these planta- tions adding birch, alder, aspen and willow as useful for fuel- wood, were made and the success ten years later was found so satisfactory that the planting was still further extended, the in- structions as to procedure showing a very good conception of silviculture. When after the 30 years’ war Karl Ludwig began to recuper- ate the wasted areas, he ordered oak planting which was done with nursery grown poles. This procedure proved unsuccessful, and led to return to sowing. At the end of the eighteenth century when energetic reforesta- tion became the order of the day, sowing _was generally em- ployed. This was done with oak and beech in the fall, only on wet soils deferring the work till spring. Birch and pine were added as nurses to be removed after 10 years, and on the other hand open pine sowings were filled out with oak and.beech. Alto- gether mixed forest was favored, pine and spruce, fir and larch Periodical Literature. 199 being frequent combinations. A combination with farming was also not infrequently practiced. Pine sowings were at first made on unprepared ground, but the poor results led to full prepara- tion. The use of furrows was begun in 1787 as a result of the obser- vation that the plants on the balks of the plowed lands did not develop well. The results of these sowings of conifers—on hard- wood lands—were very good with pine, less so with spruce and a failure with fir, so that by 1783 planting of this species with three-year-old nursery stock was substituted. It is interesting to note that in those early days exotics from the United States were already at least experimentally used: Pinus strobus, Picea alba, Juniperus virginiana, Acer negundo and saccharum, Carya alba and Platanus were employed. But while the native oak and pine thrived, lack of attention to the foreigners in the thinnings and damage by game led to their loss as well as of the spruce, fir and larch admixtures. Kleine Beitrage zur Geschichte der Kiinstlichen Verjiingung. Allge- meine Forst u. Jagdzeitng, Feb., 1908, pp. 47-50. Wurtemberg and Baden are the two Ger- Results man States which at present produce the of highest net results from their State forests. Forest Management. It must be interesting to American for- m esters to note the history of such forest Baden. management in Baden, which is contained in the official statistics for the last 25 years, lately published, especially as the Black Forest, known to every American student, is contained in this State. The forest area of the whole State has for a well settled country experienced considerable increase, namely, from 1878 to 1904 over 25,000 acres were reforested, as against 7,500 acres cleared, so that now it contains in all over 14,000,000 acres. ‘These increases have taken place especially in later years, when from 1,200 to 1,600 acres per year were recovered as against about 250 acres annually cleared for farm use. The State forest area represents with round 235,000 acres, only 18%, but two-thirds of the total forest area is under some direct State supervision. The State forests have been slowly but steadily increasing; they contain less than 4 per cent. of non-forested land. The total cut in the last two 200 Forestry Quarterly years of the period has been over 95 cubic feet per acre in the timber forest and between 72 and 79 cubic feet for coppice and composite forest, showing that the well managed timber forest, under a systematic thinning practice, may after all produce better than the coppice. This cut of 95 cubic feet is an increase of over 52% over the cut in 1878. The causes for this increase of yield are the same as in all other German States: improvement of means of trans- portation, 7. e., making the forests accessible by road building; increased demand for smaller sized material due to industrial development; increased increment due to progressive silvicul- ture, especially in thinning practice; lastly, more accurate deter- mination of the yield and remodeling working plans have also made the increased cut possible. In 1878 the harvest yield was 48 cubic feet, the thinnings fur- nished 12.5 cubic feet; in 1904 the harvest yield had increased 37% to 66 cubic feet, but the thinnings by 125% to over 28 cubic feet per acre or nearly half the harvest yield. The best test of the forester’s art is the workwood per cent This, in 1878, was 30 per cent., in 1904 about 4o per cent. In the coppice and composite forest 15.7 per cent. was workwood. Of all the wood cut about 17 per cent. represents brush below 3-inch diameter and rootwood. This satisfactory account of the material yield is further ac- centuated in the improvement in financial yield, due to increase in wood prices, but also to management. Wood prices in the later seventies had reached their lowest position, so that the net money yield for wood per acre in 1881 was only $3.07, then a rise of prices set in, which culminated in 1902 with $7.14 per acre net wood yield; but this high figure was due to involuntary over-cutting caused by windfalls. A low rate was experienced in wood prices in 1887 with 5.6 cents per cubic foot for the whole: cut, which low result was, however, in part due to large amounts of inferior wood in the cut as a consequence of ice and snow breakages. The high with a little over 7 cents net for the total cut was experienced in 1904. . In 1904 also the culmination of workwood prices was reached with 12.6 cents per cubic foot (or say $19 per M feet B. M. for logs in the woods) and since the cutting of logs cost 1.6 cents per cubic foot or round $2.40 per M, the stumpage around $17 - - “——.-— i Periodical Literature. 201 (for all kinds). The prices for good firewood were in 1904 6.5 cents per cubic foot, or say, below $5 per cord cut in the woods, and for brushwood 3 cents or say 60 cents per cord; the wood- choppers getting 1.4 cents per cubic foot for the whole cut. Besides the income for wood incidental revenues from the chase (6 cents per acre) and sale of other materials adds 29 cents per acre and makes the whole gross income $8.30 per acre in 1904. Expenses have also, of course, increased during the period, namely more than doubled, from $1.63 in 1867 to $3.72. Indeed, in the first part of the period expenses rose more rapidly than incomes, especially during the years of poor wood prices, and at that time represented nearly 50 per cent. of the gross income, then sinking to nearly 40 per cent., and in 1904 being a little below 45 per cent. Roadbuilding has absorbed more of the ex- penditures than planting; from 25 cents per acre in 1878 con- stant increases to 1904, when the road bill was 57 cents. The average annual planting area was in the beginning of the period larger, namely 2,020 acres, requiring an outlay of 14.5 cents per acre on the whole (a little less than $17.00 per acre planted). In 1904 the planting area had been reduced to 1,900 acres, but the planting cost increased to 24 cents per acre, or a little over $30 per planted acre, showing that good planting costs more than we are apt to allow for it. The increase in cost is partly due to rise of labor cost, which accounts for about half the increase, but also to the increased substitution of planting for sowing, in the latter year hardly 12 per cent. of the area being sowed. The actual cost of sowing in 1904 was a little less than $io per acre, that of planting over $12. The net yields during the seventies due to high wood prices reached a maximum of $4.59 per acre, but the following financial crisis reduced this figure in 1881 to $1.95, then followed a con- stant increase largely due to increased cut, accentuated after 1890 by increasing wood prices, until in 1902 a maximum of $5.08 was attained, due to the involuntary increase of cut in windfalls. In 1904 the net yield was perhaps normal with $4.58 per acre. The net yield per cubic foot of total cut showed a minimum in 1887 with 3.1 cents (the expense being 2.5 cents), while the maximum occurred in 1875 with 6.7 cents, although wood prices 202 Forestry Quarterly were at a maximum in 1904, expenses having disproportionately increased. The corporation forests of over 600,000 acres were in 1878 to the extent of 32 per cent. coppice and composite forest. In 1904 the area of this class of property had increased to over 680,000 acres, with only 17 per cent. of this inferior class of forest. Here, too, an increase in admissible cut is noted through the period as well as the increase in workwood per cent., the former ranging from 52 to 64 cubic feet for the final harvest, and from 7 to 15 cubic feet for thinnings, so that the total cut in 1902, when a maximum occurred, was as much as 93 cubic feet per acre, the workwood per cent. increasing from 22 to 33 per cent. While the planting practice is somewhat similar to that in the State forests, roadbuilding is not much developed and no increase is practically notable since 1879. The financial results are so variable that they may not be readily stated. Statistische Nachweisungen aus der Forstverwaltung des Grossherzog- thums Baden, Allgemeine Forst und Jagdzeitung, March, 1908, pp. 89-95. The upward movement of forest incomes which Prussia’s has been so striking a feature of the Prussian Forest Budget forest administration since 1880 and especially for 1908. since 1900 is continuing. The cut for 1908 is set down in the budget with 336 million cubic feet (264 million over 3 inch). The gross income is expected to increase to over 26 million dollars, or, with a slight increase of acreage (mostly unproductive) to 7.3 million acres, it will be $3.63 per acre and a net result of over $2.00 as against $1.53 in 1900 is expected, the regular expenditures having increased only by 5 cents to $1.63. Yet the expenditures have on the whole been increased in the budget by about $800,000, or altogether to near $12,000,000, in addition to over one million dollars for ex- traordinary expenses, in which $750,000 for purchase of waste lands. Comparing the results of the last 14 years, the changes have been as follows, in percent. of the year 1895. ana 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 I90I 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 0o Income, ...... 100 III I17 129 136 152 152 41 176 185 186 188 I91 Expense, ....100 I01 103 113 I16 120 126 IIQ 124 131 136 137 144 Pertodical Literature. 203 Expressed in words the income from wood in the 14 years has nearly doubled, while the expense has increased only 44 percent. Der Etat der Domanen- Forst- und landwirtschaftlichen Verwaltung fiir das Jahr 1908. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, April, 1908, p. 137- I4I. Next to Prussia, Bavaria is the largest forest owner Results in Germany, with nearly two million acres, largely in mountain land, which in 1905 produced 132 million Bavaria. cubic feet or 56 cubic feet per acre of wood, the workwood per cent. being nearly 51; sold for Io million dollars gross or $8,750,000 net, 7. e. $4.47 per acre. The net income, after all expenses from administration and manage- ment are deducted, amounted to $2.80, still a better showing than the larger Prussian acreage which carries a larger unproductive area with it. The expense for road building was 18.5 cents and for plant- ing 20 cents directly, which latter cost is, however, increased by 15 cents through services rendered under servitudes. There were actually planted in that year 15,700 acres (about 28% sowed: and 5400 acres repaired, the average cost per acre of actual planting being $9.40. Over 50 million plants were delivered for private use. Although there were 79 forest fires not more than 240 acres were burned. Mitteilungen aus der Staatsforstverwaltung Bayerns, 1905. Central- blatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, April, 1908, p. 179-181. The Grand Duke of Saxony owns about Results II5,000 acres of forest property in the of a Thuringian mountains. In 1905 the cut was Medium Sized 79.6 cubic feet, 25 per cent. of which in thin- Forest Property. nings, with a woodwork per cent. of 45.5, fuelwood (over 3 inch) per cent. 30.8, brush- wood 23.5 per ‘cent. The gross yield on the whole was $720,000 acres or $6.90 per acre of wooded land and 84 cents per cubic foot of total cut. By-products and hunting add $15,000 to the income, but the hunt occasions an expenditure of $1,166.00 and the whole cost of the management requires $1.52 per acre in addition to 85 cents for administration and protection, leaving a net result on the whole of $4.35 per acre, and 77.6 cents per 204 Forestry Quarterly cubic foot, the net money yield of wood sales alone having been $5.90 per acre and 70 cents per cubic foot. Zusammenstellung der Wirtschaftsergebnisse in den Grossherzoglichen Sachsischen Staatsforsten 1905. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, March, 1908, p. 37-38. The annual report on forestry by the Swiss Depart- Swiss ment of the Interior for 1907 states the total forest Conditions. area of the republic as 2,192,473 acres, mostly owned by the cantons and corporations. The cut in the public forests amounted to 65 million cubic feet. There are nearly 800 acres of nurseries, which furnished over 22 million plants. The federal government not only supervises the forest policy, but assists cantons and corporations with sub- ventions in many directions, as in road building, salaries, educa- tion of foresters, plantations. It approves working plans, clearing permits, and the establishment of protective. forests. Shortly, complete forest statistics will be secured. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, April, 1908, pp. 124-1206. Stumpage and log prices in Switzerland have in Stumpage 1907 again increased by somewhere near I cent in and sometimes over 2 cents per cubic foot, which Switzerland. makes good sized trees worth 18 to over 20 cents per cubic feet standing, or over $20 per M ft. B. M. Sales are made by the tree and the price varies according to size; for instance 4o trees of 130 cubic feet each are quoted at 18 cents per cubic foot; 27 trees of 26 cubic feet each brought only 11 cents in the same forest. The best prices reported were for spruce of 75 cubic feet content and pine of 35 cubic feet with 21.8 and 21.6 cents. Logs in the woods do not bring much less, as the cost of cutting is small, less than 2 cents per foot, but oak will bring more than double the best prices for coniferous ma- terial. In the pulpwood an item of White Pine figures with $8 per cord in the woods, while spruce and fir brought $9 and $10.00. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, Jan., 1908. Periodical Literature. 205 Active forestry work continues in Sweden. In Swedish 1906 the State has again added to its forest do- Development. main by purchase of 125,000 acres, has drained a large acreage in the northern provinces, has planted protective forest slopes and extended supervision of private forests. Wood prices in spite of contrary anticipations had again risen and exports increased by 42,500 Petersburg standards (165 cubf sawed or 120 cubf round wood), the usual amount of mill stocks on hand at the opening of shipping being in the neighborhood of 400,000 standards (65 million cubic feet). The total export is Over 1,200,000 standards in addition to over 200,000 mine props, Great Britain taking practically the whole output of the last item and about half the board output. Forstwesen, Holzhandel und Holzindustrie Schwedens, 1906. Allge- meine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, March, 1908, pp. 38-40. MISCELLANEOUS. The fullest discussion of the question, long Educational agitated in Germany, as to whether separate Questions. academies or the universities are best fitted for forestry was had at the last session of the Ger- man Society of Foresters, as reported by the Centralblatt, which contains much that has bearing on our own attitude towards the question of a standard education. The vote was almost unanimous for a four year course at a University. Reduction of the number of forest schools, which we may translate into a warning against multiplication of such which is the present tendency on this continent was advocated, the result of the large number having been reduction of attendance at several of them resulting in lack of funds and of competent teaching force. Consolidation would permit improved conditions in these respects: Dr. Endres, the new rector of the University of Munich, who acted as referee on the question, pointed out, what we seem apt to forget in this country, that “No school can educate finished practitioners. Practicality comes only from experience in riper age.” He also doubted the advisability of a special tract for demon- 206 Forestry Quarterly stration, the Lehr revier, which contains danger both to teachers and students; the latter localizing their conceptions and becom- ing one-sided, the former being diverted from teaching and in- vestigation by administrative cares. Variety of forest pictures are more instructive, and can be visited on excursions and shorter sojourns. A compromise measure, which was voted down, contained suggestive propositions. It called for a theoretical-scientific stuly of three years at a University, and a practical-technical study of the same length at a forest management academy or in a district. Deutscher Forstverein. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. February, 1908, pp. 80-86. In connection with an exhibition of deer horns in A modern Berlin, when over 1,000 horns of last winter’s Nimrod. shooting were shown, the German emperor’s shooting ability—hardly his sportsmanship—was listed with 70 stags, elk and roebuck, 7 hares, 24 rabbits, 43 boar, 1,843 pheasants, and in all 1,995 pieces of wild animals for the year. With altogether 61,730 pieces of game to his credit, since ‘he began his killing exploits, of which over 4,000 stags, he is probably ahead of any other exterminator of wild life. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, Aoril, 1908, p. 177. NEWS AND NOTES. E. A. STERLING, in Charge. The field planting work of the Pennsylvania Railroad for the season has been completed, the total number of trees set out ag- gregating about 315,000. Two hundred thousand of these are conifers, principally Scotch Pine, European Larch, Norway Spruce, and White Pine, the remainder being hardwoods, of which 110,000 are Red Oak, and the balance Black Walnut, White Ash, Hickory, and Hardy Catalpa, which are being tried experimentally. The season has been very favorable, so that work was started the latter part of March and the major part was finished in early May. Cost figures have not been worked up in detail, but it is not likely that the average cost will exceed $4 per thousand. Part of the coniferous material was obtained abroad at an average price of $4.10 per thousand, delivered at the planting sites, while the hardwood seedlings which were se- cured from domestic nurserymen cost about $5.50 per thousand. Spring work in the new Pennsylvania Railroad nursery near Morrisville, Pa., consists up to date in the planting of about 222 bushels of Red Oak acorns, 5 bushels of Black Walnut, 10 bushels of Chestnut, 100 pounds of Hickory, and the setting in transplant rows of about 313,000 forest seedlings. In addition, several thousand trees and shrubs for ornamental planting on station grounds and right of way have been set out in nursery rows. The seedbed work for the season involves the planting of about 25 pounds of Scotch Pine seed, 14 pounds of Loblolly Pine, 5 pounds of Red Pine, 20 pounds of European Larch, and smaller quantities of the seed of other species, such as Norway Spruce, Yellow Poplar, Hardy Catalpa, etc. Planting operations of the New York State Forest, Fish and Game Commission have been conducted on a large scale this spring. Nearly $20,000 was available for nursery work and field planting, in addition to an appropriation of $10,000 for establishing new nurseries and for propagating trees for distri- bution to land owners in the State. The old Cornell nurseries at 208 Forestry Quarterly Axton and Wawbeek have been abandoned on account of their distance from the planting sites, and the work is being concen- trated at Lake Clear Junction. In the Saranac Nursery and Forest Experiment Station and in the Lake Clear nursery, which is a new nursery started this spring, the following trees have been planted: Two year old White Pine seedlings, 540,000; two year old Scotch Pine seedlings, 190,000; two year old Red Pine seedlings, 174,000; two year old Bull Pine seedlings, 18,000; two year oli Austrian Pine seedlings, 2,000; two year old Native Spruce seedlings, 61,000; two year old Norway Spruce seedlings, 216,- 000; two year old White Spruce seedlings, 40,000; two year old European Larch seedlings, 5,000; two year old Silver Fir seed- lings, 1,500; two year old Balsam seedlings, 9,000; total, 1,- 256,500. The season’s field planting is being done near Paul Smiths, at Ray Brook, and near Lake Placid. In each case, the new work is the enlargement of former plantations. About 450,000 three year old White Pines were imported and planted at Paul Smiths. and in addition about 650,000 four year old trees were supplied from the State nurseries. A vivid picture of a forester’s life and of forest conditions in the Philippines may be gotten from the following breezy letter of one of them, lately received: “At present, I’m about half way down the East Coast of Mindoro Island, on a trip of inspection. This is a kind of picnic work. I go through the country, stop at the fmest houses. generally of bamboo, with palm thatched roof), live on the best of chow (rice with perhaps bananas or fish) and put in time lay- ing down the law. “T go out to the cutting area of a licensee—look at every stump and top he has in the woods, stamp them with the official hatchet —(I could fine most of them, but as inspection in the past was lax, I generally warn them for next time-and give a lecture about the economy and greater profit of low stumps and smalt tops) and pass on. Also, I look over areas applied for under homestead laws, and pass upon them. If it weren’t that the country was so wet now it would be a “cinch.” “Incidentally, I get a good chance to gather geographic and News and Notes. 209 economic information, and study the trees. Also, I’m beginning to see more of the Philippino life. The natives on this island are much better than those in the provinces on Luzon. This is one of the few places with more land than men; they appreciate “homesteads,” and are looking out for the morrow. “The fellow I am staying with now, speaks good English, and in the family they make good music ‘ring out clear.’ But, I don’t believe they are one whit superior, or even the equal, of our own colored population—nor any worse, either. To me they are about the same, and I don’t see what’s in them, for some to think they are so far superior, or as some do, so far worse. “To get back to my work; contrary to what you may think, (I did!) forest is very scarce here; in my mind not having enough for a good supply for 10 years more, and present prices averaging $100 to $200 a thousand board feet. “This is contrary to all the published statements, but I believe time will prove it. “Take this island of Mindoro—supposed to be one of the best wooded areas in all the islands. The woods are very scattered as far as I have seen them; the only places within ten miles of the coast where there is very good commercial forest, are al- ready being rapidly exploited, and will undoubtedly be home- steaded ; and in the interior, I am told that the wild people have practically made any forest that was originally there worthless. “Things forestal here certainly look bad to me and it will need much propaganda (nothing so far having been done) to con- vince these people of their need for planting forests; before long, this province will, I believe, join the other comparatively treeless countries of the East. There will, to be sure, always be large areas good only for forest, and the time will come when they will be planted. And once planted, trees will certainly make rates of growth that will make States’ Yield Tables “look sick.” f “But the outlook for the present is bad; and to complicate mat- ters, the laws are, to my mind, very poorly adapted to present needs. “Thus, there is free use of timber without a license, giving rise to extensive stealing of timber. Then, where there is a license, restrictions are made which we must enforce; and hence the 210 Forestry Quarterly licensee must obey. But much of the present land is being home- steaded, and what is left is destroyed, instead of being used. “My idea would be to establish Public Forest Reserves; and either exclude cutting from them for the present, or have ex- acting inspection on the cutting in these areas. On all other areas, there is no use wasting time in inspecting, for it’s very sure that they will be homesteaded before the time of a second crop. Or if inspection is wanted, it should consist simply in insisting upon the removal of everything. But it is the work of a long time to get results, and if there is anything we don’t have here, it is plenty of time. ‘Constantly on the move’ is our rule.” Mr. W. D. Sterrett, who has been connected with the Forest Service since 1902, resigned his position in April to engage in private work. Mr. Sterrett has spent most of his time since in the examination of timberlands in the State of Chihuahua, Mexico. It is understood that upon his return to the States he will give special attention to Loblolly Pine, with which he is well acquainted, owing to having had charge of the permanent sample plots in second growth of that species. John Booth, the well known nurseryman and foremost advo cate of the introduction for forest purposes into Germany of ex otic, especially American species, died February 5, 1908. FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vol. VI] SEPTEMBER, 1908. [No. 3. ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. EF. A. STERLING. To correlate the various lines of a business or profession so that they bear the proper relation to each other and each receive due consideration without prejudice or partiality is the mark of a successful manager. In forestry, as in many other lines, there is ample opportunity to drift away from this ideal. A case in point is the tendency to treat natural reproduction and artificial reproduction of forests as opposing theories instead of giving each its proper place in any local plan or general study of forest management. ‘That each has a place, even under our crude forest conditions, should be obvious; while the question as to which is the more important is immaterial so long as each is given unprejudiced consideration. In one case natural repro- duction by seeds or coppice may meet all requirements, and again planting or artificial seeding may be the only means of securing a stand or of establishing a forest of desired composition and density. At two hearings in the case of the State of New York vs. the Brooklyn Cooperage Co. and Cornell University this question of natural regeneration vs. artificial reforestation was the pivotal one, on which the operations of the Cornell College of Forestry were to be adjudged; the expert of the Federal Forest Service and others maintaining that the selection forest was the only proper method to apply, while Dr. Fernow claimed that all methods were to be “experimented” with, but that under the local conditions where the operations were begun, artificial reforesta- tion with conifers with the aid of natural regeneration of hard- woods was the rational method. 212 Forestry Quarterly To the man on the street tree planting is forestry, and the pro- fession should aim to change this view without allowing them- selves to become prejudiced against it; at the same time the hope should not be held out that forest planting will solve the wood problem of the nation, the corporation, or the individual, for the crisis will come before the trees which can be planted will come to maturity. The same, of course, is true of reproduction which can be started naturally by any process of regeneration cuttings, and the artificial growth, if anything, will be surer and quicker, so our assurance of wood supplies in the distant future lies in the two methods of reproduction, while the natural second growth of partly mature trees with the remnants of the virgin forests, must tide us over the intervening period, which is pretty sure to be one of scarcity, until the younger growth or potential forest lands can supply the more conservative demands of future gener- ations. In this paper some of the possibilities under the head of arti- ficial reproduction will be touched upon, but with the full realiza- tion that it is only one of the several phases of forest management and neither the greatest nor the least, and that it must be co- ordinated with the other lines of activity in any comprehensive forest policy. For example, fire protection must be assured be- fore it is worth while to attempt to procure reproduction of any kind, exposure of the soil to leaching and errosion must be con- sidered, and also the function of the forest as a watershed cover. The part which artificial reproduction will play in the ultimate working out of things forestal will naturally be determined by the aims of the owner and the intensity of the management under the prevailing local conditions. Briefly stated, forest planting or direct seeding must be resorted to in order to establish stands on cleared land no longer suitable for agriculture; on waste lands of all kinds where the possibilities of natural seeding are elim- inated by the absence of seed trees; on large areas, such as the sand hills and other treeless portions of the West, and the sandy wastes of the Lake region and Atlantic Coast, where forest growth has been wanting for a period antedating authentic his- tory; on extensive burns in all forest regions; on areas where the ravages of fungi or insects destroy a stand or make a change in composition advisable; and in order to establish a protective od Artificial Reproduction of Forests. 213 cover on watersheds, prevent erosion and the silting of streams and canals and to afford protection from the wind in treeless, wind- swept regions. Not only must artificial reproduction be resorted to in order to establish forest stands on enormous areas unsuitable for other purposes, but it is often necessary, in order to hasten the return of a forest cover, to improve the composition or to in- crease the density, and to provide suitable mixtures of valuable fast-growing species. In the National Forests, where we may expect the form of management best calculated to meet the diversified demands of the nation, artificial reproduction must be practiced on an enor- mous scale if the forests are to produce up to their maximum and supply the increasing demands made upon them. Forest planting alone will put trees on the sand hills of the Middle West, where wood is urgently needed by a rapidly growing agricultural popu- lation; direct seeding must be resorted to on the hundreds of square miles of country devastated by crown fires in the Pacific Northwest, where scarcely a seed tree remains and volunteer growth will consist largely of worthless shrubs unless nature is given some help; while throughout practically all of the Na- tional Forests are watersheds and burns and barren areas of many kinds which will never be reforested naturally, or, if at all, by such slow processes that even the nation cannot afford to wait. On the other hand, only the nation could afford to work out such a problem, for it is one dealing not with thousands but with mil- lions of acres, and even after eliminating the mountain tops and the deserts and the rocky and chaparral covered wastes, there are still millions of acres worthy of regeneration and under fair condi- tions the forests thus produced should be productive, profitable, and in a sense ideal. The natural stands will be more extensive, and the initial cost possibly less, but they will be more irregular, of less desirable composition, and less productive. Moreover, we have not had enough experience in this country to be sure that our systems of natural regeneration are going to work out the di- versified, uneven-aged stands which prevail; while prompt and uniform results will be lost—in fact, already have been—by pro- ceeding with extensive cuttings before the success of the method has been established. Outside of the National Forests we find some four-fifths of 214 Forestry Quarterly the total forest area of the country permanently in private or corporate hands. The cream of this is controlled by the lumber- men, and the almost absolute non-application of every working plan which has been made for them does not indicate that they can be expected to apply any system of natural regeneration which will curtail present profits. In fact, with a few notable excep- tions, the lumbermen are doing business for the sake of present profit, and are not greatly interested in forest production of any kind; they seem to prefer making all the present profit possible and consider only later whether any of it should be spent putting a forest back on their lands. Large wood-consuming corporations, such as pulp and paper companies and railroads, are more likely to practice intensive forestry than wood producing lumbermen. But it is interesting, that after elaborate theoretical plans had been worked out for natural regeneration of pulpwood pro- ducing lands, the paper and pulp companies in New York State are cutting clean and planting on a large scale. If we take a hypothetical case of a lumber company adopting a policy of conservative forest management, we find them apply- ing first of all the simple fundamental principles of low stumps, small top diameter, disposal of slash, and fire protection. In some regions this might suffice and volunteer growth of desired char- acter may follow, but in the majority of cases some provision would need to be made for establishing new growth, unless merely a second cutting was the aim, which would be attained by the se- lection system or diameter limit, both acknowledged to be crude makeshifts. If our hypothetical forest were in the white and red pine of the Lake region, it has been demonstrated that repro- duction would be assured by disposing of the slash, keeping out fire, and leaving seed trees. It would be a poor seed tree that would not cut 500 feet B. M., so with five seed trees left to the acre we would tie up 2,500 feet of lumber, worth $10 per M. on the stump, or $25 per acre. If reproduction were really wanted and given the same degree of fire protection, the same land could be promptly and uniformly planted to the same species at a cost not to exceed $15 per acre by a very liberal estimate, which would give $10 more profit with the same results and leave no capital tied up in seed trees, and at the mercy of the wind, nor would any time be lost waiting for full seed years. It is interesting in - ad Artificial Reproduction of Forests. 215 this connection to note that the Government report on the possi- bilities of tie production in Wisconsin and Minnesota, prepared in coOperation with the Northern Pacific Railroad, indicates that it would be more profitable for the railroad company to purchase cut-over and waste lands and plant than to attempt to acquire merchantable timber on the stump and provide for future needs by natural regeneration. If a paper company in Maine or the Adirondacks proposes to operate beyond the lifetime of its individual members, and is anxious to have a future supply of pulpwood, how, by any known scheme of natural regeneration, can they cut the mature spruce and balsam and be sure of satisfactory reproduction of the same species? The hardwoods, save at heavy initial sacrifice of coni- fers which are ready for the axe, will usurp the ground and en- tirely prevent the desired reproduction, or suppress it if it starts. The logical solution and the one which is becoming more feasible with the increasing demands for hardwood, is to cut practically clean and replant. For a company which cuts over from one to three thousand acres a year, it is perfectly feasible to operate a nursery and plant as fast as the cutting proceeds, thereby saving time and securing a solid uniform forest of even age classes. The mining companies and railroads are taking steps to pro- tect themselves against a timber shortage and increasing prices, and while it is obvious that they must purchase and manage timberlands as a source of immediate supply, and give such pre- servative treatment to their timbers as is consistent with their use, few managers are so shortsighted as not to see the advisability of planting up all available waste lands, while some advocate buy- ing land for this purpose. Not only this, but it frequently happens that in the management of second growth hardwood, considerable planting must be done to fill up open areas, increase the density, and improve the composition. In the face of such a fungus dis- ease as the “chestnut blight (Diaporthe parasitica), which is now spreading rapidly over the East, practically a clean cut must be made in infected chestnut stands and the ground planted up to sore resistant species. Economic considerations are, of course, the prime factors in determining policy as well as methods. In the case of forest planting an estimate of returns is not possible unless all the local 216 Forestry Quarterly factors are known and considered, and even then the uncertainty as to future values reduces all estimates to an approximation. It is certain, however, that with the fire danger eliminated, forest planting or seeding under reasonable conditions will be a profit- able undertaking and make land productive which, unless forested artificially, would give little or no return. To the farmers, particularly in the Middle West, forest plant- ing is an economic necessity and is the only way they can profit- ably utilize their waste land and produce the posts, fuelwood, lumber, etc., always needed on the farm. So great has been the development along this line that in Nebraska alone there are, ac- cording to the returns of the assessors, 286,000 acres of planted timber. It is from some of these Middle Western plantations that some of the best statements of yield are derived, and we find that practically every well-cared-for plantation has given returns in excess of what could be obtained from agricultural crops on the same or similar land. For example, we find hardy catalpa plan- tations giving gross returns of from $207 to $283 per acre in from 15 to 20 years, while one 14 year old catalpa plantation gave a net annual income of $8.69 per acre at 5 per cent. compound interest from fence posts alone. A black walnut plantation has been made to produce over 3,000 cubic feet of wood in 34 years, giving an average net annual income at 5 per cent. compound in- terest of $3.97 per acre from thinnings, prior to the maturity of the stand. Other species yield returns of greater or less value in accordance with the commercial value of the timber and the con- dition of the plantation. In New England there are fairly ac- curate data regarding the returns from white pine plantations, showing that 40 year old plantations can be expected to give a net profit of over $100 per acre, and this is on land which is prac- tically waste and where in many instances natural reproduction would not occur for generations. The wood-consuming corporations owning large areas of waste lands can easily figure very satisfactory returns if such land is devoted to forest production of even the slower growing species. For instance, if a railroad company plants red oak for ties on land valued at $10 per acre, computes interest at 44 per cent. compounded annually, and the crop matures in 40 years, we have the following: Artificial Reproduction of Forests. 217 Cast of land at, $10; at-474%) for forty years, 24.55 203 Seca es $58 16 Cost of plant material and planting $10, at 444% for forty years,.. 58 16 Taxes 3 cents per annum at 444% for forty years, .............. B25 Management and protection, 15 cents at 444% for forty years, .. 16 05 Cost of sawing and hewing 400 ties at 10 cents, ................ 40 00 Cost ob halinerAoo tiesrat Sacents,. as... sles 246 Forestry Quarterly or even longer to reproduce a harvested crop. Obviously this means that for any period which ordinarily business calculations take into account the supply is fixed. As productive forestry implies regular working plans, with definite felling budgets for each year, this fixity is still further emphasized. Of course, the annual supply is not absolutely unvarying. The cut never tallies exactly with the estimate, and no working plan is so rigid that the manager may not increase or decrease each annual cut some- what, in order to take advantage of temporary market conditions. Moreover, unforeseen circumstances, like storms and insect epi- demics, may necessitate fellings in excess of the plan. Finally, no forest is safe against premature cuttings under the stress of great emergencies. * But when all has been said, it is still true that cultivated wood supplies cannot be expanded and contracted according to the current demand, as those from wild forests can. This being so, one would naturally expect a continuous ad- vance of wood prices in all countries dependent on productive forestry. For even if the consumption per capita should remain stationary, the mere increase in population would create a greater demand, while the supply remains substantially the same.** Experience has shown this anticipation to be correct, for wood prices in the productively supplied countries of Europe have steadily risen (See Fernow, passim). In recent times this has been in the face of voluminous importations from extractive forests, made possible by the building of railways. During the hundred years or so before steam transportation, the threatening wood famine was a bugbear to all economists and statesmen. In fact, modern forestry had its rise in the endeavor to meet constantly increasing prices by greater production. The local narrowness of the market for most wood, and the spasmodic nature of the demand, complicate every attempt at *Thus, during the Seven Years’ War, Frederick the Great raised money by cutting down the forests of Saxony, which he held in military occupa- tion. In the time of the Revolution, many public forests of France were sold to be cut down. Again, during the Napoleonic invasion, many fine forests in Germany were devastated to fill empty exchequers. Private forests are still more liable to succumb to the necessities of their owners in financial embarrassment. In fact, this is one of the main arguments for public ownership. . **Within limits, this increase can be met, however, by the greater pro- ductivity of improved forestry methods. By this means the average cut per acre in Prussian state forests rose from 28 cubic feet in 1830 to 51.5 in 1900. See Fernow, Economics of Forestry, page 124. - - Course of Prices in Forestry. 247 analyzing price history. Wood is not used daily in small amounts, as food products are; every final consumer requires large quan- tities at long intervals, as for instance once or twice in a life- time for house building. Almost alone in the case of fuel wood is there a continuous, fairly even demand from each individual consumer, If through insufficient transportation facilities the market is very local, there is hardly any competition by con- sumers because only once in a long time more than one person will require considerable quantities of timber at the same time. The price paid for wood under such circumstances is altogether independent of supply and demand, at least where all the woods are owned by the government or a single private individual. Since the railway has revolutionized transportation this condi- tion has become rare, but a hundred years ago, in Europe, it was rather the rule than the exception. In the United States, lumber was at that time most often cut on one’s own land or bought from a neighboring small proprietor, and sawed at a custom mill. But in the old country usually the forest belonged to a single local magnate, or to the government. Consequently the forest owner was able to fix his own price. This would have been an intolerable hardship to the consumer, if business had been conducted on purely commercial principles. In reality, however, the burden weighed more heavily on the owner than on the consumer, and was often a great hindrance to proper management. For either the price was kept down at a low cus- tomary rate by a feeling of obligation on the part of the owner, strictly enforced by public opinion. Or, much of the wood had to be furnished to holders of various easements and rights of common, either gratuitously or at rates fixed generations before and no longer proportionate to real values. Again, the price was frequently fixed with regard to the encouragement of local industries, and consequently often much below what might be reasonably demanded. This was according to the widely pre- valent ideas of mercantilism, which sought above all to foster the production of goods for export. Forestry, at that time, was rarely a business by itself, for lumber could not be exported. It was considered subsidiary to other industries, very much as is now often done, for quite different reasons, by manufacturers in the United States, who get raw material from their own wood- 248 Forestry Quarterly lands. Thus on thousands of acres in many parts of Germany, the one object in view was to supply fuel and timbers for the neighboring mines. When in the beginning of the nineteenth century the ideas of Adam Smith spread on the continent, governments and private owners strove to rid themselves both of the servitudes and the customary low prices. It was declared an injustice to the rest of the community if a few favored persons received wood at prices below the real value, especially as these were mostly people who lived close to the woods and would therefore enjoy fairly low prices anyhow. ‘The abolition of servitudes and cus- toms, however, met with many difficulties, and in some places is not yet fully accomplished. But, generally speaking, the pro- duct of the cultivated forests of Central Europe is now sold with an attempt at obtaining effective competition, either at ,private sale, or more frequently, public auction. In the nature of things, competition is somewhat limited. In many, if not most cases, there is no sellers’ competition at all, at least so far as the cheaper woods are concerned. For very often the only seller in the neighborhood is the government or one large owner, while importation from a distance is feasible with high-priced assort- ments only. Nor are there usually very many bidders, because the saw-mill men, dealers and consumers living in the neighbor- hood are the only ones that can make use of the low-valued, bulky material. Even this limited competition is often restricted by secret combination among the buyers. To make competition more lively, different branches of the government service are sometimes set to bid against each other at the government’s own sales. Thus, the superintendent of the military barracks and the manager of a certain penal institution in Thuringia were some years ago, and perhaps still are, active competitors with each other and private bidders at the auctions of firewood in the neighboring government beech forests. The seller’s monopoly so commonly existing in forestry must of course tend to raise prices, while the limited number of pur- chasers has the opposite tendency. Between the two, it is not surprising if prices for the coarser kinds of wood show very great local variations. In the United States, the government has re- cently introduced the system of auctions in the national forests. - aa Course of Prices in Forestry. 249 As the practice is still new and the economic conditions in this period of rapid development constantly changing, one cannot yet say what results will follow in the long run. For the pres- ent, the bidding is often a mere formality, as frequently but a single concern is in a position to make profitable use of the timber. The bidder here does his own felling under the su- pervision of the forest authorities, while in Central Europe it is more common to sell the felled and prepared wood. In the United States, a large amount of timber is also given gratu- itously to settlers in or near the reserves. This is undoubtedly wise for the present. For, public opinion has always accorded to the settler the right to cut timber for his domestic use on the public lands, and in many cases this tacitly given privilege is essential to the development of the neighborhood. The danger is that, when this necessity has ceased, it will be difficult to stop a practice no longer justified by economic conditions. It is true that no legal easement to cut wood on government land can grow up by mere prescription, but the interested parties will probably try to secure their advantage by positive legislation as soon as the Forest Service tries to curtail it. The imperfect play of competition in the case of the coarser forms of wood gives way to a more successful one where the more highly valued assortments are concerned. The better erades of building timber and industrial woods can be sold with profit over a much wider territory, extending for a few of the most valuable species to an actual world-market. Here the ex- tractive comes into direct conflict with the productive supply, so that an analysis of the difference of price formation between _ the two becomes very difficult. The two principal countries of productive forestry, Germany and France, are evidently appre- hensive that their native production may be completely swamped by importations from the extractive or semi-extractive coun- tries. For they endeavor to keep up prices by protective tariffs, although their domestic production is admittedly insufficient to supply the demand. The proper arrangement of tariff scheduies is always a very complicated affair, and never more so than in the case of wood and timber, with the great variety of grades and forms, each differing in economic relations. The same 250 Forestry Quarterly object as by a custom tariff is often sought through special man- ipulation of railway rates.* One of the ways in which productive methods effect prices differently from extractive forestry is by the very perfection of its methods. Under the latter, little attention is paid to setting apart each kind of timber to the use for which it is fittest. But in productive forestry this is a principal consideration. Its business would be unprofitable if, for instance, timber were cut prematurely because a special demand happened to exist for the young material, or if a species that might eventually bring a very high price were sold cheaply for an immediate, but inferior use. These things are done constantly by mere lumbermen. To illustrate: It is very common in the United States to see all the country surrounding a mine denuded to supply props for the latter. Every stick of timber, whether young or old, is cut be- cause the miners try to get their supply as close by as possible. Now, in the great German mining districts of Rhineland and Westphalia, the neighboring forests might possibly supply the whole demand for props. But they do not. Partly for financial, partly for silvicultural reasons, the management prefers to raise other sizes and grades besides mine props. In other words: They deliberately limit their own supply, and thereby cause a large importation from Eastern Germany and even foreign coun- tries, which would be quite impossible unless prices were high enough to pay heavy transportation charges. Enough has been said to show how wide the price current must differ under productive and extractive conditions. In the latter, periods of very abrupt and considerable rise must alter- nate with periods of substantially stable and even falling prices. For every time a new level has been reached, large bodies of natural timber become accessible, whose exploitation was there- for impossible on account of high transportation charges. Until the end of this new stock is clearly visible, the supply can very quickly respond to any increase in the demand, and thus prices are kept fairly stable. No such throwing of large quantities of timber upon the market is possible where productive methods prevail. Aside from a limited anticipation of fellings, that must *A monographic study of the influence of railway rates upon forestry would be a very praiseworthy undertaking. td Course of Prices in Forestry. 251 sooner or later be made up by a restricted cut, there can be but a very gradual response to increasing demand. The amount of timber producible on a given area is almost fixed under existing conditions, and will be altogether fixed when silvicultural skill shall have attained its highest point. Consequently there must be a steady rise in prices, as long as the demand continues to increase. Thus far we have considered wood prices as if their course was quite independent of other commodities. But evidently this is not true. In various ways, the price of every other article of human consumption reacts upon forest products. The de- mand necessarily decreases or increases according to the move- ment of population, the development or decay of industry, and the general prosperity of the people. Different forms of wood are affected in different degrees. For instance, firewood is touched but little by the increased purchasing power of the con- sumers. Even during an industrial depression, people must keep warm, and cannot do much more when they are prosperous. But the building of a new house may usually be deferred till better times, and the purchase of luxurious furniture is thought of only when prosperity is at its height. The erection of a new factory, and still more the growth of a new industry in a new region, will usually create new demands upon the forest, be it only for packages, and consequently affect prices within the market district. Aside from the direct influence of the price of other commodities upon that of forest products by affecting the funds available for them, wood prices may also rise in sympathy with others, merely because producers and dealers are able to pocket larger profits than before. That is, during “flush times,” when there is a brisk demand for many commodities and prices generally tend upwards, lumber sellers will sometimes arbitrarily raise their rates, although the relation between supply-and demand does not justify it. They can do so successfully, partly because the consumers, being highly pros- perous, are less inclined to resent the raise and curtail consump- tion; partly because the specious plea of the lumber dealer is accepted that “everything is higher, so we must charge more too.” We have now found that both under extractive and productive 252 Forestr, Quarterly forestry the course of prices, notwithstanding many temporary set-backs, is upwards whenever fairly long periods are consid- ered together. We have further determined that mainly on ac- count of transportation difficulties there is for wood no world price upon which local prices are based, such as exists for wheat and other breadstuffs; but that there are a large number of market districts, the extent of which differs for the various forms of wood, being largest for the most expensive, smallest for the least valuable kinds. The price curve is different for the differ- ent forms and species, but practically all are upward, and finally, under extractive forestry the price curves present an alternation of rapidly rising with almost level periods, while under produc- tive management the curves assume a comparatively steady up- ward course, with but slight and irregular depressions. These theoretical conclusions are fully borne out by the data found in the publications containing price statistics.* Thus far, however, another side of our study has been entirely overlooked. The increase of price does not necessarily indicate an increase in the proportion of demand to supply. It may also be caused by the greater abundance of the money in which the price is expressed. Thus it is well understood that a fall in prices amounting to an economic revolution followed the open- ing of silver and gold mines in the New World, during the six- teenth century. Later discoveries of abundant gold and silver have brought about similar though less extensive changes. Ev- erybody is acquainted with the tremendous rise in prices usually experienced by countries afflicted with irredeemable paper money. It may be assumed that ever since the Middle Ages there has been a steady increase in the gold and silver possessed by human- ity, and probably this increase will continue for a long time. If the proportion of supply to demand in all commodities had re- mained precisely the same during this entire period, the whole increase of prices since the fifteenth century would have to be ascribed to this increase of gold and silver. But that propor- *Among these, some of the most important and-accessible are: Fernow, Economics of Forestry, passim; files of the Forestry Quarterly, American Lumberman, and other professional and trade publications; a recent cir- cular of the Forest Service, entitled “Wholesale lumber prices, 1886-1908.” For comparisons with prices of other commodities, see price bulletins of the U. S. Bureau of Labor. For German data, inter alia, Endres, Forst- politik. _ - Course of Prices in Forestry. 253 tion has, of course, not remained the same, and one of the most difficult problems in economics is to determine the part which is played in price changes either by the play of supply and demand of commodities, or the change in the volume of the circulating money. If it should turn out that the apparent rise in the past is due merely to the increase in the amount of money, little consolatior could be drawn from such facts by one who hopes for continued rise of prices in order to facilitate the development of productive forestry in the United States and other new countries. For what foresters need is an increase in wood prices as compared with non-forestal commodities, while changes in the volume of money affect all goods alike, leaving the price relations between them as they are. Obviously, the way to find out is to compare the price movements of wood with those of a large number of non- forestal goods, each of which must first be thoroughly analyzed so as to eliminate the cause of price increase other than the in- crease of money. If after such elimination a price increase of the same proportion is found in all the goods compared, that is the amount to be ascribed to the increase of circulating money. Such a thorough investigation offers tremendous difficulties, be- cause price statistics are lacking, unreliable, or in such forms as to make comparison impracticable. Moreover the elimination of the other causes is a very difficult task. At any rate, the lim- its of this article preclude even an attempt. Until such investi- gations have been made, we must be content with more or less probable guesses. But apart from the increase of the precious metals, the known factors that in the nature of things cannot but bring about a rise are so considerable, that it would be very strange indeed if they should turn out to be ineffective. In the past, the difference be- tween the proportionate rise of forestal and agricultural goods has been considerable, while, if due mostly to the expansion of the precious metals, it would be insignificant. The periods of rapid increase do not correspond with the periods of variation in money supply. For instance, the time of generally falling prices, from 1873 to 1896, which, according to some economists at least, was due largely to a decrease in the circulation of precious metals, made no break in the upward tendency of wood. 254 Forestry Quarterly Many other things could be mentioned to strengthen the as- sumption that by far the greater part of the price increase in the past is a real one. But all the causes which have brought about a real increase in wood prices in the past are still operating with undiminished force, making it highly probable that the rise will continue for a considerable period. Consequently we may assert that pro- ductive forestry in those parts of the earth where hitherto it has been unprofitable on account of low prices will not necessarily remain so, at least for that particular reason. Absorption Spectra accompanying Zederbaur’s article. + (i TT tO $M Tn A Saas ech ey mete iy Seep eeae s * 2 6 e282 2-2 oy © 2 THE LIGHT REQUIREMENTS OF FOREST TREES AND THE METHODS OF MEASURING LIGHT.* Dr. C. ZEDERBAUR. Translated by R. Zon and B. T. BotsEn. [The importance of the subject matter of Dr. Zederbauer’s communica- tion, which was briefed in the Forestry QuARTERLY, vol. v, p. 414, will justify the printing in full of the translation of the author’s complete article. The article having been submitted to Prof. F. C. Clement, of the Uni- versity of Minnesota, for critical comment, the latter has deferred an argumentative expression of his opinion that “the paper is unconvincing from the theoretical and the experimental standpoint” until “his views have actually been put to test this summer,” the results of which tests will be ready for publication this fall. Mr. Zon in a letter commenting on the article points out that “one of Zederbauer’s fundamental errors lies in his assumption that all of the light which is intercepted by the crowns is absorbed by the leaves, thus ignoring the reflected light which may be of considerable importance.’’] One of the most important factors in the life of forest trees is sunlight or simply light. Silviculture, which is based on the study of the manner of life of different arborescent species, must deal with light first of all. It must determine its importance for different species as well as its relation to other factors; for in- stance, to the consumption and expenditure of water. The rec- ognition that light is of great importance to trees led a long time ago to the subdivision of trees into tolerant and intolerant species. Larch and Birch are extremely intolerant species, Beech and Fir extremely tolerant species. All others fall between these two _extremes. This classification has been obtained in a purely em- pirical way, and does not pretend to be accurate, but it has great practical value and is generally used. The attempt to determine exactly the relative position of each species with reference to the light requirements has led to meas- urements of light which seek to give mathematical expression to the light requirements. The best known method of measuring light is that of Bunsen Roscoe as simplified by Wiesner. It consists in exposing silverchloride paper to light until its colora- tion assumes some standard shade. The time required is then *Centralblatt f. d. gesammte Forstwesen. 8 und 9 Heft, 1907., pp. 325-330. 256 Forestry Quarterly recorded. Wiesner, instead of a single standard of coloration, used ten, and in this way made it possible to shorten the time of observation. Since the silver chloride paper is affected only by active chemical rays from Frauenhofer’s line D to ultra violet, this method does not succeed in measuring the entire sun- light, but only its chemically active rays. This method, known as Wiesner’s method of light measure- ment, was used many times by Wiesner himself, and also by Linsbauer, Cieslar, Hesselmann, and others. When two years ago I took up a serious study of the mode of life of forest trees, I became convinced that the investigation of the light requirements of arborescent species is of the utmost importance. Although J. Wiesner by his method expressed in figures the light requirements of forest trees—on the basis of the amount of light consumed by them, and A. Cieslar has made extensive studies along this line,—-I doubted the accuracy of the method itself, and considered it necessary to verify it, and to carry on independent investigations of the light requirements of forest trees. I shall attempt to show the results which I ob- tained and the inadequacy of Wiesner’s method for such inves- tigations. In every attempt to investigate the light requirements of for- est trees two questions always come up; first, what kind of rays, and second, how many light rays do forest trees require? The order of the inquiry cannot be reversed, because the second question can be investigated only after the first is answered. Since sunlight is composed of rays of different wave length, it is possible that trees either absorb only certain rays or ab- sorb all of them equally. In the first case, only individual rays or groups of rays must be measured, while in the case of equal absorption of all rays only a single measurement is necessary. It is therefore clear that an investigation of the quality of the light absorbed must precede an investigation of the quantity, and that the most accurate measurement of light can be made only by taking into fullest consideration the qualitative compo- sition of the absorbed light. The determination of the quality of the rays has ech under- taken more than once. I refer to the numerous investigations of the absorption of chlorophyll in alcoholic solution as well as _ Cd Light Requirements of Forest Trees. 257 in living green leaves. The results of spectroscopic investiga- tions of green leaves can also give an insight into the light re- quirements of the whole tree, since a leaf is a part of the tree crown. To be on the safe side, however, I have attempted to seek an answer to the first question, not in such (above men- tioned) investigations, but in the forest itself. Nevertheless, I consider it necessary to present briefly the results of the inves- tigations without attempting to review the entire literature on the subject. The investigations of Kraus, Engelman, Reinke and Timiria- zeff have established that chlorophyll in alcoholic solution, as well as in living green leaves, absorbs differently the rays com- posing the sunlight. Chlorophyll, like atmosphere, possesses a selective absorption. From figure I it is evident that chloro- phyll in alcoholic solution has the maximum absorption between Frauenhofer’s lines B and C in the red portion of the spectrum; that at F (blue) and at G and H the absorption is still fairly strong; and finally between C and D the absorption is extremely weak. (See figure on page 254.) 1. Absorption bands of an alcoholic chlorophyll solution. 2. Absorption spectrum of three superimposed green leaves (accord- ing to Reinke). 6. Absorption spectra of light transmitted through the crowns: 3. Pinus silvestris. 4. Larix europaea. 5. Picea excelsa. 6. Fagus silvatica. The spectroscopic investigation of leaves, Fig. 2, shows a similar picture. Naturally the degree of absorption varies in different leaves, and according to the position of the leaves in the crown. ‘Thus, for instance, a beech leaf in full sunlight ab- sorbs more light than a leaf in the shade. If the parts of the tree crown, the leaves, have a selective power upon the sunlight, then the tree crown itself which is nothing but a more or less thick roof of the same leaves, must possess a similar, if not an identical, selective power upon the sun rays, as that of the leaves. But let us put aside this con- clusion and investigate the quality of the light under the tree crown with a spectroscope. It is obvious that the spectroscope must not be placed under an opening in the crown, but under a close canopy. The best results will be obtained in a uniformly 258 Forestry Quarterly close stand, for instance, in a pure stand of beech or of pine, since in such stands only those rays reach the spectroscope which have actually passed through the crown. In an open stand the light which reaches the spectroscope consists not only of the transmitted light which comes from above through the crown, but also of the full light which comes in from the sides or from beneath. In this case, no accurate results can be obtained, since the light which is actually measured is not the light which comes through the crown from above, but a mixture of the unabsorbed part of the light which passed through the crown with the light which entered from below and from the sides. A uniform close canopy, on the other hand, even when the branches are as high as 30 feet above the ground, permits of accurate investigations of the light transmitted through the crowns, since there is no other light within the forest. During the last two years I have made numerous investiga- tions with Steeg’s hand-spectroscope in order to determine the qualitative composition of the light beneath the tree crowns, and I found first that crowns like leaves possess a selective power, and second, that the absorptive capacity varies with the different species. A beech stand, for instance, absorbs different rays from an oak or a pine stand. Common to ail species is the absorption between B and C in the red portion of the spectrum—the de- gree of this absorption will be shown in the investigations of quantity—further in the blue portion, approximately at line F, and in the violet portion beyond H. Some species absorb rather vigorously all the rays from F to H, while others let most of the indigo rays go through unabsorbed. It is charac- teristic, and at the same time speaks for the correctness of the observation, that species recognized as light-needing, such as pine and larch, absorb almost the same rays, viz: in the red, blue, and violet sections, as is shown* in Figs. 3 and 4, while the shade-enduring spruce and beech, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6, besides red and some orange rays, absorb vigorously all the rays from blue to ultra violet. Ash and oak, for instance, oc- cupy the intermediate position between the two ‘extremes and *These figures appearing in the original were mt considered necessary in this reproduction. - Light Requirements of Forest Trees. 259 let through unabsorbed a fairly large number of rays in the indigo section. While the different species show a preference for certain rays of the spectrum, still the arrangement of the species in the order of their light requirements can best be made not in ac- cordance with the quality of the rays absorbed by them, but in accordance with the quantity of the rays absorbed by them. The investigations of the quality of light absorbed by trees show that trees possess a selective power of absorption. They prefer red, blue, violet and indigo rays, and further, the different species have different requirements upon light. The results obtained demand that in investigating the quantity of light absorbed, the different portions of the spectrum should always be taken into consideration. The question is no longer how much light in general a given species absorbs, but how many red, blue, green, etc., rays it absorbs. To investigate the quantity of the rays absorbed, there must come into use such instruments as would make it possible to measure the different portions of the spectrum. Such instruments are to be found in spectroscopic photometers. For financial reasons I was compelled to work with a simple and cheap appa- ratus, which served only for the purpose of verifying the suit- ability of the method, but not for obtaining final figures. For the purpose I used Wingen’s light measure constructed by H. Kruss? which has a revolving scale (Vergleichsflache), a benzine lamp of I meter-candle-power, a green-red prism, and a capacity of 10 to 500 meter-candles. In addition I had another prism prepared with orange, yellow, blue, indigo, and violet colored glasses. I wish at the outset to call attention to two objections to the apparatus. First, the capacity of 500 meter-candles is not sufficient; second, the glasses are not col- ored uniformly, with the exception of red. The first objection is easily overcome by using a light-measurer with greater range. As to the second, the preparation of uniformly colored glasses is as yet impossible. Neverthless, I present here some results of measurements. First of all, the measurements of the red rays, because on account of the uniformly colored glass they can claim greater accuracy. *This instrument may be obtained from A. Kruss, Hamburg. 16 260 Forestry Quarterly In the experiment made on July 21, 1906, at 9 a. m. (at Purkersdorf near Vienna) under a clear sky, the following fig- ures were obtained for the different species, for the red rays, which went through unabsorbed. Picea excelsa (young), 10 units, Fagus silvatica (young), 10 units. Larix europaea (young), 125 units. On August 8, 1906, at 6 p. m., under a rather clouded sky (at Mariabrunn near Vienna). Picea excelsa (young), about 2 units. Pinus silvestris (young), 12 units. Larix europaea (young), II units. Quercus pedunculata (young), 10 units. In the open there were about 220 units. The quantity of red rays in the flame of a benzine lamp of the apparatus was taken for a unit. Thus the degree of absorption of red rays is very different in different species. Tolerant species absorb them nearly Io times more than intolerant species. How do the different species behave in regard to the absorp- tion of the other rays of the spectrum? In giving measurements of the other rays of the spectrum I may say that they are not entirely free from errors, but are otherwise comparable. Measurements on April 22, 1907, at 10 o’clock, under a partly clouded sky: Species. Unabsorbed Rays. Red. Orange. Yellow. Green. Blue. Indigo. Violet Abies alba: sss. 75 100 200 250 300 500+ 100 Pinues silvestris, . 225 320 500 500+ 450— 500+-+ 300 Measurements on June 14, 1907, between 3 and 4 p. m., under a cloudy sky at Mariabrunn: Species. Unabsorbed Rays. Red. Orange. Yellow. Green. Blue. Indigo. Violet Picea excelsa, .... 2 7 I2 100 40 200 100 Pinus silvestris, .. 150 200 470 500+ 500+ 500++ 200 Larix europaea, .. 50 80 go 258 200° 500 100 Quercus pedunculata, 24 50 100.) 6100 3650S 250 50 The number of rays of the corresponding color in the flame of the benzine lamp of the apparatus were taken as a unit. These measurements show a different absorption for the given Cod Light Requirements of Forest Trees. 261 species, not only in the red portion of the spectrum, but also in the other parts. If the other measurements not mentioned here are taken into account, it will appear that spruce, fir and beech, absorb much in the red and the blue to violet portions of the spectrum, while pine, larch, and birch absorb less than the tolerant species in the red, blue, and violet portions. Pine, for instance, lets through to the shaded spruce beneath it very little red light, but much blue and indigo, which the spruce uses. The measurements of light under the canopy of a pine or larch stand, and also beneath an over-shaded spruce or fir undergrowth are of especial inter- est, because they show how the undergrowth absorbs the blue, indigo, and violet rays which were let through unabsorbed by the pines or the larches. The light is sifted once more by the undergrowth and used to the utmost, thus producing a spec- trum deficient in red, blue, indigo and violet rays. At present, I am not yet in a position to give final results in regard to the light requirements of the different tree species. On the contrary, I claim merely to have found the right method. In this opinion I am supported by actual investigation with the spectroscope as well as with the photometer. As far as I have found in literature, Borggreve’ has already suggested that light in going through the leaf canopy changes partly its spectrum. To what extent this change takes place and how most of the rays in the different portions of the spectrum are absorbed, can be shown by measurements which take into consideration the quality of the light or the kind of rays transmitted, and de- termine their quantity or intensity in the different portions of the spectrum. This can be accomplished in two ways: First, by the aid of a photometer, which would permit the light to be measured at an unlimited distance; for instance, by Weber’s photometer, and the use of homogeneously colored glasses. This method, although very simple, is not free from errors, on account of the impossibility of getting uniformly colored glasses. Sec- ond, by the aid of a spectroscopic photometer. This method is also not free from errors for the same reason, and requires somewhat more time, but should be preferred on account of the accuracy of the measurements as compared with the results ob- *Die Holzzucht, p. 128. 262 Forestry Quarterly tained by other methods. A spectroscopic photometer must be adapted for such measurements as do not present especial dif- ficulties. I hope in time to produce such an apparatus, as well as to contribute further results of the measurements. The investigations presented here show sufficiently the in- adequacy of the method, which attempts to measure the light requirements of trees by means of silver chloride paper. Since silver chloride paper is sensitive only to the chemical rays, this method tells absolutely nothing in regard to the absorption in the red portion of the spectrum—just the portion in which lies the maximum absorption. Further, since the different portions of the spectrum in its strongly refrangible part affect the silver chloride paper in different degrees, and since the different species absorb these rays in different degrees the measurements obtained by this method have no constant standard for compari- son. Simple, therefore, as this method with the silver chloride paper apparently is, according to the facts just given it is inade- quate for measuring light in the forest. DEDUCTIONS. Trees, like green leaves, exercise a selective absorption upon sunlight. The investigations of the light requirements of forest trees must take into account and measure the absorption in the differ- ent portions of the spectrum. The absorption is different in different species. Red rays are absorbed by all species, also blue and violet. In- digo and orange are absorbed chiefly by a few species like fir, spruce, beech. Red rays are absorbed in the greatest degree (maximum), green in the least (minimum), blue and violet are absorbed to a less degree than the red rays. Some species (spruce, fir, beech) also absorb strongly the blue, indigo, and violet rays. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN DETERMINING FOREST TYPES. RAPHAEL ZON. [This article is reprinted from Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, 1906, vol. I, No. 3, with the permission of the author. Its suggestive value made it desirable to render it accessible to a wider circle of readers. ] A problem most peculiar to our forest conditions, and prom- ising, if properly solved, most productive results, is the problem of forest types. Whoever has studied forest conditions has had to recognize forest types; but few of us have approached the subject in such a broad and truly scientific manner as did Pro- fessor Graves in his “Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks.’ Forest types, as I shall attempt to show, are the corner stone of silvics, and there can be no real progress in our silvical studies until the question of forest types is settled. I can hope to con- tribute only a few suggestions to this all-important problem. A forest is not a mere aggregation of trees, just as a human society is not a mere aggregation of human beings; it is a com- plex body—a tree society, governed by laws distinct from those governing individual trees. Since silvics has for its object the study of the laws of this tree society, its position among natural sciences can, therefore, be justly compared to the position of sociology among humanitarian sciences. In 1891 a book entitled “Ecological Geography of Plants,’ by a Dane, Professor Warm- ing, outlined for the first time the principles of a new field of botanical investigation which has since become known as ecology. The subject of the new botanical discipline is not individual plant forms, but plant groups or plant societies. It describes the existing plant societies, as far as they can be divided into distinct groups with well-defined features, and endeavors to find the reasons that caused them to group together and the factors that made them assume their characteristic features; in other words, just what silviculturists have been trying to learn for 1 Bulletin 26, Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1899. > 264 Forestry Quarterly over a century regarding tree societies—forests. Silvics, deal- ing with tree societies alone is, properly speaking, only a branch of the much broader discipline—ecology, which deals with plant societies in general. In the past, under the pressure of their practical needs, the foresters were the only ones who tried to learn the peculiarities of trees as social beings; now their efforts coincide with those of many other investigators of plant life, and promise, therefore, to become of a more general scientific charac- ter. Tree societies, or forests, just like human societies, present a great variety of forms. As soon as you enter a forest, you read- ily find that it is seldom uniform over a large area. Even the pure longleaf pine forest, typical for its tiresome monotony, proves upon closer examination not entirely uniform. A little attention and you will discover stands differing from each other in density, age of the trees, or character of growth; and you soon come to realize how difficult it is to find even in such a uni- form forest two areas similar in every respect. Now the first step in any silvical study or attempt at forest management is to reduce the great variety of stands to a small number of types, each having characteristic features of its own and requiring a distinct treatment. The nearer we come to establishing natural types of forest growth, the deeper we penetrate into the true relationship existing between these types and the factors that produce them, and this is the most important contribution to silvics. The division of a forest into natural types of growth, how- ever, is not such a simple thing as it may appear at the first glance. Stands differ from each other in many respects; they may be pure or mixed, even-aged or irregular, dense or open, of seedling or sprout origin, etc. Which of these features justify the subdivision of the forest into types of growth? and what must we call a natural forest type? In order to answer these questions, we must analyze the factors that produce the great variety of conditions of forest growth and determine which of these factors are fundamental and permanent and-which are only secondary and temporary. When we attempt to trace to some definite causes the differences between stands composing a large forest we finally come to two main ones: first, external physical Cad Determining Forest Types. 265 conditions, such as climate, soil, moisture in the ground, topography, exposure, etc.; and second, interference by man, and natural accidents, such as fire, wind, and so on. Interference by man and natural accidents to the forest are principally respons- ible for the secondary, less-important differences in stands, like density, mode of origin (sprouts or seedlings), age, though they frequently lead to even a temporary change in the composition of the forest. It does not take very long to realize that segre- gating stands into types based on density, age, or mode of origin can not be justified, since such features are not permanent and can not be characteristic of any definite forest type.. Stands may differ radically from one another in character of growth and nevertheless have the same density or the same age, and vice versa; stands of different ages and density may at the same time exhibit the same character of growth. This is so evident that none of us has ever attempted to base the making of forest types on the age, density, or mode of origin of the stands. Another thing is the composition of the stands. As a matter of fact, most of our forest types are based on the prevalence of one or another species in the composition. Is composition a safe guide in es- tablishing forest types? We know, for instance, that after white pine or spruce forests are cut over and burned by fire, aspen, birch, cherry, and other hardwoods take their place. This occu- pation of the ground, however, is only temporary; eventually white pine and spruce reappear beneath the hardwoods and crowd them out, thus restoring the original type of growth. Such examples are very numerous. ‘Throughout the Catskills the original forest contained hemlock in large quantities, as can be learned from the history of the past lumbering in that section ‘and the large hemlock trunks and rotten stumps still in great evidence throughout the forest. Now the main growth is mostly hardwoods of poor development, beneath which a most luxuriant and persistent. young growth of hemlock can often be noticed coming up. Many slopes in the White Mountains, where fine spruce forests grew originally, are now covered with northern hardwoods. Shall we class the aspen and white birch coming up after white pine, or the hardwoods coming up after hem- lock and spruce, as natural forest types, when we know that they are only transitory in character, and that eventually, if nature is 266 Forestry Quarterly. left to herself, the original mother type will be restored on those situations, because the physical conditions favor it? A forester who mistakes such temporary forest growth for the original natural types, thus failing to understand the natural evolution of the forest, will always have nature against him in all his opera- tions, instead of being aided by her. He will open up the forest with the intention of getting reproduction of the standing hard- woods, and to his surprise he may find spruce or hemlock in- stead. His tables of future yield, prepared on the basis of pres- ent composition, will be an especial disappointment to him, be- cause with each new cutting the percentage of the temporary species will steadily decrease, being crowded out by the incom- ing original species much better suited to the situation, which were not taken into consideration at the time the tables of future yield were prepared. But leaving out such temporary changes in the composition of the forest which are traceable to the influence of man or fires, the prevalence of one or another species in the composition can not be relied upon for making natural forest types even in a vir- gin forest untouched by man. Who, for instance, would even for a moment, throw together in one type Adirondack spruce growing in the swamps, with spruce on the slopes though its percentage in both situations may be identically the same? The growth of the individual trees, and the development of the whole stand in two situations, is as radically different as if we had two entirely different species. The influence of man, wind, or fire may bring about a change in the density and other secondary features, and in extreme cases, even a temporary change in the composition of the forest; but if the fundamental physical con- ditions of growth remain unchanged thereby, the forest will in time return to its original type, conditioned by the external physical factors, just as a stretched string set to vibrating by a stroke of the finger returns sooner or later to its original po- sition, determined by the points at which its ends are fixed. The changes which are brought about in a forest by the interference of man or by accidents can not, therefore, serve as a basis for the establishment of fundamental forest types. However, since these changes must be reckoned with, often being of such a char- acter as to necessitate a special silvicultural treatment, we may _ - Determining Forest Types. 267 call them temporary, transitory, or derivative types, in distinction trom the fundamental forest types, which are the result of natural factors only. The physical conditions of the situation then are the main fac- tors which determine the whole character of a forest type. Of these physical factors, climate has undoubtedly a marked infiu- ence upon plant life, if we compare vegetation of different lati- tudes. Within the same climatic zone, however, many plants, and especially forest trees, are but little sensitive to small varia- tions in climate, and, all other conditions being equal, develop normally within the boundaries of the larger ranges of their horizontal geographical distribution. It is evident, therefore, that in even a large forest, covering a level or only hilly country, the difference in character of growth can not be ascribed to the direct influence of climate. Soil, moisture in the ground, and topography, to which in mountain countries must be added alti- tude and exposure, are the main factors which determine the character of forest growths in a forest region, and, therefore, must be accepted as the basis for the division of the forest into natural types of growth. A natural forest type then is an aggre- gation of stands which may differ from each other in age, density, and other secondary features, but have the same physical conditions of situation, soil, topography, exposure, etc. In a virgin forest the least variation in the physical conditions of a situation is followed by a change in the character of the forest growth, which is a mere function or expression of those physical conditions. The relationship between the physical conditions of the situation and the character of growth upon it is so con- stant and characteristic that by the given physical conditions of a situation, like soil, topography, and so on, one can describe the general character of its forest, the predominant species, habit of trees, reproduction, undergrowth, and vice versa, by a given type of forest, one can describe the physical conditions of growth, soil, situation, etc. If the subdivision of a forest into types of growth must be based not so much on the features of the stands as on the simi- larity in the external physical conditions of their situation, the first step in establishing forest types in any region is to divide the forest area according to its salient topographical features, Y 268 Forestry Quarterly like river bottoms, slopes, and ridges, and then to further sub- divide it within a uniform topography according to soil, moisture in the ground, exposure, etc. In this classification the differ- ences in the character of forest growth must always be consid- ered, since only by going back and forth from the physical con- ditions of situation to the character of forest growth can the relationship between the two be determined. But it must not be forgotten that the forest growth may sometimes be only tem- porary, and, therefore, does not represent the kind of forest which, being particularly suited to the situation, would normally grow upon it. The importance of being able to distinguish be- tween a temporary and a fundamental type has already been pointed out; the means for distinguishing them are to be found in the physical conditions. If we discover stands widely differ- ing from each other in composition, though the physical condi- tions of their growth are seemingly the same, we may reasonably suspect that not all of them are the original forest growth. By learning the past history of each particular stand, or by com- paring it with unquestionably virgin stands under similar physi- cal conditions, there should be no difficulty in deciding which is the original forest type and which is the temporary one, pro- vided we did not overlook some actual differences in the physical conditions of their situation. Having accepted physical conditions of situation as the basis for dividing a forest into types, we must still find some criterion to guide us in deciding what differences in the physical condi- tions justify the establishment of two different types. Such a criterion is given in the reproduction of the forest. Only such differences in the physical conditions as are followed by differ- ences in reproduction justify the seggregation of stands into separate types. Of all the vital functions of the forest, reproduc- tion is the one in which the forester is most interested; the manner in which the forest reproduces itself, or can be repro- duced, is dictated by the very nature of the forest. We would undoubtedly fail utterly if we attempted, for instance, to force reproduction under the shelter of mother trees upon the longleaf pine forest, since the young longleaf pine seedlings demand di- rect sunlight for their development. One may travel miles and miles through the mature longleaf pine forests of Texas without ad a Determining Forest Types. 269 finding a single young, thrifty tree under the shade of the old longleaf pines, and come upon many of them in every opening. In the loblolly pine forest that has succeeded in establishing itself on the dry uplands, the young seedlings that appear in abundance almost every year in the fall and eariy spring all die during the summer from lack of moisture in the ground, while in the loblolly pine forest on the lower situations, where the water level is near the surface, there is always a good reproduc- tion. It stands to reason that the same method of reproduction can not be applied to both situations. The fact that loblolly pine on the dry uplands is capable of establishing itself on old fields, the soil of which has been made more retentive of moisture by cultivation, hints at the only method by which loblolly pine on such situations can be reproduced with reasonable certainty. I could bring many instances of this kind to show how differ- ences in the physical conditions of growth affect the method of natural reproduction of the forest. To secure reproduction of the forest is the most important silvicultural operation of the forester, and since forest types are silvicultural units, requiring distinct silvicultural treatment, the differences in the method of reproduction caused by a variation in the physical conditions is the most natural criterion for differentiating a forest into types. Moreover, every change in the physical conditions that will ne- cessitate another method of reproduction will at the same time affect the growth of the trees and all other features of the stand. A forest type is the result of a long struggle for existence be- tween different species, in which only those possessing the greatest vitality and a fitness for the physical conditions of situ- ‘ation succeed, in occupying the ground and forming tree asso- ciations having a distinct physiognomy. One of the most import- ant characteristics of a forest type is its stability, its resistance to invasion by other plant forms. The closer the composition of the forest is in accord with the physical conditions of the situa- tion, the more resistant it is to dangers of all kinds, insects, snow, etc., the easier is its treatment, the greater results can be ob- tained from the application of one or another method of thinning, and the more certain is its reproduction. European foresters were at one time carried away with the idea of a pure forest, and later with the idea of a mixed forest, as a panacea for all dangers 270 Foresiry Quarterly to the forest and a guarantee of the success of all cultural opera- tions. We now know that only a forest growth which is per- fectly suited to the physical conditions of the situation proves resistant to all natural dangers that may threaten it, no matter whether it is pure or mixed. A forest type possessing the most valuable quality—stability—is, therefore, the ideal to which a forester must strive in regenerating and caring for his forest. In reproducing the cut-over forest, the forester must endeavor to obtain in the shortest possible time the original forest type; and since in the majority of our forests, as a result of cuttings made without regard to the silvical requirements of the species, the original type is mostly supplanted by a temporary growth, the principal aim in caring for cut-over areas is to restore the original forest type. After having established the relationship between a forest type and the physical conditions of situation, and having the picture of the forest type clearly in our mind, we can only bring back the original growth in places which have been deprived of forests for many years; in other words, we may have within a forest region types of situation which, if they were under timber, would bear a definite type of forest growth. Such types of situation become exceedingly helpful in reforest- ing waste or cut-over land. Knowing the type of forest growth which can be best supported by each type of situation within the forest region, there can be but little difficulty in deciding what species to plant on each type of situation. The study of the habits of our forest trees must be confined to definite forest types; we have no right to speak about the silvical features of spruce, white oak, or any other species in general, but only as members of definite forest types. The sil- vical features of spruce, white oak, or any other species in one forest type differ essentially from the same in another type. Often the difference between the individual trees of the same species growing in different forest types is actually greater than between two distinct species, as for instance in the case of spruce growing on the slopes and in the swamps of the Northern For- est. Loblolly and longleaf pines growing on old fields have more in common as regards their life history, character, and rapidity of growth, light requirements, reproductive maturity, 7 Determining Forest Types. 271 etc., than loblolly pine on old fields and loblolly pine on the poorly-drained soils of the lowlands. The deficiency, and often even the contradictory character, of a great many of our silvical facts is due mainly to this disregard for the true forest types in which the observations were made, and the arbitrary character of the subdivisions which were called forest types. The study of the life habits of our forest trees, and the establishment of forest types must, therefore, go on hand in hand. Yield and volume tables should be made sepa- rately for each forest type. Forest types should be laid in the foundation of all experimental forestry work; experiments with the application of one or another method of thinnings, for in- stance, must be made in the same forest type if the results are to be compared and true deductions made. In order to place our silviculture on a safe basis, each forest region should be divided into permanent natural forest types, or types of situation with forest growth corresponding to them, just as many sections of the country are already classified according to soil types mapped by the Bureau of Soils. These forest types, or types of situation, would then become the basis of all our practical forestry work just as the soil types are the basis for agricultural practice. The laws of development and growth when once established for a forest type will hold good for the same forest type everywhere, and thus give to silvical deductions the character of scientific truths of a wide application. CURRENT LITERATURE. HEnry S. GravEs, in Charge. Sur l'accumulation et la consommation de ’humidité dans le sol des bassins des fleuves de plaines. Par. E. Oppokov. XI me Congrés. St. Petersburg, 1908. 24 pp. Although newspapers, propagandists and foresters talk glibly about the influence of forests on climate and waterflow, and, although for nearly half a century the question has been under investigation, we are still again and again made doubtful of our position by newer observations. This is partly due to the pro- pensity of generalizing on results which are only of value or meaning with regard to the special local conditions under which they were observed. The mischief which is done by this loose and irresponsible generalizing is incalculable, for it acts like a two-edged sword cutting from under us arguments in favor as well as disfavor of our theories. As the author remarks, “to have a just measure of the hydrographic influence of forests, it is indispensible that we know the local conditions of climate.” As a result of his systematic observations for 30 years of the river flow of the Dnieper above Kiew, Oppokof, a Russian hydraulic engineer, points out that the relation of rainfall, river- flow and evaporation is not sufficient to explain water conditions, but that the temperature and humidity of the season, humid or drouthy years, introduce a fourth serious factor, namely, greater or less dessication of the soil during drouth years which must be made up during humid years, as a consequence the flow in humid years is not what it might be expected; in fact the yearly variations are not direct results of the yearly precipitation and evaporation, and this adds to the difficulties in establishing the relation of forests to the final result. By his logic the author is compelled to believe that in years of drouth, at least under the conditions of climate of the upper Dnieper, which lies in the forest region of Russia, only in its southern extension in the region of the steppe, the role of vegetation, especially of forests, with regard to the riverflow is - Cad Current Literature, 273 the opposite of beneficial, and he cites other authors furnishing proof of a similar position in other regions. While in years of drouth the forest influence is altogether hurtful to the riverflow, in normal years it is quite insignificant, although in very humid years it may be useful by storing water. In the southern zone this influence is mostly negative, while in the northern zone it is positive. The author also discusses the value of swamps and marshes which he considers of much greater importance with regard to the regime of rivers. He accepts the findings of Otozky (briefed in vol. V, p. 203) with good reasoning to the effect that marshes reduce the riverflow by storing up water for evaporation rather than for drainage. Here the old sponge theory is brought home with a vengeance. “These marshes resemble a sponge, fully soaked with water and exposed to the sun in a kind of saucer: they present certainly a water reservoir. This reservoir can serve to feed rivers, but will serve more especially evaporation, quite like a sponge, which quickly dries under the influence of the sun without leaving a drop in the saucer.” We give in full the author’s conclusions, which, as will appear, are inimical to the theory of salutary forest influence. We are perfectly willing to accept his reasoning, believing with the author that the material value of the forest and its soil conserving ca- pacity are sufficient argument for its propagation. 1. During years of drouth, which are often two in succession, a considerable consumption of stored humidity from the soil to satisfy evaporation takes place. This outgo is made up by the precipitations of the following year. .2. This consumption and the restitution of the water reserves of the soil which follows attain, in amount, about the annual av- erage of the riverflow (135 mm). 3. The actual amount of evaporation of a river basin is often greater in drouthy years than the difference between rainfall and riverflow. It exceeds this difference at the expense of the stored soil humidity. On the other hand the amount evaporated in humid years which follow drouthy ones is far from attaining the difference between rainfall and runoff and that by the amount of the storing and restitution of reserves in the soil and sub- terranean reservoirs, robbed during the years of drouth. 274 Forestry Quarterly 4. The riverflow in years of drouth is relatively considerable if compared with the feeble flow (relatively to the rainfall) which takes place in the years following the drouthy ones. 5. Forests and marshes by directly abstracting moisture from the soil and subterranean reservoirs nearest the surface (i. e. accessible to roots) of the catchment basin can be considered the most important agents of evaporation in nature, and their influence on summer flow is absolutely negative in the basin examined during years of drouth. This influence is still active on the river flow during the years following the drouthy ones. 6. The hydrologic influence of forests properly speaking must be different according to their geographical position and to the climatic conditions in general and the meteorological conditions of the given year in particular. It seems, that one might esti- mate the influence of forests on the river flow in the given basin and in the zone of Central Russia in general about nil, under average meteorological conditions; this influence is almost always negative in the south and becomes in the central zone also negative in years of drouth. But, it is possible that it may be rather positive in the northern regions and may become so in the central regions in rainy years, if forests are really capable of accumulating more moisture in periods of feeble evaporation than they consume in the periods of vegetation. 7. The role of the marshes in the feeding of rivers in the basin examined is also negative in years of drouth, probably in- significant in average years and also far from useful if the rainy years were observed. The canalization and drainage of the marshes, artificially laid dry, diminishes the useless loss of moisture by evaporation and contributes to the increase of the river flow in summer at the expense of reduced evaporation. 8. It must be admitted that the most important factors in the question of river feeding by ground waters in marshy basins are by no means the marshes but the sandy territories ; these latter are perfect intermediaries for feeding the ground waters and not only the rivers but the marshes themselves, which have need of it in years of drouth. | 9. The part which forests, marshes and other kinds of vege- table soil cover play consists mainly in evaporating the water - Cd Current Literature. 275 of the basin and thereby indirectly influencing the continental atmospheric precipitations. 10. The existence of the above described consumption and its opposite process of storage of waters which attain a consider- able magnitude in the upper Dnieper basin, can serve as a direct proof of the negative influence of forests and marshes on the summer flow of rivers in years of drouth; it would then be desirable to have a number of data of precipitation and river flow of other rivers of the plain in order to compare and verify the results from the upper Dnieper. We fear, it will be many years before a really comprehensive investigation which takes into account all the factors that have a part in this complicated question, will be inaugurated anywhere. Meanwhile, we must rely upon philosophy more than actual systematically gathered data. Bo Be Production of Lumber, Lath and Shingles. 1907. Depart- ment of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of the Census, Washing- ton, D. C., 1908, II pp. At last the Census Bureau has succeeded in finding the amount of lumber cut in a year which the reviewer some years ago ventured to suggest as the annual average cut of the United States for a period of years. The reviewer refers to this esti- mate of his, based upon the tolerably well known mill capacity at the time, in order to accentuate the point that such statistics, even of the Census Bureau, must never be used as mathemati- cally accurate data. They invariably, even the populational statistics, are only approximations, and, if not manipulated, re- maining below the truth. It would, therefore, be quite beside the mark to compare last year’s reported cut of 4o billion feet, with that reported for 1900 as 35 billion feet and proclaim the lumber cut to have increased by 14 per cent., for the likelihood is that the figure of 1900 is even more below the truth than that for 1907. Yet, finding that the number of mills reporting in 1900 was nearly 32,000, that in 1907 nearly 29,000, we may consider that 17 276 Forestry Quarterly the above figured increase of 14 per cent. is perhaps not far away from the truth. Comparing with the count of 1906, an increase of nearly 6,500 mills would be indicated for 1907; this increase, which may not be considered altogether a real but largely a statistical one, is contributed to by every State, the only decreases being reported from New York, which reports 303 mills less, a reduc- tion of over 12 per cent., and: from New Hampshire, with a reduction of 8 mills. Rounding off the figures of the last year we find that the total cut by districts is distributed about as follows: PNOTMMEAStETH ‘SSEAEES, ccc cece ces cs oee 5.5 billion feet, or 14 per cent. Mentitern) States) i.) cules ales bo eto 6.5 re Mik SG, a Tt a POuhern, States, oo: ic iomdeekiber o 5.20., marie SA as WY RStCEE NOLARER Ses pg dale: dotnet eis 8 rs yvRe Mae 0 OK? If we compare this with the likely consumption of each region based upon relative population, we find that the northern and northeastern States, with over 50 per cent. of the population and certainly much more than 50 per cent. of industrial develop- ment, can provide only 30 per cent. of the total consumption. And, if a canvass were made in that direction, we would find undoubtedly that actually 50 per cent. or more of the lumber used in that section is imported from West and South, the latter section furnishing the bulk. White Pine still participates to the extent of over 10 per cent. in this cut, with Minnesota furnishing nearly 40 percent. Douglas Fir furnishes a slightly larger proportion with nearly 5 billion feet and Hemlock, which forms now the principal cut of Michigan, represents nearly 7 per cent. The bulk of the conifer consumption, which totals just about three quarters of the whole is supplied by the Southern pines, the cut of which exceeds 13 billion feet. The absence of a canvass of pulpwood consumption makes the spruce cut appear rather small with 1.7 billion feet. With exception of the oaks which with 3.7 billion feet comes next to White Pine in importance in the cut, all hardwoods remain below the billion mark. B. 8. ¥- Current Literature. 277 Statistische Mitteilungen iiber die Ertrage deutscher Waldun- gen im Wirtschaftsjahre, 1906. By Dr. Schwappach. Mitteil- ungen des Deutschen Forst vereins. No. 3. June 15, 1908. Through the efforts of Dr. Schwappach in compiling most laboriously, on 77 duo pages, from year to year, since 1900, the data of German forest administrations, it has become easy to follow the gradual development of the results of German forestry practice through a century. These statistics cover not only the State administrations and most of the communal forests, but increasing portions of the private forest areas, so that the present number for the year 1906 covers 52.5 per cent. of the entire German forest area or near 18 million acres. Of the private forests so far hardly ro per cent., representing in all 1,600,000 acres, have been found willing to report; corporation forests are represented with 3,700,000 acres, and State and royal forests with around 12 million acres. The information is laid down in three tables, one devoted to an analysis of the material results, another to the financial results, and a third, short one, giving in brief both material and financial data for the 16 State forest administrations of over 25,- ooo acres each. In the first table there are given the area, divided into wood land and not woodland; the felling results, subdivided into grades, total and per acre (hectar); and also subdivided by species, the workwood per cent. The second table states, in totals and per acre (hectar), gross incomes; expenditures sub- divided, and balances; also a subdivision of the results from wood sales alone for different kinds and per unit (festmeter). Among the larger States we find now Wurtemberg a record breaker as yielding a net result of $6 per acre, while Baden fol- lows with $5.18, and Saxony with $4.96; Prussia and Bavaria, the two largest, Showing only $2.42 and $2.46 respectively. Of communal forests which manage to secure fair returns we note several as exceeding the $6 mark, especially in Bavaria, where one (Kreuzberg) of nearly 100,000 acres is able to work out $8.12 per acre. The largest on record, Gorlitz in Silesia, a city owning over 70,000 acres, secures only $2.53. There are quite a number which earn below $2 and even below $1.00. 278 Forestry Quarterly. Among private owners reporting, there are a number with acreage over 75,000, and excellent returns; the prince of Fursten- berg Donaueschingen making the best showing with $6.87 per acre. By far the best results are, however, reported from the peculiar association forest composed of 25 groups of owners of the Murgschifferschaft in Baden, managed by the State adminis- tration, a part owner to the extent of 50 per cent., which on 12,000 acres of excellent conifer forest clears an income of $11.16 per acre, permitting a workwood per cent. of 83. Looking through the column of cut per acre, we find variations of from 15 cubic feet to 157 (in Suabia), and workwood per cents, of only 4 to 96 in a district of Westphalia, showing that forest conditions are by no means everywhere what they ought to be. The most even results seem to be had in the State forests of the Kingdom of Saxony, the planted spruce forest being pre- valent. The variation from district to district for the eleven districts lies between the figures of 66 and 120 for the cut per acre, and between 76 and gi for the wood work per cent. For Prussia (33 districts) these figures are 38 and 96 cubic feet, and 29 to 81 per cent. How very variable the results can be, even under more or less uniform management, is strikingly exhibited by the data for the single counties (33) of Prussia. Such dif- ferences are not always explained by situation to market or by wood prices, but a combination of favorable forest condition and favorable position seems to produce them. The best results, to be sure, are secured in the highly indus- trial province of Saxony with a net revenue of $5, $4.18, $3.80 for the three counties, but the lowest with only 81 cents is recorded for the not less industrial county of the Rhenish pro- vince, Coblentz, less than the far eastern district of Koenigsberg with 95 cents. On the other hand the far eastern inland province of Silesia in the county of Breslau with its magnificent mixed forest of oak, spruce and pine, which permit a workwood per cent. of over 69 per cent., shows the largest cut per acre (96 cubic feet) and produces a result of $4.49; and several other eastern districts produce over $3.00, while many western ones remain below $2.00 per acre. A closer study of this array of statistics in connection with a knowledge of the forest conditions of each district would fur- - rd Current Literature. 279 nish considerable food for thought regarding our own future and expectations. Bp ho}: Die Pflanzen zucht im Walde. Dr. Herman von Fiirst. Fourth Edition. Berlin, 1907. The fourth edition of this standard work on nursery practice has been brought up to date and considerably enlarged, and forms undoubtedly the best reference book on this subject in existence. Especially the chapters on manuring, on seed supply, and on growing of conifers have been considerably revised. In the last mentioned he cites the satisfactory experiences in the large nur- series of Halstenbek with broadcast sowing of spruce. Cieslar in reviewing this proposition warns against this practice in compact soils where cultivation during the season is a necessity and pro- vision against heaving may be needed, which is better done in rills. A number of new nursery tools are described, especially some transplanting devices. For transplanting the spring season is recommended, but fall planting is not excluded, while accord- ing to Cieslar at least for spruce, fall transplants were found unquestionably poorer than those set in spring. Sammlung von Abhandlungen iiber Abgase und Rauchschaden. By Dr. H. Wislicenus. Berlin, 1908. 300 pp. Mk. 4. This interesting contribution to the question of damage by obnoxious gases from the pen of an expert discusses the char- acter of the damage, the principles of proper legislation, the protective measure, and, in an article by Schroter, the experiences in Saxony and the influence of the gas nuisance upon the forestry of that industrially highly developed State. Herbarium: Organ zur Forderung des Austausches wissen- schaftlicher Exsicatensammlungen. By Theodor Oswald Weigel. Leipzig, 1908. This new enterprise which is to expedite the exchange of botanical specimens and thereby advance systematic botany, is launched by the well known firm of second hand book dealers. It consists in publishing from time to time—three numbers have 280 Forestry Quarterly, so far been issued—hbotanical collections for sale or exchange, offered or desired. We note, that of the North American flora the following desiderata are mentioned: Collections of Auduosaea, especially from Arizona, of Primula, of Taxodium distichum. In offering such collections it is desirable to furnish a very exact description of the collection in order to reduce correspondence. Prices vary naturally much, but lie apparently between 15 and 50 Mark per hundred. OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. A Primer of Wood-Preservation. By W. F. Sherfesee. Cir- cular No. 139, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 15. Tests of Vehicle and Implement Woods. By H. B. Holroyd and H. S. Betts. Circular No. 142, U. S. Forest Service, Wash- ington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 29. Experiments with Railway Crossties. By H. B. Eastman. Circular No. 146, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 22. Progress in Chestnut Pole Preservation. By H. F. Weiss. Circular No. 147, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 14. Condition of Cut-over Longleaf Pine Lands in Mississippi. By J. S. Holmes and J. H. Foster. Circular No. 149, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 8. Grazing Trespass by Drifting Stock. Leaflet of the U. S. For- est Service, Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 6. Extent and Importance of the White Pine Blight. By S. T. Dana. U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 4. Other Current Literature. 281 The Evergreen Trees of Colorado. By B. B. Longyear. Bul- letin No. 130, Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo., 1908. Pp. 32. Injury to Vegetation and Animal Life by Smelter Fumes. By J. K. Haywood. Bulletin No. 113, Bureau of Chemistry, U. 5. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 40. The Treatment of Damping off in Contferous Seedlings. By P. Spaulding. Circular No. 4, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 8. North American Trees. N.\,. Britton. New York, 1908. Pp. 894. Trees of Great Britain and Ireland. By H. J. Elwes and S. Henny. Vol. 3. Edinburg, 1908. Pp. 261. Immunity of the Japanese Chestnut to the Bark Disease. By H. Metcalf. Bulletin No. 121 (Part 6), Bureau of Plant Indus- try, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 4. The Analysis and Grading of Creosotes. By A. L. Dean and’ E. Bateman. Circular No. 112, U. S. Forest Service, Washing- ton; D. C., 1988: Pp: 44 The Gypsy. and Brown Tail Moths in New Hampshire. By E. D. Sanderson. Bulletin No. 136, N. H. Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Durham, N. H., 1908. Pp. 60. Evergreens, Their Uses and Culture. By M. J. Green and W. E. Bontrager. Bulletin No. 190, Ohio Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Wooster, Ohio, 1908. Pp. 26. ’ The Indian Forest Records. Vol. I, Part II. A Preliminary Note on the Development of the Sal in Volume and in Money- Value. By. S. M F. Caccia. Calcutta, 1908. A Four-fold Word for Trees. By Carl Bannwart. Newark Shade Tree Commission, 1g08. Pp. 16. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. B. E. FerNow, in Charge , FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. There is sufficient knowledge of the be- A havior and value of European Larch in the Historic Northeastern United States in existence, to Larch make the employment of that remarkable Forest. producer, under proper conditions, desira- able, and any information regarding its per- formance in the long run of interest. In 1738 the German Vockel, who had been called to Russia to institute a forestry system, established near the Gulf of Finland a plantation of Siberian Larch, by sowing broadcast and in rills about 5 acres, which was increased by planting with plants from these sowings until now nearly 50 acres, varying from 105 to 170 years in age are in existence. This forest, often described, was in 1903 carefully investigated by Prof. Orlow, of the Petersburg Forest Institute. It is lo- cated in a river valley on mostly sandy loam to a depth of 3 or more feet deep to compact loam. Spruce and pine under- growth, especially the former, established itself from the neigh- boring mixed stands, and a soil cover of berries. The following table shows the conditions as determined by sample areas, the first area being that seeded by Vockel. % Diameter. Height. Crown Height. eRe elle rhs er Ae WSR, Oia Oe 0) ss a ee Drea teak) gage ae 2s s EY ee Dice fhe! eee S x on & S LS Sa She = gett RS ee EM a Ras han eM ear 7 Hn SN i a nas al et RS I, . 4:6 4164 IO. 68 31 8 14 128 7I 114 97 52 7I 9,767 pe 6 2 a 6 30 4 I 133 62 114 90 42 78 7,865 B07) 1) 1g8 1 ago USGI ey Ee 128 52 120 94 39 78 8,404 4, 45 100 149 8 24 4 14 = a2 G7: i oe 3 = os I rz ’ Be tae Ba eB oi Weer aha The block can be divided into 5 site classes, when it is found Periodical Literature. 283 that the depth of soil is an essential factor influencing growth, which appears in the following relation: Depth sof loose soil,m?' over ti5 05:4 1235 °F, ee," .85 °° .64 Begin of retarded increment, age: £20), | TOO!) (00)\9 G0" 7018 560" 60. An analysis of model trees most carefully made serves as basis of elaborate growth tables and curves. According to these the average dominant tree reaches a 12 inch diameter in 90 years with a height of 104 feet on site class I, in 100 years with 98 feet on class II, and in 120 years with 98 feet on class III. Compared with pine and spruce on similar sites the diameter increment of larch up to the 60 year exceeds that of the pine considerably, but after the 80 year the pine has overcome part of the difference; pine on site I performing about like larch on site II, etc. In height the larch has such an energetic rate that up to the 110 year on class IV it compares to pine on site class I, Spruce, however, although for the first 110 years behind the larch, by the 120 year has caught up with it. The volume production of normal stands constructed by inter- polation from the measured sample areas is in comparison with other northern forests enormous, the poorest site class producing in 160 years nearly as much as the best of pine in 140 years. Only the spruce and fir production on best sites in southwestern Europe can be compared with it, with over 15,000 cubic feet on sites I and II, and 9,000 and 12,000 on IV and III. Ein historischer Larchenwald. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, May, 1908, pp. 194-199. In this connection we may refer to a French thoughtful account by Mathey of a visit Larch to the Alpine home of the larch in Southern Forests. France near Briancon. As pointed out in . an article by Cieslar, briefed in Vol. II, p. 175, there are five distinct and separate natural fields of distri- bution of this species, including the Siberian variety. The mari- time Alps are its main habitat; it is, however, entirely absent from the northern calcareous mountains. In the Briancon Alps it ascends to over 8,000 feet, while in the Engadin its upper limit lies about 1,000 feet lower and in the Carpathians it hardly 284 Forestry Quarterly. goes over 5,000 feet. On North and East slopes it descends far into the valleys, but on the drier south slopes hardly below 3,000 feet, and here in competition with the Scotch Pine and the Mountain Pine, it segregates to the fresher situations. It is then really a mountain species, needing, however, deep, fertile, fresh, even wet, soils. Nevertheless, it is accomodating in an astonishing degree, like that other mountain species, the Spruce, but on the dry cal- careous soils, where it has been planted it does poorly. The stout deep taproot accounts for its preference of deep or deeply fissured soils. Whether the sabre-like form of the base of the trunk, which the author believes to be more frequent in planta- tions than in its natural habitat, has a relation to soil depth, is’ suggested. It is also suggested that its principal enemy, Pesiza Willkommu, is mainly a development of artificial propagation. As to production and management reference is made to a commercial forest of 650 acres, managed for the last 50 years, or so (excepting some 100 acres of protective area) under natural regeneration in a selection and thinning system and a volume budget under a rotation of 200 years (!). From 1856 to 1885, the regeneration fellings yielded at the rate of 1,170 cubic feet, the thinnings 1,716 cubic feet; from 1886 to 1906 the cut was increased to 1,700 cubic feet for regenera- tion fellings, and thinnings decreased to 1,590 cubic feet. The pasture of 180 cows forms also an income of the forest, probably not to its advantage. The character of the soil floor under this treatment is discussed. After the necessary laudatory remarks on the management the author ventures to criticize—in parenthesis, criticism is easy, art is difficult. The openings are made too slow, and as a consequence much of the young crop goes to pieces, drying up. “For regeneration one good sized tree well placed is worth more than a dozen small crowned poles.” The time lost in this method is well shown by the appearance in the openings of a vigorous undergrowth of Cerinthe minor, which prevents the seeding of the larch; and it takes about 7 years before this thicket opens so as to permit the larch to establish itself. The growth in these Alpine, pastured woods. is exceedingly small, 110 to 120 years to make a 12 inch tree, hence the long ae Periodical Literature. 285 rotation. Question whether it is worth while to grow large trees in a 200 year rotation, or telegraph poles in less than half the time! Au pays du méléze. Revue des eaux at foréts. No. 9, 1908, pp. 257-271. That there are in Europe still some old, if Forests not virgin, woods left is exemplified by the of the celebrated oak forests of the Spessart Spessart. mountains near Aschaffenburg, where the secondary Bavarian forest school is situ- ated, which are described by Huffel. The soil is a rather poor sand but of considerable depth, cover- ing a hill country with elevations up to 2,000 feet. The forest area, one-half in the possession of the State, comprises about 300 square miles. The northern part has long been in poor con- dition as a result of abusive exploitation by glassworks and potash manufacturers, but is now planted up to pine and spruce. The magnificent oak forests are found in the southern and eentral high mountains. There are 125,000 acres of forest in a solid block with only two small settlements in it, 52,000 belonging to the State, the balance to corporations and private owners. There are two distinct oak types. The one consists of old oaks, 400 to 500 years old, isolated in company with a few old beech and an undergrowth of beech, shrubs and herbage. Seventy years ago there were still some 8,000 acres of this type which are now reduced to somewhat over 1,650 acres, with a stand of over 9 million cubic feet. The other type, which covers a larger area, namely over 2,100 acres, is a simple homogeneous timber forest, pretty uniformly of about 260 years of age, with a planted understory of beech, a stand of 5,000 to 7,000 feet per acre, of long straight, clear boles. Younger stands of 100 to 200 years cover only 800 acres, and below 100 years 7,500 acres, the annual cut based on the increment being 670,000 cubic feet. It is calculated that in another 45 years the last old oaks will be gone, unless the advocates of financial management prevail and hasten their removal. In the last forty years the price of oak has quadrupled, being now for 27 inch and over (middle diameter) material $1.07 per cubic foot and for 16 to 19 inch material 45 cents. This price increase and the growth, it is 286 Forestry Quarterly. figured, represent 4 to 44 per cent. for the last 40 years, so that Pressler, who in 1869 visited the region and inveighed against the lack of financial consideration in leaving the old stock, has been proved wrong; and the price is still advancing for this extra fine wood, of which one tree has been sold for around $740. The total cut in 1907 of 332 trees brought 38,800 cubic feet logs averaging 93 cents, 681 ster billets at $6.30, and 1,231 ster fuelwood, averaging for the workwood alone over $120 per tree. Les chénes du Spessart. Revues des eaux et foréts. No. 5, 1908, pp. 129-132. An extensive article on conditions and Forestry progress of forestry on Algeria by A. m Mathey, has been running through several Algeria. numbers of the Revue. We cannot give space to brief it, but recommend its per- usal for its suggestiveness to those who have to deal with prob- lems of reforestation in the southwestern arid regions. L’ Algérie forestiére et pastorale. Revue des eaux at foréts. Nos. 11, 12, 1907, and Nos. 1, 2, 1908. A readable article, based on personal in- Black spection, by J. F. Armand, a forestry stu- Forest dent, gives an insight into some of the Management. conditions and methods of management, illustrated by some good pictures, practised in the celebrated mountain range, the Black Forest of Baden, more especially those under the direction of Oberforster, Karl Philipp. The fact that the description is in English may give it special value to our readers. Impressions of forestry in the Schwarzwald. Transactions, Royal Scot- tish Arboricultural Society, vol. XXI, part II, July, 1908. ‘ Periodical Literature. 287 BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. A Russian, Kurdiani, points out that the Races coloration of the seeds of the Scotch Pine of may furnish a characteristic distinction of Scotch different races. Some 200 trees in three Pine. forest districts near Nowo-Alexandria were examined, and numbered for future obser- vations. It was found that the form of the seed showed a cer- tain constancy for each tree; that the size was in direct propor- tion to the size of the cones; but that three differently colored kinds of seed of full maturity could be distinguished as char- acteristic of different individuals, namely those with black seed, those with brown or light colored seed, and those with checkered seed, light colored with brown and black dots. Roughly speaking, in the forests under examination, black- seeded pines formed 50 to 70 per cent. of the stand, checkered seed trees 30 to 40 per cent., light colored seed trees 5 to 10 per cent. Further investigation showed that, 1, germinative seed of any single tree have the same color; 2, the color is not influenced by exterior conditions; 3, it is in no relation to the age of the trees; 4, the great variety in coloration of the checkered is to be con- ceived as a result of crosses between the black and brown seeded specimens; 5, in northern regions probably the brown and light colored seed race prevails, the black seeded being rare, while in southern districts the reverse is true. Four groups or races are, therefore, proposed for Pinus silvestris, namely seminibus atris, seminibus bruneis, seminibus palladis, seminibus maculatis. * Zur Frage iiber die Rassen der Pinus silvestris. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, June, 1908, pp. 229-232. Prof. Mayr is responsible for differentiating Species ~ our Red or Douglas Fir into three species, of namely P. Douglastt (mucronata), glauca Pseudotsuga. and macrocarpa. ‘The latter, from the dry warm climate of the southern California mountains is readily distinguished by the larger cones and seeds, and by the longer pointed leaves and hairy young shoots. Dr. Zederbauer furnishes additional very striking points of identifi- 288 Forestry Quarterly. cation in seedling plants, which are of value in permitting earlier recognition of the climatically undesirable macrocarpa, which is often recommended in nursery catalogues but liable to frost in any but southern latitudes. Besides the size of the needles, which is twice that of mu- cronata, and the size of the yearling plant and its root which are from two to three times those of the more common species, the cotyledons are in mucronata 5 to 8, mostly 6 or 7, 4 to 1 inch long, while macrocarpa has 7 to 15, mostly 10 cotyledous, 14 to 2 inches long. Die Keimlinge von Pseudotsuga macrocarpa. Cerntralblatt f. d. g. Forst- wesen, May, 1908, pp. 199-200. Dr. Cieslar discusses the experiments car- Influence ried on by the Russian Lubimenko some of time ago, to determine the relation of as- Light similiation of various forest trees to differ- and ent light intensities and temperatures. Temperature Three light intensities were secured in on rather elementary manner by a variation Assimilation. in the angle in which the light fell upon the foliage, namely at right angles, 45°, and parallel to the surface. Temperatures of 20°, 25°, 30°, 35° and 38° were used, and the energy of assimilation was deter- mined without finesse by measuring the carbonic acid decomposed by 1 grain foliage for 15 minutes. Lubimenko’s results showed that under the lowest light inten- sity with increasing temperature a steady increase of assimila- tion occurs in all species used, which comprise Abies, Picea, Pinus, Larix, Taxus, Tilia, Robinia, Betula. With the me- dium light intensity the assimilation rises to a temperature optimum, varying with species, and then sinks, excepting with the larch, which continues to increase its assimilation to the highest temperature used. Similar results were obtained under the strongest light. Lubimenko classifies his material into ombrophil and ombro- phobe and remarks that the ombrophil species reduce their assimi- lation after the optimum much more rapidly than the ombrophobe. Cieslar points out that the more logical classification into light- needing and shade-enduring covers the same species, and calls attention to Wiesner’s observation that a certain excessive in- Periodical Literature. 289 tensity of light is capable of depressing assimilation, by endanger- ing the constitution of the chlorophyll. By plotting the results in curves for easier comparison, Cies- lar finds that a close relation between light and temperature influ- ence exists and that the tolerant species behave differently from the intolerant. The former decrease in energy very rapidly after the maximum, the latter very little or not at all. So that it may be said, that the foliage of intolerant species is less sensitive to heat, than that of tolerant. ‘This, Cieslar declares, is a positive characteristic of the light-needing species, which hitherto was supposed to be the inability to stand shading as compared with the tolerant; and he points out that this is an important point for silviculture. Other results of the experimentation affirm the known fact that young leaves assimilate less than old. For conifers the difference of results under the two intenser lights are very small; this Cieslar explains by the horizontal development of the de- ciduous leaves, which, therefore, react more readily to the ex- periment as arranged. The reviewer’s own unpublished experi- ments showed more drastic reaction of the conifers. An unquestionable parallelism between the amounts of car- bonic acid assimilated in one hour by 1 grain of leaves of the dif- ferent species and the general growth rates of the species became evident. Fir, spruce and yew showing the smallest, pine a larger and larch the largest rate of assimilation. With the first two species the small rate is, however, compensated by the large amount of crown and foliage, and the large number of trees per acre, so that in individual and stand production these two species, after all, stand high. The extraordinary production of the larch with its thin crown is explainable only by the greater intensity of its assimilation. The greatest rate of assimilation belongs to Robinia, which accounts for its remarkable production in single individuals; in stands the question of numbers and favorable light conditions may change the result. The author concludes with the remark, that by such purely physiological investigation the biological basis for silviculture is laid. Einfluss der Lichtstirke und der Temperaturhéhe auf die Grosse der Chlorophyllassimilation einiger Waldbiume. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forst- wesen, May, 1908, pp. 190-194. > 290 Forestry Quarterly. The usefulness of ants in destroying insects Ants has become doubtful with regard to the as nun, the observation having been made that Insect the female moth can be overpowered and Destroyers. destroyed by ants only after the eggs are laid, being otherwise able and ready to escape. On the other hand, Ney reports that during a wholesale depredation by Lophyrus pint in 1905 for a hundred yards around anthills the pines remained green and undamaged, owing to the assiduous work of the ants. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, May, 1908, p. 220. SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE. Prof. Henry, of Nancy, in 1897, and again Source in 1904 announced, that the dead leaves of of the forest floor had the capacity of fixing Nitrogen considerable quantities of nitrogen from the air. Considerable opposition to this theory arose and Dr. Hornberger, in 1905, published results of what he conceived as check tests, which apparently completely negatived Henry’s results. The author of these tests was led to declare: ‘It seems then, if it (the fixation of nitrogen by litter) exists really, it does so only under certain conditions, and hence its importance is less, than was expected.” Prof. Henry explains that the difference in results was due to the difference in experimentation, and readily explained. Hornberger picked up the fallen leaves and removed the foliage to the laboratory, keeping it on screens until analysis. Henry picked the foliage before it fell and placed it at once in boxes, and covered with netting placed the boxes at once into the very forest soil, to preserve intact the bacteria or other micro-organ- isms which are supposed to be active and also to keep the foliage accessible to other bacterial life of the forest. Bacteria are deli- cate bodies and lose their power of germination readily if proper conditions are lacking. Dr. Hornberger repeated his investigations under somewhat more favorable conditions (See Forst-und Jagdzeitung, 1906), and comes to different conclusions: “The nitrogen contents in- ~ Cd ee eee Periodical Literature. 291 creased in the average to 3.3 Kg. per hectar and year; an impor- tant contribution, although still remaining below the quantities recorded by Henry. At any rate it is now certain that the litter has the capacity under favorable conditions of increasing sensibly its nitrogen contents by fixation from the atr.” Other authorities, Suchting in 1905, and Montemartini in the same year as well as Wiesner, have also added their assent to this important discovery, which accentuate the value of the forest litter as an important fertilizer of the forest. Azote et couverture morte. Revue des eaux et foréts. No. 9, 1908, pp. 274-278. Investigations of Nobbe at Tharandt have Alder shown that the alders like the leguminous as plants have a symbiotic life of root bacteria Nitrogen gathering nitrogen. This capacity benefits Gatherer. not only the plants themselves, but also their neighbors and as alders grow along water courses also the water flora, which thereby becomes more luxuriant and in its turn becomes a reason for an increased fish fauna, providing a rich and continuous feeding area. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, May, 1908, p. 220. At the Eberswalde forest experiment sta- Raw Humus tion potcultures of pine in sand soil from as Brandenburg were used some six years ago Fertilizer. in a series of studies to determine the value of dry duff in forests as a fertilizer for young pines and the methods of best rendering it available. The results were published at that time and show that the duff has the very highest value as a fertilizer for the said soil in ques- tion and gives best results when most intimately mixed with the sand. Attention is again called to the question and opportunity given Dr. Moller to show the value of his scientific studies by the results from a general series of experiments in forest scat- tered over the whole of Prussia. These were field studies carried out entirely by local forest officers on the basis of a meager working plan sent out by the department in Berlin. These results 18 292 Forestry Quarterly. were made the substance of an address before the Brandenburg Forest Society at the Berlin meeting last February and this ar- ticle is based on that talk. The paper is prefaced by an account of further experiments that have been made since 1902 along the same lines. The results show clearly the value of dry humus in the soil and the response the seedling makes to its presence. It is shown here again as other investigators have before shown that the length of the annual shoot depends upon the nourishment of the seedling during the preceeding year while the size and color of the leaves depends upon the current food supply. There is also no reason why trees for planting on barren soils should be grown in such soils and not given the best conditions for their thrift. Pine seedlings adapt themselves immediately to changed conditions in their environment. The reports from the local forest officers who have carried out these experiments, each in his own forest and largely according to his own ideas, afford all possible answers to the question put. Most ask to be allowed to continue their past practices and not be compelled to adopt the plan indicated in the experiment. Most report the new method more expensive than the results war- rant. This is frequently because no fertilizer at all is demanded. Some plead the increased growth of weeds as a disadvantage of the new method, forgetting that what makes crops grow usually makes weeds grow even more vigorously. Careful study of the favorable replies reveals that a practice recommended only for the poor sand soils of Brandenburg is of much wider applica- tion than was at first claimed. The most serious obstacle to the utilization of duff is the lack of suitable implements to cheaply and efficiently mix it with the sand. For the heavier accumula- tions, no economical practice seems possible. The thinner duff is now best taken care of by some form of the Danish rolling harrow (see F. Q. Vol. VI, pg. 188) and in the future care must be taken to guard against accumulations too heavy to handle. eB Die Nutzbarmachung des Rohhumus (Trockentorf) bei Kiefernkulturen. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen. May, 1908, pp. 273-290. agi te, Periodical Literature. 293 SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION. This chapter of silviculture promises to Natural remain unfinished for some time to come, Regeneration until actual results of continuous practice US. have furnished the test of either under Artificial. various conditions. Wagner’s recent book (reviewed in QUARTERLY, p. 160, of this volume) has given a new impetus to the school of natural regeneration at all hazards, and serves as a basis for discussions of operations in the Black Forest of Wurtemberg by Oberforster Dr. Eberhard. It is significant to note, that the Wurtemberg State forests fur- nish now the highest revenue, namely over $6 per acre. Here in the Black Forest, in 1880 it was officially stated that “the prin- cipal regeneration method was the compartment timber forest with short regeneration period” (shelterwood). It was then apparently accepted as a fact that the result of the natural re- generation was satisfactory—how could it be otherwise with the fir the main timber! Statistical data were not necessary, at least did not exist. But by various calculations Wagner comes to the conclusion, that in 1904 natural regeneration was prac- tised in Wurtemberg State forests on only 10 per cent. of the area; and Eberhard, considering the Black Forest alone, deduces from the annual area of artificial cultivation (planting and sow- ing), that natwral regeneration in the Black Forest of the last two or four decades does not exist at all or only in insignificant amount. The author then refutes the conclusion that natural regenera- tion is not applied or applicable in the business forest. He admits that there is more discussion of natural regenera- tion than actual existence in the forest, he does not deny that in some, though few localities, natural regeneration has been successful, and in his own district in the communal forests ad- joining the State forest has produced excellent results, which he finds due to the small felling areas in these as compared with the larger, less successful ones in the State forests. He, therefore, changed the practice in 1903 by reducing in size and multiplying in number the felling areas, making narrow 204 Forestry Quarterly, strips, beginning by opening up over existing volunteer growth, and regenerating the strips in comparatively short time somewhat in the manner of Wagner’s selection strip system. He is satisfied with his results (5 years!). The dangers of this method are pointed out. The rapid pro- gress of regeneration fellings is possible only when a rational thinning practice has preceded. Danger from windfall must be precluded by proper direction of fellings and small felling areas, the breadth of strips, where wind danger is to be expected, vary- ing between 50 and 100 yards. Keeping one-half to three- quarters in the stage of gradual removal, and one-fifth to one- quarter ready for final removal, the fellings (widening of strips) progressing at the rate of 10 to 20 yards per year. This entails the necessity of roads every 120 to 150 yards. Details of proced- ure are given. Good reproduction has been the result. The cost has been 2,300 mk. for the last four years, while in former years an average of 4,000 to 5,000 mk. for a planting area of 47 hectar in the decade 1859-68 and of 26 hectar in 1869-78 had been spent. At present, with difficult labor market, the costs of a planting area of 25 to 30 hectar would be at least 10,000 mk.—over $30 per acre !—as against 3,000 or only 2,000 mark for natural regenera- tion. The author agrees that such natural regeneration cannot be secured by a schematic procedure but requires a great deal of attention and judgment on the part of the manager, otherwise the light-needing species, spruce and pine, vanish. With a normal annual felling area of 18 to 20 ha. (50 acres), it became necessary during the four years to repair artificially 3 ha. annually, 7. ¢., near 20 per cent. The author admits that soil preparation, which is costly, can hardly be dispensed with, and this he has been able to avoid by allowing poor farmers to remove the objectionable moss layer. A question, which is of special interest to us, is briefly hinted at, namely, what to do with the regeneration of overmature woods. Here a more rapid removal is desirable, because deterior- ation of wood and of soils progresses. Here natural regeneration is difficult, but the entire failure of it, the author ascribes to the method employed, namely, large felling areas, which may be overcome by a strip system. Die riumliche Ordnung im Walde und die Nikrihe een Aligemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung, April, 1908, pp. 13-123. ee — Periodical Literature. 295 It is characteristic of the German technical Germination press, and a strange commentary on our of ways, that the first account of a valuable American original investigation made in this country Pines. comes to us across the ocean. In 1904 Mr. Blumer conducted at the seed laboratory of the U. S. Department of Agriculture a series of tests on the germination of 24 American and two exotic species of pine, some 600 to 700 double tests, with check tests in the field at Halsey, Nebraska, and Henninger Flats, California. The latter naturally fell behind the laboratory tests in time of germination and germination per cent. In California 33 tests required 70 days and the germination per cent. varied between 2 and 86, with an average of 43.5 per cent.; in Nebraska 46 tests required go days and furnished o to 76, in the average 35.3 per cent. In the laboratory 48 tests required only 50 to 60 days, the germination per cent. varying from 5 to 100, averaging not far from 70 per cent. A test of the influence of temperature showed that with a tem- perature of 10° C. (50° F.) in 100 days no germination took place with P. strobus and P. radiata, while with temperatures varying between 20 and 35° C. (68 to 95° F.) 10 and 7 days suf- ficed to germinate 85 and go per cent. respectively. Altogether it was found that varying temperatures produced better results than even ones, and the above range proved the most favorable. Maximum temperatures are variably supported by different species, P. strobus standing the most, 122° F., oily seeds the least. P. ponderosa scopulorum from the Rockies and divaricata showed the highest germinating energy; but P. ponderosa from Oregon germinated exceedingly slowly, a feature which seems to attach also to Pseudotsuga and perhaps other species from the Coast. That small seéds and seeds with thin shell germinate more quickly than large and thick-shelled is natural; a cutting open of the shells of P. torreyana and sabiniana expedited their germ- ination. A very interesting demonstration was had that the seed of serotinous pines preserves its germination in the closed cones for a long time, seeds of P. murrayana having hung on trees for 10 to 30 years gave 25 per cent. more germs than other younger > 296 Forestry Quarterly, samples from the same district, under same treatment. Seed of P. strobus treated with coal oil, to dissolve the resin, were dam- aged thereby. The ‘“‘knife test” was found apparently to furnish a very sat- isfactory approximation to the germination tests. It developed the fact that different species varied in the per cent. of seed with developed endosperm from 45 to 100 per cent. The number of seeds per pound was found to vary from 500 for P. sabiniana and torreyana to 10,000 for P. divaricata, the smallest. But the important point was the great variation in this respect for the same species “independently of locality, year of production, age and size of trees, ete.” This variation in ponder- osa amounted to nearly 100 per cent., although with most species probably below 50 per cent. It is to be hoped that a fuller account of these tests may soon become accessible to the American public interested in these matters. ° Amerikanische Versuche mit Kiefernsamen. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen, April, 1908, pp. 236-240. A long series of investigations and obser- Comparative vations for 21 years in the Experiment Sta- Value. tion of Eberswalde by Dr. Dengler as re- of gards the growth of pines derived from Races seed of different localities, namely, from of Russia, Finland, Norway and domestic, Pine. leads the author to the following con- clusions: 1. The plants from seeds of northern localities fall consider- ably behind those of domestic origin both in height and diameter growth. “2, The differences are not due to slow development merely of the first years, but generally for 21 years they have considerably increased in their average annual amount, so that a compensation is not to be expected in the near future and probably never. 3. The closing up in consequence of the poorer branch de- velopment and foliage together with retarded height growth is poorer with northern stock, and this is accompanied by impover- ishment of soil. -_ 7 ee Periodical Literature. 297 4. The form of boles has so far remained poorer than that of domestic pines. 5. The wood of the northern stock has a higher specific weight, probably in direct relation to its narrower rings. 6. The average amount of foliage is considerably less than that of domestic trees. 7. Single needles of northern pines are shorter, but also broader and thicker. 8. A biological characteristic is the early maturity (cone- bearing) of a large number of the northern trees. Even if the northern stock, as is claimed, is less susceptible to juvenile diseases, comprehensively called “damping off,” yet the other objectionable features furnish good reason against their employment, for the domestic finally overcome the troubles and then are ahead of the northern stock. Hence the advice to use as far as possible seed from the neighborhood of the planting locality. The existence of many poorly developed plantations is probably due to error in this direction. Unfortunately no sure way of distinguishing the seeds of dif- ferent regions of supply exists. The morphological difference of the foliage, stated swb 7 appears to the author as the only constant one, since the other characteristics are only relative which may under conditions attach to the domestic stock. Das Wachstum von Kiefern aus einheimischem und nordischen Saatgut: Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen, March, April, 1908, pp. 137-152,. 206-219. Undoubtedly a rare case is the extensive Black walnut plantation of Rebman’s in the Walnut Strassburg city forest (Alsace) on Rhine Forest. bottom lands. Within the 17 years from 1891 to 1907 about 150 acres have been planted with Juglans, 30 acres with regia, 20 acres with cinerea, and 110 with migra, on overflow lands formerly occupied by coppice. At first nursery plants I to 6 year old, were used, but now only sowing is resorted to, since it was found that out of 1,000 nur- sery plants only 30 survived root pruning. For this purpose fur- rows are deeply plowed in the fall, 2 yards apart, and in May the nuts, first germinated in horse dung, are put in holes in the 298 Forestry Quarterly. furrows 4 to 5 feet apart. Thornbrush is used to protect them against squirrels and birds. Between the rows beech, basswood and blue beech are planted. About 600 nuts or plants to the acre are set out, at an average cost for the 17 years of $8 per acre. Since the plants are very light-needing, and very sensitive to competition of weeds, it is necessary in the first years to cul- tivate them, which necessitates an expense of $1 to $1.25. After the third year the plants shoot up rapidly, the average heights on good soil during the first six years being 12, 24, 42, 67 , 89, 140 inches respectively, over man-high in the first four years after planting! Frost quite frequently kills back the leaders, but repair is rapid and a stout side shoot quickly replaces the leader. Where frost danger is great a nurse crop of pine is of advantage. The stands are in excellent condition, the value of these plantations hardly yet appreciated. First class walnut brings now as much as $1.30 to $2 per cubic foot in Germany. In this connection we may add that the Black Walnut has been found hardy as far north as Gumbinnen, in East Prussia near the Russian frontier, where centenarians planted by Wangen- heim attest to it. On our continent the species can be made to live with difficulty in and near Quebec, sunscald being there its greatest enemy. We may also refer to vol. IV, p. 217, for sil- vicultural notes on the species. Good, deep, well-drained soil is the best, but a variety of soils, from a deep clay to a light sandy soil, or one containing lime shows still good development. The author considers 70 to 75 years as the best rotation, when well-grown trees may have 34 inch diameter and 105 feet height, and a volume equal to oaks, 150 to 160 years of age. The absence of insects and diseases are also commented on as an advantage of the species. Bericht iiber die 8 Hauptversammlung des deutchen Forstvereins. All- gemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung, May, 1908, pp. 182-3. In commenting on a briefed article by Reb- Black man, based on the cited plantations, Elwes Walnut points out that in the North and West of in England summers are too short and too England. cold to justify the planting of walnut, yet in the southern, eastern and east central - ad EE a Periodical Literature. 299 districts it grows at least as fast as the common walnut and at- tains large dimensions, while its tendency to form a clean trunk and its endurance of severe winter frosts is superior. A num- ber of measurements are given. The Black Walnut. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, July, 1908, pp. 167-9. As was pointed out in an article by Mr. Robinia Gaskill in vol. IV of the QuaRTERLY (p. in 104), the Black Locust, a species origin- Hungary. ally confined to the Appalachians is one of the important trees of Hungary through cultivation. Various growth and yield tables were there given. An article by Vadas on systems of management adapted for Robinia forests, is based in part on stands of the shifting sands in the interior of Hungary, in part on growths on fresh, deep, hu- mose sandy loam soils. Vadas comes to the conclusion that Robinia is adapted for high forest and as standard in coppice, but only on good soil and mild climate in mixed stand, otherwise it is fit only for coppice. The best rotation he places at 50 years; and in the mixed timber forest it should be cut Io years before the rest of the stand to prevent the strong root suckers which would kill out other species. As stand- ard in the composite forest to recuperate mismanaged deciduous forest it is an important material. Such standards planted after removal of the old stand make rapid growth. The measurements on some 30 specimens ranging from 30 to 52 years, show diam- eters from 8 to 24 inches, or an average of 13 inch and heights of 68 to 103 feet, or an average of 85 feet. An article by Roth reports results of experiments on germin- ation of Robinia seed treated with hot water, which is usually done in Hungary, as with us. These experiments were made in the laboratory and also checked in the field, the latter tests showing analogous results, the germination per cent. im- proving with the temperature, the series being as follows: Temperature of water, deg. C., ...c0..eeeeeeee 25 40 60 75 gO 100 | OYA LULL Op GGL ALCL UB ho DORA ORO OOO ORIBAT 290 Ai sol AseG 5. . OL In all tests the water was poured on the seeds, left 10 seconds, temoved for two minutes, then poured on again and left 24 300 Forestry Quarterly, hours, the seed being then immediately sown on paper in the laboratory and on soil in the garden. The latter tests, showing only a small reduction in germination per cent. exhibited other- wise the same relation between germination and temperature of water. Erdeszeti Kiserletek. Heft 3 and 4, 1908. For lifting seedlings or transplants Fores- Mechanical ter Landenberger has constructed a me- Plant chanical device, which appears efficient and Lifters. time-saving. On light soil two men oper- ating will lift 20,000 seedlings, or 12,000 to 16,000 transplants; on heavy dry soils 7,000 to 8,500, with ab- solutely no damage to roots. It consists of a steel rake with long pitchfork-like prongs hung into a frame work and worked by a lever arrangement. The cost of the apparatus is $16. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung, April, 1908, p..150. Very few studies of the effects of green Fertilizers mulch on stands have yet been undertaken im and our knowledge in this direction is ad- Forest. mittedly meager. The use of artificial fer- tilizers has been urged upon foresters by those with such fertilizers to sell so strongly that forest tests of commercial fertilizers are being widely made. Results that appear to bear out these commercial claims seem to have been reached in Holland and Belgium. It is well however to stop and inquire into the value of these experiments as such and the need commer- cial fertilizers may be expected to meet. The first requirement for a forest test is an area entirely ho- mogeneous throughout and large enough for subdivision. Ideal conditions are always most nearly obtained in pot culture. In a forest test we must use an area far from ideal in its composition and then make corrections for the varying factors of site. The results themselves must be studied for the irregularities they con- tain and the corrections to be applied. In this way the annual crops of agriculture furnish decisive results quickly. In forestry the question becomes much more complicated for we must know not only whether to fertilize and with what to fertilize but how - tod Periodical Literature. 301 often to fertilize. There are many indices to effective treatment but whether it pays or not is not known until the crop is har- vested. It is best to study a few problems at a time and not complicate the test with too many factors. We must always depend upon the crop itself for our verdict, for chemists have found no way to measure the available mineral food in the soil. Analyses merely indicate possible needs. To those selling fertilizers they readily furnish specious and misleading arguments. It seems to be true (a) that thinning benefits many forest soils; (b) that green mulch is beneficial when open country is first planted to trees; (c) that nitrogenous organic matter has a value; (d) that fertilizing backward thicket growth pays; (e) that bog earth pays in sandy soils. It seems doubtful whether potash and racemes acid pays on unlimed soils. In the autumn of 1900 Dr. Jentsch returned to Mtinden from a summer spent in Belgium studying the results of experiments with fertilizers in forests eager to make similar studies. With the aid of Dr. Hornberger and in accordance with the general principles laid down by him two areas were set aside in the Kattenbuhl forest. The soil of this area has been reported upon in an earlier paper (F. Q., vol. VI, p. 180). The final measurements of heights on this area five years after planting spruce shows clearly the need of checking several plots treated in the same way, and of using averages instead of single results. With such qualifications as the results impose it may be said that kainit and Chili saltpeter seem to have no effect. Phosphates are however beneficial or it may be only the lime they contain. ‘Such results agree well with chemical analysis, for by comparing analyses of soil with the requirements of a spruce stand lime alone is notably deficient. F. D. Hornberger.—Einige Bemerkungen itiber Diingung im Walde. .Zeit- schrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, April, 1908, pp. 230-236. Hornberger.—Uber einen Fichtendiingungsversuch. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, May, 1908, pp. 309-313. 302 Foresiry Quarterly. A disease which for lack of more accurate Pine name has been termed the pine plague Foot-rot. causes serious losses in pine and spruce stands in the moors of northwestern Prussia. Another common name is foot-rot, though Erdmann recently contends that the root disease accompanies but does not cause the trouble. Work done by the Eberswalde institute for the study of soils, however, indicate that the fungus attacking the roots is the immediate cause of death. The fungus is slow in its at- tack and the pine tenacious of life so that the tree frequently recovers and never dies until the root system is completely de- stroyed. The regenerative power of the pine is remarkable and a number of types of root system are developed under the stim- ulus of the disease. A study of the symptoms shows many things in common with the prevalent disease of pine stands on refor- ested farm lands in eastern Prussia. The stand here taken that pine plague is confined to land once fallow and but recently for- ested is contradicted by von Bentheim and others. To throw light upon this point the natural limits of native spruce and pine in the Luneberger Heide was investigated on the basis of the early records of those forests whence virgin pine and spruce have been reported. The records in many in- stances that what have long been accepted as areas on which pine is indigenous are shown to have been planted. The north- ern limit of these species is pushed farther to the south than has heretofore been thought correct. It does not however alter the fact that pine and spruce are to-day dying on areas once cov- ered by indigenous stands of these species. These historical studies have confirmed in the author’s mind the belief that pine plague is not found on soils that have always been under forest. In other words it is a disease which follows foresting of open country. In the eighteenth century an end was made to almost the whole forest wealth of northwestern Prussia and the land degenerated into moor. With this change came soil deterioration and against these untoward soil conditions the planted pines are waging a losing warfare. Duff is not the cause for it is not regularly associated with the pine plague. And despite the hard things that have been said - a Periodical Literature. 303 about the sterility of moor soils, about the only constituent in which they are lacking is lime. All previous theories having proven untenable the author sug- gests that the cause is a micro-organism peculiar to unwooded soils and absent from forest soils, a micro-organism which en- ables the foot-rot (Polyphorus annosus) to become a true para- site and attain a virulence entirely foreign to its usual attacks. As for the pine it is entirely unadapted for reclaiming moor land and is probably the poorest species that could have been chosen. It is necessary to turn to some other. Broadleaved species, if we except the birch, are free from foot-rot: but they do not pay. The fir may be used if desired but of all species the Douglas fir—the coast variety—is immune from attacks of foot- rot, will thrive here, and is in every way superior to the pine. Fe Ds _ Zimmerman, A.—Untersuchungen tiber das Absterben_ des Nadelholzes in der Liineburger Heide. Zeitschrift fir Forst-und Jagdwesen, June, 1908, pp. 357-391. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT. As a basis for estimating mature stand of Form pine, Fricke determines first the work-wood of form-factor on the basis of certain regular- Pine. ities observed in mature pine trees. A study of an abundance of data indicates that for practical purposes the work-wood length may be taken as 70 per cent. of the total height of the tree, the middle diameter of this length as 754 per cent. and the top diameter as 50 per cent. of the diameter breast high. This gives a work-wood form- factor of 40. A 5 per cent. reduction is made for waste in logging, leaving the corrected factor 38. The generally accepted form-factor for the mature pine stem is 44.2. Subtracting from this the undiminished use-wood form- factor, we obtain the fuel-wood form-factor as 4.2. Loss in logging this kind of material amounts to 10 per cent., and the corrected factor is 3.8. Adding this to the corrected use-wood form-factor gives 41.8 for the form-factor covering both classes of material of which 91 per cent. is work-wood. Where all 304 Forestry Quarterly. trees do not furnish entire stems for work-wood, reductions must be made to accommodate. This discussion shows that a reduction of 9.2 per cent. must be applied to volume tables of mature pine to cover loss in logging. The method here advanced is subject to a critical comparison with recent work in the same field and is shown in all essential respects to be in fair agreement with what other authors have found true. F. D. Berechnung des Wertes haubarer Kiefernbestande auf dem Stock; Form des Kiefernschaftes. Zeitschrift fir Forst- und Jagdwesen. May, 1908, Pp. 290-308. Since R. Weber’s attempt to deduce from Law the measurements recorded in the yield of tables mathematical formulae and laws of Height Growth. growth which shall explain the progress of increment on trees and stands little has been done in this direction. Dr. Schubert, who has thrown doubt on some of Weber’s de- ductions in 1895, proposes a simpler and more intelligible form for the law of height growth, by developing the annual increment as a function of the height, while Weber had determined the height at any time as a function of the maximum height of the AF) species (h, = hh... Lr — I.op If one plots the annual height increment of spruce for in- stance, in a co-ordinated system as a function of the height, it becomes at once apparent that the current increment rate in- creases in the juvenile stage to a maximum until a certain height is attained and then decreases constantly—the curve has a short ascending and a long descending arm, which latter approaches a straight line, 7. e., the annual increment is a linear function of the height and if i = increment, h = height, a and D positive constants, we can make the equation 1) += b — an. When the maximum height. (H) is attained 1 = a, hence b = aH, or H =o hence 2) i= a(H—h). Periodical Literature. 305 Now since h= f (f), the height is a function of time or age, if dh is the height increment during the small period of dt, hence —adt, and by dh adh ah t=] and we may write — 7 a(H—A), or Ah integration with e the basis of natural logarithm, we come to the equation I 3) ho = (H—!) (i — aay Ne or ift—t=—-F 4) h—Il= (H —l) terry This is the correct way of writing the empiric formula of Weber’s. A comparison of calculated and actual yield table data snows the formula correct. The decrease of the annual increment (after the juvenile period) im the average height of normal pine and spruce stands in North and Middle Germany decreases (con- sant a) for each im height growth approximately equally, namely I.5¢m. The equation of the author, sub 2, has the advantage that neither the time from which the calculation is to begin, nor the height then attained plays a part. These formulae have, of course, no application to single trees. In a somewhat lame manner does the author attempt a theo- retical discussion of what takes place in the height growth, after belittling without good reason the theoretical explanation of Weber. His reasoning is mathematical as follows: If within a fibro-vascular bundle annually an amount of work & is performed, namely one part proportional to h to overcome friction and gravity, the balance proportional to 7 for the formation of the length shoot, and A and B are positive constants, then we have the equation 3) E= Ah + Bi. Substituting equation (2) for 7, we have E = A+ Ba(H—h) = BaH 4+ (A—Ba)h. The equation says: The higher a tree grows, the more h ap- proaches the maximum height H, the smaller is the amount of energy & remaining for the production of the height shoot, the smaller this will be. When the maximum height is reached, and > 306 Forestry Quarterly. friction. This is only a mathematical foundation of certain simple suppositions; whether these can be used for the charac- terization of actual processes is left to the judgment of botanists. Ueber das Hohenwachstum der Baume. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagd- wesen, March, 1908, pp. 152-159. The large loss of value occasioned by the Calculation ravages of the fungus Trametes pini in of many German forests (see QUARTERLY, Damage vol. IV, p. 47) has given rise to consider- by able literature on the question of how much Rot. expense can be afforded to get rid of it. Several forest financiers have participated in this discussion, among them Dr. Heinman, who reported in 1905, and now makes a second calculation on a larger cut. The method of procedure may be of interest, as it can be applied in other damage calculations of similar character. The cut on which this calculation was made amounted to 218,000 cubic feet, a year’s budget of the West Prussian district Raudnitz. The prices obtained per cubic foot for logs of sound and doty wood were respectively IMelassmUovers/Oncubpic heeL) ala wie nee eects 15.5. and 11 “cents tiiclassw(SONton7ancbicMreet) ey wse cts tule elee ins ie eel 15.5 and 10.4 cents Thiwclass a(s5 ator SOuctbhie meet) remem sain nats mretcleiors 14 and g.4 cents TV class 0. ov. eicereue asc «Le! enn oe genes Cordwood brought on the average $3.75 per cord. If the stands had been all sound, a detail calculation shows, the result would have been $33,055, the actual result was $30,- 753, hence a loss of $2,300 occurred. Since the material of the lower log classes can be cut into cordwood, which then brings relatively a higher price per cubic foot, there is a recovery of 30 per cent. of the loss in this item, so that while in the material a disease per cent of 13.6 was found, the money loss per cent. was only 6.6, or practically one-half of the material damage. This proportion between material and value damage is believed to be practically constant. A careful analysis of the eleven different felling areas varying _ Cd Periodical Literature. 307 in the damage per cent. shows the value loss as varying from $15.60 to $73.40 per acre and by dividing the stem number into these amounts, the justification of an expense varying from 9 cents to 24 cents per tree for combating the fungus is calculated. Actually, larger expenditure would be justified, as this loss does not include the unknown loss that is likely to occur in the mill. Unfortunately the means of getting rid of the trouble are not very effective. Ueber den Schqden des Kiefernbaumschwammes. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung, April, 1908, pp. 123-125. UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY. The prize trophy offered by the California Cypress Wine Growers’ Association to that associa- for tion or individual who should present the Light best substitute for white oak for the manu- Cooperage. facture of wine barrels has been awarded to the Southern Cypress Manufacturing Association. The woods offered in competition, namely, red- wood, the western cedars, western spruce and cypress were each subjected to severe and thorough tests as to strength, liability to impart taste or color to the contained liquid, density suf- ficient to prevent leakage, freedom from warping, and price of material such that barrels might be made therefrom as cheap or cheaper than from white oak. Contrary to all general expecta- tions the tests for the capability to impart taste and color to the contained liquid and freedom from porosity proved the cypress to be superior to all other substitutes— Southern Lumberman, March 21, 1908. For some time manufacturers of box- An -. making machinery have been seeking to Improvement turn out a collapsible packing box that in would be satisfactory in all its essential Box points. Finally after a series of improve- Manufacture. ments they have succeeded in putting out a new wire hinge cover box machine that is capable of turning out a collapsible box of durability, strength, 19 308 Forestry Quarterly. and practicability and yet at a cost comparable to that of the present nailed up box. The latest improvement has succeeded in achieving the first three qualities at a cost sufficiently low to make the wire hinge box a successful competitor to nailed boxes. The increased flexibility of the wire hinge corner box renders it much less subject to damage from rough handling. By tests weights of as much as 185 pounds have been successfuuly ship- ped more than 500 miles with at least eight handlings in boxes whose heaviest cleats were nine-sixteenths of an inch thick, with a body of one-quarter of an inch stock.—Barrel and Box, March, 1908. Although Brazil is supposed to be an im- Brazil mense forest country, its wood export is Wood small, less than $300,000. In Igor it was Export. 3,400 tons, in 1903, 6,500 tons, in 1906, 5,000 tons. According to the German ex- pert attaché at Rio de Janeiro, this small trade is due to the fact that the larger part of valuable woods in the neighborhood of shipping ports is gone, then lack of competent labor, then finan- cial trouble. The kinds most exported are Jacaranda, Brazil wood, and Massaranduba, besides the one conifer, Araucaria, called falsely Pifo. Two extensive, compact forest regions are to be considered for exploitation. The largest is represented by the Amazon river and its affluents, the second is the densely timbered coast dis- trict from Allagoas south to the Rio Grande do Sul. In addition, there are smaller complexes on the interior plateau, as in the State Soa Paulo, on the lower reaches of the rivers Tiete and Parana—panema, in the State Matto Grosso, along the marshy shores of Paraguay river between Corumbo and Cuyaba, in the State Goyaz near the capital, and others. These latter areas are out of question for export trade, the interior being devoid of navigable rivers or other means of cheap transportation. No increase of exports from the Amazon‘is to be anticipated in the near future, because the available labor is all employed in the more lucrative rubber exploitation, which is often short of supply. The litoral forest districts from their southern extension have - _ a Periodical Literature. 309 furnished Araucaria and Cedrela, but since the rivers originating in the coast mountain range flow mostly towards the interior as affuents of the Parana, there is no good reason for expecting a considerable increase of exports, the few railroads in existence having little influence on the situation. The main source of supply at present is found in the State Espirito Santo, which is favored by large rivers navigable for great distances, like the Rio Doce and Stabapoana. Here also the coffee planters have found their business suffers from low prices and hence the need of eking out incomes from forest exploitation, which promises to be shortly carried on more energetically, especially as several kinds of timber so far unknown in European and North American markets may be found valuable. Die Holzausfuhr Brasiliens. Allgemeine Forst-.u. Jagdwesen, June, 1908, pp. 231-232. According to a report of the German con- Teak sul at Moulmein, which is the center of the Trade Burmese teak trade, in 1906, were exported of over 50,000 tons. Although prices of Burmah. the wood in Europe are high, namely, from $90 to $140 per ton of 50 cubic feet, the shippers do not make any satisfactory profit. Woodswork becomes every year more difficult and expensive, as the distances increase and elephants become more expensive. Male animals which 20 years ago could be had for 2,000 rs. ($650) cost to-day three and more times as much, and females which ten years ago could be had for 1,000 rs. now bring 3,500 to 5,000 rs. The government has begun a system of leases directly with European firms for working the teak forests in the Shan States and elsewhere, and seems inclined to introduce this system gen- erally. Der Teak handeb in Moulmein. Allegemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung, April, 1908, p. 149. Jamaica, according to a publication of the Dye Woods German Imperial Department of Interior, of produces about one-fifth of the Campeche Jamaica. dye-wood supply of the world. The Cam- peche tree is a small tree, averaging 12 310 Forestry Quarterly. inches in diameter and 20 to 30 feet in height, and is cut when about 10 years old, dissected into suitable pieces for handling, peeled and the half-inch sap wood removed. Now old roots are also utilized. The wood is red-brown but produces a deep black-blue color, which formerly was used in dyeing wool manu- factures. Now, with aniline colors supplanting it for that pur- pose, it is retained in use for leather goods and textile fabrics for which aniline colors are not suitable. Lately the extract is manufactured in Jamaica and exported in barrels, two firms being in this business. One of these exported in 1905-6 over $200,000 worth to the United States, besides large quantities to Germany and Great Britain. In spite of the increasing export of extract the raw wood trade has not much diminished, being in 1903 36,875 tons, in 1906, 29,511 tons, and in the first six months of 1907, 17,512 tons mostly shipped from Sav-la-Mar and Black River. The yellow wood (Morus tinctoria) is largely displaced by aniline colors, yet in 1906 its export was still in the neighbor- hood of 5,000 tons. It is especially used for Khaki colors in cotton and woolen goods. Farbholz Gewinnung und Handel auf Jamaica. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung, June, 1908, p. 232. Compated with i880 France had her wood French imports very considerably reduced, namely, Imports. from 3 million tons and 40 million dollars to 1,230,000 tons and 15 million dollars in 1900, since this last date the imports have increased again. In 1905 the net imports amounted to 22.8 million, in 1906 to 32.8 million, in 1907 rising slightly to round 33 million dollars, al- though if we do not offset the increased exports of 14 million, the advance in imports over the previous year would be over 2 million dollars. In this 10 million dollars. worth of pulp wood appears. Eaux et Foréts. No. 5, 1908, p. I5I. : ; Periodical Literature. art STATISTICS AND HISTORY. Knowledge of wood prices in Europe has Log value to us mainly by showing to what we Prices must ultimately come in due time. There in can be little doubt that prices prevailing Hesse. now in the dearest markets will eventually be world prices. For the years 1906 and 1907 the prices for logs in the state forests of Hesse were as follows, in cents per cubic foot, rounded off: Inches Middle Diameter. 24+ 20-24 16-20 12-16 I0-12 Below Io 68 Oaks Cexstraysisahivas pote 59 52 33 20 13 OakiGeommonyye seicess ne: 50 41 34 23 14 12 BCCCHR Oe oe Re tee es 15 16 14 12 10 13 | FOE, On AOD Can GO a Ee 24 22 1 12 10 SPARC Rh * BS esi 16 15 14 13 II This would indicate a range per M feet BM of say $18 to 75 for oak; $15 to 18 for beech; $15 to 26 for pine, and $17 to 18 for spruce. It is interesting to note that prices are not quite uni- formly influenced by size. Mitteilungen der grossherzollich hessischen Staats forst verwaltung, in Zeitschrift fiir Forst- u. Jagdwesen, April, 1908, p. 267. Bavaria, among the German States, stands Results next to Prussia in size of State forests, of which in 1905 comprised 2,035,700 acres Bavarian timber producing area. Forest The total cut was 132 million cubic feet Management. or 56 cubic feet per acre. Of this cut 1.8 million or not 1.3 per cent. was brush and root wood. Of the balance 51.7 per cent. was building material or work wood—logs and ‘bolts—the increment per acre of this character then being about 29 cubic feet, which may be set equal to 240 feet B. M. It is interesting to note that 20 per cent. of the log timber, but over 4o per cent of the cordwood cut came from thinnings. The average auction price for logs was a little over 12 cents per cubic foot and for cordwood nearly 5 cents, but by reason of various servitudes and freehand sales the total result for either 312 Forestry Quarterly. item was depressed by about 1 cent, the total actual result being $9,586,000 from which the cost of cutting and moving of $1,- 305,000 must be deducted to get the net income of the wood sales which figures $4.22 per acre. Other expenditures bring this down to $2.46 for the whole forest administration. Of the log cut the bulk is coniferous, only 12 per cent. was deciduous, and of this nearly half oak. Mitteilungen aus der Staats forst verwaltung Bayerns, Heft 7, 1907. An interesting historical study by Melard French explains in detail the peculiar forest ad- Methods ministration existing in France before the of the Revolution. The country was divided into Past. 20 Grandmasterships, each subdivided into several masterships. This arrangement was the result of the celebrated reform reorganization by Col- bert begun in 1669 and dates from 1689, and little change oc- curred during the one hundred years before the revolution, ex- cept that the original 17 grand maitrises were increased to 20. While before the reform the officers secured their emoluments as best they could from the forest, regular salaries became the rule, ranging from 4,000 to 10,000 livres and 300 to 500 livres of fuelwood, which represents in present values three times those amounts, i. e., $2,600 to $5,000, a generous wage for France, especially when it is considered that the position could be sold or left to the children, a method which no doubt led to abuse, but which was general with many positions of State. The author warns against finding fault with this institution and points out that since everybody had the position he desired, he did not want advancement or change of residence and that meant a peaceful administration. The same place remained in the same family and the experiences of the father were utilized by the son, assuring a continuity of treatment most desirable in the forest, where brief observation and rapid changes prove often detrimental. / The sale of office or transmission by inheritance was, how- ever, not entirely without check, namely an examination, simple indeed, and having reference only to the functions of the office. Les départments des grands maitres avant la révoldtion. Revue des eaux et foréts. No. 6, 1908, pp. 161-175. ? Periodical Literature. 313 MISCELLANEOUS. The question of the relative liability to Trees lightening of various species has been again Selected and again ventilated and all sorts of super- by stitions have been in vogue. The old Ro- Lightning. mans believed the laurel, fig, mulberry, peach, and box lightning-proof, and forest- ers in modern times have believed in more or less liability of va- rious species. Dr. Hess, as a result of 16 years’ observation, be- lieved the beech least exposed, and taking it as a unit found the fir 6 times, the Scotch Pine 37 times, the oak 60 times more liable. Other writers have had similar series worked out. The Belgian meteorologist Vanderlinden has lately published results of 23 years’ systematic observations mainly in Bel- gium, laid down in not less than 50 folio pages. By subdividing the territory into five sections, it was established that the differ- ent species did not take the same rank in each as regards greater liability, although our cottonwood seemed to be most frequently struck. From all the observations it may be concluded that the height of the tree, especially of isolated ones, and the character of the bark have much to do with its liability to lightning. This. would make the tall cottonwood with its furrowed bark more liable than the smooth barked generally lower Beech, and in the forest the dominant trees would be more liable than the lower tiers. To consider tall trees near houses as lightning protec-. tors is, then, a grave error. Lightning-proof trees, however, are a fable. “Revue des eaux et foréts.. No. 9, 1908, pp. 278-281. In his inaugural address as Director of the Academy Minden Forest Academy, Oberforstmeister a oo Fricke vigorously maintains that that insti- University. — tution does deserve to rank with the uni- versities (hochschule) of Germany. Cer- tain south German educators so earnestly argue that isolated forest schools are less fitted to prepare young men for forestry than are the universities offering forestry courses that they have denied them this rank. Prussia depends upon her two forest > 314 Forestry Quarterly. academies, and at least there, where there is no direct competition with a university the results hardly warrant the wholesale criti- cism Endres of Munich puts into his report as chairman of a committee of the German Foresters’ Union. It seems from so much of this report as Fricke quotes that in Lehrfreiheit and Lernfreiheit do these schools fall farthest short of the German ideal. When the state sets out to educate young men for its own service—for a service in which it is in duty bound to afford them employment during their active years and a pension when they are retired—it is no more than just that a specific and defin- ite preparation should be required. It does not seem to have occurred to the German that a freedom of a different kind, a free- dom to develop in the most effective direction, a Wuchsfreiheit, is possibly a good thing, too. F. D. Ist ’die Forstakademie Miinden cine Hochschule? Zeit-schrift fiir Forst und Jagdwesen, June 1908, pp. 341-357. NEWS AND NOTES. EK. A. STERLING, in Charge. [SiS SISA hep SREY RSET LEY Foresters throughout the United States will deeply regret the death of H. D. Everett, who was killed by natives on the Island of Negros sometime during the latter part of May. His death was reported late in June by a newspaper dispatch from Manila. The report was not confirmed, however, until early in July when a cable was received by the Bureau of Insular Affairs at Wash- ington to the effect that Captain Ahern, Director of the Bureau of Forestry of the Philippine Islands, had found the body of Everett and of T. R. Wakeley, a native of Chicago, who had been acting as superintendent of schools of Negros. Everett and Wakeley, with four Filipinos, had been exploring the Island of Negros for the purpose of mapping the country and making an investigation of its natural resources. They had been missing six weeks at the time the first report was received. Details of the murder are not known beyond those given in the following quotation from Captain Ahern’s report, as transmitted by cable: “Am returning with remains of Everett and Wakeley, which we found near their last camp in the Bayaual mountains. At first our guides were apparently afraid to lead us into the moun- tains of the interior island along the route traveled by the two murdered men. Lwackily, we at length succeeded in securing guides who are acquainted with Ayhao, the leader of the mur- derers, and who took us to the last camping place of Everett and Wakeley. ‘““Ayhao, it was explained, planned the murder while acting as one of the native guides who were conducting the two white men into the interior of the island. While gambling with the other guides, he drugged the entire party with the fumes from a plant. Ayhao and some followers killed Everett and Wakely and five guides. The only excuse given by Ayhao for murder- ing the party was that he felt like killing some one.” Capt. Ahearn and his party found the botanical and other equipment of the two men, and also Everett’s money. All the 316 Forestry Quarterly. villages and native strongholds in the mountains were abandoned upon the appearance of the searching party. Capt. Ahearn stated that he endeavored to capture Ayhao, but was deserted by his guides, ran short of rations, and found the trails so bad and the rivers so swollen that he had to return with his small force. Ayhao is reported to be far in the mountains with many fol- lowers. Everett was a graduate of the Literary Department of Cor- nell University in the class of 1901. He then entered the New York State College of Forestry, and continued his studies there until the dissolution of the Forest school in the summer of 1903. He completed his forestry course at the University of Michigan, taking his degree of Master of Science in Forestry in 1904. He immediately entered the United States Forest Service as a Forest Assistant, and did excellent work in various parts of the United States during the succeeding two years. He had more than the usual amount of spirit of the pioneer and frontiersman, and when the need for foresters in the Philippines became urgent in 1906, he made application for a transfer to that Bureau. His work in the Islands was under the direct supervision of Captain Ahern, and was of such a grade that he was rapidly promoted until he became Assistant Director. In the Philippines his professional work was of the same uniformly high character that marked it as far above the average, both in his forest school work and later in his work in the Forest Service. Interment of the remains was at Manila on July 18. Everett was 28 years of age at the time of his death. He is survived by his father, O. M. Everett of Malone, N. Y., and by several brothers and sisters. Some preliminary data on the field planting of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company was given in the June issue (vol. 6, No. 2) of the Quarterly. The cost figures, however, were not avail- able at that time, and the averages are here appended for the benefit of those interested in forest planting under Eastern con- ditions. ‘The total number of trees actually planted in the field was 303,030, divided among the various species as follows: - News and Notes. 257 ,800 1 and 2 year old seedlings. GQuercis Sulfa, .). 0°62 os ae 102,950 ; ae 2 year old transplants. Quercus palustris, ....... ee 2 year old transplants. Quercus coccinea, ....... 800* 2 year old seedlings. Catalpa Vspeciosa, ......- 9,980 1 year old seedlings. Wietselariseraroras V2 <) Number of trees Area planted Forest. planted. acres. Helena 15,000 ms Dismal River 214,000 107. Kansas 125,777 62.5 Pikes Peak 32,000 16. 320 Forest. Pecos Gila Lincoln Santa Rita San Francisco Chiricahua Tonto (S) Tonto (N) Mt. Graham Pocatello San Bernardino San Gabriel San Luis Obispo Santa Barbara Monterey Forestry Quarterly. Number of trees planted. 33,000 54,250 3,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 1,000 25,000 33,000 52,000 72,800 4,000 IO1,000 4,000 884,827 Area planted 388.4 The number of seedlings and transplants on hand at the Plant- ing Stations this year is as follows: Garden City Halsey Pikes Peak Ft. Bayard Ft. Staunton Gallinas Wasatch Pocatello Lytle Creek San Marcos Small nurseries 56,000 2,623,050 308,944 318,533 122,980 290,293 754,950 225,608 74:575 77250 302,000 5,154,673 News and Notes. 321 The following quantities of seed were sown at the Planting Stations during the spring of 1908: Pounds of seed Estimated no. of Station. sown. seedlings produced. Halsey 60 500,000 Garden City — 300,000 Pikes Peak 63 300,000 Gallinas 72 500,000 Ft. Bayard 61 600,000 Wasatch 125 2,000,000 Pocatello 60 300,000 Lytle Creek 150 500,000 5,000,000 There seem to be great possibilities in direct seeding, either broadcast or partial, as an economical and satisfactory means of restocking burned areas in the forests of the north and north- west, and at high altitudes in the southwest. Quite a number of experiments have been started this past spring with Douglas fir and several other species in order to procure data on this point. Following is a list of these experiments : Pounds of Forest. seed sown. Area acres. Little Rockies 10. ee, Yellowstone (Abs. Div.) 10. 7 Yellowstone (Shos. Div.) 25: 4. Madison 3. +5 Little Belt 4.5 85 Black Hills 775. 70. Pike 14. re | Gunnison . 16. 2.7 Rock Range 16. 27 Medicine Bow 19. 2: Holy Cross 16. 7a Leadville I2. 2.0 San Juan 4. 8 Las Animas 14. 2% 322 Forestry Quarterly. Pounds of seed Estimated no. of Station. SOWN. seedlings produced. San Isabel 18. Ris White River 5 95 Weiser gs bet Beaver Wie I.1I Holy Cross 6 1.0 Manti Zs 3 Pocatello 50. 9. Washington (Chelan Div.) Tear ZS Washing (West Div.) 16. 2.6 635-5 118.1 Plans have been made to undertake experimental planting of eucalyptus on selected areas on the San Luis, Angeles, Santa Barbara and Cleveland National Forests in California. This work will be commenced in August of this year with seed of 61 species, secured in Australia. The Office of Silvics of the Forest Service is this year taking up a study of the number, kind, and efficiency of the windbreaks from Minnesota and Montana to Texas and New Mexico and in the windswept, middle-western states, embracing the area of prairies of Idaho, California and Washington. It is one of the first attempts to apply ecological methods to the solution of a puzzling, practical, problem. The investigation is in charge of Mr. C. G. Bates with several collaborators from the Universi- ties of Nebraska and Michigan. The windbreak study aims to reduce the matter of windbreak planting to an economic basis. The value of different species and methods of planting in windbreaks and the shelter-belts will be determined by the effects of these belts upon the yield of crops growing in their vicinity. Since such influence upon the crops must act through the physical factors of the environment, these factors may be measured to obtain a ‘direct index of the efficiency of the windbreak, and to explain the late effect upon the crops themselves. The factors which may be influenced by the presence of a windbreak are wind movement, atmospheric and soil moisture, light, and soil temperature. The movement tod News and Notes. 323 of the atmosphere determines, largely, the amount of moisture which will be evaporated from the leaves of plants and from the surface of the soil. It may also have an influence upon the occurrence of late and early frosts. While, on the one hand, the windbreak may check the force of the wind, and thus reduce the evaporation, it may, on the other hand, take a great deal of moisture from the soil to supply the trees which compose it. ‘The endeavor will be to determine which species produces the greatest barrier to the wind movement and at the same time makes the least demand upon soil moisture. A concerted movement seems to be on foot among the Southern lumbermen for the more conservative handling of the remain- ing yellow pine timber of the South. They have asked the Forest Service for advice with a view to logging conservatively, so as to derive future benefits as well as present returns. At a meeting in St. Louis the matter was discussed at some length, and an effort is now being made to perfect an organization which, if satisfactory to the Government, will have as its aim the more rational management of the Southern pine forests. It is under- stood that the organization, while virtually a combination of lumbermen, and, therefore, subject to Federal control under the Sherman Act, is not a consolidation in restraint of trade, but rather for the benefit of the forest resources and, therefore, legitimate in the eyes of the law. There is obviously opportunity for a better understanding amongst Southern lumbermen, for their trade methods have been injurious to themselves as well as to the forests, and at the same time it has been and is still hard for them to get together. The opportunities for improvement in the management of Southern timberlands are only too apparent, but it is not exactly clear how anything approaching intensive forestry or even conservative lumbering can be carried on with- out a curtailment of present profits, which will not be acceptable. It is said, however, that the lumbermen now realize that logging as at present conducted in the Southern Pine Belt is not only a serious injustice to the country but is directly inimicable to their own interests. It is proposed to log these lands in such a manner as to insure successive crops of trees and at the same time make present utilization more complete. The timber ordin- 20 324 Forestry Quarterly. arily wasted in long tops and high stumps will be saved and the wasteful practice of boxing trees for turpentine will be dis- continued and all turpentine orcharding will be done by the cup and gutter system, the larger trees only being bled. The slash will be disposed of so as to remove the menace of fire and insects to growing timber, and the cut-over land will be patrolled during the dry seasons in order to prevent serious fires. While the proposed organization has not yet assumed definite form, it {s very certain that the practice of forestry throughout the Southern Pine Belt, where about one-third of the timber of the country is produced, would be a great conservative measure and go a long way towards averting the approaching timber shortage. In order to expedite and render more effective and economical the work of administering the National Forests, field headquar- ters are to be established by the Forest Service in the West, and the clerical force needed to complete the organization will be mainly drawn from the force now employed in the Wash- ington office. The change will take place not later than January I, 1909, and will probably begin by October 1 of the present year. At present the National Forests are grouped under six dis- tricts with headquarters as follows: District 1, Missoula, Mon- tana; District 2, Denver, Colorado; District 3, Albuquerque, New Mexico; District 4, Salt Lake City, Utah; District 5, San Francisco, California, and District 6, Portland, Oregon. These headquarters will remain unchanged under the new plan of ad- ministration. Each district will be in charge of a district forester who will deal directly with the Supervisor of the Forests of his district. Only questions of special importance will be submitted to the Washington office for action. In this way, the regular business of the forests will be much expedited, while the men who have charge of the business will be in almost constant touch with the users of the Forests. The men to take charge of the several districts have not as yet been selected, but they will be chosen from those in the regular Service force who have had most experience in the work on the National Forests. The growth of business on National Forests, resulting from the use of their resources by the public, has been steady and rapid _ cad News and Notes. 325 ever since the policy of wide use supplanted the policy of restricted use, at the time when the management of the National Forest was placed under the Forest Service. One of the big prob- lems of administration has been to get into close touch with the users of the National! Forests, and this has already been partially solved by various expedients, such as delegating to local Forest officers the authority to transact a large part of the National Forest business. In this way the public and the Service have been constantly brought closer together. A second step in the same direction was the recent transfer of headquarters for sup- plies from Washington, D. C., to Ogden, Utah. A third step was the placing of a branch of the office of engineering, which has charge of permanent improvements on the forests, also at Ogden, which is centrally located. The contemplated change is, therefore, merely the completion of a plan which has already been partially worked out. Probably one-third of the clerical force now in Washington, mainly stenographers and typewriters, will go West to complete the organization required in each field district. It is expected that a sufficient number of clerks in the Washington office will desire assignments to the field headquarters, so that it will not be necessary to send to the field those who do not wish to go, and no new appointments will be necessary. In making selec- tions for the new posts the individual preferences of the clerks will be consulted so far as the work permits. The change will not affect the form of organization of the work done by the Service, except that directly connected with the administration of the National Forests, will continue to be Forest Service in Washington. The offices will be retained as at. present, but with a smaller force. All of the investigative work will be directed from Washington. The appropriation for the Forest Service for the fiscal year ending June 30,°1909, is $3,946,200. This sum includes $600,- ooo set aside for the construction of permanent improvements on the National Forests, such as roads, trails, bridges, telephones, cabins, pastures, drift fences, and fire lines. The total appro- priation for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1908, was $3,463,879. Of this sum $500,000 was for permanent improvements. Un- der the terms of the new appropriation, 25% of the receipts 326 Forestry Quarterly. of the National Forests will be returned to the states in which the National Forests are located, for roads and schools. ‘The net receipts from the National Forests during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1908, were $1,793,971.20, of which $448,492.79 will be paid the states for the purposes mentioned. During the fis- cal year ending June 30, 1907, the net receipts were $1,530,321, of which 10%, or $153,032, was turned over to the states for roads and schools. The amount thus turned over must, according to law, be distributed among the counties in proportion to the acreage of National Forests within their respective limits. On July 1 the general plan of redistricting the National For- ests was put into effect, in accordance with plans worked out during the preceding winter and spring. Under the new plan, twenty new administrative units were established. No material additions to the National Forest area were made, but many of the administrative boundaries were rearranged, names of Forests were changed, and in many cases several small Forests were consolidated under a single name. Single words were adopted for names wherever possible, and an attempt was made to commemorate the names of important geographic features, and of men of historical interest in the respective regions. Many of the names commemorate hunters, guides, trappers, Indian chiefs, and explorers. Under the redistricting, there are 144 Forests, under the ad- ministration of 144 supervisors. The total area of the National Forests on July 1 was 167,976,886 acres. The total number of rangers and guards was 1,442, making an average ranger district of 116,488 acres for each field man. As a matter of fact, the average range district is somewhat larger than this on account of the large area of National Forests in Alaska for which practi- cally no patrol force is necessary, and also on account of the fact that a considerable number of the rangers and guards are engaged entirely on timber sale work, so that they take no part in the patrol of the Forests. ; The redistricting will very greatly simplify the administration of the Forests, since it reduces the average area of each adminis- trative unit to but little over one million acres, and since the increase in the number of headquarters adds greatly to the con- Cd News and Notes. 327 venience of the general public in reaching and transacting busi- ness with the Supervisors. So far the orders redistricting of the Colorado, Nevada, Wy- oming forests have been promulgated, and several of the new districts have been changed in name. On May 30, 1908, the President approved an Act extending the provisions of the original Act of June 11, 1906, to all the National Forests in California, excepting those situated in the counties of San Luis Obipso and Santa Barbara. The Act of June 11 makes possible the settlement under the homestead laws of lands in the National Forests which are chiefly valuable for agricultural purposes. No decrease in the number of applica- tions for the lands is noticeable, the number of applications dur- ing the present year being greater than during the preceding year. On June 30, 1908, the total number of applica- tions received was 7,992. A large force of field examiners has been employed to make the necessary examinations and reports. A part of the work is also done locally by the Forest Rangers under the direction of the supervisors. It is ex- pected that by the close of the present field season, all the lands applied for will have been examined and reports submitted to the Forester. A distinct change in the character of applications is noticeable, the numerous attempts to secure the listing of heavily timbered lands under the guise of the Act of June 11 having, for the most part, been abandoned. The reports of Forest Supervisors show that during the past year the damage to timber from forest fires on the National Forests has been materially decreased from what was formerly the case. The forest area burned over during the calendar year 1907 was 212,850 acres, as against 115,416 acres in 1906, but 183,485 acres were grazing lands upon which no damage to timber resulted. 29,365 acres of merchantable timber was actually destroyed or damaged by fire in 1907, as against 52,374 acres in 1906. ‘The total number of fires of all kinds reported was 1,335. The estimated value of timber destroyed was $31,- 590, less than 42% of the amount destroyed during the preced- ing year. 328 Forestry Quarterly, Forest fires have been raging in Maine during July. Among other sufferers the Great Northern Paper Company had 1,500,- 000 feet burned in Jerusalem township. The most dangerous conditions in eight years were prevailing and widespread damage is anticipated. Great progress in the construction of permanent improve- ments on the National Forests has been made during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1908. This was made possible by the appropriation by Congress of a special fund of $500,000 for this work. During the year, 3,400 miles of trails were con- structed, 100 miles of wagon roads, 3,200 miles of telephone lines, 550 cabins and barns, 600 miles of pasture and drift fences, 250 bridges, and 40 miles of fire lines. It is expected that the appro- priation of $600,000 to be available during the present fiscal year will permit the further extension of improvement work on the National Forests in accordance with the plans made during the past year. Fifty-four Forest Assistants from various forest schools throughout the country entered the Forts Service on July 1, and were distributed among the various offices. Following closely upon the decision of the Supreme Court of the State of Maine that the state has the right to regulate the cutting of timber on lands owned by private parties, word comes from another section of the country, of still more pronounced state action tending in the same direction. Pursuant to the request of the retiring Governor, N. C. Blan- chard, of Louisiana, an act has been formulated which is to be presented to the legislature for consideration at its coming session. The proposed act makes it unlawful First. To fell or girdle forest trees of less than 12” diameter breast high except in cases of cutting for domestic use or in clearing for farms or road building. Secondly. To fell trees in such a manner as to injure young growth. Thirdly. To allow brush to remain upon the ground in the neighborhood of young trees. - News and Notes. 329 The act makes the breaking of the above provisions a misde- meanor punishable by fine or imprisonment for each tree felled in violation of the act. The new Alabama Forestry Commission having been created only last November at the extraordinary session of the Legis- lature has issued its first official address to the people of Ala- bama. ‘The address deals particularly with the imperative need of co-operation among the timberland owners of the state and the importance of fire protection and prevention. One of the features which is bound to attract considerable attention is the guarantee of exemption from taxation of all lands used for tree culture for a period of ten consecutive years. The address also deals with the delegation to the game and fish wardens of the powers of forest wardens to protect state forest reserves and to enforce forest rules, laws and regulations. West Virginia has added another school of forestry to the many as a branch of the state university at Morgantown. Also a state forestry association has been formed with the purpose of promoting practical forestry. In addition to these moves a committee has been appointed by the State Board of Trade to draft forest laws and to outline a policy to be laid before the legislature at its next session—Southern Lumberman, February 15, 1908. The Government of Sweden is planning a forestry exhibition to be held in Stockholm in 1910. In addition to exhibits of wood products in various stages of manufacture, lectures on forest problems will be given by expert foresters of various countries. It is probable that the United States will be asked to send exhibits from its several forest regions as well as from its island posses- sions. It is expected that Great Britain and the timbered British provinces will also be invited to send exhibits—Canada Lumber- man and Woodworker, April, 1908. Chancellor Lyell, of Mississippi, recently rendered a decision which, if sustained by the higher courts, will prove to be a blow to the ‘Mississippi Plan.’””’ The decree came as the decision in a test case concerning the legality of a clause in the constitu- 330 Forestry Quarterly. tion of the Retail Lumber Dealers Association of Mississippi and Louisiana which practically provides for the boycotting of whole- salers and manufacturers who sell direct to the consumer, and which has come to be known as the “Mississippi Plan.” The chancellor declares the association to be a “combination in restraint of trade and intended to hinder competition” and orders a dissolution of the association. The case has been appealed to the Mississippi Supreme Court. In accordance with its established policy of increasing from time to time its forest land holdings the State of New York through the agency of the State Preserve Board has recently purchased a tract of 3,500 acres of Adirondack Region land paying there- for $8.00 per acre. This action is of particular interest in that the tract embraces the head waters of the Hudson River and includes some of the highest peaks in the Adirondack Mountains. The State of Massachusetts has passed a law to establish a system of forest reserves in the State with an initial appropriation of $5,000, and $10,000 annually for succeeding years. The price of such land is to be limited to $5 per acre, and the size of single tracts to 40 acres, except where watersheds are involved which make a larger holding desirable. Such land may be purchased by the owners within Io years, by paying original price with 4 per cent interest and expendi- tures for improvements added. Donations of land are also called for, to be under the management for the State Forester, and to be used, like the purchased lands for demonstration pur- poses. An important step in the general movement to bring many of the rich stands of timber in the South under a scientific plan of forest management is the offer made by the school of forestry of the University of Georgia at Athens, Ga., to furnish timber owners experts who will examine and report upon any of the forests in the State. f The object of the offer is to collect information in ‘regard to the forest resources of the State, to spread a knowledge of for- estry and to improve forest conditions. The forest school will furnish the experts free and the only expense which will be News and Notes. 331 borne by the forest owner will b paid for the traveling and sub- sistence expenses of the expert while making the examination. In cases where several owners of the same locality apply the ex- penses will be prorated. When applications for examination are made, the owners have been asked to give their names and post office addresses, loca- tion of tract, area of tract, character of forest as shown by the kinds of trees growing on the land, the conditions of the forest, whether nature, original or second growth, whether the land has been burned or cut over, and the wishes of the owner regard- ing the use of the land. What is said to be the largest single sale of timber land in the history of West Virginia has been made by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company to a corporation which will at once begin development. The purchasing company has mills at Ridg- way and at Camden-on-the-Gauley, within reach of the tract. The combined capacity of its mills is 350,000 feet a day. Two million dollars is the reported price paid for 200,000 acres of hardwood, chiefly virgin forest, containing yellow poplar, cherry, oak, maple, birch, ash, and many other valuable woods. The land lies in a mountainous region drained by northeastern tributaries of the Great Kanawha which empties into the Ohio about 300 miles from Pittsburg. It is one of the largest and most valuable bodies of hardwood timber remaining in the Ap- palachian region. Many of the mountain ranges which cross the tract are from 3,000 to 4,000 feet high, and covered to their summits with rich forests. North of this tract, but drained by the same streams, lies another holding of 129,000 acres, recently secured by a pulp company. This is covered with spruce and hemlock, with many patches of hardwoods. Development of the property, it is said, will begin in the immediate future The two bodies of land, ly- ing in the same region, aggregate more than 500 square miles of primeval forest about to be turned into marketable products. The stripping of the forest cover from a’ region so large and so mountainous will be watched with interest by those who study the effect of the soil cover on stream flow. The rainfall over the region is very heavy—more than four feet annually. Snow six feet deep on the timbered mountains, while not usual, is an 332 Forestry Quarterly. occasional occurrence. Fire is sure to follow the usual methods of lumbering, and unless this region is more fortunate than most lumbered tracts in that part of the Appalachian plateau, many of the summits and sides of the mountains will be laid bare down to the soil and rocks. The rainfall and melted snow, which are now retarded by the forests, will then pour down the naked slopes and cause destructive floods in the lower streams, and low water will follow. West Virginia is one of the states which has taken no measures to protect its valleys from floods by preserving the forests on the mountains. Its woods are being cut and burned more rapidly perhaps than those of any other state, and this in face of the fact, that it is by nature a forest state, with soils and situations suited to almost all eastern timber trees. It might perpetuate its forests and have woods of immense value always. A little protection against fire, the leaving of small trees to form the future forest, and provision for reproduction by means of seed trees are simple measures, but they would mean all the differ- ence between wasted hillsides and well stocked forests, ripe for the ax. A few years would bring handsome returns from the investment. Wood preservation by the Middle Western railroads is de- veloping at a rate which is hardly appreciated in the East except by those who are giving the matter particular attention. The importance of this movement can hardly be overestimated, since it means not only an awakening to the seriousness of the present timber situation, but through the longer life which results from preservative treatment of timber the demands on the exhausting supply should be materially reduced. Recent statistics on the timber consumption by railroads are not available, but according to estimates given in Bulletin No. 4 of the old Forestry Division the railroads of the United States take in the neighborhood of twenty per cent. of the total timber output, and it is not likely that the percentage has changed greatly since that time. The gradual ex- haustion of local supplies of ties and lumber have forced the railroads to buy in foreign territory, with the consequent increase in original cost and transportation. This condition, coupled with other economic considerations, has brought about a more general recognition of the advantages of preservative treatment of timber. News and Notes. 333 In 1900 there were II treating plants in this country; to-day there are over 50, while during 1907 no less than 14 railroad treating plants were finished or in course of construction and plans drawn for several more. One of the latest iarge wood pre- serving plants to be completed is that of the Chicago, Burling- ton, and Quincy Railroad at Galesburg, Ill. It is a six-cylinder plant, each cylinder being 6 feet in diameter and 132 feet long, and so designed that treatment can be given by almost any known process. The storage yard covers 80 acres, with a ca- pacity of 2 million ties, in addition to space for several hundred thousand feet of lumber and poles, while the plant, when in full operation, will turn out 1,500,000 ties per year, besides lumber and piling. The location of the plant is such that a large timber- producing territory can be drawn upon, and the woods to be treated include the inferior oaks, shortleaf and loblolly pines, maple, beech, and other hardwoods. In the statistics of timber consumption commonly published, consideration is rarely given to the timber used for small aricles in daily use. In view of this, some recent statements from the New York Lumber Trade Journal and the American Lumber- man regarding the consumption of pencils and matches are of interest. It is stated that the civilized nations of the world strike three million matches every minute of the twenty-four hours, half of which are used in this country. The total consumption in America is given as 700,000,000,000 a year, and it is said that one factory on the Pacific Coast uses about 200,000 feet of sugar and yellow pine lumber daily, while another plant in the Lake region cuts 225,000,000 board feet per year. For pencils used in this country, 7,300,000 cubic feet of wood are consumed per an- num, which, when manufactured, makes 315,000,000 pencils. It is reported that Mr. S. B. Chapman, of Skyland, N. C., has invented a new patent process for seasoning gum lumber. The process is simply to sprinkle the lumber with a diluted solution of commercial sulphuric acid as it is stacked, or by running it through vats containing the solution. In treating gum with sprinkling pots, it has been found that the cost of the chemicals and labor run from 50 cents to $1 per thousand feet, which is rather too slow and expensive for general use, but it is expected > 334 Forestry Quarterly. that by the use of mechanical devices, such as automatic lumber stackers and glue spreaders, the cost can be materially reduced. After the lumber is sprinkled it is piled on sticks in the usual way and air-dried, with the result that all warping and staining is eliminated and the lumber rendered suitable for shipment in from 50 to 60 days. The Goodyear Lumber Company has begun operations on the last large tract of virgin timberland in Pennsylvania. This tract is located in Clearfield County, contains about 90,000,000 feet of hemlock and 20,000,000 feet of hardwood. Nine camps of 75 men each have been installed, and a logging railroad 20 miles long is being built. The hardwood has been sold to the New England Paper Manufacturing Company and will be made into bond for the printing of paper money by the Government. The American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association has appointed a special committee to investigate and report upon the subject of wood preservation. The committee aims to standardize processes of tie and timber treatment and hopes to find a means of reducing the mechanical abrasion by the use of improved ties, plates and fasteners. Mr. C. G. Crawford, of the Forest Service, has been appointed a member of this com- mittee and will act as Assistant Chairman in working up and compiling the data. The Sub-committee on Forestry of the National Conservation Commission appointed by President Roosevelt as a result cf the Conference of Governors in Washington some time ago, is ac- tively engaged in compiling data regarding our forest resources and the possibility of their more conservative use. The several offices of the Forest Service have been called upon for a com- pilation of all data available in their files, while in addition va- rious outside sources of information have been drawn upon. A commendable feature is that commercial organizations are being asked for suggestions, and we thus find that a letter has been sent to the American Railway Association requesting suggestions as to possible lines of inquiry. Several foresters who are engaged in educational work have News and Notes. 335 taken up special lines of investigation for the Forest Service dur- ing the summer. H. P. Baker, of Pennsylvania State College, is studying forest conditions in Pennsylvania and examining forest plantations which were established in co-operation with the Ser- vice; Walter Mulford, of the University of Michigan, and F. G. Miller, of the University of Washington, are on National Forest work; Prof. J. W. Toumey, of Yale, is studying the root habits of seedlings; C. A. Scott, of Iowa State College, is carrying on experiments in fence post treatment; while F. J. Phillips, of the University of Nebraska, is engaged in a study of windbreaks and their influence. R. C. Bryant, of the Yale Forest School, is spending the sum- mer in the lumber woods of the Lake States, collecting data on lumbering operations for use in connection with the course in lumbering at Yale. During the first half of July he was on a white pine tract in Wisconsin and during the season expects to visit representative lumber camps throughout the region. Yale University Forest School NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT A two-year graduate course is offered, lead- ing to the degree of Master of Forestry. Grad- uates of collegiate institutions of high standing are admitted upon presentation of their college diploma. The Summer School of Forestry is conducted at Milford, Pike County, Pa. The session in 1908 will open early in July and continue seven weeks. For further information, address HENRY S. GRAVES, Director, New Haven, Connecticut The University of Toronto and University College Faculties of Art, Medicine, Applied Science, House- hold Science, Education, Forestry. The Faculty of Forestry offers a four year course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry. For information, apply to the REGISTRAR OF THE UNIVERSITY, or to the Secretaries of the respective Faculties. FORESTRY QUARTERLY Vol. VI] DECEMBER, 1908. [No. 4. AN ANALYSIS OF CANADA’S TIMBER WEALTH. A Preliminary Study. B. E. Fernow. The vast territory of the Dominion of Canada, with over 3.5 million square miles, covers an area larger than the United States and not less than the whole of Europe, extending over 20 degrees of latitude from the 49°, that of Rome, to the North Pole, and through 85 degrees of longitude, over 3,000 miles across the con- tinent along the boundary line. With only about six million in- habitants, more than five-sixth living in the Eastern Provinces, it is natural that large areas remain still entirely unexplored, and other areas are still so little known that it would appear hazard- ous to venture very definite statements as to the timber resources of this large territory. If the writer nevertheless attempts this task after only a brief year of occupation with the subject and a few hasty reconnaissances, he does so with the full realization that the details of his conclusions may have to be modified on closer acquaintance. He has, of course, utilized what informa- tion is available, which is very scanty and often tinged by patri- otic tendencies to magnify, but he relies largely on a study of the geological and climatic conditions which are either of record or can be readily conjectured and which predicate forest types and forest conditions. Comparing Canada with the United States in their forest condi- tions two facts at once impress themselves, namely, the greater variety of forest types and the greater extent of continuous val- uable timber areas in the latter. No such thing as the extensive southern pineries, in which almost every acre contains merchant- able material, is to be found in Canada, and no such variety of > 338 Forestry Quarterly. species of value is to be found as the forests of the United States offer. Everything is simpler in Canada, as its geology and topography and its entirely northern climate would lead one to expect, and her limited areas of merchantable saw material are distributed through a large area of inferior growth: the commercial timber occurs mainly in “patches.” And we may say at once, that while perhaps a larger area than of the States exhibits wood- land conditions, the commercial timber area, actual and potential, is decidedly smaller. Floristically, we may differentiate, as in the States, the Atlantic and Pacific Forest, but while in the States the prairie and plains country separates these two types effectually, in Canada the for- estless country extends only 300 miles from the boundary north, with a base of 800 miles at the boundary, narrowed to 400 miles in its northern limit, and the Atlantic forest extends beyond about the 52° across the continent to the Rocky Mountains and to the mouth of the Mackenzie River and beyond, into Alaska. Indeed, along the Rocky Mountains on a limited area the bound- aries of the Eastern Pinus divaricata and the Western Pinus con- torta murrayana overlap and other species of the two floras asso- ciate here over considerable areas. Towards the north, the number of species as well as individual development is more or less gradually reduced, and finally, an- other treeless or forestless area is reached, the “barrens” or “tundra”; the northern limit of trees being described by a sinu- ous line from Fort Churchill to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, and on the Ungava side of Hudson’s Bay, by a line running close to the 58° from Nastapoka River to nearly the south shore of Ungava Bay and along the treeless coast of Labrador. Forest Flora.—A census of the tree species of Canada develops in all precisely 150 species and varieties as now recognized, of ar- borescent form, of which 32 are conifers, namely, Io pines, 5 spruces, 4 firs, 3 each hemlocks and larches, 2 each juniper and cedar, and each yellow cedar, red fir ‘and yew. Twenty of these conifers belong to the Pacific flora, while of the broad- leaf type only 25 of the 118 are found there. All of the species, except a few minor ones, are also found in the United States. Altogether, coniferous growth is prevalent, even in the At- _ oa Canada’s Timber Wealth. 339 lantic forest, most of the hardwood species finding their limits in the southern portions of the Eastern Provinces, and only a few species growing northward. If an economic point of view be applied, taking into considera- tion either frequency of occurrence, high usefulness, or capacity of development to timber size, we may list the following 66 species for the two geographical regions; those once or twice underscored .according to their importance, representing the 44 more prominent ones: ATLANTIC FLORA. Abies balsamea. Larix americana. Picea canadensis, mariana. Pinus strobus, resinosa, divaricata. Thuya occidentalis. Tsuga canadensis. Acer saccharum, rubrum. Betula lutea, papyrifera. Castanea dentata. Celtis occidentalis. Fagus atropunicea. Fraxinus americana, pennsylvanica, nigra. Gleditsia triacanthos. Gymnocladus canadensis. Hicoria ovata, minima, alba, glabra. Juglans cinerea, nigra. Liriodendron tulipifera. Magnolia acuminata. Nyssa silvatica. Platanus occidentalis. Populus balsamifera, deltoides, grandidentata, tremuloides. Prunus serotuta, Quercus alba, prinus, macrocarpa, acuminata, platanoides, rubra, velutina, coccinea. Sassafras sassafras. Tilia americana. Ulmus americana, fulva, thomasi. 340 Forestry Quarterly, PACIFIC FLORA. Abies grandis, amabilis, lasiocarpa. Chamaecyparis nootkatensis, Larix occidentalis. Picea engelmanni, sitchensis. Pinus ponderosa, Pseudotsuga mucronata. Thuya plicataa = Tsuga heterophylla. Acer macrophyllum. Alnus oregana. Arbutus menziesii. Fraxinus oregona. Populus trichocarpa, angustifolia. The importance of the species is, to be sure, an uncertain char- acter. As timber producers, on the west coast Douglas Fir and Giant Cedar, with Hemlock, Yellow Cedar and Sitka Spruce and some Fir and Engelmann Spruce are at present only serviceable. In the Rocky Mountains, Bull Pine and Larch are most promi- nent. In the East, the finer hardwoods are mostly cut out, Elm, Basswood, Yellow Birch, more rarely Ash and Red Oak are still plentiful, and Paper Birch abounds. Of the conifers, White and Red Pine with Hemlock are the main producers. White Spruce and Balsam Fir in large amount form the main value of the Eastern forest. Such species as Pinus murrayana and Pinus divaricata, Picea mariana, Populus balsamifera and tremuloides are important because they cover vast areas and form a not insignificant source of local supply of wood. Balsam Poplar and the two Jack Pines mentioned seem to develop in the more northern field of distribution; indeed their center of distribution seems to be found in the upper Mackenzie valley. The two eastern spruces are the most northern species up to timberline, and the White Spruce extends its field into the Rocky Mountain flora, while the Lodgepole Pine covering large areas of dry slopes, enters the field of the Eastern flora in its extension into Alaska. The Alpine Fir (A. lasiocarpa) and Patton’s Hem- lock, with Larix Lyallii, are the main alpine trees of the Rockies and the Coast range. Englemann Spruce and Abies grandis are - Canada’s Timber Wealth. 341 found only scattered, but Abies amabilis is forest-forming in the higher altitudes of the Coast Range, while Sitka Spruce and Tideland Hemlock form almost by themselves the northern coast forest. Forest Types —Taking together into consideration geological formation, soil, climate, and floral composition, we may con- veniently divide the whole wooded area into 4 broad geographical types which again may be divided into 12 regional types, within which, of course, many local types may be recognized. The Height of Land, a low ridge or succession of ridges rarely over 1,500 feet in height,—the watershed between Hudson’s Bay and the St. Lawrence including the Great Lakes—forms for the most part the northern limit of the Eastern forest, and within this area is confined the commercial timber of the East. The North- ern Forest forms the second type and extends north and west of this line to the Rocky Mountains, which form the third geo- graphical type, from which the Coast forest is differentiated as the fourth type. The Eastern forest may be subdivided into five regional types, which we may designate as the Acadian, the Upper, Middle, and Lower St. Lawrence, and the southern Laurentian. The Acadian type comprises the Maritime Provinces, with the eastern townships of Quebec south of the river added. This area, being geologically a continuation of the Appalachians, the forest represents the same type as the Maine or northern New England type, a birch-maple-beech hardwood base with conifer- ous admixture, which on the higher slopes and plateaus may be- come pure. Originally White Pine, at present White and Red Spruce with Balsam Fir, form the valuable part of the compo- sition. The St. Lawrence valley can be distinctly divided into three types. The peninsula of Ontario, located between Lakes Huron and Erie, to the west of Lake Ontario, enjoys, on account of the lake influence, a milder climate than other parts of eastern Canada and besides, being formed by glacial deposits upon limestone formations, excels in fertile soils, able to support a rich hard- wood forest. Here we find an extension of the southern hard- wood flora of oaks, hickories, Tulip-tree, Ash and Black Walnut besides Elm and Maple, all in magnificent development where iy * > XG 4 “aed ‘ NS er 58 } LH) ey ALA GRACE CUS LASS EO 4 J tee TS All as Gre. b ) > 5 lt cee, 11x ‘soliteid pure * Spurypoon, (q) OG ‘sortireid pue surejq () [Xx ‘JSvOD OL U.2. 9°03 OLN Dues < PRE Raden by oe A = u f "9 2 oN : $ | LyX grit tO ASO ary, : 2 ES AR EN eae PIR ; “SUIP} -unoy| AYO w1xYIION TIA “SUIR} -unop AxDOY wlayInOS JIA “DY IDI ‘dO SNOIDA ‘usayynosg (q) LSaaot ‘UIDYWION (2) : ororeqng ‘TA ‘ueluel -ne’] usoyNosg “A ‘Q0Ud1 -MP’T IS 1aMO’'T “AT yt LA ‘QOUdIMV’T fe , ta 3S PLPPIW ‘III oN iD id $ ‘Q0U01 Cf -MP’T “3G Joddy ‘TI bi . had ‘ULIPROY "| ‘uuDyy | 7 y Canada’s Timber Wealth. 343 any of them are left, and a number of other species like Sycamore, Sassafras, Kentucky Coffee-tree, Honey Locust, Chestnut, which find their northern limit here. The absence of spruce and bal- sam and the minor occurrence of pine and hemlock reminds one of the Ohio forests. Here is the garden spot of Canada, here on an area of 18,000 square miles lives half the population of Canada, and practically all the commercial timber is cut away to give room to farms, and many farms being even without woodlots, so that, a few years ago, in consequence of the anthracite coal strike, a fuel famine was experienced. The Middle St. Lawrence Valley includes the shore of Lake Ontario, east of a line drawn from Toronto to Midland on the Georgian Bay, and towards the north limited by a line drawn from the Georgian Bay to the Thousand Islands, and the river valley, east of a line from Belleville to Arnprior, narrowing from a width of 75 miles to less than 30 miles at a point south of Quebec. This is also glacial and river deposit, perhaps not quite so rich as the peninsula and certainly different in climate, the influence of the large continental area to the northwest being felt in a wider range of temperatures and lower rainfall and humidity. It is still a hardwood type, but reduced in variety, the species mentioned before as finding their northern limit on the peninsula, being ruled out by the climatic change. This region, too, is nearly cut out to make room for farms. The Lower St. Lawrence Valley from Quebec north narrows down to still smaller width, the fertile land extending from 6 to 20 miles at most alongside the river. The climate, still more rig- orous, rules out again a number of species, among which the White Oak, Burr Oak, Beech, Basswood and Butternut, and soon also the Hemlock and Red Pine disappear. The characteristics of the Acadian conifer type on one side and of the northern forest on the other are more and more approached. North of the St. Lawrence Valley drift, there extends a vast area formed of the Archean rocks of the Laurentian period—the Laurentian plateau—the oldest land of this continent, a rocky country, topographically little diversified, the thin soil collected in pockets, only occasionally of sufficient depth and richness for farm use. 344 Forestry Quarterly. On the southern slope of this “Laurentian Shield” south of the Height of Land is located the true commercial forest area of Eastern Canada, a country fit mainly for forest use. If we take the White Pine as the most important timber, this area is still further confined in its eastern portion, for while in the west- ern portion the northern limit of this pine very nearly coincides with the Height of Land, in the east, the limit of its occurrence is climatically still further limited, and lies far south of the Height, namely, on a line from the headwaters of the Gatineau to Seven Islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This is a country of lakes and swamps alternating with low hills and plateaus, most variably forested, although the flora is limited to few species. It would be difficult to pick the leading species in this territory of approximately 150,000 square miles extent. There is still a hardwood basis, in which Maple, Elm, Basswood and Paper Birch, with Beech, Red Oak, Yellow Birch, Ash, Balm of Gilead, besides the ever-present Aspen on burnt areas, play a part. Of the conifers, Balsam Fir is probably nu- merically the most frequent, with White Spruce a close second, and in the swamps the almost useless Black Spruce is prominent, with the more valuable White Cedar and Tamarack according to the character of the swamp. White Pine and Hemlock, the two most valuable species, and the Red Pine occur much more local- ized, mainly along the waters and on the better drained sandy hills. A century of logging has removed the accessible pine very nearly, and, while it is impossible to make even a guess of the amount still standing, the fact that hemlock is cut in ever increas- ing amounts sheds light on the situation. The Ontario portion of this area has always been reputed to be better stocked with this class of timber than the Quebec portion. Yet, the government officials, claiming on the unlicensed territory—which by the way in Ontario comprises still 140,000 square miles—1o to 12 billion feet of standing White Pine (or one-third of the annual consump- tion of coniferous material in the United States) seem to think this is a large amount. Those who realize that the commercially ities and access- ible saw timber is near exhaustion point to the enormous amount of pulpwood material as the value for the future. There are un- doubtedly large and for the present unmeasured amounts, but it - Canada’s Timber Wealth. 345 should also be realized that a large portion of this, perhaps more than 50 per cent., is Balsam Fir, which, although according to the writer’s contention superior to spruce for pulp, is not ad- vantageously floated, and since the rivers are the only means for getting it out at present and probably for a long time to come, it will remain unavailable until other values invite railroad de- velopment. The cut-over lands are treated no better or worse than in the States. Fire sooner or later ravages them, and on the thin siliceous soil destroys not only the young growth but the mould; the waters soon wash the soil and the bare rock comes to view. Thousands of square miles have been and are being burned over repeatedly and, while the Aspen and the Banksian Pine struggle to keep a forest cover, the value is gone. ‘The characteristic attitude of the authorities to this spoliation rolicy is exhibited in the declaration of a high official in charge of timberlands, that the extensive fires of the last season did not do much damage since they occurred mostly on cut-over lands. Beyond the Height of Land, the Northern or Subarctic Forest begins. Although White and Red Pine are still found, over- lapping along the upper river courses, and, although Aspen, Bal- sam Poplar and Paper Birch are frequent accompaniments and sometimes sole occupants of the soil, the general type may be described as spruce forest, the White and Black Spruce being by far the predominant species. While the eastern portion of this region lies on the old granite rocks, its western extension lies on limestone formation. With a climate still more rigorous than in the last described region, and with still less topographical dif- ferentiation, it stands to reason that on this northern slope of the Laurentian plateau, not only a reduction in the number of species to eight—besides those just mentioned only the Banksian Pine, Balsam Fir and the Tamarac take part in its composition— but reduction in development of individuals and of the whole forest is experienced. This vast territory, comprising about 1.5 million square miles, has for the most part been only superficially explored, and the explorations have followed mostly the river courses. Recently, a compilation of the meager reports on timber conditions by the explorers, from Hearne (1770) to Tyrell (1898), has been made 346 Forestry Quarterly. and the results as far as practicable have been mapped. The writer is indebted to Mr. R. E. Young, Superintendent of Rail- way Branch, Department of Interior, Ottawa, for a copy of this unpublished report and the accompanying map in anticipation of its issue, so that the readers of the Quarterly are the first to secure an insight into the conditions of this vast domain. It would lead us too far to print in full the interesting report, and on the other hand, it is difficult to dispose of such a large region in a few words, for variations of the type with change of soil, to- pography and climate must after all produce considerable variety over the vast area. Only impressions left from reading the report may be given. In regard to the map it should be under- stood that the explorations followed mostly the river courses, and hence the indicated areas should be conceived only as loca- tions not extent of forest areas. It is a plateau region or rolling plain dotted with thousands of lakes, large and small, and swamps or mossy muskegs in the shallow valleys, with only here and there better drained sandy or rock areas. ‘Temperature conditions are of greatest importance here and it is likely—this only a suggestion by the writer—that different exposures as well as soil depth account for the ob- served striking local differences of development. The different species occupy different localities, although the spruces are per- haps nearest to being ubiquitous. The Black Spruce occupies the boggy ground until, farther north it, too, prefers the drier situa- tions, and joins the White Spruce to the very limit of tree growth. Balsam Fir is not common, and, with the Tamarac, at its north- ern limit, leaves the muskeg borders and swamps for drier ground. It is the first species to disappear from the composition in going northward. The Banksian Pine seems to be the tree to the manor born, for it is the tree of the rocky and sandy situations and yet becomes of better size in its northwestern extension than it is known to attain in its more southern range, trees over 100 feet high and 12 to 20 inches in diameter having been observed along the Beaver, English, Athabasca and Clearwater Rivers between latitude 53° and 58°. It, too, gives out in the northern extension of this belt. The Balsam Poplar and the Aspen which latter oc- cupies, almost exclusively, a wide belt around the prairie region, are both an accompaniment of the more northern conifer forest. - Lad Muskeag Vegetation. Island in Lower Slave River, Three Zones of Growth. SUB ARCTIC FOREST TYPES. From North American Fauna, No. 27. - a a ; ay ae re rrenecs : Ag ald ie + ‘ ! oe | as ROE OS NS RPE MEY. Sa Fa te Tas, to. er ae sr - ae inapimohing STs ; Ges eae | \ / ~e ‘ a AE cae oy may z 4 . a" Ca w ot “4 Nee ipteden EM st damian! abt eat rie Saskatchewan. in forest irch | > ) oplar and | ] Thompson ] Seton L. hoto by ie Canada’s Timber Wealth. 347 Both of them also improve in habit in their northern field. The Aspen in the Riding and Porcupine Mountains and westward to Prince Albert and Edmonton, becomes a fine tree, of 50 to 100 feet in height with diameters up to 18 inches and is considered an indicator of good soil. The Balsam Poplar, too, reaches its great- est perfection on the Athabasca, Slave, Peace, and especially the Lower Liard rivers. Perhaps because they are allowed here to occupy the better soils, their development is improved, or else, as analagous observations in the alpine region of Colorado lead the writer to think, at least Aspen and Banksian Pine find their center of distribution in this northern climate. Paper Birch is not plentiful, and irregularly distributed, but has a wide range. An interesting island of this species in nearly pure stand occurs near the headwaters of McLeod and Athabasca Rivers, after an almost total absence of the species in the more eastern districts. Regarding the diameter developments noted on the map it should be kept in mind that the observers were not in most cases timberlookers and naturally noted the striking things, the giants relatively speaking, leaving us open to doubt as to what the gen- erality of condition might be. There are, as a rule, no descriptions given which may allow surmises as to the commercial character of the timber, nor how far the conditions observed from the canoe may be surmised to exist beyond the vision of the observer. The probability is that the sheltered river valleys exhibit the best de- velopment, and the plateau-like watersheds, except in the south- western sections with its milder climate like the Peace and Liard river basins are usually without forest growth of value. At any rate, looking at the economic value of these northern woodlands, everybody must agree that their timber, although of inferior character is of utmost value for home use by the pros- pective settler and miner, and of no commercial value to our eastern civilization, especially as the direction of down grades is in another direction. That vast areas, probably 50 per cent., are destroyed by fire and are annually burned over must be consid- ered an incalculable loss for the future. If an attempt were made to further differentiate this Northern Forest, we might recognize a northern and southern section, the limit between the two being formed by the northern limit of the Balsam Fir, which coincides for most of its trend closely with 348 Forestry Quarterly. the division line of the ‘“Hudsonian” and ‘Canadian’ life zone, lately established by the U. S. Bureau of Biological Survey.* South of this line we may assume, and we know in part, that a better development of forest growth is found more frequently than in the northern section in which the Balsam Fir is absent and Balsam Poplar and Banksian Pine are rare. As the foothills of the Rocky Mountains are reached by this northern forest, beyond the 52° it still continues northwestward into Alaska and to within a short distance of the Behring Sea and Arctic Ocean. There is, however, a change in the composition, two western species relieving two eastern. The Balsam Fir is supplanted by Abies lasiocarpa and the Banksian Pine by Pinus contorta murrayana. These latter also mingle in a narrow limited area southward, and the White Spruce and American Larch also invade the Rocky Mountain flora, while even the Douglas Fir from the West de- scends the eastern slopes for some 30 to 50 miles, joining the eastern flora. The Pacific Forest may regionally, and in part florally, be divided into four types, and topographically at least six types can be differentiated, namely, the northern and southern Rocky Mountain type, the northern and southern Coast type, and within each of these the wet and dry slopes and the alpine type. Temperature conditions divide the British Columbia forest into the two northern and southern, and the alpine types. Humidity is the determining factor for the dry and wet types in each of these, and humidity, of course, is predicted by topography. The topography here being extremely diversified, changes in composition and development are as diversified. West slopes and valleys opening to the west under the influence of the winds from the Pacific Ocean are humid. East slopes and valleys with- drawn from the influence of these winds are dry to arid. An arid interior plateau similar to that east of the Sierras in the States, divides the Rocky Mountains proper from the Coast ranges. 4 The southern Rocky Mountain type is an extension of a southern flora, with the Bull Pine (Pinus pondercsa), the Silver Pine (P. monticola), Engelmann Spruce and Western Larch as * North American Fauna No. 27. A Biological Investigation of the Athabaska Mackenzie Region. - - [uosduroyy, uoJes TT Aq OOUR] ‘soonads JSOWLUIOYJION OUT, ‘SUIVJUNOTY AYIOY FO STIPE, Joo Canada’s Timber Wealth. 349 representive timber trees, with Douglas Fir, Cedar, Hemlock, and Lodgepole Pine in minor occurrence, to which the eastern White Spruce may be added. This type varying somewhat in compo- sition and development extends to nearly 53° latitude, then to change into a type of simpler composition in which the Lodge- pole Pine plays a prominent part, covering the dry slopes and plateaus northward as far as they are wooded. Larix Lyallii, Pinus albicaulis and Abies lasiocarpa are the species of the al- pine zone, above 4,000 to 5,000 feet up to timberline, which is found at 7,000 to 7,500. West of the Coast range, the celebrated Coast forest, also an extension of a more southern flora, is found in a belt running for 200 miles north, and rarely broader than 50 miles at most from the shore, except at the southern boundary where it reaches 150 miles inland, crossing the Canadian Pacific a few miles east of Yale. The large island of Vancouver is for the most part wooded in a similar manner. Here the Douglas Fir in magnificent devel- opment with the Hemlock and Giant Cedar are the main timber trees, Abies grandis, Picea sitchensis, and Chamaecyparis noot- katensis adding locally to the values. The fine timber with di- ameters sometimes up to 12 feet and 300 feet in height, is, to be sure, not to be found in a continuous body, but according to to- pography varies with timber of poorer development. Generally speaking the bottoms, benches and gentler slopes exhibit the heavy timber up to altitudes varying between 1,500 and 2,500 feet. Above this elevation there is found in some parts for an- other 1,000 feet or so, another type, still of commercial value, mainly of Abies amabilis. Above the 3,500 foot level only the serubby or stunted growth of the Alpine type is found. Along the coast and on the islands north to Portland Canal, the northern Coast Forest changes in composition to the simpler Hemlock-Spruce type which continues all the way along the Alaskan shore to Cook’s Inlet. It is mainly composed of Hem- lock, Sitka Spruce and Yellow Cedar, occasionally where the soil depth is favorable developing to good size, although mostly branchy and really much of it of inferior quality. The Coast range being a series of low broken hills rather than a continuous range, this type continues into the valleys of the rivers for a considerable distance from the Coast. 350 Forestry Quarterly. Timber Areas and Standing Timber.—Actual knowledge re- garding commercial timber areas is scanty and the scattered knowledge has not been systematically collected. We have to rely on very much generalized estimates. Of the vast territory of British Columbia, estimated at 370,000 square miles not more than 30,000,000 acres or 12 per cent. is by well informed land lookers considered merchantable, according to present standards, and it is doubtful whether under any change of standards the acreage of actual and potential commercial for- est could be increased beyond 50,000,000 acres. At present, to be sure, the lowest standard at the Coast mills is as a rule 14 inch in 32 feet logs, and, as a rule, no trees under 26 inch d. b. h. are cut. Of such timber, now pretty nearly all located by timber licenses, not more than six million acres are supposed to exist, which may be swelled to 15 million of commercial character when standards are lowered, and both the northern extension and tim- ber of higher altitudes are added, which at 15 M feet average may indicate a stand of over 225 billion feet. In the mountain mills the average log sawed at the mill is 12 inches. Of this description some 15 million acres may be found in the southern Rocky Mountain type, which figured at 5 M feet, gives another 75 billion feet, or altogether for the western Canadian forest 300 billion feet. One might easily double these estimates without finding the supply inexhaustible. Every effort is being made to get rid of this valuable limited asset of the Province. The Government has disposed of at least two-thirds of the coast timber and of one-half of the mountain timber, and only six million acres, believed to be good timber, are not dis- posed of. The mill capacity so far established is, to be sure, still small, hardly one million feet, the value of the log products of the Province being by the Census of 1905 placed at $11,000,000. Fires, as everywhere, have made great havoc, especially in the mountain timber. While, on the western humid slopes in the heavy timber fires do not do much damage, the drier mountain country has suffered severely, not only along the line of travel, but wherever prospecting could be facilitated by the destruction of the forest cover. The northeastern section, but little explored, is probably without timber of other than local interest. - - Canada’s Timber Wealth. 351 Of the Northern Forest, so far as known, not much of com- mercial value, especially for saw mill use, except for local con- sumption, may be expected. ‘Those who figure on pulpwood values will have to keep in mind that for such use too qualitative development as well as quantity per acre in accessible situations are required, and that these conditions are mostly not met here. Not only the distance from centers of consumption is inimical, but the fact that river transportation is for the most part imprac- ticable—the rivers running mostly in the wrong direction and their use being otherwise beset with difficulties. The Southern Laurentian forest is destined to be the permanent forest reserve of the Eastern civilization, for most of it is not fit for other use. Agricultural lands do not abound, but pasturage could probably be established over wider areas and the writer ex- pects eventually a large cattle industry to be developed on the better soils now occupied nearly exclusively by hardwoods. As intimated before, soil conditions vary considerably and hence local forest types vary from the almost pure hardwood growth in which Birch, Maple, Elm, and Basswood are prominent with Black Ash, little Red Oak, and Beech of more local distri- bution, to pure coniferous forest of pines, or Black Spruce in the swamps. The good saw timber is so irregular in its distribution, that one can travel hundreds of miles without seeing any of it. Banksian Pine occupies long stretches. It is the “fire pine,” being serotinous and opening its cones preferably under the in- fluence of the heat of forest fires. While this pine is useful enough for mine props, railroad ties and fuel, it rarely reaches saw timber size. Outside of Spruce and Balsam Fir, the White Pine, Red Pine and Hemlock are the commercial trees, and the northern limit of the White Pine circumscribes this area of 150,- 000 square miles, or say 100 million acres. Little, if anything, is known of the total stand of timber remaining, but if, for the sake of getting at some reasonable figure, we assume an average stand of 2,000 feet per acre, we would probably estimate too high. In other words a stand of 200 billion feet of saw timber must be considered an ample allowance. The St. Lawrence Valley sections are, as stated before, prac- tically cut out and may only be considered as helping to eke out the over-estimate for the previous section. 352 Forestry Quarterly. Taking Ontario alone with a total land area of 126 million acres, of which 80 million are still unsurveyed, we find that the distribution of these lands among three types of forest country occupied by the Province, gives 30 million acres to the southern hardwood type, 50 million acres to the central southern Lauren- tian type, and 46 million acres to the Northern Forest. Not quite 25 million acres are disposed of to private owners. From the assessment lists we learn, that of these, 14 million acres are cleared, of which 12.4 millions are in the peninsula, Lake Ontario and in St. Lawrence Valley, and 1.7 million in the Southern Laurentian plateau. The woodlots on these farms are assessed at 5.5 million acres, nearly 2 million acres are reported as slash, and 2.8 million as swamp and waste (2.4, 2, and 1 million of the latter respectively in the three sections). Applying a general experience figure for waste land incapable of recuperation, we would come to the conclusion that 85 million acres or two-thirds of the Province will always remain in woods except so far as it may be turned into grazing lands. Mr. Whitson of the Crown Lands Department, one of the best informed men on these matters, places the figure as at best 70 million acres productive forest area, and the stand of pine outside of licensed lands (12.5 million acres are licensed and were some time ago estimated to contain 24 billion feet, the annual cut being around 800 million feet) and of forest reserves (10 million acres) at 10 billion feet B. M., and the pulpwood at 288 million cords. He also states that of the Jack Pine not Io per cent. is fit even for railroad ties. For Quebec the distribution of land areas may be made as fol- lows: Of the 218 million acres (342,000 square miles) around 144 million acres belong to the Northern Forest, 50 million, the same amount as for Ontario, to the southern Laurentian; the St. Lawrence valley with 5 million acres represents mostly farm area, and the balance of 19 million acres may be accredited to the Acadian region. There are about 9 million acres in farms, of which 7.5 million are in crops, and 1.5 milliori is waste land, hence the total forest and waste land area is over 210 million acres. An estimate by Langelier, Superintendent of Forest Rangers, places the standing lumber of the White and Red Pine at less than 40 billion feet, and spruce sawlogs at over 100 billion, all other saw - 7 Canada’s Timber Wealth. 353 material (including Jack Pine!) at about 18 billion feet, or al- together less than 160 billion feet. The Maritime Provinces with somewhat over 57,000 square miles, together with the Eastern townships of Quebec, south of the river (30,000 square miles) belong to the Appalachian or Acadian forest type. This area is practically cut out as far as pine is concerned, and relies now mainly on spruce for saw timber. In New Brunswick 12 million acres are estimated to be under wood, the composition of which, by good authorities, is figured as 60 per cent. spruce, 10 per cent. pine, 5 per cent. hemlock, 5 per cent. cedar, 20 per cent. hardwoods. Here the larger por- tion is owned privately, some 10.5 million acres. Of the 7.25 acres of crown lands all but about one million acres is under license, the latter area being barrens or burnt. The small remaining area of timberland on Prince Edward Island is in calculations like these entirely negligible. New Brunswick together with Nova Scotia which represents an area of some 14 million acres, may round off the total stand of saw timber in the Eastern Provinces to 300 billion feet and for the whole of Canada to 600 billion feet. We might readily double these estimates and still remain within reasonable limits of the truth, if a closer utilization, especially on the Pacific Coast, and more careful lumbering generally were practiced, and if the fires running with tolerable regularity through the slash did not de- stroy much of the growing timber besides the young growth. Considering that the above estimated stand of saw timber, which others have considerably reduced, would not suffice to supply the present annual consumption of coniferous material in the United States for more than 15 to 20 years, and the import into Great Britain of this class of material for more than 60 to 80 years, the need of securing better knowledge of the conditions of this resource and of employing conservative methods in its use are apparent. 22 THE MECHANICAL TRACTION OF SLEDS. Asa S. WILLIAMS. The lumber industry of North America was born in the snows. The great forests of the north were one of the major resources of the Colonies in their youth. With their unity and political and industrial growth, logging or lumbering and its development into the sawmill industry, soon assumed, and has since maintained, its place as one of the major industries of this country. From the pine forests of Massachusetts and Maine, the in- dustry spread to the French and English provinces and to our lake states, all regions having frozen winters. In these regions it still thrives, in some sections past its prime, but in others, as on several rivers of the old state of Maine, it is renewing its youth, and there is strong evidence that the old Pine Tree State that furnished the first timbers for our ships, will still retain a goodly forest heritage when the present almost unbroken forests of the south and of the Pacific will be mere memories. The exploitation of these northern forests has always been a winter operation. ‘The reasons for this are several. First, the winter was an off season when the farmer and the farmer’s boy could go to the woods; secondly, the winter’s snows were great aids, even necessities, for transportation of the logs; and thirdly, the winter is followed by the spring with its streams at flood, to easily and cheaply carry the logs to market. For a century and a half this exploitation has been carried on with but little change in general method, but with some improve- ment in details of it. Thus to-day, the trees are felled as fre- quently with the axe as with the more efficient saw. ‘They are snaked, skidded, or yarded with horses and oxen to a main sled road, there loaded on the sleighs, and hauled to the landings at the waterways. As regards skidding, outside of small improve- ments in the details of the rigging, the son is operating as did his grandfather. On the main sled road, the course of years has brought much improvement. Roads are generally carefully built with best available grade, and expenditure of as much as $1,000 per mile being not unknown, and the: improved plow, - - Mechanical Traction of Sleds. 355 rutter and sprinkler serve to keep them in best of operating condition; so that while in the old cork pine days, a 2,000 feet tree was a good load for a yoke of oxen, four horses have re- cently on the Androscoggin brought to the landing a load of over 21,000 ft. of long spruce logs, this on a three-turn road. Moreover, there have been teams in the same region that averaged 8,000 feet to the load for a season. In the Lake States where the country is generally flat and even, roads are constructed better and cheaper, and many record loads of two horses are claimed of considerably over 20,000 feet. In fact, it is remarkable what enormous loads can be moved on a good ice road. It is perhaps not generally known that the prac- tical working coefficient of friction varies from 14 per cent. in the case of well built flat roads to 3 per cent. with very crooked or slightly irregular roads. The fact that such large loads may be moved by animal power may be taken as a partial explanation of the extreme sloth with which the northeast is adopting the modern appliances for logging. Broadly speaking, it seems that the older the country, the more antiquated its methods. In Mexico and the newer portions of the south, there are found the most improved logging appara- tus, steam, electric or gasoline. Michigan is just discovering the merits of the logging railroad and skidder, while Maine has but two skidders, a handful of log loaders, and hardly a real logging railroad; and as other sections are intermediate in age, the inter- mediate conditions in the use of improved appliances exist. To return to a consideration of the northwest; recent years have seen the practical exhaustion of all timber within short hauling distance of drivable streams. As previously shown horses are very efficient on short hauls on good snow roads. Thus, on roads up to four miles in length they can be expected to travel from ten to twelve loaded miles per day. The greater the distance of the road, however, the greater the proportionate strain on the horses. Thus, roads over six miles in length are very undesirable, and the expense of handling is excessive. With this increasing scarcity of timber has come not only the necessity for increased length of haul, but even that of an uphill haul. If there is one universal unbreakable rule for the old horse and snow logger, it is “Always haul down grade.” With the 356 Forestry Quarterly. uphili haul a team has not only to overcome tractive friction, but there is an actual load to lift, so that the efficiency of a team rapidly diminishes with the grade, and a team of say 3,500 Ibs. in weight will be harder tried with 1,000 feet of logs per load on a long uphill haul, than it would be with a load of 10,000 feet on a road generally descending; or roughly, the cost of hauling on the uphill road is ten times as great as it would be on the flat or slightly down grade one. As this necessity for both long and up grade hauling is increased, the natural trend of thought was to replace the animals by other power. The northern operator, either through ignorance or because of the small size of his holdings, or because of actual physical un- suitability, did not until recently consider the use of the railroad practical, but turned his thought to merely replacing the power for moving the sleighs rather than to’ a complete change of method from sleigh haulage. The first attempts to use steam power for sleigh haulage were probably made in Michigan where several traction engines were modified in structure for this work. A Mr. George Glover of Chicago and a well known operator of a dozen years ago, was foremost in this effort and placed several engines in operation. After some trial, however, it was found that the ordinary forms of driving wheels or of any other form that was devised, had not sufficient bearing on the loose snow and ice surfaces for the neces- sary resistance. The success of such use therefore plainly would depend on the conception of a modified driving wheel to secure greater bearing; hence the attempts to use the undeveloped forms of engines soon ceased. It remained for two brothers, the Lombards of Waterville, Me., to devise an efficient form of sleigh hauler. In Minnesota another contrivance was also conceived for sleigh traction, which used the principle of wire rope haulage. This contrivance consisted of a boiler and double friction drum engine, mounted on a suitable sled. The drums were placed side by side and carried an equal length of flexible wire rope. On the end of each rope was attached an anchor or grapple. These grapples in turn were connected by a light messenger rope, which passed through a block mounted on a light horse sled, the principle of operation being to have thus a movable tail sheave which would _ rd ‘adK J, Usosey ‘Tapnep{ Bo’ judjeq Psvquro’T Verh eet 3 % ch & a eek Soe Oe war's Fr Le 7 ¥ Le Vets? a aa i di iy ae Ages, 7 « ‘ eae or eu av a iF les he niftt ev Paty pre be? +. A } te ’ Mechanical Traction of Sleds. 357 allow the pulling lines alternately to be reeled out, as the tail sheave was moved forward. ‘The length of one of these lines being unreeled, the grapple would be allowed to catch in skids frozen in the road, and the drum being reeled in, the main sled would be pulled forward. Thus in its turn the other drum, so that the machine would pull itself hand over hand so to speak. This device was theoretically perfectly feasible, but has not vet been made commercially available. Well informed lumbermen the country over are familiar with the Peavey cant dog and Peavey axe, of Bangor, Me. Mr. Ira Peavey has also patented a device of which the essential element is a long screw or worm, the axis of which is parallel to the direc- tion of desired traction. A pair of these constitute the bearing of the machine on the road. On their being revolved by proper connecting members, the entire device would move forward. Mr. Peavey has also patented a device of which the essential element using gasoline motive power. He speaks strongly of its practical usefulness, but the writer has no personal knowledge of the effect of this device on a road, its tractive power, or general practicabil- ity. It is an interesting possibility but its present status, not com- mercially available. For hauling sleighs up heavy grades, as over hills, ridges or mountains, in order to bring timber from one watershed to an- other, or to materially lessen the length of the haul, or to drop loaded sleds down excessively steep hills, a steam hoist has been frequently used. The form of incline hoist with reverse link motion and powerful brake, as employed with such inclines, is most suitable for the purpose. With sleighs the road they are to be pulled on by this method is best both short and straight. As they must not only be delivered to the hoist by teams but also taken from it, there may be some lost time in shifting. It is not primarily a cheap method, but one by which, with sleigh opera- tions timber which must by necessity be hauled up any heavy grades or down steep, difficult or dangerous hills, can be secured. The Lombard engine previously mentioned is to-day the only mechanical device in practical use for the haulage of sleighs over long distances. A general idea of its construction is readily ob- tained from the accompanying illustrations. In general, it con- sists of a large locomotive type boiler and attachments mounted 358 Forestry Quarterly. on a heavy channel iron frame. ‘These channels are reinforced and extend from the extreme front end to the rear of the machine, and support cab and coal tender. The front end of the hauler is supported by the steering sled, of narrow tread, and with hand wheel suitably geared for hand steering. At the rear, and taking the large proportion of weight, the frame is supported by two heavy traction devices, consisting of two large lagged or tread chains. These chains are supported in turn by two heavy runners, with separating friction members of two tool-steel roller chains. The power is transmitted to the tread chains by two pairs of large sprocket wheels, suitably connected in their turn with the engine. Some differences exist in the engine and intermediate transmissions in the different types. ‘The Western one, built and sold by the Phoenix Manufacturing Company of Eau Claire, Wis., has two pairs of vertical engines, separately operating and separately reversible. Their cylinders are 64” x 8” and, under 200 pounds steam pressure, develop about 100 H. P. The power in this case is transmitted by spur pinion on the crank shaft, and pinion on the front end of driving shafts. On the rear end of these driving shafts are attached bevelled pinions which mesh into large bevelled gears running on brass bushed quills on main bear- ing. ‘These bevels also have spur gears attached to them which carry the power through intermediate gears to another spur gear on shaft, to which the rear sprocket is keyed, the rear being the driving sprocket. The Canadian and Eastern types, produced respectively by the Jenckes Machine Company of Sherbrooke, Quebec, and the Lom- bard Steam Log Hauler Co., Waterville, Maine, have two single cylinder horizontal engines, with chains drives to sprocket actions. As at first mentioned, the great difficulty in the successful use of the traction engine on snow roads was the insufficient bearing obtainable. With these peculiar, lagged or tread chains, it is seen that the Lombard engine secures a very efficient bearing. In fact, it virtually lays its own track, and little disturbance of the snow road occurs in passage. The Lombard hauler can be used to haul the ordinary double sleds, twin sleds, wagon sleds, or two sleds, as they are variously known, singly or in train, and on any reasonably smooth road, whether level, up grade, or slightly down grade, but on steep down ‘doynepT Bo*T wieojg YIM osn JOFZ spayTSg Surypdnos ur posn poy ' ee | eT) 1 Hauling Pulp Wood. Mechanical Traction of Sleds. 359 grades where with horses it would be required to use gravel or hay, the engine not being provided with brakes, there is great ten- dency in the trailing sleds to jack-knife, slew, or over-run the en- gine. The road in such cases must be carefully side banked and provided with side skids. With the machine the heavier the snow- fall the better, when used on a very rough road, for the snow serves as a cushion or as springs, and the severity of sudden shocks on the engine is reduced by its depth. The roads should be hard of bottom and well sprinkled on the lines of the lagg tread. In a flat country or one of general smooth bottom the road should be kept close to the ground, being well rutted and constantly sprinkled; in rough, hilly country, where the road must be crooked and irregular, rutting is of little service. Sharp curves should be avoided and all curves strongly side- skidded to prevent the sleighs leaving the road or constantly crowding it over. All bridges should be absolutely stiff, and be, as with horses, built on a slight down grade. The timber cover- ing should have a thick layer of soil upon it, this to prevent the snow and ice surface from breaking up and working through the covering, leaving the bridge bare. The sleds for haulage must be of very heavy construction, not so much to bear the weight of the loads, as to withstand the sudden shocks in starting and the road irregularities. Where conditions are rough, three or four sets of sleds to the train are the most efficient number, but in very flat country as in Lake States, a larger number have been found satisfactory. All yards or skid rollways and the rollways at the landings or banking ground should be in series, the spacing between equal to the distance between the sleds in the train. This is desirable in order that the sleds may be loaded and unloaded all at one time without shifting. There should be at least three full trains of sleds to each engine in use, to obtain the maximum capacity and efficiency. Thus, while one train is being loaded, the second will be on the road and the third will be unloading. As machinery is inanimate and tireless, the hauler may run day and night using two train crews. In such case, if sufficient extra sleds and yard and landing room be supplied, all loading and unloading may be done in the day time. It may be said that the efficiency of the hauler increases with 360 Forestry Quarterly. the good grade and general conditions of the road, but in com- parison with horses, the efficiency increases in the length of the haul and the amount of loaded grade. Generally speaking, on any road four miles or over in length, a hauler is superior. Water is carried in a tank, usually sufficient for a two- or three- mile run, and fuel may be either coal or dry wood. ‘The former, while superior, is usually unobtainable. As with other steam logging machinery, like skidders and loaders, the necessity of tot- ing fodder and its usual great expense is eliminated. Further, the engine eats nothing when not working, and is not subject to disease or death. The work that a hauler can be expected to do in a season will vary between wide limits; the length and condition of the road, the weather conditions, the length of the hauling season, the operative skill and minor factors, all leaving room for wide variation in results. The writer has secured reports on machines that have made as high as eighty-four miles in twenty-four hours, that have made sixty miles per day and banked 150,000 feet, that have hauled in one train 22 sleighs with an average of 6,000 feet to the sleigh; but these figures are to be accepted merely as illustrative of prac- tical possibilities, and not as daily results to be expected. The following report from Maine is given as a concrete ex- ample of what the engine may be expected to do in distance run in rough mountainous conditions. The road in question had a con- siderable up grade in it, and a long portion was very flat. The labor necessary for loading, unloading and tending the road, being approximately what it would if teams had been used, is not here given. Operators therefore familiar with the condi- tions of northern Maine may compare the results with the probable ones under their own conditions. We repeat, in summary, that where any very long road or an uphill road to a small body of timber is necessary, the log hauler will be found the most efficient agent to secure it. Of course, if the body of timber be large and the conditions allow, railroading is the cheapest method. If the body of timber be very small, say two million feet or less, the initital expense of purchase, unless future use was possible, would not warrant the installation, Mechanical Traction of Sleds. 361 Sledding Record Lombard Steam Log Hauler. In Stetson Town, Franklin County, Maine, from January 11th to March 6th, 1907, running day and night. Length of road, 7.5 miles. Miles traveled, 2,850. Indicated speed, 2 miles per hour. Actual speed, 4 to 6 miles per hour. Sleds hauled, 551. Sleds to turn, 29. Largest number of sleds in one train, 5. Total sleds used daily, 21. size of. sled 12”’x12"x12’, bunks; 12”’x14”x10' bars with patent cast sled knees. Average time per sled hauled, for Crew No. 1: 2 hours, 28 minutes, 12 seconds. Crew No. 2: 2 hours, 40 minutes, O seconds. Fuel used, 350 cords of 2-foot hardwood. Elapsed time, 65 days. Running time, 58 days, 19 hours, 45 minutes. Lost time, 6 days, 4 hours, 15 minutes. Scale, 3,430,322 board feet. Scale, per sled, 6,225 board feet. Seale, per turn, 18,052 board feet. Largest train, feet. Estimated number of horses to haul 3,430,000 board feet— teamxI$ turns daily+3,000 feet to turn for 56 days= 13.6 teams+2 extra 4 horse teams=62 horses. 37,;710 board ‘The machine is now in general use throughout northern New England, the Lake States, and the Eastern Provinces; the follow- ing list of users is appended as indicative of this present range of use, LISTPOF PAST USERS of the LOMBARD LOG HAULER. St. Croix Lumber Co., Winton, Minn. Beltrami Cedar and Land Co., Black Duck, Minn. Skibo Timber Co., Skibo, Minn. Western Lumber Co., Lothrop, Mont. Colvin & Robb Lumber Co., Biwabik, Minn. J. Gibson Co., Bena, Minn. > 362 Forestry Quarterly. Ross & Ross, Duluth, Minn. Johnson Wentworth Co., Cloquet, Minn. Northland Pine Co., Cross Lake, Minn. Medford Lumber Co., Medford, Wis. Arpin Hardwood Lumber Co., Atlanta, Wis. Rice Lake Lumber Co., Rice Lake, Wis. North Western Lumber Co., Stanley, Wis. Park Rapids Lumber Co., Park Rapids, Minn. Sturgeon Lake Lumber Co., Prince Albert, Sask. Rib Lake Lumber Co., Rib Lake, Wis. Holt Lumber Co., Oconto, Wis. Post-Gilkey Co., Mountain, Wis. Newport Mining Co., Ironwood, Mich. Wild Rice Lumber Co., Ada, Minn. Fountain-Campbell Lumber Co., Donald, Wis. Moore, Park & Sharp, Shelldrake, Mich. Morgan Lumber & Cedar Co., Forest City, Mich. G. W. Jones Lumber Co., Appleton, Wis. Connecticut River Lumber Co., Berlin Mills, Berlin, N. H. Twitchell Bros., Milan, N. H. Hollingsworth & Whitney Co., Greenville, Me. J. Fenderson Co., Sayabec, P. Q. Tracadie Lumber Co., Caplan, P. Q. M. Chouinard, Port Joli, P. Q. A. Dunbar & Sons, Woodstock, N. B. THE SAWMILL OF THE FUTURE. BE. A. SHERMAN. Chief Inspector, U. S. Forest Service. Many of the opponents of forest preservation in the West to-day maintain that the creation of the National Forests has resulted in putting the small sawmill man out of business. In this day and age big companies are unpopular; consequently this statement is made a criticism of the system. When the assertion was first made in my presence I indignantly and em- phatically denied that such was the case, pointing out the regula- tions under which timber from the National Forests is sold, show- ing the advantages they offer to the small mill man in permitting him to conduct a business on a more extensive scale than his limited capital would allow if he were compelled to purchase outright all the timber on the mill setting before establishing his mill; how the timber on each slope and each natural logging chance is marketed by itself, so that the logs might come down the draws and out the valleys nature intended for their egress, rather than being brought across ridges as is frequently the case where the land is under private ownership. But, admitting all this, the critics reiterated the statement that the National Forests were putting the small mill man out of business, and pointed as proof of the assertion to abandoned mill sites by the score. Strange though it may seem, the small sawmill man is passing with the coming of the forester and the creation of the National Forests. When this fact was first forced upon my attention, I felt it a source of considerable chagrin; but when I investigated individual cases of small sawmill men quitting the business upon the creation of the National Forests, I found that the National Forest was merely the cause of the cause of their going out of business. The creation of the National Forests brought en- forcement of law, and the enforcement of law put out of busi- ness the small operator who was cutting boldly from the public domain, or from squatters’ holdings, or from timber and stone claims taken up under unlawful contracts, or skinning the land 364 Forestry Quarterly. under some other form of land fraud prevalent before the forest was put under administration. Looking further, I found that, at least so far as some sections of the West were concerned, the little sawmill man of the good old days usually sold his product to some big lumber or mining company, under a contract that allowed him a margin of profit so narrow that he was kept in a chronic state of financial cramp and that, in reality, he existed only because of the sufferance of the big operator. Powerful lumber barons and big companies, whose prominence brought them into the limelight so vividly that they were unable to break the land laws themselves with impunity, found it a safe and most convenient plan to do their stealing by proxy. Always, when brought to bar as the purchaser of this illegally cut timber, the big fellow pleaded ignorance of the unlawful cutting by the small operator and usually was able to produce a contract show- ing that the small operator was bound, by the most iron-clad terms, to obey the law in every particular. Occasionally the big fellow was compelled to pay for stolen goods thus unlawfully received, but even then he could set up a good plea of innocence, and even pose as a martyr for having to suffer for crimes com- mitted by another man; so that many a large lumber company resorted to the small mill method of plundering the public do- main, the small mill man being merely the scapegoat for the large operator’s extensive stealings. But the creation of the National Forests put an end to this system by making timber trespass unsafe for either the large operator or the small sawmill man, and, as a consequence, the small sawmill man found himself without an occupation. Since stumpage must be paid in any event, there was no necessity of the large operator delegating the conduct of his business to a middle man. In the good old days when much of the timber was stolen from the public domain, the small operator was necessary to the successful operations of the large operator. Ten sawmills, each with a capacity of 20,000 feet a day, would escape almost un- noticed, operating on the public domain in the free and easy epoch of the building of the West, whereas one sawmill with a capacity of 200,000 feet a day would have attracted attention halfway across the continent. Where one tree was paid for in - Cd The Sawmill of the Future. 365 trespass settlement, ten were taken without a reckoning, so that in any event the margin was clearly on the side of the small operator. But when it came a question of paying for every thing cut, as under the present system, the big fellow gathered up the reins of his own business and let his former semi-inde- pendent agent go whistling for an occupation. Furthermore, in many regions where the small sawmills had no connection with the large mill, they were able to exist year after year only by reason of large profits which were possible because the timber costs them nothing and because it was taken from localities nearest the mill, the logging cost for that reason being reduced to a minimum. Under the conditions which have obtained since the creation of the National Forests, which was only after the more available timber had all been run into the mill yards, the decrease in profits, by reason of added logging cost and stumpage, has been offset only in a few localities by an increased market value of the product. Mill men to-day have to figure a great deal more closely than in the past. Where pre- viously slack and loose methods were so ingrained as to prevent a change to a better system and improved methods, the mill man has lost out, whether large or small. Only the fittest have sur- vived—the men who possessed the highest intelligence and adopted the best business methods, who have been able to see the necessity of closer utilization of timber, and the prevention of mill waste. It has simply been a stage in the evolution of the saw mill business in the West. I believe firmly that the forest policy of the Government should be credited with making a de- cidedly healthful and necessary economical change in the char- acter of the sawmill business of the West. It must not be understood from this that all the small sawmill men in any part of the West have gone out of business. On the contrary, quite a considerable percentage still remains in opera- tion, but in nearly every case it is the more enterprising and sub- stantial operators who have survived—men who were purchas- ing their stumpage before the creation of the National Forests, and consequently are unaffected by the change, further than that their business is no longer disturbed by the wild cat operations of an irresponsible crew of wholesale trespassers. However, National Forests or no, the historical progress of the 366 Forestry Quarterly. small sawmill in the West is passing through the same cycle that the institution has experienced in other lumber regions. The little sawmill of the pioneer has always been the advance guard of the lumber industry. The big mill, with better facilities for marketing its product and more economical utilization, follows and sweeps the larger areas. A second generation of little mills in turn succeeds the big mill, locating here and there in the scat- tered tracts of virgin forests left by the larger mills, and it is this second generation of little mills that takes permanent pos- session of the field. The plans of the practical forester deal extensively with the future. The plans of the practical lumberman deal largely with the present. To the lumberman, sufficient unto the day is the present timber supply and the present market. If he ever thinks of the future at all, it is in the language of Louis the XV,— “After me, the deluge.” But the trained forester is replacing the old-time type of lumberman, and in considering the needs of the future takes into consideration future systems of lumbering and of lumber manufacturing. To the man who has studied world economy, it is apparent that the supply of timber for this country in the future must come largely from the rough lands whose steep slopes do not admit of the soil cover being broken, from high altitudes where the grow- ing season is so broken with nightly frosts that agriculture is not practicable, and from the poor sandy soils which experience has proven are valuable as pine lands but worthless to the farmer. The land included in the two types first mentioned naturally presents many difficulties in transportation. Fully 95% of the 160 million acres included in the National Forests of the United States are steep mountain slopes and high plateaus, unfit for agriculture. The proposed Appalachian National Forest, the last stand of the hardwoods, is also composed of steep mountain slopes and rugged rocky hills. To reap in a business-like way the forest crop already mature in many of the western forests, and to provide for the future harvest, it will be necessary to meet and solve innumerable problems in transportation. For the proper utilization of the resources of our National Forests, the Forest Service must create the greatest transportation system ever worked out by any nation in the history of the world. . - The Sawmill of the Future. 307 The $1,000,000, which was appropriated by the last two sessions of Congress, for permanent improvements in the National Forests, has opened up many virgin forests hitherto closed to every one but the mountain lion and the most adventurous hunters and trappers. But with many demands made upon it, the $1,000,000 thus available was insufficient to extend even passable trails into any excepting the largest and most important areas. The trails must be followed by “tote” roads, and the “tote” roads must, in many places, in turn give way to railroads, driven by electric energy secured from the mountain streams. Hitherto, in the Forest Service, we have spoken of “accessible” and “inaccessible” timber. In forest description sheets, heretofore used by the Forest Service, appeared the word “Accessibility,” followed by a number of blank lines, in which the officer making the report was expected to state the distance from market, nearness to drivable streams, ease of logging, etc. In the unwritten history of quaint happen- ings in the Service, it is asserted that a ranger on the Booneville National Forest was required to submit a forest description of a certain tract of timber. When he reached the word “Accessi- bility,’ he was nonplussed. “Accessibility” was something he had. never heard of before, but not wishing to show his ignorance he filled the blank as follows: “Nothing of the kind on the ground.” In the future, when the transportation system of the National Forests has been fully developed, it will be possible to write the same thing after the word “Inaccessibility.” There will be nothing of the kind in the National Forests. In the future plan of the Forest Service there will be no such thing as “inaccessible” timber. Every cubic foot of timber pro- duced by our forests will be keenly demanded by an energetic people, and every foot of timber must, in its own proper time, serve the necessary purposes of man. With a completed network of railroads, “tote” roads, flumes, aerial tramways and cable lines, the most forbidding mountain will be conquered to the timber line. Then comes the problem of the sawmill of the future. Only here and there, because of drivable streams and other favorable physical features, will it be possible to locate large mills. I have an abiding faith in the small band mill as the sawmill of the future. It goes where the big mill cannot follow, is taken into pockets, gulches and canyons, on to mountain slopes and 368 forestry Quarterly. benches where the big mill cannot go, and from where the un- manufactured product can only be transported at excessive cost and labor. Furthermore, the developement of conservative forestry intro- duces another factor favorable to the small mill as against the large. To fell trees on extensive areas at one time, necessary to keep in operation the large mill, has proven a danger breeder, by allowing the spread of insect and fungus diseases which attack the timber on the ground. The experience of centuries in other countries has proven that it is safest to cut in isolated tracts. This can be done economically in the plan of operations for the small saw mill, but not for the large. But the small sawmill must be as economical of timber as the large mill. The saw kerf of the small mill need be no greater than the saw kerf of the large mill. All that is needed is intelligent management and careful direction to get as complete utilization in the one as in the other. Close comparison of costs in operation proves that as a rule it costs less to log and manufacture lumber in a small mill than in a large mill, and that the chief advantage the big mill of to-day has over the small mill is its advantage in marketing its product. Asa rule, the big lumber company to-day is not only a manufacturer of lumber but a wholesale dealer in lumber as well. Perhaps this foreshadows the future function of the big lumber company. When the timber accessible to the large mill is exhausted, the location of the mill may still give it the key to the outlet of the product that is being manufactured by the numerous small mills back in the hills. Certain grades of the lumber that come down out of the mountains by the aerial tram- ways, trails, and “tote” roads, may go into a wholesale yard, there to be assorted and shipped to the Eastern trade, so that in the future we may reasonably expect to see many large wholesale lumber establishments, but few large mills. Furthermore, when the National Forests have each and all settled down to normal conditions, when lumber prices have become more stable and each forest has been placed under a conservative and intelligent sustained yield management, another very important factor enters into the equation favorable to the small mill rather than the large. On each unit the annual cuttings under a sustained yield management must be widely scattered. _ - The Sawmill of the Future. 369 Although the total annual cut may be very large, the average cutting area must be relatively small and the large mill, in con- sequence, an economic impossibility. Men of ability are always men of ambition. The small sawmill operator to-day is ambitious to become a big operator. Utopia will probably elude man in the future as well as in the past, and the small sawmill man of the future will have dreams of de- veloping into a far-reaching octopus with illimitable power. But in his dream he will fancy himself the owner of twenty small mills with a daily capacity of 25,000 feet each, rather than one mill with a daily capacity of 500,000. Under the changed con- ditions certain to arise in the future, the mill with a daily capacity of 500,000 will be as much out of place as a first-class battleship would be on the Salton Sea and about as great a financial blunder. Something of the mobility of the future lumber manufacturing unit is indicated by the move made by a sawmill recently in the northern part of Montana. A portable mill operated by a traction engine was moved from the Bear Paw Mountains to the Little Rockies, a distance of approximately 70 miles, the change of lo- cation consuming but two weeks. ‘Two things are essential to the sawmill of the future: it must reduce the waste from kerf to a minimum, and it must be capable of being transported cheaply, quickly and safely from one place to another. When the wilderness is finally conquered and man in his greed has skinned the first rich cream from this land of bounteous wealth, the great sawmill with 500,000 feet per day capacity will pass into song and story with the great fur-trading companies that once held the wild frontier at St. Louis and exploited the wealth of the West, and will become only a memory like the rich placer diggings of California, of Alder Gulch and of Last Chance. The great mill of the present day will be no more, but scattered everywhere through the mountain land will be many small mills, perhaps in frequent instances operated by communities for the manufacture of lumber largely for supplying their own needs and to furnish the men of small communities work through the winter months, the foundation of a conservative prosperity and the bulwark of a manly and sterling independence. 23 SCHEDULE FOR FOREST DESCRIPTION. At the instance of the Association of German Experiment Stations and with a view of securing uniform usage, Dr. Albert and Dr. Schwappach have compiled a most elaborate schedule of forest description. While, in its form, this may not be directly applicable to our conditions, it is so complete and suggestive that we print a translation in full, which may have the same purpose in view, namely of securing uniformity of nomenclature and method. We call special attention to the elaborate soil description, especially the section on humus and peat soils, which is based upon the new classification by Dr. Potonié, the expert on bioliths of the German Geological Survey, (see Quarterly Vol. IV p. 323). In this country such classification has not yet been attempted, and it is difficult to choose the appropriate descriptive terms. This translation has, therefore, been submitted to Mr. M. H. Whitney, Chief of Bureau of Soils, for revision of the nomencla- ture, and to other soil experts. Yet, improvement may still be possible and the Editor will gratefully receive suggestions as to such improvements for eventual use in reprints. DESCRIPTION OF SITE. A. Location. I. Generai geographic situation. To be shown by— I. Latitude and longitude of region. 2. Statement as to whether— . coast district (12 miles from coast). . large river bottoms. . flat or peneplain (up to 300 m.). . high plateau (average elevation over 300 m.). . hill country (highest elevations 500 m.). . mountain country (elevations 500 to 1600 m.). . alpine country (elevations over 1600 m.). - i mmoanm Schedule for Forest Description. 371 3. Statement of plant region. In middle Europe to be distinguished (a) region of conifers (natural distribution), (b) region of deciduous forest, (c) region of health. II. Special local situation. 1. Absolute (average) elevation; if steep slopes, involved, lowest and highest elevation. 2. Direction and angle of inclination, the former in eight directions of the compass, the latter in degrees or per cent. If flat, insert—and o°. For other conditions use the following descriptive words :— hoa o& f& . level up to 5° or 8%. . inclined slope, 6-10° or 8-16%. . sloping I1-20° or 17-32%. . steep, 21-30° or 33-48%. . very steep, 31-45° or 49-70%. . precipitous over 45° or over 70%. 3: Satan form: flat, rolling, hilly, etc. 4. Surroundings: state if open, exposed, protected, enclosed, wet grounds, or liable to drying winds, frost, snow- pressure, hoar ice, etc. B. CLIMATE. To be described by— ie 2 3 4. Pe SOIt. To be Average annual temperature. Lowest known winter temperature. Average annual precipitation (10 year average), Data regarding distribution of rainfall, of temperature and relative humidity in summer and in winter. These data will be derived usually from the nearest weather service station, whose name, distance and elevation should be noted, as well as any differences on site; especially should dates of early and late frosts be ascer- tained. Where numerical data are not obtainable, general character of climate, as raw, mild, etc. may be given. described by ground rock, exterior conditions, composi- sition and physical character. 372 Forestry Quarterly, I. Ground rock. This is the rock from which the soil is derived. In exceptional cases rock masses may be so shallow that several different types are concerned in the soil forma- tion, in which case, they should be described. If geo- logical maps are in existence, the data should be secured from them. Full description and geological classifica- tion are desirable. The mineral composition is of importance; hence there should be stated relative proportions of quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende, angite in crystalline silicate rocks; in sandstones, mineralogical composition of sand particles and character and quantity of the cementing material ; in limestones pressace of easily distinguished foreign substances. Structure: fine, medium, coarse, and in shales fine— or coarse—splitting; position and angle of stratifica- tion; horizontal, inclined, steep. Loose rock masses (sands, gravels, clay and loam soils) are often sufficiently characterized by reference to their geological derivation (dunesand, quicksand, dilu- vial marl, river bottom). Of alluvial formations the following are to be specially noted. 1. River bottoms—the regular overflow lands of rivers. 2. Bogs (Sumpf)—lands with soft, water-soaked sub- soil. 3. Moors (Moore)—water-soaked lands with peat layers on firm subsoil. This term is to be used only when there is at least 2 dm. depth of peat; otherwise the term moor-soil is applicable. The moors are divided according to their plant as- sociations into— (a) flat moors (Flachmoore), characterized by the absence of Sphagnum mosses, and the presence of Hypnum mosses, Arundo and Phragites, high-stemmed Cyperaceae and Cariceae. (b) intermediate moors (Zwischenmoore) with low Cyperaceae, high-stemmed Molinea and scanty Sphagnum. “ Schedule for F These two filled up with ; surface. (c) high moors (Hochmoore), which are mostly higher in the middle than at the circumference, are characterized by Sphagnum, which may be replaced by Eriophorum or Calluna. If the first or last predominate they may be called Sphag- netum, Callunetum, etc. Swamps (Briicher) are moors of the first two descriptions which have covered themselves naturally with tree growth. Alder and birch, but also pine, spruce, oak, basswood (and with us many other species) may be found on them. (Our southern swamps are mostly of differ- ent nature.) On “live” (undrained) high moors usually a scrubby pine establishes itself; on “dead” (drained) moors, the upper layers of peat hav- ing compacted after the draining, a better vege- tion may thrive: a forest on peat soil. Many moors have a different character in dif- ferent parts—swamps at the margin, middle or level moors in the center, etc. II. Exterior soil conditions. The soil is— 1. naked or bare (nackt or offen), when the mineral soil is exposed. The surface can then be dusty, fairly compact hard or crusted. 2. covered, the usual condition of managed forest. The soil cover consists of a living flora, litter and various forms of humus. The term “sparse” is used when the flora only par- tially covers the ground; “dense” when it covers the ground closely and its roots penetrate it thoroughly. A. Soil Flora consists of the following plant forms, either by themselves or in a mixture: a. shrubs and shrub-like trees, e. g. Viburnum, Blackberry, Raspberry, Juniper. 374 Forestry Quarterly. b. flowering herbs, e. g., Ovxalis, Anemone. . ferns or fern-like plants. d. grasses: (a) broadleaf, succulent grasses, making a turf or sod (Vergrasung). (b) narrowleaf, dry grasses, with stout root development (Verangerung). e. mosses: four groups to be distinguished: I. branched mosses (Astmoose) Hypnum and its relatives lying loose on the soil, their roots not penetrating. 2. clinging mosses (Haftmoose), Poly- trichum, Dicranum and all those whose stems penetrate the ground and are beset with root hairs. 3. gray mosses (Graumoose, Polstermoose), species of Leucobryum. 4. peat mosses (Torfmoose, Weissmoose), species of Sphagnum. f. half-woody berry plants, Vaccinium, etc. g. heather. h. lichens. B. Litter consists of the not yet humified portions of fallen foliage and other parts of plants. The litter may be: a. loose, its components not hanging together, but lying loosely on the mineral soil. b. compact, the parts coherent (first stage of peat formation and hence often removable like a cover without a noticeable humus layer. C. Modification of humus in the soil cover. The living flora and the litter may cover imme- diately the mineral soil, or more or less deep lay- ers of humus may occur between, when two prin- cipal forms of this may occur: a. Mould, i. -e., comminuted, humified litter, loosely overlying the mineral soil and easily disintegrated further. (Moder). ie) - Schedule for Forest Description. 375 b. Peat, i. e., compact, thick layered humus masses which may be cut and which contain a large amount of easily recognizable plant residues. (Trockentorf). Reference to any removal of litter is to made, III. Soil Components. The mineral composition is in general to be judged by exterior signs, using simple means, like acids, to determ- ine lime contents. Usually only the rock and the soil class need be stated. The following soil classes are dis- tinguished : a. b. hh Rocky, stony or bowlder soils, when the particles are not less than 20 mm. (hazelnut size). Gravelly soils, angular and rounded, diameters of particles between 2 and 20 mm. Angular gravel is formed by decomposition of rock im situ, hence mostly squarish particles. (Rounded gravel is water worn.) . Sandy soils, coarse, when diameter of grain 2-.5 mm. medium, when diameter .5-.2 mm. fine, when diameter .2-.05 mm. According to clay contents, they are recognized as clayless (pure sand), slightly clayey and loamy. . Silty soil, sometimes calcareous, as loess and marl, sometimes non-calcareous as quicksand. (Staub- sand). . Loam soils, sandy loam or loamy sand, heavy or com- pact loam. Clay soils. . Marlsoils, i. e., clay soils with considerable amounts of carbonate of lime. . Lime soils, the result of limestone weathering, often poor in carbonate of lime. Muck soils. (Moorerde). Peat soils. (Moorboden). The admixture of stones in the various soils is to be expressed in general terms, such as, free of stone, somewhat stony, quite stony, very stony. 376 Forestry Quarterly. The soils from b. to h. contain in their upper layers smaller or greater quantities of humus materials. These mixtures of mineral soil and humus are called humus soils. These are subdivided as follows (this subdivision being an entirely new classification) : A. Humus soils, in which carbon dioxide is the chief product of soil decomposition. The mineral com- ponents preserve their ordinary colors, produced especially by iron compounds. 1. Mould (Mullerde). In these the organic materials are in the last stages of decomposition and in relatively small quantity. It is evenly comminuted and evenly distributed (condition of best forest soils); usually the humus in such soils im- parts a uniform dark yellow, light brown to black color, but if large amounts of iron ox- ides are present, their red-brown tint predom- inates. 2. Muck soils. (Modererde). This is a mould mixed with mineral par- ticles in which the humus has still largely pre- served its form. According to the larger or smaller amount of mould present, one may distinguish: a. soils with small or very small mould con- tents (sands or loams). (Modersand, Moderlehm). b. soils with large or very large mould con- tents (loamy or sandy). Lehmmoder, etc). B. Humus soils, with decided decomposition to hu- mic acid (humic soils). The mineral particles have become white or gray, owing to the leaching of the iron compounds, which are easily soluble in humic acids. - 1. Bleached soils (Bleicherde). Where turf formation has begun, the min- eral soil below the turf is more or less bleached by the humic acid which leaches the minerals into the depth, giving rise to the formation of Schedule for Forest Description. 377 bog ore. The bleached layer is often more or less strongly colored, lead gray to black, by humic acids and humus particles, and may also lack entirely humus substances. Here, hu- mus and more or less peaty bleached soil may be distinguished. Usually the layer of bleached soil immediately underlying the sod is more peaty than the deeper layers. If bog ore is formed, this is to be mentioned, with depth, color and degree of compactness, whether occurring in isolated spots or in larger continuous layers. 2. Moor soils. (Moorerde). In these, humus substances are more prom- inent, mineral less so, and only recognizable by closer examination (heating). A mixture of 15 per cent. humus and 85 per cent. sand has the characteristics of moor soils. To this group belongs all soils, without ref- erence to their mineral contents, which are overlaid by a sod layer. The depth of which does not reach 2 dm. (see C. 13). The soil form which results from cultiva- tion of moor soil is called turf soil. (Torf- erde). IV. Physical Properties. 1. Depth, i. e., the penetrable layer of the soil for root growth, very shallow, below 1.5 dm. shallow, 1.5 to 6 dm. medium, 3 to 6 dm. deep, 6 to 12 dm. very deep, over 12 dm. Depth is to be ascertained by boring to 12 dm., un- less rock appears before that depth is reached. Usu- ally, for experimental areas, it is sufficient to make one boring, so chosen as to represent average condi- tions, to find which a soil-auger may be tried on five or six places, avoiding small elevations as well as holes. 378 Forestry Quarterly. 2. Compactness. To describe this the following terms are applicable: (1) compact (fest), subject to compacting and cracking; when the soil is drying forms a net work of fissures, and when entirely dried out does not permit being broken into small pieces. (2) stiff, when the soil in drying gapes less deeply and can be broken into small particles, but not rubbed to powder. (streng, schwer). (3) friable, a soil which in dry condition can be readily powdered. (milde murbe). (4) flocculent, a soil which in wet condition can still be made into a ball, but in dry condition is much inclined to fall to pieces. (locker). (5) loose, in dry condition without any coherence; the highest degree of this condition is (6) shifting (flichtig), when the soil moves in the wind. . Permeability. According to the degree of permea- bility to water a differentiation to be made into a. permeable. b. moderately permeable. c. slowly permeable. d. impervious. . Soil moisture. Soil moisture is expressed by the av- erage condition during the growing season. a. Saturated when the interstices remain filled with water during a drought. (On such soils, water covers the soil in spring and does not drain off naturally even in dry weather.) b. wet, when the soil gives off water under pressure. (On such soils, temporary surface pools will oc- cur, the water collecting in small depressions for some time, and ditches, at least in spring fill up.) c. moist, a soil which can be felt as containing mod- erate amounts of moisture, without visible trace of water appearing under pressure. (frisch). d. dry, when moisture is deficient, and after thorough wetting by rains, moisture is completely lost after a few days. . - ee oa, eo Schedule for Forest Description. 379 e. arid, when every vestige of moisture vanishes within 24 hours. 5. Color. Refer to color in dry condition. V. Profile. The character of the soil in different layers is to be shown in a profile constructed from the boring described sub: LVI. To investigate the subsoil and ground water condi- tions a soil borer may be used down to 2 m. This is desirable, especially in sand soils. The thickness of dif- ferent layers is measured, and each to be described in detail as to mineral composition, admixture of rock, humus contents and physical condition, to be accom- panied by a drawing. The following layers are to be considered: 1. Litter. 2. The peat or muck overlying the mineral soil. 3. The upper soil layer, colored or influenced in its color by the humus: light, dark gray or black. At the lower face of the upper soil layer some- times excrescences of iron hydroxide in form of limonite, bog ore, etc., are found, which are not to be mistaken for peat. The former are not colored dark by dilute ammonia, they do not fall to pieces when heated, and the absence of bright sand grains differentiates them from peat. In describing the upper layer, besides the hu- mus contents and mineral constituents the density and the structure (crumb or single grain structure) is to be noted. Especially whether lower strata show a looser condition than the upper soil layer, and the root conditions are to be noted. 4. the.layer of soil weathering, characterized by yel- low to brown color, erroneously called raw soil, is in different soils of different formation; either sharply differentiated from the usually lighter col- colored subsoil or gradually shading into it. 5. undecomposed ground rock (subsoil). If loose (sand soil) it may be designated as raw soil. 380 Forestry Quarterly. The subsoil is either uniform or composed of several layers of different composition, e. g., loam, gravel, marl. The depth of ground water is of special interest and to be noted. VI. Root development. This is to be observed in all forest soils, noting a zone of dense root growth with strong development of fibrous roots, also the development of heart and tap roots. In most cases, the heavy root growth ceases at the limit of the crumbly soil. This investigation of the extension of root growth gives an idea of the depth of the loose soil. In very deep and favorable soils, it may not be feasible to determine the root zone. DESCRIPTION OF STAND. A. Species. I. Pure Stands. In these only one species determines the methods of pro- cedure. Stands are still to be considered pure if other species not to exceed 5 per cent. of the cross section area are interspersed. Such species should, however, be men- tioned. II. Mixed Stands. They are to be differentiated. a. according to age of the different species into even-aged and uneven-aged. b. according to the character of mixture: 1. admixture of areas, clumps and groups according to whether the admixed species -occupies contiguous areas of over I ha., 1/10 to 1, under 1/Io ha., (2.5, 1/4 to 2.5, under 1/4 acres) not in rows. 2. admixture in strips—several rows. 3. admixture in rows (single). 4. admixture in single specimens. For even-aged or nearly .even-aged mixed stands the species are enumerated, according to their proportion in the cross section area, in tenths,'e. g. .5 beech, .3 spruce, .2 fir, Whether this statement is to be made for other mixed stands 7 Schedule for Forest Description. 381 is left to judgment in each case. It is to be noted whether the mixture is intended to be permanent or only temporary, and what silvicultural object it has, e. g. soil cover, nurse crop, etc. B. Management forms or systems. 1. Timber forest with its forms, as selection forest, clear- ing system, group system, etc. 2. Coppice. 3. Composite forest, giving details of both underwood and overwood or standards, especially as to the rotation. C. Origin. Statements as to whether natural regeneration by seeds or sprouts, artificial sowing in various forms, or planting, and whatever history of the stand may be given. D. Age. Here are to be distinguished the natural age classes and the age in number of years. I. For the natural age classes the following terms may be used— 1. In timber forest— a. Young growth, whether planted or natural growth, ad- vance growth (Anflug- wind sown of light-seeded kinds; Aufschlag- up-growth if of heavy-seeded kinds. b. Thicket, from beginning of closing of crowns to be- ginning of natural clearing of boles. c. Polewood, from beginning of clearing to an average b. h. d. of 8 inch, differentiating into small poles up to 4 inch, large poles over 4 inch. d. Timber, over 8 inch average diameter, differentiated into small, medium, stout, up to 14, 20 and over 20 inch respectively. 2. In compdsite forest— a. The standards are to be differentiated according to their having stood through two (Lassreidel,) three (Oberstander) or more rotations. II. In even-aged and such uneven-aged stands in which the age classes are not clearly differentiated, the average age, either known or derived from counting of rings on dominant trees 382 Forestry Quarterly. (not overholders) is to be stated. If several separate age classes are represented, the ages are to be stated separately. E.. Density. 1 In the more evenly grown stands the usual terms of crown density may be used: open, roomy, full, close, crowded (dicht or liickig, raumlich, geschlossen, gedrangt), and in tenths of the full crown cover, the fullness being what for each species according to age and site is possible. . In more irregular stands and those in regeneration cut- tings, the crown cover is to be stated with reference to the silvicultural object, e. g., regular open seed cutting; full, medium, open or close stand of standards. . Imperfections in the crown cover here and there are dif- ferentiated according to size: a. Gaps (Liicke), occur in young growths, i. e. such small openings as will fill up with our artificial help. b. Failplaces (Fehlstellen), i. e. larger openings in young growths, that can or should be filled by planting. c. Blanks (Raumden) i. e. permanently remaining im- perfectly stocked. d. Openings (Bloessen) i. e. larger openings in older stands, which cannot any more be planted out. F. Condition of Stand. Here the vigor of growth, more or less normal and healthy conditions, is to be stated in general terms for such features only as are out of the regular. As far as possible the cause of poor condition (root rot, insect damage, hail, fumes, fire) are to be stated. G. Numerical Data. For assisting the description the following data are desir- able: I. 2. cross section area per acre. a, 4. average height( the most important feature in judging Ow average number of trees per acre. average diameter. site quality). . height of upper story (in mixed stands). . stock density expressed in cubic feet timber wood per acre. ” THE TAXATION OF TIMBER LANDS.* FREDERIC RocERS FAIRCHILD, Assistant Professor of Political Economy. [Professor Fairchild has recently been appointed an expert in the United States Forest Service and is expected to make a thorough study of the whole subject of the taxation of timber lands in co-operation with the Forest Service for the National Conservation Commission. ] Forests in the United States are taxed to-day under the gen- eral property tax in every state and territory of the United States, in most cases exactly like other kinds of wealth. Thirty-two states and territories make no reference to forest lands in their tax laws. The other states have special laws in the interest of forests, providing for tax exemptions, rebates, bounties, prizes, etc. These laws have practically all been failures and have not materially altered the burden of the general property tax. To discover the actual burden of taxation on timber lands would require a detailed study of local conditions all over the country. So far as the evidence on this matter has been col- lected it shows that, on account of the prevailing lenient adminis- tration of the general property tax, forests are not as a rule taxed excessively; though the methods of assessment are arbitrary and uncertain, and cases of gross overvaluation and absurd under- valuation are common. ‘The present tendency, however, is toward stricter administration. and heavier taxes. “The facts seem to be as follows: In some States or regions, the prevailing burden of taxation on timber lands is undoubtedly very heavy. In other States or regions, timber lands are taxed very leniently. Individual cases of unduly lenient and excessively heavy taxation are common, probably, everywhere. Leaving out of consideration, individual cases, and without going into local conditions, it is safe to say that in general, timber land, like most other property, is grossly undervalued by the assessors. This assessment is combined with a high tax rate; that is, a rate which would generally result in excessive taxation, if the prop- erty were assessed at its true value. As a general rule, however, *Summary of a paper read before the International Conference on State and Local Taxation, at Toronto, Canada, October, 1908. 384 Forestry Quarterly, Wr giganhasieeensehane 2s . due to the prevailing under-assessment and the lax administration of the laws, timber lands are not subjected to an excessive burden of taxation. In the great majority of cases investigated, the annual tax was less than 1 per cent. of the true value. A third conclusion that stands out distinctly is that there is at present in many places an unmistakable tendency toward heavier taxation of timber lands. ‘This tendency is seen especially in those regions where forests have heretofore been admittedly taxed very gently, such as the wild lands in the unincorporated parts of Maine and New Hampshire. Here there is consider- able complaint of the escape of wealthy timber owners from their just share of taxation, and a growing demand for amendments to the statutes which will put a heavier tax upon these lands. Again, the movement toward heavier taxation is seen in the common tendency to value timber lands more accurately, and enforce the existing laws more strictly.” In spite of numerous individual cases to the contrary, it is safe to say that throughout the country as a whole taxation has not up to the present time had any great influence in causing the cut- ting of our forests which has been going on so rapidly. In cer- tain parts of the country, however, taxation has had a serious effect in preventing reforesting or the holding of cut over land for another crop. Forestry is very little practiced in America at present, and its general practice is not going to be brought about by any amend- ments to our tax laws. There are other influences in the prob- lem of far greater weight than the matter of taxation. Nevertheless, forestry must come some time, and its early coming is a thing greatly to be desired. And whenever we are ready to seriously undertake it, we will find that our present methods of taxation are a very severe handicap. Strictly en- forced, (and it is not safe to count on a lenient enforcement for- ever) the annual tax on the full value of the land and standing timber might take away anywhere from 1/3 to 1/2 of the net income, or even more. Forestry should not be subjected to such an unjust burden. Moreover, the tendency of the present system to force premature cutting and prevent reforestation, though probably not very serious as yet, is bound to gain strength as time goes on. For these reasons it is highly desirable that we - The Taxation of Timber Lands. 385 take steps toward the adoption of an equitable and scientific sys- tem of forest taxation. After a brief reference to the laws of European countries, the speaker outlined the principles on which a correct system of forest taxation must be based. To be equitable, taxation of tim- ber lands, like taxation of anything else, must be based on income or earning power. This may be accomplished in the case of forests, either by a tax on the yield when cut, or by an annual tax on the capital value of the forest, based on all its expected future incomes and expenditures, i. e., on what the foresters call “ex- pectation value.” At present and for some time to come, the tax on expectation value cannot be generally applied in America, on account of the slight development of forestry and the absence of the necessary statistical data, such as yield tables, etc. On the other hand, the tax on yield has decided advantages, both theoretical and practical, in its favor. Among others, it does not have to take account of the rate of interest, of the risk of loss by fire, etc., or of the future prices of timber. In putting the tax on yield into practice, a great many practical and administrative problems must be met. One of the first diffi- culties is that this plan would result in an irregular and uncertain revenue for many town and counties. Several alternative plans for meeting this difficulty were outlined: (1) the State might act as banker for the towns, collecting the taxes and paying a regular annual sum to each town, the State being reimbursed and the accounts settled whenever any timber was actually cut in the given town; (2) a nominal annual tax might be collected from the owners of timber lands, to be deducted with interest from the tax due at the time the timber was cut; (3) the whole taxation of forests might be made a State tax, the local divisions being properly compensated in some way, as by a payment from the State according to some definite rule, or by the State sur- rendering some other source of revenue. Various other practical problems were discussed. Many ad- ministrative problems are local in character and must be solved in connection with a thorough knowledge of local conditions. With regard to its effect on revenue, there is little to be feared from the tax on yield. Eventually, revenue will be increased by 24 386 Forestry Quarterly. a method of taxation which does not prevent the development of forestry. Forests paying a moderate tax are better than waste lands abandoned and paying no tax. The question of constitutionality was briefly referred to, and other proposed plans of reform were criticised. The tax on yield when cut must eventually be the basis of our taxation of timber lands. It will be equitable, and will be an encouragement rather than a hindrance to forestry. The ad- ministrative problems, while many and great, are not incapable of . solution. Finally the adoption of this plan will be one more step toward the abandonment of the antiquated and iniquitous general property tax. ae FOREST TAXATION AND CONSERVATION AS PRAC- TISED IN CANADA.* B. E. Fernow. I take it for granted that the title of the subject assigned to me means to establish a relation between forest conservation and taxation in Canada. As a matter of fact, such relation does not, to my knowledge, exist in Canada. Indeed, attempts at any kind of forest conservation are so few and inefficient in this country that we can hardly yet recognize them as actualities. In the United States, the subject of taxation has been for some time considered as one which is of importance to the develop- ment of forestry practices in the handling of timberlands, and the discussions have charged the absence of such practices to ex- cessive taxation, which forces the lumberman to be satisfied with mere rapid exploitation of his property instead of management for a future crop. It is argued that the practice of forestry needs protection which would be induced by reduction, if not entire relief, of taxes on tim- berlands under certain conditions. Indeed, there are tax release laws on the statute books of several states. But, if in the States such a relation between taxation and forest destruction could be proved—I have been on record for years as disbelieving this relation and am glad to hear that the extensive investigations of Professor Fairchild have proved my views correct—in Canada, certainly, the unconservative exploitation of her timber resources has not been due to excessive taxation. The bulk of the timber- lands are in the ownership of the Dominion and Provincial gov- ernments as “crown lands,” and, therefore, do not pay any taxes. An attempt on the part of some municipalities in Ontario to levy taxes from the timber limit holders, who acquire the right to cut timber under license from the Government, failed lately, the courts deciding that no tax could be levied against the tim- ber on crown lands, and in some other cases in which a timber limit holder tried to collect damage from a government-con- _*Presented at the International Conference on State and Local Taxa- tion, at Toronto, October, 1908. 388 Forestry Quarterly. trolled railroad for destruction of timber by fire, the full owner- ship of the land in the crown, in spite of having given the right of despoiling it of its value, and hence irresponsibility of the gov- ernment for damages, has been sustained. The taxes against private forest lands, on the other hand, are so low that owners do not seem to find any reason to complain, nor is there usually a change made in the assessment when the timber is cut, although there is no uniformity in the methods of assessment, and every tax assessor is a law unto himself as in the States. There is, therefore, no clamor for tax reduction and no influence of the taxation on the treatment of forest property. Nevertheless, some enthusiastic member of the Legislature of Ontario, believing that it was desirable to encourage reforesta- tion of waste lands, especially in the peninsula of Ontario—which is largely deforested and suffers, indeed, in parts from both lack of wood supplies and of forest cover—had an Act passed in 1906, (6 Edward VII) permitting the council of a township to exempt “woodlands” in whole or part from municipal taxation, not more than one acre in ten, and not more than 25 acres held by a single owner. ‘The description of woodland in the Act is interesting, having in view a park rather than a timber forest. It requires 400 trees per acre of all sizes, or 300 measuring over 2 inch, or 200 over 5 inch, or 100 over 8 inch in diameter, naming the species permissible. No results of this “beneficial” legislation are on record. But the existence of this statute may give me an excuse to discuss the possible efficacy of such legislation. While, no doubt, the tax power can be used to encourage or discourage certain practices, it must not be overlooked that other powerful influences are also at work, which may encourage or discourage the other way. Rising prices in the market are persuasive arguments for cut- ting now, destructive fires threaten into present utilization, and the long time element in the maturing of timber discourages the average man from placing his funds in such investment. Is it not patent that the artificial encouragement of the tax release must be in proportion to the forces which pull the other way? . Forest Taxation as Practiced in Canada. 389 Where uncut virgin timberlands are concerned, the rise of price of wood, which for the poorest woods has doubled in the last decade, is a greater incentive to cut than any tax reduction could ever be. Where cut over lands are concerned, the mere let-alone policy is no virtue to be rewarded, but an unfortunate necessity which the owner cannot help. Unless he does some tangible work towards improving the crop and replenishing the poorly stocked areas with desirable kinds, he is not entitled to consideration. When new plantations are concerned the initial expense of planting is so much greater than the capitalized value of any tax release, that the latter could hardly be considered an incentive to make the expenditure of the former. Few good plantations could be made for less than $8.00 to $10.00 and double these figures will often be necessary, while the capitalized value of a tax of ten cents per acre, an excessive figure, for a period of 20 years, the time usually provided, would not amount to more than $1.25. An equitable tax is all that foresters need and should ask for. Since, however, an acre of timber yields only periodic returns, the greater part of the tax should fall due when the timber is cut, the deferred tax bearing a fair relation to the net yield of the property. The same principles which a century or more of experience has shown to be correct in Germany are applicable here, albeit with some minor modifications in practice. They recognize that annual taxes are necessary to levy, since adminis- trations need funds annually and cannot be dependent on the whim of owners as to when and how much they propose to cut, and hence a regular annual tax must be levied. At the same time the intermittency and irregularity of income from forest prop- erties is recognized, on account of which, in the absence of in- come, the payment of taxes is a hardship. This clash of public and private interest is overcome by a mixed taxation, namely, a land tax levied annually and a stumpage tax levied as the stumpage becomes available. Where a sustained yield manage- ment exists, 7. e. one so arranged that the forest property yields an annual cut continuously—a condition now very general in Germany—the value of the “growing stock,’—that is the wood capital represented in the series of stands of different age which must be in existence to permit this annual cut—forms the basis 390 Forestry Quarterly. of the assessment in addition to the soil capital, based on the pro- ductive capacity of the soil—the soil rent value. This productive- ness is determined once for all by experts. Even with us, there would be now enough knowledge in existence to make approxi- mate estimates as to whether certain soils are capable of produc- ing at least one-half, or three-quarters, or one cord, etc., per the highest or best production that would form the basis of as- sessment. In Wirttemberg, a revision of the tax law was effected in 1905, following closely the Prussian precedent. Both state and county taxes are assessed against forest property. For state purposes the taxable income is the actual results, cash or credit, of the regular cut, principal and intermediary harvest. The domestic consumption of the owner at local average prices is considered income as well. Extraordinary cuts are taxed if they are made to secure cash or to change the use of the area, as for farm pur- poses; but, if occasioned by natural disaster, like windfall, in- sect pests, snow breakage, etc., the results are not considered taxable income, for this enforced cut is considered a misfortune, a loss against the owners’ interests, because it disturbs his regu- lar management. As expenses, not only all the usual expenditures incurred in the management are charged, but the cost of new plantations also, also bad debts of former years if they had been figured as in- comes. But costs occasioned by extraordinary cuts, including those of reforestation, do not figure any more than the incomes from such untimely utilization. Besides this income tax the hitherto customary realty or soil tax based not on the income but on the possible net yield—the possibilité of the French—is continued at a reduced rate, as stated before, after classification of the land according to quality. This assessment of the so-called ‘“tax-capital,”’ which does not consider individual conditions or special methods of management, is supposed to hold good for a long period, and is changed only when changes in use and in property conditions arise. This tax capital forms the basis for municipal taxation, the annual county or town expenditure as far as not otherwise satis- fied being apportioned among the owners. The rate on the tax capital varies from year to year, and in 1906 was 20 mills—the - Forest Taxation as Practiced in Canada. 391 same as on real estate in Toronto. ‘The rate on incomes is deter- mined every two years. The law, however, states a normal rate on a sliding scale which varies between 2 and 5 marks, accord- ing to size of income. It will, to be sure, take a long time before such scientific pro- cedure will and can be applied under our crude conditions, but it points the goal towards which eventually we must travel. There is one other form of taxation which has sometimes been believed to have a bearing on forestry practices, namely a cus- toms tariff. I remember a committee of lumbermen waiting on me at Washington to ask me to assist their tariff agitation by an argument which should show that a tariff of $2 per 1,000 feet would promote forestry. I promised to do so, if they in turn could vouch that at least one-half of this tax on the public would find its way from their pockets into the woods for improved prac- tice. Needless to say, that the argument was not called for. Where, as in Germany, a well established forestry system needs protection against the imports from exploiting countries, the ar- gument might appear reasonable, but as a matter of fact, even there the tariff duty was counterbalanced by a reduction in freight rates of the exploiting countries, and has not had the desired effect. Theoretically, an import duty on lumber should make timber lands so valuable as to induce the conservative use of them, practically such a result has not been experienced, the present dollar being a greater attraction than the possible future two. . But, while forestry practices may not be induced by tariffs, in- dustrial development based on a domestic supply of raw material may. Whether for instance the pulpwood of Canada should be sent to United States paper mills, or, by prohibiting its export, the establishment of such mills in Canada should be fostered, this question is one of greatest fiscal importance to Canada. I may add only a few words regarding a feature in the adminis- tration of Canadian timberlands which apparently belongs to the subject in hand, as it involves at least a semblance of taxation which has a most important bearing on forest conservation. In disposing of timber limits the governments divide payments into three parts, namely, a bonus 7. e. a lump sum bid which is paid at time of securing limits at an auction; timber dues per unit (cubic foot, cord feet, board measure) collected when timber 392 Forestry Quarterly. is cut, and a ground rent, which, being paid annually, appears like a tax, but in reality is only a fee paid to retain the right to cut timber on the limits. It is levied per square mile, is uniform, i. e. independent of values, and mostly nominal, from $2 to $8 per square mile, except in British Columbia where it is $140. This latter amount ought to be large enough to deter or at least check speculation, which it apparently has not done, and it may now be instrumental in hastening forest destruction. After nearly all the available timber in the province has been covered by licenses which are to run for 20 years, the argument is made by the limit holders, that they will be forced to practice destructive lumbering, while if the licenses were made perpetual, they might be induced to practice forestry. The writer is not convinced that other factors like the fear of loss by forest fires, the requirements of established mill capa- cities, and especially the golden harvest which rapidly rising wood prices promise, will not be stronger influences toward a continu- ance of present destructive practices, than either a reduction of the ground rent or a perpetual exclusion of the government from managing its property rationally. That the present methods of disposing of timber on crown lands is most inimical to forest conservation, could be readily proven. ‘This is, however, not a question of taxation, which, as I have shown, is in Canada as yet not a burning question like the forest fires, but may become so, in the not very distant future, when the incomes of the Provinces from the timber limits shall have ceased, because the commercial timber is exhausted. CURRENT LITERATURE. Henry S. Graves, in Charge. Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope. George B. Sudworth. For- est Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1908. Illustrated. Pp. 441. This publication constitutes the first volume of a series of four dealing with all of the native forest trees of North America, north of the Mexican boundary. The present volume comprises a description of the forest trees of the Pacific slope. Each des- cription is illustrated by one or more drawings, which show the character of the leaves, twigs, buds, fruit, and seed. The text” describes the form and development of the trees and their other botanical characteristics; the range on the Pacific slope; and the general silvicultural characteristics, including climatic and soil requirements, tolerance of shade, and reproduction. The book is designed, primarily, for those who are not expert botanists. A great deal of work on the National Forests is con- ducted by men, who have not had a thorough training in botany and who are, therefore, not able to use a book containing descrip- tions of trees in technical language. Mr. Sudworth has described the trees in simple language, which any one can understand. He does not aim to give a complete description of all botanical char- acteristics of the trees, but rather such distinguishing marks as may be readily observed by laymen. The illustrations are remarkable. They are very accurate in detail, and they present to the eye a likeness which cannot be mistaken. Wherever possible, the drawings are life size. The simple descriptions, together with these admirable drawings, should enable any intelligent layman to identify the common trees. There are many things which the botanist will miss in the book, such as the synonomy of the trees. Presumably, a botanist has some special technical books, which give this synonomy. The range of each species is given in great detail. Where the trees are localized, as is very frequent among those of the Pacific slope, the distribution is given for the different mountains and > 394 Forestry Quarterly. streams on which they are found; and the altitudinal range is in every case indicated. Under the head of “Occurrence”, the general silvical character- istics of the trees are described. ‘These descriptions are, naturally, brief and general but as complete as would be proper in a gen- eral work on dendrology. It is gratifying, upon examination of the book, to find that the differences in the botanical names of the trees differ only very slightly from those of Dr. Sargent. The changing of the tech- nical names in the past has necessarily occasioned a good deal of confusion and this has been increased by the differences of opinion between the authorities on drendology. With the ex- ception of a few species there is a practical uniformity between Mr. Sudworth and Dr. Sargent, concerning the names of the Pacific trees. One of the differences concerns the Big Tree. Mr. Sudworth decides on the name Sequoia Washingtoniana and Dr. Sargent on Sequoia Wellingtoniana. ‘To those who are not systematists it is a great regret that it was necessary to change the name at all from Sequoia gigantea. It may be noted also that Mr. Sudworth holds to the old name, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, while Dr. Sargent has adopted the specific name of mucronata, the name established by Mr. Sudworth himself but afterwards discarded upon discovery that the first name antedated mucronata. It may be noted that Mr. Sudworth makes a separate species of Pinus Jeffreyi which has been usually considered as a variety of P. ponderosa. Foresters will be glad that Mr. Sudworth has included many of the small hardwoods. He has established as an arbitrary defi- nition of a tree “woody plants having one well defined stem, a more or less definitely formed crown, attaining somewhere in its natural or planted range a height of at least eight feet and a diameter of not less than two inches.” ‘This definition of a tree includes many species which grow as scrub or chaparral. The chaparral type of vegetation is very extensive in some of our National forests and constitutes an important problem of man- agement. A knowledge of the species constituting chaparral, their silvical characteristics, and the life history of the different types of chaparral will later be of great importance. It is hoped that a description of the shrubs as well as the trees constituting chaparral will some time be published by the Government. - ad Current Literature. 395 There have been described four larches including the Western and Alpine species ordinarily described, the Larix laricina, and the Larix Alaskensis, the latter being a new species recently described by W. F. Wright. Among the oaks appear several species hitherto ordinarily not included in lists. The Quercus alvordiana, a little known species described by Miss Eastwood; Q. morehus, held by some authors to be a hybrid between Q. wislizeni and Q. californica Q. sadleriana, which is really a shrub rather than a tree, and Q. pricei a new species established by the author and named after the Associate Forester. Mr. Sudworth has considered the western tanbark oak, Q. densiflora, a member of the genus Quercus rather than of Pasania as is done by some other authors. Undoubtedly, it will occur to some readers that such a work as Mr. Sudworth’s is not necessary, because of the number of works on American trees already published. A study of the book, however, will show its great usefulness, because of the immense fund of information regarding the range of the trees and because of its value to laymen, who desire to identify trees readily and without knowledge of botany. On account of its permanent value, Mr. Sudworth’s book is altogether the most important book on dendrology which has appeared for a long time. EH. S.G. A Manual of Forest Law. 1906. Calcutta, India. Pp. 100. “The Manual of Forest Law for India’ is an abstract, for stu- dent instruction, of the laws affecting government forests. Its contents forcibly illustrate the difficulties of forest administra- tion in India as contrasted with the situation in the United States. The Indian Government, while profiting by the exercise of the right to claim title to all waste or unappropriated lands, thereby securing immense forest reserves with no expenditure, has a for- midable task in controlling and disposing of the existing rights of usage or servitudes, with which such forests are burdened. The most injurious of these is the right to graze stock in the forest. As in European states, these rights must be commuted for cash, or for definite land grants or other valuable considera- 396 Forestry Quarterly. tions, and they must be carefully regulated to prevent undue in- jury. Since the establishment of similar rights in the National Forests of the United States would have followed the unrestricted use of wood or of pasture by the same parties for a term of years, the only thing that has saved us from this burden is the recentness of settlement and the adaption of a policy of controlling such uses by permits and fees. The Indian law also lays down the principle that wherever pub- lic interests are involved the government can limit the rights of the private owner in the full use and disposal of his forest prop- erty. Private owners can be restrained from clearing forest land, burning their own lands whether forest or not, and may be prevented from pasturing their holdings excessively. But while this right of interference by the government is embodied in the laws, the administration finds the same difficulties here as in other countries in securing an effectual compliance from un- willing private owners. It is therefore provided that if the regu- lations are disobeyed and cannot be properly enforced, the gov- ernment may acquire the land. This could only be done in case it was necessary for the public welfare that protective measures be instituted in spite of the owners wishes. In many of our own states, a deep interest is being taken in restrictive legislation, and the constitutionality of such statutes has been confirmed. But we will have the same difficulties of enforcement common to older and more autocratic forms of government. In many cases such laws may be ill-considered and drastic, and not justified by the necessity for preserving protection forests. The safe course, state or government ownership, cannot too strongly be argued as a substitute. The Manual contains brief abstracts from the law of criminal procedure and the penal code, intended to inform the prospective forester fully as to his rights and powers in the protection of the forest. The need of special forest legislation for the adequate protection of forests is set forth, and a synopsis of the forest acts of India as they apply to offenses against the forest is in- cluded. | Except for a comparative study of laws affecting forests, the ereat differences in the conditions and laws of India and the - - Current Literature. 397 United States render the manual of little use to American foresters. 15S 2 Bt Ge North American Trees. By Nathaniel Lord Britton, with the assistance of John Adolph Shafer, New York. 894 Pages, 8 vo. Henry Holt & Co., 1908. 781 illustrations. Price, $7.50. Brittons’ North American Trees is one of the latest additions of the rapidly increasing supply of tree-books. As a working- book for foresters, it is to be compared with Sargent’s Manual of the trees of North America which appeared three years ago. The shoot characters and in most cases the fruit characters of the coniferous species are better illustrated in the volume under review, than in Sargent’s Manual. Unfortunately, however, this statement does not apply to the illustrations of the more common Eastern species. With the exception of the genus Crataegus, and several other genera of little importance to the forester, the specific characters of the various broad leaved species are not so well represented in Britton’s as in Sargent’s book. On the other hand, the number of technical terms, both in the keys and in the descriptions of species, is reduced to a minimum in the new volume, thus making it more readily accessible to the forester without special training in systematic botany. The de- signation of synonyms is an additional aid to one unable to follow the shiftings of the nomenclature. The excellent photographic reproductions, illustrating the habit of trees, cause the reader to wish there could have been more of them. Britton’s tree-book in contradistinction to some cases of late years, demonstrates that the subject can be presented in the so- called popular manner, without loss of accurarcy as to facts, and without overindulgence as to sentiment. ‘ C. Dale Gray's New Manual of Botany (Seventh Edition Illustrated). Rearranged and extensively revised by Benjamin Lincoln Robin- son and Merrit Lyndon Fernald, Harvard University. 8 vo., pp. 925, with 1036 text illustrations, New York, American Book Com- pany, 1908. Price, $2.50. 398 Forestry Quarterly. The appearance of the Seventh Edition of Gray’s Manual of Botany is of great interest to students of forest botany in the Eastern portions of the United States and Canada. In contrast with the sixth edition, the seventh edition includes the eastern provinces of Canada, while it excludes the territory between the g6th and tooth meridians included in the previous edition. The southern boundary of the range remains unchanged. The num- ber of illustrations has been greatly increased (1036 compared with about 130 of the sixth edition), and they are now placed in the text instead of being grouped at the end of the volume as in the previous edition. The only illustrations of trees and shrubs, however, are those of the willows, oaks and hawthorns. As in former editions the volume contains elaborate keys to families, genera, and species. In looking over the present volume, one is impressed by the progress of systematic botany during the eighteen years since the sixth edition appeared, particularly noticeable in the arrangement of families according to the natural system of classification and in the increase in the number of species described. One can hardly refrain from pointing out the extreme illustration of the latter. The sixth edition of the Manual describes 10 native species and two varieties of the genus Crataegus while the seventh edition contains the descriptions of 65 species and 24 recognized varieties of this genus. C. Dae. The Relation of Desert Plants to Soil Moisture and to Evapora- tion. By Burton Edward Livingston. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 50, 1906. Tumamoc hill on which the studies were made is near the Desert Botanical Laboratory at Tucson, Arizona, and it is about 600 ft. above a mesa lying between two mountain ranges. The vegetation is that of a desert mountain, being chiefly composed of the leguminous tree Parkinsonia microphylla, the Giant Cac- tus, several other species of cacti, and Creosote bush. The soil is a heavy brown clay derived from volcanic rock, and is found between coarse rock fragments. On the mesa, and to a certain extent on the hill studied, the soil at the depth of a yard or more - Current Literature. 399 is underlaid by a layer of hard pan consisting of soft, more or less fragmented limestone. While this hard pan hinders, it does not prevent the downward flow of water. The author determined the water content of the soil on the hill when the desert conditions were most severe, the first week in July. There had been no rain for six weeks, the air temperatures were high accompanied by strong winds. Many of the plants had lost their leaves and others apparently had ceased growth. Under extreme conditions Livingston found that the soils to the depth of an inch contained 2-3 per cent; at the depth of four inches 5-10 per cent.; at the depth of six inches 7-12 per cent. of water. A few samples taken at the depth of 14 inches con- tained over 15 per cent of water. These percentages denote the amount of moisture in the soils compared with the saturation capacity of such soils. This relatively large amount of water in the surface layers dur- ing the time of extreme drought was due to conditions of the drought’s own making, that is, the excessively high rate of sur- face evaporation created a mulch of air-dry soil through which the water from below diffused with great difficulty. The writer compares the water contents of the desert soils with those of the much more humid region of Northern Michigan, where to the depth of 10 inches, a heavy clay soil, covered with a beech-maple forest, contained 15 per cent. of water, while the lighter soils, the one under a Norway-White Pine forest, the other under a Jack Pine forest, contained 10.3 per cent. and 2.7 per cent. respectively. Thus, these soils were nearly as dry at the depth of ten inches as the desert soils at the depth of four inches. The greater hu- midity of the air and the consequent slower rate of evaporation in -the East, subjects the soil to more rapid drying at greater depths than occurs in the arid region under observation. The author performed many experiments to determine the amount of water lost by evaporation from desert plants and the amount of water remaining in the soil at the point of the wilting of the plant. In regard to the latter only two soil samples con- tained more than Io per cent. of moisture at the time of the plant wilting. As noted above, at the depth of 6 to 14 inches, the various soils contained from 7 to 15 per cent. of moisture. Thus in the driest part of the year, on the area studied, there was water enough in the soil at the depth of approximately a foot to supply > 400 Forestry Quarterly. the water loss of the plants upon which the experiments were made. The author concludes that the plants suffering most severely during drought are those whose roots, from mechanical or other reasons, do not penetrate to the relatively shallow, moist layers of soil. It was found that the seeds of the Giant Cactus, and those of one of its associates, required as damp a soil for germination as did the seeds of wheat and the garden bean, namely a soil con- taining at least 15 per cent. of water. The roots of the seed- lings of certain desert plants grew at the rate of two inches in 24 hours, so that germinating after a heavy rain, the plant roots could reach to the depth of adequate water supply before the soil could dry out sufficiently to produce death. It seems probable, therefore, that the scarcity of seedlings or even young plants of the more typical desert forms, even in the rainy season, must be accounted for by causes other than that of the available moisture. The author thinks that the depredations of the smaller mammals and insects are the most important factor in preventing the growth of seedlings, adding that this is very apparent from the fact that plants which succeed well in desert regions are gen- erally well protected from animals in one way or another. This is true, but it is the reviewer’s impression that the seedlings of such plants, in most cases, are not so protected, and that defi- cient moisture at the surface and at the right time is after all! the most important factor for the germination of seeds, which lose their power of germination readily. G19: Tar The Soil Preferences of Certain Alpine and Sub-alpine Plants. By M. L. Fernald. Contributions, Gray’s Herbarium, Harvard University, N. S. No. 35. The much discussed question of the relative importance of soil chemistry and soil physics upon the distribution of plants receives a notable contribution from Dr. Fernald’s study of Alpine plants of Eastern United States and Eastern Canada. He divides the alpine and subalpine areas into three principal groups, and he finds that less than five per cent. of the 258 species and varieties - I Current Literature. 401 listed show an inclination to grow upon all of the mountain areas cited, while more than 95 per cent. of the species show a decided preference either for one group of alpine areas or for two of the groups, but not for the third. In determining the causes of these striking facts, the author regards the amount of precipitation and the exposure of little importance; the amount of precipitation, because certain areas showing a striking dissimilarity of vegetation are only a few miles apart in a region of uniform rainfall; exposure, because the vegetation of certain areas is uniform whether the cliff faces east, west, north or south. He also puts in the background the influence of the fineness or coarseness of soils and their corres- ponding water content because he finds many characteristic species of a given area flourishing equally well upon wet or dry, fine or coarse soils. On the other hand Dr. Fernald finds a very striking coincidence between the soil forming rocks of his alpine groups and the dis- tribution of the plants which cover them. For example, in the first group, which includes the alpine regions of the White Mountains of New Hampshire: the Adirondack Mountains of New York, the Green Mountains of Vermont, Mt. Ktadin of Maine and the great tableland of the Table-top Mountain of Gaspé, Quebec, the predominant and often exclusive rocks are granite or gneiss, or mica-schist. The distinctive soil elements of these alpine areas do not occur on the mountains of the second and third groups. The second group is made up of comparatively small isolated alpine areas, but these areas are bound together by the fact that their rocks are calcereous in nature. The distinctive soil element of this group then is lime. In this group 69 per cent. of the plants are apparently unknown upon the strongly potassic rock of the first group, or upon the rock of the third group which con- stitutes the tableland area of Mt. Albert, Quebec. The table- land is composed of serpentine rock, and the distinctive soil ele- ment is magnesium. Only 21 species are peculiar to this area. The abundance of magnesium and the absence of appreciable quantities of potassium and calcium produce conditions exceed- ingly unfavorable to the majority of plants. The plants from 25 402 Forestry Quarterly. other areas, notably the coniferous trees, are dwarfed and un- characteristic. While no results of chemical analyses of soils actually taken from the three groups of alpine areas are offered in the present paper, yet the author indicates that such analyses are being made, as well as analyses of the ashes of alpine plants. The results of such investigations will be awaited with great interest. C.D, Floral Succession in the Prairie-grass Formation of South- eastern Dakota. By LeRoy Harris Harvey. Contributions, Hull Botanical Laboratory, 117, University of Chicago, 1908. Certain conclusions in this paper are of interest to the forester because of their bearing upon the formation of prairies. They are, that the prairie formation existed before the glacial invasion in Tertiary times because of a prairie climate, and after the re- treat of the ice the prairies were regenerated bcause of the re- establishment of the prairie climate. The prairie climate at the present day, in the region studied, is characterized as follows: A relatively dry resting season from October to March in which 16 per cent. (10.4 cm.) of the total precipitation falls, and a moist growing season from March to September in which 83 per cent. (49.31 cm.) of the precipitation is distributed over 60 days, with 25 per cent. concentrated in April and May, insuring a prairie formation. The low annual relative humidity, the dry and high winter winds accompanying high temperature, low rain- fall, absence of a snow blanket, and the hot dry summer of low precipitation are inimical to tree growth. C. Dosis Forest Entomology. By A. T. Gillanders. W. Blackwood and Sons, London, 1908, pp. 422, figures 351. The Germans have always been considered the authorities on forest entomology, and their text-books the standards. Now a most excellent work has been issued in English by A. T. Gillan- ders. Mr. Gillanders is manager of the forests of the Duke of Northumberland, and so has had much practical experience. The insects are considered under the order to which they belong; - Current Literature. 403 there being tables to families, and often to the genera. After each group there is a short bibliography. Many of the illustra- tions are photographs of injured parts of the tree, and of the insect upon it. The last chapter contains a list of trees with their injurious insects.—Science, October 30, 1908. Practical Irrigation, Its Values and Cost. By Aug. J. Bowie, Jr., New York. McGraw Publishing Co., 1908. 232 pp. 8 vol. $3.00. Forestry and irrigation have become so closely connected in the American mind, especially of the Western man who lives in the arid and subarid region which are dependent on irrigation, that every forester must understand at least the relation of his business to the irrigation problems, and this will lead him to interest himself further in understanding these problems them- selves. This he can do in short order by the aid of this volume written in a simple style and with sufficient breadth of treatment by an expert of considerable experience. The simple discussions of the relation of water and soil and of evaporation will be found of value to foresters in considering even their own practices. Of the relation of forestry to irrigation however, there is not even a hint to be found in the one place where it might be expected, namely, when speaking of the different sources of water supply, and the damage to reservoirs from sediment carried down by the streams. As the title implies, the book does not propose to deal in philosophies, but in practical problems presented to the irrigating farmer, which, as far as we can sce, it does success- fully. ; BEE Indian Forest Utilization. By R. S. Troup, Calcutta, India. 1906. Illustrated. Pp. 257. 35. 6d. A manual prepared “primarily for the use of students of the Imperial Forest School.” The author has divided the subject into four main heads, namely :— Part I. Harvesting and Conversion of Wood. Part II. Utilization of Minor Forest Produce. 404 Forestry Quarterly. Part III. Organization of Labor, Modes of Sale, and Disposal of Wood and other Forest Produce. Part IV. Forest Industries. The first two chapters of Part I are devoted to a simple expo- sition of the technical properties of wood and to a statement of the principal industrial uses of native timbers. The chapters on “Felling and Conversion of Wood” states that the modern sawmill has not found its way into India, and except in Burmah saw mills are very rare. The harvesting of forest crops is still in a primitive condition because cheap labor discour- ages and often prevents the introduction of modern labor saving devices. A large per cent. of the lumber manufactured in the country is cut with the whip saw, since this is the cheapest method where labor is abundant. Land transportation of timber and forest products is chiefly effected on carts in the level country, and on the backs of men and beasts in the rough mountain regions. In some sections sleds, slides with ropeways, and crude trams are employed to a limited extent. Rafting and towing timber down the streams to the various wood depots is a common practice. Timber from the government forests is brought to land or water timber depots and there sold. A chapter is devoted to a discussion of the essential requirements of such depots and their management. In Part II the author discusses the utilization of various classes of minor forest produce. Fibres, tanbars, vegetable oils, edible fruits and seeds, various drugs and spices, gums, resins, caoutchouc, gutta percha, lac, honey, wax, hides, ivory, and other produce, are gathered under the supervision of the Forest Department. The control of grazing and enforcement of game laws form no small part of the forest officers’ duty. The Organization of Labor, Modes of Sale, and Disposal of Wood and other Forest Produce are treated in Part II]. Timber may be sold from public forests, either by private sale, public auction, by tender, or by a fixed tariff. The logging operations are conducted on the following basis, namely :—the entire work performed by government; felling by government and extrac- tion by purchasers; and felling and extraction by purchaser. Government extraction of timber is recommended only where Current Literature. 405 local conditions are such as to make it advisable, and is the ex- ception and not the rule. The second method is followed where great care is necessary to avoid damages to the forest in felling. Felling and extraction by purchasers under license is much in vogue. The manufacture of charcoal in different types of kilns; the manufacture of turpentine from several species of pine; the ex- traction of various oils and tars; and the preparation of tannin extracts are considered under the head of “Forest Industries.” The impregnation of wood with antiseptic solutions is briefly dis- cussed. In preparing the book the author states he has followed the general arrangement in Gayer’s Forstbenutzung, but has adapted the details to the practice and experience of Indian forestry. An attempt has been made to cover too broad a field, and conse- quently only a small space can be given to each subject. In a text book on Forest Utilization the methods of logging and manufacturing lumber adapted to the country should have more space that is here alloted (37 pages) since the exploitation of timber forms an important phase of forest work. ReACae. A Glossary of Technical Terms for Use in Indian Forestry. Compiled by A. M. F. Caccia. Calcutta, India, 1908. Pp. 58. This glossary of technical terms has been compiled for the benefit of foresters in the Indian service. It covers practically the same ground as the technical terms used in forestry which are published in Bulletin No. 61 of the U. S. Forest Service. It differs from the American publication, however, in not contain- ing the German and French equivalents. In some respects it is somewhat more complete than the American list and there are a good many phrases which are omitted in Bulletin No. 61. For example, “forestry combined with the rearing of game,” “flush with the ground,” “fixing the possibility,” “stages of development of the forest crop,” etc. There are also many expressions pecu- liarly Indian in origin, like “taungya,” referring to the sowing of tree seed with that of field crops on clearings. Again there are certain French expressions which are commonly used in India, like “brulé” and “coupe.” It is interesting to notice that certain technical expressions are somewhat different from those used in > 406 Forestry Quarterly. England, though this is largely a matter of the use of the terms in books published in India and those in Great Britain. In some cases the technical terms are used in a somewhat different way than in this country. Compare for example the tree classes as enumerated in Bulletin 61 with those in the Indian report. The Indian classification is as follows: “Seedlings: From the germination of the seeds to the time when the newly developed branches meet. Thicket: From the time of the branches meeting to the fall of the lower branches. Poles: From the fall of the lower branches to the time when the crop attains its full height. Trees: From the time of the stems having attained their full height.” Then again the crown classes are somewhat different from our own. According to the development of the crown the trees are divided into the following classes: “Predominant: ‘Trees with an exceptionally vigorous crown. Dominant: Trees with a well developed crown. Slightly dominant: Trees with a poorly developed crown. Slightly suppressed: ‘Trees with an incomplete crown. Totally suppressed: ‘Trees with the crown wholly below the level of the dominant trees. The first three classes of dominant trees form the major or primary part of the growing stock; the last two classes form the minor or secondary part of wood or intermediate yield.” There are a number of excellent expressions which have not found their way into American terminology. As for example: “dark or close felling, open felling, semi-mature forest, selection coppice method,” etc. In the appendix of the pamphlet there are diagrams showing the silvicultural systems used in India and some parallel lists comparing the names of the silvicultural sys- tems in India, England and America, and finally a list showing the forest technical terms peculiar to the United States. j He S.G: A Concise Manual of Silviculture. Calcutta, India, 1906, 240 pp. “This Manual does not profess to contain much original mat- ter; it is compiled for the use of Indian students principally from Current Literature. 407 Dr. Schlich’s Manual of Forestry, Vol. II, Gamble’s Manual of Indian Timbers, Fernandez Manual of Indian Silviculture, Hall’s Soils, and Boppe’s Silviculture. The general arrangement of the manual is adapted from the last mentioned work.” The above quotation from the preface clearly explains the purpose and scope of this book. In its treatment of the subject it is simple and elementary, presenting silvicultural facts which are generally accepted without attempting to advance new ideas or theories. Silvicultural notes on a few of the principal Indian forest trees occupy an eighth part of the book. These notes especially so far as they deal with the silvicultural management advised for the various trees, should be of interest to American foresters. In Part IV, methods of treatment are discussed, and their ap- plication to Indian forests are outlined. The author gives the following as “the more important systems and methods of treat- ment practiced in India or likely to be there practiced.” Selection Method Permanent q Clear Felling Treatments High Forest System Uaiforn Method Group Method Simple Coppice Coppice System { Coppice with Standards Improvement Fellings Conversions Transformations Provisional Treatments At present the election system is applied to most of the state fotests of India. Other systems of high forest cannot yet be used to any extent, because in the majority of cases only a few out of several species are saleable. Then, again, many forests are pro- tective and must be handled always on the selection system. Under fire protection four methods of prevention are advised: Ist, and most important, to secure the willing co-operation of the local inhabitants; 2nd, construction of external fire lines, i. e., around the boundaries of the forest; 3rd, construction of internal fire lines; 4th, appointment of guards to patrol the fire lines. Three to five miles is given as the proper length of line for one guard to patrol. > 408 Forestry Quarterly. The first point would apply also to all sections of our own country, while the other three hold true for those sections with similar conditions as regards forest fires. For example, a system of fire protection in the southern pineries would include all these methods. Without doubt foresters in this country may gain valuable hints from the perusal of those parts of this Manual which deal especially with conditions and methods of work in India. RC, a, Jeographia Vejeial del Rio Valdivia I sus Inmédiaciones. By L. Castillo and J. Dey. Pp. 120. Illustrated. Second edition, corrected and enlarged. Santiago de Chile, Iprenta Cervantes, 1908. An account of a trip made by the authors to the Valdivia river and vicinity. The major part of the volume is devoted to a short botanical description of each of the trees and shrubs found in the Province of Valdivia (southern Chile) and a statement of their chief uses for medicinal and industrial purposes. From a techni- cal viewpoint there is but little of value to the American forester since the genera of forest trees mentioned either are not found in our forests, or else are of no commercial importance. ‘The book is written from a botanical standpoint and will be of interest to students of plant geography. R. Cal The Yearbook for 1907. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1908. Illustrated. Pp. 798. The Yearbook contains a number of articles of interest to for- esters including: Notable Depredations by Forest Insects, by A. D. Hopkins. Cutting Timber on the National Forests and Providing for a Future Supply, by Raphael Zon and E. H. Clapp. The Game Resources of Alaska, by W. H. Osgood. Diseases of Ornamental Trees, by Haven Metcalf. Progress of Forestry in 1907. There is also an appreciation of the late Mr. James W. Pinchot by Joseph A. Arnold. The frontispiece is an excellent picture of Mr. Pinchot. A number of other articles are also of interest to foresters. These deal chiefly with farm problems which foresters are likely to meet. H.9.G; Other Current Literature. 409 OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. Handbook of South Carolina. Columbia, South Carolina, 1908. 606 pp. Contains an illustrated chapter on forestry describing the forests and forest resources of the State. The Bark-boring Beetle Attack in the Coniferous Forests in the Simla Catchment Area. E. P. Stebbing. Calcutta, 1908. Pp. 22. Illustrated. The Immunity of the Japanese Chestnut to the Bark Disease. By Haven Metcalf. Bulletin No. 121, Part VI, Bureau of Plant Industry, February, 1908. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Pp 4. Notable Depredations by Forest Insects. By A. D. Hopkins. Reprint from the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1907. Washington, D. C. Pp. 16. Fungicides, Insecticides, and Spraying Directions. By G. E. Stone and H. T. Fernald. Bulletin 123, Massachusetts Agricul- tural Experiment Station. Amherst, Mass., 1908. Pp. 31. Useful Information Concerning Philippine Public Forests and Possibilities For Their Exploitation. Circular No. 2, Bureau of Forestry, Manila, P. I., 1908. Pp. 9. Annual Report of the Director of Forestry of the Philippine Islands. Major George P. Ahern, Director of Forestry. Ma- nila, bo 1. 1908. Pp.37- Communication to the National Conservation Commission from Frank D. LaLanne, President of the National Board of Trade. Philadelphia, Pa., 1908. Pp. 16. The Conservation of Natural Resources. By Gifford Pinchot. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 327. Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 12. Conservation of Natural Resources Contained in the Forest; Soil, and the Mine. Ottawa, 1908. Pp. 8. 410 Forestry Quarterly. Fertilizers in Forestry. By F. W. Rane and J. Huberty. Pub- lished by William S. Myers, 71 Nassau St., New York City, 1908. Pp. 36. Seed Separation and Germination. By George E. Stone. Bul- letin No. 121 of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion. Amherst, Mass., 1908. Pp. 14. Forestry, The New Profession and Its Openings for Young Men. By Robert B. Miller. Fredericton, N. B., 1908. Pp. 8. The Supply and Demand for Wood in France. By Frank H. Mason, American Consul-General. Bulletin No. 68 of the Amer- ican Chamber of Commerce in Paris. Paris, France, 1908. Pp. 18. Instructions to Fire Wardens and Others Relative to Forest Fires in Connecticut. By Austin F. Hawes. Hartford, Conn., 1908. Pp. 23. Thirteenth Annual Report of the Forest, Fish and Game Com- mission of New York. Albany, 1908. Pp. 239. Illustrated. Thirteenth Annual Report of the Forestry Commission of Min- nesota for the Year 1907. St. Paul, Minn., 1908. Pp. 146. II- lustrated. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. Vol. III, No. 1, October, 1908. Washington, D. C. Pp. 124. Instructions for Making Forest Surveys and Maps. U. S. Forest Service, 1907. Washington, D. C., 1907. Pp. 40. Production of Lumber, Lath, and Shingles, 1907. Bureau of the Census. Compiled in Co-operation with the Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 11. Cutting Timber on the National Forests and Providing for a Future Supply. By Raphael Zon and E. H. Clapp. Reprint from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1907. Illus- trated. Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 12. - Other Current Literature. AII Chestnut Oak in the Southern Appalachians. By H. D. Foster and W. W. Ashe. Circular No. 135, U. S. Forest Service, Wash- ington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 23. The Preservative Treatment of Loblolly Pine Cross-Arms. By W. F. Sherfesee. Circular No. 151, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 29. The Analysis of Turpentine by Fractional Distillation with Steam. By William C. Geer. Circular No. 152, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 29. Exports and Imports of Forest Products, 1907. By A. H. Pierson. Circular No. 153, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, eC 1oGs., Pp: 26. Native and Planted Timber of Iowa. By Hugh P. Baker. Cir- cular No. 154, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1908. Ppr2n _ A Primer of Conservation. By Treadwell Cleveland, Jr. Cir- cular No. 157, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Pp. 24. Extent and Importance of the Chestnut Bark Disease. By E. R. Hodson. Unnumbered Circular, U. S. Forest Service, Wash- ington, D. C., 1908. Pp. 8. A Preliminary Note on the Development of the Sal in Volume and Money-value. By A. M. F. Caccia. With map. Calcutta, India, 1908. Pp. 238. Progress of Forestry in 1907. By Q. R. Craft. Reprint from the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1907. Pp. 19. Hi. SiGe PERIODICAL LITERATURE. In Charge Botanical Journal; ) 0. se tokiave kite ee eee R. T. FisHer Foreign Journals, ......... B. E. Fernow, F. Duniap, R. Zon Propacandist) jouraals, vss sic ee nese ne seen H. P. BAaKer MG aale: SF OUTAARR 2 5's ohn eis leis eho) agee F. Rory, D. B. ReyNnoips FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. In the German colony of Kiautschou con- Forestry siderable activity in forestry lines has been im developed. Forest protection, especially China. against fire, as with us, demands first at- tention. For the reduction of this trouble, besides favorable weather conditions (1905-6) the protective strips of broadleaf plantations in the pineries and the building of roads on a systematic plan are held responsible. The strips are also effective in checking the damage of Gastropacha pini, in ad- dition to insect lime, which in the tropical climate it had been dif- ficult to keep effective. In the reforestation work, which so far comprises only about 600 acres, a deep (20 inch) preparation of the soil in the fall, and early spring planting (March-April) have been found most ef- fective. Besides the native species, Pinus Thunbergii and Mas- soniana propagated by seed, Robinia for mine props, several Quer- cus species, Alnus maritima and Larix leptolepis have been used. Since the smallest dimensions are saleable, and Christmas trees are also in great demand, the pines furnish early returns. To propagate the reforestation idea a free distribution of plant ma- terial to the Chinese communities is practiced. Aus unsern Kolonien. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1908, pp. 225-227. Dr. Schwappach reports on the forest area Bulgarian of Bulgaria which amounts to about seven Forests. and one-half million acres or 30 per cent. of the entire area. One-third of this is state forest, one-half communal and one-sixth private forests. This - Periodical Literature. 413 division is only approximate because of the lack of surveys and marked boundaries, the boundaries are changing at the expense of the state forests due to the encroachments of the adjacent landholders. One-third of the state forest stands on alienated land where soil, water and forage are owned privately. Some progress is being made towards acquiring full title. The northern half of Bulgaria, the plain lying between the Balkan Mountains and the Danube River is sparsely wooded, al- though some considerable forested areas lie in the eastern part toward the Black Sea. The western foothills of the Balkans, the region about the capital, Sophia, and extending to the Servian frontier is rather barren. The Balkans are covered with hard- wood forests, largely of beech, while in the foothills and plains to the south the two varieties of European Oak, the Turkey Oak, the ash, maple, linden, and walnut occur. The Balkan forest is richer to the eastward toward the Black Sea. Along the Turk- ish frontier the Rodrope Mountains are covered with Scotch pine and other soft woods. Here alone is the forest exploited for more than local use. The soft woods are cut into boards, car- ried to the railroad, first on pack animals and then on wagons and shipped to Sophia and Turkey. The state forests lie chiefly in this pinery and in the region along the Black Sea. Fire causes serious loss in the pine forests of the Rodrope Mountains where they frequently originate in Turkey and sweep across the boundary. One-fourth of the state forest in this re- gion is burned over. In all parts of Bulgaria grazing is freely permitted in the forest, and as live stock consists chiefly of sheep and goats, enormous damage is done. Grazing presents a most serious problem, because all flocks at present depend on natural range; cultivated forage and hand feeding are unknown. Forest administration is attempted by an insufficient number of well intentioned officials to whom the reigning prince gives moral support, though proper financial provision is denied by the legislative representatives. Political partisanship stands in the road of a regulated use of the state forests and even forbids the marking of state forest boundaries lest encroachments be de- tected. There are good forest laws on the statute books, but no money is voted for their enforcement. Cutting is by permits which are issued at a nominal price and authorize the removal > AI4 Forestry Quarterly. of the specified material. ‘The removal is most wasteful and no inspection is made until the material leaves the forest, frequently after it has been sawed. All operations are on a small scale, are very wasteful and very hard to control. A proper system of roads or tramways over which suitable outlet may be had is the greatest need of the lumber industry. The practice of forestry is confined to a few planting experi- ments, the introduction of a few exotics, among which is the American red oak which has entered via Germany, a little map- ping, and an effort to confine cuttings to areas of burned timber and preserve the green. Yo Forstliche Reiseeindriicke aus Bulgarien. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, July, 1908, pp. 446-460. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. This subject, of late so much ventilated, is Influence discussed by Prof. Engler, of the Swiss of Experiment Station, in a polemic against Seed the unsubstantiated theories of Prof. Mayr, Supply. who has denied the existence of climate va- rieties and the capacity of species for cli- mate adaptation. The discussion is helpful in coming to clear ideas regarding the importance of seed supply in forestry prac- tice. Whether we call the unmistakable variations in biological direction by the name of climatic variations, varieties, or, as Mayr proposes, different species, the fact of the existence of such varia- tions and of their transmission to the progeny or seed is the im- portant one. The pine, for instance, experiences gradual charges in leaf, cone and habitus from South Germany to the arctic circle and similar ones from the lowlands of middle Europe to the tim- ber limit. Besides the morphological changes the growth energy decreases successively with latitude and altitude in two similar series of variation. And these variations which are undoubtedly adaptations to climate are transmitted as proved by Engler’s and other propagating experiments. Lowland spruce sown in forestgarden in Alpine situations up _ - Periodical Literature. 415 to 6,000 feet made for 2 to 5 years longer shoots than the Alpine forms, showing the inherited tendency; but when planted on ex- posed sites in altitudes of 5,000 feet the difference was not pro- nounced, or was even reversed. At 4,000 feet, however, the nine year old spruces show still the inherited growth energy. The Alpine forms develop relatively stouter roots than the lowland forms, a thicker bark and different leaf structure, are more densely foliaged and their leaves persist from I to 3 years longer. They close their growth period earlier and hence are less liable to early frosts than the lowland form. (Late frosts are rare in Alpine situations !) Experiments, however, have shown that some of the lowland spruces adapt themselves in part to the Alpine situation es- pecially in the foliage; those derived from 3,000 foot altitudes more so than those from 1,200 to 1,500 foot altitudes. Similarly pines from the lowland lengthened the life of their leaves to 5-7 years like the highland form. Lately, however, a difference in habitus has become noticeable. The form of the Alpine spruce is slender, erect, the dense, bushy crown closely packed around the stem; the lowland form assumed a broad habit, branching much, and stoutly and erectly, and remaining low, with rapid taper and - often forking. This is especially noted in the older, 30-50 year, plantations as compared with the natural regeneration, where the trees with small compact crown offer to the winds small area, but utilize the light fully and the short pendent branches prevent large accumulations of snow. Hence for Alpine localities Alpine seeds are best. The same experience has been had in Sweden, with German pine seed. All observations prove that the life functions of spruce and pine are to the finest detail adapted to the climate of their home. Tatsachen Hypothesen und Irrtiimer auf dem Gebiete der Samen— brovenienzfrage. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1908, pp. 295-314. ~ The important question of selection in Variation breeding which has lately found so much in interest in the forest experiment stations Color receives additional interesting notes from of Dr. Zederbauer in an investigation of the Seed. variation of the color of seeds in Scotch pine, and its meaning. On page 287 of this volume we briefed the findings of Kurdiani, who investigated > 416 Forestry Quarterly. the seeds of the same individuals as regards their color variation. In 1905 Zederbauer began a similar investigation, not only in- vestigating the color variations but using the seeds, and taking note of other features of the individuals from which the seed was gathered. He found that from individual to individual the seeds of the yellow pines (silvestris, austriaca, montana, uliginosa) vary like the cones in size, form and color; but in the same individual the variations are found in narrow limits and it may be said that the normal germinative seeds of an individual have same length, breadth, size and form. ‘The color varies from white to black; at least eight variations, besides a mottled color of two different colors, the one in stripes or spots on the other, could be recog- nized. ‘The latter make the impression of a cross. The author agrees with Kurdiani that the normal germinative seed of each individual have the same color, that the color has no relation to age, and is not dependent on exterior conditions. The same va- riability in general but also the same equality in the individual attaches to size and color of the seed wings. Altogether at least four color varieties could be readily made, but the author properly objects to making botanical varieties of them, although he recognizes that they possess different variabil- ity, growth energy, and method of propagation, and that these are inherent characteristics which do not belong to the individuum but to different individuals of the species. The trials in the seed beds are not reported but a possible correlation of the seed color and other silviculturally important characteristics is foreshad- owed. Die Farbe des Weissfohrensamens als systematisches Merkmal. Cen- tralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, 1908, pp. 304-3096. Near Gottingen, to protect an oak planta- Sprouting tion against damage by game, the oaks of were surrounded by spruce billets, 1 to 2 Norway Spruce. inch diameter and 2 to 3 feet in height sharpened at the end and driven into the ground. ‘Two of these have struck root and are growing well, being now about 12 feet high. . Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1908, p. 170. a Periodical Literature. 417 An abietineous form from the Middle Cre- Ancestry taceous of Staten Island is recognized by of Jeffrey as the direct ancestor of Pinus, Pinus. which he calls .Prepinus, the structure of the leaves leading to the conclusion. The mesozoic pines show transition characters from Prepinus to our present pines, which are supposed to be the oldest representatives of Abietineae which in turn are supposed to be the oldest con- iferales. On the structure of the leaf in Cretaceous pines. Annals of Botany, 1908, pp. 207-220. Dr. Knoche, the well known entomologist, Biology has critically carried together the observa- of tions of himself and others regarding the Bark important features of the life history of the Beetles. troublesome pest of bark beetles as far as they have a bearing on the methods of fighting the pest. The long article is divided in four sections, namely, the question of generations; the behavior of old and young beetles; economic significance of the old beetles; and measures of defense. In the introduction the author points out, that “if to-day, now and then, we read of more or less widespread bark beetle dam- age, we have after all no conception of what extensive devasta- tions these insects have been responsible for in past times, in the 18th and beginning of the 19th century until the seventies.” Just as against plague, cholera and war the prayerbooks contained prayers for protection against this pest, and descriptions of its damage found entrance even into novels (Rosegger, Gottsucher). The foremost observer of their life history, whose conclusions remain still in the main correct, was the father of economic ento- mology, Ratzeburg, “who never lost the ground of actualities under his feet.” Regarding the question whether there is a single or double generation, at least of the most troublesome Tomicus typographus, his observations are still uncontradicted, namely, that it depends upon the weather, and especially upon spring tem- perature, and hence southern latitudes may have as a rule a double, northern as a rule single generation, which from the char- 26 418 Forestry Quarterly. acter of the weather may be predicted. Eichhoff’s contrary opin- ions are shown to be based on limited observation. Continuous dry and hot summers retard the development of larvae and a repetition of the generation almost more than wet and cold spring and summer, while warm, humid summers are favorable to it. In Germany the single generation seems to be the more usual, although with some species the double generation is not infre- quent. The author has shown that the bark beetles can be divided into two groups, the one developing the organs of reproduction rapidly and almost at once beginning preparations for a brood (Scolytus or Eccoptogaster); the other much larger group, re- quiring time to become mature, sometimes as in Hylesinus fraxini taking until the winter rest, while Tomicus, although slow, may yet produce a second generation. The old beetles, those having established their broods, leave their burrows alive. These, in the case of an extensive pest, be- come because of their numbers as dangerous as the original brood, although in general they are weaker. As a rule only sickly trees are attacked but when large masses of beetles are de- veloped, healthy trees cannot resist. In combating the pest it is agreed that measures for prevention of an undue increase are of more importance than attempts at ex- tinction. Nobody has improved on Ratzeburg in the principles of conducting the warfare. The principal prescription is to peel the wood cut in winter at once, unless it is used to trap the beetles, when it should be peeled in the beginning of June. If cut “in the sap,” the same precaution is necessary before a pos- sible second generation can fly out. Generally, clean logging and removal of windfalls, dying trees, etc., reduces the breeding places. Laying out of trap trees or billets is most effective, if properly attended to and timely removal of the traps is looked after. Encouraging enemies, among birds and insects, such as dragon flies, Clerus formicarius, Raphidia, certain small Diptera and especially ichneumons, is desirable, but attempts to increase the latter has not met with success. The main condition for assisting an increase of the pest is the leaving of the felled wood until spring or until a second brood can be deposited. If breeding places are removed or reduced and the broods on trap trees are destroyed in time, the pest can be - - Periodical Literature. 419 checked, since sound trees can be overcome and used by the beetles only when they are present in unusual numbers. If a large development is once in progress trap trees alone are effective, such traps must be continued as long as beetles fly and the traps carefully peeled or burned. Ueber Borkenkaferbiologie und Borkenkdafervertilgung. Forstwissen- schaftliches Centralblatt, 1908, pp. 141-153, 200-209, 246-254. The novel observation is made by Baudisch Snails that a treesnail, species undetermined— as brown body, with grayish underside, one Insect inch long—eats the larvae of the “nun,” Destroyers. Liparis monacha.. Snails, to be sure, live as a rule on vegetable matter, yet some species have been known occasionally to take to earthworms, bugs, etc. They usually appear in numbers only during rainy weather, then ascend trees, and finding such tidbits as the fat larvae of the “nun,” take them by the way. The observation is reported as a biological phenomenon with- out any attempt to suggest practical application. Schnecke und Nonne. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, 1908, p. 393. To the question of the manner in which Birds birds disseminate seeds the biological in- as stitute at Dahlem furnishes an interesting Propagators. item. Five thrushes were fed berries of some forty species. All berries were swal- lowed with the pits, the latter were emitted undigested and mostly undamaged, but only a part was evacuated, the others were voided by vomiting, as the birds of prey void feathers. The seeds have been sown to test their germination. Mitteilungen der Kaiserlichen. Biologischen Anstalt, Heft 4, 1907. SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION AND EXTENSION. Dr. von Fiirst points out that in spite of the Controversial fact that silviculture is the most important Questions part of forestry and has for hundred years in been enriched by the thoughts and experi- Silviculture. ences of the best minds, lately such a volume of divergent and contradictory 420 Forestry Quarterly. opinions has been launched that an objective weighing of them appears desirable. The first reference is to Fricke’s contention that the differen- tiation into tolerant and intolerant species is a scientifically not proved dogma (see Quarterly Vol. II, p. 226), and that competi- tion for water at the root accounts for inability to grow in the shade. The obvious objection is made that it is difficult to under- stand why this competition should prevent pine from suffering by it when beech may be used in underplanting with satisfaction. Cieslar’s article (see Quarterly Vol. III, p. 305) is also cited to defend the old theory. As regards the choice of artificial or natural regeneration the author pays a tribute to the late Prof. Gayer as the foremost advocate of natural regeneration, but the results of whose long battle have remained insignificant. Dr. Wagner’s new proposi- tion, the selection strip system, (see Quarterly Vol. VI, p. 160) is discussed at length admitting the applicability of this method in many places, the author questions its applicability in all cases. In beech it is not at all needed, for natural regeneration under nurses can be practically carried out over large areas; for pine, too, a straight forward strip system with artificial help appears surer. Stdtzer objects that what may be feasible on the fertile soil of the Jura and in Suabia may not be applied to poorer soils and more rigorous climate, and Thaler, with long years of experience in satisfactory artificial propagation of spruce would consider it ‘‘the most deplorable recrudescence if the emphasis of silviculture should again be laid on natural re- generation.” Bavaria being the country which is supposed to still hold on to natural regeneration, the author inquires into the state of things in this respect. For beech and fir, and for spruce with beech and fir mixed natural regeneration is unconditioned rule. Oak is mostly propagated by sowing, utilizing only any existing volunteer growth. The old oaks of the Spessart (400 years) cannot be naturally regenerated because of the damage by the logging of the heavy logs, and in other parts old stands are lack- ing. Pine is almost entirely reproduced by planting and sowing. Sometimes volunteer growth is saved, but usually it is damaged by the logging. Periodical Literature. 421 With the spruce, of which extensive pure stands exist, variety of method exists. On good fresh soils, in protected situations natural regeneration is attempted either by slowly advancing strips or groupwise openings (Kehlheimer method). But the poor results which were only too often had in larger re- generation cuttings in too old stands on poorer soils, the great damage by windfall and by logging, have led in many places to clearing followed by planting. The sureness of this method if properly executed with good plant material has led to its adoption in all private and communal forests—and, if the saving in the moving of the cut, the possibility of closer utilization and saving in the repair of natural regeneration made necessary by the logging is considered, this is also probably the cheaper method. In the State forest, too, this method finds more and more applica- tion. Altogether, elsewhere too, planting of spruce is the principal method, and many millions are being planted, yet spruce propaga- tion belongs to the controversial questions. Wagner especially inveighs against the unnaturalness of the operation, against sev- eral improper usages (deep planting) and especially against using transplants; only the use of small plants with ball finds favor with him. Yet the practice has evidently produced satisfactory result and while Wagner theorizes about the non-adaptation of the plant for the operation, Reuss finds the opposite. He, as well as the author finds transplanted spruce superior to any not trans- planted. Finally the question of mixed forest is touched. The value of mixed forest has been maintained by all teachers of silviculture, arid especially by Gayer—it is a dogma; in practice, however, it meets with difficulties. The only objector to this dogma is Gayer’s pupil and successor at Munich, Prof, Mayr, who has lately, anticipating his book “Silviculture on physiological basis,’ published contrary opinions regarding both natural regeneration and mixed forest. The former, he explains, can only be used with stands that have been specially grown for the purpose. The reason of its general failure he considers due to unnatural management of the mostly over- ripe stands, and hence soil deterioration and artificial reforesta- tion are spreading. > 422 Forestry Quarterly. As defects of mixed stands Mayr cites unsatisfactory boles and small volume growth, for all tolerant species form better boles and larger volumes in pure stands, while in mixed stands only the light needing species develop the better boles. Only the soil is benefited in mixed stand. (And yet the wood production is less? Rev.) Hence pure stands must be the aim of silviculture with the crowns of other species where they can do good, namely as undergrowth near the soil. [The proposition made by the re- viewer 20 years ago! B. —. F.]|. Mayr wants all species, tolerant and intolerant grown in pure stands, leaving them to clean them- selves during the thicket stage and only removing poorly formed forward individuals. After the polewood stage removal of sub- dominant trees and underplanting of all stands (beech, fir, spruce also), in light needing species, especially with beech, alder, blue beech, then thinning every five years to prevent closing of crowns, but also not to allow the undergrowth to reach into the upper crown level. In such a stand according to Mayr natural regeneration will be a sure success, if in a seed year half the trees are harvested, the undergrowth is partly or entirely removed, root and all, the soil scarified ; and the old stand is removed in one or two cuttings, so that the whole operation is finished in 5 to 6 years. To prevent one species to dominate, the forest is to be divided into small pure stands of different species, each at most of 7 to 8 acres, each parcel of different age class,—instead of the unfavorable mixed stand a mixed forest of small pure stands. Where only one species is fit, at least the age class distribution is to be practiced. Fiirst looks with doubt at these radical propositions, does not see the claimed disadvantages of the mixed forest, does not acknowledge the need of underplanting every thing, and points out that on poor sites it could not be done successfully. Nor does such an intensive management and subdivision appear practicable. Neither Mayr nor Wagner limit their diametrically opposite propositions to special sites or species, but generalize absolutely, and this is perhaps their weakest point. Strittige Fragen auf dem Gebiete des Waldbaues. Forstwissenschaft- liches Centralblatt, 1908, pp. 505-516. , Periodical Literature. 423 Professor Dr. Schiipfer in a brief article Silviculture gives some sound advice regarding spruce of reproduction. He points out, that, while Spruce. spruce in South Germany reproduces itself naturally with ease where site conditions are favorable, there are difficulties to be met in other localities, especially where wind danger interferes with the different stages of opening required by the young growth, or where on strong soils grass is apt to choke out the seedlings. Even where these difficulties do not exist natural regeneration is usually imperfect and requires repair planting. Formerly spruce was sowed, but on account of undesirable development of sowings now it is almost always planted, which is easily and successfully done [in con- tradiction to Wagner’s contention! Rev.] Regarding proper spacing, this depends on site and economic conditions. Close planting requires much material, much labor, much cost. Moreover, it presupposes thinning which in many regions is im- practicable and costly. Consideration of quality of stands deter- mines the upper limit; this, the author finds, to lie at 1.4 m (4.6 feet), say 2,000 to the acre; when according to low estimates the acre would cost $9. Even this spacing would produce con- siderable material for thinnings since at the felling age only little over 300 trees would remain. Where danger from snow pressure exists it is to be considered that the more even the branching and the longer the crown the more resistent the plant since the load evenly distributed is easily carried. Hence wider spacing is indicated. ‘This the author considers is also attained by the above number (see contrary opinions by Schiffel QuartERLy Vol. II, Pp. 259). Bemerkungen zum Anbau der Fichte. Forstwissenschaftliches Central- blatt, 1908, pp. 259-266. y Prof. Wagner’s book, which was reviewed A Plea in this volume p. 160, has stirred up much for useful discussion. His proposition to sub- Selection stitute a selection strip system, for ‘the Forest. regular selection forest brings out a valuable discussion on the latter form by Dr. Fankhauser. Pointing out that the objections usually raised 424 Forestry Quarterly. against the selection forest are based on the results of mis- managed properties, especially the farmer’s unregulated wood lots, he brings statistics of the Swiss forest, showing that with 780,000 acres over 35 per cent. are under that management, namely over 40 per cent. of the corporation forest, over 44 per cent. of the private holdings and nearly 19 per cent. of the State property. In the Alpine area nearly two-thirds is selection forest. The most important objection, namely the lower production of the selection forest, is met by the significant question: What value has the much praised and admitted favorable reaction of the selection forest on the soil, if it does not come to expression by increased increment?—and by a tabulated statement of the results of twelve forests in Switzerland and Baden as well as by the theoretical consideration that since the objectionable crown development produces a large amount of foliage, a larger produc- tion is to be expected. He cites on this item an examination of two spruces 80 feet high, the one grown in moderate density having 13 million leaves and 43 cubic feet volume, the other grown in the open on same site with 137 million leaves showing 150 cubic feet, and since the first was 120, the second only 80 years old, the difference in performance was over ten times in favor of the latter. The acre productions cited vary from 123 to 246 cubic feet (including increment on stock), the average 175. One selection forest of 250 acres furnished during 20 years nearly 250 cubic feet increment. To prove that these amounts are not secured at the expense of stock the conditions of a tract of somewhat over 200 acres are cited. This tract after heavy cutting was left in 1840 with a stock of 2,116 cubic feet per acre. In 1899 this had grown to 8,308 cubic feet, hence increase of stock 6,192. During this time there were cut 5,495, hence increment for 59 years 11,687 or 198 cubic feet per year, showing that the well managed selection forest does what is to be expected of it, namely exceed the even aged in quantitative production. As to quality the author cites Hartig: If broad rings are the result not of expanded crown but of good nutrition, then they are a sign of high quality i. e. high specific weight. Indeed under otherwise equal condi- tions the better soil produces the better quality. And again: The wood of trees grown in the selection forest which in their - a Periodical Literature. 425 youth have grown under pressure and deep shade and gradually have secured more and more freedom, is of excellent quality. Their increment often increases for 300 years, so that ring width decreases only slightly towards the periphery. With increasing increment the quality improves up to a high age and so a thoroughly excellent wood is the result. In the properly managed selection forest neither the knottiness, nor short body, nor rapid taper influence the financial results. A case of 2,500 acres is reported as producing 66 to 74 per cent. work wood, and the best paid wood in the mountains are the selection forest spruces which on account of their even grain bring 25 to 30 cents a cubic foot. Of other objections to the selection forest the author admits one as rather cogent, namely that it makes for really good results much greater demands upon the ability of the forester and the wood chopper than other methods, calling for a superior, and better paid service, which the increasing wood prices will make possible. In conclusion references to the best discussions on the selection forest are made and the author guards himself against the charge, that he desires a change of even aged stands to selection forest, his object being rather to save the existing selection forest from transformation into the former before the value of either is tested. Ueber die Notwendigkeit von Ertrags nachweisungen im Plenterwald. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1908, pp. 417-432. The well known writer on forest esthetics, Silvicultural v. Salisch, who originally a professional ~ Thoughts. forester became a forest owner and his own manager, gives expression to some silvicul- tural thoughts regarding the use of volunteer growth which are of value. He takes occasion to repudiate the reputation he has gained as writer on “Woodland esthetics” (Waldaesthetik) which belongs to the landscape gardener; but he claims that the beauty of a forest may serve as a measure of its technical management, so that the purely technical and the esthetical solution of a problem do not conflict. One of the objections raised to Salisch’s proposition to use volunteer growth in the regeneration partly based on esthetic consideration leads to the discussion. Especially > 426 Forestry Quarterly. in pine regeneration it is urged that the volunteer growth if held over is apt to form a poor growth—wolves! Salisch replies that he, too, had been brought up to consider quality first, clean straight boles, but his latest experience had cured him of the fanatic call for quality. Needing some beams in his buildings he found his 60 year old stands not sufficiently developed to furnish them, but for a number of trees which evidently had been left at the last clearing and showed by their annual rings that they had been poor misshapen runts. ‘They evidently had been branchy and only later been cleaned by the surrounding aftergrowth, they were knotty, but stout and with heartwood, the essential requirements in this case. In another case a group of volunteer growth of pine had been left surrounded by a stand originating from cone planting of 88 years growth. The latter had produced 4 trees per acre with 127 cubic feet worth $16. The two volunteer trees per acre, 115 years old, had produced 212 cubic feet worth $37. In other words the area on which the volunteer growth had been left produced double the value of the properly cultivated one. If the volunteer growth does not consist of single misshapen individuals, but of groups, the outer branchy members of which can be removed in the thinnings, the calculation should be still more advantageous. Especially the poorer the soil, an experienced forester notes, the more careful the judgment must be as to whether to retain or reject the existing, utilizing its protection perhaps for the newly to be established. Experience has shown that, given the time, unpromising volunteer growth with a little help of the axe, may grow into useful stands. Salisch proposes and does deliberately provide for advance growth on small natural open- ings, sowing acorns 10 to 30 years before the harvest of the main stand. The oaks, although impeded in their develop- ment, are well established with their root system when the regeneration takes place, and then develop most satisfactorily. Das Ueberhalten von Vorwiichsen. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung, 1908, pp. 314-317. Periodical Literature. 427 The commissioners charged with reforesta- Waste tion of the well known “Karst” in Austria, Land an abused dry, limestone mountain range, Planting. make their annual reports to show the pro- gress of their work. Of interest to us is the cost of this work. One of the commissions planted in 1907 about three million plants at a cost of $1.50 per 1,000 for setting the plants, not including the making of holes, which is the con- cern of the owner of the land and is estimated at $1.30, nor the value of the plant material which is in part furnished by the government. In this way the acre, exclusive of plant material, costs $5 to $9 to plant. The drouth on these limestone ridges causes much loss in these plantations, and in 1906 destroyed in the average 55 per cent. of the plants, which naturally increases the ultimate cost probably to double the original figure. Over 10,000 acres have so far been reforested by this one commission since 1884 and the expenditure has been around $125,000, to which the State con- tributed four-fifths. Tatigkeit der Karstaufforstungs Kommission fiir Graftschaft Gérz und _ Gradiska, 1907. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, 1908, pp. 422-420. Two articles, one by Gerlach and one by Dr. Damage Ramann, regarding methods of determining by damage by factory fumes may be considered Fumes. together. Gerlach whose earlier observa- tions on the occurrence of certain bark beetles as indicating smoke damage are briefed (QUARTERLY VI, p. 92) brings additional corroborative evidence. Ramann, the well known chemist at Eberswalde, furnishes a critical discussion of Gerlach’s position. His method of demon- strating presence of sulphurous gas in the atmosphere he acknowl- edges as valuable .but takes exception to his claim of character- istic signs. He recognizes that there may occur cases, when the presence of gases may be proved without any demonstrable decrease of increment; or when by removal of sickly trees the increment may even be increased due to the opening, and a damage calculation would find difficulties. He considers demon- stration of the presence of deleterious elements the only sure objective proof. Some of Gerlach’s signs (briefed on p. 92) may > 428 Forestry Quarterly. or may not exist even outside smnoke—damaged districts. ‘Their absence may then be used as proof against the existence of damage. The presence of insects in general Ramann admits only for slightly damaged districts, otherwise rather an avoidance by in- sects is observed. ‘The presence of Pissodes is to be observed in any stand, in which through any cause the growth vigor is im- paired. There is no better reason for considering the other insects mentioned by Gerlach as dependnt on smoke damage. The formation of wet spots as a result of such damage is doubted. The rapid fall of damaged needles as a result is agreed to, but the behavior of different individuals in that respect is so variable, that it would be unsafe to base arguments for smoke damage on this sign. The degree of damage varies indeed from branch to branch, which is to be expected since leaf structure varies ac- cording to position (light). Only as a leading guide the value of this rapid leaf fall may be acknowledged; the absence of this phenomenon is not a proof of the absence of damage, while its presence indicates the probability of damage, to be investigated further. Regarding the proposition of Gerlach to determine the acidity of the air, it is pointed out that when two or several acids are in- volved the method becomes complicated and more troublesome than the analysis of the leaves. Besides in case of temporary influence of obnoxious gases, the air may be found free from acids while the plants are nevertheless poisoned. EOD: Ueber den Nachweis von Rauchschiden. Allgemeine Forst- u.- Jagd- zeitung, 1908. Pp. 233-236. ' ws Besondere Vorkommnisse und Beobachtungen bei Waldbeschadigungen durch Rauchgase. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, July 1908, pp. 420-437. MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT. The method of using the space number Rapid for the purpose of volume determination of Methods stands, proposed by Schleicher, and briefed of in QUARTERLY, Vol. V, p. 221, has been V olume investigated by Schubert.and found want- Measurements. ing. In addition to the theoretical discus- sion which shows up the flaws of the Periodical Literature. 429 method, the results of eleven sample measurements are given, comparing Schleicher’s and Zetzsche’s methods in results with careful calipering. The variations in Schleicher’s methods run from —24 to + 21 per cent., deviating to that extent from the measured results, and hence the conclusion of the adequacy of the method appears justified. The short cut method, in use for several decades in the Mein- ingen Forest Bureau for budget regulations, that of Zetzsche, which Schleicher had criticized, was found to give on the same sample areas results varying at most (with one exception which is explained) less than 5 per cent. either way and mostly not over 2 per cent. This may, therefore, be considered entirely practi- cable for the purpose. This method employes circles instead of squares, and Schleicher made the following argument against its principal: On a given stand of 576 sq. m. there are 36 trees; this same number would be found on 9g circles with the radius of 4—(9xr’pi)—which figures only 52.43 sq. m., hence he argues that the method gives 27.3 per cent. too high results. But, the author argues, this per cent. expresses merely the mathematical relation of the area of a circle to that of its circumscribed square (r’pi: 4r?). While mechanically it would be impossible to sub- - divide a square area into circles, as the theory of the space number divides it into square, mathematically it can be conceived as divided into a number (7) of circles totaling precisely the area of the square, i. ¢ m. 7? pi=576 when r= V5, or if r is n-pt made=4.51, the standing room side is equal to the square root of the total area divided by the number of trees. This mathemati- cally correct conclusion gives very different results for s than Schleicher’s, the formula s=V2#pi having general application. n While the theoretical reasoning for this method is absolutely correct, its practical application has been found through long ex- perience in halfway uniform stands and proper handling satisfac- tory. The source Of error lies in the trees at the periphery which is somewhat corrected by choosing larger radii. Neue Methode zur raschen und genauen Ermittlung des Holzgehaltes ganzer Bestinde. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, 1908, pp. 309-314. 430 Forestry Quarterly. When the working plan for the demon- Accuracy stration forest at Eberswalde underwent its in regular revision in 1898, the stock on hand, Forest according to Borgmann, was rather care- Mensuration. fully determined. The larger part was calipered tree by tree, a part was estimated by the sample plot method, and a part by measuring the material felled on a sample area. In keeping with the function of the Eberswalde revier as an experimental and demonstration forest the measurements were made somewhat more careful than is demanded as a basis for working plans. This accuracy gives great value to the results for a comparison with actual yields from fellings which have been made in the ten years that have since elapsed. Diameters breast-high were taken in four centimeter classes. Heights were measured with Weise’s hypsometer and averaged graphically. Volumes were read from the Bavarian volume tables, and no correction applied for loss in logging as these tables are known to carry a small negative error. Pressler’s borer gave the data for calculating the increment per cent. This varied between I per cent. and 5 per cent. for pine according to age, and for the second story beech according to the density of the upper story between 2.5 per cent. and 1.5 per cent. In each of the thirty-two cutting areas which have been harvested since 1898 the actual cut is compared with the expected yield reckoned on the basis of the survey of 1898 by adding to the volume then measured the increment for five years at the rate determined. The actual yields fall short of the calculated quite constantly by a little less than 5 per cent. in the case of pine, and by a little less than 10 per cent. in the case of beech. Accordingly these per cents. are taken by the proper corrections to be applied to cover loss in logging pine and beech when standing volumes have been determined by using the Bavarian volume tables. § De Ueber die Genauigkeit von Massen- und Zuwachsermittlungen fiir Zwecke der Betriebseinrichtung. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, Sept., 1908, pp. 578-587. Periodical Literature. 431 Weise’s arguments for a system of regu- Yield lating cuttings according to the demands of Regulation the market have recently been reviewed and (F. Q. VI, p. 197). His article has brought Market. forth a paper from Saxony by Lommatzsch, which calls attention to some obstacles in the way of the introduction of such a scheme. These arise from the demands of forest management itself, from silviculture, from local labor conditions and from the precaution which must always be taken against accidental yields. The constant annual cut best agrees with any system of manage- ment because it insures against overcutting and enables systematic cuttings to be planned some years ahead. It tends to maintain a normal growing stock and to keep up the productivity of the forest. Natural regeneration forbids cuttings controlled by market conditions and demands instead a systematic procedure based on the assurance of seed years and the light requirements of seed- lings. Clear cutting and planting suffer least from irregular annual cuts, but great variations in the area to be planted will produce either scarcity or superabundance of plant material. ’ Local labor conditions would be disturbed by the varying amounts of work to be done. In every forest some pains is taken to hold desirable workmen by affording them constant employment. Not only the woodsmen but the teamsters, sawyers, etc., as well are dependent for their livelihood on a fairly constant cut. Accidental yields from windfall, snowbreak, etc., may occur at any time, and always rather seriously disturb cutting plans by necessitating immediate removal of large amounts of timber. Should such an accidental yield occur just after a few years heavy cutting to supply a strong market prospects for an early return to normal growing stock would be made very poor. Small properties worked for intermittent yields are least dis- turbed by a scheme of regulating cuttings such as Weise pro- poses, and the value of the suggestion may well be tried out by small owners. BaD. Ueber Betriebsregelung. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen, August, 1908, pp. 505-512. 432 Light Influences on Pine. ceed 30 qm. they are reduced to that figure. annual ring can for several decades be kept approximately equal. Forestry Quarterly. Upon the basis of a long continued series of experimental plots, some 125, Dr. Wim- menauer publishes yield tables of pine influence of stands thinnings. The author makes the following under the interesting deductions: Severely thinned ( gelichtete) and underplanted pine stands on I to III site are best managed so that their cross-section area per hectar does not ex- (130 square feet per acre), or that at each thinning In this way the width of the The total yield comes out higher than in dense stands. We may give only a sample of the yield tables to show the character and partial results on two site classes. a yum . V RSEREE. | | Se RBee BSE quoting os ee a sO On : : BS 28| enue) ¢ georen BeRSeS ISVIOAY Ree eRe . ie] ANNO NN : oom REGS = QRRSDB e [210.L ce So &ES HS “TIAN OS —_ I « : wn NN Ise] N 2 pos 808) epee ee ae 5 Joquity, Ts Eee m FINS NO eB — eH ‘pom SIGet5 see rE e210 az moO ef & ROO nKNN z pooa| & @yvags sagoge | al Z, roquity, AARAOOO |. MOWDOOO ie = = fs] 4 : na , ik Ata a WysIPH = py BSSRRA tw QHASS . . & gy ahachencet 7 = HH onaoxm Ss 10 ND AO 8 BBLIDAV ‘= OM AHH WwW = % ‘wale uO} | = Dr AGL & moonmna wy -JaS SSOID — OOO ON N MOA AN = 5 wan SaGRRe . Beam Joquin Ny Qe tHe ‘pom gecute sesees : Re} [e3O\L, = OSES Rw SHROATS = . & is ine) poon| © -ggusee 6 yesgas pquiy | = BO PtSS RRGHSS 4S ‘ @ wn ie) WwW z 74312 SSRESB SusSrr a nD *JoJOWeIpP 3 : N a aseiay | np ge pe ‘ASA a Ae _ s "ease uo | ©90000 ©209000 C ip) ive) a 298 SSOID ce eee Me eee a *soa1} Jo m0 +t+NH IN COvNn wn _ yen 'e) w jaquinN TRehOS BISESe : ° ° 12K E82888 e82838 severe —— Periodical Literature. 433 UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY. A first contribution regarding the strength Timber Physics of Japanese woods is furnished by Moroto, of including tests on 24 species. The interest Japanese to us is not in the actual data than in the Woods. character of the methods and results. The author starts with what the reviewer con- siders entirely erroneous notions as to the methods of testing woods. He declares the cross bending test the easiest and surest, overlooking the fact that its results can be made available only by means of a formula, the correctness of which is open to ques- tion, while the simple compression test is superior in directly relating load to unit area; and the compression strength can be readily translated by use of the Neely formula into crossbending strength. Another flaw we see in the use of large test pieces (nearly 10 feet long and 7 inches square) instead of small. This is done ostensibly to approach conditions in practical application; in reality it introduces a number of unknown variables and the results are almost worthless, unless standard values derived “from small 7. e. as nearly flawless material as possible for com- parison is at hand, which would help to judge the influence of these variables. The results show for this reason variations, sometimes exceeding 100 per cent., and, as there are only a limited number of tests, the value of a series is minimal. The author confirms the well known influence of moisture and relative strength of heavy and light wood. Narrow-ringed wood, especially of conifers was found stronger; wood of 70-90 year old trees stronger than younger timber. The position of the beam whether with the heart on the ten- sion or the compression side, was found important, the latter position being the more favorable, the wrong position with the heart on the lower side producing differences of 11 to 22 per cent. In easily splitting species the fracture was accompanied with lengthwise severance of the fibres. Apparently the following series from the strongest to the weakest species may be con- structed, which is interesting in showing a certain generic and specific similarity to our own species: Zelkowa acuminata; Chamaecyparis obtusa; Larix leptolepis ; 27 > 434 Forestry Quarterly. Thuyoposis dolobrata; Pinus densiflora; Pseudotsuga japonica; Pinus Thunbergti; Tsuga Sieboldi; Abies firma; Cercidiphyllum japonicum; Cryptomeria japonica; Tsuga diversifolia; Abies Veitchu; Acanthopanax ricinifolium; Phellodendron amurense; Picea hondoensis ; Pinus Koraiensis; Chamaecyparis pisifera. Untersuchungen iiber die Biegungselasticitat und- Festigkeit der ja- panischen Bauhdlzer. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, August-September, 1908, pp. 346-355. Dr. Wislicenus of Tharandt has investigated Discoloration the influence of the discoloration of wood of due to contact with the soil, recognized as Wood a partial humification. ‘There are various and discolorations taking place, giving rise to Quality. yellow, brown and gray tints. The humic discoloration which produces a brown color and appearance of age comes naturally from the influence of soil vapors in loose, moderately moist soils, which may be assisted or increased by the gradual application of ammoniacal vapors derived from the reac- tion of dry unslacked lime on ammonia salts (sulphate). This artificial color change has the remarkable influence on the wood of stopping its “working,” swelling and shrinking. This may become of great practical value, if it becomes possible to im- pregnate whole logs throughout with this aging element. Bericht iiber die 51 Versammlung des Sa&chsischen Forstvereins 1907. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, 1908, p. 363. The need of adequate protection of forest Fire owners against loss by fire is recognized in Insurance. Germany, and several organizations have undertaken to insure forest properties against fire. As yet none have attained success. The first in Hanover failed to show the reserve required by law. Nothing is reported of the next ventures in Bavaria and Livonia, and they are probably defunct. In 1895 the Gladbach Fire Insurance Company began to accept forest fire risks. Reports have been published from time to time, the last in 1904. The undertaking has cost money from the start. The premiums are low, amounting to about three or four per cent. of the net income, and yet only 3.2 per cent. of the private forests of Prussia are now insured. a Periodical Literature. 435 Recently the Agricultural Society of Rhenish Prussia has an- nounced an agreement whereby it accepts forest fire risks in association with the provincial fire insurance bureau in Dussel- dorf. 436 Forestry Quarterly. The items of this last year are as follows: Hewn wood and timber— Fir, other than pit props or pit wood, ........ $6,557,749 Orakei wicatu ice lots dus choaattveatahe aiewenetin ies cleeeas 5,208,200 DRAG 5 wipes die 'ethyiin Geib las kale fami ca a, eee 4,663,090 Pit props.on pit weed, sits hs. bicoens sl feu boy 13,202,838 Unenumerated:\\. 3.0: otonc oc saline moins 1,570,434 MOA: RE WIE, cus ics Shaw og sin Uataels ola le steko. $31,202,311 Sawn, split, planed or dressed— WAG. sdiieshikh VieE Miaahiaa wero ane aaes TS w'ee. $86,157,074 Unenumerated, ........ (ain Siete eh 2iktS ata cta eae ELE: 4,043,302 EVES isles jaaes detbe Chiba fbeumlann Ue waelebe tha 3,078,392 Total sam, splitetts) ic. dae. lke die $93,278,768 Furniture woods, hardwoods, and veneer— Mahomaiy, iviscit, clack 234i ciulaicte hint Seueleiaidee keel $3,517,676 Unenumerated, not being ash, beech, birch, elm, Gale or WAMASeas [oii wiles oni. a Uh os etek eae 5,866,054 Total furniture woods, etc., ...........0- $9,383,730 Total wood and timber, .-.. 3.000565 6.00 $133,864,809 Manufactures— Piemiture Aid CAMUMEL WATE, loys Sebi s wees ose $2,980,740 House frames, fittings, and joiners’ work, ...... 1,328,301 Other mauufaetires, (ik Ae Ae 3,125,359 Total manufactures, 0... .0.c0. ccc cee $7,434,400 Grand: tote amipestsy scdiseiee Gils. fs sie a ae $141,299,209 A short note gives account of the condition Wood Trade and prices ruling in the principal export of province of Austria. The principal export Galicia. material is spruce and fir lumber, mostly to Germany and Switzerland, logs, squared timber and shingles, excelsior and box boards to Russia in smaller quantities. _ - Periodical Literature. 437 The prices in 1906 were per cubic foot of lumber (log run, 16 to 19 cents, say $13 to $16 per M. B. M.; ash lumber $37; oak $52; pine logs 8 to 10 cents per cubic feet ; oak logs 20 to 77 cents. Oak railroad ties 80 to go cents. Allgemeine Forst- u. Jagdzeitung, 1908, p. 272. The best and dearest oak wood in Germany Prices is noted to be that of the Spessart moun- of tains with its 400 year old oaks. This year Oak. the hitherto highest prices have been paid, single logs bringing as much as $3.30 per cubic foot! In Rothenbuch, the 43,180 cubic feet sold brought $38,115, not quite go cents. In Rohrbrunn three auctions brought for 88,640 cubic feet $96,190 or $1.08 in the average. The logs are classified by size into 3 classes, the highest brought from $1.40 to $3.30; the second class $1.04 to $1.33; the lowest 78 to 89 cents. Of the Rothenbuch cut only 60.6 per cent. was workwood, the old oaks being doty. Eichenholzpreise im Spessart. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1908, p. 502. NEWS AND NOTES. E. A. Sterling in Charge. The following pithy note has been received from an “insider” who wishes to start a discussion with a view of securing improve- ments on present practice: “What's in a Name?” I myself do not believe in elaborate titles nor indeed in at- taching undue significance to them; for “a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” Nevertheless I do think that the present scale of titles in the Forest Service is misleading and capable of material change and improvement. They are not the result of a definite, correlated plan but almost haphazard—grow- ing out of the original “Forester in the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture.” This was all right while there was but one forester or so in the Department, but now with two hundred or more foresters—professional, trained foresters—on the rolls, it is as incongruous as if for example, the Director of the Geo- logical Survey were to be styled “The Geologist,” or Mr. Newell, “The Reclaimer,’ or the head of the Marine Hospital Corps, “The Doctor.” It is easy to criticise—more difficult to offer remedies. The following scheme, though, is based on the fundamental profes- sional title of “forester’—just like “engineer.” There are civil, electrical, mining and many other kinds of engineers. Similarly it is hoped that ultimately there will be diverse kinds of special- ized foresters. But the term forester is the foundation—it is what we all are, or try to be—and therefore, it is eminently fitting and proper that it should be made the basis of titular nomencla- ture in the Forest Service. Building on this we have, corre- sponding to the present technical ranks in the Service, a list some- what as follows: News and Notes. 439 Present Title. Proposed Title. ipreste ASstshattie sss)... 02s s/n Junior Forester. Deputy Supervisor, Forest Exam- TN GRUNTS ala fale Sa a koe Assistant Forester. SSUIPEH VISOR sel Aoi ateloa/< wo vic «oe 0's Forester. Chiefs of Office of Districts, ..... Senior Forester. Pasteiel?t Horester. Va) (i2)s(.)-< 2. sss Supervising Forester. UTES arg ean ee Inspecting Forester. PISSISEAGE BORESCT Wa tieid oss 5 oss Assistant Directing Forester. Assistant Forester in Charge of lari a Directing Forester. Assocmtes Horester, 22). 5.5.6. .... Associate Director. [GTS Ts Ap Beene Cee Director. It will be noted that the Supervisor—the man who comes most closely in touch with the people—has the simplest, easiest title: Forester. That is what many National Forest users sponta- neously style the Supervisor, and as naturally they call “The For- ester” the “Chief Forester,’ or the “Director.” We have standardized everything else—have renamed for- ests in honor of all who had the least shadow of a claim. Isn’t it about time that we do away with this hodge-podge of titles and put them on a systematic basis ?”’ On page 208 of this volume we published the breezy letter from a young forester on the Philippine forest conditions. A longer acquaintance with these conditions has prompted a revision of his opinions and the following sequel. We are glad to encourage such correspondence from field and practice, and even half-ripe fruit is acceptable, if offered in the proper spirit of advancing our knowledge. “When I came to the Philippines for some unknown reason [ had a hazy notion that I was going to find a vast forest of big trees, covering the whole of the land here. Then, after four months of steady piking, when I did not see much forest, without stopping to consider that all the time was spent in traveling through the most extensive of the agricultural districts of the islands, I jumped to the conclusion that the islands as a whole exhibited the same poor forest condition. > 440 Forestry Quarterly. Writing a personal letter at that time I very foolishly put that opinion in writing, without stopping to verify it, and not sup- posing that it would go further. Since then I have seen some of the best forests over here, and their richness is so impressive as to compel an about face with regard to my opinion of the Philippine forests. While the total extent of this rich forest is not yet definitely known, it is cer- tainly very extensive, and it is now estimated that a sustained annual cut of 400,000,000 board feet will be possible. The opportunities for several lumber companies now operating are good, since they are scarcely able to supply the present de- mand, general business looks prosperous and good forest is awaiting development. Your article published concerning ‘Pos- sibilities of lumbering in the Philippine Islands” goes more into detail on this subject. The forest mapping of the islands, showing land classified as agricultural, grass, non-commercial forest, and commercial for- est, is going on rapidly, and in a comparatively few years there will be fairly accurate knowledge of the forest wealth of the islands. At present there are completed: Bulletins on the Forest con- ditions of Central Luzon; of Southern Luzon; of Mindoro; of Zamboagna Peninsula. Besides these, Klemme has a good start in Northern Luzon, and scattered work elsewhere is completed. Each year we accumulate data of stand measurements, silvical data, dendrology notes and general information, gathered in the preparation of preliminary working plans for the tracts of the most important loggers. A beginning is to be made this year in setting aside commercial and forest reserves. Great progress is expected from the provision that all the na- tive force will receive instruction in forestry, and thus give more valuable aid than ever before. Recent investigations by the Bureau of Forestry emphasize the fact that the bulk of the forest wealth of the Philippine Is- lands is stored in the members of one family, botanically known as Dipterocarpaceae, which name has been very aptly shortened to “Dipterocarp” family. The word means, literally, “two wings,” - News and Notes 441 because some of the members of the family have fruit with two wings. It is estimated that this one family contains more than three fourths of the timber wealth of the Islands. It is to the Philippines what the Pine family is to temperate regions. It holds timber of all grades, from the hard and durable woods like Yacal and Mangachapuy, through a medium grade like Guijo or Apitong, to the softer timbers known commonly as Lauan. Like the oaks in temperate regions, each wood of these grades has a number of varieties. Lauan, for instance, can be subdivided into Red and White Lauans. Apitong is a group of four or five different varieties, and Yacal is of at least three different varie- ties. A list of timbers of this family, with some of their varie- ties will show that the first group contains Yacal (Guisoc) ; the second group, Mangachapuy (Dalindingan) and Guijo; the third group Tanguile, Apitong (Panao, Hagachac), Palosapis (Mayapis); and the fourth group White Lauan (Almon, Nalaanonang) and Red Lauan. This important family also furnishes the valuable Eng of Burma, the Sal of India, besides a number of other less used woods. Borneo supplies Rassak, Serayah, Kruen, and Selangan, all of which belong to the Dipterocarps. Selangan is sometimes known as Borneo Yacal because it is closely related in structure and durability to the Yacal of the Philippines. The commercial product known as Borneo camphor, also comes from a tree that belongs to this family. The following recital and resolutions, adopted by a conference of .Philippine foresters, were received through the hands of George P. Ahern, Director of Forestry: By the death of Harry Day Everett, Forester, and Chief of the Division of Forest Administration, the Philippine Bureau of Forestry loses one of its most efficient and faithful workers. Mr. Everett first became interested in the subject of forestry during the latter years of his academic course at Cornell Uni- versity. After his graduation in 1903, as Bachelor of Arts, he entered the University of Michigan, from which institution he received the degree of Master of Science of Forestry in 1904. From 1902 to 1904 he spent his summer vacations with field 442 Forestry Quarterly. parties of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry, and upon completion of his studies at Michigan entered the Service as a Forest As- sistant. In 1905 Mr. Everett transferred from the Forest Service of the United States to the Bureau of Forestry, Philippine Islands. Soon after his arrival in the Philippines he was placed in charge of Forest District No. 8, embracing the Visayan Islands. On the reorganization of the Bureau in 1907 he was made Chief of the Division of Forest Administration. During the absence of the Director of Forestry in the United States, from August, 1907, to April, 1908, Mr. Everett was placed in charge of the affairs of the Bureau. The duties of Acting Director he re- linquished on the return of the Director. Shortly afterwards he left for Iloilo to prepare for the expedition on which he was killed. He had for some time desired to finish his work in Southern Negros, which, when done, would complete his forest studies and forest map for the Island of Negros. Together with work previously accomplished in Negros, the results of this ex- pedition were intended for a bulletin on the forest conditions of that Island. According to the best information available, Mr. Everett had already made one journey across Negros from Cabancalan on the west coast to Bais on the southeast coast, and had started to return to Cabancalan by the way of Tolon on the southern coast. About three or four days inland from this town at the sitio of Pamari, on May 11th, the guide, assisted by his followers, drug- ged Mr. Everett and party, while asleep, by means of fumes of a narcotic plant, and then murdered them; therefore, Be it resolved, That the Director of Forestry, and members of the Bureau of Forestry assembled in conference on the twenty- seventh day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, express our appreciation of the services, efficiency, and character of Mr. Everett, whose personality and accomplishments will leave their mark on the future personnel and work of this Bureau; and Be it resolved, That this conference extend to his family, in their hour of affliction, our deep sympathy for their loss, a loss which we as his associates, who. knew him both personally and professionally, so thoroughly feel; and Be it resolved, That a copy or pe testimonial be sent to the News and Notes 443 bereaved family, the Manila Times and Cablenews-American, Forestry and Irrigation, Washington, D. C., Forestry Quarterly, Ithaca, N. Y., and the Alumni Associations of the University of Michigan, and of Cornell University, and Gifford Pinchot, For- ester, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Forest insect and fungi seem to have developed and spread to a somewhat unusual extent during the past summer, perhaps as the result of the prolonged drought. The chestnut bark disease (Diaporthe parasitica), which is a parasitic fungus known in this country only since 1904, is assuming serious proportions. From the initial point of outbreak near New York City, it has spread first over Long Island and is now established over the eastern part of Pennsylvania, southwestern New York, southeastern Connecticut, parts of New Jersey, and into Maryland and Vir- ginia. The spores are apparently carried long distances by the wind, so that the possibilities of preventing the spread of the in- fection are very slight. The locust leaf miner (Odontota dor- salis) seems to have moved eastward from Ohio, and locust trees throughout Pennsylvania by the middle of summer show the yellow foliage characteristic of this insect’s work. The white pine blight, which has been giving anxiety in the past two or three years, continued to be prevalent, but from the best informa- tion available it is not spreading with any great degree of rapid- ity. It was noticed early in the season that the foliage on many yellow poplar trees was turning yellow, this being the work of a very large scale insect which has made itself known periodically. It is not anticipated that any great amount of injury will result from this source. The railroads traversing Maryland have been requested by the State Forester to attempt the abatement of forest fires along their lines by maintaining strips 100 feet wide on both sides of tracks free of inflammable material, which protective measure he es- timates would cost $15 per mile annually. No doubt such a fire line would greatly reduce the danger and damage throughout the State, as has been proved along the Pennsylvania lines, where for years the supervisors in Maryland have each spring and fall burned over the right-of-way and as much of the adjoining > 444 Forestry Quarterly. property as its owners would sanction. The co-operation of all abutting land owners is essential to the thorough effectiveness of Mr. Besley’s scheme. Unfortunately there are many who lack public spirit sufficient to overcome their satisfaction in having a ready and oftimes steady source for damage claims against the railroads. ‘To thwart such enemies of progress a bill proposed in New Jersey last year provided immunity from damage suits to railroads which set fire to land which they had been refused per- mission to make a fire upon in accordance with the provisions of the law. The clear-cutting of a chestnut and mixed oak stand on a woodlot of 80 acres owned by the Northern Central Railway (Penna. R. R. Co.), has just been completed under the directions of the company’s foresters. Next spring the area will have its adapted portions planted with Red Oak, Locust and Scotch Pine. The cutting for fuel wood has so thoroughly removed the slash that it affords no hindrance to planting operations. However, enough small sticks remain scattered over the ground to consti- tute a decided menace from fire, and it is proposed to get rid of this by burning the area over. To pile the debris would be too expensive. ‘The conditions for firing in safety are good, the tract being over a few rounded hills skirted by logging roads. Part of the land will be burned over this fall and part next spring in order to determine which is the better time. Of wood preservatives, as well as of books, there seems to be no end. “Locustine,” a preparation put out by the Stokes Wood Preserving Company, of Philadelphia, is the latest. Its claims are based on the lasting for years of black oak ties immersed in the preparation. ‘“Locustine” is claimed to be effective by both brush and tank treatments. Its cost is about midway between those of creosote and carbolineum. In composition it is made up of 75 per cent. Texas crude oil, and the remainder sodium chloride and animal oils. ‘ A paper on the relation of forests to stream flow read before the American Society of Civil Engineers early in November should warn those who have forest preservation at heart of the danger lying in statements made by enthusiasts in regard to News and Notes 445 forest influences. While foresters will readily see how far wrong in many of his premises the author of the paper in question is, they will also appreciate how right he is in saying the bases for much of the popular arguments are not founded or demon- strated facts. They are not accepted by the profession, and it is too bad our brother engineers should be getting a surfeit of them in our name. Mr. Raphael Zon, who will have charge of the forest experi- ment station work in the reorganized Forest Service, is now abroad studying the stations in Europe. Much good to the ser- vice and the profession at large should result from published re- sults of this trip. In commemoration of the roth anniversary of Biltmore Forest School and of the 2oth for forestry mm United States, there has been prepared at Biltmore a program of profit and pleasure for November 26 to 29, well advertised by Dr. Schenck in his characteristic style. The major feature of the celebration will be daily excursions through Biltmore Forest, during which the various problems, _ operations, and results of management will be explained. A printed guide will give the details of the expenses and receipts for sixty stations marked in the woods. The advantages of Biltmore estate for practical object lessons in forestry are not used to the extent they should be and those who have not the time to visit European forests would do well to avail themselves of this chance to see longest-continued practice of forestry this country affords. For the amusement of visitors, a coon hunt, barbacue, and fishing and shooting contests have been provided. The 2oth anniversary of forestry must depend regarding historic accuracy on the definition of forestry, for as far as records go, Mr. Pinchot, who supposedly was the first to attempt the application of forestry methods to the Biltmore tract, did not begin operations until after 1891. Before that time Douglas & Sons did some planting mainly for ornamental pur- poses. The Office of Public Roads of the Department of Agriculture is to co-operate with the Forest Service in drawing up plans for comprehensive systems of roads and trails on National Forests. > 446 Forestry Quarterly. For the last two years Congress has provided funds for per- manent improvements on National Forests, and a large part of the money thus made available has been and is being used for road and trail building. The amount is too small, however, in com- parison with the total area of the forests, to make possible more than a very small beginning. With denser settlement and in- creasing use of the Forests, good roads will become more and more a crying necessity. The object of securing the help of the Office of Good Roads is to make the work take the line that will not merely serve tem- porary convenience, but also count for most in the end. By build- ing each year with reference to a carefully worked-out plan the danger of misdirected effort will be escaped. The roads, trails, telephone lines and fire lines already con- structed on National Forests are proving of great value both in the work of fire protection and in serving the convenience of the public. The further this work can be carried the greater will be the usefulness of the Forests to the surrounding regions. Figures just made public by the Forest Service show that under the new law requiring 25 per cent. of the gross proceeds of National Forest business to be paid over to the State and Terri- tories in which the forests are located, to be used for public schools and roads, the last fiscal year will yield these States $447,- 063.79. The amounts to go to each State or Territory are: Alaska, $2,684.78; Arizona, $42.610.44; Arkansas, $313.68; California, $52,437.78; Colorado, $50,955.67; Idaho, $56,307.84; Kansas, $643.55; Montana, $75,807.41; Nebraska, $2,349.77; Nevada, $4,577.95; New Mexico, $25,464.12; Oklahoma, $554.48; Oregon, $32,313.52; South Dakota, $8,456.60; Utah, $32,151.02 (includ- ing Uinta Indian refund of $5,348.07) ; Washington, $18,032.79, and Wyoming $41,402.38. Prussia has lengthened the course of study at the two forest schools, Hann-Munden and Eberswalde from two to three years, and at the same time reduced the preliminary prriee from one year to seven months. eT aotd \ l ae le ' \ Oe P— tp hs el — . | \ ‘ Adelacs ad VQ —— : ; ’ \ ; aa ef \ gti _| re | ~ tn r 2 Pe <7 e trav penis of 2 ff 2 | Th eifem Mountain Sg NoreiN =. = ! ; ef q S Romano A Stee On. TR z VT wel ae he / Taadtalis 7 SSooEe é | a aa c.. 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LIGHT GREEN BROWN LIGHT YELLOW 100 wei Wl: 100 a 1 i q i 4 N \ 75 .—— 103 LT ti 25 — 0 1:2.217600 or 35 Miles to 1 inch IR IB + A NI Bh 4 ve Department of Interior Ottawa 1 By R.E. Young D.L.S. Supt, He NOIR of Railway Lands at Sa Se aes ea es TRUE, TDM fn | eh Pde : ry ol ieatrras ! rt | fio | s | Hrd ox ta Ss cl eT 1 t4t2?°¢ + fl ot .. Hig eckin ae ome Sy SD Forestry quarterly Biological & Medical Serials PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY STORAGE