Historic, archived document

Do not assume content reflects current
scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.

Peete shine

USDA
a

A99.9 F7622Uf

United
Department of
Agriculture
Forest Service

Northeastern
Research Station

Resource Bulletin NE-158

YT

The Forests of the
Green Mountain State

Eric H. Wharton
Richard H. Widmann
Charles H. Barnett
Thomas S. Frieswyk
Andrew J. Lister
Bob DeGeus

The Authors

Eric H. Wharton, Richard H. Widmann, Charles J. Barnett, Thomas S.
Frieswyk, and Andrew J. Lister are foresters with the Northeastern Research
Station, Newtown Square, PA; Bob DeGeus is a forester with the Vermont
Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation at Montpelier.

Photo credits

Pages 1, 3, 9, 18, 19, 25, John David Geery; page 6 top, John D. Hodges,
Mississippi State University, www.forestryimages.org (Image 4798050);
page 6 bottom, Tim McCabe, Natural Resources Conservation Service;
page 17, Robert Burt, USDA Forest Service; page 21, Robert L. Anderson,
USDA Forest Service, www.forestryimages.org (Image 1748049); page 23,
Theodore D. Leninger, USDA Forest Service, www.forestryimages.org
(Image 3046075).

Published by: For additional copies:
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Delaware, OH 43015-8640
November 2003 Fax: (740)368-0152

Visit our homepage at: http://www.fs.fed.us/ne

THE FORESTS
OF THE
GREEN MOUNTAIN STATE

This is the forest primeval.

The murmering pines and the hemlocks,

Bearded with moss, and in garmets green, indistinct in the twilight,
Stand like Druids of eld, with voices sad and prophetic,

Stand like harpers hoay, with beards that rest on their bosoms.

Flenry Wadswordth Longtellow
Evangeline, 1847

The village of Brattleboro is peculiar for the neammess of the primitive wood and the mountain...

But, above all, this everlasting mountain is forever lowering over the village, shortening the day
and wearing a misty cap each morning ... [he most interesting sight I saw in Brattleboro was the

skin and skull of a panther ... | was surprised at its great size and apparent strength. It gave one a

new idea of our American forests and the vigor of nature here.

Flenry David Thoreau
Journal, 9 September 1856

USDA Forest Service Vermont Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation
Northeastern Research Station, Forest Inventory and Analysis Montpelier, Vermont
Newtown Square, Pennsylvania

Danby, Vermont

Vermont’s Resilient Forests

Forests provide wood and other forest products, watershed protection, wildlife habitat,
biodiversity, a setting for recreation, and much more. They have played a major role in the
history and culture of Vermont. The early settlers found nearly all of the State covered by
forests. The initial clearing of these woodlands was slow as most colonists established small
subsistence farms. Forest clearing became widespread around 1800 as Vermont's farmers
began supplying food and wool to a rapidly growing nation. The thousands of small farms
created a strong agriculture-based economy. The city of Burlington, Vermont, became a
major producer of timber during this time.

By 1880, only about a third of Vermont remained forested. As early as 1845, George
Perkins Marsh warned Vermont farmers about the damage that results from clearing forests.
Eventually, those who once assumed that the State’s forest resource was unlimited were
faced with timber shortages. Soil erosion from farm land increased and silt now muddied
creeks that once ran clear. And because of the rapid runoff of storm water, springs that
previously flowed year round were dry during the summer. As Vermont's forests
diminished, so did once abundant populations of important species of wildlife, for
example, the beaver, black bear, white-tailed deer, wild turkey, and wolf.

During the Industrial Revolution, much of the cleared land in Vermont became unsuitable
for continuous agricultural crops and was abandoned as farmers left marginal hillside farms
to find work in the cities. Through the years, trees become established and what were “old
fields” reverted to forest land. The opening of the West following the Civil War hastened
the pace of farm abandonment across New England. The consequent decline in farming
allowed much of the State to revert to forests. The amount of forested acreage in Vermont
has doubled since 1880, though the sturdy stone walls one finds throughout the State's
woodlands are reminders of the decline in farm acreage that continues today.

Absent interference by humans, vegetation in abandoned fields undergoes a series of
changes. Plants with seed distributed by wind or birds are the first to become established.
In Vermont, these include such common wildflower species as golden rod, aster, Queen

Anns lace, and blackberry.

New Forest Inventory

Early in the 20" century, widespread land abuse in the Eastern United States prompted
Congress to enact legislation that in part mandated the USDA Forest Service to
periodically survey all states and report on the state of the nation’s forest resources. As
part of this legislation, the Green Mountain National Forest was established in western
Vermont.

In 1997, the fifth inventory of Vermont’s unique forest resource was conducted by the
Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) unit of the Northeastern Research Station in
cooperation with the Vermont Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation. Previous
inventories were conducted in 1948, 1965, 1973, and 1983. The results of the most
recent survey detail the condition and extent of these extensive and diverse forests, and
document their recovery. Highlighted here are significant trends during the last 50 years.

How was the Inventory Conducted?

Because it is impossible to count every tree in
Vermont, FIA personnel used a scientifically designed
sampling method. First, photo interpreters studied
aerial photographs of the entire State. Next, a grid
of nearly 22,000 points was overlaid on the photos.
If forested, each point was classified according to
land use and tree size. From this information, a
sample of 926 plots was selected for measurement
by FIA field crews. The sample included plots that
were established during previous forest inventories;
plots established in 1948 were measured for the
fifth time. The remeasurements yielded valuable
information on how individual trees grow. Field
crews also collected data on the number, size, and
species of trees, and related forest attributes.All of
this information was used to generate reliable
estimates of the condition and health of Vermont's
forest resource, and how it is changing over time.

Following data collection for the 1997 inventory, a series of ice storms devastated forested
areas in parts of northern New England and New York State. The storms damaged an
estimated 940,000 acres in Vermont alone. To quantify these losses, plots were selected
within the most heavily damaged areas. During 1998, the field plots were revisited, new
measurements were taken, and the entire inventory was recalculated to include data on ice
damage. Detailed statistical tables were published, as was information on Vermont's
private forest-land owners and the State’s forest products industry.’ *

'Frieswyk, Thomas S.; Widmann, Richard H. 2000. Forest statistics for Vermont: 1983 and
1997. Resour. Bull. NE-145. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Northeastern Research Station. 130 p.

*Birch, Thomas W. 1996. Private forest-land owners of the Northern United States, 1996.
Resour. Bull. NE-136. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 293 p.

Farm Meets Forest in Ira, Vermont

Vermont's Forests Today

Forest
Forests account for nearly 8 of every 10 acres of land in 78 %
Vermont, or roughly 4.6 million acres. The remaining 2
acres comprise cropland, improved pasture, and other
nonforest land, e.g., housing, commercial and industrial
facilities, rights-of-way, wetlands, and recreational areas. As
mentioned earlier, by the middle of the 19" century, two-
thirds of Vermont's original forests had been converted to
farm land. Since then, the State’s forests have revealed their
resilience. Today, forests blanket more of Vermont than at
any other time in the last 100 years. Between 1948 and
1966 when the first two FIA inventories were conducted,

forest land increased by about 16 percent, from 3.7 to 4.3 Cropland and pastures cover 14 percent of
million acres. During the next 30 years, forested areas Vermont but these land uses have declined
continued to increase, though only by 7 percent. from previous inventories. The remaining

nonforest land, which accounts for 8 percent
of the State’s land cover, continues to
increase. This includes tracts for housing, and,
as mentioned earlier, for urban development,
for example, rights-of-way, industrial and
commercial facilities, churches, and schools.

Forest land does not exist in a vacuum but in concert with
competing land uses. And Vermont's forests returned at the
same time the State’s population was expanding. Today,
urban development, which is showing few signs of slowing,
is draining the forest-land base and causing it to fragment
into ever smaller ownerships.

Forest Ownership

Private owners account for nearly 80 percent of Vermont's

timberland. Nonindustrial private landowners hold 63
percent of the timberland. The remaining 37 percent is
owned by individuals (other than farmers), corporations
(other than forest industry), farmers, and miscellaneous
owners, e.g., hunting clubs and trust funds.

Public lands accounted for 13 percent of the timberland
base in 1997 compared to 9 percent in 1983. Altered
perceptions about how the State’s forests should be
managed have caused more timberland than ever to be
reserved for public goods and services. Public land is the
primary source of forest-related recreation. With all but
5,300 acres in southern Vermont, the Green Mountain

National Forest contributed 6 percent of total timberland

acreage. [he State of Vermont also holds 6 percent or
nearly 275,000 acres. Counties and municipalities own
about 72,000 acres.

There are about 80,500 nonindustrial private forest-land
owners in Vermont with average holdings ranging from
100 to 500 acres. Nearly 70 percent of the timberland is
held by nonindustrial private landowners with tracts
larger than 100 acres; however, these owners account for
only 11 percent of all ownerships.

Number of Owners and Acres of Forest Land
By Tract Size Class

Thousand _ Thousand
Owners Acres.

50 2,000

Tract Size Class

Farmer

STEER OT

6%

Characteristics and Trends

Location and Distribution

The forests of Vermont extend northward from [maple/
beech/birch] forests to the south, across the central
mountains of the New England Plateau, and into forests
dominated by spruce/fir that border the Upper
Connecticut River Valley. Of the five counties along this
corridor, Orange County is the least forested at nearly
80 percent. Essex County is the most heavily forested at
95 percent; Chittenden County is the least forested (61
percent). Since the most recent FIA survey, forest
acreage has increased in Caledonia and Orleans
Counties and declined in Addison and Chittenden
Counties.

The importance of Vermont’ natural resource varies
with the abundance and character of its forests. A
common characteristic that helps describe the landscape
is the distribution of forest types or forest-type groups.
Their distribution depends on factors such as terrain
position, soil depth, and climate. Northern hardwoods,
specifically, the northern hardwoods forest-type group,
accounts for 67 percent of Vermont’s 4,628,900 acres of
forest land. The next most abundant forest-type groups
are white/red pine and spruce/fir, which account for 11
and 10 percent of the State’s forest land, respectively.

Forest-type groups vary in distribution throughout the
State. Each helps define the character of forests that
occur across Vermont’ mountains and valleys. For

example, the oak/hickory forest-type group is far more

Distribution of Vermont’s Forest Land by Forest-type Group

Northern
hardwoods
67 %

White/red pine — 11 %

Spruce/fir — 10 %

Aspen/birch — 6%
Oak/hickory -- 4 %
Other! -- 2%

‘Includes the oak/pine and elm/ash/red maple forest-type groups.

important component in the southern counties, while
the spruce/fir group is more common primarily in the
northern countries. However, political boundaries often
limit the use of forest-resource data. Over the years,
different criteria have been pressed into service to better
classify the forest landscape. Biophysical regions were
proposed in the early 1990's and refined in 1995.

Vermont contains a diverse mixture of these regions, or
ecological units, which, in turn, contain blends of
forest-type groups.’ Eight biophysical regions have been
identified: Taconic Mountains, Vermont Valley,

Percent Forest Land Cover
and Change in Forest Land

Values shown
represent percent
forest cover

Change in Forest Land

Little or no change
(-5.0 to +5.0 %)

Moderate decline
(-5.1 % or greater)

Moderate increase
(+5.1 % or greater)

Southern Green Mountains, and Southern Vermont
Piedmont that stretch across the State’s southern tier,
and Champlain Valley, Northern Green Mountains,
Northern Vermont Piedmont, and Northeastern
Highlands, which encompass nearly all of the 10

northern counties.

*Keys, J., Jr.; Carpenter, C.; Hooks, S.; Koenig, FE; McKlab,
W.H.; Russell, W.E.; Smith, M-L. 1995. Ecological units
of the Eastern United States—first approximation. Publ.
R8-TP 21. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Southern Region.

Location of Vermont’s Forests

Land Class

FS Non-forest Land
be Forest Land

Each forest-type group comprises
a diverse collection tree species.
For example, within the northern
hardwoods group are pure stands
of black cherry and those that
contain a mixture of maple, beech,
birch,and other deciduous species.

Mixed Stand of Oak, Maple and Birch, Harvard Forest, Massachusetts

Distribution of Forest Land by Forest-type Group
in the Biophysical Regions of Vermont

Northern Green Mountains

Champlain Valley

Taconic Mountains
and
Vermont Valley

Northeastern Highlands

Northern Vermont Piedmont

Southern Vermont Piedmont

Southern Green Mountains

ee Aspen/birch Ke Northern hardwoods ee Spruce/fir

Fe White/red pine Ea Other (oak/pine, oak/hickory, and elm/ash/red maple)

Northern hardwoods predominate in every region of
Vermont, but account for only about half of the
forest-land area in the two Piedmont regions, each of
which has a significant proportion of white/red pine.
The Northern Vermont Piedmont and Northeastern

Highlands also contain substantial amounts of
spruce/fir and aspen/birch, while the oak/hickory
and oak/pine forest-type groups account for about
52 and 12 million acres, respectively, in the
Southern Piedmont.

Area of Forest Land by Forest-type Group and Geophysical Region
(in millions of acres)

White and Spruce Oakand Oakand Elm,ash, Northern Aspen, All

Biophysical Region red pine andfir pine hickory red maple hardwood birch types

Champlain Valley 100.5 11.4 10.8 20.0 44.9 285.9 13.0 486.5

Northern Green Mountains 1.8 106.4 0.0 0.0 3 340.5 38.9 490.7
Northeastern Highlands 49.0 48.0 0.0 ils 9.6 800.1 77.6 985.4
Northern Vermont Piedmont 109.3 235.0 0.0 12.9 6.8 425.7 IBS 863.6
Southern Green Mountains 48.8 58.1 0.0 11.6 0.0 708.5 Sift 864.7
Southern Vermont Piedmont 132.7 0.0 12.4 51.6 il.7/ DS 18.2 492.3
Taconic Mountains 49.1 6.5 6.1 Sy) )oi/ INST) 19.1 359.4
Vermont Valley 0.5 0.0 5.4 6.6 4.8 58.2 0.0 (55

Total, all regions 491.7 465.4 34.7 163.1 74.8 SmlalORl 278.3 4,618.1

Timberland Area
Timberland is forest land that is capable of producing

commercial crops of timber. In Vermont, timberland
accounts for 97 percent of all forest land. In 1997, the
timberland base totaled 4,482,500 acres, an increase of less
than 70,000 acres potentially available for harvesting.

Largely on the basis of cover types, the State’s forest land can
be divided into two geographic units: the beech/birch/maple
forests of southern Vermont and the spruce/fir forests of the
northeastern region. The Northern Geographic Unit
contained 2,265,600 acres of timberland in 1997, an increase
of 3 percent over 1983. The Southern Unit contained
2,216,800 acres of timberland in 1997, a decline of less than
0.05 percent from 1983.

In the Northern Unit, the amount of spruce/fir and [aspen/
birch] has increased by 13 and 17 percent, respectively, since
1983. Only the combination of oak/pine, oak/hickory, and
elm/ash/red experienced a significant decline. This resulted
from a significant drop in the elm/ash/red maple component,
which was reduced by nearly half from 1983 to 1997 (65,000
to 33,000 acres). There were similar declines in the Southern
Unit as elm/ash/red maple declined from 67,000 acres in
1983 to 28,000 in 1997. Aspen/birch showed a similar
decline in timberland area, dropping by 42 percent during
the same period. By contrast, the northern hardwoods forest-
type group increased by 7 percent.

NORTHERN GEOGRAPHIC UNIT

Grand Isle,

Franklin,
and Washington counties

Essex,
Orange,

Caledonia,

Lamoille

b)

~
. |? oe.
ms mes

2.3 million acres

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2.2 million acres

, Vermont

Autumn Colors in Wallingford

10

Change in Timberland Area by Geographic Unit and Forest-type Group

Northern Geographic Unit

Northern hardwood

White/red pine

Spruce/fir

1,000
Thousand Acres

Southern Geographic Unit

Northern hardwood

White/red pine

1,000

Thousand Acres

‘Includes the oak/pine, oak/hickory, and elm/ash/red maple forest-type groups.

"Includes the oak/pine and elm/ash/red maple forest-type groups.

$2 ‘Rubus species
Hobblebush viburnum >
' _Spirea species |e
Beaked Hazelnut —
Blueberry
Panicled dogwood [i
Red-osier dogwood |
sae Alder species

Bush honeysuckle ff

- Winterberry holly {J

4,000

Top Ten Shrub Species

35 species of shrubs were tallied
on Vermont’s timberlands

6,000 10,000

Million Stems

Top Ten Tree Species

Sugar maple |

Balsam fir
American Beech
Red maple

Red spruce sts
Yellow birch
Eastern hemlock

. Paper birch |

White ash
Eastern white pine

Composition and Structure

Species Diversity

The Green Mountain State itself is a rich tapestry of
biological diversity. Forest vegetation—living trees and
shrubs, dead and downed woody stems, microflora,
lichens, mosses, and herbaceous plants—provide diverse
habitat for wildlife in the form of forage and shelter for
both forest-dwelling species and those that inhabit
forest-dependent aquatic systems.

Such diversity is evident in the number and variety of
wildlife species encountered in the State’s woodlands.
The most recent FIA inventory identified 88 different
tree and shrub species, the most common of which are
beech, birch, maple, ash, aspen, oak, fir, spruce,

53 species of trees were tallied
on Vermont’s timberlands

Million Trees

hemlock, brambles, raspberry hobblebush, viburnum,
and spirea. Hemlock is the leading softwood species,
often found growing with eastern white pine. Balsam fir
and spruce are the primary species used in the
manufacture of wood fiber. Of the hardwood species,
sugar maple is the most prevalent, followed by
American beech, red maple, yellow and paper birch, and
white ash.

Distribution of Tree Species

In Vermont's forests, hardwood species outnumber
softwood species by a ratio of 2 to 1. Sugar maple is the
most prevalent tree species, reaching concentrations as
high as 50 percent in the Northern Piedmont region
and 20 to 50 percent in the northern Green Mountains
and Champlain Valley. Red maple also is prevalent

11

Species Distribution of Selected Softwood Species

Eastern

BOTS white pine

Balsam fir

Species Distribution of Selected Hardwood Species

Northern
red oak

How Were the Maps Created?

throughout Vermont, particularly in
the southern region. Paper birch
extends primarily along the entire
range of the Green Mountains, and
yellow birch is found mostly along the
same range but at higher elevations.

Hemlock is the leading softwood
species and is concentrated in the
southwestern corner of the state,
northern Green Mountains, and north
of Lake Champlain. This species often
grows in conjunction with eastern
white pine, which is found primarily
along the Connecticut River in
southern Vermont. Balsam fir is
distributed primarily in the
Northeastern Highlands and Northern
Piedmont, while spruce is prevalent
throughout the southern Green
Mountains.

Other common tree species in
Vermont include ash, aspen, beech,
and northern red oak. Of these species,
only beech is found in concentrations
as high as 20 to 50 percent.

The maps in this publication were created using forested plots as “known” data
from which values at unknown locations were predicted. For example, unsampled

areas near a group of sample plots with large amounts of beech would likely have
high amounts of that species. Using this principle, predictions are made for every
location, regardless if it had been sampled. The values represent the percentage of
a given area’s basal area that is composed of a certain species’ basal area.

12

Change in the Volume on Timberland

Billion F Billion ;
wt
Guhiokect Growing Stock eae Santimnben

10 30

1983 1983
Year Year

Change in Volume on Timberland
for the Top Ten Tree Species

Growing Stock

Sugar maple

Red maple [

Eastern hemlock
Eastern white pine
Red spruce

Yellow birch
Balsam fir
American Beech
Paper birch
White ash

1.0
Billion Cubic Feet

Sawtimber

Sugar maple

Eastern white pine

Eastern hemlock

Red maple

Red spruce

Yellow birch
American Beech &

Red oaks

White ash

Balsam fir

3.0
Billion Board Feet

|
Bs Bo» [i »

1997

Growing-stock volume is the
net cubic-foot volume in trees
5.0 inches or larger in diameter
at breast height (d.b.h.),
between a |-foot stump and a
4-inch top diameter outside
the bark (d.o.b.). Sawtimber
volume is the net board-foot
volume: for softwoods it is in
trees 9.0 inches or larger in
d.b.h. to a 7-inch top d.o.b.; for
hardwoods it is in trees 11.0
inches or larger in d.b.h. to a
9-inch top d.o.b.

Timber Volume

The volume of timber in Vermont has
increased by nearly 75 percent over the
past three decades, from 5.0 billion
cubic feet of growing stock in 1973 to
8.7 billion cubic feet today. Initially,
most of this increase was in
hardwoods, but both softwoods and
hardwoods increased at nearly the
same rate between 1983 and 1997.
The trend was similar for sawtimber,
which doubled from 1973 to 1997.
During that time, hardwood
sawtimber increased by nearly 45
percent, though softwoods increased at
a faster rate between 1983 and 1997.

Sugar maple leads all species in both
growing-stock and sawtimber volume.
Vermont's sugar mapling industry is an
excellent example of a sustained forest
use that does not require tree removal.

13

14

Distribution of the Total Resource

Standard means of measuring the forest, e.g., in cubic feet or board feet, can exclude
as much as half of the total quantity of trees and shrubs. One way to capture this
material is by measuring its weight of biomass. In 1997, the forests of Vermont
contained more than 375 million dry tons of tree and shrub material. The bulk of
this biomass (54 percent) was in growing stock. The remainder was in nongrowing-
stock components: portions of growing-stock trees outside of the merchantable bole
(26 percent), cull trees (10 percent), saplings between 1.0 and 5.0 inches in diameter
at breast height (d.b.h.) (7 percent), seedlings and shrubs (2 percent), and salvable
dead trees (1 percent).

Biomass of All Live Trees and Shrubs
by County and Component on Timberland

Addison jj
Bennington
Caledonia
Chittenden
Essex
Franklin!
Lamoille
Orange
Orleans
Rutland
Washington
Windham
Windsor

Million Dry Tons

Merchantable bole of | Nongrowing-stock portions
growing-stock trees |__| of growing-stock trees?

a Salvable dead trees ee Saplings

‘Includes Grand Isle County.
2Includes the branches, foliage, and stump-root system of growing-stick trees only.
*Includes seedlings and shrubs.

rately stocked

Over-stocked ©

=

1,000 7
Thousand Acres aoe

Timber Supply
Stocking Levels

Forests use tree size and number per acre to determine how well a stand is stocked.
Measures of stocking in growing-stock trees indicate how well a site is being used to grow
trees of economic value. In fully stocked stands, trees are fully using the potential of the
site. If allowed to grow, these stands eventually will become overstocked. In overstocked
stands, trees become crowded and growth slows. Such trees are less vigorous and more
susceptible to insect and disease attacks than less crowded stems. If not thinned or
removed, commercial trees will die and their value for timber products will be lost.

Poorly stocked stands have widely spaced trees or trees with little or no commercial value.
These stands often are the result of removing the largest and most vigorous trees and
leaving those with poor form or that are otherwise weakened. This creates gaps in the
forest canopy.

Historically, Vermont's forests have increased in stocking levels. The number of acres of
poorly and moderately stocked stands has decreased while fully stocked stands have
increased. The abundance of these stands presents opportunities for management without
reducing forest growth, and for preventing overstocking.

tS)

Million

Gahioweet Change in Growing-stock Volume on Timberland by Diameter Class

To be classified as sawtimber, hardwood
trees must be at least | 1.0 inches in d.b.h.
versus at least 9.0 inches for softwoods.
Sawlogs must be at least 15.0 inches in d.b.h.
to quality as grade | logs. In a maturing

Diameter Class (inches at breast height) resource such as Vermont's forests, curves
for diameter-class distribution reveal an
increase in volume while moving toward
the larger sawtimber-size classes.

Distribution of Hardwood Sawtimber Volume
on Timberland by Size and Tree Grade

Trees < 15 inches diameter at breast height
50.4 %

Trees 15 inches + diameter at breast height
49.6%

Grades 4&5
28 %

Grade 1
26 %

Grade 3
18 %

3,000 4,000
Million Board Feet

2,000 7,000 8,000

5,000 6,000

Percentage of Volume in Sawtimber Trees
15.0 Inches and Greater by Tree Grade

Red oaks
White ash
Yellow birch
Sugar maple

Beech |

Paper birch

16

Timber Quality

The value of a tree for timber products
rises as the tree becomes large enough to
produce high-value products. Value
increases first as trees grow large enough to
produce small sawlogs, and again as the
trees become large enough to produce
high-grade sawlogs or veneer logs. Small
trees that can be used to produce
pulpwood (cord wood) typically are sold
by landowners for about $10 per cord. If
the same amount of wood were sold as
high-grade, quality sawlogs, the landowner

could realize 500 or more times as much.

Although the timberland base remained Birch Sawlogs at Vermont Sawmill
essentially unchanged from 1983 to 1997,

the inventory of growing-stock volume, increased significantly, up 33 percent since 1983.

Today, as much as 71 percent of this volume is in poletimber and small sawtimber (less

than 15.0 inches in d.b.h.). However, the volume of trees larger than 15.0 inches in d.b.h.

increased by nearly 70 percent from 1983 to 1997.

Northern red oak has the greatest percentage of trees that are 15.0 inches or larger in
d.b.h., followed by white ash, yellow birch, and sugar maple. Half of these large red oak
trees were grade 1 versus 9 percent for large red maple trees. Increases in board-foot volume
for red maple and hemlock have outpaced those of some of the more valuable tree species.

Wee of Harvested Trees
Products from Vermont’s Forests wise comaees ~

| = Industrial Products

Unlike coal and oil reserves, the forest resource
renews itself, that is, trees can be thought of as a
crop—stands can be harvested today and again by
future generations. Vermont's forests have been
harvested repeatedly for a variety of wood
products, yet the State’s forests remain productive
and continue to provide a host of benefits. Except
for parks and preserves, nearly all forests have been
harvested at least three times. The keys to this
remarkable sustainability are sensible regulation
and the adoption of Best Management Practices by
timber harvesters.

_ Veneer logs Pulpwood
1%

25 %

Sawlogs
30%

Typically, when a tree is harvested, the high-quality ; , Fuelwood
lower trunk is used for lumber and veneer while Logging residue — 16 %
the upper stem and large branches are used for er B%

pulpwood and firewood, as are small trees and —
undesirable species. Parts of the tree are left in the
woods as logging residue, which aids in returning nutrients to the soil for
future tree growth. In Vermont, 56 percent of the total volume of harvested
trees is used for industrial products, 28 percent is logging residue, and 15
percent is converted to fuelwood.

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Sugar Shack in Mendon, Vermont

In recent years, the process of making maple syrup has been modernized
in Vermont and elsewhere as the ubiquitous buckets hanging from sugar
maple trees have been replaced by plastic tubing for gathering sap. Maple
sugaring is one of the relatively few remaining viable cottage industries in
New England, andVermont’s syrup producers must adhere to strict state
standards for purity. Vermont is the largest producer of maple syrup in
New England (55 percent) and the nation (37 percent). In 1998, the value
of syrup produced within the State exceeded $10 million.

Sawlogs, veneer logs and pulpwood are the primary industrial uses for wood
harvested in Vermont. Wood used for specialty products such as dowels and
turning stock is included with sawlogs. Furniture manufacturers from around the
world have recognized the State for its high-quality hardwood lumber,
particularly that from sugar maple. Also valued is lumber produced from

Vermont’ white pine, spruce, white
ash, red maple, and birches. In 1996,
281.6 million board feet of sawlogs
and 9.4 million board feet of veneer
logs were harvested. Pulpmills in
neighboring states and Canada
provide important markets for low-
value wood. About 415,000 cords of
pulpwood—divided nearly equally
between hardwoods and softwoods—
were shipped out of the State in 1996.

Besides commercially valuable timber,

Vermont’ forests produce maple syrup

and candy, boughs, cones, and floral

18

Production of Sawlogs and Veneer Logs

White pine
Balsam fir
Sugar maple
Hemlock
Spruce

Red maple
Ash

Birches

Northern red oak §

Other species

40
Million Board Feet

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Firewood Stacked in Belmont, Vermont

greenery, weaving and dyeing materials, botanical flavorings and medicinal
herbs, mushrooms and berries, and specialty and novelty items. Early settlers
relied on forests as an essential source of raw materials needed for daily life.
Today, commercial markets provide substitutes for most of these products.
Nevertheless, a substantial number of Vermonters continue to gather or make
them as a means of supplementing the
family income.

Average Use of Fuelwood Per Household, 1996

Fuelwood includes that which is
burned by many Vermont Maine
homeowners for heat as well as wood

burned in commercial boilers. In Vermont
ae eae than 285,000 cords of New Hampshire — = ae — =
wood—mostly hardwoods—were “=

used for fuelwood. On average, each Massachusetts
household in the State used 1.4 cords,
second only to homeowners in Maine.
About 75 percent of the fuelwood in Rhode Island |
Vermont is from dead and cull forest
trees and trees from yards and fence
rows.

Connecticut §

19

Average Annual Net Growth and Removals

Top 12 species Net growth Removals Growth To Removals

(Million cubic feet) (Million cubic feet) Ratio
Sugar maple 35.4 (15.5) 723} 3 Il
Red maple 23.0 (8.7) AAS 3 il
Hemlock 20.6 (6.1) 3.4:1
White pine 19.0 (15.0) 13} ¢ I
Balsam fir 1222) (8.7) 14:1
Ash 11.1 (3.6) Baleal
Spruce 8.8 (9.5) 0.9:1
Oaks 6.6 (2.5) Dela
Beech 6.2 (5.3) 2 Ul
Yellow birch 6.0 (6.2) 1.0:1
Aspen 4.7 (3.1) IL} 2 I
Paper birch 2.6 (4.2) 0.6: 1
State total 164.8 (92.9) 1.8:1

+ Estimates of growth and removals are made from only remeasured plots.

¢ These estimates can differ from volume change estimates that are made using all plots.

Sustainability

The self-sustaining nature of forests is measures
by their ratio of growth to removals. Net growth
is the total growth of trees plus gains from land
coming into forest, minus losses to mortality to
insects and disease outbreaks and disturbances
such as wind and ice storms. Removals include
harvesting plus losses due to changes in land
use. In Vermont, the net growth of trees has
exceeded removals since the first FIA inventory
in 1948. Between 1983 and 1997, annual net
growth averaged 164.8 million cubic feet versus
an average of 92.9 million cubic feet in annual
removals. Eighty-eight percent of removals is
due to harvesting, 7 percent to the conversion
of forests to nonforest uses, and 5 percent to the
reclassification of forest land to the reserved or
other noncommercial categories.

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This surplus growth amounts to an annual net
increase of 71.8 million cubic feet (0.8 percent),
and underscores increases in tree numbers, size,
and volume. During the past decade, the ratio
of net growth to removals has been about 1.8 to
1, that is, nearly two times as much wood was
grown as was harvested. In Vermont, tree species
with the most favorable growth-to-removals (G/
R) ratio are, in order, hemlock, ash, the oaks,
red maple, sugar maple, and aspen. Historically,
more softwoods (other than hemlock) than
hardwoods have been cut in Vermont. From
1983 to 1997, the G/R ratio for spruce and
paper birch was 0.9 and 0.6 to 1, respectively.

20

Hemlock Woolly Adelgid Infestation

Forest Health

Insects and Diseases

In 1997, sugar maple, spruce, and fir incurred considerable dieback from attacks by a
variety of biotic and abiotic agents. Thousands of acres of Vermont's hardwood forests
were killed or declined due to the effects of frost, drought, or flooding (the latter
attributed to beaver dams). In 1990, the State experienced a small infestation of the
hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA), which sucks the sap from young twigs. Such trees
become weakened and die within several years. Since the initial HWA outbreak, state
officials have imposed a quarantine on nursery stock, though recent infestations by HWA
in surrounding states have been a cause of concern among scientists and land managers.

The widespread damage incurred by oaks in Vermont and neighboring states due to gypsy
moth has been well documented. By the early 1930’s, this insect pest had reached the
eastern portion of the State. Today, the gypsy moth is found nearly everywhere in
Vermont. Only persistent control efforts have helped minimize its adverse effects.
Conversely, little can be done under forest conditions to control the Strumella canker,
which attacks the oaks, particularly white oak.

Although elm is a minor species in Vermont's forests, its graceful charm and ability to
grow well in compacted soils and under polluted conditions have made it a favorite in
urban settings. But since the 1930’s when Dutch elm disease made its way to the United
States via diseased logs brought here from Europe, millions of elms have been killed and
those that remain are threatened. Control is impractical under forest conditions as
sanitation (removal) is the only effective treatment.

Other agent that damage the State’s forest trees include white pine blister rust, which
causes dieback in mature trees and kills seedlings and saplings; Bruce spanworm, which
has been found on sugar maple; birch leafminer, which in 1997 defoliated 4,500 acres,
most of which were in the Green Mountains; spruce gall adelgid, commonly found in
nurseries, Christmas tree plantations, and urban settings, maple leafcutter, which
defoliated or caused decline in more than 9,500 acres in 1997; beech bark disease, which
continues to cause scattered mortality; and eastern dwarf mistletoe, which damages spruce.

PAI

Average Annual Growing-stock Mortality
(as a percentage of standing growing-stock volume)

Balsam fir
Paper birch
Beech

Aspen

Red spruce
Yellow birch
Sugar maple
Red maple
Ash

White pine
Red oaks
Hemlock

0.5

Average for all species

0.6 percent of growing-stock volume

1.0

Percent of Growing-stock Volume

Mortality

Fire, wind, ice, insects, diseases, and other destructive
agents contribute to tree mortality. From 1983 to 1997,
average annual mortality was nearly 48 million cubic
feet of growing stock, or 0.6 percent of the standing
growing-stock volume of 1997. Trees incurring the most
mortality were balsam fir, paper birch, beech, aspen,
and red spruce. The high mortality of fir and spruce is
attributed to an outbreak of spruce budworm that lasted
from 1974 to 1984; beech trees across New England
and New York were devastated by beech bark disease.
The high mortality rate for some species was caused by
the ice storm that ravaged the area during the winter of
1997-98. And many of the surviving trees that sustained
heavy damage likely will die prematurely. The mortality
of the relatively short-lived paper birch and aspen is
related more to natural changes that occur in a forest.
Despite this widespread mortality, the primary forest-

Jap

tree species of Vermont are healthy and vigorous. Even
elm mortality is only 19.9 percent of its growing-stock
volume.

Crown Dieback

Simply tracking mortality due to damaging agents such
as insects and diseases does not provide a complete
picture of forest health. Vermonters have long been
inundated with prophesies of withering vegetation,
heavy defoliation, and denuded hillsides from exotic
agents ranging from acid rain to global climate
warming. In response to these dire warnings, the
National Forest Health Monitoring Program looked at a
wide set of indicators that reflect forest conditions,
including crown dieback. Eighty percent of the forest
trees in Vermont that were measured by Program
scientists had no or little dieback and only 3 percent
had more than 20-percent dieback.

Evidence of Crown Dieback in Sycamore

Percent Dieback for Trees Measured 1996-1999
For All Species and Selected Species

All species pee st i Wie —

|

White pine

Hemlock

Sugar maple

Red maple

Spruce

Birch

40%

Percent Defoliation

Wp)

Vermont’s Changing Forest

Stand Size

The number of wildlife species that inhabit a forest
environment change as the forest matures. In sapling-
seedling stands that regenerate following major
disturbances such as fire, clearcutting, and land
abandonment, some wildlife species use the low-growing
and shrub vegetation. In Vermont, examples include the
song sparrow, American goldfinch, cedar waxwing, eastern
cottontail, and moose. The area in such regenerating stands
has declined in the State because most of the farm land that
was abandoned has reverted to forest. Among the wildlife
species that inhabit mature stands, which have increased as
a result of the overall growth and maturing of Vermont’s
forests, are the pileated woodpecker, porcupine, black bear,
and fisher, beaver, white-tailed deer,

and wild turkey.

Wildlife Habitat

Hard mast such as nuts and hard
seeds produced by overstory trees is
an important source of forage for
forest wildlife in Vermont. Wildlife
species that depend on acorns and
other mast include bear, deer, turkey,
ruffed grouse, red-headed
woodpecker, blue jay, squirrel,
chipmunk, gray fox, and striped
skunk. Beech and the oaks are
important mast-producing tree
species. Since 1983, oak and beech
trees that are 11 inches or more in
diameter at breast height (4.6 feet above the ground) have
increased by 26 and 50 percent, respectively. Standing
dead and cull trees are important feeding and nesting sites
for wildlife. Cavities in these trees are used by the
woodpecker, other cavity-nesting birds, and small
mammals.

In Vermont, 11 percent of all standing trees are dead.
There are 24 dead trees per acre of timberland in trees 5.0
inches or larger in diameter, and 1.6 dead trees per acre in
those 15.0 inches or larger in diameter, Sugar maple and
beech have the most large-diameter dead trees; balsam fir
has the most dead trees with a diameter of 5.0 to 10.9
inches. Cull trees are those that exceed maximum
allowances for defects for the manufacture of timber
products. Yet some of the characteristics that make these
trees undesirable for forest products are beneficial to
wildlife. Besides cavities, these include broken tops,
pockets of rot, and tree boles with numerous forks and
limbs. On average, there are 21 cull tree per acre of
timberland in Vermont.

24

Fading Autumn in Danby, Vermont

Vermont’s Future Forests

Over the past half century in Vermont, the amount of abandoned farm land that has
reverted to forests has more than offset losses of forest land due to development. It is
doubtful that this trend will continue because there are fewer farms and continued
development pressure from a growing State population. Population increases also
influence how forests are used as greater demands are placed on them to produce both
traditional and nontraditional benefits. At the same time, the parcelization of
timberland into smaller holdings has made it more difficult to use the forest in
traditional ways. Landowners with small holdings are less likely to manage their forest
tracts for timber products. Also, many of these small parcels are home sites, which
makes it unlikely that owners will allow others to use their land.

Vermont's valuable forests have been maturing since 1948. These forests have more and
larger trees and by all measures and despite repeated attack by damaging agents ranging
from ice to insects are healthy and vigorous. There have been subsequent changes in
species composition, through cutting has interfered with this natural process. Low cutting
rates and shaded conditions on the forest floor have promoted the growth of hemlock and
red maple throughout the State. Currently, species that require full sunlight to reproduce,
e.g., aspen, paper birch, and white pine, are at a distinct disadvantage in the more
prevalent shaded forested areas.

For more information contact:

> Forest Inventory and Analysis, USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station
11 Campus Boulevard, Suite 200, Newtown Square, PA 19073
(610) 557-4051; www.fs.fed.us/ne/fia/

> Vermont Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation,
103 South Main Street, Waterbury, Vermont 05671-0601
(802) 241-3670; www.state.vt.us/anr/fpr/index.htm

aS

led

iia

Wharton, Eric H.; Widmann, Richard H.; Barnett, Charles H.; Frieswyk, Thomas S.;
Lister, Andrew J.; DeGeus, Bob. 2003. The forests of the Green Mountain
State. Resour. Bull. NE-158. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 25 p.

A report on the fifth forest inventory of Vermont conducted in 1996-98 by the Forest
Inventory and Analysis unit of the Northeastern Research Station. Explains the
current condition and changes from previous inventories for forest area, timber
volume, biomass, growth and removals, and harvesting. Graphics depict data at the
state and geographic-unit level and, where appropriate, by biophysical region and
county.

Keywords: forest inventory; volume; biomass; growth and removals; Vermont.

l
Ya Printed on Recycled Paper

@ Work Unit Location

3 Headquarters

Headquarters of the Northeastern Research Station is in Newtown Square,
Pennsylvania. Field laboratories are maintained at:

Amherst, Massachusetts, in cooperation with the University of Massachusetts
Burlington, Vermont, in cooperation with the University of Vermont

Delaware, Ohio

Durham, New Hampshire, in cooperation with the University of New Hampshire
Hamden, Connecticut, in cooperation with Yale University

Morgantown, West Virginia, in cooperation with West Virginia University
Parsons, West Virginia

Princeton, West Virginia

Syracuse, New York, in cooperation with the State University of New York,
College of Environmental Sciences and Forestry at Syracuse University

Warren, Pennsylvania

The U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and
activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all
programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of
program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact the USDA's TARGET
Center at (202)720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W,

Whitten Building, 14th and Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call
(202)720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

“Caring for the Land and Serving People Through Research”

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