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FOREST TREE PLANTERS

MANUAL.

“EMBODYING SUCH INSTRUCTIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR
TREE PLANTING AND CULTIVATION AS EXPERIENCE
AND OBSERVATION HAVE DEMONSTRATED

TO BE USEFUL AND RELIABLE.”— Vide
Resolution of Ex. Commuittee.

> f
~ & f

,
By LEONARD B. HODGES. ou4

PUBLISHED BY THE

Minnesota State Forestry Association.

ST. PAUL, MINN:
J. J. LEMON, BOOK AND JOB PRINTER.

1879.

a Ae

PREFACE.

HE object of this work is concisely stated on the title page. It will
be practical, and will embody such practical suggestions and ex-
periences in forest culture, as are known to be reliable. It is intended
as an aid to all who are interested in forestry, and to all who are trying
to redeem the treeless regions and render them not only habitable, but

desirable for permanent homes.

No attempt will be made for originality, but all available sources of
information will be invaded and plundered for the benefit of all who are
trying to make homes on the great western prairies.

LB: EH:

Preparation of the Soil.

G7 XPERIENCE has demonstrated beyond cavil, that a proper and
thorough preparation of the soil, is a pre-requisite of success. Were
I to fit up a ten acre piece of prairie for the planting of a tree claim
under the provisions of the Congressional Timber Culture Act, this is
about the way I should do it.

I would break the prairie in June, from the 15th to 25th, if possible.
L would break 1t about three inches deep, and do it well. No baulks or

“cut and cover” should be tolerated. The sod should be all cut clear
and all turned over; whether “kinked” or jointed down flat, makes no
difference, so you only break in ‘the proper season and do it well. In
the following October you will find the sod tolerably well decomposed,
and also an inch or so of soil beneath the sod. Then, either cross-plow
or back-set, going from one to two inches deeper. The following spring
this soil is in good condition for a crop. Any kind of a hoed crop is
preferable to small grain, because to grow corn, potatoes, &c., profitably,
requires thorough cultivation, and just this thorough cultivation which
your hoed crop demands, is just the treatment the soil needs in fitting it
up for tree planting. Another year of such cultivation before the tree-
cuttings or tree seed is planted, is advisable, if you have time. If not,
go ahead with your planting.

Under the provisions of the Timber Culture Act, as amended, you can
grow two hoed crops as above, and plant your young forest trees,
seeds or cuttings, in the fall, after harvesting the second hoed crop, or in
the following spring. You can raise two crops of wheat, or other small
grain, instead? of the hoed crop, if you choose, but in so doing you do
not prepare the ground so thoroughly for forest culture, and you are
pretty sure to sow more or less foul stuff with your small grain, which
entails an endless amount of hard work in its extermination; for it must
be exterminated promptly if you expect your young forest to prosper as
it should. No weeds or foul stuff should be allowed to go to seed.

Clean culture till the trees have so far grown and developed as to com-
pletely shade the ground, is just what you must have to produce the
most satisfactory results, after which the annual falling of the foliage
mulches the ground and renders further cultivation superfluous.

The foregoing remarks are intended to apply to the common average
undulating or rolling prairie. There is, however, a very large amount of .
very smooth and level prairie in western Minnesota, especially in the
valley of the Red River, where the treatment should be somewhat differ-
ent. Much of this land is covered with a short, thin growth of the
meanest sort of slough grass. The sod is tough, very tough; in fact,
tough is no name for it. Unless broken in the proper season, it might as
well not be broken at all. If you break it too early, the grass grows up
through it much more luxuriantly than ever before. If you break it a
little ‘two late it bakes down like an adobe pads) and requires time,

¢

_ FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 5.

frost, air and moisture to slack it. There is no particular use in trying
to raise any kind of a crop on such land the next year after breaking.
My own experience in the treatment of this sort of prairie, is to break

. the last of June and first of July. Let it lay for about a year, and then

either back-set or cross-plow, bringing up as much fresh dirt as you can.
In fact, I would summer fallow it the next season after breaking, and I
.think the second season after breaking the sod I would sow it to wheat.
By this time the ameliorating influences of sun, air, frost, moisture and
summer fallow, will have so far operated on the obtuse and refractory
nature of the soil as to have changed to a great extent its naturally sour,
cold, disagreeable character, and put in condition to begin to repay the
labor heretofore bestowed on it.

There are latent virtues in such land well worth developing. Once
brought out, and you will be amply repaid for the extra time and labor
it has cost. Most any kind of good manure is a sovereign panacea for
this sort of prairie; not because the ground is lacking in fertility, for it
is not, but because the manure acts as an alterative, neutralizing the
sourness of the soil. This sort of land, once thoroughly conquered, will
prove of inexhaustible fertility, and, I feel confident, would then pro-
duce a thrifty growth of Black and Gray Ash, Basswood, Red, White
and Rock Elm, Hackberry, Cottonwood, Box Elder, White Willow, Tam-
arac, Soft Maple, Ironwood, Wild Plum, Cherry, Crab Apple and prob-
_ ably other varieties of timber, and will prove to be admirably adapted to.
wheat, oats, barley, all vegetables and timothy, blue-joint and red-top
grasses.

MANNER OF PLANTING.

The Timber Culture Act as now amended, allows great latitude in this
direction, but the fact that the doctrine of thick planting is officially
endorsed and required, must not be lost sight of. Your trees when
planted must average not more than four feet apart each way. This
requires some twenty-seven hundred and thirty trees to be planted on
each and every one of the ten acres.

The two primary objects, shelter and fuel, are constantly to be kept in
view. Those once secured, the aesthetic and ornamental naturally claim
proper attention. No vegetable grows more luxuriantly, with proper care —
and cultivation, than the Scotch Pine. No tree, unless we except the
pioneer tree, the Cottonwood, is better adapted to the greater portion of
our treeless region. A double row of Scotch or White Pine—rows eight
to ten feet apart—breaking joints in planting, trees eight to ten feet apart
in the rows, will, in five or six years from planting, form a timber-belt
and shelter so close as scarcely to admit the flight of a bird through its
dense foliage of living green. .

And I can truthfully say about the same thing of our own native
White Pine; while from year to year, far beyond the limits of an ordi-
nary human life, they continue to grow, increasing in size and in value,
monuments of arboreal beauty. But unfortunately, like too large a pro-
portion of the good things of earth, their high price places them beyond
the reach of the great majority of poor men who wander over our great
prairies in search of tree claims and of homes; and as I am writing this
as much in the interest of the poor man as of any other class, we must
talk about something within his reach—something sure to grow, somie-
thing cheap, rapid in growth, absolutely hardy, something that will “git

up and git.” The Cottonwood will do all this, and so will the White

6 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

Willow. The fellows who are too poor to grow them successfully, have
no business on the prairies.

PROPER DISTRIBUTION OF THE 27,300 TREES WE MUST PLANT ON
THE TEN ACRES.

There is once in a while a fellow who will plant it all in one grove
forty rods square, and put his house, barns, stables, stock yards, right in
the middle of it. Others will plant a timber-belt five rods wide along
the north and west lines of the quarter section, while others will plant a
strip two and a half rods clear around the whole quarter section. Where
the quarter section is tolerably uniform in surface and soil, either way
has its merits and advantages. Should, as is often the case, the quarter
section be cut up more or less with ponds, lakes, marshes or running
streams, then the plan should conform to the topography. It also hap-
pens that a quarter section, every other way desirable, has at least ten
acres of sandy or gravelly knolls.. In such case, plant them by all
means with the varieties suitable for such localities, and in a few years .
you will transform them into the most valuable portion of your quarter
section. .

CLOSE PLANTING.

I had supposed the reasons for close planting had been so fully set
- forth, and the advantages so apparent to every thinking man, that nothing
would be necessary to say on this subject in this work. Yet, scarcely a
day passes, when I am not called upon for the reasons. Not wishing to
cumber these pages with any surplusage on any branch of forestry, and
yet, in deference to many whose views on many subjects, I entertain
great respect, I hereby present the reasons that incline me to favor close
planting in starting a young forest..

In the study of forestry, nature is our greatest and best qualified teacher. ~
To the close observer, the pages of her great book are spread wide open
through the primeval forest, over the wide-spreading prairies—every
where—covered with characters so legible, that the way-faring man,
though a fool, need not err. I have now in mind a young forest in Min-
nesota, that I regard a model. Twenty-five years ago I passed over the
ground on which this young forest now stands. It was then what we
would term “grub prairie,” thickly studded with Jack Oak grubs from
six to twelve inches high. There were patches of Hazel among them
There were occasionally, feeble scattering specimens of Aspen. Curious
to know of the development that might occur if this piece of ground had.
a fair show, I protected it for years from the fires that had for ages an-
nually swept over it. Soon the grubs began to send up strong, straight,
thrifty leaders. The Aspen came along the next season with great vigor.
In a year or two more, Butternut trees began to appear, (probably planted
by the provident squirrel, who must have carried them more than a mile,
as no bearing trees were then standing any nearer). Soon the Bass wood
put in a strong delegation. For the first ten years that patch of ground
grew into a perfect thicket, so dense as to be nearly impenetrable. Sha-
ding the ground from the rays of the sun; holding the moisture from
too rapid evaporation, the annual shedding of the foliage, mulching the
sround and answering all the purposes of thorough cultivation ; this
dense mass: constantly shooting upward toward the sky. Then began
tbe demonstration of the doctrine of the “survival of the fittest.” At

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. if

that period, there could not have been less than ten thousand young trees
to the acre. Gradually, the more vigorous began to assert their suprem-
acy. Gradually, the feeble, the dwarfs and pigmies began to disap-
pear, and at the close of the second decade, the underbrush had nearly
disappeared, and a noble grove of Oak, Basswood, Butternut, Aspen, &c.,
good for twenty cords per acre, stood, where twenty years previous noth-
ing but Jack-oak grubs, Hazel-bush and grass covered the ground. To
emphasize the lesson, nature is repeating the lesson so taught, in a thou-
sand localities in Minnesota, always with equal and uniform success,
wherever her young plantations are protected from fire and cattle. And
yet, with all this overwhelming testimony, conclusive, in proof of the
great value of close forest planting, educated men, college graduates,
authors, editors, &c., quite frequently evince a disposition to lock horns
with me on this subject. Ye .blind guides and fools, throw away your
musty books, and your still mustier notions, and get out into the thick-
ets and brush and tall timber, and stay there twenty years, and you will
learn something. And now I have my hand in, I will call in other tes-
timony on this point, and so far as I am concerned, close this discussion,
and quit answering letters from fellows who think they can grow a forest
by planting trees twelve feet apart on the unbroken prairie.
Prof. E. Gale, of the Kansas Agricultual College, Manhattan, says:

“The value of close planting can be realized much better after the very sad ex™
perience of 1874. There are several points that may be urged for close planting:

'. The force of these observations will be much better appreciated when we have

carefully examined the facts which can be adduced by experience. Trees should
be planted closely.

1. For the mutual protection of the trees.

2. For econony in culture.

3. For immediate protection.

4. For the purpose of securing available timber.

5. For the purpose of securing early returns from our planting.”

Again. In speaking of that clause in the Timber culture act of 1873-
4, permitting trees to be planted twelve feet apart, he says:

“Trees thus planted will not serve the purpose of a forest, but virtually become
an open orchard.”— Correct.

Dr. Franklin B. Hough, in his very valuable report on forestry, refer-
ring to this point, says : :

“Opinions very generally agree as to error in the clause allowing a space of
twelve feet between trees at first planting. In fact, this open spacing appears to
be in opposition to sound principles in sylviculture, and is to be regretted, because
on the prairies, and on the great western plains, where, planting is most needed,
the drying winds that prevail at certain seasons cannot well be endured by trees,
unless so closely set as to shelter one another from the earliest period. Such plan-
tations would, of course, require trimming from time to time, as the trees became
larger and required more room.”

Horace Greeley, says:

“Plant thickly, and of diverse kinds, so as to cover the ground promptly and
choke out weeds and shrubs, with full purpose to thin and prune as circumstances
may dictate.”

Judge C. E. Whiting, of Monona county, Iowa, remarked in 1869, that
he had at first planted Cottonwood eight feet apart each way, giving each
tree 64 feet of ground. They grew well, but too many branches in pro-
portion to the amount of body wood. He had adopted the rule of plant-
ing three feet each way, giving nine square feet to a tree, and in this
order they grew tall, and straight, soon shaded the ground, and in three
years needed no further cultivation than thinning as became necessary,

8 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

by removing alternate rows and drawing out the poles with one horse
and chain.

In the Forestry Annual of the Iowa Horticultural Society, Judge Whi-
ting, one of the committee charged with the preparation of the Annual,
from his own experience, (perhaps the most extensive of any person in
the country, in this branch of forestry,) says:

“T have in belts, around my fields, varying from single to twenty rows of trees,
mostly planted sc close as to take 4,356 to the acre, (the amended timber culture
act only calls for 2,730 per acre), about 40 acres of timber. The trees in these
belts vary as to time of planting; some are eighteen years old, and some only one
year planted, the greater portion, however, are from five to twelve years of age.
The needed thinning of these belts furnishes all the wood that is wanted on the
farm, including stakes and rails to keep the fences in repair ; posts for all repairs
needed, and many for new fencss, I annually build in extending my farm. There
is not a stick of needed timber on the farm, from a pea-bush, a grape-vine stake,
or a binding pole, up to a fair sized saw-log, that cannot be had from my groves, —
without cutting a single tree that does not need thinning out from the groves.’’

But why cumber the ground with further testimony? The foregoing
‘is conclusive, unimpeachable and unanswerable in proof of close planting.

I submit the case to the jury without further comment.

The farm of Judge Whiting, is on the line of railroad from St. Paul to
Omaha. It consists of some 1,800 acres, and his closely planted young
forests are the admiration of every one who has the good fortune to see
them. They are an unanswerable argument in favor of close tree plant-
ing.

VARIETIES OF TREES SUITABLE FOR YOUNG FORESTS, IN MINNE-
SOTA—ALSO, FOR PLANTING ALONG THE HIGHWAYS.

In the elucidation of this topic, I begin by inserting a paper I prepared
for the State Horticultural Society, and read at its annual session, in
Rochester, January, 1878.

PLANTING TREES FOR SHADE AND ORNAMENT ON STREETS AND
ROADS—WHAT TREES TO PLANT, AND HOW TO PLANT THEM.

The foregoing is the heading of the accompanying article. The text
was furnished by Prof. Lacy. I don’t know what book he got it out of;
neither do I care.

There ought to be a good many sermons preached on that text to all
the people of Minnesota. Right here in Rochester, it don’t seem so neces-
sary. The people here have appreciated the importance and necessity
of this work, and have taken hold of it in earnest. The changed appear-
ance of this town-site, as between 1854, when I first camped on it and
now, 1878, is due more to tree planting than to any other one class of
improvements.

Great as has been the change in this immediate vicinity within so
short a time, still greater changes have occurred in other localities. Vil-
lages and cities originally built on the open prairie, without a tree or
shrub in sight, whose streets and avenues were formerly raked fore and
aft by the fierce blasts of winter, and scorched by the blazing suns of
sumnier, have, by the intervention of the tree planter, been converted
into bowers of beauty, protected alike from furious wind, and blazing
sun.

No investment of time and money is more satisfactory or more perma-
nently useful, than that employed in planting forest trees along the lines

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 9

of our public highways. In a prairie country like ours, no investment
adds so much to the beauty of the country, or the ready. cash value of
the real estate so adorned. The prosecution of this good work appeals
alike to the best judgment and most cultivated taste.

Much has been done in this direction, but far more remains yet to be
done. We have done just enough to thoroughly demonstrate the prac-
_ tical nature’of the work, the thorough adaptability of our prairie soil to
develop magnificent specimens of forest trees.

In the -tree planting returns of 1877, the number of rods planted to
trees and hedges along the public highways of Minnesota, is given as
265,633, equivalent to 642 miles and 192 rods. - The returns are imper-
fect, incomplete. One thousand miles would be much nearer the mark.
This is a good beginning, but only a beginning. -

Have any of you figured on the probable number of miles of public
highway in the prairie portion of Minnesota? There are full five hun-
dred prairie townships in what is known as the treeless region of Min-
nesota. Then there are at least half as many more prairie townships in
_ other comparatively well timbered counties, like Olmstead and Dodge.
- This rough estimate, which I think is below the actual figures, gives us
760 townships of prairie. Allowing thirty-six miles of public highway
to each township, gives us 27,000 miles. This must be doubled to give
us a row each side the highway, making a total of not less than 54,000
miles yet to be planted along the highways of the prairie regionsof Min-
nesota; enough to reach twice around the globe and some four thousand
miles to lap over. Who can correctly estimate the climatic effects and
the ameliorating influences following so grand a work? I assume, as a
matter of course, that in the treeless region, the planting would be close
enough to form staunch and permanent wind breaks.

The protection thus afforded to growing crops, would of itself be of
inestimable value. The protection afforded to orchards and other fruit
growing institutions, would alone amply repay the cost, while the com-
fort afforded to man and beast, would be beyond the power of figures to
eXpress..

VARIETIES OF FOREST TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR THIS WORK.

This is so largely a matter of taste that no list that could be made
would suit every one. This task must conform to facts and to common
sense. Theadaptability of the soil to each variety of forest tree, must
be recognized. The natural limits that have been assigned to each
variety of forest tree,must be borne in mind, and then the peculiar ser-
vice required in the particular locality to be benefitted, and, finally, the
pecuniary ability of the owner of the real estate must be taken into
account.

For merely shade, in my opinion, no tree can excel the White Elm
(Ulmus Americanus). As an ornamental shade tree it is absolutely unap-
proachable. It is undoubtedly the most “magnificent vegetable of the
temperate zone.” It is.long-lived, hardy, and a rapid grower. But it
needs room to spread itself. Planted sixty feet apart, their tops will inter-
lock long before reaching maturity. The White Elm will do well on any
Minnesota prairie, from Iowa to Manitoba, but grows more rapidly on
river bottoms and rich, moist soil. It seems to possess the advantage of

- withstanding the bad effects of dust and smoke, and would consequently
be better adapted to planting in large towns than most other varieties of
trees. In this connection, let me warn the fellows out on the broad

0 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

prairies, not to plant too large White Elms. I have seen them trans-
planted from two to three or four inches in diameter, trimmed to bare
poles, tops cut off say twelve to fifteen feet from the ground, and in three.
years develope so much top that the wind would blow them over so far
as to leave them standing at a very acute angle. They seem to develope
top more rapidly than root. On the rich, moist, alluvial soil of the west-.
ern counties, plant small trees.

Acer Saccharinwm—Sugar Maple, Rock Maple.

The Sugar Maple, as ashade and ornamental tree, cannot be too highly
prized. It is indigenous to Minnesota, but is more particular about its
location than the White Elm. In thisstate it prefers well drained local-
ities. A locality in which the White Elm would flourish to perfection,
would,in many instances, prove fatal to the Sugar Maple. I have had
but poor success in planting them on level prairie, with deep clay sub-
soil. Such localities should be underdrained for the Sugar Maple. I
very much doubt if they can be made to live where the ground is satur-
ated with moisture during the growing season. On the second bench of
the streams, and along the banks and sides of ravines, on any tolerably
good soil, and on hill sides, the Sugar Maple flourishes and reaches its
best proportions. Poor, sandy soils are not suited to the growth of the
Sugar Maple, neither are most of the rich bottom lands of the Red River
Valley.

Juglans Nigra—Black Walnut.

All things considered, I am, strongly inclined to the belief, that the
Black Walnut is the most valuable forest tree that can be grown in Min-
nesota. Its growth is very rapid, and when fully developed, is one of the
largest of our forest trees. It prefers a rich, moist soil, but will flourish
and make a very satisfactory growth on any number one prairie not too
far north. The Minnesota valley seems to be the northern limits for this
tree in that portion of Minnesota west of the Mississippi river. JI have
never seen any Black Walnut to amount to anything, north of the valley
of the Minnesota river. They are a tender tree when young, and we
occasionally get a winter in which they require considerable protection.
_As a shade and ornamental tree, it sometimes rivals the White Elm.

When planted as a shade tree, give it plenty of room, that its natural
habit of throwing out a low, broad top may be encouraged. Bryant tells
of a Black Walnut tree at three feet from the ground, twenty-five feet in
circumference. “At the height of twelve or fifteen fect, the trunk divides
into several branches, cach of which by itself would constitute a large
tree; the whole forming an immense canopy, overshadowing an area one
hundred and fifty feet in diameter.”

Juglans Cinerea—Butternut.

When grown in open ground, throws out a low, spreading top; is a
hardy, rapid grower, and in all respects a desirable shade and ornamen-
tal tree. This treeand its first cousin, the Black Walnut, ought to be
considered in the double character of not only forest but fruit trees. A
Black Walnut orchard, or a Butternut orchard, propagated from the seed
planted on the right kind of soil, would soon throw in the shade any
apple orchard in Minnesota; would come into bearing as quick, would
grow faster, stand more grief, and bring more bushels of either fruit or
dollars, in the long run. I suggest, as a practical measure, the offering

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANTAL. 11

of liberal premiums to encourage the planting oe Black Walnut and But-
ternut orchards.

Tilia Americana—Linn, Linden, Basswood.

This is another very desirable shade tree. Rapid grower, hardy, long
lived. Will grow and develope well on any good farming land, but pre-
fers a rich, moist, cool soil. Furnishes good shade and shelter for man
and beast, and also bountiful crops of flowers, from which the “little
busy bee” manufactures a most excellent article of honey. Basswood,
suitable for transplanting, is not easily found in large numbers in our:
native forests, and the main source of supply for shade trees, must be
from propagation in forest tree nurseries.

Fraxinus Amer Fe nr ct Ash.

One of our most valuable forest trees. Very hardy. Rapid grower,
and when planted wide apart, throws out-a beautiful; wide spreading top.
- Most of the prairie soil of Minnesota is well adapted to the growth of

the White Ash.

This tree will do its best in a cool, deep, moist soil. It don’t amount
to much on a warm, dry, sandy soil; is not afraid of cold weather;
deserves a higher rank in public estimation. For general planting on
our northwestern prairies, no forest tree merits more general cultivation
and attention. It is easily propagated from seed, and can be furnished

by millions ; cheap as corn fodder.

Fraxinus Sambucifolia—Black Ash.

For merely a shade and ornamental tree, perhaps preferable to White
Ash; will grow best on ground too wet for White Ash; will flourish and
develop magnificently on ground too wet for most ‘any other timber
except it may be Tamarac.

Populus Angulata, or Populus Monilifera—Cottonwood.

The highly refined, fastidious and aristocratic element of our large
towns and cities, unite in despising this noble tree. But who cares? It
has its own merits, merits that will cause it to be propagated, cherished,
nournished and protected by willing hands and loving hearts, until the
great interior treeless region of the North American continent shall have -
been reclaimed and become one of the traditions of the past. When the
marble monuments vainly erected to perpetuate the memory of the names
of its traducers, shall have crumbled into dust ; when even the State Hor-
ticultural Society has ceased to exist, even then will this monumental
tree shed its blessings and its cotton alike upon the just and unjust. -

I propose to stand by the Cottonwood. Whether planted oa a sand
bank or a river bottom, in the door yard or in a desert, on the prairie or
in the timber, the result is a great, sturdy, healthy forest tree. It is a
success, and that’s why people plant it. It don’t fool away years of
precious time getting ready to do something, but it is up and coming
from the word go. It isemphatically a pioneer tree. This and the White
Willow will do more to prepare the way for the cultivation of fruit trees,
than any other agencies I can think of.

I have enumerated enough of the deciduous trees. I could easily have
extended the list to twice its length. But “ Enough is as good as a feast.”

Evergreens.
I shall not branch out much on STMT had rather wait and hear

12 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

from John Kepner. I desire to say a good word for the Scotch Pine. I
find it absolutely hardy, and a thrifty, good grower on the broad prairies
of Kandiyohi and Stevens counties; have had them growing out for
nearly four years. They always look bright and healthy. They are, un-
doubtedly, a good tree to plant by the road-side. It is the great lumber
tree of Scandinavian nations of northern Europe. It delights in buffet-
ing old Boreas; is admirably adapted for wind-breaks, and will be used —
extensively for this purpose just as fast as the prairie farmer becomes
able to pay for it.

I have experimented with various sorts of evergreens on the prairies,
and have had more comfort from the Scotch Pine than all others com-
bined.

The European Larch, about which volumes have been written, has so
far proved hardy, healthy, and a rapid grower on the main line of the
St. Paul & Pacific railroad, where it has been planted as an experiment
in different localities and on widely varying soils. From experience so
gained, I should not be afraid to go in tolerably heavy on the European
Larch.

HOW TO PLANT THEM.

It is all surplusage trying to tell this crowd how to plant trees. You
know as much about it as I do; but it may be this paper may fall into
hands not so experienced as yours. And so I commence by saying, the
first thing to do, is to prepare the ground. In commencing de novo on the
prairie, Ishould first break the sod in June. I should let it sweat till Oc-
tober. I would then back-set it, bringing up two or three inches of new
ground. (J am supposing you are preparing to plant along the highway
the whole length of your farm.) In the spring I would plant it to pota-
toes. I prefer potatoes for this purpose, because the ground gets worked
over more in growing this crop than any other you would be likely to
plant. After digging the potatoes in September, I would then plough
the ground as deep as I possibly could; the deeper the better. And then
I would harrow thoroughly. I would have all the holes dug before I took
up a tree, and I would dig big holes, not very deep, but a good ways
across; deep enough so you can throw in dirt, good mellow black soil,
forming a little mound in the bottom of the hole to set the treeon. Then,
while an assistant holds the tree in an upright position, manipulate the
fine, soft, mellow earth all among the roots, spreading them out fulllength,
so they nestle and lay comfortable like and natural. If any of the roots
are bruised and mangled, trim them off smoothly with a sharp knife, and
also cut out all dead roots.

Too much care cannot be exercised in transplanting forest trees. In
taking them up get all the root you can, especially small fibrous roots.
Don’t allow the roots to be exposed to sun or wind. Don’t let them
freeze while out of the ground. Plan your work so as to have the least
possible number of hours intervene from the time the tree is lifted
from its native spot till it is in the ground again. Should unavoidable
delays occur, heel them in, or better still, bury them all over in loose
earth, taking them out as you plant them. After getting the roots com-
fortably arranged, shovel the fine, black, mellow soil in, pressing it firmly.
You don’t want to tramp it.

I think most good sized trees, especially the Cottonwood, do better
planted somewhat deeper than they originally stood.

Don’t drown your trees with water. Many people heave in several

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 13

buckets of water in each hole.: This is unnecessary. Your tree don’t
want to stand in a mortar bed. More trees are killed by too much water
than by too little. If possible, mulch thoroughly as soon as planted.
Mulch with any good manure. Chip manure is best. Old hay or straw
is good.

If the ground is reasonably moist’ when the planting is done, good,
‘thorough mulching will protect the tree from drought far more effectually
than indiscriminate bucketfuls of cold water. Cold wateris a good thing
in its place, but needs to be used with some judgment. AN

Don’t mutilate your trees. This trimming up to bare poles and_ then.
cutting the top off may be necessary in very exposed localities, as-too
much top resists the wind to such an extent as to loosen the hold of the
roots to the soil. This won't do. In such localities plant small trees.
A tree no larger than a rawhide riding-whip, with its full complement of
fibrous roots, will soon get away trom such trees as are usually planted
along highways; provided, always, you plant it in ground which has been
thoroughly prepared, and then give it the same care, protection and cul-
tivation you do your corn when you get fifty bushels per acre. If I
was in a hurry, and couldn’t wait, and must have big trees at once, I
would take up root enough so there would be no necessity of cutting off
the top; only trimming the top into symmetry. It would be, perhaps,
necessary to steady and brace it against the wind until well rooted. How
to do this your own ingenuity should suggest.

AFTER CARE.

In planting a line of shade trees along a public highway, I should aim
to dedicate a strip of ground at least one rod wide to this purpose. - I
should plough that strip and harrow it at least twice each year, between
May and August, keeping down all weeds and grass. Every year I should
work themulching when well decayed, into the ground, replacing it from
year to year, until the tree is firmly established and able to help itself to.
food and drink. Bear in mind that a young tree needs care, protection,
food and water,as much as a young steer, and the better treatment either
gets, the better it grows and prospers. The mulching and cultivation is
to the tree what corn, hay and water is to the steer.

I cannot too strongly condemn the infamous and brutal treatment
given to trees by men who ought to know and to do better. The man
who handles trees in transplanting, as he would fence rails or posts, de-
serves to lose them, and generally does. To illustrate: last spring I saw
a large box of ornamental trees, mostly evergreens, on the platform at
Willmar. After lying there exposed to wind and sun several days, I saw
them opened. The moss and other mulch they were packed in had pre-
vented the roots from drying, and had they at once been properly planted,
could have been saved. It seemed a whole neighborhood had clubbed
together, and each one’s package was bound up separately. These pack-
ages were taken from the box and laid on the platform, where, for several
days they were exposed to drying winds and scorching sun. They were
all killed within twelve hours; but those fellows would come every day
or two and carry off a bundle and plant them, all the same; and you
can’t make one of them believe that a nurseryman is any better than a
horse thief.

We must preach to the people that a tree, if not exactly animal, is, at
least, a living, breathing organism, as susceptible to good or bad treat-

14 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

ment as anybody; as quick to appreciate good treatment as you or I,
and as quick to resent bad treatment. In fact, there are few classes of
living beings who tolerate less bad treatment than trees.

WHEN TO PLANT—SPRING OR FALL?

This is a question often asked. Ido not consider it of as much im-
portance asmany do. It is not half as important as a thorough prepa-
ration of the soil, mulching and thorough cultivation. With most forest
trees it really makes but little difference. For several years I have
planted largely, commencing in the fall as soon as the leaves fall; plant-
ing until winter comes, heeling in or burying what is left, and in the
spring commencing again and planting right along till 20th of May, or
until the leaves start. Some seasons there is no perceptible difference
between spring and fall planting of most varieties of trees. Should it
set in very dry, as it sometimes does early in spring, and continue dry
for several weeks, your spring planting will suffer to a certain extent,
limited, however, by the amount of mulching and cultivation the trees
receive during the season of trial. Should there be a reasonable supply
of moisture during the spring and early summer, no appreciable differ- —
ence would be likely to be observed. Large sized trees, whether planted
in the fall or in the spring, will quite frequently go through the first
season making a good, healthy, vigorous growth, and if June and July
of the next season is unusually hot and dry, succumb to the withering
influences of the season. This, however, is largely prevented by mulch-
ing or cultivation.

Small forest trees, one, two and three year old, usually, and so far as
my experience goes, have always escaped this peril. I have sometimes
thought the transplanting of large forest trees from the forest to the open
prairie, more hazardous in the fall than in the spring.

Sometimes facts prove it to be so, and then again facts prove it not to
be so.

The fact is, you can’t most always tell.

With a thorough preparation of the soil, and prompt, clean culture,
your trees, if properly handled and planted, will, asa rule, outlive the
fellow that plants them.

There are many other varieties of forest trees not enumerated in the
foregoing paper, which deserve notice as eminently worth cultivating on
the “Tree Claim.” There are others well worth trying, some of which,
although thus far having nearly failed, will yet, under more favorable
conditions and with more skillful culture, become acclimated and accus-
tomed to their new homes, and ultimately add largely to the value and
attractions of the prairie regions. The following valuable paper, from
the pen of Prof. N. H. Winchell, which I extract trom “Transactions of
Minnesota State Horticultural Society, 1875,” gives a good idea of the
varieties of forest timber indigenous to the soil and climate of Minnesota. |

NOTES ON THE BIG WOODS.

BY N. H. WINCHELL—READ BY PROF. LACY.

“The Big Woods” of Minnesota, consist of a southward spur from the forest-
covered portion of the State, covering a strip about forty-five miles wide in the
centre of the State, and reaching nearly to the Iowa Stateline. By this spur, the
prairies of the State, at least, those in the southern part, are divided into two
parts, the greater of which lies on the west of the Big Woods. The great material
advantage the farmers of Minnesota occupying the prairies, have over those who,

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. ery sep

in other States are much further removed from timber, is easily seen, while others,
who prefer timbered land to prairie, have the choice of thousands of acres yct
unoccupied in the region of the Big Woods. The boundary of this southern pro-
longation of the northern timber, is not well marked, the trees gradually becom-
ing thinner and smaller, and more and more restricted to the valleys of streams, —
till the country is changed to a treeless prairie. Around the outskirts of the
woods, small oaks and aspens constitute almost the only arboreal vegetation ; but,
within the woods, a great variety of hardy, deciduous trees are found, mingled
with the usual species of shrubby vegetation. The general surface is much more
rolling than in the prairie region, on the east or west, and the soil seems to be
coarser, with more frequent boulders. Yet, there are, also, extensive flat tracts in
the Big Woods, that are as level as any prairie region.

In general, the Big Woods may be thus bounded: Beginning a few miles west
of Minneapolis, the eastern edge of the Big Woods crosses the Minnesota, in a
line toward Lakeville, in Dakota county. Continuing in a southerly direction, it
passes about a mile east of Cannon City, and of Owatonna, when it takes a short
bend to the west and northwest, passing about four miles north of Waseca, and
near East Janesville, in Waseca county. In Blue Earth county, it is variously
modified by the valleys, that are tributary to Minnesota from the south. Contin-
uing west, about six miles south of South Bend, it turns north and crosses the
Minnesota, sending out a spur northwestward, which follows, indefinitely, the
Minnesota valley. Running along the west side of the Minnesota, distant from it
about four miles, it begins to bear off toward the northwest, at St. Peter, and
passes five miles west of Henderson. Between Arlington and New Auburn, in
Sibley county, the timber line is on the east of the direct line. Near the former
village, about four miles north, are some large patches of timber, containing large
oaks on the west of the main road, and the line seems to swell several miles to

-the west, but at Arlington, the timber is entirely on the east of the town. Be-
tween New Auburn and Glencoe, the timber line runs about a mile east of the
main road, and about three miles east of Glencoe. It is found again, at four miles
north of Glencece. Thence, it continues west and northwest, to Darwin, on the
St. Paul & Pacific Railroad. North of that, its exact location has not been traced.
It seems to run still northwestwardly, and to include the region of small lakes, in
Pope, Douglas and Otter Tail counties, and the region known as the Leaf Moun-
tains, in the wooded portion. North of the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, the Big
Woods widen out rapidly, both to the east and west, merging into the general
forest of the northern part of the State. The term is strictly, and originally, only
applicable to the spur that includes the Lower Minnesota valley, extending nearly
to the Iowa line. The writer has crossed the spur in a number of directions. In
passing from Farmington, in Dakota county, to Shakopee, in Scott county, the fol-
lowing species of trees and shrubs were seen. For ten or twelve miles after en-
tering the woods, very few large trees were seen, the oak shrubs being the largest,
and almost the only tree-like vegetation. About half way to the Minnesota river,
the maple and large elms, bass and iron-wood appear.

Trees and Shrubs of the Big Woods.

Oak shrubs. Apparently Quercus ilicifolia. Wang.
Hazelnut. Corylus rostrata. Ait. (?)
Bur Oak. Quercus macrocarpa. Michx,
White Oak.” Quercus alba, L.
Wild Red Cherry. Prunus Pennsylvanica. UW.
Trembling Aspen. Populus tremuloides. Michx.
Choke Cherry. Prunus Virginiana. L.
Wild Plum. Prunus Americana. Marshall.
White Ash. Fraxinus Americana. L.
Thorn. Crataegus.
Rose. Rosa blanda. Ait.
June Berry. Amelanchier Canadensis. Var. Botryapium. Torr. and Gray.
Round-leaved Cornel. Cornus circinata. Her.
Common Elder. Sambucus Canadensis. L.
American Crab-apple. Pyrus coronaria. L.

oan young twigs and the under surface of the leaves are very woolly pubes-
cent.
Black Cherry. Prunus serotina. Ehr.

16 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

_ Frost Grape. Vitis cordifolia. Michx.
American Elm. Ulmus Americana. L. (Pl. Clayt.) Willd.
High-bush Cranberry. Viburnum opulus. L.

Two or three species of Willow. Salix.
Green Ash. Fraxinus Vividis. Michx. f.
Prickly Ash. Zanthoxylum Americanum. Mill.
Cockspur Thorn. Crataegus Crus-galli. L.
Red Raspberry. Rubus strigosus. Michx.
Black Currant. Ribes floridum. L. :
Cottonwood. Populus monilifera. Ait.
Large-toothed Aspen. Populus grandidentata. Michx.
Bass. Tilia Americana. ;
Red Mulberry. Morus rubra. L.
Ironwood. Ostrya Virginica. Willd.
Sugar Maple. Acer Saccharinum. Wang.
Soft Maple. Acer rubrum. L.
Alternate-leaved Cornel. Cornus alternifolia. L.
Bitternut. Carya amara, Nutt.
_[Rare, east of Spring Lake. ]

Butternut. Juglins cinerea. L.

[Very rare, except at Spring Lake and westward. ]
Slippery Elm. Ulmus fulva. Michx.
Staghorn Sumac. Rus typhina. L.
Tamarac. Larix Americana. Michx.
Box Elder. Negundo aceroides. Moench.
Wolfberry. Symphoricarpus occidentalis. R. Br.
Panicled Cornel. Cornus puniculata. L’Her.

[The most common species of Cornel. ]

Between Shakopee and Mankato, the following additional species were seen in
the valley of the Minnesota:

_Kentucky Coffee Tree. Gymnocladus canadensis. Lam.
Red Cedar. Juniperus Virginiana.

Black Walnut. Juglans nigra. L.

Hackberry. Celtis occidentalis. L.

Blue Beech. Carpinus Americana. Michx.

Yellow or Gray Birch. Betula lutea. Michx. f.

[This birch has oblong catkins, and spreading obtuse lobes on the scales, the
latter being three lines long. The hickory grows to about six inches in diameter,
and then is invariably winter-killed. A large tract has lately been cut for fuel,
near St. Peter. The hackberry is used for fuel, and for furniture. It frequents
the heaviest timber. The butternut, is rarely large. The box-elder, sometimes
exceeds three feet in diameter. In the absence of the sugar maple, its sap is used
in the Upper Minnesota valley, by the Sioux Indians, for making sugar and syrup,
of which, it is said to furnish a very fine quality. ]

In traveling through the Big Woods, in 1874, the white birch, (Betula alba var.
populifolia spach,) was noted in Hennepin and Carver counties. The bittersweet,
(Celastrus scandens, L.) is, also, abundant in the Big Woods. There is a species of
oak, that appears like red oak, (Quercus rubra, L.), that frequents the outskirts of
the Big Woods. It is sometimes associated with the burr oak, in the “openings,”
and sometimes is found in company with the trembling aspen. It makes a smal-
ler tree, generally, than the burr oak. Besides these, the Virginia creeper, (Am-
pelopsis quinquefolia. Michx.) and the blackberry, (Rubus villosus, Ait.), have been
seen. At Jordan, in the valley of the Minnesota, the black raspberry was noted,
(Rubus occidentalis, L.) The white pine grows near Minneapolis, (Pinus strobus,
L.), and in Mower county ; it is found along the rocky banks of the streams in
Mower county. The black ash, (Fraxinus sambucifolia, Lam.), has, also, been ob-
served in the Big Woods; but, it seems not to be common. The red-berried elder,
(Sambucus pubens, Michx.), has been seen at Minneapolis ; also, the sweet vibur-
num, ( Vibwrnum Lentago, L.), and the strawberry bush, (Huonymus Americanus, L.)
Two species of spirwa, the ninebark, (Spirea opulifolia, L.) and the common
meadow-sweet spirea salicifolia, L., were noted at St. Peter.

Although, according to the foregoing boundary of the southern end of the Big
Woods, they extend, en masse, only to about the center of Blue Earth county, the

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 17

area of continuous timber is extended considerably further south, through the
agency of the valleys of the Blue Earth, the Cobb, and the Maple rivers;—tribu-
taries of the Minnesota, that run northward froin the water-shed, that lies alon
the southern State boundary line. Consequently, there is more than the usual:
amount of timber, for prairie lands, in Faribault and Freeborn counties. In:
those counties, as the suppression of the prairie fires is rendered more complete,
by the forming of the soil, the scattering shrubs of oak, and the aspens, that are
avant couriers of encroaching forests, bring on more and more the character and
aspect of a wooded country. Other species then gradually venture out from the
sheltered valleys, and flourish on the open tracts. It is in some of these more
southerly spurs from the main body of the Big Woods, that the shag-bark hickory
(Carya alba., Nut.) sometimes appears.

The existence of this great spur of timber, shooting so far south from the boun-
dary line, separating the southern prairies from the northern forests, and its suc-
cessful resistance against the fires that formerly must have raged annually on:
both sides, is a phenomenon in the natural history of the State that challenges
the scrutiny of all observers. While it holds mines of wealth, open to the prac-
tical economist, it affords to the scientist a rich field for observation and study.
With timber, comes the fauna, that is peculiar, in our latitude, to timbered
regions. This fauna, is strikingly different from that of the prairies. The bear,
the wolf, the deer, a great number of forest warblers, and numberless winged in-
sects, that would otherwise be restricted to the northern half of Minnesota, are,
by this spur of timber, brought into a much more southern latitude. The deer,
at present, roams over the whole of this tract, from north to south. It furnishes
shelter for thousands of birds that winter among us, but which, otherwise, would
become exterminated, or driven from the State. It has, also, its climatic effect,
and its sanitary influence. It is eminently a region of small lakes. What may

‘be the cause underlying, that has wrought this wonderful diversity in the heart
of our great State, is a subject for legitimate investigation, but the limits of this
paper do not permit me to enter on that. It is only possible here to give a few
notes, and to call attention to some of the salient points. That this tract is des-
tined to be one of untold benefit to the State, cannot be questioned. It is as yet
but sparsely inhabited, and the details of its natural history are unknown.

The following have been noticed by Mr. L. M. Ford: Two varieties of the
wild gooseberry, (Clematis Virginiana,) a well known climber, blooming in August;
the Dutchman’s pipe, (Arestolochia sypho,) another climber; one variety of the
honeysuckle, (Lonicera ;) the leather wood, (Dirca palustris,) a dwarf sort of thorn,
heavily laden with fruit in autumn, probably Crataegus coccinea, and near Minne-
apolis, the trailing juniper, (Juniperus prostrata.)

The first report of the commissioner of statistics, of Minnesota,
(1860), gives the following account of the natural distribution of its
timber.

“ The Great Coniferous Districtc—The elevated and broken region, north of lati-
tude 46°, and east of the meridian of the outlet of Red Lake, may be described in
general terms, as a forest country; these lines, in general, being the southern and
western limits of the pine, and other conifers, in Minnesota, and including an
area of 21,000 square smiles. Pine is the prevailing wood of this district, but in-
termingled with a considerable proportion of birch, maple, aspen, ash and elm.
The alluvial bottoms of the extreme northern branches of the Mississippi, support
a heavy growth of basswood, elm, aspen, butternut, ash, birch, hard and soft
maples, linden, balsam-fir,and some oaks. It is observed, that whenever the
cone-bearing woods are burned off in this district, the hard woods take their
place. The sugar-maple, which, according to Blodgett, marks the range of Indian
corn, extends northward nearly to Rainy Lake, where it yields abundance of
sugar to the Indians. In the Red River Valley, the sugar-maple is found all
along its trough, and finds its northern limit beyond the 49th parallel, on the
elevated southern water-shed of Lake Winnipeg. On the rivers flowing into Lake
Superior, hemlock, cedar, spruce, fir, and birch prevail

The Zone of Pine—The principal pine forests of Minnesota, which constitute
one of main resources of industry and wealth, stretch in a broad belt near the
southern border of the great northern forest district, from the eastern side of
Pine county, in the Upper Saint Croix Valley, northwestward across the water-
shed to the outlet of Red Lake. The principal pineries where lumber is bought,
are upon the headwaters of Kettle, Snake, Rum, Crow-Wing, and the Upper Mis-

2

18 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL

sississippi, and recently, upon the extreme upper waters of, the Red, or Otter Tail .
river. a

Belt of Oak Openings.—Below latitude 46°, the pine, Rendle spruce, birch, and-
all the Conifere, generally disappear with the forest-line. A narrow range of
cedar and tamarack swamps, between Saint Croix and Crow Wing rivers, and.
some pine, mingled with large maple, oak, ash, and small birch and spruce, inter-

vene for half a degree further, when the oak becomes the prevailing treeonthe’ _ .

uplands, distributed in groves ‘and large parks, its growth usually dwarfed by the

annual ravages of prairie fires. These oak openings characterize the whole delta — 7H

of rolling prairie, below latitude 45° on the east side of the Mississippi. The soft.

maple, elm, ash, willow, and alder, line the bottoms of the Rum and Elk rivers., ee

There are no compact forests in this sec tion, except upon the Saint Croix Valley,
where a dense mass of hard-woods, in which the sugar-maple prevails, occupies
the upper part of Washington and. Chisago counties to the pine belt, in Pine
county.

The Bois Franc, or Big Woods.—West. of the Mississippi, the western flank of.
the great coniferous forest of the north, extending with a thick border of hard-

wood west of Otter Tail River, and around Otter ‘ Tail Lake, terminates upon the lie

valley of the Crow Wing, where it merges its characteristics. in anew forest
growth of the deciduous forms, which stretches in a broad angular belt across the

great prairies of the southeast and south, and generally known as the Big Woods. ~~
This belt wood forms a deep fringe, of from ten to twenty miles in width, along ~

the western slope of the Mississippi, from the Crow Wing Valley to the Sauk, at
Saint Cloud. Crossing into the valley of the Crow River, and keeping a general
south-easterly course, it occupies a large strip of country between the Mississippi
and Minnesota rivers, nearly one hundred miles on its longest side, with an-aver-"
age breadth of forty miles; its western limit being formed by a line crossing the
counties of McLeod and Meeker, diagonally through the middle, and its.eastern, ~
by a line drawn from near the mouth of Rum river to Carver, on the Minnesota. —
Throwing its left flank across the Minnesota, at Louisville, its main body crosses
the river between Belle Plain and Le Sueur, and covers nearly the whole of Le.
Sueur county, with its right wing extending south-westward to Blue Earth. River;
in Blue Earth county, and its left occupying about one-half of Rice and Scott
counties. The area of the tract of country covered by the Big Woods, is about
5,000 square smiles, of which 4,000 is occupied by the division north of ‘the Min-
nesota, and 1,000 by its southern division. The woodland district is full of lakes, .
and, in some ‘sections, the dense mass of forest is broken by-small prairies. The. F
varieties of timber in this district are mainly oak, maple, elm, ash, basswood,.
black walnut, and hickory. ;

Southern Belt of Valley Woods and Oak Openings.—Besides the tract above de- © ;

scribed, there are no large forests in Minnesota, west of the Mississippi. But,

nearly all the streams have narrow fringes of woodlands, and some of the valleys
east are dense masses of timber. The wide bottoms of Minnesota and Mississippi.
have a deep border of thick and massive woods, in which the large cottonwood
and maple are conspicuous, with white and black walnut, butternut, linden. box-
wood and hickory. The Zumbro Valley,.Wabashaw and Dodge counties, sup-
port some large tracts of forest growth. The Root Biver also affords a consider-
able body of thick woods on the borders of Fillmore and Olmstead counties, in
which all the varieties of the Big Woods are reproduced. But the oak-openings
and groves which are scattered through the uplands along the streams form a
large resource of the prairie population for domestic and mechanical purposes.

The Sparcely Wooded District—The Upper Valley of the Minnesota and Red
River sustains no forest-growth, except upon the trough of the main and tributary
streams and the margins of the lakes. The minor streams of the Upper Missis-
sippi, are, however, poorly timbered,a few scattering trees only marking their
course over the naked plain.

On the Red River, a narrow fringe of thick woods of the hard varieties, com-
mences at Graham’s Point, and continues to Pembina, while all the streams on
the east and west sides afford narrow strips of timber, generally from fifteeen to
twenty-five miles apart, while the intermediate plains above latitude 46°, are
dotted with clumps of poplars, willows, and other aspenoids.

The foregoing extracts seem to be necessary and valuable in this con-
nection, in order to exhibit at a glance the natural home of the different
forest trees of Minnesota.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 19

I give it, simply as my own experience in forest-growing on the
prairies ; that it pays, to conform to the natural habits ot the trees ; that
is, 1 would plant the Black Walnut, Butiw-..uut, Black Ash, Basswood,
Elm, &c., in a deep, moist, rich, soul, instead of on high, dry, poorish
soil. And I would plant the Pines, White Ash, Larch, &c., on lighter,
dryer soils. I would carry this idea into practice in the planting of a
tree claim ; giving each particular variety, as near as possible, the same
sort of soil, location, &c., as where the finest growths are found in the
native forests.

We will now give some attention to the individual character of forest
trees, from Dr. Hough’s report, pp. 556 to 566. I find much valuable
information, which he credits to the Lowa State Horticultural Society.

This society, in 1872, began to otter premiums to encourage tree-plant-
ing, and it has for the past four years, printed annually, for gratuitous
distribution among planters, a pamphlet, containing instructions for
procuring, storing, and planting o1 seeds, cuttings and plants, with hints
on best species and varieties, modes ot culture, &c., for artificial forests
and shelter-belts in that State.

The importance of this subject has been also frequently discussed for
many years, as well in the public journals, as by speakers at agricultural
and horticultural fairs, so that it may be truly said of Iowa, that no
State in the Union has so generally been awakened to the importance of
_tree-planting. In fact, the great prairies needed no argument to prove
the desirability of planting, as well for fences and fuel, as for shelter and
ornament. The statistical result of these labors will be found on another
page in this volume. Some of the practical suggestions of the Annual,
which appear to be of more general interest, are here given:

SHELTER-BELTS.

These are wind-breaks for the shelter of domestic animals and crops,
and their advantages are set forth by Judge C. E. Whiting, one of the
committee charged with the preparation of the Annual, trom his own
experience, (perhaps the most extensive of any person in the country in
this branch ot forestry,) as follows:

*T have, in belts around my fields, varying from single to twenty rows of trees,
mostly planted 4,356 to the acre, about 40 acres of timber. The trees in these
belts vary as to time of planting; some are eighteen years old, and some only one
year planted ; the greater portion, however, are trom five to twelve years of age.
‘The needed thinning of these belts furnishes all the wood that is wanted on the
farm, including stakes and rails to keep the fences in repair, posts for all repairs
needed, and many for new fences, I annually build in extending my farm. When
my walnuts get a little larger, I will have all I need, and many tor sale. There is
not astick of needed timber on the farm, from a pea-brush, a grapevine-stake, or
a binding-pole, up to a fair-sized saw-log, that cannot be had from my groves,
without cutting a single tree that does not need thinning out from the groves.

* About five miles of my timber belts are so planted, that I have commenced
using the standing trees for fence-posts. Where a tight tence is not needed, with
the use of the barbed wire, and a little change in the staple, the use of these live
posts is a perfect success. Strongly and urgently as I have heretofore advocated
the planting of thick belts of timber around our fields, each year but confirms me
in the opinions then expressed. The land that remains, will, year after year,
produce larger and more certain crops than the whole field would produce with-
out such protection. I also repeat, that, in spite of all the learned discussions and
scientific theorizing in regard to the cause of our timberless prairies, our cultivated
forest trees, year atter year, grow right along, with immense rapidity, in blissful
ignorance of all the reasons why they should not grow.”

i Foresty Annual of the lowa Horticultural Society. Four numbers of this have been published, be.
ginning in 1874. The pamphlet for 1877, embraces 24 pages.

90 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL:

The species of trees used in shelter-belts, either on the farm boundaries to the
north and west; or, to the north and west of dwelling, barns, orchard, garden,
&c., will depend greatly on the position of the homestead, as to soil and location
in the State. The settler, absolutely without tree-shelter, wishes, naturally, to
reach results as quickly as possible. Fortunately, the willow, the cottonwood, the
silver poplar, and the box-elder, are all very easy to propagate ; as noted in speak-
ing of varieties, are all wonderfully rapid in growth under good cultivation ; and,
above all, are perfectly hardy, even in the north-western part of the State. Taking
all things into consideration, it is best to put these rampant growers on the out-
side of belts, adding from year to year the varieties, like elm, ash, black cherry,
honey-locust, the evergreens, &c., as time and means permit, inside of the iron-
clad vanguards placed on the outside. The rapid-growing soft woods, starting
readily from cuttings, are the most available for urgent present needs, and the
novice in tree-planting, is more certain of success with them in his first efforts,
than with rooted plants of the slower-growing, but more valuable timbers. Be-
sides, cuttings cost nothing usually, and are readily obtainable. We append notes
on managing cuttings in this connection, as these trees are most frequently used
in shelter-belt plantations.

How to Prepare Cuttings—Very early in winter, before severe freezing, cut in
lengths of about a foot. If the limbs to cut are plenty, choose them from three-
fourths to one and a half inches in diameter. Cut them at the lower end with a
clean cut, sloping at acute angle, to facilitate pressing in the earth when planting.
If sharpened on all sides, as is frequently done, roots are emitted less freely from
the lower end. Tie in bundles with willows, with the lower ends nicely evened,
so that when placed on the ground in the spring, every cutting will touch the
moist earth. Pack the cuttings in a dry-goods box, with moist prairie soil, putting
the box where it will not get too dry or wet, and will not freeze. With the first
wario weather of spring, clean off a spot under an old straw-stack, level the sur-
face carefully, and set the bundles butt-end down closely together upon the fresh,
moist earth ; then cover them over with straw, so as to keep them from the air.
By the time the ground gets warm enough to plant, the base of the cuttings will
be softened and calloused, and most of them will have emitted small roots.

Mark out your ground one way three feet apart. Plant alternately a row of
small-growing corn with a row of cuttings. Put the cuttings in rows six inches
apart, at an angle of forty-five degrees, using a clean, narrow spade, and press
the earth down firmly with the foot. Cuttings should be put down about the
whole length. When they start, allow only one sprout to grow. Cultivate care-
fully. The alternate row of corn will nearly pay for the culture, and the follow-
ing winter, the stalks will help to hold the snow among the trees. The folowing
spring it can be seen how the plants stand in the rows. If the cuttings are pre-
pared, kept, and set right, nearly all will grow, and the surplus plants can be
taken up and set in other ground. Allow the plants to stand about three feet
apart. If many have failed, transplant, so they will set right. As a rule, it is
not best to transplant. A tree six years old, and never transplanted, is usually,
much the largest.

We may here remark, that in addition to the willows, the white and yellow
cottonwood, lombardy poplar, large aspen, silver poplar and balm of Gilead, may
all be propagated in this way, as noted in speaking of varieties. The instructions
for managing cuttings, will, however, not be repeated.

We may here, also, note that the red maple, white maple, ash-leaved maple
and basswood, may be propagated readily from two-year-old wood, put out in the
fall. Cover lightly over the rows, before cold weather, with straw or prairie hay.
Rake this off as the plants start in spring.

Evergreens for Shelter-belts—In eastern Iowa, nearly all of the hardy evergreens
may be grown successfully, and form, beyond all doubt, the most perfect shelter-
belts that can be planted. But, in the central and western portions of the State,
north of the forty-second parallel, evergreens, even of the hardiest type, need
shelter ; yet, this is no reason why they should be. ignored in the perfecting of
shelter-belts. For reasons before noted, the rapid-growing soft woods are best
for outside planting, and are just what is needed to give requisite exemption
from wind-sweep to belts of pines, or spruces planted under their lee.

For the portions of the State most in need of shelter-belts, the Scotch pine is,
beyond all doubt, the best evergreen for this use in the whole list. We can fully
indorse the statement of Prof. C. 8. Sargent, who says:

“The rapidity of its growth in all situations, and its economic value, make the

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 21

Scotch pine the most valuable tree farmers can plant for screens and wind-breaks
about their fields and buildings, and for this purpose, it is recommended in place
of the more generally planted Norway spruce, which, though of rapid growth in
its young state, does not promise, in our climate, at least, to fulfill the hopes which
were formed in regard to it.”

This pine is specially partial to free circulation of air, growing quite feebly in
crowded positions; hence, it will not do to plant it as closely as white pine,
although, as with other trees, it is best to plant, with a view of thinning out when
the poles are of size to be of practical use. We may here remark, that the poles
of Scotch and white pine, cut in summer and stripped of bark, are very strong
and durable, when nailed on posts for fencing.

The white pine will succeed vastly better with outside shelter on the west and
north exposures, and will attain height fully as fast as the Scotch pine. Plant in
rows eight feet apart, with plants four feet apart. The trees thus crowded will
attain height rapidiy, and when the poles attain size for nailing on fence-posts,
they will be straight,and nearly uniform in size from end to end.

The Norway or white spruce, coming next, may be planted the same as Scotch
pine. The white spruce is, perhaps, the most compact and beautiful, but the
Norway, is the most rapid in growth, and is the most plentiful 1n the nurseries.

Evergreens, twelve to eighteen inches, of all the -sorts here named, may be
obtained of leading nurserymen, who make seedlings a specialty, at very low
rates. Taking into account the first cost of plant, the loss from shipping, dying
out, &c., the chances for success, with the ordinary farmer, are too doubtful, except
on a small scale, for the shelter of home buildings, where the addition to the
landscape view, summer and winter, will well repay the cost of purchase, and
after care, saying nothing of their perfect effectiveness in arresting wind and
storm. The deciduous trees, such as we specify as valuable for farm uses, are
good enough for shelter-belts, and the annual thinnings are far more valuable for
varied uses. Our main idea. under the heading of shelter-belts, is to recommend
strongly the planting of all forest trees as shelter-belts, rather than in the form of
isolated squares, as is too common. Plant any of the kinds named in the suc-
ceeding list, but plant in the order suggested, as many trees do famously well,
planted east or south of a heavy belt of hardier trees, which would utterly fail in
open exposure to wind-sweeps.

PLANTATIONS FOR FUEL, FARM USES, AND MANUFACTURING PUR-
POSES.

To economize space, we place the varieties of trees best suited for these varied
purposes under one heading, making comments as to relative value for specific
purposes and management of each timber tree separately.

_ Green Asu (Fraxinus viridis.)—For fuel, and for all the manifold uses for which
light, firm, elastic, and durable timber is wanted, as well as handsome, light-col-
ored finishing lumber, the white and green ash are our most valuable trees, and
their greatest value is attained when grown on deep, rich soil. The white ash,
(F. Americana), in our dry atmosphere, and sometimes very dry soil, makes com-
paratively slow growth, while green ash, on soils favorable for our best corn crops,
will, in ten years, be as large as the ash-leaved maple (Negundo aceroides) of same
age. For all uses, its timber is very similar to white ash, with which it is con-
founded by most of our citizens. It grows in many parts of Iowa, while the
white ash is not common. The seeds ripen in October, and soon fall after frost.
A good way to keep them, is to place them on the surface of a garden walk, put-
ting a box over them, and cutting a trench around the box to keep water from
running under them. They will not grow if kept too dry. With most people, it
will be best to purchase the plants of nurserymen, or to cultivate the first year in
aseed-bed. Usually, about one-fifth of the seed grows. Transplant where they
are to grow at one year old. It is, however, better for the trees to plant the seed
where the trees are to grow, say six or eight seeds in a hill. They will then
retain their tap-root and grow with more vigor, but will require more hoeing.

How to Plant.—After deep plowing and thorough horrowing, mark the ground,
as for corn. If seeds are planted, cover shallow, not more than an inch. If
transplanting, press a clean, bright spade about two-thirds its length perpendic-
ularly at each intersection of the marks, then draw the handle back, so as to
move the bottom of the spade three or four inches forward, then press in the
_ Spade the balance of its length, and push the handle forward, which will leave

22, FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

an ample hole to receive the roots; after the spade is withdrawn, tramp the
ground firmly on the roots, and leave the plant standing perpendicular.

Honey-Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos).—It is thought by many to be the best to
select the seed for timber-growing purposes from thornless trees; yet, it often
happens that nearly all the plants from seeds gathered from very thorny trees,
will prove thornless, if kept thriftily growing. On account of rapidity of growth
and value of timber for fuel, posts, furniture, &c., we regard this native tree as
being very valuable. In some of the interior counties remote from the river bot-
toms, where this tree is found native. the idea secms common that this tree, like
the common black locust, is subject to attacks of the borer, and is, also. liable to
sprout, &c. For the benefit of this quite numerous class, it may be well to state,
that honey locust—or, more properly, three-thorned acacia—is nearly allied to the
Kentucky coffee-tree botanically, and that the borer has not been known to attack
it ; nor does it sprout to greater extent than the maple, and most other forest trees.

The seed ripens in autumn, and may be gathered any time during the fall or
winter. But the sooner pods are gathered after falling to the ground the better.
In Cedar county, on Cedar river, and at many points on the Iowa. Des Moines,
Missouri, and inc*ed, most of the rivers of the State, pods may be gathered in
quantity grown o> thornless trees.

Before planting, scald the seeds severely. Part of them will swell. Sift these
out with a coarse fanning-mill sieve. Scald the remainder again ; repeatedly
scalding and sifting, until all are swelled. The ground should be ready, and the
seeds at once planted. They will come up in two or three days, if the weather be
favorable, and their upright growth is so rapid, that less care is needed in picking
out weeds from among the plants, than with any other forest-tree seedlings. Keep
the weeds down carefully with good culture during the summer. Take up the
plants in the fall and heel in carefully where water will not stand. If left stand-
ing in seed-bed, the plants are often injured during the winter. After the first
year, the plants are perfectly hardy, if seed from our native trees be used. We
may here note, that the seed sold in the eastern markets is mostly imported. The
plants produced from the foreign honey-locust seed prove as tender in our climate
as the peach tree. No valuable tree in our list bears transplanting with as little
check to growth, as the honey-locust. Put out the plants with a spade, as recom-
mended for the ash.

Buack CuHerry (Cerasus serotina).—The great value of this tree for posts, fuel,
manufacturing, &c., has been too much overlooked. Plantations in this State, and
in Illinois, demonstrate it to be one of our mest desirable trees for cultivation, at-
taining a size in 12 years about equal to scarlet maple, with same care. When
planted thickly, say in rows 4 feet apart and 18 inches apart in row, the poles run
up tall and straight. The trees taken out in thinning can be utilized for poles to
nail on posts for fence. Cut in summer, when they will dry quickly, they will last
many years. When used for posts, if thoroughly dried, the writer has found
them to last as long as the best burr-oak. He has posts yet sound that have been
set 15 years, and made from trees only 10 to 12 inches in diameter. The seed may
he gathered in most of our groves and thickets. Wash off the pulp, dry the sur-
face of the pits in the sun, then pack in pure sand, in small boxes or nail kegs.
If kept in cellar, where they will not get too dry, they will grow; or they may be
buried where they may be severely frozen. In the latter case, they will be found
to germinate very early in spring, and must he sown before much started. Plant
and manage same as ash. If planted where wanted, all the better, as transplant-
ing sadly retards growth,

European Larcnu (Larix Europxa).—In Europe, this is regarded as their most val-
uable forest tree for artificial groves. It is esnecially grown for railroad ties, posts,
vine stakes, fencing, fuel, and about all the economic uses of the farm, and even
in the shipyard; whole ships having been constructed of larch timber. It is, in
our country, one of the most rapid growers we have, under proper treatment.
But we may suggest that a careless manager had better select some other tree.
The indications are that it will not prove as desirable here as in Europe, perhaps
mainly on account of too rapid growth on rich soils. On their clay soils it pro-
duces a better grade of timber.

Purchase plants that have been once transplanted. Be sure to secure the
plants very early in the snring. The leaves start very early, and the plants should
be in the ground before this occurs. If much started, they can hardly be saved
in the open air, unless the weather be very fivorable. Remember that it will not
bear exposure of root, any more than the evergreens. In planting keep the roots

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 23

in mud and water, under no circumstances allowing them to get even partially
dry. Plant the same as ash and honey-locust.

For the first year or two after transplanting, they will be found to make very

moderate growth. After that they climb up rapidly. The ash and locust will
need thorough culture but two years. The larch will not shade the ground as
early, and will need four years of careful culture. We will add, if plants of two
years’ growth be purchased, that have not been transplanted from the seed-bed,
do not think of setting in the open field. Plant quite closely in bed, and give
partial shade for one or two years. It pays to grow larch, but the idea must be
kept constantly in mind that when young it is very delicate and tender under our
dry air and hot sun, and must be handled in all respects like young evergreens,
with the additional care that it must be transplanted very early in spring.
Brack anp Waite Watnur (Juglans nigra and J. cinerea)—These are well-
known and valuable trees, especially the black walnut. They do not transplant
without great check of growth, and the nuts, therefore, should be planted where
wanted for belt or grove.

Judge C. E. Whiting, of this committee, who has had more experience in grow-
ing this timber than any man, probably, in the West, reports as follows:

‘If I were to plant a section of timber for an investment for my children, I
would have it all black walnut—a tree will grow to sawing size sooner than pine,
and even now in our markets it is quoted at three times the price of pine. It is
very durable, if put in the ground dry, for posts. Fifteen years ago I planted
- eedar and walnut posts at the same time, and also posts of white oak. All are
‘now decayed about equally. Always plant the walnut where you want it. Will
transplant well, but loses, in losing its tap-root, years of growth. Seven bushels
‘of walnuts, with the shucks on, will plant an acre. During the winter I put in

‘trenches, not too. thick, and cover with leaves.”

. ~ Plant before sprouting if possible. Mark the ground out as for ash, and plant
the nuts early and deep so that they will not dry.

YeLLow Corronwoop (Populus monilifera).—The opinion is common in central
‘and eastern Iowa, that cottonwood is only valuable on the prairies for wind-
breaks, as the wood has little value for fuel or for any uses of tne farm or work-
shop. The variety, if it be merely a variety, abundant on the Missouri, and also
found sparingly on the DesMoines, Iowa, Cedar, &v., in central and eastern Iowa,
‘known as yellow cottonwood, really has an economic value, aside from its value
for shelter belts, that should be better understood by our prairie settlers. Bryant
says of this variety: “Its heart-wood is of a yellowish color, not unlike that of the
tulip tree. It grows in the same situation as others of its kind, and is split with-
out difficulty into rails. Shingles have been manufactured from it, which lasted a
considerable time.” When sawed into lumber it does not warp like the cotton-
wood generality. If Populus angulata and P. monilifera are really distinct, it is a
matter of uncertainty to which this variety belongs. The subject should be in-
vestigated.” Judge C. E. Whiting has grown ‘this tree extensively for a number
of years on the Missouri bottom in Monona county, and has expressed his views
as follows: “ine
- “We have in the Missouri bottom both the white and yellow cottonwood. In
speaking of the cottonwood as a valuable timber, I speak alone of the yellow. I
have fence-boards of this yellow cottonwood upon my farm that have been in use
fifteen years, and they are yet good. My house is sided with cottonwood; has
been built ten years, and looks as well as any pine siding in the country, and stays
toits place as well. It is really better as fencing than pine, being tougher and
stronger. It stays to its place as well,and is equally durable. I need hardly say
it has‘no rivai in rapidity of growth, as it far outstrips the willow. Along the
bars of the Missouri are millions of seedlings. They grow up upon these bottoms
over a great extent like prairie grass. There are enough of them to plant groves
over every prairie in the State. I went ten miles from home, and in one day took
up 13,000 eighteen to thirty inches in height for my own setting. With vround
ready a good hand can set from 2,000 to 3,000 per day. The fall is the best time
to get seedlings from the Missouri bottom, on account of the high water in the
spring. I set cottonwood posts from old trees in the bottom in the spring of 1860.
I moved this fence last fall, and nine-tenths of them are yet good. The yellow
cottonwood, split up green and put under a dry shed to dry, is good enough for
my folks to use for fuel.

“Of my first planting of cottonwood twelve years ago, the best of them now
measure sixteen inches in diameter. We would make plantations very thick. I

94 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

now plant 4,356 trees to the acre. Thisshoves them up straight and symmetrical.
In this way we get the dead-sure thing on the side-branch business. Cottonwood
can be readily grown from seeds. Being upon the river bottom in June, I noticed
the cottonwood trees were loaded with seed; had one cut down and ioaded the
wagon with branches with the seed attached. I furrowed some ground quite
deeply with plow; strewed the limbs in the rows, and my success in growing
many thousands of seedlings was most perfect.” ;

In the interior sections, where seedlings cannot readily be obtained from the |
river bottoms,-the yellow cottonwood may be growa from cuttings about as readily
as the willow. The evident advantage would also ensue of propagating the right ~
variety. On the Missouri bottom the seedlings of the common cottonwood are,
of course, intermixed with the more valuable variety.

CaTaPa.ta (Catapalta bignonoides.)—Experience has demonstrated this tree to
have a special value for extended planting. Although naturally a tree indigenous
farther south, it seems to have a peculiar tendency to adapt itself to northern
limits. A variety now grown quite extensively in central Iowa seems as hardy as
any of our native trees. The writer has trees now five years set, large enough for
small posts for wire fences, which have had open exposure north of 42d parallel
during the past severe winters. In Cedar county are to be seen many trees, which
have been out from ten to fifteen years, which show its habit of rapid growth to
continue after it attains considerable size. In its native forests it attains consider-
able size, growing from 50 to 80 feet in height, with a diameter of from 18 to 25
inches. Its flowers are very showy, and its odd cylindrical pods attract much
attention. It is very durable for posts. Posts are yet sound in Illinois which
have been set, it is claimed, forty years: The plants are very easy to grow from
seeds, which may be kept dry until time for sowing. But in all cases secure seed
grown on northern trees. In Cedar county, and near Muscatine, the seeds are
quite abundant. The trees flower and bear seeds abundantly when quite young.

Waite anp Scotcu Pines (Pinus strobus and P. Sylvestris.) — These have been
referred to in this report as very desirable for shelter belts. Our people have
been slow to plant them for timber trees as their most evident use as such is for
sawed lumber. Admitting this as their special use, several considerations should
induce their extended planting: :

First—Their rapidity of growth. Very many reported cases of growth on the
prairies of white pine, in partially sheltered localities, confirm the statements of
relative growths made by D. C. Scofield, of Elgin, Ill. His plants were set when
from 6 to 12 inches in height, and after twelve years’ growth he reports European
larch 30 feet high and 8 to 12 inches in diameter; and white pine 35 feet in height
and 6 to 12 inches through. The writer has white pine trees, twelve to thirteen
years planted, 14 inches in diameter and over 30 feet in height.

Second—The poles thinned out as before stated are valuable for fencing.

Third—An evergreen plantation breaks up the monotony of prairie scenery, and
adds in this way a moneyed value to our real estate in case it is offered for sale.

Plants of white pine can be bought from dealers, who collect them in the pin-
eries, as low as two to three dollars per thousand,in quantity. Such plants should
be set in beds for two years, and screened by light brush-covered shed. They
may then be set where wanted. Pine and larch may be grown advantageously
intermingled in the same plantation. As before noted, the Scotch pine may be
judiciously planted as a protection to white pine or larch plantations on west or
north sides. Evergreen plants can be procured of parties in Illinois, who grow
them from seed and send them out once transplanted at low rates. Robert Dou-
glas, of Waukegan, IIl., whose long experience in prairie-tree growing gives a
practical value to his opinions, advises the extended planting of white and Scotch
pines intermixed with the larch. He says:

“Most European planters prefer mixing pines with larches, as this adds to the
appearance of the plantation and gives a choice in thinning. We would advise
planting a few rows of the admixture on the margin of the plantation, at least,
and in all cases where the plantations are placed along the outer boundaries of
the farm, we would advise a free admixture of evergreen.”

As evergreen plants are usually shipped from a distance, the instructions of Mr.
Douglas in regard to handling and setting are appended:

“When the trees are received from nurseries, the boxes should be immediately
unpacked, and the roots dipped in a puddle made of rich mellow soil, about the
thickness* of paint. Place them ina cool shaded place till ready to plant, and
while planting expose the roots as little as possible. If not ready to plant for a

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL, 95

few days, keep the roots moist and tops dry. Set the trees a little deeper than they
stood in the nursery, and tread the earth firmly about the roots when planting—
this is very essential— drawing a little loose earth up to the trees to prevent the sur-
face from baking.”

Rep Exum* (Ulmus fulva)—This tree has not received the attention it merits
from tree planters on our prairies. It is peculiarly a tree adapted: to dry climates,
no better proof of which could be found than the fact that it fails to ripen seeds
in the humid air of England and France. Its special claims to attention for ex-
tended planting may be briefly summed up as follows: -

(1) Itis beyond all question hardy, even in the most exposed position on our

rairies. =
(2) It grows on rich soils with great rapidity. The writer has trees grown from
seed in six years larger than box-elder (Negrundo aceroides) of the same age, and
receiving the same treatment.

(3) The seeds are easy to gather in nearly every portion of the State, and require
no more skill in handling and planting than of the soft maple. .

(4) No tree in our whole list seems so free from disease and injury from insects,
worms, &c.

- (5) No tree, not even the larch, has so large a proportion of red or heart-wood
when young. Even in the branches of young trees only one or two inches in
diameter the perfect wood forms the principal part.

(6) Grown thickly in artificial groves, it runs up straight and tall, and when the
poles are large enough to split for two rails they divide as freely and easily as
young chestnuts, and the rails are about as durable, even when laid up in worm-
fence. Nailed on to posts they will last fully as long as white oak.

_ (7) When the poles are only large enough for a grape-vine stake, or a small post
for wire fence, if cut in summer, peeled, and dried before setting, they will last

“longer than burr-oak, set green, from old trees.

(8) It is a historical tree of our country, and associated with every memory of
the early days, without regard to position, as it. seems the one ubiquitous tree,
nearly everywhere present in the native forests of our country. It is among the
first in the spring to exhibit its blossoms and hue of cheery green, and in the
autumn, with the advent of the early frosts, it presents a display of shaded leaves,
running from lightest violet and the deepest crimson, to all shades of orange and
yellow. Other things being equal, even beauty has moneyed as well as aesthetic
value in the arrangement of the landscape view in tree planting.

This special commendation of the red elm may be received with some doubt by
those who have given the matter little attention. The idea is not intended to be
conveyed that exclusive plantations be made of any one tree. But example and
habit have too much influence in guiding tree planting.. The soft maple, for in-
instance, has become over our State the popular tree for general planting. Let us
suppose the red elm has. become equally popular. It grows as rapidly, it is far
hardier, it is freer from insect ravages, it is worth far more for fuel, it is excellent
for rails and even posts, its lumber is valuable for stable-floors, bridge-plank, wag-
on-hubs, and many other uses, the trees require little if any care in the way of
pruning, &c. Ifit couldsupplant the maple the gain would soon be very apparent.

The seeds of the elms ripen in May, usually before the trees come into full leaf.
The seeds are light, and being surrounded by a membranous wing, they are wide-
ly scattered by the wind. Sow at once on gathering, and by all means sow where
wanted, if possible. They may be planted in corn-hills'to excellent advantage.
They usually grow about one foot in hight the first season. Planting with corn is
an advantage, as the plants are sometimes injured when.very young by direct ex-
posure to our dry air and hot sun of July and August. The plants transplant read-
ily, but if you want rapid growth never break the first tap root.

Corky Exo (Ulmus racemosa.—This tree in habit of growth is much like the
white elm [Ulmus Americana] but its wood is far more valuable. This elm is so
often confounded with the white elm, and is so usually mixed with it in its native
haunts, that the masses might fail to get the unmixed seeds. The corky elm will
be likely to grow as rapidly as the red elm, but its wood having less value for
manifold uses than the latter, its extended culture cannot as yet be advised. For
ornament and for shelter, however, we may say the white elm in all its northern
variaties is not surpassed. Michaux was right when he said that the white elm
was “the most magnificent vegetable of the temperate zone.” Isolated trees for

shade or landscape effect, or any of the white elm varieties, are not excelled. The

*Sometimes known as the Slippery Elm.

26 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

American elms, as grown from seed, all run into varities puzzling tothe botanist

Sirver-"£Ar MAPLE (Acer dasycarpum). —This variety, and also the red maple
[Acer rubum], are well known plantation trees in every neighborhood in the
West. It is economy of time, and a great increase of growth is ‘attained by plant-
ing where wanted as recommended for the ash. But seedings may be transplant-
ed readily if plants are readily obtainable.

While it is unfortunate for the timber-growing interests of the State that the
soft maples of late have been so exclusively planted, we are not willing to advise
the total neglect of these trees. Failure often ensues by neglect to gather seeds at
just the proper time. When the wild crab-apples are in full blossom the seed is
usually just right. Before planting it is best to soak the seeds in water until just
ready to sprout. Then place in moist earth.

Buack Mapte (Acer nigrum).—This is usually called sugar maple, but its growth
is very much more rapid under culture than the Acer saccharinum. For fuel
and sugar-making it is specially worthy of culture. For five or six years after
planting its growth is rather slow. After this it compares favorably with our oth-
er valuable trees in this list. Seeds ripen in the fall. Pack in sand not too moist,
or turn down on walk, and treat as ash seeds, which is generally best. Plant
where wanted if possible, as growth is much impeded by transplanting.

AsH-LEAVED Mapue (Negundo aceriodes).*—This tree is one of the easiest of all
to propagate, and for great amount of fuel in a short time it has no superior. In
‘Ilinois it is being planted for sugar-making. Its wood in the older States, and in
Europe, is used in cabinet- work. Gather seeds in fall; ; keep under box as with
ash, and sow where wanted. Under any kind of culture where a cottonwood will
grow, this tree will flourish equally well or better.

HackBERRY (Celtis occidentalis)—Our native variety of hackberry grows very
rapidly under culture, and has a special value for making flat hoops for apple and
flour barrels. It splits very freely, and if cut in summer, and the bark peeled, the
rails when nailed on posts last many years. For fuel it is about like soft maple.
The fruit is about the size of peas, and is usually abundant on our river-bottoms.
Wash the sweet pulp from the seeds and mix with sand for early spring sowing.

CueEstNuT (Castanea vesca).—In the south half of the State, and on first-class fruit
soils in the central district, this may be made a profitable tree for cultivation. Of
all the trees known to the writer this is the most retarded in growth by trans-
planting. Trees grown from the nuts where wanted will attain size for small posts
while the transplanted ones are hardly large enough for lima-bean_ poles. Good
success has been attained by planting the nuts in “Yankee corn- -hills, giving the
corn good care and keeping the hills free from weeds. After gathering the corn,
before cold weather, break the stalkssoas to make a partial shelter over the plants.
The second year cultivate well until first of J uly, after which let weeds grow to
shade the ground. The chestnut is specially injured when young, (and the same
holds good with all forest-trees to greater or less extent), by excessive heating of
soil under our August sun. After the third year the ground will be well shaded
with the trees and they will make rapid growth, and will richly repay for the
trouble and care of management while young. The chestnuts to be used for seed
must not be allowed to become dry, or to mold or heat from being too closely con-
fined. They should be mixed with pure sand and kept through winter where
they will be damp but not too wet. Seed grown north is every time preferable.
Nuts grown in Benton Co nty have product ed seedings standing our climate better
than those coming from the cest or south.

Rep Muvserry (Morus rubra).—This is a very handsome ornamental tree, grow-
ing very rapidly during the first years after planting, and soon attaining size suit-
able for grape-vine or other stakes, and even for posts. The timber is strong, com-
pact, and very durable. If dried before set in the soil, it is questionable whether
we have any timber, doing well in rich soils, as durable for posts or stakes as this.
A drawback to its culture is the scarcity of seed, the birds generally getting the
fruit as fast as ripe. Wash the pulp from seed and mix with sand for early spring
sowing, either in seed-bed or where wanted. Plant the mulberry where sheltered
from the west and northwest by belts of trees like elm or cottonwood that will bet-
ter stand the rake of our dry, «old winds. , It also does best on porous, deep soils,
as long continous drought serivusly injures and even kills the trees on soils with
the blue clay too near the surface.

YELLOW Bircu (Betulu excelsa)—This tree thrives exceedingly well on deep,
rich, and moderately moist soils, oa porous subsoil. It makes excellent fuel,

*By some botanists called Acor negundo.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. wall

and is valuable for many manufacturing purposes where a strong. fine-grained,
handsome wood is desirable. It is only recommended for variety. It grows
readily when transplanted : and the lover of trees will always be pleased to have
it in a general collection. The seedlings are not so easy to grow in our dry airas
those of most forest-trees, and the seed, of which there is an abundance in the
market. is usually not in a condition to grow. The plants may be bought in any
quantity in the pinery regions at low rates.

Larce Asreen (Ponulus grandidentata)—Unlke ‘the common aspen, this tree
rapidly attains, under cultivation, considerable size. The wood has no great value
for fuel; yet. it has a svecial value for farm-uses that should not be overlooked.

(1) It grows when planted, closely. very straight. and the noles—cut in summer
and pealed—flattened on one side, make very ‘strong and stiff rafters for sheds,
and even barns. When large enough for hewing-sticks, it is fully equal to white
ns for frames of barns.

(2) No timber in our list will attain. under good culture, size suffic ient for two
cle as soon, that is equally strong and durable, if cut in summer and veeled. In
lengths of eight or nine feet nailed on good posts, they keep in place better than
oak. and will last fully fifteen years.

All things considered, it is best to crow this tree from cuttings ; yet. where seed
ean be procured, the plants erow with as much certainty as the cottonwood or
maple. >
_ We may add, that a plat of the aspen on the open prairies is ever an object of
interest in contrast with other trees. The leaves tremble in the ueites breeze
when the foliage of other trees is motionless.

Watre Poriar (Populus alba.)—This tree is usually voted a nuisance as a Shade
on account of its wonderful tendency for suckering ; but this tendency to sucker,
would be no objection in forest-culture. The size which this tree will reach in
‘prairie in ten vears, is a matter of wonder and surprise. It is probable that we
have no tree with valuable wood that will reach saw-log size as soon as this. Like
the elm, the intrinsic value of this tree has been overlooked. Let us enumerate :

(1) It propagates from cuttings of any size, even more readily than-the willow.

(2) It is valuable for about the same uses as the famous tulip tree, (Liriodondroa
tuliplfera) of Ohio. It makes very superior flooring, wainscoting, and even finish-
ing lumber for houses. The boards used for siding, or for fencing, are vastly
superior to any of the poplar family. except it be the yellow cottonwood. For
dry-goods boxes. bowls, trays, carriage-bottoms, trunk- making, chair-seats, &c., the
wood i is counted in Europe, superior to pine or white-wood.

(3) When thickly planted, it runs up very straight; and. the poles cut in thin-
ning, can be utilized by nailing on posts for fence, for rafters, sleepers, etc., as
with the aspen. As with the latter, the trees for this use should be cut in summer
and peeled, when they are quite durable if kept from the ground.

Witp Rep Cierry (Cerasus Pennsylvanicu.)—This is a small-growing tree in its
native haunts ; but, it behaves so well under cultivation, that. it deserves a place
in our timber plantations. It is peculiarly a northern tree, being found on nearly
all soils from the Atlantic coast to the headwaters of the Mackenzie River, in
British America. It is very nearly allied to the common cultivated cherry, and
exibits in its seedlings a marked capacity for variation and improvement. A
variety is in common cultivation in the south part of Benton county, lowa, which

bears heavy annual crops of fruit, which is considered excellent for culinary use.
' The fruit is fully as large as that of the black wild-cherry, and of pleasant flavor.
The wood of this tree is exceedingly hard, fine-grained, and of a reddish hue, and
would be valuable for many uses in cabinet work, were it not for the natural
small size of the tree. Grown thickly in artificial groves, its poles are Straight
and tall, and valuable for such farm-uses as nailing on posts, fence-stakes, vine-
stakes, light fence-posts, &c. If dried before putting in the ground, it lasts as
well for posts as black cherry. The pits kept in sand through winter grow as
readily as those of black cherry. It transplants readily, and sprouts can be
secured in nearly all parts of the State for setting in groves. It will not ie? to
grow this timber, except for home-use on the farm.

WHITE Witow. (Salix alba).—Perhaps, it may not be proper to include the
willow among the timber-trees proper, having a special value for farm-uses, or for
manufacturing. Yet, where grown thickly, the poles are straight, and uniform in
size, and if cut in summer and bark peeled off, they last for several years nailed
on posts for fence, and the fuel, if dried under cover, has a greater value for sum-
mer use than is generally supposed. It is specially mentioned i in this connection,

28 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

on account of its combined adaptation for wind-breaks and fences on the bleak
interior prairies. If any one doubts the expediency of growing the white willow
on an extended scale, let him pay a visit to Story county, lowa. Several years
since, Col. John Scott, of that county, earnestly advocated the extended planting
of this tree for fences, for fuel, and for the arresting of wind-sweeps on their bleak,
broad prairies. In the portion of the county where its planting has been general,
one can now hardly realize he is upon prairie in driving along the streets, lined
on both sides for miles in extent, with combined fence and wind-screen. Where
best known, the wonder is expressed by prairie-settlers, how they got along before
its advent in their neighbood. Thomas Wardall, of Mitchell county, who has
had a long prairie experience, writes of the white willow, as follows, in a report
on hedges for the north:

Seventh—We tried the white willow. This has come to us at the north asa
“ God-send.” Not because it makes the best hedges, for no one is so foolish as to
assume that, but because a stock-proof fence can be made of it, in brief time, and
at small expense, which at once is a fence and a wind-break. A combination of
this kind the denizens of our northern prairies can appreciate. The variety
mostly in use in our section, and in Minnesota, will not bear plashing, or even
weaving, and will not lose the tree-habit of growth, by being headed back. So
we have by mutual consent, abandoned all attempts at hedge-making proper, and
we aim to secure a close bottom at once, then give protection from sto¢k for two

ears, and we havea profitable investment in what will become a solid wall of
ive timber in a very few years; at once a fence,a valuable screen from the
sweeping winds of summer and winter, and which will give a constant supply of

assable fire-wood from the tops. And now for the plan for forming such a stock-
pairicn to which I will ask special attention. Let every northern farmer plant
out a willow grove, with good, large cuttings in early spring. Plant four feet
apart, both ways, and cultivate well for two or three years, and a large growth
will be secured. When five years old, trim out all but one plant to each hill. Cut
off stakes five and one-half feet long from these trimmings. Sharpen these stakes
and drive them eighteen inches deep in a well-prepared fence-row. When the
soil is soft in the spring, the driving can be done without bruising the bark. Let
the stakes be driven closely, not more than six inches apart. Nail a stay-lath
near the top. A three-inch barn-batten answers the purpose well. Mulch heavily
or cultivate well and often. In two years, a fence may be made that may be
depended on to turn stock, but which will have the one fault of not being beau-
tiful :

The Iowa Horticultural Society fixed upon the 20th day of April,
1874, and afterward, annually, unless changed, as a day to be devoted to
the planting of trees and seeds of trees, designed to form permanent
groves, or for ornament. This day proving cold and stormy the first
year, planters competing for premiums, were allowed the next year to
select the time most convenient.

In earlier numbers of the Forestry Annual, the following suggestions,
are also offered :

Prairie farms need shelter most on the west, next on the north, next on the
south, while their usefulness on the east, is not so great, though sufficient to call
for planting. * * * A good combination for an evergreen belt, is two or three
rows of white pine for center, two rows of Scotch or Austrian pine on each-side,
and two rows of red cedar, or arbor vite outside of these, making ten or eleven
rows, and giving, by different rates of growth, a belt with a conical cross-section,
and limbs from the ground up. Another good combination is made of Norway
spruce for center, white spruce next, and black spruce and red cedar, or arbor
vitee outside. |

The Scotch pine is, in many localities, found well adapted for outside
rows, from its hardy habit. It needs more room for growth than the »
white pine. In planting wind-breaks, it was recommended that the out-
side rows should be 9 feet apart, and plants 5 feet apart in the rows. It
was remarked, that people, yenerally, are apt to overestimate the time
it will take to secure returns of fuel from artificial groves. Cottonwood
needs to be thinned the fourth or fifth year. If properly grown aud cul-
tivated, the poles then cut out, will average 24 inches in diameter at the

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 29

bottom, and 12 feet long. From a full stand, one-half, or 1775 poles,
would be cut at this period from an acre. Green ash seeds thinning at
six or seven years, and makes poles as large as those of the cottonwood,
at four or five. Those who had tried it, say that it pays better to raise
wood for fuel, than to haul the supply needed five miles for ten years.
As for wood grown for other uses than as fuel, it was estimated that a
crop of ash for hoop-poles, or larch for stakes, might be grown in from
seven to eleven years; and of oak and hickory, in twelve to sixteen
years. Larch would grow to a size for posts in twelve to fifteen years ;
and for telegraph-poles, in eighteen to twenty years, on valley lands.
Walnut, hickory, elm, and other tie timber, might be fit for use in from
fourteen to eighteen years. Cottonwood might be sawn at fifteen years,
and white pine in thirty. ;
As some of the foregoing varieties of timber are more cheaply propa-
gated from cuttings than in any other way ; Lagain plunder the Transac-
tions of the State Horticultural Society for a paper on the subject,
eee by me for its annual winter session at Owatonna, January,
Sic ahaa :

THE PROPAGATION OF TREES BY CUTTINGS.

A paper on “The Propagation of trees by Cuttings,” by L. B. Hodges,
Esq., of St. Paul, was-read, after which the paper was ordered on file for
publication, and Mr. Jewell moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Hodges for
his humorous and instructive essay, and also a rebuke for his reflection
on the religious intelligence of the members of the Society. The resolu-
tion was passed amid laughter and applause.

The following is the paper in full:

When a small boy, more than forty years ago, in the pleasant village
of Canandaigua, N. Y., my attention was arrested by a magnificent
great willow on the premises of Judge A , one of the pioneers of that
region. It was a tradition among the boys that this immense tree grew
from a willow switch which the Judge cut in Connecticut and used as a
riding whip during his horseback journey from Connecticut to Western
New York, and for over thirty years of my manhood passed on the broad
prairies of the Northwest, I have often seen and heard of similar willows
with very similar histories. Now, this is all well enough per se, but when .
intelligent and educated gentlemen, on the strength of such occasional
and isolated circumstances, affirm that all you have got to do in order to
grow the willow, the cottonwood or the Lumbardy is to simply stick a
cutting in the ground in-most any sort of a hap-hazzard way, they are
- simply leading the multitude astray and doing harm rather than good.
The object of this paper is to furnish to the people interested in the
propagation of forest trees by this particular method such practical in-
formation as a long and varied experience has proved to be correct.

If this sort of experience is in conflict with tradition and preconceived
notions, why so much the worse for the traditions and notions. I begin
by saying that the proper preparation of the soil is not only of primary
importance, but also a prerequisite condition of success.

Soil and its Preparation.

Your ground must be good ground, it must be thoroughly subdued
and mellow before planting, and right here I propose to point out and
expose the practical nonsense and absurdity of the proposition that a
cutting will grow anyhow, so you only stick it intheground. Acting on

30 ’ FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

this absurd proposition, hundreds of thousands of all sorts of cuttings
have been stuck in all sorts ot ground by all sorts of prople. The results
are well illustrated in the parable of the sower.

_ (Before going to bed to-night, you tellows who hayn’t read that para-
ble. for twenty years or more nau better look it over.)

Soon atter the passage of the limber Culture Act of 1873, I read in
one of the most ably-conducted and. widely-circulated of our country
papers, an editorial showing the settler how to grow a forest under the
provisions of said act. soiled down, it simply amounted to this:
Strips ot breaking two or turee turrows wide, said strips twelve feet
apart and the cuttings to be stuck twelve teet apart in the strips, in the
raw, unsubdued sod; no turtuer labor or expense necessary—result, a
torest. 1 promptly denounced the absurdity of such teachings, but for
all that, a heap of tellows had to try it on. It would be a good time now
for them to report what luck they nave had. ;

In the pursuit of knowledge under difficulties, my curivsity has led
me over quite a large number of tree claims which have been planted in
good faith in accordance with such teachings.

Candor compels me to say that when you find a muley cow climbing a
tree stern-tirst, it will be up one of the trees so propagated on one of
those tree claims.

The Northern Pacific Railroad Co., expended a number of thousands
of dollars in just about that sort or a way of propagating forest trees from
cuttings, and succeeded in demonstrating that it was just as easy to drive
a government mule throuyn the eye ot a needle, as to grow forest trees
in any such way as that.

The idea of getting something for nothing, is a bad one. There must _
be an equivalent, a quid pro quo.

in your dealings with each other, this idea of something for nothing,
may work, occasionally,—but you can’t bulldoze the prairie with any such
nonsense.

The cutting plunged full length into a deep, rich, mellow soil, under
the vivitying intluences of heat and moisture, soon begins to expand its .
buds, and throw out its slender, threadlike, fibrous roots. If the ground
has been properly prepared, those roots at once begin to draw nourish-.
ment tor the incipient tree; the buds grow into branches, and in a few
months you haye a thoroughly developed forest tree, and the better cul-
tivation you give this yonng tree, the sooner you get a tree that is of
some use in the world. .

On the other hand, the cutting stuck in the raw sod, makes a failure
in trying to get its roots into the hard earth 1n a vain attempt for nour-
ishment; struggles along in a feeble, quiet sort of a way till ary weather
sets in, and then quietly starves to death without a struggle or a groan,
and the innocent author of this miserable abortion wonders what ails his
trees, and sometimes gets mad, and uses “cuss-words,” about the man
who sold him the cuttings.

To go back to the starting point: break your prairie in June; break
shallow—back-set or cross-plow last of September, turning up two or
three inches of tresh dirt.

If in a hurry, (to save your claim) harrow thoroughly, and plant your
cuttings right along up to the time the ground shuts up, and if not
through, finish up the job early in the ensuing spring. It in a hurry it
is a good practice to raise a crop betore planting cuttings. A hoed crop
is best, and if well cultivated leaves the ground in admirable condition

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. ol

for tree-planting. If you sow small grain before planting, you can’t be
too careful in getting your seed perfectly clean. at}

A few grains of wild buckwheat, or, what is more to be dreaded,
pigeon grass, will give you an infinite amount o. trouble, and by: in-
creased labor in keeping it down, double the costs of growing the
forest. ~ Ae

In growing a wind-break from cuttings, for a single row, I would pre-
pare a strip of ground not less than 83 feet wide, by deep plowing and —
thorough harrowing.

I would have the ground as mellow as an ash-heap.

I would draw a line lengthwise along the centre of this strip, and
about every twelve to eighteen inches would plunge the cutting in nearly ~
or quite full length, and at once tramp the mellow earth firmly around.
the cutting; and then I would keep that strip of ground clean as a
hound’s tooth. I wouldn’t allow a weed or blade of grass to grow on
that’ strip dedicated to the wind-brake ; and I should keep the cultivator
running up and down the margin each side the row of young trees pretty
often till harvest time, after which, if any weeds or grass had put in an
appearance, would pull them up, carry them off and burn them up.

1 should repeat this process the next season, and in the fall would
mulch heavy with good manure.

_ I think by that time you will have that strip of prairie pretty well
bulldozed, and a wind-break started that won’t dry out or freeze out,
and which will stand and grow in spite of grasshoppers or other
enemies.

Time of Preparing Cuttings.

As far as the willow is concerned, most any time will do.

I have cut them nearly every month in the year, yet would prefer cut-
ting and planting right along through the month of May, as being then
liable to less loss and better growth. _

I confess in my own experience to more. satisfactory results with cot-
tonwood cuttings cut and planted in October and November than in any
other months.

As far as willow, cottonwood and Lombardy cuttings are concerned,
good, fresh healthy ones are about as sure to grow (in Minnesota) if
properly handled, and under the most favorable circumstances, as either
corn or potatoes. Fwilwre is not necessary. Do your work*intelligently
and thoroughly, and at the proper time, and success is the rule.

Care of Cuttings till Planted.

In the fall of 1874 I caused to be cut and hauled together, enough white
willow to make five hundred thousand cuttings. I reduced some of
this brush to cuttings in the fall, tied them up in bunches of a hundred
each, set them up on end in trenches dug about a foot deep, threw a foot
of dirt over them and let them lay till spring. The balance was
stacked in good shape, covered with a layer of slough hay—threw enough
loose dirt over it to keep the wind out, and let the thing go till it thawed
out in the spring—then uncovered it, worked it up into cuttings and
planted them. They came good and grew well, and I never knew any
- difference between those buried in trenches, or those of the stack. When-
ever in the course of human events, I found a lot of cuttings drying up
and aparently worthless, before planting I would “swell ’em up” by
throwing them into the most convenient lake, pond or stream. But
eal way is to keep them. buried in the trench until you are ready to
plant.

32 ; FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

There are plenty of cottonwood trees in Minnesota propagated from
cuttings in the manner I recommend, now big enough to make a cord of
wood each—17 to 20 years from the cutting.

You can grow 300 such trees to the acre. Can you grow anything that
will pay better?

Is there any better way to “conquer the prairie,” or to bulldoze and
intimidate old Boreas ?.

From Dr. Hough’s Report, page 554, I clip the following as worthy of
a place here, and also because it touches some points that were over-.
looked in the preparation of the toregoing paper:

Mr. J. L. Budd, now of the Iowa State Agricultural College, furnished
for the State Horticultural Report of 1868, p. 111, an article upon this
subject, from which we condense the following :

The red maple (Acer rubrum), silver maple (A. dasycarpum), ash-leaved maple
(Neyundo eceroides), cottonwoods ) Populus monilifera and ungulata), balm of Gilead
(P. balsamiferu), Lombardy poplar (P. dilatata), white poplar (P. alba), sycamore
(Platanus occidentalis), and white willow (Salia alba), will grow from cuttings, and
all thrive on the Western ‘prairies. - They should be cut early in winter, before
severe freezing, in lengths of about one foot. They should be chosen from three-
fourths of an inch to an inch and a half in diameter,‘and the lower end with a
clean cut, without bruising or mashing. Of maples the ‘two- year-old wood is best ;
of the other kinds it makes but little difference, if the growth is free and healthy.
Tie in bundles with willows, the lower end nicely evened so that when placed on
the ground in spring every piece will touch the moist earth. Pack the bundles in
a dry-goods box with moist prairie soil, putting the box where it will not get to
dry or wet, and-will not.freeze. With the first warm weather of spring clean off.
a spot under an old’ hay-stack, level the surface carefully, and set the bundles,
butt-end. down, closely together, upon the fresh moist earth ; then cover them with
straw so as to” keep them from the air. By the time the eround g gets warm enough
to plant, the base of the cuttings will be softened, and most of them will ae
small roots.

WHITE WILLOW, (Salix alba.)

My own opinion of this valuable vegetable, is too well known in Minn-
esota to justify me in repeating the arguments I have used in its be-
half, lo, these many years. A few extracts and opinions from other and
more authoritative sources, and I then cheerfully submit the character
of this old friend to the jury.

Again quoting from Dr. Hough’s Report, page 108 :

1. ‘Salix albt, the white or Huntingdon willow, a fine tree which in proper soil
will, in. twenty years, make an average of two cubic feet a year. The wood is
light, tough, easily worked, and proper for tool- handles, hoops,, cooper work, &c.,
and its bark is used for tanning, and in medicine as a tonic and astringent, being
recognized in ‘our pharmacopceeias, and sometimes used as asubstitute for Peruvian
park. . Its active principle, salicin, is also used as a remedy i in intermittent fevers.
This willow has been already widely introduced, and in the prairie region of the
Northwest it is valued above all other trees as a wind-break. It makes a very
good fuel, and its wood is useful for a great variety of purposes.

Professor: Sargent mentions a willow between Stockbridge and Great Barrington,
Mass., planted, it is said, as a cutting in 1807, that now, at “4 feet from the ground,
is 21 feet 8 inches in circumference.

An English writer in speaking of the willows, says that the white willow, when
unpr uned and grown naturally in favorable conditions, is the handsomest of the
willow family, whether we regard its general outline, habit, or the peculiar white-
ness of its foliage, which forms a pleasing contrast with the darker green of other
trees. It comes forward rapidly on deep river banks and rich alluvial bottoms,
too damp-for most other timber-trees. In Great Britain within afew years willow
timber has come universally into use as blocks for brakes in railroad cars, so that
wood of good size has become scarce and high-priced. The charcoal of all wil-
lows of suitable size is used in making gunpowder. Among other uses to which

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 30

ceriain kinds of willow are used in Europe, and for which it is especially adapted,
are paddle-wheel floats, and for shrouding water-wheels, cart-linings (being not
liable to splinter,) turner’s uses, shoe-lasts, withes for tying, &c. Something has
_ been said of its incombustible properties, but more than facts will justify.

Wi.ttow Hepees.—In Northern Iowa, where the Osage orange is too tender for
the climate, the white willow has been found to answer an excellent purpose as
well for a hedge to stop cattle as for a wind-break. Mr. Thomas Wardall, of Mitch-
ell County, gives the following advice in the cultivation of this tree:

Let every Northern farmer plant out a willow grove with good large cuttings in
early spring. Plant four feet apart both ways, and cultivate well for two or three
years, and a large growth will be secured. When five years old, trim out all but
one plant to each hill, cut off stakes five and one-half feet long from these trim-
mings, sharpen these stakes and drive them eighteen inches deep in a well pre-
pared fence-row. Let the stakes be driven closely—not more than six inches
apart; nailastay-lath near the top—a three-inch barn-batten answers the pur-
pose well. Mulch heavily, or cultivate well and often. In two years a fense may
be made that may be depended on to turn stock, but which will have the one
fault of not being beautiful.

The willow as cultivated by Mr. W. would not bear plashing or even weaving,
but the tops afforded a constant supply of inditterent fuel.

I have seen cuttings planted on the same day, and with the same soil and treat-
ment in all respects, except that part were mulched and part were not, and .were
the former succeeded well, the latter utterly failed. I have seen the cuttings when
not mulched, make a nice start, but perish in the heat and drought of summer.
I have seen large cuttings, driven into an unbroken prairie-sod, make a fine growth
when a sufficient mulch was applied to subdue the native grass. But in this man-
ner of planting, the mulch should be heavy, and should extend at least five or
six feet on each side of the rows to give the plants a chance. It would be better,
within a year or two thereafter, also to break a greater width outside of the mulch,
as the sod would interfere with the growth of tne trees, as soon as the roots should
reach that distance. Straw, hay, stalks, manure, sawdust, anything that will me-
chanically serye the purpose ot mulch, will answer, but manure would stimulate
the growth very satisfoctorily. * * *

Cutting back may be resorted to in cases where there has been a poor stand, but

not where the plants stand within twelve or fifteen teet of eachother. The trees
should not be plashed down or woven together, but should be stimulated to make
a strong, upright growth. Late planting is even worse than close planting. This
is especially true if the buds have started before the cuttings were made, or if
they have been allowed to dry before setting. While young and tender, the.
shoots must be guarded from live stock. Calves will eat the tender shoots, and
keep them shorn so close as to kill out the strongest plantings while young. Shal-
low planting, thin soil, standing water on the surface, grass and weeds to smooth-
er the plants, are all to be avoided or remedied. In short, avoid everything that
interferes with a good stand and a vigorous growth, and you will never have
cause to call the white willow a humbug. * * *
- The amount of fuel that may be cut from a rod of fence, taking all above the
height of three feet, is much greater than most persons would think, and its re-
production on the same spot, without further labor, makes it a crop of no mean
value on the open prairie. * * *

Mr. O. B. Galusha, in a lecture at the Illinois Industrial University in 1869, in
speaking of the white willow, says:

I regard this as probably combining more desirable qulities for cultivation in
groves for lumber purposes than any other variety of the soft-wood, rapid-growing
deciduous trees, and am decidely of the opinion that this and the golden variety
are the best deciduous trees within my knowledge for wind-breaks or screens, but
wish to be distinctly understood as not recommending this tree as a hedge-plant,
or the planting of this or any other one sort to the neglect of other desirable vari-
ties. Strong cuttings of this tree seldom fail to strike root at once in mellow soil,
and will make a growth of from two to six feet the first season. It thrives in all
kinds of soil, making as much wood in a given number of years as any other
known sort, not even excepting the cottonwood, growing into a large tree, some-
times four feet in diameter. The wood is of rather fine texture for a light wood,
making a fair article of soft lumber which bears a fine polish. It is also valuable
for making wooden ware, bowls, trays, &c. It also splits freely, which is a desir-
able quality in making fence-posts, rails, railroad-ties, and fire-wood. * * *

84 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

The golden willow is similar in growth and texture to the white, but I think does _

not. make so large a tree. I have measured about a dozen trees of this variety

(golden), which. were planted by the roadside 15 years ago last spring, and find the .
average circumference of the trunks at three and a half feet from the ground to be ~
5 feet three inches. .A white willow * * * which has grownfrom.asmall cut- -
ting put in 13 years ago last spring, now measures 6 feet 2.inches near the ground, |
forming a head or top 30 feet across. This variety, when planted in groves, grows —
tall and almost perfectly straight. I have carefully computed the expense of rais- —
ing ten acres of trees of this variety and converting them into lumber, and find
the entire cost not to exceed $10 per thousand feet. This estimate is based upon
actual measurement of the growth of trees. The land itself is valued at $40 per |
acre, with interest upon this amount, together with expenses computed as before,
at 6 per cent. compound interest. I take ten acres in these estimates of growing :
artificial groves because it is desirable to have trees enough together, or in close
proximity, that the cost of putting up and removing a saw-mill would be but a -
trifle upon each thousand feet of lumber sawed.

The value of the willow in preventing erosion in the banks of riversand streams, |
for holding the soil liable to washing away in valleys, and for filling up the chan-
nels worn by small streams in loose gravelly soil, and preventing further gullying,
must have been noticed by every observing person. This office is performed by °
the. multitude of long tracing roots that it sends through the damp soil wherever
they. find nourishment, the shoots by which it multiplies and spreads from. the —
roots, and sometimes when crowded, by the pro strate branches. ©. i

Such willows when abundant and of large gowth, also serve a useful purpose by ”
preventing injuries from floating ice in rivers, and they are turned to profitable |
use by engineers for holding in place the new deposits of mud formed under the a
shelter of jetties and other Seale improvements. . a

Samuel Edwards of Burean. Co. Illinois, writes to: the Germantown
Telegraph, of the white willow as a timber tree as follows :

“Tt bas. been grown here since 1845, and the more we became pormertie with _
it the better we like it. No other tree has made as rapid growth; a cutting set.
in 1845 is over four feet in diameter. Many are planting it all over the prairie
region for timber; much is being set for hedge screens, which are cut down every
few years at four. feet from the ground, affording a great amount of fuel and Beles
for fencing...”

Formerly small sized, cuttings were set, but for some years, stakes five ane ae
half feet in length from one to three inches in diameter, have been preferred, set-
ting them 18 inches. déep, and a foot apart,”

General James‘S. Brisbin, U.S. A. , writing from Omaha, to the Chieago :
Tribune, April 27th, 1874, says: :

“The beautiful green, guncetal white willow. Who does not love it; and hae :
ranchman does not hail it as his friend, and delight to sit in its cool shade?

It grows almost spontaneously. Shelters from heat or cold; keeps off wind,
rain, or sleet, and is a green spot on which to rest the eye, when all around is
desolate, barren, anda desert. ie rows from a shoot without roots, and foresters -
always praise its rapid and grateful return for the slight labor they bestow upon
it. A tree of this kind attains a height of 60 or 70 feet, and shows an immense
trink. For shade trees along the highways, it is unsurpassed ; repelling heat,
wind and cold, and no drive can be finer than through an avenue of willows.”

J. Plank, Eyota, Minn., March, 1874, writing to the Farmer’s ‘Union, .
says:

“T think white willow makes the best and cheapest fence. In ‘six years (from
planting), you can have a live fence, which will have cost you 25 cents a rod, and
last a-lifetime. I have about a hundred rods of it that will turn any kind of
stock. I am going to put in some more this spring.”

Jesse W. Fell replying to an article in the Prairie Farmer ae is
to the white willow, says:

“Tf the writer of that article will call at our house at Normal, it will afford me
much pleasure to show him a section of a moss-covered fence- rail, that has lain in
a fence more than forty years, and is yet perfectly sound; and if he will go with
me to my native county, (Chester, Pa.) I will show him miles of fence made of
the same material and that has lasted the same length of time. That it makes

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 35

good fuel—I will not say the best—is not doubted. I therefore enter my earnest
protest against the remark that “this timber is of little value.” The timber itself
is of great value, especially in a country like this; and when, in addition, you take
into account how easily andsurely it is propagated, simply by cuttings; how rapid-
ly it grows; how sound and healthy a tree it is; how vigorously it reproduces itself -
from the stump where cut down, and yet does not spread from the roots; I say,
when all these things are taken into the account, it is questionable, whether, for
the millions, it is not after all, the tree for this country and climate. I did not in-
tend to say so much, but could not well say less, when one of my old friends had
been so unjustly assailed. Whilst I am writing, fierce winds are whistling around
me, the force of which is unbroken for many miles by tree or shrub except by
those embryo forests, in which this very plant cuts the most prominent figure. .
and I must raise my voice in its behalf.”

Col: John Scott, of Story county, in Central Iowa, reported in 18762
that many miles of willow hedge were planted in that county, and that
more than one hundred miles would be tound a complete barrier against
stock. Many miles had been set in a random, aimless way, and were
worthless as a fence, although somewhat profitable, as fuel and shelter.

He gives his method for successful planting, as follows:

1. The row should be made mellow and deep, and the better the condition as to ©
richness, freedom from weeds, and good tilth the better. If in good condition for
corn, it will do for the willow. ;

2. The cuttings should be made before the buds swell in the spring; they should
be packed in moist earth to keep them drying out; they should be from the .
upright, rather than the lateral growth, as being more thrifty ; and may be from -
six inches to six foot in length, and from one-half to four inches in diameter.

3. It is best that they be assorted before planting, so that those of about the
same size may be planted together.

4, They should be set in a straight line, and only one row planted, and should
be ten or twelve inches apart. ‘The cuttings are often set too closely. They
should have room to spread themselves in.

ASH AND LARCH.

‘Failures have often been encountered in transplanting the larch, by
overlooking the important principle, that the top should bear a corre-
sponding relation in its leaves to the root in its radicles.. Many of the
latter are necessarily torn off with the most careful transplanting, and it
is.a safe rule to shorten the branches in a corresponding degree. The
larch should be planted early in the season.

THE ASH AND THE LARCH.

In an article, by Mr. Arthur Bryant,* on the ash and the larch, he
mentions the white ash, as one of the most important timbers in the
northern States, and concerning the difficulty of raising from seed, he
. Says: ; ie

If the seed be sown soon after gathering from the tree, without drying, it will
come up well in the spring; but if dried, a great part will often fail to vegetate
the first year,even if kept through the winter in damp sand. Care must be taken
not to cover too deeply. Probably, forest trees, as well as others, often fail from
this cause. When self-sown, they have no other covering than leaves, or a little
earth, when concealed by mice or squirrels. If sown in autumn, ash-seed should
be covered with litter during winter, to prevent washing out by rains.

It'seems very probable, that the seed of the green ash, is as often gathered and
sown, as that of the white. The green ash is common along streams in the west.
It produces seed more frequently than the white ash, and upon small trees, and
is, therefore; more easily collected. The seed vegetates with more certainty, than -
that of the white ash, even if sown dry; and the young trees grow more rapidly
for the first year or two. When in leaf, it may easily be distinguished from the
white ash. The timber is similar in quality, but it has the disadvantage of never

2 “* Traite genernl des Coniferes,”’ p. 280.

36 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

becoming a large tree. The white ash is somewhat variable in its characteristics,
and some of these variations have formerly been named and described by botan- —
ists as permanent varieties, or even species. It belongs to northern latitudes, and
- only obtains its fullest development in colder climates than that of northern
Illinois. The blue ash abounds in more southern latitudes than the white ; it is,
in every respect, as valuable, and has the advantage of being more durable. The
combination of strength, lightness, and elasticity in ash timber, renders it supe-
rior to any other native wood for many purposes, and the demand for it, must
always be extensive..

Much has been said and written in praise of the European larch ; but, never-
theless, little, if any notice has been taken of its peculiar fitness for railroad ties.
_ [The writer highly commends this timber for this use, citing English authorities.
It grows rapidly, closely, and in fifteen years, becomes 50 feet high, and 8 to 12
inches in diameter. It should never be planted on wet land.] The American
larch has been eulogized as fully equal to the European in durability. Michaux
describes it as having the same properties. In the British Provinces, north of
the Saint Lawrence, and in Newfoundland, where it is highly esteemed, it grows
upon upland, forming large masses of forest. In the United States, it is found
only in swamps—never on upland; a fact, which Michaux, regards as evidence,
that the climate of the northern limits of the United States is too mild for its
constitution. From all the testimony, the writer has been able to collect from
those who have used it, it appears, that when in swamps, in the United States, it
- is, by no means, remarkably durable; whether this is owing to soil or climate, is
a matter of uncertainty. The European larch, is found, principally, in the central
and southern parts of Europe, and is, therefore, better suited to the climate of
northern Illinois, than the American species, which reaches perfection only in a
much colder climate, and is, likewise, of slower growth.

LARCH PLANTATIONS OF THE DUKE OF. ATHOL.

The plantations of larch, by the Duke of Athol, have been often men-
tioned, and were begun in 1728. Between 1740 and 1750, James, then
bearing this title, planted over 1,200 larch trees, as an experiment; the
tree being then new, in Scotland. In 1759, he planted 700 more, mixed
with other kinds, on a hill-side very poor and stony, and with good
results. His successor, John, first conceived the idea of planting the
larch, to the exclusion of other kinds, and covered four hundred acres
of sterile hill-sides, with this timber. He died in 1774, and his son,
Duke John, continuing the practice, had, in 1783, planted 279,000 trees.
Between 1786 and 1791, he planted six hundred and eighty acres, with
500,000 larches. He continued the practice till 1826; when he and his
predecessors, had planted more than 14,000,000, covering more than ten
thousand acres. It was estimated, that the larch, in seventy-two years,
gained its fullest value; and before reaching this age, the trees should be
thinned to 400 on an acre. Estimating the trees at fifty cubic feet, worth
a shilling a foot, the product would be £1,000 per acre on the poorest
land for agricultural purposes that could be found in the country.

The condition of the forests on this estate, was described, in 18731, as —
follows: .

The woodlands extend to over ten thousand acres, divided into five districts,
each under a separate forester. The woods were still, mainly larch ; but, it had,
in many cases, been planted in soil better suited for the Scotch fir. But one man-
of-war frigate, the Athol, had ever been built from the larch, it having fallen into
disrepute for ship-building, on account of the disease, which had appeared within
_ the last thirty or forty years, and the recent substitution of iron for wood, which

had reduced the calculation of £1,000 per acre, to £150 or £200. The disease ap-
peared universal, and no remedy had been found, short of cutting off and replant-
ing. It appeared to be atmospheric, and appeared as a fungus-like growth on the
stem of the tree, generally, near the axils of the branches, then developing itself
as a blister, and, finally, a hole or wound, asif a branch had been rudely broken

1 “Reports on Forest Management,’? By Capt. Campbell Walker, p. 115,

ley

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 37

off. There was still, a fine larch wood of three thousand acres, covering hills
that rise sixteen hundred feet above the sea. The forester in charge approved
the practice of removing the lower dead limbs of the larch, which could best be
done in very dry, clear weather, whether warm or frosty, as the branches were .
then brittle. Plantations of Scotch fir and other conifers, were being introduced,
and the sycamore-maple was found to flourish extremely well. Larch trees
planted by the Duke of Athol, in 1748, were, in 1795, nine feet three inches
around, at four feet from the ground, and one hundred feet high. In 1869, these |
ead wuasured more than sixteen feet around, and were one hundred and twenty
eet high.

RATE OF GROWTH AND DURABILITY OF THE EUROPEAN LARCH.

The experience of European observers, is very generally united in
assigning great durability to this timber, and these opinions have been
often quoted in essays intended to encourage its growth in this country.
Carriere, after ,describing eight species of the Larix, remarks, that this
tree was known to the ancients, and that it is cited, by Pliny, as most
valuable, on account of the fineness and elacticity of its wood. He
highly commends it, as well for ornamental planting, as for its rapidity
of growth, the large size that it attains, and the superior quality of its
timber.? Laslet says :? “ The wood is of a yellowish-white color, tough,
strong, and occssionally, a little coarse; but, it is generally straight and
even in the grain. It works up tolerably well, and is considered to be
very durable, but has the serious drawback of excessive shrinkage, with .
a tendency to warp in seasoning.” Grigor says,* that when favorably sit- _
uated, no tree becomes so valuable in so short a time, and that it is par-
ticularly durable, as posts and palings, and in all structures that come
in contact with the ground. It is constantly employed for railway
sleepers, for mill axles, and in ship-building. These opinions might, in
fact, be extended almost indefinitely, and with but little to be said
against it. It also possesses qualities which we scarcely have seen no- .
ticed in connection with its culture in this country, as the source of
tanning material in its bark, and of Venice turpentine, in its resinous
sap.

5 section was exhibited by D. C. Scofield, of Elgin, Ill.,in 1874, which
had been imported as a small plant in 1858, and had grown to nearly a
foot in diameter in thirteen years. He also exhibited a branch a fourth
of an inch in diameter which had been seven years among decaying
rubbish on the ground and was still hard and sound. This test was
claimed to demonstrate the remarkable durability of the European larch
in the'climate of Illinois, while the native species (Larix Americana)
would not probably have lasted even half that time.

Its rapidity of growth, beauty of foliage, and general value as a screen
and ornamental tree have been sufficiently proved in this timber as grown
with us. But has its durability as a post, or when in contact with the
ground, been proved? .We apprehend that this durability depends up-
on the conversion of sap-wood into heart-wood; a change that has not very
often been observed in the larch grown in this country or at least in the
West. The Conifers, as a class, are found stronger and of better quality
in proportion as their growth has been slow.

In reference to the law which governs in the formation of wood, it is
remarked by Bagneris* that in the broad-leaved species, the vessels of

2Traite general des Coniferec, p. 280.

3Timber, and Timber Trees, p. 250. ’

AArboriculture, p. 232. :

*“MANUAL OF SYLVICULTURE,”? Translation"by Fernandez and Smythies, p. 31 and 59.

38 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

the annual layers of growth are either distributed equally, as in the
beech, hornbeam, poplars, willlows, &c., or are congregated nearly to-
gether at the interior of the ring, and are wanting or very small and scat-
tered toward the exterior. This inner or porous layer is of spring
growth, and about the same-in width from year to year. The outer por-
tion of the year’s growth, formed later in the season, and generally
called the autumnal layer, is composed of heavy, compact, woody tissue,
and this varies in thickness from year to year, being sometimes thick and
at others thin. These woods are therefore heavier. denser, and for most
uses better in proportion to the rapidity of their growth. To this elass
belongs the oak, ash and other kinds which show their rings conspicuously
in section. Their heartwood is generally different in color from the sap-
wood, being stronger and more durable; while in the kinds that have
their vessels scattered through the whole growth of the year there is not
much difference in color, density, or durability between the heart-wood
and the sap-wood. en
But the conifers have no ducts as in most other exogenous woods—
their ligneous structure being made up of a peculiar kind of tissue, dif-
fering from common wood fiber, which may be known under the micro-
scope by the numerous thin circular spots in the walls of the woed cells.
These are found in no other woods except the gymnosperms. The outer
margin of the annual layer, is in this class made up of harder and denser
tissues than the inner, and this harder part is generally of about uniform
width from year to year. The difference in growth is expended upom
the inner.and softer portion, and varies in thickness according as-the
amount of growth has been greater or less. This harder portion on the
outer margin of each year's growth gives the wood more strength and.
durability, at least until the more porous part has been filled by resin-
ous deposits, as in heart-wood. For this reason, conifers of slow growth,
in which these hard tissues are more abundant, have their wood stronger
and better for most uses than the fast-growing kinds. | ~ a:
In visiting the plantation of Mr. C. D. Scofield, at Elgin, Ill., during
the last summer, he remarked that his larch, set as posts, scarcely lasted
three years. It by no means follows that durability would not be
gained with age, and the formation of hheart-wood, or that this qual-
ity might not be imparted by injecting the timber with mineral salts.’
It is further probable, that the quality of wood may be found to vary
with the soil, and that the larch, grown on the high gravelly land, would
differ from that of the rich prairie mold. It is within the knowledge of
all lumbermen that sap-pine has no durability in the ground. It is rea-
sonable that sap-larch should exhibit the same properties. We know
that the pine in our soil and climate acquires with age the most desirable:
qualities, and it is equally probable that the same may be true of the:
European larch. It is probable that the durability of this timber would
be increased by stripping off the bark and allowing it to season for a
time before cutting. sae

CALCULATIONS OF COST FOR ONE) ACRE OF LARCH; BY M. L. DUNLAP, OF CHAM-

PAIGN, ILL.
Erench plowing.) () 42). ' $ 5 | Cultivating: .0.:.. .)« \«)e\eciaame 4
Harrowing and Olin eae Le ies 2 | Hoeing the youngtrees. - --+.+. 9
Three thousand plants. . . . . ' 30-] Cultivation five years ..-.-.- - 15
Hreiphiei pipe, ok ee cea ae ke ae | u tis Sehr
Spade and setting. ......,. t 3 Totals ‘cuts ns: lene, Pepe . $65

The cost of land, interest {'or six years, faxes, andthe above in five

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 39

years, amount to $125, making the total costs at that time $190. No
further attention would be needed for the next six years, when, with in-
' terest and taxes, the cost would have amounted to $320.
The crop at this time should consist of 2,500 trees, allowing 500 for
loss. Of these, 100 may be taken out, leaving 1,500 standing. Those
‘taken out would give 1,500 posts, worth $350, less $30 for cutting, and
leaving $320. Thus, in twelve years, the partial crop will have paid for
‘the land with interest, and we have 1,500 larch trees, large enough in

.. twelve years more for railroad-ties, and worth, at 50 cents apiece, giving

~ $800 for the land and trees, at the end of twenty-five years.*
SUGGESTIONS ON PLANTING—IOWA EXPERIENCE.

‘Mr. Suel Foster, of Muscatine, Iowa, in a prize essay on forest-tree
planting, offers the following suggestions as applicable in this State:+

_ The larch is of tolerably rapid growth; growing half an inch or more in diame-
-ter each year for the first ten years, and the next ten years fully equal to one inch.
- This is in-size equal to our black walnut, and it grows much better and
- straighter. The little trees should be bought of nurserymen, for it is a nice and
-» particular thing to raise the larch or evergreen from seed. JI would recommend
. to the farmers of Iowa to buy European larch at two years old, at. $10 to $15 per
thousand. They should be set in the nursery rows, 43 feet apart, and one foot in
the row, so that when one row is taken out it will make a wagon road through
the grove. Larch must be moved very early in the spring, for they are among the
very earliest trees to start to grow. The ground should be plowed very deep in
the fall, then plowed in the spring, as soon as possible; harrowed and pulverized

’_ very finely by turning the harrow bottom up the last time. Then stretch a line

and set with aspade. Have a mud-hole to dabble the roots all in. While the
man uses the spade, a boy can handle plants. About 2,000 will be a day’s work,
and will cover about a quarter of an acre. They must be carefully plowed and
hoed for two years, and if the weeds start too quick in May and June, the third or
fourth years they should be plowed.
_ Cost.—8,000 plants for an acre, $80; setting out, $8; plowing and hoe-
ing the first year, $8; plowing and harrowing the land before setting, $4;
second year, $4; two years after, $4; interest on the land at $50; eight
- years, at eight per cent.=$52. Total cost of an acre of Europes. larch,
at eight years, $140.
- Credit—By taking out 3,000 plants after two year’s growth, to set in
other ground, at $20 per thousand, $60. It is calculated that 1,000 in
- 8,000 will die, although those who are accustomed to handling and cul-
_- trvating will not loose so many. Then half the plants are taken out,
- leaving them 2 by 4% feet. When they are eight years old they will be
poles fit for fence, two or three inches through and fifteen or twenty feet
_ high, and another thinning out must be done, by taking out 2,000, leav-
- ing the grove 4 by 42 feet. These poles are worth 5 cents each, $100.
- At eight years one acre has cost $140, and has a credit of $160. Those
transplanted at two years from setting should be set 4 by 4%, covering
-about an acre and a half, and will cost, in setting out and cultivating two
- years, something over $100, including the plants at $60.

PLANTING OF THE ASH.

Mr. J. L. Budd, now of Ames, Iowa, in a paper published in the Trans-
actions of the Northern Illinois Horticultural Society (1867-68, p. 72),
advises keeping the seeds of the ash through the winter in kegs or boxes,

*Cited in an address by Dr. John A. Warden, in January, 1873. before the Kansas State Board of
Agriculture. Report of that year, p. 262. See also ‘OHIO AGRICULTURAL REPORT,” 1871, p. 55.
HfIOWA AGRICULTURAL REPORT,” 1870, p. 328.

40 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

mixed with clean moist sand, taking care that they become neither too
wet nor too dry. Freezing will dono harm. The ground sbould be
marked and prepared as forcorn, and planted at the inter sections, placing
four to six seeds in ahill. They should be carefully cultivated, and the
next spring thinned to one plant in each hill, the vacancies being sup-
plied. By planting thus thickly, the young trees get a straight growth.
At the end of six years, every alternate row north and south should be
thinned out, and at the end of ten years every alternate tree in each row.
When twelve years old, on good soil and with proper culture the first
four years, the grove would have 12,000 trees on 10 acres, averaging 8 in-
ches in diameter. By cutting the stump close to the ground, and cover-
ing with a light furrow on each side, a second growth is obtained in
eight or ten years, more valuable than the first.

Prof C. S. Sargent, in speaking of this timber, says: *

To develop its best qualities the white ash should be planted in a cool, deep,
moist, but well-drained soil, where it will make a rapid growth. That the plan-
tation may be as early profitable as possible, the young trees should be inserted
in rows three feet apart, the plants being two feet apart in the rows. This would
give 7,260 plants to the acre, which should be gradually thinned until 108 trees
are left standing, twenty feet apart each way. The first thinning, which might be
made at the end of ten years, would give 4,000 hoop-poles, which at present price
would be worth $400.

The remaining thinnings, made at different periods up to twenty-five or thirty
years, would produce some three thousand trees more, worth at least three times
as much as the first thinnings. Such cuttings would pay all the expenses of plant-
ing, the care of the plantation and the interest on the capital invested, and would
leave the land covered with trees capable of being turned into money at a mo-.
ments notice, or whose value would increase for a hundred years, making no
mean inheritance for the descendants of a Massachusetts farmer. The planting of
the white ash as a shade and roadside tree is especially recommended, and for
that purpose it ranks, among our native trees, next to the sugar-maple.

To some Minnesota tree-planters, a few words about the oak will per-
haps be of interest. It has the reputation of being a slow grower, too
slow for the planter to reasonably expect any benefit from his work. I
am inclined to think this trait in its character has been somewhat exag-
gerated. Thousands of acres in Minnesota, are now covered with groves
of jack oak, the trees now large enough, to make four good rails from the
butt cuts, where only 20 to 25 years ago nothing could be seen but small,
short, shrubby brush. Some of these new forests will yield nearly, or
quite as much fuel and fencing per acre, as the average primeval forests.

Such being the fact, and one not easily rubbed out, may it not be as
well to look into this thing from a practical standpoint. Taking a hint
from nature, let us look into this grub prairie business a little. We find
usually the jack oak grubs most numerous—next burr oak and white
oak grubs. How they got there, or how long they have been there are
among the things no fellow can find out. With my spade and ax, Ihave
‘“srubbed out” many thousands of them—have dissected them, and ex-
amined them critically. I have found them in all periods of existence,
from mere rootlings, to masses of roots sufficient for a tree a hundred
years old.

A very large area of Goodhue Co., Minnesota, the Banner wheat coun-
ty of the whole world, was, when I first made tracks over it, covered with
such grubs, and had they been left undisturbed by the breaking plow,
spade, ax and grub-hoe, and protected from fire and cattle, Goodhue Co.
would to-day be one of the finest timbered counties in Minnesota.

*Quercus Oak.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. Al

Nearly all the great wheat counties of south-east Minnesota, were 25
years ago largely covered with just such grubs. The annaul prairie fires
swept over them with great regularity and certainty, annually burning

off the brushy tops, but leaving the roots generally uninjured. The roots,

protected by the earth from much damage by fire. kept up their subter-
raneous growth with great vigor, thus laying up theamount of vital force
which has backed up these young forests to such speedy and wonderful
development. And now my christian friend, if you are so fortunate as to
own a few acres of such grub prairies, guard it as the apple of your eye;
suffer no evil to befall it, and in a few years you will count it among the
choicest of your earthly possessions. I would thus “pointthe moral, and
adorn the tale.” But should you be compelled to commence, de novo, I
will try to point out what I would do. After I had gotten my young
forest well started; ground well subdued and in a high state of cultiva-
tion—the surface tolerably well shaded by other young trees, I would
plant the acorns among them. Repeated attempts and repeated failures,
have convinced me that the young oak seedling demands considerable
shade for a year or two, and won’t tolerate too much hot blazing sun-
light. I have had no trouble in growing the young plants to a hight of
four to six inches most anywhere, but I have so far found it extremely
difficult to get them much further along unless somewhat shaded. The
same remarks are perhaps applicable to beech, birch and the coniferous
tribe. The permanancy, great durability and longevity of this tree justly
entitles it to a very high rank in forestry. With the exception of the
conifers, no tree is more generally useful to civilization, none more worthy
of cultivation and perpetuity. I now proceed to again plunder that un-
failing and inexhaustable fountain of forestry information, (Houghs Re- »
port) for further items bearing on this subject.

The Oak (Quercus sessilifolia and Q. pedunculata) was relatively more
important among forest trees a century or two ago than now. Extensive
forests of this timber have since been cleared for cultivation, so that the
noblest forests are now among the hills. ‘iss

On account of diminishing supply and rising demand for oak timber,
much has been done of late to promote its cultivation. Young trees
shelter the soil from the sun, but as they advance they demand more -
light and room, so that many die unless seasonably thinned. In forests
the oak assumes greater dimensions when grown with other oaks alone,
for it may be laid down as a rule that it thrives best with the crown free, the
stem sheltered and in shade, and the foot wnder covering. The Q. pedunculata
is disposed to develope many branches, but where this is not possible
(as in forests of beech and oak) the stem is straight and free from
branches to 70 or 80 feet, and the whole height 100 to 130 feet. The tap
root penetrates 5 or 6 feet in good soil, so that the subsoil is of great
importance in its.growth and quality. Moderately cleft and inclined
limestones, and the milder clay slates, the richer sandstones and marls,
granite, basalt, greenstone and clayey porphyry, and good peat are
favorable subsoils for both kinds of oak, as they generally continue
fresh, and are not apt to hold water. The timber of this kind is of fine
texture, tough, hard, and heavy. It is the strongest and most durable
timber grown in large quantities in Europe, and is indispensable in
ship building, in the construction of mills, and structures in or near
water, and when submerged is indestructible. The Q. sessilifolia does
not grow so quickly but has a longer life, is more disposed to form
branches, but may. under favorable circumstances grow to equal size.

42 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

The roots do not penetrate so deep, the wood is less tough and elastic, is
more easily split, and therefore more prized by coopers. Being of coarser
texture it is not so well suited for carving and cabinet work, and being
heavier, it forms better firewood, the proportion being as 12 to 11.
- As a building timber it is little inferior to the Q. pedunculata. The latter
prefers plains, warm sunny valleys, and outlying hills of mountain
ranges, while the former is at home on the mountains themselves. They
- often grow together, but the Q. sessilifolia ascends the slopes to a greater
height, although it does not grow so far north and prefers the south and
west slopes. Hee ms
‘The oak is not by nature intended-to form extensive and unmixed
forests, but requires the aid of a shade-enduring and soil-improving tree ;
for the growth of oak depends less on the kind of soil than on its qual-
ity, depth, and freshness. No tree is better qualified to perform these
functions than the beech. In eoppice wood with standards or reserved
trees, the oak enjoys the sunlight, and does not throw much shade on
the coppice below—acquires moderate thickness, but at the expense. of
its branches, and comes to greatest maturity at 200 to 240 years, but
when well exposed to the sun may be felled much sooner. In order.to
obtain valuable timber in such cases, the trees must, ere they grow too
old, be stripped of their lower branches. as far as practicable. bisa:
_ Oak reproduces itself from stools, and is suitable for coppices, the
wood (generally at the period of 16 years) being cut and peeled for tan-
ners’ use. The bark is most prized when grown on strong mineral soil
on hill-sides in sunny exposures, where the trees have not been too
closely planted, and have room for development. It is best before-it
begins to split: In higher situations the Q. sessilifolia is said to yield
bark in greater quantity and of better quality than the Q. pedunculata.
The growth of oak depends less on the kind of soil than on its quality,
the amount of humus, and, above all, of moisture contained in it. The
_ best growth occurs in a deep, somewhat loose loamy sand, or sandy
loam, but it thrives well on loam or sand. Although it prefers moisture,
it will not-grow in marshes unless drained. __ ;
The oak thrives exceedingly well when mingled with beech, because
- its penetrating roots draw their support more from the subsoil, while
the beech spreads its roots near the surface. This association -does not
prosper, however, in exposed situations or on shallow soils. )

MODE OF PLANTING OAKS RECOMMENDED BY THE SOCIETY FOR
THE PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE, ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.

To this society, formed in New York as a State institution in 1791,
may undoubtedly be ascribed the first direct recommendation of a.so-
ciety for the planting of forests for their timber in the United States.

In a circular issued at the beginning, they made particular inquiries
concefning the propagation of the locust-tree, the possibility of intro-
ducing the white mulberry, and the profit and propriety of raising: in
nurseries and transplanting hickory, chestnut, beech, ash, and other trees
for fencing and fuel, and the planting of hedges.

About 1795, a committee mpadiatean to consider the best mode of pre-
serving and increasing the growth of wood and valuable timber, reported
in favor of recommending this where the soil was not better adapted to
other uses. One of the committee, twenty years before, had allowed
land worth $2.50 per acre to grow up to timber, then worth $12 per acre,

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. . 43

besides the land, which had been improved in the meantime. They
insisted upon the importance of fencing out cattle;, suggested the pro-
. priety of cutting off old woodlands entirely, SO as to. give the young
trees an equal start; showed that. woods should. not be. thinned too
much, as this would. favor the growth of grass, to the injury of. the trees;
and pointed out a method of planting oaks that. deserves notice:.

Oaks are best propagated by leaving the acorns on, the. surface, of .the ground,
covered with the grass; but in this way the acorns are exposed to be devoured

by animals. To prevent this it is recommended to preserve them through the
- winter and plant them in the following manner: First make a bed of loam about
six inches deep; on this plant the acorns about two inches deep; over them lay
another bed of six inches of earth, over that another layer of acerns, and so on,
as far as the occasion requires. The whole must be covered with earth, to pre-
serve them from the frost. Early in the spring the bed is to be opened, when
~ the acorns, which will have begun to shoot, are to he planted about: a foot’s dis-
tance from each other.

Another method of planting them, is to dig a small hole with a pick-ax, and
drop the acorn, covering it with earth. This is a very simple method, but care
must be taken not to bury the seed too deep; two inches is found to be the best
depth; the less covering the better, provided the acorn is secured from birds and
. other animals, Another practice is to pare the earth with a plow and plant the
acorns in rows, covering them with the turf. This is not a'great deal of labor,
and will secure the acorns from animals. The distance of the rows may be at any
man’s pleasure, but the thicker the trees the sooner will the ground be shaded
and the turf destroyed. As the young trees advance the weaker ones yall die,
and the vigorous and thrifty ones only survive. * zs *

We often see in a transplanted fruit tree the top die down and sprouts
. appear from the root, one of which, if spared, may become a.vigorous
tree. This is very liable to happen with the oak in bleak and exposed
- situations, and foresters sometimes anticipate this by cutting them over
' by the surface of the ground after they have been planted a year, so as
to develope new shoots, one of which is saved.

In sheltered situations this becomes needless, and no time is lost. in
bringing forward the shoot as soon as possible. ee
_ The managers of government forests in England, where wok is keine

raised for the royal navy, rear the trees from “the acorn, and the trees
are found to BOR for the first few years more rapidly, than. if trans-
planted.

Much Hig of opinion has amaled: as to ihe. distance at: eich
_ young oaks should be planted’; in fact, as many views have been ex-
_ pressed as there are differences of circumstance. and each in its place
may be best. It is often of advantage to, grow “other timber with the
oak, and for this the fir has been planted in Scotland with best results,
and this in exposed situations becomes essential.as a shelter till the
oaks attain a'size to take care of themselves. In such a case, a distarice
_ 10 to 12 feet apart for the oaks, and the same for the firs, making the
distance between trees of alternate kinds 3} to 4 feet. The firs are cut
out in a few years. It is thought that, besides the shelter thus gained,
the oaks grow more rapidly with this mixture of. young evergreens
among them. (Brown’s Forester, p. 364.)

With the oak, its value depends rather onthe quality than the length
of its wood, and for ship building (its principal use) a straight trunk is
sometimes less prized than one of a proper curve. Now this wood can-
not be grown of. best quality unless free access of air is allowed, and
hence dense plantings are not economical.

James Brown, a Scotch writer, mentions two lots of oak timber, one
- one hundred years old, with 200 trees to the acre, that sold. for £360,

44 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

and another of ninety years old, with 109 trees, that brought £868. The
latter had grown with free access of air,and had an abundance of bends
fit for ship building. But such trees growing low, and with spreading
branches, do not yield so much bark for tanning, and for this use a —
dense, tall coppice is best for quantity, although its quality is not equal:
to that of wood grown in open places..
Oak grown in free air weighs almost double that 1rom a dense shade,

and. its bark contains more tannin. |

OBLIQUE PLANTING.

Among the established rules of planting are the three following.
_ 1. Set to the same depth as the plant stood in the nursery.

2. Spread with the hand the fibers of the root in their natural direction.

3. It is essential that the plant should stand upright.

A recent writer* has shown that these rules have their exceptions, and,
describing the usual manipulation of planting, says:

The workman takes the plant in his left hand, holds it vertically in the middle
of the hole to the proper depth, and with the right hand (not particularly caring
for the direction of the roots), fill in the earth around the plant, crowding it down
as it fills up, and press it down with the feet. The operation thus desribed would
be called well done, if executed carefully and without slighting. But as we turn
in and press down the earth, the radicles are crowded together in a vertical. di-
rection, like the rods of an umbrella when shut, instead of being in a natural pos-
ition, and more or less plants will be lost.

My plan would be as follows: .

Having thrown out the dirt, I would put about half of it back, so as to make a
slope on one side, against which I would lay the plant, the roots being of the same
depth as before being drawn. _ In this positionitis easy with either hand to spread
out the radicles, and finish by filling the hole and pressing in the earth, as com-
monly done.. Plantations thus executed in 1859 appear now sensibly better than
those in adjacent grounds, executed at the same time and in the common way.
But in this case the plants were burried deeper than the rule prescribes, and to
this may be due a part of the success.

In deciduous plantations it is a rule to trim the young plants more or less, so as
to preserve a due balance between the roots, torn and lessened by the extraction,
and the top. Resinous species should never be subjected to this operation, but
they generally shed more or less of the lower leaves, which amounts to the same
thing, and leave only a tuft of small branches and leaves at the top, exposed to
the winds and the weight of snows, which are most liable to injury the first winter.

It therefore appears probable that a young plant would suffer less to have these
lower leaves burried, han to lose them by drying in the air, and that planting a _
little deeper is beneficial—rules to the contrary.

On the other hand, if we plant young oaks in autumn, some vertically and oth-
ers horizontally (it might not be the same in spring, and I give my own exper-
iences), it does not appear to show any difference. It appears chiefly important
that the plants be laid deep enough, while by the oblique method the roots are |
most easily placed somewhat in their first position. .

As to expense in planting, the difference of time is from 15 to 20 per cent. in
favor of the method recommended, which has moreover a decided advantage of
not being so liable to damage from the heaving of frost. .

I do not hesitate to recommend the burying of more of the stem than was coy-
ered before, the proportion extending to two-thirds or more.

PLANTATION OF EVERGREENS—PROFESSOR AMOS EATON’S DIREC-

NS.

Prof. Amos Eaton, in his Geological and Agricultural Survey of Rens-
selaer County, New York (1822), alluding to the difficulty of transplant-
ing evergreens, attaches importance to the most careful handling and to

es,

*M. Regimberu, in the “Revue des Eaux et Forets,” 1875, p. 139. The above is but a condensed ab-
stract of this article. : ’ / :

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 45

the keeping of the roots moist by retaining the soil upon them, or cov-
ering with wet moss, cloths, &c. They succeed best, according to his
observation, when the roots were not bent or distorted in planting. They
should be cut off at a distance of one or two feet from the stem, and tak-
en up without force or without wounding the body or limbs. He laid
down the rule of never cutting off a limb until at least a year after trans-
planting, and of never pruning evergreens at first close to the stem. He
would leave four or five inches, which, after it had withered and died,
might be cut loose without injury to the wounded part, which should be
covered with some kind of adhesive paste.

In selecting evergreens from the woods, care should be taken to obtain
only those that grew in open and exposed situations, and, as nearly as
might be, from a soil in composition, texture, and dryness as nearly as
- possible like that to which it is to be transferred.

Deciduous forest-trees required less care, excepting oak, walnut, and
ash trees, which required the same treatment as evergreens.

EVERGREEN. PLANTING: IN ILLINOIS AND IOWA.

__ Mr. Samuel Edwards, formerly of Mendota, Tll., who has had an ex-
tensive experience in planting evergreens, states his belief that the sur-
face soils of lowa and Illinois appear to be well adapted to this class of
trees.* He remarks:

Extensive plantings of pines and junipers may be made with perfect safety on
sandy soils, and those having a thin layer of porous surface soil.. But on such

_ soils I would not advise any one to put out plants of less size than 1 foot in hight;
9-foot plants would do better. Excessively dry seasons are almost certainly fatal
to small plants on such soils. Puddling the roots with clay mortar is always ad-
visable when planting out evergreens, being sure to have roots perfectly wet when

placed in position for covering with dirt. In such soils, too, it 1s best to set deep-
er than the plants stood in nursery. In moist localities arbor vitaes and spruces

are perfectly at home. _
In the discussion of this papar the opinion was expressed that the

Norway spruce was the best ornamental evergreen for Eastern Iowa.
The white pine had proved healthy, but the Scotch and Austrian pines

had been badly infested with a kind of aphis, which injured the tree.

In dry soils, evergreens had suffered from drought, but on porous soils
they had generally grown with success. The relatively dry air of the
West, as compared with that of Europe, appeared to account for the great
difference observed with respect to the locations and conditions under
which evergreens will thrive. It was remarked by one who had seen
planting operations in Europe that—
Wherever a larch, spruce, or pine can be started, (even with rock near to the
surface,) the plants grow with a luxuriance we can never attain here under the most
- favorable conditions. The forester there goes to his work of planting coniferous
_ seedlings with the plants wrapped up in a dry rag. He makes a hole with a tool
provided for the purpose, sticks in the plant without regard to shape or position
of the roots. The cavity is closed by a movement of the tool and a motion of the
_-foot, and the work is done. Yet the plants rarely fail to grow, and that with a
_vigor wonderful to behold on such sterile soil.

EVERGREEN PLANTING—METHODS AND ADVICE OF MR. R. DOUGLAS.

Mr. Robert Douglas, of Waukegan, II1., in a lecture before the Kansas
State Horticultural Society, sums up the whole substance of success in
transplanting evergreens ina few words: “Plant early in the spring;

*‘Transactions of lowa Horticultural Society”? 1875, p. 124. -

A6 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

never allow ‘the roots to become dry, and pack the ground tight, ‘so that.
they cannot shake about or be moved by the winds.” He would plant
as-soon as the frost is out of the ground, (first puddling the roots as soon
as Yeceived), and plant a little deeper than they: had grown in the nur-
sery. The center of the hole should be elevated to set the tree on, and
thé roots should:be spread out and filled in compactly, and particularly
under the tree, so that it will not sink. Later. ,
In his own practice he sowed the seeds in the spring, until May, in |
beds 4 feet wide, broadcast, and raked in.. The young plants must be —

choice of kinds for different situations was as follows: °... -

Aierican arbor ‘vitae; for higher hedges and screens, plant Norway spruce; for |

sdf Bu
oO
er

EVERGREEN SEEDLINGS—OBSERVATIONS OF H. M. THOMPSON, OF
av ae ‘SAINT FRANCIS, WIS.

“Losses have very often been experienced in transplanting evergreen.
seedlings, and these have often been attributed to the tact that they had
been grown in the shade; but this result, Mr. Thompson thought, was not
wholly. due to, the sudden transition from shade to sunlight, but to other
causés, such as the pulling up of the plants instead of digging with:a,
spade, :impertect packing, and exposure of the roots tothe air. It is well.
known that shade is one of the most essential requirements of a young
evergreen plant, enabling it to retain an equable volume of moisture, and
preventing evaporation from the soil. In order to ascertain what would .
be the result of exposure to full sunlight, in the spring of 1874 he had-
removed the screens from several beds of one-year-old Norway seedlings —
and:Scotch pines, and from two-year-old Austrian pines and arbor vitaes.’
During May and a part of June, the moisture was sufficient for a fine
growth, and favorable to the development of buds and ripening of the
wood. But for five successive days in July, the heat was excessive, ris-
ing ‘from 98 to 103 degrees: the surrounding objects tended to hinder a
free circulation of air, and the heat and evaporation must have been ex-
cessive.

iat “ a

** Transactions of Kansas State Horticultural Society,”1872, p. 182. In some localities the lareh,
grown rapidly, has come to the size of a tine-looking tree before its wood hus hardened, and such tim-
ber by no means justifies the reputation for durability here given. Our experience with this tree has
not yet been sutticiently long to enable us to determine how far this valuable property in the timber
Will be acquired by age.

_ FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. AZ

Tn autumn it was found that the loss of the Norway spruce was about
fifteen per cent. ; arbor vitae fifteen per cent.; Scotch pine less than half.
of one-per cent.;.Austrian pine no loss. The loss of the former of these

was attributed to the fact that the lateral roots of these species of seed-
lings grow nearer the surface, and are, therefore, more lable to injury

from heat and evaporation. In August of the same year, he transplant-

ed 10,000 Scotch pines from the beds that had been exposed, with a loss

of less than half of one per cent. In June and July, 1873, hetransplant-

ed about. 30,000 Norway spruce, two to six inches in hight, without: loss ;

these transplantings being at an unsual season of the year, but in a cool
damp atmosphere, and in a wet soil aftet a rain, the June and July trans-
planted seedlings being sheltered by lath screens; the August planting
of Scotch pine having no protection until nearly a month after the trans-
planting was completed. His practice had been for years to bed out all
seedlings less than six inches in hight, and protect them the first season
with a cheap screen ; larger sized seedlings either bedded out or planted

in nursery rows and mulched; the loss trom drought under this treat-

ment being too trifling to mention. His deductions from these observa-
tions were—that nursery-grown seedlings haye an ample supply of roofs, .
if properly handled, planted, and cared for, will survive and produce sut- -
isfactory results.* — - : By ;

ON THE PROPAGATION OF EVERGREENS—EXPERIENCE OF A SUC-

CESSFUL PLANTER.

‘Mr. Samuel Edwards, of Illinois, who has had eminent: success in
planting evergreens, at the University course of lectures and discussions
held at Rockford, Il.,in February, 1870, made the following statements
" concerning the handling of evergreens: .

Ihave hada good many years’ experience with evergreens. Growing them
from seed in ordinary seasons on our prairies is rather difficult. A wet season,”
like the last, is better; but, asa rule, those who are inexperienced had better buy
their trees. !

To grow evergreens, soil that is about one-third sand, with some mold, should
beused. The seeds should be covered once or twice theirdiameter. They should
be'sown early to prevent their “damping off.” This arises from excess of moist-
ure in hot weather. We sow on dry sand to check it. Sow the seeds in beds four
feet wide ; about two pounds of the seeds of the European larch, or of the pines
to the square rod. Cover the young plants with leaves the first winter. Leave
the plants two years in the beds before transplanting. Birds are fond of the
seeds, and must be watched. In getting trees from the forests, plant them as
- quickly as possible, and put a shade of laths over them. Plant them closely in
the bed; leave them in the bed generally two years, and then plant the rows two
and a half feet apart, put the trees close together in the rows. We sowed our
_ seeds last year at Green Bay. The atmosphere is not so dry there ; the birds are
the only trouble. I prefer to plant evergreens when in astate of rest, but
they can be moved in a moist day until late in the season. In that case I
would plant late in the evening, water heavily, and protect them the next day
from the sun. Trees for belts I place ten feet apart in the row, and break the»
joints with the next row. ,

Red cedar has generally succeeded pretty well until three or four years ago.
Hemlock is grown best in partial shade. The American yew is fine in the shade.
It is similar in leaf to the European, and to the hemlock. It is propagated read-
ily from cuttings in the shade, late in May. The Norway spruce will bear shear-
ing well; as also the arbor vite. $

[In answer to queries:] When the branches are too thick, taking out the alter-
nate branches often does very well. It will answer to move seedlings that have

“Transactions of Wisconsin State Horticultural Society ,”” 1875, p. 90.

48 _ FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

not been transplanted, if you are careful. I would just as soon have trees from
the woods; but they must be carefully handled, and be small ones, not more than
four to twelve inches in height. Red pine is difficult to handle. Austrian pine is
attacked by a fungus. I find it here at Rockford. Siberian arbor vite does very
well here. In the shade, it roots readily from cuttings made with a part of the
last year’s wood left on.+

Mr. Edwards, in an article published in the Iowa Agricultural Report
of 1871 (page 346), explains more fully seme points of his method in
propagating evergreens and larches:

The beds are made four feet wide, for convenience of weeding. By sowing so
early, the plants attain the woody fiber before hot weather, which is so fatal to the
plants while young. The beds when sown may be covered with damp moss, rags.
or something of the kind; this is to be closely watched, and removed when the
plants begin to show themselves. . Arbor vitee and many varieties of juniper are
readily grown from cuttings four to six inches long, taken off in May, or the fore

_ part of June, with an inch or two of last year’s wood, and planted two-thirds of
their length in the ground, the lower end in pure sand. Cuttings of this kind, and
of small plants of evergreens should be shaded in time of extended drought, and
should receive a liberal watering every two or three weeks, followed, before the

“surface dries with a mulching of dry torest leaves, sawdust, or other litter. The
-idea formerly so prevalent that evergreens were more difficult to transplant suc-
cessfully than deciduous trees, is not sustained by extended experience. Itisnow
_.ogenerally known that the roots of evergreens must never dry in the least while
-out of the ground. Transplanting can be done from opening of spring until time
of bursting of the buds. yen after growth of an inch has taken place, they may
be successfully planted if the roots are grouted as soon as they are taken from the
ground and well watered and mulched when planted. Shading the tops when late
planted makes success still more certain. Early planting is always advisable. In

a elt

time of severe drouth large specimens, at other times nearly certain to die, may
_ be safely transplanted if the work is carefully done and the tops are watered each
~* evening. From the time when the terminal buds are formed until the middle of
‘September, transplanting may be done with sefety. In an extreme instance, I
- had good success with a lot of thirty or forty, from the forests of Colorado, planted
at their arrival, just at the opening of winter, by covering with leaves so deep as
- almost if not entirely to exclude the frost. It has been generally supposed that
late fall planting of evergreens, or taking up plants in the fall and preserving them
_for early spring planting or shipment, could not be done. Robert Douglas & Son,
' of Waukegan, lll., however, have for two past winters kept millions of young
- plants in their frost-proof lighted greenery with the most perfect success. Their
. discovery or.use of this mode is of great value, for those wanting trees sent South
can thereby plant much earlier, and have them established and growing before

' the dry, hot weather comes on.

Immense quantities of evergreen plants will be in demand during the next few
years in the prairie States. Our people thus far have only thought of planting
them for ornamental trees on the lawn or for screens. But timber culture in
earnest is about to begin. European larch and the pine will doubtless be planted
in immense numbers. From experience in planting larches four to six feet high
in the fall, it is my opinion that we shall eventually adopt the plan of setting out
our two-year and older larches at that season. If small, mulch liberally. When
set in spring, they ought to be put out very early, as they start the first thing in
spring. They do not thrive, unless planting is done before starting.

Many evergreens were injured by the unprecedented freeze of last October, in
conjunction with the excessively wet season. This conclusion seems probable
from the fact that evergreens in very dry situations were almost entirely exempt
from injury. While tree planters regret losses from casuaities of this kind—to
the men whose hearts are in the business, such drawbacks act only as incentives
to increased diligence in the good work. True manhood, it has been well said,
is only developed in bravely meeting and, under God, overcoming obstacles.

MANAGEMENT OF THE PINE TRIBE.*

At the sixth meeting of the British Association for the Advancement

+ ‘Third Report of Trustees of Illinois Industrial University,’ p. 385.
**Transactions Brit. Asso. Sci.,’’ 1836, p. 104.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 49

of Science (1836) a paper from John Nuttal, of Tittour, county of Wick-
low, was read on this subject. Having noticed that almost all the plants
of Pinus sylvestris and other species, when planted in a light clay-slate
soil, on. exposed ‘situations, grow too rapidly, or out of proportion to
their rootings, and thereby become wind-waved, and that those which, by
accident, had lost their leaders took a strong hold on the ground, he
commenced .a series of experiments, as follows: In the spring, when
the buds were fully developed, he went over those that were suffering
from the foregoing causes, and.broke off all the buds except those on
short branches. By this processtheir upward growth is checked for a
-year, the: trunk increases in bulk, and the plant roots much more freely
than if:the shoots had been allowed to grow. | New buds are formed
during the summet, and in the following spring these plants present the
most vigorous aspect.

The larch he cuts down to a strong lateral branch, on the windward
side, when possible. These soon begin to spread their roots, inerease in
size similarly, and utimately become choice trees. In some instances he
had cut them down a second time, when he found it necessary, and with
equally good effect.

PLANTING OF WILD EVERGREENS IN IOWA, AS RECOMMENDED ‘BY
D. W. ADAMS.

The following suggestions upon the planting and care of evergreens,
by D. W. Adams, Esq., of Waukon, Iowa, is founded upon experience,
and is worthy of attention. . .

I have practiced the following method of taming wild evergreens, with perfect
success: At'the proper season for transplanting, proceed to the grove where the
young plants‘are abundant, well furnished with common boot or other convenient
sized boxes, moss, pruning-knife, spades, and buckets. Make a puddle of rich
earth and water; as fast as the plants are raised, prune away the dead and de-
formed branches, dip the roots in the puddle, and pack upright in the boxes, with
damp moss among the roots, and so continue until the box is crowded as full as
possible. But one tier should be put ina box. Then nail a few slats on the top,
but be sure’ and have plenty of ventilation, as there is great danger of their heat-
ing if the boxes are closed too tightly. As fast as the boxes are filled, place them
in a cool, shady place till all are full; then load them on a wagon and lose no
time in taking them to their destination, where, of course, they should be planted
without delay, in‘accordance with the directions given for seedlings. If your
plants are taken from a situation much shaded, which is not advisable, it will be
well to give them alittle shade during the first summer. When young evergreens
are taken froni' thé forests, it is seldom advisable to plant them ‘at once in their
permanent location. Usually they are poor, weak, straggling things, not at all

ornamental.” They should be taken from the wood to the nursery, where, after

receiving from two to four years’ careful culture, as described for seedlings, they
will become of a rich dark green color, the foliage will become dense, and the
form symmetrical. Then they are prepared to come out and display their charms ~
upon the lawn, or show their usefulness and beauty in the grove or screen.

Selection of Varveties in Planting Evergreens in Iowa.

The varieties of evergreens adapted to the climate of our State (Iowa) are not
very numerous, but most of them have more or less good qualities to recommend
them. Of course, before selecting his varieties, the planter will decide upon the
object to be attained by the planting. If his object be shelter, he will choose
strong, rapid-growing varieties, that are cheaply procured and easily transplanted.
If he is growing a grove for timber, wood, or fencing, he will, of course, keep in
view the particular object for which they are intended, and select accordingly ;
while for ornament alone, he would make a very different selection. Perhaps a

+‘‘ Iowa Horticultural Reports,”* 1867, p. 16.

4

50 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

wore or too descriptive of some of the more valuable kinds wouldnot be out of
the way.

First on the list for general usefulness, I place the Norway spruce. It is easily
transplanted, of rapid growth, fine form, and grows to a large size. It makesa
very ornamental hedge or screen, is a fine single tree on the lawn, or a shelter
belt impenetrable to the wind. Scotch pine is easily transplanted, grows rapidly
while young, and makes a strong, spreading tree, that always gives satisfaction to
planters. I know of no evergreen that wlll make a shelter so quickly, and the
young trees are very ornamental. Austrian or black pine is every way a much
finer tree than the Scotch, except that while young it is a slower grower, and is
more impatient of removal. A large Austrian pine, clothed in its garb of rich
dark green, standing up unscathed against our fiercest and coldest wintry blasts,
looks the very impersonation of sturdy vigor and health. White pine has many
friends, and is the most valuable of al] the'pines as a lumber tree. It is of rapid -
growth, has beautiful light green soft foliage, but is rather difficult to transplant.
Red cedar is a tree of moderate growth, easily transplanted, valuable for screens,
- and invaluable for posts, as the wood is very durable. White cedar, or Arbor
vitze, is also useful for ornament and screens, but will not be largely planted. The
native spruces, when they can be procured cheaply, are of much value, and ma
be extensively used in groves or otherwise. Balsam fir is probably the least val-
uable of all I have mentioned. While young, it is quite ornamental, and is easily
transplanted, but it soon becomes shabby, 1 is comparatively short-lived, and the
wood is of very little value for any purpose whatever.

TRANSPLANTING OF LARGE EVERGREENS AND OTHER LARGE
TREES, AS RECOMMENDED BY MR. D. C. SCOFIELD,
OF ELGIN, ILL.*

Large nursery-grown, oft-transplanted trees, may be removed with as much
certainty of their living as small ones. The ‘hardy evergreens, such as Norway
_ spruce, Scotch, Weymouth (or white), and black Austrian pines, may be removed
from the height of twelve to eighteen feet as safely as from two to four feet. The
method .of removing is the same as of small trees, and they have no more need
of a large ball of earth to secure their growth than a plant of twelve inches.
True they must be taken up with great care to preserve the roots from breaking
on being moved, or from exposure to a dry atmosphere, and when set, especial
care must be taken to keep the roots in their natural position, thoroughly. pack-
ing the earth among all the roots with the fingers, so as to exclude the air and
retain moisture. This should be done by suspending the tree in the hole, which
should be made sufficiently large not only to receive the roots of the tree, but
also the planter to readily get to his task. The earth must be in as fine tilth as for
planting corn, and must never be wet. or muddy, and when thus planted the
earth around should be pressed thoroughly with the feet, and when well planted,
a quantity of coarse mulching of rotten straw, leaves, or better, spent tan-bark,
should be put around the tree and cover the surface from two to four feet on all
sides, and from three to six inches in depth; but do not pack too closely against
the trunk of the tree. Three strong stakes six feet high should be set four or
five feet from the tree at equal distances from each other. A collar or band should
be fixed around the tree five or six feet:from the ground, to which strong hay
bands should be fastened, and then to each stake a piece of fence- -wire, which
will not shrink or expand.

In the transit, the roots should be secured with moist fine straw, hay, or moss,
so that they shall not at all lose their native condition. When the tree is thus
set a few pailfulls of water may be poured upon the ground so as to settle it, as if
a great rain had done the work. When dry, spade up often, and mellow the soil
to give the air circulating and condensing room in hot weather, Then replace
the mulching about the tree. The less of earth retained in which the tree for-
merly stood the better, as from it the substance or nutriment necessary to feed
the tree is entirely exhausted, and the myriads of feeding roots running off in
every direction have been left in the ground. To retain the entire ball as when
removed in the frost, would be to not only stop the growth of the tree, but to
starve it to death before the fibrous roots could extend far enough to. procure nec-
essary food. I have had large evergreen trees stand thus, scarcely living for three

—

** Report of lowa State Horticultural Society,” 1857, p. 22,

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 51

or four years, and only from freely feeding the ball with liquid manure were they
kept alive; for in our ignorance we supposed we must remove as much earth as
possibe to make an evergreen live. We now send our large trees off by the car-
load, that are several days on the transit, and yet all are reported to live.

The difference between the forest-grown evergreen and the nursery-grown is,
the former has but few roots, the latter has them in great abundance, and numer-
ous in proportion to the number of times it has been transplanted, by which a
ereat mass of central roots hold in their custody with what may be called “a
death grasp” a quantity of earth, while the former will retain none. The tree
also makes a more compact shade and more beautiful for oft transplanting. Per-
haps no tree in the whole forest family is more tenacious of life when rightly
handled, and in the right season, than the evergreen, and no tree is more sure to
die from improper exposure. The sap of the evergreen is resinous, and coagulates
in the sun’s heat as soon as the bark of the root becomes warm in a dry atmos-
phere, and cannot be dissolved by any application whatever: the flow of life is
obstructed and consequently the tree dies. But let the roots be kept moist, the
ereat supply of resin in every department of the tree more active and abundant
from its ever-living foliage, every leaf of which forming a part of the active life-
giving influence, becomes more tenacious of life than any other tree. Pine trees
were taken from my ground last spring, each one of which filled a lumber wagon
box, and only one could. be carried in the load, and yet grew apparently as well
as if left standing in their native bed, though not as much. There have been
many hundreds of large trees taken annually from my grounds, and yet only in
the-case of bad treatment have any perished. eddie: :

To the above the secretary adds a remark, that it is highly important
before setting trees that have had their roots puddled, to dip them in
water to dissolve or soften the soil that has dried upon them. If received
late in the fall, he advises that they be heeled in, in a sloping position,
just before the ground freezes, the soil being finely mingled with the
roots and between the tops, and thus cover them completely. If planted
in the fall, they will usually dry out, especially in a snowless winter,
and all living circulation, except in the roots alone, will be thereby for-
ever stopped. He adds as his experience, that the white pine is one of
the easiest and safest of all evergreens to plant.

MISTAKES IN PLANTING FOR ORNAMENT-*

In planting for ornament, a want of taste is often exhibited in arranging the
specimens. A little careful thinking before commencing operations will often
avoid after-regrets over our mistakes. It is a mistake to plant trees too close to
our dwellings. It is a mistake to plant all trees in parallel lines, as they look
stiff and repulsive to the eye. Still one row running parallel to the public road
is admissible; but in this case do not plant them too near together, so as to ob-
struct a view of the road when they attain size and age. We may also suggest
that obstruction of desirable points of view should be considered in all our plant-
ing of trees. Plant the inside rows in graceful curved lines, with here and there
a group of from eight to ten acres. Plant only one variety of trees in each group;
but do not plant all the trees in curves and groups. Single specimens properly
distributed are objects of interest to the eye, and where the size of grounds per-
mits eight or ten trees in a circle present a fine appearance. Do not mix decidu-
ous trees with evergeens in groups, rows, or circles. It gives a mixed, broken
expression to the lawn in winter. While we may imitate nature in our groupings,
yet it is a part of the art of prairie and city lawn making to modify, and even
improve on nature’s capricious modes of planting and arranging.

The preceding pages concerning evergreens, afford much valuable in-
formation to the tree-planter ; and this branch of the subject would now
be allowed to drop, had we not something in the way of a Minnesotians
experience in this branch of forestry.

The following paper, entitled, a “ Plea for the Evergreen,” was prepared

perou a report by Samuel Bowers, with discussions that followed. ‘Iowa Hort. Report,” 1875
page 97.

52 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

expressly for this work, at my urgent solicitation. Having personally
known the author, Mr. Kepner, for many years, as an unusually success-
ful tree-planter; as a practical, conscientious man; and, as one of the
most successful horticulturists in Minnesota. I regard this Minnesota
experience, as given by Mr. Kepner, as of great practical value, and very
appropriately entitled to a place among these pages.

A PLEA FOR THE EVERGREEN.

Of the delightful prospects to be seen on our prairies, in the summer,
no Minnesotian need be told ; the older settlements, dotted as far as the
eye can reach, with beautiful groves of young timber; ranging, in
size, from the clump of a few specimens, to the tract of twenty acres, or
more. These groves have nearly all grown up, within the memory of
the older settlers, and have transformed, what was then, a monotonous
landscape, into a country, so beautiful, that it seems a blessed privilege,
even to live in it.

Now, let us look at this same picture in the winter. We drive along
over the same country ; but, how every thing is changed! This is the
same road ; here, are the same farm-houses; here are the same groves;
but, they are leafless,—and, there is no color, to brighten up the view;
and there is scarcely anything to obstruct the fury of the fierce winds!
We are disappointed! We thought these farmers had wind-breaks—
about their habitations. So they had, in the summer, when the necessity
for them was not very apparent. And we drive over many weary miles
of this kind of country ; but, we must acknowledge, that it is very cold;
and, notwithstanding the many tine buildings which we see, on every
hand, the country has not that home-like aspect, which has lingered in
our memory, since our summer visit.

But, here, at last, we find a different scene. The atmosphere has
changed,—it appears to us, by contrast,—to that of Indian summer. We
hear the wind howling in the air, overhead ; but, we do not feel it, as we
did ; but, now, what is the matter ?

Here are some hundreds of evergreen trees, disposed in groups and
belts, about a farm-house, which we find, on inquiry, to have been trans-
planted, from the forest, a dozen years ago, by the proprietors own
hands ; at no appreciable expense, save the few days work then, with
additions of other trees, since, from time to time, and occasional day of
loving care and attention afterwards. Here, we have a green landscape,
a bit of summer, in the middle of winter. .

Nothing very fine yet, it is true, but promising much in the future;
but, still, enough to add much to the attractions of the home ; enough
to reduce the cost of the winters fuel quite noticeably ; enough to shelter
every living thing about the place in the coldest storms, of the coldest
winters ; and, enough to repay the planter many times its cost,in beauty
alone ; for, “a thing of beauty, is a joy forever,” and, is worth striving
for, even on the farm.

And it is to the eye,—to the love of the beautiful, to which we must
largely appeal to make farm-life more attractive, and this keeps the boys
and girls on the homestead, instead of going to town, for we must ac-
knowledge, that, in home adornment, our city friends are far ahead
of us.

The foregoing is no fancy picture, and the object of this paper, will be |
to induce the farmers of Minnesota, to assist, and, to try to show them
how, they may assist in greatly multiplying the bright side of this

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 53

picture. Or, in other words; that, in planting about the home, many
evergreens should be used for the groundwork; and, a few deciduous
ones, for variety, instead of many cottonwoods, &c., &c., and a few ever-
ereens, as now; that is, to reverse, in a measure, the usual order of
planting about the house and grounds; in this, our cold and bracing
climate, and thus have shelter and beauty in the winter, when both will
be more appreciated, than they are in the summer.

When it is taken into consideration, how easily the different kinds of
native varieties are transplanted ; and, how very fast some of them grow,
in almost any kind of soil, we are greatly astonished, in traversing the
country, to see how very few people have availed themselves of the
bountiful supplies which nature has furnished, in many parts of our
State, and which can be had merely for the trouble of digging. And,
when these are not available, we can have recourse to those of nursery-
men, who make a specialty of evergreens ; or, to those persons who ad-
vertise in our agricultural and horticultural journals, to furnish forest
seedlings, in any desired quantity, either of which parties, will furnish
enough to shelter the home. for a very few dollars.

; VARIETIES.

That sort which is found to succeed best in your locality, is the sort
most largely to plant. For instance: In this part of the State, (in east
Olmstead county ), there is nothing like the white pine. We have planted
a hundred fold more of this, than of any other variety. One on the
lawn, twelve inches high when planted, thirteen (13) years ago, measures
to-day, with tape-line, 8 inches from the ground, forty-one (41) inches in
circumference, and twenty-one, (21) good, long paces around the lower
tier of branches. The pines,—Austrian, Scotch and Black, are all good.
So is red cedar and arborvite. So, also, is Balsam fir. But, it is not
desirable to enumerate, as each one will be obliged to content himself
with such as will be best adapted to his needs. The important business
is, to plant, and to do the work with care; when, in nearly all cases,
there will be success. The per-centage of loss, with me, is no larger
in evergreens, than in cottonwoods, or any other variety of deciduous
trees.

PREPARATION OF SOIL, PLANTING, &c.

Any soil that will grow a good crop of wheat, will be suitable for ever-
greens. It must be well prepared,—deeply plowed, and finely pulver-
_ized. It may be last seasons breaking, or the oldest land on the farm;
there is very little difference, but in either case it ought to be mellow,
and in good heart. A good plan is to-prepare a strip, where there is to
be a permanent wind-break; on the North or West side of the lot, which
it is desired to improve; and for two rows of trees, of large growing kinds,
as the pines, or spruces ; about twelve (12) feet wide; for smaller grow-
ing sorts, 10 feet will do. In this strip, mark out two rows, or draw two
ee five (5) feet apart, for the large, or four (4) for the smaller growing

inds.

Now we are ready for the trees; and if they are to come from the for-
est, we choose a rainy, or at least a cloudy day in the spring, (never in
the fall), just about the beginning of seeding ; or, if time is no object with
you, wait till the buds swell; (don’t wait till they have grown), the time
of which will vary nearly a month, in the different varieties. This is the
very best time to move all sorts of overgreens, although we know, that an

54 FOREST TRE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

expert can transplant them successfully at almost any season of the year.
Take your wagon, a few wet horse blankets, to cover the trees as fast as
dug ; and go to the place previously selected, and carefully dig and cover
such treesas you wish, always remembering,—and I wish to impress this fact
upon the mind of every one who undertakes this business :—THAT THE ROOTS
MUST NOT RE ALLOWED TO DRY IN THE LHAST; or be exposed to the sun or
wind, for a moment, if you wish firstrate success ; and if the roots should once be-
come nearly dry, throw them away at once, as it will only be labor lost to
take them home and plant them: And also, if you wish to make fine
trees in the future, you must be content to select small ones now, from
two (2) to eighteen (18) inches high; the smaller the better. Nursery
grown trees may safely be somewhat larger; but even in this. case small
‘ ones will be best, and they will certainly cost less. If you are obliged to
use nursery grown trees, select. or order your trees early ; dont be put off
till June. Two or three year-old seedlings, which will be from two (2)
to eight (8) inches high, will be most profitable, but if it suits your case,
get them larger.

PROPAGATION BY SEEDS.

Raising evergreen seedlings is a very simple and easy process to one
who understands how to go about it; but to the novice it is very slow
and unsatisfactory; and believing that the time gained by the former,
in planting trees already grown, will more than compensate for the dif
ference in first cost, even if he should succeed and grow first rate seed-
lings, I would not advise planters generally to raise their own trees,
but will here give, for the benefit of those who wish to do so, a method
which has succeeded well with me:

Send your order to a reliable seedsman early enough to have your
seeds on hand by the time the ground will be fit to work in the spring.
Make long, narrow beds, east and west if possible, not more than two
(2) feet wide, with eighteen (18) inch alleys between. Sow seeds broad- -
cast twice as thickly as you would sow oats, (5 or 6 bushels to the acre,)
and cover nearly one (1) inch deep by sifting over them good, mellow
soil with a coarse seive.

It will be a good plan, if you have time, to prepare your beds in the
fall previous, so that the seeds can go in early in spring, as it is quite
important that the young plants should have a good start before hot
weather sets in. Having the seeds in the ground, the next thing will be
to stick brush (evergreen wili be best but others will do) along the south
side of the bed, to partially shade them, so that the sun will not shine
long at a time upon any one place; as, without this shading, the young
- plants will be scorched nearly as fast as they come up. If the weather
is dry, the ground must be well soaked once a week. But if the weather
should be wet it must not be kept too moist or too much shaded after the -
plants are up or they will rot. If they appear likely to do this, a little
dry road dust sprinkled on them, if you have it on hand, will be a good
prevention. We must now keep our beds clear of weeds, and the wis-
dom of having them narrow will be apparent, as we can weed them from
one side without disturbing the brush. Here our seedlings must remain
till two (2) years old; when, if they have done well, they will usually be
from two (2) to eight (8) inches high, and ready for transplanting to the
nursery.

In fie first fall, with one summer’s growth, most varieties will be very

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 55

small, having really only well made their appearance above ground; and
to prevent the frost, in the following spring from heaving them out, they
must be covered with brush, or straw, or mats; but take care that you
do not make a harbor for mice. And to avoid this it would be better .
not to cover till nearly spring. In the first fall after the little seedlings
have been transplanted to the nursery rows, the earth should be drawn
about them, (early in the spring will do) so that the alternate freezing .
and thawing shall not heave them out. In the second summer they will
not need shading, only keep them clean, and if the weather is dry,
water as in the first season. (Propagating evergreens by any other
method than seeds is impracticable for general use.)

Now, having our ground prepared and the trees on hand, we proceed
to plant them, about a foot apart in the rows, as carefully as we would so
many cabbage plants—putting them in the ground as deeply as their
size will permit, and if the ground is at all dry, watering them thus :—
After planting and half filling the holes of a dozen or more with fine
dirt, go back and pour water enough into each hole to completely soak
the ground about the roots; then, when the water all soaks away, fill up
with dry, fine earth, and thus continue to do till all are planted.

Never water on the surface as this bakes the ground. Having now
planted all our trees, we have nothing more to do but to keep them clean
with hoe and cultivator, as we should keep so many rows of corn, till
harvest time, when they may be let alone tiil fall, when they should be

weeded again. We never mulch small trees, when we have them in rows »

so that they can be cultivated, without the soil is very sandy, and then
only in an exeessively dry time.

We have now established a nursery from which to draw, from year to
year, as we may need them to set about the house and barn, or to sell to
our ‘neighbors—remembering that we must leave enough for our wind-
break, and that for this purpose, they should be all of one variety; that
is, that each wind-break should be of one kind of trees, as two or more
kinds do not look well, even if they should grow as well, which they
will not. They should be about five feet apart in the rows for the larger
growing kinds and four for the smaller, and stand thus:— .*.°.°.°
zigzag, like a worm fence. In transplanting larger specimens to the lawn
or grounds greater care must be taken to preserve as many roots as may
be, and if possible, to take up a good ball of earth with each one; and
also if the roots seem to be few, shortening the branches as we would
those of any other trees, except in the case of those trees (like the pines)
which grow only from the ends of the branches. Here we must not cut
the top tier of branches, nor the main leader. Large trees should have
large holes, and be well watered—the same as our small trees—and well
mulched with rotten stable manure, as in this case mulching will be much
better than cultivation. If the position is exposed to the wind a good
plan is to stay the tree with three small wires, one end of each fastened
to the body of it with a leather strap, or some other soft material, which
will not injure the bark, and fasten the other ends to the ground with
pegs, for a year or two, till the roots have firmly taken hold.

Trees of almost any size, can be successfully transplanted, if the nec-
essary time and care be taken, but such trees are very costly, and would
be entirely unavailable.

For the general planter, and, where fine specimens are to be the result,
the small ones will be far the best, every time, even if there is no differ-
ence in the cost.

56 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

For a forest, the trees can be as large as you desire to handle, as. the
object here, is ‘to grow a straight, tall, trunk, and not side branches, as is

: the,casein our ornamental trees and wind- breaks, and they. should be

set in check-rows, about four teet apart each ” way, so that they can be
cultivated with horse- -power, like corn, and when they grow to such size,
that itis no longer possible to cultivate them, we can remove every other
tree, leaving them quincunx; and when they again become. too thick,
te take out the centre one of each five, when they will be eight. feet apart
~ each way, and will be about right for our permanent forest.
Political economists now assure us, that the limit of the wooden,age,
shall have been reached in about fifty years, if there is not something
done to arrest the rapid destruction of our forests, generally, and: more
especially, of our pine forests, whose products enter so largely. into. the

construction of almost everything i in the country. In fact, affect almost _ }

all industries directly, or indirectly. We can not see any plan by which
this necessary destruction can be stopped ; nor would it be. desirable, Xe)
long, as on this very destruction depends the welfare of so many of our
| population. Of the unnecessary waste of these products, it is not in our
province, now to speak ; but, we would urge upon Congress, to take some
effective measures to forestall the consequences of this waste.and de-
struction, by offering a premitim, if néed be, to every land-owner in the
Union, whose soil and climate will be'suitable for growing pine timber ;
not only i in the new, but in the older’States as well, and. thus, if not put
off till the end shall have really come, the supplies can be kept up, ad
infinitum. Some of the older people of the world have thus kept up their .
supplies, and why not us? If the Government can ‘not see this, let
every individual, who has the welfare of his’ country at heart, do what,
in him lies, to promote this good cause; and, as there is nothing in the
world that succeeds like success, every pine tree seen flourishing on our
prairies, will be a sure incentive to some one to go. and plant another ;
and, thus, as the perfectly simple conditions of success begins to be un-
derstood, there will be no trouble to induce people to plant evergreens.

Let no one be deterred from planting an evergreen’ forest, by the fear,
that they will grow too slow. The native piné here, has erown forty
feet in twenty- five years; and, with good cultivation, the same variety has
grown much ‘faster, even than this ;so that,if the first settlers had planted
pine forests, they could now be cutting all ‘the smaller timbers for the
large barns which they are building ‘at this time, and, for which, the
timber comes long distances by river and rail.

In planting a “small trench, should be made as deep as you wish to
plant the cutting. Place the cutting in it, draw over it an inch or more
of earth, then press firmly with the foot, after which, fill the trench level
with mellow e earth, and you have a cutting planted, that will, most
surely, grow rapidly.

AFTER CARE.

_ Having brought our trees through the first season all right, we are apt
to congratulate “ourselves that our work is done. On the “contrary, here
is just “where many planters suffer shipwreck.’ Now is just the time to
make, or mar, the beatuy of our trees, if we wish them to be what ever-
greens ought to be, with branches sweeping the ground, in all the lux-
uriance of full foliage. In order to attain to this “perfection of form and
foliage, it is necessary to keep down every vestige of weeds and grass,
while the tree is making its new growth; as the young shoots are then

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 57

very tender, and those in contact with the grass will be smothered.
This can best be attained by thorough cultivation, where we have them
_in rows. After a tree has attained its annual growth, say about the
fourth of July, it will be able to take care of itself; yet, if time can be
had, it will be well to keep all grass and weeds away from it always.
_ For trees on the lawn, which are not yet large, a good plan is to invert

the sod with the spade, to the depth of three or four inches, each spring,

_ say in May, six inches to a foot outside the lower limbs. This keeps
- the ground mellow, and also, for a time, kills the grass; but this plan
will only be allowable in good, rich soil, and will not do at all in sand.
Here we must mulch with good, rotten stable manure, and to get the full
benefit of it, the operation should be performed every fall, and if too
much material should accumulate, scrape away the old before applying
_ the new. And this mulching is not understood as it should be., We
_..must not pile up little conical heaps of stuff about the stem, but spread
_ it out beyond the lower branches, six inches or a foot, quite thickly on
the outside, and growing thinner as it approaches the centre, where it is
not necessary to have anything, as the foliage itself will keep that part
of the earth moist; and thus we have a kind of reservoir, in the middle
of which is the tree, and which will retain the moisture which falls on
the branches. In this way we keep the soil rich and loose for the small
rootlets, which will always be found to extend further out from the trunk
than the branches, and of course these must be fed, if we wish the tree
to prosper.

After lawn trees, in good soil, have grown to large size, say twenty
feet and upwards, it is only necessary to attend very carefully to keep-
: ing down the grass; mowing once in ten days till the tree has attained
its annual growth, which will be, as before stated, about the fourth of
July. If the soil is poor and the tree does not seem to do well, a good
plan is to mulch heavily with good, rich manure, in the fall, and remove
again in the spring, after the rains shall have washed the substance of it
into the ground. Neglecting to attend to these things will assuredly, in
time, cause the lower branches of most varieties to die out, and thus
give us a poor scrubby-looking specimen, only fit for the wood pile.

' Having attended to the foregoing suggestions, which are not mere
theories, but have been deduced from actual experiments, no one need
fail. Only have faith enough in your work, and in yourself, to go about
it as you would any other thing in which you desired to succeed, and

ou will not fail; and at the return of spring you will rejoice to see your
beautiful trees put forth their delicate young foliage, and continue to do
so, year by year, until they shall have attained to such magnificent pro-
portions that you will have more pride and gratification in leaving these
as a heritage to your children than you will in all the broad and fertile
acres which you may have acquired in a long and successful life.

Not only will their graceful foliage gladden your eyes and cheer your
heart in the spring time, when all nature re-awakes to a renewed actiy-
ity, but they will cheer you in the autumn, when all else is in the sear
and yellow leaf; and they will be with vou in their shining green all the
cold and sombre winter long, to keep away the howling storm and

‘brighten up your now beautiful prairie home, as nothing else in inani-
mate nature can: and all the year through, their resinous juices will fill
the air about you with health-giving odors, so that, when at length, in
the fullness of time, you shall. pass away from earth and your children
shall succeed you, and their children, in turn, shall come upon the scene,

58 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

generation after generation shall rise up and call you blessed, for having
given them such a beautiful heritage. .

Little Valley, Minn., March 1, 1878.

JoHNn R. KEPNER.

The following unusually instructive and every way valuable paper,
from Mr. J. H. Brown, of Lac Qui Parle, Minn., prepared expressly for
the Minnesota State Forestry Association, present so many important
features in tree planting as to commend it to all who have any interest
in “conquering the prairies.” Mr. Brown was one of the early settlers of
Northern Illinois—then again an early settler of Olmsted Co., Minn., and ~
again one of the pioneers of civilization on our western borders; a good
type of the class of men who cause the wilderness “to blossom as the
rose”;—and now in his old age is successfully battling against, and grad-
ually overcoming all the privitations and hardships incident to the set-
tlement of a new country,—building up a beautiful and attractive home
—rearing to himself an arboreal monument, more enduring than mar-
ble, and setting an example all may profitably emulate. His young plan-
tation so successfully prosecuted, is already the most noticeable feature of
the Upper Minnesota Valley, and is: the admiration of every passing
traveler. His views in regard to close forest planting, are commended
to the consideration of the “carping critics.” ‘The proof of the pudding
is in the chewing of thebag-strings:”

Lac qui Pare, Dec. 25, 1878.
Mr. L. B. Hodges, Dear Sir :—

You wrote me that you wished me to write up my experience on for-
est tree growing. You said that you wanted it to read at the meeting of
the State Forestry Association. I feel thankful to you for the kind in-
vitation. I am fearful, however, that you will be dissappointed in con-
sequence of expecting more from me than I can give to your asssociation;
for you doubtless, have men in your association, who are far more com-
petent to instruct in your deliberations than Iam. But since you wish
it, I will try to give afew thoughts on the planting and growing of forest
trees, on these treeless prairies. In order to make a success in growing
trees, we must be thorough in the preparing of the land before the trees
are planted, and after they are planted, they need to be well cultivated
until they are large enough to take care of themselves, and unless this
is done, it is of but little use to think of growing a forest. The land
should be prepared and cultivated in the same manner that a thorough
farmer prepares and cultivates his land for corn. I have had very good
success with trees planted the next spring after the land was broken, but
it requires much more labor. It is better to sow the wheat one year, the
sod then will be quite well rotted and the trees will grow faster.

It is quite useless however, to dwell long on the preparing and culti-
vating the land, if a man generally does his farm work well, he will be
quite likely to treat his trees thesame way ; and the result will be a grand
success, but on the other hand, if the man is in the habit of doing his
work slovenly, he will treat his trees in the same way, and the result will
be a miserable failure. As regards to the best kinds of timber to plant on
these prairies, | think cottonwood the most preferable it grows more
rapidly than any other tree; next that is the soft maple. After having planted
a liberal amount of these two kinds, I should plant the white ash, which
when grown is the most valuable of any variety of timber we have here,
and I regard these three varieties the only kinds we have here that is

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 59

worthy of forestry cultivation. But for early, wind-break, orshelter from
the wind and early fuel timber, the cottonwood should have the first at-
tention. Its timber makes very good fuel, especially when dry. The
white willow as a single row, if we wish to grow a live fence is the only
tree plant we have here, or get, that will answer that purpose, but I hope
to see something better introduced for that purpose. I have, however,
planted nearly two miles of it on my farm, and had not the hoppers kept
eating it off for the three years it would have made a satisfactory growth,
but they kept it back very much, they likewise clipped the outer limbs
of the cottonwood, but not as much as the willow. I have used
mostly cottonwood in planting my groves, and for the most part I have
planted seedlings of one and two years growth; someseasons they are
quite plenty here, and some seasons there are but few, which was the
case last fall, the seeds fall from the trees from the first of June to July.
They fall on the water of the rivers and other places of water, they catch
on the shores and sandbars, and grow up the same season four to twelve
inches. I have used such plants for the most of my tree planting. But
some seasons that class of little trees are quite scarce here, and in that
case we resort to cuttings. I have sometimes had very good success with
them, and at other times they have been almost a total failure with me.
I have heard many men speak of like results, that is when they are pre-
pared and stuck in the earth the usual way of doing. I have found by
experimenting that cuttings may be prepared and planted in such man-
ner that they will be almost sure to grow and do well, at least they
have proved a perfect success with me so far as I have tried them. [
_ take the limbs from the tree and: cut them about six inches in length,
leaving one small side limb as nearly as may be in the middle of this
cutting, cut this back to the length of five or six inches. Plant this cut-
ting flat in the ground, say about three inches deep, leaving the end of
the side limb two or three inches above ground.
It is a matter of no small importance to us to ...

know how best to arrange our forest trees, so as:
to have them both ornamental and useful. I. |:
have here drawn a small plat of a farm, of one |!
hundred and sixty acres. I thought, when I ':
planted the trees, that they were quite well %:
arranged. But, perhaps, some of you can sug- %:
gest a better plan. If so, please send us a
specimen, and we will be glad to see it. This =!
sketeh represents a farm, as it now is; and, I %
think, any one who carefully looks at this Craw - bccecccccescsccecet feces!
ing, would, if they should chance to pass by
this farm, see at once, that it is a fair specimen of the real appearance.
You will perceive, that these several belts of trees are in the aggregate,
nearly three miles in length. There are, not less than fourteen acres of
land in them. The outside row of all the lines of trees is thickly set
with willows. These are intended for line fence. On the south and east
side, there are only two rows of shade trees planted, as dots indicate.
The south-east corner represents house and barn grounds. The open
ground a little to the west, contains four acres of land. I have planted
nearly all kinds of trees on those grounds. There are public highways
on all sides of this farm, save on the north. We think it quite a nice
drive around this farm ; the trees standing, for the most part, about six-
teen feet high. The forest-belts are planted in rows four feet apart, and

G60 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

from two to four foot in the rows. This may seem to some to be quite
too close ; but, by so doing they will grow tall and straight with but few
side-branches; and in a few years after planting they will admit of
being thinned one-half, and those left will be worth more than if
planted farther apart at first, and the thinnings will make a large
amount of fuel to the acre. If we would grow tall, straight, forest-trees,
we must have them quite near together when small. If too far apart,
then they will take the form of shade trees. having short trunks and
wide-spreading tops, which are not desirable for a valuable forest of tim-
ber. ‘l'rees planted twelve feet apart, as some are doing, will never make
a valuable forest. And when would we begin to thin it, in consequence
of its becoming too close on the ground? I should not look for that
time to come in my day; for, when we cut one tree we have a space of
twenty-four feet. {If we plant closely, we will have an annual return for
our labor a number of years before we would think of cutting a tree, if.
we had planted twelve foot apart, and the trees still left, will be of far
more value. They will not be mere shade trees, having short trunks.
They will be tall, straight trees, useful for any purpose. There is
another benefit derived from close planting, for, if well cultivated, in two
years they will take care of themselves. But, if planted twelve foot,
awe may keep on cultivating, at least five years, and then we have but
little value. To grow white ash, I find, by my experience, that it should
stand very close while young, if we make a success in growing it on the
prairie; and it is best to plant the seeds where you wish them to remain.
i think eight inches is far enough apart in the rows. That will cause
them to grow tall and slender, with but few side-branches. If left too
far-apart, they grow quite scragey. Ihave ash eight foot tall four years
after planting seeds. It is better to plant in the fall. Some men in this
locality are planting ash-leafed maple in their groves. It grows quite
fast, but is rather short lived, and does not grow to a large size ; but,
when planted alone, it makes a beautiful shade tree. I have used them
quite liberally for that purpose. It is the first tree that looks green in
the spring, and is a very ornamental tree. I have none in my forest-
planting regarding it, ot less value for that purpose, than most other
varieties. We have been very much annoyed in this locality by the hop-
pers. ‘They bite nearly everything they light on; they have entirely
destroyed very many small trees. I planted a nursery of about ten
thousand small cottonwood seedling trees, intending them for transplant-
ing. They looked very promising, until late in June, when the hoppers
took possession of the ground, destroying all but about fourteen hun-
dred. ‘hey also injured the larger trees very much for the last three
years. Therefore, their annual growth has been much less than it would
have been. But, yet, the growth has been quite satisfactory. I think
the cottonwood has made an annual growth of four feet. ‘lhe maples,
two vo three feet, and the ash, still less. We had, also, a beetle, or June
bug, here last season, which worked on the ash, nearly destroying the
entire growth for the season. The young twigs were eaten off and started
again three successive times. The bugs leaving about the last of June.
They sprouted again, but it was so late that the growth was but little.
I have seen the same bug before, but never in such great numbers, and
never so destructive. he maple, likewise, has nearly all been cut off
when quite small, several years in this locality. Some years they are
not touched. Five years ago, I planted quite a large quantity of seeds
for a nursery of trees. They came up very nicely, and had about eighty

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 61

thousand of them. When they were nicely above ground, they began to
disappear, and in the fall, I had only five or six thousand; I called the
destroyer a cut-worm. We all well know that we are lable to meet
with disappointments in any enterprise we may engage in ; and, forestry-
growing is not an exception tothe general rule. Notwithstanding these
disappointments, I have continued to plant a few trees, and the result
is quite satisfactory. The theory that forest-trees could not be grown
on the open prairie, is now proven to be false; and that of itself, is a
long stride towards the treeing of treeless lands.

I well remember, that only six years ago this winter, when the wind
would be blowing with all its violence, bringing the loose snow from
twenty miles west, and northward of us, piling it up in huge drifts
around like buildings, and at times, making it unsafe to step out doors I
then, at times, being seated around a well-heated stove, talked about
planting trees under the protection of which, we could build our houses
and barns, and be protected from the wind. Some of my boarders
would, at times, jokingly remark, that around this warm stove in a cold,
wintry day, was a very good time and place to grow such nice forests ;
they not believing that it could be done in our day. Since then, I heard
the same persons express thair fullest belief of the sure and early pro-
tection from wind and snow, by planting trees.. And such is the case
with thousands of men all over the western States. And now, that men
have faith in tree-growing, we may look for forests to spring up all over
this treeless west. I have observed, that some persons make.a fatal mis-
take in planting a grove around their buildings; they plant a few trees
quite near their buildings, and think they have done a very good thing.
Well, they have, so far as it goes. But, if they gono farther they will,
~ some day, see that itis not so good after all. This small grove will break
the wind and stop the snow; but the snow will be stopped and piled up
just where they don’t want it. Their door-yards and barn-yards will
become filled with snow; or, in other words, they will have no yards
visible, and will be quite likely to find themselves wishing that they
had not planted any trees. Below, you will see a sketch of ten acres of
land, on which is designed to represent ten acres on any homestead-claim
in the south-west part of the county. When I planned and arranged
the ten acres, as before shown on my farm, at Lac qui Parle, I find that
I made in that one mistake, at least. You will observe, that on the north
and west sides of this sketch, I have planted three rows of trees, one
of willow, and two of cottonwood.

This narrow belt will cause the snow to pile up on SETS

the south of the north belt, and on the east of the §
west belt. The snow always being blown from the
north-west in our severe storms. I have then left =
within these outcr south lines, several rods in width |
of unplanted land. This open space I call the |
snow line; and within this snow-line,I have planted |
the main grove, designed to protect my building |:
grounds. The south-east part not closely planted, |
is designed for house, barn, barn-lot, garden, and § i:
fruit grounds. A plantation arranged after this soUTH

plan will avoid the main grove being piled full of, and broken down by

the snow. This ten acre plat may be located on any part of the farm

you please to choose. This plat of land is on my homestead claim, .
which is located about twenty miles from Lac qui Parle, and nine miles

62 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

north-east of Canby. There are a large number of groves planted in the
county. I noticed when passing over some parts of this county last
September, one place where I saw, at least, ten of these artificial groves
at one view, showing their dark-green lines above the rolling prairie.

I hear many talking about planting trees next spring ; and many more
will yearly be induced to plant groves, when they see their neighbors
trees grow so nicely. And at no distant day, this so-called treeless
country will become the pleasant abode of intelligent and civilized man.

I wish, here, to take the liberty to correct a mistake, made by some
one in regard to the amount of natural forest-timber in the country. I
have seen it stated in the reports pertaining to timbered lands in the
western part of our State, thatthe county of Lac qui Parle, has only two
hundred acres. This is quite far from being correct. Those who best
know how much there is, say there are, at least, twenty-two hundred
acres. Please correct this report when opportunities present. _ |

We shall expect you will use your utmost endeavor to induce Congress
to amend the tree-claim act. Bringing down, where the man of small
means may avail himself of its benefits, and causing him to grow a
closely-set and useful forest, with complete success, instead of an attempt
to grow forty acres of shade trees, (for it will be nothing more for a long
time,) and make a sad failure, losing his claim, labor, and all. For no
poor man can support a family, open up his farm, and grow forty acres
of timber at the same time. This class of men are the only men who
will undertake to do it; the wealthy are not apt to bind themselves to
hold a piece of land eight years, before they can procure title. The pre-
mium acts of seventy-one and seventy-three, passed by our State Legis-
‘lature, were very good to encourage growing forest-trees. But the life of
those two acts was five years, in which to plant groves to obtain the pre-
miums. We here think, that those acts ought to be re-enacted ; and if
you think so, we cordially invite you to use your co-operative iufluence
to induce our legislature to renew those acts this winter, and have them
run indefinitely as to time, when they may be repealed,when they become
inoperative. I would suggest, however, that no premiums be awarded
for trees planted in the future, unless they are planted so closely together
that they will insure a dense forest.

We can afford to be taxed for the growing of properly planted and
well cultivated forests. But, a forest of trees planted sixteen feet apart,
as the other State acts indicated, is too far apart,—“ too thin,” to be worthy
of the imposing of taxes on the people of the State for their support.
Perhaps, I have not been so particular in my remarks about close plant-
ing, as I might have been. I will say a few words more about that part
of the work. It is of much importance in planting closely, to have the
trees of uniform size, and strength of growth, else the stronger will kill
the weaker, before they become large enough to be of value for fuel, or
other uses. If we plant a large tree, and then a small, and again a large
one, as we are quite likely to do, if we don’t know any better, the larger
trees will soon spread their branches over the tops of the smaller trees,
which will entirely stop the growing any farther of the smaller trees, and
they might about as well be left out. So long as a tree can keep its head
up in. the sun, it will continue to reach up still higher. Therefore, it is
better that we assort the trees before planting. When we get a large
amount of trees ready for planting, they will usually be made up of
various sizes. We should assort them in three parts, putting the largest
by themselves, and again, the next largest, and lastly, the smallest by

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 63

- themselves. Plant these three divisions as much as may be by them-
selves; you will then have planted them so as to cause a uniform growth-

-. If we observe these rules in our forestry-planting, we may plant quite

closely and every tree will grow large enough to be of value before they
will require thinning. I should be happy to meet with you in your de-
_ liberations for the errcouraging of forest-tree growing. I have noticed
with much pleasure, the success attending your most worthy efforts for
the promotion of a cause, which, if properly carried forward, will greatly
help to encourage tree-planting in all the treeless portion of our State.
And, it must be apparent to all, that the entire State will receive more or
less benefit by your efforts. It is highly gratifying to witness what a great
change has taken place in the minds of the masses in a few years.

Six years ago, 1 one day went to the- timber and got a back-load of
sprouts, and brought them up to the house. A little time after, I went in
the store, and one of my neighbours asked me what I intended doing
with those brush he saw me carrying. I told him I was going to cut
them in pieces and stick them in the ground, and grow me a forest of
timber for fuel, and other purposes. He,not believing that these brush
would grow to trees of value and usefulness in our day, in quite a solemn
manner, remarked, that some of us would need a wooden jacket before
we could grow trees large enough to do us any good. Neither him nor
I have yet needed a wooden jacket. I have some splendid trees from
the brush, but he has not commenced planting yet. He told me last
week that if he could have believed that the trees could be made to
grow as mine had, he would have had a grove likewise. This man was
not alone in his unbelief. To-day, men do not believe that forests can be
grown, and thousands will act according to their faith in the good work.
The time is not far in the future, when I believe this county will be all
dotted over with groves of forest trees.

Before I close, I again invite you to use your utmost influence in be-
half of the tree-claim-act, the State premium acts, and any and every
thing you can for the benefit of the treeless portion. We are wofully
poor, financially. The grasshoppers, for three years past, have used us
without mercy, and we greatly need the almighty dollar. But, I must
close, hoping this will do you no harm, if it should do you no good.
This:is from an obscure and humble frontiersman.

J. H. BROWN.

The Beech—Fagus Sylvatica.

In all;my rambles over Minnesota I have never yet encountered a reg-
ular old fashioned. beech tree—such as are common east of Lake Michi-
gan. The water beech is indigenous and common along the river bot-
toms of Minnesota, but of too little value to talk much about. There is
a tradition of a large beech tree standing, or formerly standing, some-
where near the banks of the Mississippi between Hastings and Red
Wing, that the Indians held in great reverence, and performed many
a sacred “ pow-wow” under its umbrageous shade.

Whoever succeeds in growing a beech forest in Minnesota, will have,
certainly, the poor consolation of knowing that his life has not been al-
together a failure. It is more than probable that his name would be
honorably enrolled high up in the annals of forestry. I would not view
the attempt to grow a beech forest in Minnesota as Utopian in any sense.
Our climate and soil are both good enough, and I do not yet see any
insurmountable obstacles to overcome.

64 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

It is true that the attempts in this direction so far, are not encouraging,
“but if at first you don’t succeed, try, try again.” Try it on after your
young forests have so far developed as to afford a good shade to the
young plant. Plant the beechnuts soon after they have dropped, and -
while yet perfectly fresh and sweet, and cover lightly. |

There is no use in planting eastern grown beech trees on the open.
prairie; I do not say they will all die within six months, but Ido say the -
blazing sun and drying winds make it mighty tough for them. They.
need the. protection a partially developed forest would naturally give,
and. with such protection success is possible. - sapeeer

Bryant says: “The beech is one of the loftiest trees of the American.
forests, sometimes reaching the height of one hundred feet. It occupies -
a wide range of latitude, being found from Canada to the Gulf of Mex-
ico. It is a stranger to the prairies of Illinois and Iowa. It grows to
the greatest size in deep, moist soils. * * * The roots of the beech
run near the surface of the soil, and often appear above it. If the trees
are felled in winter, they send up a great number of sprouts, so that a
beech forest is easily renewed. *,-* .* .* "Whe jbeech, camm@imne
recommended as one of the most profitable trees for forest culture,
nevertheless, it is worthy the attention of those who plant ona large
scale.

From Hough’s report, page 72, we find the following, which I deem
useful in this connection:

The Brrcu (Fagus sylvatica) is the only hard wood by nature admirably suited
for growth in unmixed forests. Its leaves, rich in potash, decay easily, and form
an excellent humus. In high-timber forests, it finds its proper place, growing
best where the foliage forms an almost unbroken roof, which hinders the sun
from drying the soil. Its period is usually 100 to 120 years, being longer on poor
soils. It is not suited for coppice, because its power of sending up shoots from.
the stool is not great, and their growth is slow; but in lime sois this power is
greater. It occurs as coppice under standards where the latter throw much shade
on the underwood, or where, as in the case of oak standards, the ground should
be well shaded from the sun. On lime, and the milder clay ‘soils, it thrives as
standards, but it then overshadows more than any other tree. Its wood is usually
worth less than other hard woods in the market. The beech requires a strong min-
eral soil, fresh and rich in humus. It is often found with the oak on sandy, loamy
deposits, if not too dry or too moist; but on poorer and lighter soils, or in exposed
places, it grows slowly, and the soil becomes impoverished. The true home of
the beech is on lime, basalt, and greenstone, if the soil is not too thin. This par-
tiality for lime is shown in the smoothness of bark, the straightness of trunks, and
their freedom from branches; the annual erowth is great, and reproduction by
natural means easy. In fresh, sheltered places on lime, the beech bears seeds

early, (beginning about the seventeenth or nineteenth year), and continues todo .
so at intervals of three to five years, and in abundance. :

The Cuestnut, (Castenea).—I do not propose to recommend this tree
for the prairie. More than twenty years of unsuccessful experimenting
have proved its unfitness. During a succession of unusually mild win-
ters it has escaped severe injury, but when we get 40° below zero, good-
bye to him! I am inclined to think the soil of our prairies is not just
the thing for the chestnut, for 40° below zero among the mountains of
northern New York, don’t hurt it, Iam informed that among the tim-
bered blufts, ravines and gulches of Allemakee Co., lowa, and Houston’
Co., Minnesota, it has proved a success. In such localities I would try
it on a small scale, but never out on the open prairie.

Sorr Marte, (Acer dasycarpum).—Not a bad tree for the prairie; nor
as good as many of its friends claim. Closely planted in groves, it is well
worth cultivating. It is a rapid grower, generally healthy and hardy.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 65

Found in its native state on nearly all the river bottoms. Well culti-
vated, it produces a large amount of very good fuel in a very few years.
It pays well to manure this tree.

For isolated shade trees, although very beautiful, they are not to be
depended on, as they are pretty sure to split down, from the pressure of
strong winds about the time you begin to think you have something to
be proud of. Notwithstanding this serious objection, lots of fellows
will keep right on, all the same, transplanting them from the river bot-
toms to their door-yards To all such let me say, don’t cut the tops off.
If necessary to trim up to bare poles, do so, but always leave the leader
as nature made it. By so doing your tree is not half so liable to split
down. The young nursery trees should be kept well trimmed, the lat-
eral branches never to be allowed to get any start.

The seed ripens in Minnesota last of May or first of June. Should be
picked from the tree as soon as the seeds begin to fall, and should be.
sown as soon thereafter as possible. The sooner the better. On clean,
new ground I have seen them do remarkably well, sown broadcast and
very thick.

‘They are usually planted in drills and covered about one inch deep;
should the ground be dry, rollit or trampitdown. The seed will sprout
and the plants will appear about as quick as corn. When the young
plants first show themselves, shade thoroughly, or the sun will be pretty
sure to burnthem off. Then cultivate frequently till harvest time and they
will grow from 8 to 18 inches the first season, and are suitable for trans-
planting the next spring.

BOX ELDER, ASH-LEAVED MAPLE.—(Acer negunda).

A good tree for the prairie; “in favorable situations, becomes a stately
tree, reaching the hight of 50 or 60 feet.” Itis very hardy, growing as far
north as 54°. The finest specimens of this tree I have yet seen, areto be
found in the valley of the Red River of the North. In rich, moist soil,
its growth is surprisingly rapid, discounting the soft maple two to one.
In very dry soil it is short lived ; it yields a wonderful flow of sap, from
which sugar can be made. The quality of the wood is similar to the soft
maple. ~.

As an ornamental tree, its dense, beautiful green foilage, (and if it has
room to spread itself) its round, symetrical top renders it an object of ad-
miration: The seed ripens in the fall and should be sown soon after.
I have carried them over till the next spring and then sown, but have al-
ways had better results from fall sowing; cover the seed lightly and with
frequent and clean culture, you soon get lots of good trees.

I believe I have now briefly touched upon all, or nearly all the desir-
able forest trees for our Minnesota prairies. It is not the object, nor is it
within the scope of this little work to treat upon all the forest trees of
America. To such persons as may be disappointed in not finding in this
work a greater range of information, I would respectfully recommend to
their persual the works of Bryant, Gray, Warder, Fuller, Michaux, Eve- _
lyn, Berenger, Burgsdorf, Brown, and other eminent authorities. I shall
now proceed to gather and arrange such items of practical value and in-
terest, as may seem calculated to promote forestry in Minnesota.

Prof. William H. Brewer, of Yale College, in an article published in Walker’s
Statistical Atlas, estimates the number of species of woody plants in the United

States at 800. Of these, upward of 300 indigenous species attain the height of 30
feet, of which 251 are abundant somewhere, or at least, not rare. In this he

66 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

excluded all smaller trees that never attain a height of 50 feet, and the tropical
species found on the extreme southern border. Of large trees somewhat abun-
dant, hee stimates 120 species, of which 20 grow 100 feet; twelve, 200, and perhaps
five or six 300 feet in height, or upward. Of these 120, about fifty belong to the
conifer. Only a very few species occur across the whole country, from the At-
lantic to the Pacific. Of these, the aspen (Populus tremuloides) and some of
the cottonwoods are mentioned; but as a rule, there isa marked contrast be-
tween the forest regions east and west of the treeless belt, the timber of the Rocky
Mountains belonging to the western rather than the eastern type. New England,
originally all wooded, has 80 to 85 species, of which about 60 grow to a height of
50 feet. The Middle States, also originally wooded, have 100 to 105 species, of
which 65 to 67 sometimes reach a height of 50 feet. The southeastern part, also
entirely wooded, has over 130 species, 75 of which grow 50 feet or more, and per-
haps a dozen, 100 feet. The southwestern region was characterized by dense for-
ests and open plains, and numbers 112 to 118 species, of which 60 to 75 grew to
50 feet. The northwestern region is diversified by prairies, “openings,” forest,
(some of great extent and density), and timber belts along the rivers and streams.
It contains 105 to 110 species, about 68 to 70 of which grow to 50 feet.

Professor Newberry, in his Geological Survey of Ohio (i. 529), notices several
instances of this relation between rock formations and timber growth. The
Cuyahoga shales, rich in potash, bear a growth of large elms, scattered over this
plateau as far as the eye can reach; beech and maples, with thick groves of chest-
nut where the broken rock comes near the surface, mark the horizon of the con-
glomerate, and above this a belt of forests, in which the predominate timber is
oak, defines with great accuracy the limits of the coal-measures in the northern
part of Ohio. The redwood of California is limited to a peculiar sandstone forma-
tion, and the noble red cedars of Tennessee to the Glade Limestone, a subdivision
of the Trenton Group, which extends superficially as a very irregular ring across
the central part of the State. On subsequent pages we shall have frequent occa-
sion to notice this dependence of forest growth upon the underlying geological
formations, including, of course, the soils resulting from their decomposition.
These peculiarities, when understood, afford valuable indications that may be
followed with profit in attempting the cultivation of timber trees.

SOWING AND PLANTING.
BY DR. HOUGH.

We shall endeavor to present in the following pages, such practical
statement of methods and results of experience as appeared best calcu-
lated to afford subjects of thought and suggestions for experiment in
tree-planting. The results obtained in one country may be different
from those in another, but due allowance being made for circumstances,
the principles of vegetable growth are everywhere alike, and a careful
result of experience and observation acquire a permanent value.

SHOULD WE SOW OR PLANT ?—EXPERIENCE OF EUROPEAN
FORESTERS.*

Most foresters nowadays resort to planting in preference to sowing in
beginning new forests. Is this a fashion and mere caprice, or is it the
fruit of experience and observation? This question we will proceed to
examine. Let us go back a hundred years or more. In 1756, the most
distinguished German forester of that period, Johann Gottlieb Beck-
mann, published a work entitled Experiments and Experiences upon the
necessity of sowing Forest Trees. In this work he specified the method
of sowmg as alone capable of yielding good results, and as the proper
means for regenerating a ruined forest. “What shall be said of the

=46 Translated from an artlcle by the Baron Manteuffel, grand master of Forestsin Saxony. ‘“‘AKevue
Des Euux et Forets,? 1, 147.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 67

method of planting?” he asks; and to this the reply is short and deci-
sive, “It is not a good way, and as to resinous species, it is impracti-
cable.”*

Had foresters been satisfied with this positive declaration, there would
have been no question as to planting within the iast hundred years,
but this has not happened, and they have been compelled to have
recourse to planting oftener than they wished, perhaps as they regarded
it, to complete and replace their sowing. They were led to observe that
the ancient process of planting left much to be desired, and that it was
susceptible of great improvement, while, on the other hand, they found
many soils to be covered in which sowing afforded but slender chance of
success. Little by little they gave more attention to the system of
planting, and had oftener recourse to this method, so that fifty years
after the publication of Beckmann’s book, to-wit, 1805, Buresdorf thus
expressed himself in his Treatise upon Forests, in the chapter upon
forest plantations: “Besides the kinds above mentioned that may be
planted on a large scale, it is a principle that others may be planted, but
only on a small scale; in all cases depending upon success only where
_ the conditions are favorable.” He seems to have understood these “ cer-
tain rules,” and “favorable conditions,” and explained them; but in
this it was a sad thing for sylviculture, they tainted the precepts of the
master.

It would require much time to do full justice to the system of planta-
tion, and in proof of this the elder Cotta, some twenty-five years ago,
remarked: “As the establishment of forest growths on a large scale is
easier to do by sowing than by planting, &.,.* * * we deem it con-
venient to give preference to the former of these methods.” An exam-
ination of the modifications wrought both in theory and in practice
since these principles were laid down would lead us much too far, and,
in our day, progress is more rapid, and science travels further in twenty
years than formerly in acentury. We will only remark, that the old
rule which prescribed that we should plant only where there is no chance of
success by sowing, has now in many countries, and especially in Saxony,
given place to this, never to sow except where it is impossible to plant.f In
other words, planting is now the rule—sowing, the exception; just the
reverse of what it formerly was. Experience has, in fact, demonstrated
to the present generation of sylviculturists that generally a forest
growth can be established sooner, more swrely, and in better condition, by
planting ; sooner, because it starts at least two years earlier than one that
1s sown, and, furthermore, four or five years often elapse before it is pos-
itively known whether a sowing is to be repaired or completed, while in
plantations the very next year will show every plant that is unable to
survive, and these can be at once replaced:—more surely and in better
condition, because plantations are exposed to fewer casualties than seed-
ling growths. The success of the latter depends in the first instance,
upon the quality of the seeds. Now, as we are seldom so situated that
we can harvest them ourselves, we must take them as offered in the mar-
ket, at which are too often sold seeds gathered before they are ripe, or
that are withered, or badly kept, or heated, or too old. But assuming
the most favorable conditions, let us suppose that all the seeds we get

*Chapter iv, ? 13.’” ;

Messrs. Lorentz & Parade remark: ‘Sowing is considered by many foresters as principally
applicable to anes operations, because its processes are more natural and simple, as well as cheaper
than those of planting. But practice tends every day to establish the superiority of the latter.”
(Cours Elementaire de Culture des Bois, 4th ed., p. 509.)

68 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

are good, we still have cause to fear that the soil is not well prepared,
the sowing not even, that the seed are covered too little or too much, or
that too violent showers or persistent drought, too burning a sun, or.a
late frost may happen to destroy all our hopes; but we will further sup-
pose that the season has been as favorable for the coming up of the
seeds as we could desire, and that the birds and the mice have scrupu-
lously respected the tender plants, we shall be very much deceived if we
_ suppose that everything is now secure; but in fact, if the conditions
have been propitious for the growth of forest seeds, they have been
equally so for the growth of pernicious weeds; so much so indeed, that
we can scarcely find the little germs in the midst of the grass and herb-
age by which they are covered and stifled. We may sometimes pull up
these weeds, but at the risk of drawing up the young plants, but this
does not always happen, and in this case the mice often find among the
dried weeds under the snow, a refuge, the more attractive because it
offers a shelter from the cold, and young plants at hand for food. When
the spring comes to melt the snow, there is more sowing to be done, for
_ everything is eaten up. If we succeed in keeping a sowing clean of

weeds the first year, we have every reason to apprehend that in the next
spring following we shall find the ground spread over with young plants
that have been thrown out by the frost. Many other dangers await the
seedling forest during the following years, but it would be needless to
enumerate them. We have said enough to show that success in sowing
is uncertain.

Plantations are likewise liable to late frosts, the teeth of mice, and of
various other accidents, but their existence is not endangered. In most
cases these troubles do not occur after two or three, or at most, four years.
The only real enemies to plantations are insects and their larve, and it
is not surprising that foresters now give preference to this system.

Plantations become cheaper than seeding. Experienced foresters do not
need facts to convince them upon this point. They know, in fact, that
if the cost of first establishment is a little less in sowing than in plant-
ing, especially if seeds are cheap, the expenses occasioned in caring for
the work and of replanting gaps and vacant places is much greater for
seeding, so that taking everything into account, the advantage is al-
together on the side of planting. Be it far from us, however, to think
that we should never have recourse to direct seeding. In sylviculture
there are no absolute and universal rules. Thus, for example, we would
never advise planting timber on the light sands of La Manche or Basse-
Lusace, as we would always blame sowing on the strong-sodded but
thin soils of Saxony. All we have to say as to this is, that as a general
rule, and except in certain well-defined cases, such as those above men-
tioned, planting should be the rule; sowing the exception.

THE CONDITIONS MOST FAVORABLE FOR GROWING OF FOREST-
SEEDS.

That seeds may germinate, they must have a certain amount of con-
tact with the air, and a proper degree of warmth and moisture. In the
natural process of seeding but a very small number of the seeds so
bountifully produced ever find these due proportions of congenial influ-
ences, so as to take root and grow. It is only here and there that a seed
gets lodged among the dead leaves and the mosses, or gets covered by
the detritus, so as to secure the needed protection and a successful

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 69

growth. Ifseeds are left too lightly covered they may be eaten by birds,
or washed out by rains. If too deep, the young shoot will be entirely
smothered, or will come slowly to the surface in too feeble condition for
vigorous growth.

With the view of determining fixed rules from careful trial, a series
of observations was made by Dr. Baur, director of the experimental sta-
tion for forestral researches at Hohenheim, in Wurtemberg, in 1873,
1874 and 1875, the principal results of which are given in the Revue des
Eaux et Forets for June, 1876. The soil selected tor these experiments
was of average density. We can only state the general results:

Beech:—Seeds should be but slightly covered. The best results were found
when the covering was from 0.39 to 1.57 inches, and the best depth 0.79. This
agrees quite nearly with the rule laid down by Burckhard, Heyer, and Lorentz
and Parade.

Quercus pedunculata.—The acorns should be planted shallow, but a little deeper -
than beech-nuts. The depth should be more in light soils. Heyer recommends
1 to 2 inches, and advises that they be sometimes covered by a plow.

Acer cumpestre (English Maple).—The seeds should be but slightly covered, but
little deeper than with beech. From 0.39 to 0.78 is unquestionably best, and
beyond 2.75 inches they will not grow. The observer noticed the following
appearances in the germination of the maple: They issue with very long cotyle-
dons, and if deeply covered, or if the surface of the soil is too hard, these cannot
easily break through the obstacle, yet continue to grow, and at length break, and
thus the germ is lost We may thus see why many vacant places often occur in
seed-beds of the maple.

Acacia.—The results here observed were quite interesting, and agreed perfectly
in the two years observed. When Stumpf ( Waldbau, 2d ed:, p. 276) laid down the
general rule that “large and heavy seeds should be more deeply covered,” he
should have excepted this kind. The results tend to show that depth has but
very little influence, but that these seeds, however light, should be planted at
least as deep as acorns. The result appears to lead to the conclusion that the
acacia might be used with advantage in planting arid soils and southern slopes,
where seeds thinly covered would scarely grow trom want of moisture.

Black Alder.—This should be but very slightly covered, a third of an inch being
enough. Burckhard avises that it should be very slighlty covered, or even simply
strewn upon the surface, and Heyer remarks that it should be mingled with the
most superficial parts of the soil. The experiments of Dr, Baur gave the best
results at 0.39 inch. From 0.59 to 0.98 the shoots were but few, and from greater
depths but one seed came up. ;

Cammon pine.—The results of two years showed that a covering of 0.39 to 0.59
inch is the most advantageous. At greater depths the plants were scattered, and
none grew from a depth of over 1.18 inches.

Fir.—With this, as with the pine, the deeper seeds were slower in coming to
the surface, and the general average for best results was the same.

Silver Fir.—The best depth ranges between 0.39 and 0.77 inch, or a little more
than in the case of the pine and fir. None appeared which had been covered 1.18
or more inches.

ATTENTION TO THE QUALITIES OF SEEDS—GATHERING
OF SEEDS.

It is a universal law in nature, that certain qualities of excellence or
defect, tend to transmission from parent to offspring. By virtue of this,
the various choice breeds of domestic animals have been originated and
improved. Our plants cultivated forculinary use, and ornamental plant-
ing, have thus been multiplied in variety without number, and in qual-
ity so greatly improved upon the native original, as scarcely to be recon-
ized as of the same species. :

May we not from an analogy hope an equally good result in the growth
and quality of timber, and of the fruits and other products of forest-trees?

70 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

Herein, although we have the disadvantage of a slow growth, and a life
that often outlives a man ’s, we have the decided advantage of being able
to hold and keep what we ‘eet, by the processes of budding and grafting,
as we constantly see in our nurseries of ornamental trees, where striking
peculiarities, often originating in nature, or from some accidental circum-
stance, are perpetuated and multiplied without limit.

But. starting with the seed, itis obviously of first importance that it be
of the best quality 3—not the first that falls, because as in fruits, it may
have ripened prematurely from injuries done by insects ;—not from stint-
ed and dwarfish trees, which sometimes bear seed in morbid excess, nor
from trees enfeebled by extreme age or other debilitating causes. __

It is laid down as a rule worthy of close observance, that the trees from
which the best seed are to be expected should be middle-aged, that grow
_isolated, or. at least a little separate from others, so as to have the full
benefit of the air and light—that the tree have a full head, and a perfect-
ly healthy and vigorous condition.

Wood that is aged and decaying, as well as that which is young and
tender, is apt to yield seed that will not grow, or at least that will pro-
duce dwarfish and worthless shoots.

Scrubby and malformed trees, are said, on high authority, to tend to
the production of degenerate varieties, from which they will not recover
to the primitive type, until they have been cultivated under better con-
ditions, and through several generations.

Seeds should be gathered when the weather is dry, and such as are
heavy, when they fall to the ground, as when beaten or shaken from the
trees they sometimes fall before fully ripe. When gathered, they should
be spread in thin layers in a dry airy place, at least until the dampness
is evaporated. The mode of preservation differs greatly with the species
and the tendency to sprout, to rot, to heat, to perish by desiccation, or to
mold, is to be counteracted according to circumstances. In some cases
it is important to keep seeds from fluctuations of temperature by burying
in dry sand, or covering them with litter or straw. In others itis advis-
able to keep them cool and slightly damp, as by placing them in a cellar.

The soft maples (Acer dasycarpum or silver maple, A. rubwm or red
maple) mature their fruit in June, and their seeds should be planted at
once. The sugar, Norway, sycamore, and some other maples, ripen their
seeds in the fall, and they may be sown then, or be kept in a box, mixed
with sand, until the following spring.

Acorns, walnuts, chestnuts, &c., should be planted as soon as they fall,
to insure success ; but as they are liable to destruction by squirrels and
other small animals, it may be often convenient to keep them in boxes
covered with sand in a cool place to prevent too much drying, theo
the winter, and then plant in the spring.

METHODS OF PRESERVING AND OF PLANTING SEEDS.

Elm-seeds ripen in June, andif they find congenial soil and conditions,
will make good growth the first season.

Red-cedar berries should be bruised early in March, and mixed. with
an equal or greater bulk of wet wood-ashes. In three weeks the alkali
will have cut the resinous gum, when the seeds can be washed clean
from the pulp. In preparing * the seed- beds, dig the ground a foot or
more in depth, mix for three or four inches at the surface a liberal dress-
ing of well-rotted leaf-mold (or wood-soil) and sharp sand: Lay off the

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. Tal

beds four feet wide, and sow, screen, and cultivate as elsewhere described
for other evergreens. They may be watered occasionally in the evening
‘in ease of drought. The shading should be removed and a mulching of
leaves two inches deep put along the rows. They may be transplanted
to nursery rows the second spring, and three years after the alternate
rows should be taken out.*

ECONOMICAL MODE OF PRESERVING ACORNS IN LARGE QUANTI-
TIES THROUGH THE WINTER.—METHOD PRACTICED IN FRANCE.

Acorns when kept over winter in large quantities, are liable to various
accidents that injure or destroy their germinating power. They may
become too dry; in large heaps they will heat and mold; or, if too wet,
they will sprout sooner than is desired. To obviate these dangers, the
following cheap mode of keeping them in large quantities has been men-
tioned as practiced in France, which might be equally adapted to the
middle latitudes of our own country, with such modifications due to
greater dryness of climate as experience would suggest:
~ A place is selected in a forest where the soil is sandy and dry, the sur-
face level, or slightly inclined to the south, and the shelter of large trees
low and abundant. It should be fenced in, and if liable to the drainage
of water from adjacent grounds, a small ditch may be dug around it.
The acorns are spread on the ground as gathered, but nowhere more than
four or five inches deep, the leaves and litter being first removed. From
the beginning, they should be raked an hour or two daily, with great
regularity, during the first month, and after that a raking once in two or
three days will be sufficient. By the end of December their tendency to
heat will be over, and during very cold weather they should be lightly
covered with leaves or ferns; but these should be taken off early to pre-
vent sprouting. In temperate climates, no covering is needed but the
shelter of the trees. In very rainy winters, the raking may be renewed
from time to time, and continued till time for planting.

TREE-SEEDS—METHODS OF PLANTING.

In a report of a committee upon forestry, made to the lowa State Hor-
ticultural Society in 1875 (p. 298), by Prof. Henry H. McAfee, the fol-
lowing practical statements are made upon this subject:

Seeds may be classified for purposes of treatment into three sorts, viz, nuts, hard
seeds, and soft seeds. The nuts should always be planted where they are to re-
main permanently, as the nut-trees do not usually transplant without considerable
injury, and the nuts must be kept damp from the time when they are ripe till
planted ; at least the kernal must not be allowed to become dry, or they will sure -
ly fail to grow. Thin soft-shelled nuts, like the chestnut, will, if exposed to sun
and air,dry in a few hours enough to prevent growth. So nuts must be kept in
earth, or on the earth under mulch, or in something that will prevent drying
till used. Peat, moss, old straw, dust, &c., will do. A very good way is to spread
them in a thin layer upon the ground, or in a trench so located that water cannot
stand among them, and cover them thoroughly with mulch, planting them at corn-
planting time, and about as deep as corn is planted.

*S. Edwards, of Lamoile, Ill., in Transactions of Wisconsin Agricultural Society,’ 1858-1859, p. 506.
In this article, preference is given to the red cedar in Illinois before any other evergreen for ordinary
screens of moderate hight. For screens to orchards, buildings, and stock-yards, the Norway spruce
would do better. Mr. Edwards has tried and rejected as not hardy, the cedar of Lebanon, Deodar
cedar, Mount Atlas cedar, Douglas spruce, Menzies spruce, Araucarian pine, English and Irish yews,
Chinese arbor-vitae, and golden-leaved yew. The sea-pine and European silver-fir were not sufficient-
ly hardy unless protected in winter. :

Te FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

The hard seeds are generally somewhat slow to germinate, and need to be in
soak a long time, to be frozen wet, or to be scalded hefore planting, or to betreated
with some substance to hasten germination. This class embraces honey-locust,
which, if kept dry and planted in spring, will seldom ever grow the first year, and
sometimes will not sprout till the third season ; also the stones of cherries and
plums, and even the seeds of apples and pears. Ifmixed with sand (two parts
of sand to one of seed by bulk) and dampened fully, and subjected to moderate
freezing through the winter, all this class except honey-locust, coffee-nut, the haw-
thorns, and red cedar are likely to grow the season planted. For these exception-
ally hard cases water, heated to boiling, is poured over them, and, standing upon
them an hour or two, some may swell, and can then be picked out and planted,
and the more incorrigible treated to another scald, and thus till they all swell, or
they are planted in fall and left to grow when they will; or, in case of the haws,
they may be mixed into bran-mash and fed to sheep or cattle, and the droppings
planted, when the seeds, softened by the digestion, are likely to grow. :

The soft seeds, comprising all not named in the two other classes, may be still
further divided into spring, fall, and winter seeds, each of which requires or per-
mits different treatment. The spring seeds are those which ripen in spring or
early summer, as silver and red maples and red and white elm, all ripening from
May 15 to June 5,* and the rock elm a little later than the others. These seeds
will not keep well, and should be gathered from the trees before they fall, except
where they are so situated that they may fall into still water, when, being light
and floating, they may sometimes be scooped up in large quantities. As soon as
possible after gathering they should be planted, not covered deeply, say one-half
inch, in good mellow soil, and if a fine mulch, like damp chaff, can be obtained, it
should be lightly spread over the ground to protect from too rapid drying of the
ground, which sometimes takes place in June.

The winter soft seeds are ash-leaved maple, green and black ash, syeamore, bass-
wood, &c., or those seeds which have a tendency to hang all winter in sheltered
localities. These seeds may be gathered sometimes as late as planting-time and
immediately planted ; but if gathered earlier, had better be spread thinly upon
the ground and covered till planting-time. All others of the soft or winged seeds,
not classed as spring or winter, are the soft fall seeds, and they should all be stored
as directed for the nuts. Hackberry and cherry, though properly classed with the
hard seeds, should be freed from their pulp in fall and stored in earth to freeze,
and planted in spring without scalding. All seeds, but nuts which are large
enough to pick up readily, and such as may be gathered floating on still water, as
noted above, are best gathered from the trees, and stored soasnotto dry too much.
They must not be kept in too large masses, as, so dealt with, they may heat and
Sool, we er es (ete

If ground is not very weedy, it may be economy to plant all seeds in permanent
plantation ; but in old or weedy ground it is generally best to grow them in seed-
bed or nursery rows. If put in the permanent plantation, allowance should be
made for poor seeds, and more planted than you want of trees. The question of
check-row or drill-planting is to be decided by the planter, and the same reasons
which determine the manner of planting corn have weight in forestry ; though
generally speaking, forestry is more satisfactory in drills than is an annual crop
like corn. If check-rows are used, several seeds per hill are desirable ; and if
drills, generally twice or three times as many seeds as you need trees should go
in. It is not worth while to put tree-seeds into any but mellow, moist soil, and to
secure good results with them, thorough culture the first year is necessary. A rule
of depth sometimes given is to cover with soil as deep as the seed is thick, and
that is of course very thin for small seeds. But seeds of trees often get covered
too deep, and any seeds but the nuts ought to grow with half an inch of fine earth
ny packed above the seed. Nuts may be planted a little deeper, but not very
much.

Seed-beds and nursery rows are, all in all, to be advised, and they are generally
used for seedling trees. Seed-beds are usually four feet wide and of any conven-
ient length, and four inches above the surrounding level. For evergreen and
larch seeds, which, by the way, ought not to be attempted by any one not trained*
in the nursery business, shades are used in the form of lath hurdles, with open-
ings of less width than the strips, and generally in addition to the hurdles, wind-

*These dates, and in fact the whole article, will be considered as applying to Iowa and adjaeent
partsin the Western prairie country.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 73

screens around the beds, while some nurserymen build arbors over their seed-
beds, and such seed is generally put in broadcast, covering by sifting on sandy

earth. But for any of our native tree-seeds, shading will hardly be necessary.
“* * * * * * * * * * *

Drills across the beds one foot apart may: be planted, or drills twenty to twenty-
eight inches apart may be made of any length, and on the general level, and the
seeds planted at the rate of twenty to forty to the foot. Culture while plants are
young should be by hand, running a hand wheel-hoe, and hand-weeding in the
drill, if necessary ; but when the trees have attained some growth, a steady horse
may be used, and if the nursery is made of long rows, of course horse labor 1s bet-
ter employed than if it is in short rows. Most of the native trees will be fit at one
year old to remove to permanent plantation, and if to be so used, should be dug
in the fall, and stored by burying, or in cellar, ready for early planting the next
spring.

The writer mentions two systems of planting—the furrow and spade,
_ giving preference to the latter, in any but a very dampspring. For this
a heading spade (a sort with a long blade ending in an obtuse angle) is
used to best advantage. The spade is pushed half-way down ; the handle
borne a foot back, and then it is pushed down the whole length, when it:
is again brought upright. This makes a hole proper for receiving th
_ (roots of the tree, and when set the earth is pressed down. .

As for distance apart, 4 by 4 feet is generally preferable, which requires
2,722 txees per acre. Spaces 3 by 3 are as near as can be cultivated by
horse-power, giving 4,840 trees per acre. The writer prefers 32 by 332,
and has found that yellow cottonwood at this will cover the ground the
first year.

In planting trees, the earth should not be wet, so as to make a mortar ;
neither should they be set while there is standing water in the hole. In
such cases the soil in contact with the roots tends to become hard in dry-
ing, to the great injury of the growth. The clay that may adhere and
dry on, where the roots have been puddled in transplanting, should be
rinsed off before the trees are set. The necessity of pressing the earth
firmly around the roots appears to be greater in the fine prairie soil of
the West then where it is of a coarser texture. At least, it appears to be
the concurrent testimony of planters on the prairies that the soil should
be strongly compressed, leaving, however, the surface loose, so as to read-
ily absorb the rains. A clay soil would be apt.to bake if pressed. This
tendency to bake is greater when planting is done in a wet time.

SHELTER TO YOUNG SHOOTS IN NURSERIES.

When the young trees begins life in its native conditions, it is sheltered
by the parent boughs. When we seek to producethesame kinds, in nur-
series, it # in reason that we should not expose them to the direct rays
of ahot sun. The careful forester will protect the tender shoots by
branches of trees, lightly spread over the ground, and for this the decid-
uous kinds are better than evergreens, because the latter afford less shade,
and sooner shed their leaves.

When this shelter is removed, it should be done little by little, to
accustom the plants gradually to the open air.

NUMBER OF TREES TO THE ACRE.

Systematic treatises upon planting, give tables showing the number of
trees of different species that should be allowed to remain on the ground
at different ages of growth. But so many circumstances of soil, aspect,

74 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

and climate effect these, that the experience of one locality can scarcely
be allowed to establish rules for another. In fact, this must be leftto the
skill and intelligence of the planter, who should carefully observe the
wants of the case and afford the relief from overcrowding that the case
demands.

It has been stated, as a general rule, that full half of the trees first
planted at 4 feet apart should be removed before the growth is 20 feet
high ; the number should not exceed 800 to the acre, when 30 feet high ;
and when 40 feet, not over 300 to 350 to the acre, the soil and exposure
being the most favorable that are found. Others reckon the space between
at one-fifth of the height.

Some idea of the capacity of soil for tree-growth, under the best man-
agement in Europe, may be formed from the statement that an acre of —
ash, elm, or sycamore 40 years old will contain 2,000 or 3,000 cubic feet
of timber, and when 60 years old double this amount. This is, besides
the successive thinnings, which become, when near a market, an impor-
tant source of income, and when the growth beeomes large, may be more
in value than the cost of management and interest of investment.
These thinnings should be continued as long as neccessary, and in full-
grown forests may sometimes be required in forests 80 years old. Asa
general rule, larch, spruce, and other conifers require less space than
broad-leaved deciduous trees. Larch is supposed to do well in good soil,
with 9 feet space around it. - ;

It is also observed that certain trees bear the shade of other species
better than that of their own, and that, therefore, a mixture, as for
instance, of oak and beech, will grow nearer together than either species
would if alone.. ;

The following table shows the number of trees upon an acre, at the
distance specified, and the number that might be left at different ages,
with the proportional value of the thinning, taken at these several
periods:

= Sku
Fy 2 a asad
a 3 = Sy ee
@ 2. S Sogs
Age (years). E s $ Mac g5 i
= 2a 35 obese
a & a Pa
Ft. In. Per cent.
UES AAD DAS AMEN Gly siyaey emit ne a0 Ge Commit babe Wi owed 3,097 358 3.
DE stoi io ofan ore Bis ato ce oe EES Pk at a Re a 40 2,792 375 5.2
1 AS Seb te area a SN TAK pei SMD 4 C3 SrA cis 43 2,411 311 6.5
OT shaletnia Grate a cee tararsl 2A CITED SPAY OP AE CRE Oa LT ay f 2,073 338 10.5
BD ss chat Se sere seb, ace a 2 a cen ae Rie rail ae aes 5 6 1,440 | 833 23.6
Ao alata nets ei ciace rece atens Se eT ue ME Ds Ua i a 6 6 1,031 409 23.7
DEES Baie clelcteia tacts SETA AG a eee PAE A aceey Man 8 0 680 291 27.5

The amount of timber grown on a given area, in some of the govern-
mental forests of Europe that have been planted and managed accord-
ing to the rules of forestal science, is very much greater than the same
soil would grow in wood if left to itself. “So striking is the difference,
that Dr. Berenger, who is at the head of the Italian school at Vallom-
brosa, remarks, in the Journal of Forestal Economy (Giornalle di Econ-
omia Forestale) 1871-72:

That while an uncultivated woodland taken for a long period, and counting
interest and taxes, would yield almost nothing to the capital invested, it is well-
established that the same land, managed according to modern science, would, in
the long run, yield a revenue both conspicuous and constant.

‘

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 75

PLANTATION OF DIFFERENT SPECIES.

Without attempting to discuss the artistic effects which become a
study in landscape gardening and the laying out of parks, we will con-
cisely state some suggestions that have been made as worthy of atten-
tion by those who wish to apply them.

By placing a plat of white pine in the centre, and surrounding it by
successive belts of Norway spruce, Scotch pine, Austrian pine, white
cedar, and red cedar, the group planted on level ground, when fully
grown would appear highest in the middle, as if standing upon a mound.
A belt of cottonwood around the margin would afford shelter while
needed, and should be cut away when fully established.

Orchard belts of Scotch pine, white pine, Norway spruce, and larch,
have been recommended, and the use of screens on the north and west

sides have been mentioned as desirable But from observation and

inquiry in the prairie States of the West, we are convinced that the most
injury to fruit trees has resulted from hot, drying winds from the south-
west, and that a screen against these is quite necessary.

For a mound of diciduous trees on level ground, a central plat of
European larch, surrounded by belts of the American larch, soft maple,

_ honey locust, black oak, wild cherry, hickory, ironwood, crab-apple, and

wild plum, has been suggested. But these combinations are too vari-
able for a general rule, and in each locality, the planter, with a knowl-
edge of the habits of growth of the trees at his command, will be able
to vary them to suit his purposes.

RELATIVE VALUE OF GROWTH AT DIFFERENT AGES.

It-is very often found that the layers of annual growth are thicker
when young, and that they progressively diminish in width as they
increase in size. The conifers of the Rocky Mountains, and elsewhere,
often show this fact in a conspicuous manner.

In other kinds, as the elm, the wood is more profitable when cut
young, because the timber deteriorates in quality with age. The inner
wood of a large elm tree is comparatively spongy and weak. But in
other woods, as the oak, the value increases in a gaining progression
with age, and large timbers are worth more per cubic foot than small
ones, because they can be applied to more important uses when of -
larger size. The annual revenue from the growth of an oak tree, of the
species commonly used in ship building, has been very carefully deter-
mined from the mean of a great number of records in France, and is
stated as follows: |

f Fr. ¢.
Pree OO amerite OlG er asi. ccanecwtavonidet te. sieeve sai tctedoees << 20 10 perann tm
Maree: LO WayeaitscO lista: eeane Met Sackidas thos cwsaonetemarsriense*4: - 0 80 per annum.
fires 1 AO means Ol dsisse nite otae sence oak soveseainate snc. 2 OO per annum.
Mice: 200 weatsrOlGl. 5.2%. siv-2 otemase donee sec aa<sceudseasees sents. 4 00 per annum.

The value per cubic foot, therefore, increases with the size of the tree,
and (for straight hewn timber) the length of clean trunk below the
branches.

76 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

GROWTH OF WOOD IN DIFFERENT YEARS.

Every one who has closely examined the layers of wood growth on a
transverse section, must have noticed that considerable difference occurs
between the growth of different years. _We have here, in fact, a record
of the combined influences of climate upon wood growth. Soil, aspect,
and other circumstances of a permanent kind may largely imfluence
different trees of the same species, but in a given tree, one year with
another, they change so little that we may scarcely be able to appreciate
their effect; and in comparing the thickness and quality of the layers
formed in different years, we may regard them as an indication of the
effects of temperature, moisture, winds, and other variable elements of
the climate.

ADVICE OF MR. GREELEY WITH REFERENCE TO TREE-PLANTING.

The founder of the New York Tribune, took frequent occasion to urge
with voice and pen the practical importance of tree-planting, not only
for the direct, but also the indirect profits to be derived from this source.
In a little manual, well known, and full of sound advice in matters relat-
ing to the general interests of husbandry, this writer gives the follow-
ing suggestions as to the advantages and best methods of forest cul-
ture:

I have said that I believe in cutting trees as well as in planting them. I have
not said, and do not mean to say, that I believe in cutting evervthing clean as you
go. That was once proper ; Ee Nae ae it is still advisable in forest-covered
regions, where the sun must be let in before crops can be yrown; but in nine
cases out of ten timber should be thinned or culled out rather than cut off; and
for every tree taken away at least two should be planted or set out. * * *
Why do not farmers infer readily and generally, that growing indifferent timber,
where the best and most valued would grow as rapidly, is a stupid costly blunder? —
It seems to me that whoever has attained the conviction that apple-trees should
be grafted, ought to know that it is wasteful to grow red oak, beech, white maple, and
alder where white oak, hickory, locusts, and white pine might be grown with
equal facility, in equal luxuriance, provided the right seeds were planted, and a
little pains taken to keep down, for a year or two, the shoots spontaneously sent
up by the wrong ones.

North of the Potomac and east of the Ohio, and, I presume, in limited districts -
elsewhere, rocky sterile woodlands, costing $2 to $50 per acre, according to lo@-
tion, &c., are to-day the cheapest property to be bought in the United States, even
though nothing were done with them but keep out fire and cattle and let the young
trees grow as they will. Money can be more profitably and safely invested in lands
covered by young timber than anything else. The parent who would inyest a few
thousand for the benefit of his children or grandchildren, still young, may buy wood-
lands which will be worth twenty times their present cost within the next twenty
years. But better even than this would it be to buy up rocky, craggy, naked hill-
sides and eminences which have been pastured to death, and shutting out cattle
inflexibly, scratch these over with plow, mattock, hoe, or pick, as circumstances
shall dictate, plant them thickly with chestnut, walnut, hickory, white oak, and
the seeds of locust and white pine. I say locust, though not yet certain that this
tree must not be started in garden or nursery beds and transplanted when two or
three years old, so puny and feeble is it at the outset, and so likely to be smoth-
ered under leaves or killed out by its more favored neighbors. I have experi-
ments in progress, not yet matured, which may shed light on this point before I
finish these essays.

Plant thickly, and of diverse kinds, so as to cover the ground promptly and
choke out weeds and shrubs, with full purpose to thin and prune as circumstances
shall dictate.

Many farmers are averse to planting timber, because they think nothing can be

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. Gk

realized therefrom for the next twenty or thirty years, which is as long as they

~ expect to live. But this is a grave miscalculation. Let us suppose a rocky, hilly
pasture lot of ten or twenty acres, rudely scratched over as I have suggested, and
thickly seeded with hickorynuts and white oak acorns only; within five years it
will yield abundantly of hoop-poles, though the better more promising half be
left to nature, as they should be; two years later, another and larger crop of hoop-
poles may be cut, still sparing the best; and thenceforth a valuable crop of tim-
ber may be taken from that land; for if cut at the proper season, at least two
thrifty sprouts will start from every stump; and so that wood will yield a clear
income each year, while its best trees are steadily growing and maturing. I do
not advise restriction to those two species of timber; but Iinsist that a young
plantation of forest trees may and should yield a clear income in every year after
its fourth.

As to the far West—the plains, the parks, and the Great Basin—there is more
money to be nrade by dotting them with groves of choice timber than by working»
the richest veins of the adjacent mountains. Whoever will promptly start, near
a present or prospective railroad, forty acres of choice trees—hickory, white
oak, locust, chestnut, and white pine—within a circuit of three hundred miles
from Denver, on land which he has made or is making provision to irrigate,
may begin to sell trees therefrom two years hence, and persist in selling annually
henceforth for a century, at first for transplanting—very soon for a variety of uses

in addition to that.

EVELYN’S MAXIM FOR THE PREPARATION FOR PLANTING.

The keeping of soil around the roots of a tree when taken up for
planting, is no new notion, for Evelyn, in writing two centuries and more
ago, reminds us that—

Theophrastus, in his third book, De Causis, (cap. vii), gives us great caution in
planting to preserve the roots, and especialiy the earth adhering to the smallest
fibrils, which should, by no means, be shaken off, as most of our gardeners do, to
trim and quicken them, as they pretend, which is to cut them shorter; * * *
and, therefore, Cato advises us to take care that we bind the mold about them, or
transfer the roots in baskets, to preserve it from forsaking them, as now, our nur-
serymen frequently do, by which they of late, are able to furnish our grounds,
avenues, and gardens in a moment, with trees, and other plants, which would else
require many years to appear in such perfection.*

Evelyn also, notices the importance of preparing the holes some time
beforehand, so that they be left some time open to macerating? rains,
frosts and sun—

So that they resolve the compacted salt, (as some will have it,) render the earth
friable, mix and qualify it for aliment, and to be more easily drawn in and digested
by the roots and analogous stomach of tree. This, to some degree, may be artifi-
cially done, by burning of straw in the newly-opened pits, and drenching the
mold with water, especially in overdry seaons, and by meliorating barren ground
with sweet and comminuted lactations. Let, therefore, this be received as a
maxim: Never to plant a fruit of forest trees where there has lately been an
Panes one taken up till the pit be well ventilated and furnished with fresh
mold..

This practice of exposing the soil taken from excavations made for
tree-planting to the action of frost, and other atmospheric influences, is
sanctioned by the best experience. It is most serviceable in strong clay
soils, and is chiefly limited to ornamental planting.

A PRACTICAL VIEW OF THE TIMBER QUESTION.

We shall have elsewhere repeated oceasion to mention the eminent suc-
cess with which the Hon. C. E. Whiting, of Monona county, in western

. *Sylua: or a Dizcourse of Forest Trees, and the Propagation of Timber in His Mazesty’s Dominions
&c. By John Evolyn (1669). Huntex’s third edition, i, p. 57. .

=

78 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

Iowa, has commenced plantations of timber, and the profits already
derived from this source. He has been not less diligent in precept than
commendable in practice, and his experience is worthy of careful notice
everywhere, and especially in the prairie States of the northwest, to
which it more particularly applies. In an essay presented at a meeting
of the State Horticultural Society, in 1876, after mentioning the rapid
waste and consumption of timber throughout the United States, he says:

The rapid cutting away of what forest we have, and the feeding off and plowing
under of so large a portion of our prairie grass, are already beginning to tell with
disastrous effect on all ourinland streams, large and small. The question will
here arise: What shall we do? To my mind, in the light of my experience, the
answer is plain, and the solution easy. Let us use the timber nature has furnished
us for all the purposes that our wants really require—just as we would use a crop
of wheat, corn, cattle, or hogs; but, as with the latter crops, let us consider the
question of keeping up our stock. In the place of every tree we cut, enough
should be planted to make the loss at least doubly good.

The title-deeds which we hold to the broad acres of this good old mother earth
of ours, gives us no moral right to render them unfit for habitation for those who
are to follow us. Nature has formed all things well, if man would only profit by
her lesson, even when she made these vast prairies. One-tenth part of our surface
covered with timber—planted in belts—would furnish an abundant supply for
every conceivable purpose for which timber is needed. The remaining nine-
tenths will furnish more of all the necessaries of life, and that with far more
uniform certainty, than the whole would without the protection of the one-tenth
in timber-belts. For the last twelve years, for every native tree that I have ap-
propriated to my own use, I have planted, at least, one hundred, and it is proving
to be, and is likely to continue, one of the best-paying investments ever made in
Towa. Let us now consider afew reasons why every man on a prairie farm should
plant timber :

1. To those of us who have chosen our homes in this prairie State, it is a bind-
ing duty that we owe to ourselves, to our State, and our children.

2. Timber-growing is no longer an experiment, but, with care, a certain and
complete success.

3. The State has wisely offered to, and actually does pay, in exemption from
taxation, an amount equal to the entire expense of cultivating the timber.

4. If planted in belts around the farm, the protection is worth more than the
rent of the ground on which the timber stands. All the timber which I have
planted, or, will plant under the present law, will stand, when ten years old, with-
out having cost me a cent.

5. It renders a farm so much more beautiful and attractive as a home, and so
much more valuable if we ever wish to sell.

6. One can hardly look on those beautiful groves, with their cool shade in sum-
mer, and protection in winter, without a feeling of self-conscious satisfaction, that
he has done one good thing for himself, for his State, and for his posterity.

With these facts before us, have we not every inducement to go forward in the
work? Our State, as a part of the great confederacy, is taking noble lead in the
work. Our State Horticultural Society is giving, and giving most eariestly, all the
benefit of her great experience. The State Agricultural Society has also offered
large premiums for timber-planting ; but its strongest and most earnest advocates
are to be found among those who, to-day, arein house, barn, and field, surrounded
by the protecting influence of groves and belts, and know their full value, both in
summer and winter. A high state of civilization, and an abundance of timber,
must ever go hand in hand; and it is a hopeful sign of the times, that the whole
civilized world is beginning to move in this direction. Iowa, as a State, must
move with the current if she maintains her present proud position. As fine
groves of young cottonwood, white willows, and box-elders,as I ever saw growing,
I have seen in the extreme north-west counties of our State, as Clay, O’Brien, and
Oceola. In the years 1873 and 1874, the Saint Paul and N. P. R. R. Company
planted, successfull, four millions of trees west of the timber region of Minnesota,
toward the Red River of the north. * * *

A few words more to one class of our citizens, and I have done. To our young
men, who are just starting life for themselves and feel as though they needed
every dollar of money and every hour of time for other purposes, let me say, get —

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 79

a few cuttings of white willow, or cottonwood, from an older neighbor, or pull up
a few seedlings from the nearest river-bottom, or, in the proper season, gather a
‘few seeds of ash, box-elder, soft maple, or elm; plant, set, or stick, as the case
may be, in well-prepared ground, north and west of house and field lots; plant
close together, take good care for two or three years in the way of good culture,
and you will, almost from the beginning, have an abundance of cuttings from your
own cottonwood and willows to continue your plantation around your fields, and
in a very short time, you will have any quantity of seeds from your box-elder,
maple, and ash, for further plantations. If the quick-growing trees be planted 2
-by 5 feet in the rows, an upright growth will be secured, and the needed thinning
out, as the poles attain size, will very soon furnish all the fire-wood needed. Set
all the trees on the outside line, in straight rows, and equal distances apart, and
they will, in a very few years, support either boards or wires for a fence.

TREE-PLANTING IN EASTERN MASSACHUSETTS.—OBSERVATION OF
MR. GEORGE B. EMERSON, AS TO PLANTING, CULTIVATION, KINDS
OF TIMBER BEST ADAPTED TO THE CLIMATE, ETC.

Mr. George B. Emerson, of Boston, in a letter, commending the sub-
ject of planting in eastern Massachusetts,* remarks :

_ In our hard and barren soil, the land on which the seed is sown, or the young

‘trees are planted, must, for many years, be cultivated while the plants are grow-
ing, in order that they may make any show at all, even in twenty years. They
will, doubtless, grow without cultivation—but very slowly. If an open pasture.
or newly cleared land should be taken, the process must be very different in the
‘two cases. In an old, open uncultivated pasture, the soil and sub-soil, are usually
very hard, presenting great obstacles to the penetration of the roots. In this case,
the ground must be plowed, that it may be opened and loosened to the depth of
two feet. After the acorns are sowed, or the frees planted, the plow can go only
‘between the rows, leaving the subsoil between the rows unmoved. This shows
the necessity of getting the ground in proper condition before the operation of
sowing or planting begins.

The best kinds of oak, are those of the white-oak group, viz: the common white
oak, the swamp white-oak, both of them common, in Essex county, [Massachu-
setts], the over-cup oak and the mossy-cup, the latter to be found in Berkshire,
the stem-fruited and. the sessile-fruited, which grow readily in our climate, and
the chestnut-oak, found north and south of us, and the Rocky Mountain oak,
found in rocky hills, in several parts of the State. The wood of all these eight, is
of great value as fuel and for timber uses. The next group, is the red-oak group,
containing the black or yellow-barked oak, the scarlet-oak, the pin-oak, and the
two varieties of the red, called the red and the gray. The black and the scarlet,
are common in Essex county, and are valuable and very beautiful. The pin-oak
is found farther south, but would, I think, grow readily here. The red-oak isa
rapid grower, and a beautiful tree, but the least valuable of the oaks for fuel or
timber. There is one species of the live-oak group—I mean the willow-oak,
which grows so luxuriantly in the States but little south of this—that I have no
doubt would grow here.

The time for sowing the acorns is in the autumn, immediately after they have
fallen from the tree. Itis very difficult to keep the acorns through the winter,
and it is necessary only when they are to be transplanted to a distance. They
should be placed just below the surface. The plants must for some years be kept
free from weeds. I suppose the most profitable way of doing this is that practiced
in the peach orchards in New Jersey, which are for some years covered with crops
of beans, potatoes, or something else suitable to the soil.

The first acre sowed or planted as a nursery, will bear plants enough for many
acres of forests. As they grow larger they may be thinned out and transplanted ;
and when too large for that, may be gradually thinned for poles or for fuel. I
suppose that, either for ornament or for timber-forest, it would be a great advan-
tage to continue to cultivate between the trees, until they cast so deep a shade that
nothing would profitably grow. :

If recently cleared forest land is to be restored to forest, plowing may be neces-
sary, but probably not subsoil plowing, as the roots will keep the ground open and

*Transactions of the Agricultural Societies of Massachusetts, 1874, p, 42.

80 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

porous by their own penetration. The thing to be principally regarded is the

character of the previous growth. Land ought not to be chosen which has already _
been covered with oaks, unless the cultivator is willing to go to the expense of

ere to the depth of two or three feet to bring to the’surface unused virgin

soil.

It would be well.to cultivate all the different species, as different species are
adapted to different situations; the swamp-oak and mossy-cup to moist land, the
rock-chestnut to dry, rocky hills, the red to sandy, the white to clayey, the black
and the scarlet to hard and hungry soils.

Perhaps it would be well to interpret “oaks” as including the oak family, and ©
thus taking the beech and chestnut; the former for its beauty as a tree near
dwelling houses, the latter for its great rapidity of growth, and for its value as
fencing and building stuff.

PROFITS OF PLANTING.—STATEMENT OF MR. 0. B. GALUSHA, OF
ILLINOIS.

In a lecture at the Industrial University of Illinois, in 1869, the fol-
lowing instances of forest growth and profits of timber culture were
mentioned by Mr. O. B, Galusha :*

A few miles from my residence are a few acres of ground which were cleared
of timber sixteen or seventeen years since. There was then left upon the ground
a growth of underbrush only, consisting of several varieties of oak, hickory, ash,
and some other sorts. I have watched the growth of timber there from year to
year, until the present time, and am myself surprised at the result. The land was
worth, when cleared, perhaps $12 per acre, not more. There have been taken
from it, during the last seven years, poles equal in value, probably to $10 per acre,
and $150 per acre would hardly buy the trees now standing upon it. So that, if
we estimate the value of the land (at the time mentioned) at $12 per acre, and
compute the interest upon this for 16 years at 6 per cent. compound interest, add- —
ing the amount of taxes accruing during the time, with interest upon this at the
same rates, we have $100 per acre as the net profit of the timber crop; while, of
course, the land itself has partaken of the generally enhanced value of surround-
ing real estate, and would now probably sell for $50 per aere, were the timber
removed.

* * * Let us estimate the expense of raising a growth of ten acres, planted
with white ash and black walnut, five acres of each. These varieties grow at
about the same rate, and are about equally valuable for lumber. The seeds of the
ash, like all seeds of this class which ripen in the autumn, should be gathered
when ripe, and kept in the cellar through winter. The walnuts, as other nuts,
should be spread evenly upon the ground, where surface water will not stand,
not more than two nuts'in depth, and covered with two or three inches of mellow
soil, that they may freeze during the winter; to be planted as soon in spring as
they show signs of sprouting. The land should be deeply plowed, late in the fall
if practicable, and finely pulverized in early spring, and marked both ways, as for
corn, three feet eight inches apart. The tree seeds and nuts should be planted
eleven feet apart, which will admit of two rows of corn or potatoes between each
two rows of trees. By putting two or three seeds in a place, to’ be thinned out to
one if both or all germinate, an even stand can be secured. A better way is to
plant in rows, eleven feet apart, running north and south, and three feet eight
inches,—(in the marks for corn). This will secure straight trees, being closer, and
they may be thinned out fo eleven feet each way, when large enough to use for
grape stakes, bean or hop poles. This will give 300 trees per acre, or 8000 trees in
all, allowing for some vacancies, though in all cases of tree planting, whether in
groves or screens, a supply of good plants, grown elsewhere, should always be in
readiness to use in filling vacancies, which should be done at the end of the first
year.

The preparation of ten acres, at $5 per acre, would be $50. Average cost of
seed, 50 cents per acre, $5. Planting, $25. The cultivation, during the first five
years, will be paid for in the crops grown between rows. For cultivatlon from
fifth to ninth years, four years, with horses only, $30 per year, $120. After this
time no cultivation or care will be needed. This makes the entire cost, in seed

ee

*“Second Annual Report of Board of Trustees of Illinois Industrial University,”’ p. 352.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 81

and labor, of the 10 acres of trees, $200. These trees will, at twenty-five years of
age, average sixteen inches in diameter at the ground, and about ten inches at
- the height of sixteen feet. This will give, deducting waste in sawing, 120 feet of
lumber per tree. Allowing one-sixth for damage by the elements and loss from
other causes, we have, in round numbers, 360,000 feet of lumber, which, at $50 per
M., would amount to $18,000. The value of the tree tops for fuel would be equal
to the cost of preparing the logs for the mill, and the expense in sawing would
not exceed $5 per M. This, added to the cost of producing the trees, and the
amount deducted from the value of the lumber, leaves $16,0U0 for the use of ten
acres of land for twenty-five years, and the interest upon the amount expended
in planting and cultivating the trees! Thisstatement may be deemed incredible,
perhaps, by those who have not previously turned their attention to the subject;
but after much study and many years’ observation and measurements of growths
of different varieties of trees, | am convinced that in all well-conducted experi-
ments in growing artificial groves upon our large prairies, the profits will not fall
far, if at all, short of the rates above stated. It must be borne in mind that trees
standing at regular and proper distances upon rich prairie soil, and receiving good
cultivation, will grow much faster than the same varieties found growing in
natural groves. For a list of varieties suitable for planting in artificial groves, I
would refer all interested to the lists recommended by our State Historical
Society, with the remark that the planter can hardly be in error in planting any
tree which is indigenous in a soil and climate similar to his own; while many
trees, whose native homes are found in latitude north or south, have thus far
proved valuable, as the osage orange and catalpa from the south and the red pine
and white spruce and some others from the north. Some foreign varieties are
equal or superior to any of our natives, among which are European or Scotch
larch (best of all foreign deciduous trees), Austrian and Scotch pines, Norway
spruce, and white willow.

Rugs or EH. FERRAND ON EVERGREEN CULTURE (NEBRASKA).—Suggested
by ten years experience as an evergreen-tree raiser, and ten years as
evergreen-forest planter :

Ist. Never plant your evergreensin the fall of the year, but do it in the spring as
early as you can obtain the trees.

2d. Do not set your trees in the ground deeper by an inch than they stood in
the nursery. Use no manure of any kind in planting evergreens or larch, but let
the soil be mellow and friable, without lumps in contact with the roots.

3d. Do not plant trees under two years old even for stocking a nursery, and for
the garden and lawn give the preference to trees one to three teet high.

4th. Never dig deep among the roots of your trees, but keep the soil mellow and
moist at the suriace by a light mulching of bruised straw or hay, that will prevent
the weeds from growing.

5th. Last, but not least, get your trees direct from a nursery, carefully avoiding
trees that are heeled in by peddlers in the fall, because such are always killed at
the root, notwithstanding their green appearance; and here allow me a little
digression. Give your preference to home nurseries. You have men here en-
gaged in the business who have spent their life-time, judging what varieties of
trees you could better plant, for your profit and success—(Fourth Annual Report
of Nebraska State Board of Agriculture, 1873, p. 443.)

METHOD OF CULTIVATION BY THE WINNER OF A PRIZE.

A statement made by Hiram O. Minick, Nemaha County, Nebraska,
to whom a premium was awarded for the cultivation of agrove of not less
than 1,000 trees, gives the following account of his method of cultivation:

The ground was plowed in the spring, the same as fora crop of corn, and crossed
out at distances of five feet by seven. ‘The cottonwood yearling trees were pro-
cured on a sand-bar in the Missouri River in the fall previous, and heeled in dur-
ing winter. By selecting a spot on the sand-bar where the surface of the sand is
but little above the water in the river, the yearling trees can be pulled out with
great rapidity, probably at the rate of a thousand in twenty minutes, the operation
being similar to pulling flax, and the trees can thus be taken up preserving their
rootless entire, thus securing them in the best possible condition for transplanting ;

82 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

ing with the harrow, and cultivating as above. The seed ripens about the middle
of May, and is generally very abundant. The following may be considered as a

Hand and team_one day procuring trees: 2. 9. 0 5) ee - - o3 00
Two men, boy, and team employed in planting. . 5 00
Plowinesoround so 0-4 42 che. eel ek eee ene ie 5 00
Iwo years’ cultivation, of trees). i205 yo" ..4 A ee eee 9 00

TOtale: Haven ek Bee he saan Reno tae aan oe dios

TIMBER-GROWING IN NEBRASKA.

[From an article by J. W. Davidson, in the Fourth Report of the State Board of Agriculture, p. 444.]

* * * The best method of stocking our prairies with timber is to prepare the
soil precisely as you would if you were going to raise a large crop of corn. The
quickest way to raise a grove is with cuttings of cottonwood or willow. I plow,
drag, and mark the same as for.corn, four feet each way, which will contain 2,722
hills to the acre. I should plant one-halfto trees, four feet one way and eight the
other, making 1,361 trees, and the other in corn for two years, to pay for cultiva-
tion, and that is all the cultivation needed. I should adopt the same planin plant-
ing acorns, hickorynuts, white and black walnuts, soft maple, elm, and ash, where
the sprouts are one year old. White pine, arborvitae, red cedar, European and
American larch, when large enough to transplant, require more cultivation. I
estimate the cost of preparing an acre and getting the cuttings of soft maple or
ash (they can be had by the thousand along or streams) at $3 per acre. A man
can plant two and a half acres per day. This is all the cost for ten years, except
interest and taxes on land. I have 1,361 trees per acre ; seven years from planting
I will cut one-fourth, or 340 trees, equal to 15 cords of wood; the eighth year 15
cords more; the ninth the same; the tenth year you see my profits. I should cut
what is left, 456 trees. Allow four trees to the cord, so as not to overestimate it.
I have several trees only ten years old, which are 14 inches in diameter and 50
feet high; four, I think, would make a cord. Allowing six trees to the cord, we
have 76 cords, and with 45 cords cut before, 121 cords. At $3 per cord allowing $1
for cutting, I have $242. I contend that five acres planted to cottonwood after a
growth of seven years, will furnish one family with fuel for one stove a life-time
and sell enough to pay for the use of the land besides. I claim, after fifteen years
experience in tree-planting on this plan, which -I adopted last spring on Arbor
Day, on my new farm in Otoe County, Nebraska, that the white willow (Salix alba)
is equal to soft maple for wind-breaks and fuel, and superior to all trees for rapid-
ity of growth, as well as good for timber. Chestnut, too, is super-excellent. The
climate influence of timber is decernible in the regular attraction of rain and tem-
pering the chilly winds of the winter.

PLANTING IN NEBRASKA.

[From an article by James Morris, in the Fourth Report of the State Board of Agriculture, p. 454.)
What shall we plant in Nebraska that will most quickly and fully meet
our requirements? Shelter and shade are our immediate and imperative necessity.

(

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 83

To provide these we unhesitatingly recommend, first of all, our native trees, in the
following order: Soft maple, willow, cottonwood, buckeye, ash. The maple is
raised from seed as easily as corn; makes a good shelter when thickly planted in
rows, and agrateful shade where room is given toitslateral branches. Itfurnishesa
fuel which, though it does not consume as slowly as oak and hickory, makes a
quick, hot fire. The willow, objected to by many asa harbor for insects, yet off-
ers a complete break to the keen winds, grows rapidly to a good size, and some
varieties, as the white and the weeping willow, furnish good timber for fuel and
manufacturing purposes. The common osier, planted upon wet spots, will pay as
well as any other crop on the farm. Cutting of all varieties are easily and cheaply
secured.

As a source of profit the raising of trees in Nebraska ranks next to the raising
of stock. A quarter-section planted with chestnut, spruce, larch, maple, mammoth
aspen, or even inferior trees, would, in ten years, yield a satisfactory return for the
investment.

CLOSE PLANTING OF COTTONWOOD.

Judge Whiting, of Monona County, lowa, remarked in 1869, that he
had at first planted cottonwood eight feet apart each way, giving each
tree 64 square feet of ground. They grew well, but too many branches
in proportion to the amount of body wood. He had adopted the rule of
planting three feet each way, giving nine square feet to a tree, and in
this order they grew tall and straight, soon shaded the ground, and in
three years needed no further cultivation than thinning as became neces-
sary, by removing alternate rows and drawing out the poles with one
horse and a chain.

THINNING OF PLANTATIONS.

In a young growth of natural seedlings, the plants are often densely
crowded ; but as they become larger the feeble ones die, and others lose
their lower branches; and so, from year to year, the numbers diminish
in the struggle for life, until but a small part of the first number comes
to full maturity. The careful forester seeks to imitate this process of
nature, by securing a sufficient growth for shading the ground from an
early period, and by reducing the numbers as the trees increase in size.
These labors include the clearing out of the worthless bushes and bram-
bles that never come to useful size, but is chiefly secured by giving the
greatest opportunity possible to the most valuable kinds. No rules can
be given for the execution of this work, without knowing the conditions,
further than the general statement, that it should be done wherever
required, and as often as may be necessary.

With respect to the removal of a part of the trees of the valuable
kinds, where crowded, great prudence is to be exercised, because the

whole gowth, if standing dense, if too much exposed at once, would be

liable to suffer from the winds, or from the weight of snows. The pre-
cept laid down by Lorentz and Parade for the first thinning, is as fol-
lows :*

The principal rule to be observed in a thinning of this kind, is to keep the trees
conveniently close, and in a word, never interrupt the continuity. In a young wood,
which has hitherto grown very dense, the stems are very thin and slender, and
have the greatest need of support. An imprudent clearing would expose them to
storms ; they would be injured by the weight of snow and ice, or even bent down
by the weight of their own tops. In such a growth, it is to some extent necessary
to save some of the poorer kind as protectors, and allow them to stand till the

**¢ Culture des Bois,’’ 2d. ed., p. 174.

84 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

next thinning. We should also remember that the young trees must obtain the
greatest height possible, and this can only be done by keeping them close. At an
older stage of growth, the inconvenience of too much thinning would be less inju-
rious. Moreover, if opened too much, the grass and the weeds will get in and
absorb a part of the aliment of the soil; or, if it be a seed year, a new crop
of tree seedlings will cover the ground, which is to be, if possible, avoided. _

The age at which the first thinning is needed cannot be fixed by any rule, as it
depends upon the rate of growth and the various influences to which it is exposed.
It should begin as soon as the lower branches begin to die and drop off, and
should be repeated more thoroughly when the trees get to be three or four inches
in diameter at the ground, and afterward from time to time as may be necessary
till the forest gains its full maturity. These operations may be repeated every
five years at first,and afterward at longer intervals. In the State forests of
France, where the most valuable timber is the object, and time of less conse-
quence, the interval is some fifteen or twenty years. Although in these opera-
tions no particular number of trees can be fixed as a rule, it may serve a8 some
guide to give the followtng as approximately the proper number to be left:

At 30 to 40 years—1,300 to 1,620 to the acre.*

At 50 to 60 years—490 to 608 to the acre.

At 70 to 80 years—305 to 410 to the acre.

At 90 to 100 years—200 to 360 to the acre.

The selection of trees to be removed in thinning out forests so as to
allow the reserves the better chance for development, can best be done
in summer, when the foliage is the densest, and the effect of shade the
most apparent. An experienced eye can at such a time more readily

judge as to what trees are most promising and what can best be taken
out.

A recent writer upon practical forestry} in speaking of the proper time
for thinning a plantation, recommends that it be done early, and assigns
as a reason that the remaining trees will then have seasonable opportu-
nity for developing their lower-side branches. He remarks: .

It is those branches situated upon the lower part of the stem of the tree that
supply food and nourishment to the roots, and unless they are preserved vital at
this critical period of the tree’s existence, it very soon ceases to develope itself and
make wood. In fact it ceases to grow to anything like satisfaction at that very
early period when it should be making wood faster than any other. To the pres-
ervation of the lower branches of the celebrated larch forests of the Duke of
Athol, more than anything else, may be attributed their successful growth. The
larch there were planted 6 feet apart, and that distance, admitting that all the
trees grew, allowed all the lower branches to grow 3 feet in length all around.
But as many of them would no doubt decay, and from accident and other causes
perish, many of the trees would therey prod uce their lower branches twice that
length, hence the unparalleled results of the growth of the larch in these forests.

Having witnessed so much injury inflicted upon young plantations and some
entirely ruined by the lower branches being interfered with at a stage of growth
too early, I would recommend in the strongest possible terms the special attention
of all who have the management of plantations to this particular aspect of the
subject. It is often asked what rule can be given and how it may be known when
either individual trees or plantations have the exact and proper quantity of
branches upon them. The rule for this is, as far as any rule can be given, to
maintain a due proportion of girth to the height of the tree, and these propor-
tions are girth in inches to feet in height. For example, a tree twelve feet high
should have a girth a little above the swell of the root of twelve inches, and so of
larger sizes. When trees attain the height of 30 of 35 feet thinning should be
entirely discontinued, and frequently it should not be prolonged after the trees

*“In France, Duhamel and Varenne de Fenille advised a much greater reduction, allowing, in fact,
almost as much land for an oak as anapple tree in an orchard. The object in view was the
thickness of the trees, rather than the height, and such broad spreading trunks as ten or eleven
meters between the trees would produce, could not fail of yielding an abundance of the crooked
pieces so much prized in ship-building.”

t‘On Thinning Plantations, as applicable in Practical Forestry,”? by Christopher Young Michie, of
Cullen House, Cullen. “Transac. of Highland and Ag. Soc.,” 1876, p. 199.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 85

are 20 to 25 feet in height, but allow the plantation to grow undisturbed (except
- by cutting down dead or decaying trees) till it is ripe for cutting down and clear-
ing the ground. There isa danger of old trees having too many as well as too
few branches; but there ismo danger of young trees having too many, and if the
rule given should be observed there will be no superfluity of branches at
any time, for if the proportional girth is too great it can soon (if there are suffi-
cient trees upon the ground) be reduced.

The form of the tree, up to the period when the thinning should be discon-
tinued, should be conical or tapering, both in the stem and general form of the
tree. After thinning is discontinued the shape of the tree alters, both in the
stem and branches; the latter wither and fall off, till only the top is covered, and
the form gradually changes from a cone to a cylinder. The cause of this is the
increase of woody deposites near the live branches, and the decrease of it where
the branches have fallen off.

This writer points out various reasons that should prevent late thin-
ning of evergreen plantations, among which are the insufficiency of
roots in trees closely planted, and which are not able to support them
when exposed to the winds, the injury that the sun may cause upon the
trunks and branches that have been accustomed to the shade, and the
effect upon the roots when the ground is too much exposed; although
all of these parts may in time become accustomed to these different con-
ditions. He regards the thinning of such forests a delicate and danger-
ous operation. except when practiced while young, and mentions some
forests in splendid condition, which had scarcely been trimmed at all.
In one the trees stood 9 feet apart on an average, some as far as 15 feet,
and others as close as 2 feet. The market value of such a forest, if the
trees were all sound, would be at least £300 per acre. The ground was
a light, sandy gravel and very poor. He advises that all thinning should
be begun before the side branches touch each other, and that it be con-
tinued till they are 8 feet apart, after which he would leave them to
nature to complete their growth.

As to the larch, our author remarks, “It gains the most by thinning
and suffers least from it. It is very impatient of confinement, and
enjoys freedom although it comes Jate. On the bare, pole-like trees that
are left, lateral branches will form beyond anything witnessed in other
forest trees. Unless the trees are sound and healthy, however, no lateral
growth will take place by thinning.” He mentions some stumps of this
tree that had remained alive more than twenty years after cutting, with-
out being able to account for the phenomenon. He regards the two
greatest errors of foresters as “being too late in commencing to thin, and
continuing the operation too long. It does much good if done early,
and equally much harm if done late.”

MEANS FOR DESTRUCTION OF INSECTS INFESTING TREES.

Among the methods practiced with success for the destruction of
insects upon fruit trees, and applicable to forest trees, may be mentioned
the following:

Building fires in the evening, to attract millars and other insects, which
fall into the flames and perish. ;

Jarring the trees by striking them with a heavy piece of scantling,
padded at the end to prevent injury to the bark. Cloths should be
_ spread under the trees to catch whatever falls. Some caterpillars that
spin down on a silk fiber, may be swept down with a broom and
destroyed.

Smearing the bark with tar, molasses or printers’ ink, or other viscid

86 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

substance, or what is better, wrapping papers or cloths around the trunk,
and applying the tar to these instead of the bark. The substance should
be renewed as it becomes dry.

Surrounding the trunks with leaden troughs filled with oil, coal tar,
or other liquids. Applying discs of tin, that, sloping downwards, pre-
vent insects from passing. Binding locks of cotton wool around the
trunks, &e.

Washing the trunks and large branches with soft soap, or strong soap
suds, or lye, or whitewashing with lime.

A wash composed of one pound of flowers of sulphur and a peck of
quicklime, mixed in a close vessel with a sufficient quantity of hot
water to make it of ‘the consistence of common whitewash, has been
used with advantage as a remedy against insects and mildew in forest
and fruit trees. It should be applied when freshly made, in April,
using a whitewash brush.

Dusting the leaves of trees with lime, or with powdered hellebore,
when the dew was on, has been mentioned as a remedy against leaf-
eating insects.

Another mode of protecting trees from insects that crawl up the bark,
consists in fastening a rope around the tree and nailing a strip of tin
four inches wide around the rope so as to project above and below. The
females of the insect whose larva is the cankerworm (Anisopteryx vernata)
will lay her eggs under the rope, where they may be killed by apply-
ing kerosene.

Digging around the tree to kill or expose the larvee to frost has been
tried with success. Others scatter corn around the roots, and allow hogs
to root among it, thus turning up the soil, and doubtless destroying
many of the puppe. Late plowing, by exposure to frosts and to birds,
will assist in destroying insects on their nests.

Hand-picking the seeking of cocoons and nests of insects, especially
in winter. Sweeping or burning down the nests of insects and seeking
and destroying them in their burrows, have been practieed with success.

The vapor of benzine has been proposed as a remedy against insects
infesting wood work. The injection of mineral salts and of creosote, &c.,
is a preventive against insect damages to timber. The sap-wood of white
hickory, so liable to injury from boring insects, even after worked into
spokes or made into carriages, is sometimes protected by these chemical
processes.

The apple-leaf crumpler sometimes contains the eggs of parasitic
insects which would hatch, and by multiplying diminish the injuries
done by this insect. It is therefore recommended to gather the affected
leaves, and instead of burning them throw them on the ground in a bare
place. The parasitic insects would hatch and be saved, while such of
the noxious kind as hatched would perish before reaching a feeding place.

But many of the methods above enumerated are applicable only in a
small way to trees in nurseries or favorite shade trees, and in forest cul-
ture we must seek relief from other sources, or, as sometimes happens,
stand helpless and witness the great injuries done without hope of relief.*

*In speaking of insects, we must distinguish between friends and foes, and not regard our allies as
enemies, however disagreeable they at times become. The ant is treated by the German forester as
his friend, knowing as he does the services which these little insects render. Besides furnishing in its
eggs a dainty food to many kinds of song-birds, it pursues the larvae of leaf-eating insects with great
avidity, mounting to the highest branches in pursuit of its prey, and destroying these destructive par-
asites of trees in great abundance. A nest of ants introduced in the midst of a plantation of cab-
bages has been known to protect the plants from the worms that were destroying it.—‘*Revue des
Eaux et Forets, xiii, 303. i

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 87

Immense damages are also committed in fields and gardens upon
grains and fruits, and here, as in the forest, there is often evidence that
an increase is often caused by killing off the birds.

SHELTER BELTS, WIND BREAKS, &c.

A wind screen, if close, affords some protection on the windward side,
by the calm which it produces. It is noticed that sheep and cattle will
sometimes find shelter on the front side of a screen.

A wrier in the New England Farmer (vi, 350), in noticing shelter, and
its effect upon farm stock, says:

It is indeed astonishing how much better cattle thrive in fields, even when
moderately sheltered, than they do in an open, exposed country. In the breeding
of cattle, a sheltered farm, or a sheltered corner of a farm, is a thing much prized;
and in instances where fields are taken by the season for the purpose of fattening
cattle, those most sheltered neyer fail to bring the highest rents.

In the grazing regions of Texas, cattle seek the timber on the approach
of a storm, and stay there while it continues, and on the western plains
they will retreat before a storm a long distance to gain shelter.

The freshness of pastures interspersed with trees, is well known in the
dairy regions of the north, and is doubtless partly due to the shelter that
trees afford to the winter snows.

The prevalence of dry southwesterly winds in the Western States, has
suggested a practice, quite advantageous in fruit trees, of leaning the
trees towards that point, so as better to resist the wind, as well as to
shade the trunk from the sun. It is also found a good practice to allow
the tops of fruit trees to grow low, so as better to resist the drying effects
of the wind and sun. The same reasons would lead to a like prac-
tice with the outside rows of forest trees, especially on the sides of a
grove most exposed. It would be unnecessary in the interior, as, if
properly set, the trees would shade one another sufficiently for all pur-
poses, after they had got well started.

Dr. John A. Warder, in a paper read before the Northern Illinois Hor-
ticultural society,* in speaking of shelter for fruit trees, says:

Eyergreens may be planted here and there through the orchard with very great
advantage. For this purpose the most robust varieties should be selected, such as
the Scotch and Austrian pines, and the beautiful Norway spruce, from Europe, or
our own native, the noble silver pine, the red or Norway pine, the Banksiana, the
white spruce, the common red cedar, and arbor vite. All are robust and hardy,
rapid growers, and valuable for shelter and for timber, but screens are what we
need. A single row of such trees outside will afford a great deal of protection
from the winds after a few years, indeed, from the first; but a closely-planted belt
of two or three rows will be much more effective. These should not be set too
near the orchard trees; two rods may be allowed, or, if closer, the outer rows of
the apples can be cut out in a few years to make room for these nurses when they
may require more space. The evergreens may be set in double or triple rows,
and alternately, so that every three shall be opposite the space in the next row.
In planting a triple row, it is well to set the Pinus strobus in the middle, with Nor-
way or white spruce, or red cedar, on either side, planting these from 8 to 10 feet
apart * * * The hedges should not be set too closely to those shelter belts,
especially where they are allowed to grow high for screens. Atone rod they. will
soon interfere with the trees, so that a space of two rods may be better—outside
the belt. In large plantations it may be well to set rows of evergreens across the
orchard, dividing it into two or more sections. For this purpose, a single row of
Norway spruces will produce a very fine effect, or the American arbor vitee can be
used as an evergreen hedge, and kept to a height of 10 or 12 feet, if desirable.

* “Transactions,”’ fourth meeting, p. 68.

88 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

Both these plants are eminently well adapted for close shelters, and will bear
the shears, which help to make them a perfect screen and wind break. Deciduous
trees are also very desirable as shelter belts, and for the sake of immediate effect the
quick-growing kinds are preferred, such as the soft maple, or even the white willow,
but more especially the European larch. * * * These should be planted pretty
thickly, say 5 or 6 feet apart, and in strips of three or 4 rods wide, to produce
their best effects, both as shelters and for timber, for which they are highly
recommended. Do not be misled by the swampy habits of the native tamarack,
nor induced to set the larch in the sloughs, which should be planted with willows.

Protection to Nurseries; French Eaperience—Screens or wind breaks (says Car-
riere*) are indispensable to a nursery, as well to shield the plants from the hot
sun, as to shelter other kinds from cold in winter. Their direction will vary
according to the contour of the ground, but they should almost always run east
_and west. Wind breaks, according to local circumstances, may be oblique, either
to the north or south, and it may be necessary to have them in a line between
these points, for the climatic conditions under which the nursery is placed, and
surrounding objects, such as a mountain, a grove, a river or a lake, or large build-
ings, may determine the course of prevailing winds, and observation alone can
decide as to which are the most prejudicial. Having settled upon the direction
of the lines, the next thing to determine is the species with which they should
be planted.. Some kinds are preferable to others, and they vary with the soil and
climate. We always prefer evergreen trees; but these are for the most part of
slow growth, and when the intention is only to shelter the nursery in summer
against the ardor of solar heat, the choice is left among the diciduous kinds of.
rapid growth, which do not shed their branches too near the ground, and of
which the foliage and aspect is sufficiently ornamental. There is another consid-
eration that is not less important. We should not select trees with long, tracing
roots, which, by spreading, so to speak, “eat up the soil,” by robbing the plants
even when growing in pots. In these respects we have two species of the Tam-
arix that unite almost all the good qualities required, the T. tetranda and T. Indica.
These trees are very accommodating as to soil, have a hardiness well tried, and a
very rapid growth—endure prolonged drought without injury, and appear indif-
ferent to excess of moisture. Their roots are small, close, and but little spread-
ing; they bear trimming, and their elegant foliage of light, feathery spray form
plumes of most pleasing effect, while their blossoms of rose, flesh colored, or
almost white tint, in spikes or branching panicles, present a most agreeable aspect.
The first of these blooms in April and May, and the other toward the end of
summer and in autumn. The tamarisk grows easily from slips, which may be
set from November to February, and will form the first season shoots from 1 to 2
meters high. They should be set about 8 inches apart, and may be cut back
when 20 inches high to make them thicken up. Sometimes a trellis of grape-
vines will answer every purpose of a screen for young fruit trees.

But, as we remarked at first, the evergreen species are generally emploved as a
screen, and of the conifers the Biota orientalis is particularly suitable when the
soil is light, warm, and but little calcareous. In places where the soil is more
moist and more clayey, and the climate more severe, the Thuya occidentalis is
much more hardy. The common yew (Taxus baccata) is also very precious as a
wind break. Its foliage is very dense, and of a green so deep that it borders
closely upon black, and the perfect docility with which it bears clipping renders
it a most valuable tree for a shelter hedge. We sometimes employ the com-
mon pitch tree (Picea excelsa), but this tends to grow to a large tree, and readily
sheds its lower branches. The red cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) is also sometimes
used as a wind break, and in proper soils produces a fine effect. In many dis-
oe of southern France the pyramidal cypress, (Cupressus fastigiata) is used to
advantage.

Of the evergreen shrubs other than conifers, we have the box (Buaus semper-
virens), evergreen oak (Quercus ilew), the holly, the Buplevrum fruticosum, the
Rhamnus oleifolius, the Aucuba japonica, and the Japanese spindle tree (Evonymus
japonica). The latter may be used when we need shelter of limited extent, for
they are generally of low growth. In some places we may plant the Lawro-cerasus
vulgaris, colchica, and lusitanica; and in other cases may employ shrubs with semi-
persistent leaves, as the Rhamnus hybridus, Ligustrum japonicum, ovalifolium, and
vulgare. In some privileged localities of southern and southwestern France, we

*Pepinieres, p. 88, 41.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 89

may plant the Rhamnus alaternus, Arbutus uredo, Viburnum tinus, and a host of
other species.

The breadth of space to be reserved between the lines of shelter varies some-
what according to the use, but it should be never less than 2 metres between,
because the paths for service would be always of about this width. If there be
no necessity of using the ground sparingly, it would be better to give them greater
width, so that the plants sheltered may be a little away from the screen, and it
would be still better if a path could be allowed on both sides.

Timber-belts for Farm Protection in Kansas.

Mr. W. Marlatt, of Manhattan, Kansas, in a paper read before the
State Horticultural Society, in 1875, after alluding to the frequent and
severe losses of fruit and forest trees in Kansas, and condemning alto-
gether any attempt at planting until the soil was as thoroughly prepared
as for corn, he says:

With my present experience as to the peculiarities of the soil and climate of
Kansas, I would plant timber only in the form of shelter-belts for the protection

of farm crops, the orchard, the stock-range, and the home and its surroundings,

_ being especially careful to shelter the latter from the north, northwest, and north-

east winds, leaving the south and east, particularly, open to the sunshine and

south winds, which are nearly always warm in winter and cool in summer. By
planting the shelter-belts on the higher and more exposed ground, where prac-
ticable, the value of the farm may be greatly enhanced at a comparatively small
outlay, zesthetically as well as practically. From experience and observation, I
am of the firm belief that if 40 acres in every quarter section were thus occupied
by judiciously located timber-belts, the remaining three-fourths would produce
more than all of it would without the protection thus afforded. I have seen the
soil in exposed situations blown away to a depth of 6 inches, or as deep as the
land has been plowed, in a single season. An effective shelter-belt would not
only remedy this evil, but would serve largely as a preventive of drought ; first,
by measurably warding off the dry, hot winds that sometimes sweep over the
country as a blighting, withering curse; and, secondly, as a shelter for the snow
that is otherwise blown away into the revines and hollows where it is not need-
ed; and, again, in breaking the force of the fierce storms that almost every season
do more or less injury to the growing corn and other farm crops.

I recommend the cottonwood for timber-belts, rather than some other more
valuable species of wood, from the fact that it takes kindly to our prairie soil,
grows rapidly and tall, and is yet able to withstand the force of the winds; and,,
on the whole, seems to fill the bill more nearly than any other at hand just now.
To render thisshelter more effectual, I would plant out a single row of box-elder,
or some other spreading or low-heading tree on either side of the cottonwood
belt. I recommend the box elder for this purpose, from the fact that it is never
stripped of its leaves in summer, not even by the omnivorous hopper. As
this belt attains to age and size, it must be systematically thinned out, by remoy-

ing from year to year a certain number of the less likely or less thrifty trees, else

in the course of time you will find them dying out en masse for want of sufficient
nourishment to keep up the vital force necessary for their continuous growth and
well-being. As they are removed thus gradually, other varieties of forest trees
may with success and profit be made to take the place thus vacated, and for this
purpose, where they can be had easily, I would especially recommend red _ cedar.
At all events, in planting a grove, stick to our native forest trees, rather than any
of foreign growth, however highly they may be extolled by parties interested in
their sale, or without an experimental knowledge as to their adaptability to our
peculiar soil and climate.

A few words as to the best mode of planting such a belt must suffice for this
phase of the subject. Supposing the ground to be in proper condition, and the
trees ready to hand, with team and plow strike a straight furrow through the
center of the piece to be planted, and back-furrow three rounds, going 8 to 10
inches decp. Then with an armful of small trees pass along in the furrow, and at
every 4 feet stoop down and place a tree in the loose soil thrown up at the last
round, letting the top lean toward the ridge. Then turn on a furrow, and so on
at every fourth furrow, until a dozen or more rows have been thus put in their
place. Then passing along each row, straighten up each tree with the hand, and at

90 : FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

the same time press the earth firmly about it with the feet. In this way, with
one man to run the team, and two others to put the trees in place and straighten
them up, two acres may be planted with 5,000 trees in a day, at a cost, aside from
procuring the trees, of not more than $5. In this manner, the farm, when com-
paratively level, may be surrounded and intersected, where necessary, with shel-
ter belts, at a comparatively small cost, and the value of the place may be
doubled in five years.

In orchard and small fruit culture, I consider protection of some sort as abso-
lutely essential to success. . I have found most kinds of small fruits doing best when
partially sheltered from the hot sun ; while the sad effects of the burning south-
west winds two summers ago is but too apparent in nearly all the orchards of
Kansas to-day. In my own, I have found, generully speaking, the last damage
done where most effectually sheltered on the south and west.*

In asserting the value of wind-breaks to growing crops, or as a shelter
for stock, it is impossible to appraise the benefit pecuniarily with any-
thing like the exactness with which we measure and sell the actual pro-
ducts of the forest. We may, however, sometimes arrive at a close
approximation by comparing the differences shown where the protection
is present or absent. In illustrating this point, Mr. O. B. Galusha, of
Illinois, has presented some instructive examples :}

In the year 1862, at the time when spring wheat and oats, in the northern por-
tion of the State, were just past their bloom, and a portion of the grains in the
milky state, we were visited by a storm from the northwest, which swept over
this portion of the State, prostrating nearly all the grain not sheltered by timber,

* * * Tn one locality a single line of broad and tall willows, closely planted.
proved a sufficient check to the wind, so that a field of wheat adjoining it on the
east stood erect and was harvested with a machine, while in exposed situations
the shrunken grain, if saved at all, was often gathered by the slow and tedious
process of hooking it up with scythes. Many thousand acres were left to dry,
and were burned upon the ground, which two or three weeks before had prom-
ised abundant crops. The extra expense of gathering the grain of that harvest
could not have been less than 50 cents per acre on the whole amount harvested.
I traveled quite extensively over this portion of the State before and soon after
the harvest of that year, and am convinced that one-half the value of the wheat
and oats in the territory passed over by that storm was destroyed by it. There
were sown in that year as per census reports, in the 30 counties lying north of the
Burlington, Peoria and Logansport Railroad, about 1,200,000 acres of wheat, and
at least one-fourth as many of oats. Allowing one-tenth of these crops to have
been protected by timber, we find the loss to have been equal to 540,000 acres of
wheat and 130,000 acres of oats. Computing the wheat at 15 bushels per acre and
the value at 50 cents per bushel, the oats at 30 bushels per acre and price 20 cents
per bushel, we have the sum of $4,860,000 as the cash value of property in these
twocrops alone, which was destroyedina single storm in an area of alittle more than
- one-third of our State. Allowing 150,000 acres to have been burned, or not har-
vested, and adding to the amount of loss per acre the remainder of the nine-
tenths (lodged-grain), equal to $600,000, it swells the amount to the enormous sum
of $5,460,000. Let us see how much it would cost to plant and cultivate screens to
prevent such losses. A double row of white or golden willows, with trees in the
second row set opposite the spaces in the first, planted upon the west side of every
80-acre lot, would doubtless prove sufficient, as they would, at the age of 12 years,
form a dense wall of foliage about 40 feet high, and would, of course, increase in
size for many years thereafter. These would cost per mile of screen, about as
follows: Average value of two acres of land, at $40 per acre, $80; preparation of
the soil and planting with strong cuttings, $10; cultivating the first two years, $20;
making a total cost, with purchase money of the land, $110. After two years no
care will be needed, save a-mulch of refuse straw, to be renewed once in two or
three years, the cost of which will be more than repaid in the partial protection
which the trees will render previous to the twelfth year.

There are in the 30 counties referred to about 16,625 sections of prairie land.

*“Transactions of the Kansas State Historical Society”? for 1875, p. 113

: ypecue at the Illinois Industrial University in 1869, published in the second Report of its trus-
ees,”? p. 356.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 91

This will require 66,500 miles of screen if planted as above proposed, making the
entire cost $7,315,000. Thus we see, that without estimating the immense damage
done to fruit and other crops, the wheat and oats destroyed in that storm would,
if saved, have paid about three-fourths the entire expense of growing timber
belts throughout that entire territory.

I think it may be safely estimated, that an average of one-twelfth part of all
our crops of grain and large fruits are destroyed by violent winds, which such a
system of protection, or its equivalent in groves, would so far check as to prevent
the destruction. If this is true, such protection would save to the husbandman
and orchardist its entire cost every two, or at most three, vears. Such protec-
tion, too, would, by causing the snow to remain spread evenly over the surface,
as before hinted, enable the farmer to raise winter wheat in localities where it is
impossible now to do so. If we add to the benefits of the culture already consid-
ered those far-reaching and incalculably valuable climatic influences which would
flow therefrom, we must all admit the necessity of commencing this great en-
terprise at once, and prosecuting it with vigor.

I do not introduce this plan of planting straight belts of trees, a quarter of a
mile apart, because it is the most desirable plan which can be adopted, for no man
of taste would regard it as such. The eye would soon tire of such stiffness and
monotony in the landscape. Tree-planting may be so planned and conducted as
to give beauty to the landscape, and at the same time secure nearly all the com-
bined benefits of protection to crops, timber for uses in the mechanic arts, and
those climatic influences which we all regard as so important. Of course no
rules can be given for such tree planting. Generally where the surface is some-
what undulating (for we have no hills), the planting should be done mainly upon
the higher portions of the farms, and along the water courses. Where the sur-
face is level, belts may be planted upon the north and west of the farms, with
groves upon the least valuable portions. These last would intercept the straight
lines and give diversity. But if each prairie farmer were to follow his own tastes,
or adapt his planting to secure his greatest profit in timber or protection to his
own farm, planting about one-tenth of his land with trees, it is probable that all
the desirable ends which we have been considering will be gained, and the land-
scape sufficiently diversified to be pleasing to the eye.

Here then * * * we have two pictures presented to us. In the one, we
look into the future, and see wide spread desolation, an extended treeless coun-
try, visited by destructive storms, by severe drouths, with its streams dried up,
and food for man and beast in such scarcity that the poor can scarcely obtain a
supply. In the other, we see a charming landscape, a rich fertile country, a pop-
ulation enjoying all the blessings which flow from peace and plenty.

The following suggestions concerning shelter-belts are offered by Messrs.
H. M. Thompson and Son, of Milwaukee, Wis.:

It has been found that belts from 7 to 8 rods in width are, all things taken to-
gether, the best. These belts should be planted on the outside with some ever-
green whose roots strike deep into the ground and do not spread near the surface,
and whose leaves and branches will afford protection from the winter winds. In
the center can be placed the deciduous trees. If, however, the farmer wishes first

‘to experiment, and should think belts of this width entail too much cost and labor,

belts of two or three rows will be found to make remunerative returns, and even
one row planted, say not more than 6 feet apart, will give rich returns in increase
of crops, and add very much to the attractions of the estate. The trees for plant-
ing should be those best adapted to the soil and situation, and will vary much
with different localities. There are, however certain trees, such as the larch,
Scotch and pitch pine, that are so well adapted to dry soils, rich or poor, and the
Norway spruce, Scotch, Austrian, and white pines, American arbor-vitae and ash,
which are best for moist, rich soils, and which so fully meet the wants of the
farmer that they should always form a large portion of his planting. Belts com-
posed of Scotch pine, Norway spruce, white ash, and European larch, planted from
the outside of the belt, in the order named, have been found to meet, in almost
every particular, the need for which they are planted, and to afford to the farmer
every protection in the way of timber that he can want. The value of sucha
timber-belt is felt very early, and cuttings for stakes, hoop-poles, bean-poles, fuel,
&c., begin much earlier than may be thought; while the after-products of hop-
poles, telegraph-poles, railroad-ties, and lumber for general use, follow year by
year, and are a constant annual source of profit.

92 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

Professor H. H. McAfee, formerly of the Iowa Agricultural College, a
close observer in forest-culture, in an article on shelter-belts,* remarks
that prairie-farms need shelter most on the west, next on the north, next
on the south, while their usefulness on the east is not so great, though
sufficient to call for planting. A good combination for an evergreen belt
is 2 or 3 rows of white pine for center, 2 rows of Scotch or Austrian pine
on each side, and 2 rows of red cedar or arbor-vitae outside of these,
making 10 or 11 rows, and giving, by different rates of growth, a belt with
a conical cross-section, and limbs from the ground up. Another good
evergreen combination would be Norway spruce for center, white spruce
next, and black spruce and red cedar or arbor-vitae outside. These kinds
were hardy in Iowa, except in too great drought. A shelter-belt of cheap
soft wood may be made of two rows of gray or white willow, flanked by
one row of Lombardy poplar on each side, rows 8 feet apart. Willow
alone is apt to spread too much, and this poplar alone is apt to lose its
side branches, but thus combined, the poplar, which is always erect,
holds the willow up and the willow grows twigs enough to make a fair
barrier. But any kind of tree, except perhaps such thinly-foliaged trees
as the walnut and coffee-nut, will make fair shelter-belts, if enough width
is given them. At least 10 rows of any of the maples, birches, poplars,
or other common woods should be put in the belts, or 8 rows of white or
scarlet oak, which holds leaves in winter. Where road-side planting is
done to obviate snow-drifting in winter or to furnish shade and shelter
in summer, less rows are needed.

Judge C. E. Whiting, of Monona County, Iowa, in reporting to the
State Horticultural Society in 1876 (p. 156), mentioned that he had on
his farm of 1,800 acres about 40 acres of timber in belts around his fields,
varying from single rows to 20 rows, and of different ages from 18 years
down to 1; but mostly from 5 to12 years. In regard to the influence of
these belts on the growth of crops, he says:

As my groves increase in hight, I still find that the visible influence of this pro-
tection—with almost mathematical precision—amounts to one rod on the ground
to one foot height of the tree. Whether from cause or from accident, I will not
pretend to say, but leave it for the entomologist to decide—I record, that during
the great grasshopper visitations of 1873 and 1876, all my fields surrounded by
timber escaped almost wholly uninjured. The same wastrue ofthe farms opened
in our Missouri bottom timber. Will Professor Bessey please inform us if a Col-
orado locust, with aneye to beauty and utility, respects a field surrounded by green
growing trees? We know from long experience that the summer storms, the
early frosts, and the fierce, unrelenting winter blizzards do pass these fields by
uninjured and unscathed, and why should not a locust as well? I would make
no material change in my order of planting; on our treeless prairies, where tim-
ber is wanted quick for fuel, shelter, and other purposes, the cottonwood, in my
estimation, still stands king among all our native trees. Iam now usingmy round
cottonwood posts cut from my young thrifty-growing trees, peeled, seasoned, and
the posts set in the ground, boiled a few minutes each in coal-tar, at an expense
of about one cent each, that bid fair to outlast oak not so treated. Maple, willow,

ash, and walnut should follow in the order named, the latter to be planted on the
deepest soils.

Need of wind-breaks for the protection of human life.

A winter seldom passes without deaths from storms on the prairies of
the Northwest. Mr. James T. Mott, in an article on timber culture in
the Iowa Horticultural Report of 1872 (p. 109), after 17 years’ residence
in lowa, says:

i

*“Towa Horticultural Report,” 1875, p. 292.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 93

I have many times wondered how it could be that people were so easily lost in
these storms ; why it was that a man in good health, strong in limb, and well
clothed, could not go a few rods from his house to the barn, to care for his stock,
without danger of death ; why whole sleigh-loads of people were frozen to death
within a hundred rods of dwellings, and this in the same location where I was
living, But lately it has been my fortune (or I thought at the time misfortune)
to be caught in one of these storms in Minnesota; and it took only a short time
for me to see through the whole thing. I felt the wind first blowing softly from
the south ; in 30 minutes it changed to a fierce gale from the west, bringing with
_ it a bank of snow that would compare to the rush of water as the flood-gates are
opened in a mill-race, and with a force that no man or team could travel against
it a mile, as steady as in a bellows run by machinery, being filled with snow as:
fine as the finest dust, and so thick one could not see 10 feet, filling the eyes and
nostrils of man and beast. The storm lastedthree days, * * * and the news
is of hundreds dead ; people frozen in stage-coaches, whole sleigh-loads returning
home from town, men standing dead with hand on the stable door latch, others
that saved themselves by burrowing in snow banks—little children lost going
home from school, passengers in railroad-cars two days without food,&c. * * *
More people have been frozen within the last year, in Northwest Iowa and West
Minnesota, than were ever murdered by the Indians in those counties since their
settlement. * * * The people are now petitioning their legislatures for some
kind of protection from these storms, asking that wire fences and storm houses be
built along the traveled roads—asking them to do something for their safety, I
see none that would do but timber planting. It alone would stop these terrible
winds, modify the climate, and furnish land marks for the traveler.

Screens of woodland as a barrier against the progress of insects.

The Hon. J. G. Knapp, of Madison, Wis., in a lecture delivered at the
university course at Rockford, Ill.,in February, 1870, notices the influ-
ence of forests in intercepting the progress of insects and the spread of
contagious and destructive fungi. He says:

The chinch-bug of the prairies was lately as much dreaded by those who knew
their ravages <9. >. 5 2 , but these can never traverse a belt ofthick woods seven
or eight rods in width to devastate an adjoining field. The cool damp soil of such
as belt presents an impassable barrier to their march, the same as to the grass-

opper.

Citing from I. T. Thomas, he continues:

Another important advantage has been occasionally afforded by the shelter of
wood-lands. Itis well known that rust in wheat, iscommonly most prevalent on
low and mucky lands; yet, at other times, and in its most virulent form, it seems
borne on the wind, and often destroys thousands of acres on all kinds of soil in
one sweeping blight. An instance of this kind occured in Northern Indiana, in
1840. Early and late sown, on compact and spongy soil, on hill and dale, cleared
land and prairie, were all alike affected. In every instance, however, where the
crop was sheltered by woodland, it was least injured. An extensive farmer in
Ontario county, New York, informed me, some years ago, that out of two hundred
acres of promising wheat, which he then had growing, all was completely de-
stroyed, except those portions sheltered by woods, the total loss being four or five thou-
sand dollars, most of which, he believes, would have been saved, had his land
been protected by timber belts.

Instruction in forest-culture recommended at the State Agricultural College, at
Amherst.

The executive committee of the Massachusetts Agricultural College,
(Amherst), in a report made in February, 1876, included the following
recommendation, which, being fully discussed, was adopted:

It is also recommended, that some instruction be given in forestry, both theo-
retically and practically, and that special attention be paid to the raising of forest
trees from seed, their care and treatment in the nursery, their permanent planting
in various portions of the farm, and the subsequent care of the plantations. The

94. FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

time is not far distant, when every farmer in the country, will, in his own inter-
est, be obliged to give some attention to the subject of tree-planting, and such a
course as is here recommended, will be of advantage to the students, and to the
State at large. Similar considerations apply to the raising of fruit-trees. A nursery of
reliable standard fruit-trees, adapted to one section, ought to be a source of some
income to the institution.

BristoL County.—Mr. Morrill Allen, of Pembroke, Mass., in a letter
relating to tree-planting, written December, 1874, says :

A man in Bristol county, about fifty years ago, planted a field somewhat ex-
hausted with acorns ; when the young trees were two or three inches high, he
plowed and hoed, as in a field of Indian corn; tne trees grew, to the astonishment
of the whole neighborhood, and in less than forty years, were ripe forthe ax. About
a century since, there was an experiment in this town in planting the white-oak
for ship-timber, the success of which ought to have encouraged frequent repetition.
The grove was in cutting for timber thirty years since, and a man between seventy
and eighty years old told me, that in his boyhood, he assisted in planting these
trees. It is not to the existing generation so helpless an undertaking as some
would represent it, to plant forest-trees, even those of slow growth. I recollect meas-
uring the circumference of an oak tree, in West Newbury, the acorn, of which
was planted by Benjamin Poore, who is yet comparatively, a young man, and I
thing it measured 27 inches. It is a well proportioned, handsome tree. Had he
planted at the same time fifteen acres of similar soil, it would have become before
now, an inexhaustible wood-lot for the use of one family.

The general elevation of this district above sea-level, is about 80 feet ;
highest point, 210; prevailing winds south-west, and rain-fall, 46 inches.
The native timber consisted of several species of oak, the walnut, maple,
pine, and hemlock, used for lumber. A variety of trees for fuel and cab-
inet-work, are found in the forests. There has been but little clearing
within the last century ; the woods have simply been cut off and allowed
to grow again. In a few cases, forest-planting has been done on a small
scale, but so recently, that no result has been reached, though the plant-
ings are usually in a healthy condition. Fires set by locomotives, or by
careless persons, sometimes do a great deal of damage——(Elisha Shade,
Somerset, Bristol county, Mass.

Having been, for thirty years past, more or less engaged in buying woodland
and cutting it off, I wish to state, that I know, from careful observation, that an
acre of good land, where there is a mixture of the several kinds of oak and
walnut (hickory), cut off while young and thrifty, will produce, during the first 20
or 25 years, a cord of wood yearly. I believe, that most kinds of hard wood are
worth 20 or 30 per cent. more, for fuel, at the age of 25 years, than at 75.—(A. M.
Ide, of South Attleborough, to George B. Emerson: Trees of Massachusetts, p. 26.)

The Massachusetts Society for Promotion of Agriculture, in April, 1876,
offered premiums of $1,000, $600, and $400, for first, second, and third
best plantations of not less than five acres, to be made of European larch,
except in Barnstable, Dukes, and Nantucket counties, in which the
Scotch pine or the Corsican fir, or both the latter, must be used. The
plantations must originally consist of at least 2,700 trees to the acre, and
the land must be poor, worn out, or unfit for agricultural use.

They also offered $600 and $400 for first and second best plantations of
five acres, or more, of American white ash, at first having 5,000 trees to
the acre.

The plantation must be made in the spring of 1877, and the prizes are
to be awarded in the summer of 1887. The directions for planting were
as follows.

Larch and pine.

When the nature of the soil will permit, shallow furrows 4 feet apart should be
run one way across the field to be planted. This is best done during the autumn
previous to planting. Then by planting in the furrows, and inserting the plants

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 95

4 feet apart in the rows, the wholeland will be covered with plants standing 4 feet
apart each way. Planted at this distance, 2,720 plants will be required to the
acre. On hilly, rocky land, which is especially recommended for the cultivation
of the European larch, and where it is impossible to run furrows, it will be only
necessary to open with a spade, holes large enough toadmit the roots of the plants,
care being taken to set them as near 4 feet each way as the nature of the ground
will admit. In very exposed situations on the sea-coast, it is recommended to
plant as many as 5,000 trees to the acre, the plants being inserted more thickly on
the outsides of the plantations in order that the young trees may furnish shelter
to each other.

It is imperative to plant the larch as early in the season as the ground can be worked.
No other tree begins to grow so early, and if the operation of transplanting it is
delayed until the new shoots have pushed, it is generally followed by the destruc-
tion of the plant.

The Scotch and Corsican pines can be planted up to the Ist of May.

Ash.

Land in condition to grow corn or an average hay crop, is suited to produce a
profitable crop of white ash. Deep, moist land, rather than that which is light
and gravelly, should be selected for this tree. The land should be plowed, har-
rowed, and made as mellow as possible during the autumn previous, that the trees
may be planted as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring.

As soon as the frost is out, mark out the field with furrows 4 feet apart, and in-
sert the trees 2 feet apartin the rows. This will give 5,445 plants to the acre,
which, at the end of ten years, must be thinned one-half. These thinnings are
valuable for barrel-hoops, &c.

It is recommended to cultivate between the rows for two or three years to keep
down the weeds and prevent the soil from baking. At the end of that time the
ground will probably be entirely shaded by the trees, and further cultivation will
not be necessary.

General directions for tree planting.

Be careful not to expose the roots of trees to the wind and sun more than is
necessary during the operation of transplanting. More failures in tree-planting
arise from carelessness in this particular than from any other cause.

To prevent this, carry the trees to the field to be planted in bundles covered
with mats; lay them down, and cover the roots with wet loam, and only remove
them from the bundles as they are actually required for planting.

In planting, the roots should be carefully spread out and the soil worked among
them with the hand.

p When the roots are covered press the earth firmly about the plant with the
oot.

Insert the plant to the depth at which it stood before being transplanted.

Select, if possible, for tree-planting a cloudy or a rainy day. It is better to plant
after the middle of the day than before it.

All young plantations must be protected from cattle and other browsing animals—
the greatest enemies, next to man, to young trees and the spread of forest growth.

Experiments of D. C. Scofield in Tree-planting, at Elgin, Ill.*

This plantation was begun in 1858, with imported and American seed-
lings and seeds; and is on a rich, dry, undulating prairie, with black
loam passing into clay at a depth of 4 to 6 feet, where it is underlaid b
coarse gravel. It consisted, at first, of about 12,000 trees; 8,000 set from
1858 to 1862, and 4,000 in 1866. The plants were usually from 8 to 12
inches long, were transplanted in nursery rows, and in two years to their
permanent places. The ground had been cultivated three years from
prairie sod, and was well pulverized. The planting was done in furrows
of proper depth, level places of proper depth being prepared by the
spade, and care being taken to prevent drying of the roots. The larch

*Communicated to the Horticultural Society of Northern Illinois, and published with the “Transac,
of Ill. Hort. Soc., 1876, p. 284.

96 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

(forming the greater part) were 2 to 4 feet high when transplanted, and
the evergreens 13 to 3 feet. Having been transplanted once or twice in
the nursery, they were well stocked with roots. They were cultivated
three to six years, and beans planted in the wider spaces; and from this
time, excepting the black walnuts and elms, they protected themselves.
These and the white ash needed longer cultivation on account of later
leaving.

The varieties planted were the Scotch, black Austrian, and white pines,
Norway and white spruces, American and Siberian arbor-vitae, hemlock,
and European and American silver fir; and of deciduous trees, the black
walnut, silver-leaf, sugar, and red maples, box-elder, English, red, and
white American elms, chestnut, horse-chestnut, European mountain
ash, white ash, redbud (of Southern Illinois), European and American
larch, and cypress.

European larch.—This is now 28 to 32 feet high, with diameters varying accord-
ing to density, the most being 14 inches at 1 foot from the ground. Nearly every
tree grew; average annual growth the first nine years, 25 feet. On the 19th of
October, 1869, a severe frost, coming before the tops had hardened, checked them,
and the gain was not over two inches a year, or a foot in six seasons, till 1876,
when they grew 18 inches. No bird or insect has attacked them.

Black walnuts grew so long as cultivated, but when exposed, from the dying out
of a row of soft maples, and by the enroachment of sod, they became stunted in
growth, except a few that grew in a depression, equally dry with the rest, but of
richer soil, where the trees were now 20 to 30 feet high and 12 to 16 inches in
diameter. A block of black walnuts, 3 by 16 rods, in rows 4 feet apart and 2 feet
between in the rows, was cultivated eight years and then left. Some of these, in
a basin of vegetable mold, are now 4 to 6 inches in thickness and 20 to 25 feet
high. The rest are 2 to 4 inches in diameter and 15 to 20 feet high, the average
amount of wood growth being one-fifth of those in the basin. A neighbor had
planted walnuts, in 1844, that had been transplanted twice. They were 20 feet
apart; had been in cultivated ground twenty-five years. They are now 17 inches
thick at 2 feet from the ground, and one that had been cultivated till now on one
side was 23 inches, with a hight of 40 feet. These trees have a spreading top, the
branches beginning at 7 to 8 feet up, and bear fruit abundantly.

These facts lead to the conclusion that black walnut will succeed on dry, rich
soil, if cultivation is continued till the trees are able to shade out the grass, and
that when planted alone, and without shading nurses, they will die. Mr. S. pre-
fers the European larch as a nurse. The sugar maple is found to agree well, and |
might be used for this purpose. These other trees secure a clean, upright stem to
the walnut, an important object with this timber. It must have deep, rich soil.

Silver-leaf maple——This promised well everywhere ten or twelve years, and some
trees had a diameter of 18 inches at the collar in 15 years. They are liable to
break from winds in summer and from ice in winter, and many show signs of
early maturity and decay. They are particularly liable to injury from grass. It
grows best in wet soils.

White ash.—Trees set in 1856, 1 inch in thickness and 7 feet high, 2 rods apart,
are now 30 feet high, 8 to 14 inches thick, and the spread of the limbs 20 to 25
feet. They have a strong tendency to sprout from the stump of the parent tree.
Trees from seed, planted in 1858, and set in forest rows, with European larch and
black walnut, are straight and smooth 25 to 30 feet high and 3 to 4 inches in
diameter.

Sugar-maples, planted 20 feet apart, 7 feet high, in 1856, are now 25 feet high and
6 to 8 inches thick, spreading 12 to 17 feet.

Trees from seed, planted in 1858, have a height of 20 feet and thickness of 3 to 6
inches. It grows very slow in prairie soil for fifteen to twenty years, after which
it makes satisfactory growth. Trees an inch in diameter when set, thirty-three
years ago, are now over 3 feet in circumference at a foot from the ground, 30 feet
high, and 25 feet spread. A wild cherry tree, set in the same ground, twenty-six
years from seed, is now 5 feet round.

Box elder grows rapidly, gaining a diameter of 6 inches in seven years from
planting, and forms a fine head, 16feet across. It is not liable to break from winds
and ice, like the soft maple.

_

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

Butternut grows well under cultivation, being 5 to 7 inches through, and a well

’ proportioned head. It bears nuts.

Redbud, good only for ornamental planting; slow grower.

American larch grows nearly as well as the European, but with less regular form;
branches, wild and straggling ; height, 25 feet ; diameter, 4 to 6 inches.

Red elm grows rapidly, some trees being 6 to 8 or ten inches thick; but at this
age many haye an unhealthy appearance. It is not worthy of cultivation on dry
land.

White elm.—In regard to growth, variety of soil needed, and habit of late leay-
ing, it resembles the walnut, requiring the same treatment, and leading to the
same results. Valueless on common prairie without cultivation until able to pro-
tect itself. There is this difference between these two trees, however, that while
the walnut requires a deep, rich, dry soil, the white elm will flourish in a wet soil,
less deep and rich, with annual cultivation for twenty years. These two trees |
make about the same growth on common dry prairie as they do in the “sinks,”
with a cultivation of four or five years.

English elm makes a more vigorous growth and a more beautiful foilage than
either of the American varieties, and will do well with less cultivation.

Chestnut.—A total failure on prairie soil. Only one tree remained on the ground.
and this is the only one known in the county. It stands 20 feet high, 6 inches in
diameter, and is kept in slightly growing condition from the forest protection

_around it. It grows satisfactorily on the lighter soil of the Mississippi bluffs.

Lombardy poplar grows rapidly and beautiful a few years, but is unhealthy and
valueless in ten or fifteen years, especially so on rich soils. Trees of ten years’
growth are 8 to 10 inches thick and 25 to 30 feet high.

Horse-chestnut— Hardy, but an exceedingly slow grower on prairie, yet grows
well on gravelly or sandy soil.

EVERGREENS.— White pines are 30 to 40 feet high in forests 6 to 8 feet apart, with
a diameter of 10 to 14 inches. When close, they are equal hight but slender, and
denuded of side branches. The white pines of this plantation are from trees from
seedlings gathered from American forests in 1866, planted 12 feet apart. They are
6 to 10 teet high in 1876. They are filled with Scotch pine for nurses, with trees
grown from seed gathered from trees imported and planted in 1858. They were

. cultivated till able to protect themselves.

Scotch Pine, in close plantations, 4 to 6 feet apart, have a height of 20 to 26 feet,
and a diameter, of 6 to 7 inches. When standing separate, they have twice this
diameter, and form a beautiful tree, valuable as a wind-break, and growing surely
and rapidly on nearly every variety of soil. They are very hardy.

Black Austrian Pine grows equally well with the Scotch, and mainly valuable for
ornament and wind-breaks.

Norway Spruce, when planted alone, spreads nearly as wide as it grows in height,
forming a beautiful pyramid. The greatest diameter of the trunk of these trees,
is 15 inches, from trees planted in 1857, one foot in height.

American White Spruce—This is a beautitul tree, equally, if not excelling the
Norway, and with the same habits.

American Arbor-vitx, (white cedar)—This forms a beautiful tree when young,
and standing alone, and it may be successfully sheared to any desirable form. It
grows slowly, and when planted closely in rows, 6 feet apart, and only one foot in
the row, has a diameter of 2 to 4 inches, and 16 feet in height.

Siberian—Arbor vite, is equally hardy with the American, and grows more com-
pact and beautiful.

Hemlock, when planted on prairie soil, makes a slow and dwarfish growth, till,
twelve or fifteen yearsold. lt is better on hard soil.

American Silver Fir (Balsam).—A rapid, beautiful grower, its main value being
as an ornamental tree; is less hardy in the extremes of cold following exceed-
ingly severe droughts, as in 186465 ; as in case of the great droughts which then
visited this western country, when a great many of the finest of the balsam trees,
many of them 40 feet in height, died.

European silver fir—This is too tender for this climate, and has only flourished
in protected situations. It has a heightof 30 feet, and a diameter of 6 to 7 inches,
and should be used only as an ornamental tree. Yet, this tree shows early old
age, and is less beautiful in twenty or thirty years.

}

98 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

Experience of Tree-culture, in Illinois.

Mr. Samuel Edwards, of Mendota, Ill., reporting from a committee of
the State Horticultural Society, in 1876,* speaks of the condition and
prospects of tree-planting, and of the success and failure that has attended
the experiments hitherto tried:

For several years the locust used to be the timber tree, and was quite extensively
planted; and when the beautiful groves, on which so many had placed their de-
pendence for future fencing, were destroyed by the borer, a general depression
came over the minds of tree-planters. For a time their energies for work in this
direction, were paralyzed, and it is only recently, from observation of the growth
and value of a few other varieties of trees as yet successfully cultivated here, eon-
fidence in timber-growing is being restored. Many have made small beginnings ;
a few are planting extensively of black walnut, European larch, ash, of different
varieties, white and Scotch pines, white willow, silver maple and ash-leaved
maple, all of which give satisfaction, except the silver maple, which is, in some
cases, troubled with a borer, and limbs are broken in severe storms.

Some have advocated extensive planting of the chestnut, and for over twenty
years, they were thrifty on a prairie mound, clay soil, with good, natural under-
drainage in my grounds. A severe winter succeeding a drought fatally injured
one of the two trees set in 1851, and on my new grounds, at Mendota, only some
4 feet toa stiff clay, they are very unsatistactory; many trees 4 to 6 feet high,
were killed in the winter of 187475. The tulip tree, for twenty-five years from
first planting, grew finely. Quite a number on the grounds of Arthur Bryant and
Tracy Reeve, at Princeton, and at “ The Evergreens,” Lamoille, failed under the
same circumstances as the chestnut. The English walnuts, grown at La Porte,
Ind., were brought to one of the meetings of this society a few years since, by W.
H. Ragan, with the report, that it proved hardy, and had borne fruit there several
years. Itried a second hundred from an eastern nursery ; and they have all winter
killed. Doubtless, all of these varieties planted on timber soil, in the southern
and central parts of the State will succeed. It is evident, from past experience,
that it will require several years to test varieties of trees before planting exten-
sively on the prairies of our section of country. ;

A good beginning is being made in planting trees along the public highways,
for which white elm, ash, and silver-maple, are generally used. It is to be regret-
ted, that some continue to plant the Lombardy poplar, which is very short-lived,
and timber of so little value. Centennial trees were very generally set by our
people who plant at all.

Several cemeteries, a number of farms in this vicinity, and the Blackstone
Public School grounds, in Mendota, have been improved the present year, by
planting extensive evergreen screens.

How any one can reside on our bleak prairies during the passage of one of our
polar waves, like that of December 9, with the mercury at —23°, and not decide
to provide timber-shelter for his family and animals, is past my comprehension.
Yet, how many men, with good sense in every other respects, and with ample
means, continue to live without this merciful provision! It really does seem
certain, that,at no distant day, a general awakening to this work of necessity,
must break out all over the prairies of the north-west.

Of ornamental deciduous trees, as yet planted, only to a limited extent, I would
place first on the list, our lovely sugar-maple. If there is a finer avenue of decid-
uous trees in our State than the one of sugar-maple, planted by Arthur Bryant,
some forty years since, it has not been my good fortune to see it. Norway maple
is one of the best, valuable, on account of retaining its foilage late ; cut-leaeyd
weeping birch, very fine ; weeping mountain ash; horse chestnut, slow grower,
desirable ; Japan ginko, unique; American linden, if foreign, would be called for;
magnolia acuminata, unsurpassed. The following do not endure severe winters :
European ash, and several weeping varieties of it; European weeping linden ;
weeping thorn, several varieties ; rosemary-leafed weeping willow. Kilmarnock
weeping willow, though hardier than the forgoing, is frequently injured enough to
render it undesirable.

*Transactions of Illinois Horticultural Society, 1876, p. 115.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 99

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF WOODS FOR FUEL.—EXPERIMENTS BY
MARCUS BULL.

A paper read before the American Philosophical Society, April 7, 1826,
by Marcus Bull, of Philadelplia,* gives the results of careful experi-
ments upon qualities and relative values of American woods, that have
been regarded as trustworthy and valuable. In conducting these experi-
ments, Mr. Bull construced a room within a room,{ so that the walls of
the inner one could be kept uniform in temperature, and combustion
was made in a stove with an abundance of pipe. The time and effects
were carefully noted, and all circumstances affecting draught of air, size,
and condition of fuel, &c., were made as uniform as possible.

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Sets a | | | |e >

h. m.

White ash—F7a2xinus AHLETICANA «10. 000-00 01-00 .772|8450| 25.74|.547/28.78| 888] 31] 6 40 77
Apple tree—Pyrus QlUs 11.20 ee cece eee e ee eee 697/3115| 25. |.545/23.41| 779) 33| 6 40 70
White beech—Fagus sylvestrise...csee--+0-2e0+- .724|3236| 19.62) .518/27.26| 685] 23) 6 65
Black birch—Betula lenta.........+-20202-2-0+- .697|3115| 19.40) .528/22.52] 604) 27| 6 63
White birch—Betula populifolia .....-.+++-+.--- 5380/2869 19. | .364/19.15| 4650) 24) 6 48
Butter-nut—Fuglans cathartica.........- FOOo ae .567|2534| 20.79] .237|12.47| 527) 42) 6 51
Red cedar— Juniperus virginiana .565|2525| 24.72|.238/12.52| 624) 50| 6 40 56
Arnerican chestnut— Castanea vesca.....-.-.--- .522|2333| 25.29|.379|19.94| 590) 30) 6 40 52
Wild cherry—Cerasus virginiana ...6 +1. 20e00-- 597|2668| 21.70) .411/21.63| 579) 27) 6 10 55
Dog wood—Cornus florida.......++0.22 see0-2e- .815|2643| 21. | .550/28.94| 765) 96) 6 10 15
White elm— Ulyzus americand......- 2.200. eeeee 5802592] 24.85) .357)18.79| 644) 34) 6 40 58
Sour gum—Wyssa@ sylvatica. ....2+- 220-222 21 ee .703 3142| 22.16|.400}21.05| 696) 33) 6 20 67
Sweet gum—Liguidambar styracifilua....-..+.--- .634/ 2834} 19.69) -413)21.73) 558) 26) 6 57
Shell-bark hickory—Fuglans sguamosa.......-- 1.000 4469) 26.22) .625/32.89|1172) 36) 6 40 100
Pig-nut hickory—$uglans porcina ....-...+-++- .949|4241| 25.22) .637/33.52|1070| 32) 6 40 95
Red-heart hickory— Fuglans laciniata?.......-- .829|3705) 22.90] .509/26.78| 848) 32) 6 30 81
Witch-hazel— Hamamelis virginica .......+---- .784|8505| 21.40|.368/19.36| 750) 39) 6 10 72
American holly—Jlex ofaca.......+-+02 02 sees 602) 2691; 22.77| .374|19.68| 613) 31) 6 20 57
American hornbeam—Carvfinus americana....- .720|3218) 19. |.455/23.94) 611) 25) 6 65
Mountain laurel—Kalmia latifolia .........-..- .663| 2963} 24.02|.457/24.05| 712! 30) 6 40 66
Hard maple—Acer saccharinumt.......++-++-++- (644/2878 21.43] -431/22.68] 617/ 271 6 10 60
Soft maple—Acer rubrum... ..ceeceresees ...-| .597/2668| 20.64|.370|19.47) 551} 28| 6 54
Large magnolia—Magnolia grandiflora......... .605|/2704| 21.59) .406)21.36) 584) 27) 6 10 56
Chestnut white oak— Quercus prinus palustris. | .885|3959| 22.76)-481/25.31) 900; 36) 6 30 86
White Oak— Quercus G1bQ... 1.2.1 e ev eee eee eee .855|3821| 21.62)-401/21.10|} 826]; 39} 6 20 81
Shell-bark white oak— Quercus obtusiloba......- .775|8464| 21.50) -437|22.99| 745) 32) 6 20 74
Barren scrub oak—Quercus catesb@i.....-+++++ .747|3339| 23-17) -492|20.63| 774| 38] 6 30 73
Pin 0ak— Quercus PAlUstrise...ccceeececceeceeee .747|8839| 22.22| .436|22.94| 742) 32] 6 20 71
Scrub black oak— Quercus Bantsterz .......--+- 728) 3254) 23.80] -387|29.36| 774) 38) 6 30 71
Red oak— Quercus 7Ubra. .-. 200. ee eer ececeeees -728|3254| 22.43) -400'21.05) 680) 30) 6 20 69
Barren 0ak— Quercus ferrugined s..+.++0-+-+--- .694|3102| 22.37) -447|23.52| 694} 29) 6 20 66
Rock chestnnt oak—Quwercus prinus monticala. | .678|3030) 20.86)-436/22.94) 632) 28) 6 61
Yellow oak— Quercus prinus acuminata........| -653)2919| 21.60) -295)15.52) 631) 41/ 6 10 60
Spanish oak— Quercus falcatad.....2.0. 222222002 -548)2449| 22.95) .362)19.05) 562) 30) 6 20 52
Persimmon—Diospyros virginiana ...0.-.+-++- -711|3178} 23.44) .469|24.68) 745} 30] 6 30 69
Yellow pine (soft)—Pinus mzitis.........------+| +551/2463) 23.75) .333)17.52| 585) 33) 6 30 54
Jersey pine—Pinws t20PS... 01-002 cece eee cee .478}2137| 24.88) .385|20.26| 532) 26) 6 40 48
Pitch pine—Pinus rigidd.......se+0- 222. ee neeee -42611904| 26.76|.298|15.68} 510} 33] 6 40 43
White pine—Pinus strobus ....2. 0.2 e cee ce ences .418|1868} 24.35|.293)15.42) 455| 30] 6 40 42
Yellow poplar—Lyrzodendron tulipifera........ .563|2516| 21.81) .383/20.15; 549} 27° 5 10 52
Lombardy poplar--Populus dilatata. .....+.... .897|1774| 25. |-245|12.89) 444) 34) 6 40 40
Sassafras—Laurus Sassafras .....20.0.0.0% .-' ,618]2762| 22.58) .427/22.47| 624) 28) 6 20 59
Wild service—Avronia arbored.......-.+.---.--- .887|3964| 22.62) .594/31.26) 897! 29) 6 20 84
Sycamore—Acer pseudo-plantanus.......-.+---- .535|2391| 23.60) .374|19.68) 564) 29) 6 30 52
Black walnut—Fuglans nigra ..........-.---- -681/3044| 22.56) .418)22. 687) 31] 5 20 65
Swamp whortleberry— Vaccinium corymbosum. | .752|3361| 23.30) .505)26.57) 783) 29! 6 30 73

* “Experiments to determine the Comparative Value of the principal Varieties of Fuel used in the
United States, and also in Europe, and onthe Ordinary Apparatus used in their combustion.”? By
Marcus Bull, Philadelphia, 1827, 8 vo , p. 103.

{The outer room was 11 x 14 feet and about 11 feet high; the inner one was cubic, 8 feet on a side,
and containing 512 cubic feet.

tThese names are generally according to Michaux, and in some cases are different from those now
generally adopted.

100 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

EXPERIMENTS IN TREE-PLANTING BY MR. JOSEPH S&S. FAY, AT
WOOD’S HALL, BARNSTABLE COUNTY, MASS.

At the close of the season of 1875, the plantation of Mr. Fay included
something over 125 acres, of which about 100 were sown broadcast,
chiefly in the spring, and about 25 were set. with imported trees. The
seed sown were chiefly those of the native pitch-pine, with some white
pine, the Austrian, Scotch, and Corsican pine, the Norway spruce, and
the European larch. The imported trees number about 35,000, consist-
ing of the Austrian, Scotch, and Corsican pines, Norway spruce, Norway
maple, English sycamore (Acer pseudo-platanus), English oak, alder,
Scotch birch and larch, wych elm and Huntington and red Germain
willows. There were also set several thousand native pines from the
eastern part of Falmouth.

This plantation 1 is between Buzzard’s Bay on the west and north and
and Martha’s Vineyard Sound on the east and south, the highest eleva-
tion being about 150 feet above the sea. The surface i is uneven and made
up of abrupt hills and deep hollows, sprinkled over with bowlders of
granite, and the soil a drift formation of clay and gravel with a yellow
or sandy loam. It was, before seeding, an old pasture ground, with no
tree except an oak, that springs out of the huckleberry bushes here and
there, but hardly rising above them on account of the wind, and from
being kept down by browsing. The annual rain-fall in this section is
about 45 inches, and the prevailing winds in summer are southerly, and
in winter northerly.

The native pines of Mr. Fay’s Fanta were set in 1853-1856, and
imported trees were set in 1852, 1853, 1855, 1871, and 1872. Native pine
seeds were sown in 1858, 1861, 1864, and 1868. The foreign seeds were
sown in 1861, 1862, 1868. The results are stated as follows :*

The Scotch pine from the seed have proved on the whole, including prompt
germination, the best grower and very hardy ; but the weevil affects the symetry
of many trees. The Norway spruce and English oak have done well, and the
white pine ; but all three suffer when much exposed, as on the outside of a plan-
tation, to the strong salt winds. The Austrian pine does well, but is slow and
irregular i in germinating, and’ makes a later start from the seed. The larch has
not come well from the seed ; from the nursery or as imported it does remarkably
well; so with the Scotch birch and alder. The Scotch pine does finely from the
seed or the nursery, and from the latter the English sycamore does well. All have
done better than the native pitch-pine.

One kind of pine, though not fully tested by me, promises better than the rest,
namely, the Corsican (Pinus laricio). In my first importation I ordered five hun-
dred, but when transplanted in my absence they were mixed with the Austrian,
and I lost sight of them for ten years. I was then so struck with their great vigor,
beauty and tine promise, that in 1868 I imported some seed and commenced sow-
ing them, mixed with other kinds, upon vacant lands, and have since kept it up.
Some of those that came up are very strong and healthy, while others are effected
by some insect or a kind of blight. They are very hardy and beautiful when not
‘so effected. I think that some of the nurserymen have imported and sell them
under the name of Austrian. Of those sown in 1868 some are (in 1875) over eight
feet high, of which nearly or quite five feet grew in the last three years. At an
early day. I tried some seed of the French maritime pine (Pinus pinaster maratima )
which were so successfully planted on the west coast of France under the first
Napoleon ; but, after germininating and growing thriftily to the height of six feet,
they were winter-killed. This was the | experience on Nantucket “and Martha’s
Vineyard Islands, where they were tried extensively.

Some of the Scotch and Austrian Bunes, Roryey spruces, and Scotch larches

*COM assachusetts Ploughman,”? February 26, 1876, in answer to enquiries by. Prof. C. 8, ‘Sargent.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 101

which I obtained from my brother, Mr. Richard 8. Fay, of Lynn, in 1853, proba-
bly imported by him in 1850, are about 40 feet high, and from 10 to 14 inches in
diameter one foot from the ground. Some native white pines set out about the
same time have done as well. Of those imported in 1853, many are about 30 feet
high, and 8 to 12 inches in diameter one foot from the ground. Of the Scotch
pines from seed sown in 1861, some, favorably situated—that is, not crowded and
in fair soil and shelter—are 30 feet high and 10 inches through the butt a foot from
the ground. Most of them were not too thickly sown in 1862 and 1863, are up-
wards of 20 feet high and 6 inches in diameter one foot from the ground.
All the pines have done well from the seed, on the whole, except the native
pitch-pines, which became sickly, and which, after a good growth to a certain
point, Iam cutting out for fuel, as not worth keeping. Some, however, that I
transplanted in 1853, 1854, 1855, are very strong and healthy, being at least 30 feet
high and 10 to 12 inches in diameter. I am told that the seedling native trees,
of which many acres have been planted in Nantucket, are proving worthless and
are being cut down. ;
My first importations of trees were in 1871 and 1872, and consisted of English
alder, Scotch birch, Scotch larch, English sycamore, Norway spruce, and Austrian *
-Seotch, and Corsican pines. The alder I have found to bea rapid grower, very

hardy and ornamental, well adapted for a screen ora shelter to other trees. Some
-_ which were set out at 13 to 2 feet high in 1871, are now 8 and 10 feet high. The
~ birches have done well, and so with the pines; the sycamore and Norway spruce
not as well, needing, perhaps, two years on the nursery or a bettersoil. The
Scotch larches were heated on the voyage, and the summer following being very
dry, many died. Thosethat survived have recovered, and, being now finely started,
are making a vigorous growth. ;

My first purchases of foreign trees were planted about my house, in the open-
ings of a thirty acre lot of oak and beach woods near by, and on the bare gravelly
hills overlooking the Sound and raked by strong winds. The trees I imported in
1853, after two years in the nursery, I planted out, some in clumps of a quarter
and half an acre each, on an old pasture which I did not “seed down,” and which
had not a tree upon it. I surrounded them with fences of wire drawn through
cedar posts to keep off the cattle, who find in them a grateful shade, now the trees
are too large to be injured by them. Others I placed along the walls of my culti-
vated fields, and some on the margin of my old deciduous woods, so as to afford a
shelter and a variety of foilage. My importations of 1871 and 1872 were planted
as soon as received on an old and poor pasture land, where I intended they should
remain. My method was to run with oxen deep single furrows 7 feet apart, and
then set the trees in them 7 feet from each other. The land is rough and of the
average soil of a worn out pasture. These have done well, except those larches
which died, as before stated, in consequence of being heated on the voyage, tak-
ing into the account the saving of labor and the use of more valuable land, by
not putting them into a nursery, though if placed there at the first start they may
have seemed to do better.

The trees were introduced as a matter of taste, and as an experiment, without
the calculation of any immediate advantage. Still I think if it had been near a
market, or one had been sought, there would have been a profit in the sale of the
surplus young trees, and now already in the sales of wood, if only the thinnings.
The land has been, no doubt, improved by the deposit of thousands of loads of
leaves upon it and by the shade afforded it, while it has been lightened and lifted
by the permeation of the roots of the trees. Much of the labor has been done at
intervals of farm work, and chiefly without professional supervision.

When I bought my place in the fall of 1850, except a few stinted red cedars on
Parker’s Point, and some white cedars in the swamps, there was not an evergreen
tree within three miles of my house, and hardly any tree of any kind in sight of
it. The woods (oak, beech, and hickory) were in the dells and valleys behind the
hills fronting the sea, and it was maintained that trees would not grow and could
not be made to do so in the face of the salt-laden winds from the south and south-
west. The exposure was certainly great and the soil poor, and trees planted singly
or sparcely, perhaps, could not have resisted it, but close planting made a shelter,
and those not specially from an inland habitat (like the white maple) have done
well, and seem to the manor born.

In answer to the question, “If you were to do the work over again,
could you improve on the methods employed by you? Mr. Fay replied:

102 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

I think I should recommend, where the ground was not too stony and rough,
instead of sowing seed broadcast, to run parallel furrows, not deep, running east
and west (so the mid-day sun will not strike across them) seven feet apart, and
drop the seeds in them, merely pressing them into the ground, and not covering
them more than this, if at all. This, in the first place, especially on the hill-side
where the furrows should be run at right angles with the slope and not vertically,
will prevent the seed from washing down to the low places; in the second place,
the seed will be likely to come up more at the same time, and would be more uni-
formly distributed than can be done broadcast, unless sowed when there is snow
on the ground, and also less seed would be required and less would be wasted ; in
the third place, the side of the furrow would tend to shade the young germ, which,
on the open sward, in a dry time, is apt to be withered and destroyed by the heat.
In my plantings, where the trees have come up too thickly, I have transplanted
them to spots where the seed has failed or was not sown, but this makes extra
labor. If sowed in furrows, the seed might be dropped at intervals of four or five
feet, and even then, in a few years, if all were to come up they would require
thinning. In this case, the surplus could be sold or planted elsewhere. They
would make good nursery plants. .

As to imported trees, when it is considered that the average cost, landed at the
farm, of English grown plants one or two feet high, is less than one cent each, it -
would be a saving of time to procure them and set them out in the place where
they are to grow. There is a little uncertainty in their condition, but, as a rule,
they come in good order. This requires two plantings. My last I placed, as I
have stated, in the field where they were to grow, in parallel furrows.
I think it would be better to plow cross furrows the same distance apart, or say 10
feet each way, and plant the trees at the intersection. Unless the land is very
much exposed to the wind, 10 feet is near enough, as even then, in about seven
years, a man could hardly walk between the rows. If there are bleak hills to be
planted, then the trees should be nearer together, say 6 or 7 feet, so as to shelter
each other more; but, when they get up and are doing well, they ought to be thin-
ned. But for this need of shelter in exposed places they would do better in view
of atwenty-five years growth to be 20 feet apart each way. Up to a certain point
they help each other by proximity, but it takes great courage to cut down strong
and thrifty trees to make room. Yet on a farm the thinnings may be useful, and
when near large towns, would be salable for cheap rustic fencesand inclosures, and
certainly for kindling stuff. It is also to be considered that if planted too far apart,
the growth would be more lateral than vertical in proportion, and the trees would
be more spreading, and tend less to taper form and slenderness.

In planting out at once on rough land instead of first in a nursery, though the
tree may take a year or two to get a start, for the roots to find their way into the
closer soil of an old field, there is a great saving of labor and not much loss of time,
as each transplanting checks a tree in its growth: Onethousand trees will cover
an acre well, if planted six or seven feet apart, and five hundred, if nine or ten
feet from each other, and after the furrows are made, two active, handy men could
plant one to two acresa day. Care should be taken not to plant too near other
older trees, lest they overshadow and kill out the new planting, or the overhang-
ing limbs chafe and keep down the leading shoots. I have wasted a great many
trees by planting them in the old woods where the spaces seemed large and open,
by their being overgrown and shaded out. If I were again to set out young trees
among the old woods, I should cut the latter all down clean, and let them start
again from the stumps with the new planting. If this is not done, and it is desir-
able to keep the old trees, they must then be carefully watched and trimmed and
lopped, as the young ones grow up under and about them. AndI have lost many
trees by their being planted or sowed too near each other. When trees are two
or three feet high, it seems quite safe to plant them five feet apart, but soon they
are too close, and the most vigorous crowd out and destroy the weakest. In my
seeded plantations in many spots, they have come up at the rate of 40,000 trees to
the acre ; hence my advice to mark off the fields in furrows and sow in them
rather broadcast. It would be a great saving every way, except in a little labor at
the start. Nor in sowing should I now mix the seeds of different pines, as I have
done, but sow each kind by itself distinctly. For a Scotch, for instance, comes
up promptly, it is likely to get the start of the Austrian, the seed of which some-
times lies dormant two or three years, and so overshadows and crowds it out. If
the latter were sowed by itself, though it would be slower in germinating, all
would be likely to start together, and when fairly rooted {make up for lost time.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 103

It would not be a miss to plant here and there some desirable kinds of acorns or
nuts, for while the pines would grow faster and keep them down,if for any reason
the pines were cut off, the oaks and hickory would come forward very rapidly
when open to the sun. A few chestnuts that I have planted under the lee of other
trees, have made an extraordinary growth, and in the interior, their habitat, they
must be a very profitable tree to plant.

You will bear in mind that I have given you my experience as aplanter of trees,
much as an incident of farming and not as a business. Were it taken up as a
thing of itself then it might be advisable to start seed-beds and raise one’s own
trees, and nurse them, instead of importing them. I have endeavored to raise a
forest about me at the least possible cost of labor, and not looking much to the
hurrying of the result or to count up an early profit. The land was denuded, and
exhausted, and moss-grown, and I took this method to cover it with vendure and
restore it, believing that the wood would compensate me or my heirs sooner or
later. * * * In closing my discursive remarks, I would say that, considering
the position of my place, exposed on the northwest to the violent winds of win-
ter sweeping across Buzzard’s Bay, and in summer to the strong breezes from the
southwest, bringing salt spray from Vineyard Sound, the vigorous growth and
promising appearance of my forest plantations is very encouraging to those more
favorably placed. Not only may the destruction of our forests be partially remed-
ied at a cheap cost, but the waste and sterility of our land by long cultivating and
_ pasturing, be removed and replaced with fertility by the simple process of nature.
It is much, also, to restore shade in summer and shelter in winter by the renewal
of our forests.

A committee of the Northern Illinois Horticultural Society, at a ses-
sion, held in December, 1867, recommended the following list of ever-
greens as suitable for cultivation in that region:

For timber-belits: White pine, Norway pine and spruce, Scotch pine, Austrian
pine, and American arbor vite.

For high screens : Norway spruce and American arbor vite.

For screens of moderate height: Siberian arbor vite, Norway spruce, American
arbor vitee, hemlock and red cedar.

Ornamental specimen trees: All the foregoing, and the white, black, and red
spruce, Picea pichta, Cimbrian pine, Pinus mitis, Irish and Swedish junipers.

Shrubs: American yew, tamarix-leaved and Waukegan trailing juniper, savin,
Pinus magnus, Pinus pumilis, and Andromeda floribundi.

An experimental station, begun at the Illinois Industrial University,
reported, February 29, 1872, seven acres as planted with 36,749 trees, at
a cost of $433.48 for trees, $106.72 for planting, and $42.83 for cultiva-
tion; total, $583.03. The kinds planted were the white and green
ash, catalpa, chestnut, white elm, European larch, white maple, Osage
orange, Austrian and Scotch pines, white walnut and white willow. The
land planted with each kind, was generally a quarter of an acre, but
more with white ash and larch. Distance apart, 2 by 4 inches, except
the pines, which were 4 by 4. The catalpas and white elms were all
living, and but 2 per cent. of the green ash, white maple, Osage orange,
and white willow died. But 1 per cent. of white walnuts, and 5 per
cent. of white ash were lost. Half the chestnut and three-fourths of the
larch perished, and but 2 per cent. of the pines lived. .The white grub
(the larva of the May beetle) did great injury, especially to the larch and
white ash, girdling the roots below the surface. The loss of the pines
was attributed to dry weather.*

In 1872, 10,083 trees were planted; the larches and pines from R.
Douglas & Sons, Waukegan, Il., and the others grown on the premises,
at Campaign. The per centages living from both years’ planting, at
the end of 1872, were as follows: Catalpa and white elm, 196; white
walnut, 99; green ash, white maple, white willow, Osage orange, and
Norway spruce, 98; white ash, 93; European larch, Austrian pine, and
white pine, 30; Scotch pine, 20; chestnut, 4. The white grub had again

104 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

done much injury, especially to the larch. It was found to be less
affected on high land. The chestnuts mostly winter killed. The Osage
orange was promising to become one of the most valuable trees for that
latitude, and both this and the catalpa, when cut close to the ground in
order to get a good, straight growth, had succeeded well.

A prominent cause of failure in evergreen planting, is the exposure of
the roots to the sun and air. “ We have seen hay-racks loaded with
evergreens going from the nursery to the packing-house, that were dead
before shipping, proving worse than a total loss of money to the pur-
chasers.” The pear grafted on quince stock, has, also, led to great dis-
appointment. |

In making plantations in exposed situations, it will be found advanta-
geous to have them of as large an area as possible, for trees will, in many
cases, thrive in large masses which would actually starve in small clumps
or belts. The soil should be well trenched or drained, and great care
should be taken in selecting the hardy varieties that are suited to the
soil in which they are planted. The plants should be small when trans-
planted, and those that are known to stand severe winds, should form
the margin, while the more valuable kinds are planted in the interior.
In many cases it will be found judicious to plant thickly with the view
of shelter, and thin early, so as to bring up the trees in a healthy and
hardy state, taking girth with their height.

In respect to the success that may, under good management, be expected
to result from tree planting in eastern Nebraska, the following extract
from an address delivered before the State Board of Agriculture, by the
Hon. J. Sterling Morton, January 26, 1876, lays down his rules and
mentions his results as follows:

First, the original sod should be broken and turned over in thin, evenly-laid
strips. When completed, a good breaking will appear like a vast floor of well-laid
two inch plank painted with lampblack. Then plant and cultivate, not to see
how much you can manage, but how well. Then come trees: walnuts, cottonwoods,
willows, mullberries, and elms will make the home seem civilized. Tree plant-
ing is an avocation which barbarians never follow. Indians never adorn their
wigwams with orchards, nor indulge in floriculture. There is no record of an
aboriginal horticulturist in any book I have read or heard of anywhere. It may
seem a long time to raise a saw-log from the walnut which lies in the palm of
your hand, but the rain and frost of winter and the sunshine of summer, together
with the fertile and forcing soil of Nebraska, crowd a walnut into the dimensions
of a respectable saw-log in less than twenty-five years. Upon a farm where I
have lived, in Otoe county, for more than twenty years, one may see black walnut
trees, which will make good railroad ties, and some which will do to saw up,
which I planted with my own hands. * * * And, again, there may be found
cottonwood saw-logs growing there which are more than six feet in girth, and
when I first saw them they were only wandering germs, floating in the air like
down from a bird’s breast. But they are adult saw-logs in 1876. These remarks,
somewhat egotistical though they may be, are made for the purpose merely of
impressing you, and through you the farming people, with the tree possibilities
of this State, and I only preach in this regard what I have faithfully put in prac-
tice, and the witnesses of the truth of my theories stand majestically verifying
me all over the farm whence this is written to you, in the form of beautiful,
thrifty, and valuable fruit and forest trees. Come down and see them, in the hot
summer days, while you rest in their shade, even their foliage will tell you in
whispering with the wind how pleasant and profitable a thing it is to plant the
prairie with trees.

MINNESOTA STATE FORESTRY ASSOCIATION.

This, the first, and hitherto the only State forestry association within
the United States, was formed at Saint Paul, January 12, 1876, in pur-

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. LOS

suance of a call signed by many leading citizens of the State, who real-
ized. the importance of taking effectual measures for protecting the
existing timber resources of the State, and of making provision against
future wants. At the first meeting, held January 11, a committee, con-
sisting of Gen. George L. Becker,*Ex-Gov. William R. Marshall, Leonard
B. Hodges, Prof. Charles Y. Lacy, Wyman Elliott, L. M. Ford, and Prof.
William W. Folwell, was appointed to draft a constitution, which was
adopted the next day at an adjourned session, as follows:

Constitution of the Minnesota State Forestry Association.

Articie I. This Society shall be known as the Minnesota State Forestry Asso-
ciation.

Art. II. The object of this association shall be the encouragement and promo-
tion of forest culture by the collection and diffusion of practical information on
that subject, and by the discussion of all questions pertaining thereto; to secure
the general observance of Arbor Day throughout the State, and to promote the
ultimate redemption of the treeless regions of Minnesota.

Arr. III. The officers of this association shall consist of a president, one vice-
president for each Congressional district, a treasurer, and an executive committee
consisting of the president, secretary, and five elective members.

Arr. IV. The president shall preside over all meetings of the society, and
deliver an annual address on the subject of forest culture in Minnesota.

Arr. V. In the absence of the president, his duties shall devolve upon the vice-
presidents in their regular order.

Arr. VI. The secretary shall record all transactions of the society; shall collate,
edit, and prepare all work for the press; shall receive and answer all communica-
tions addressed to the society; shall establish and maintain correspondence with
similar associations, and secure by exchange their transactions, as far as possible.
He shall give full and general notice of all meetings of this society, through the
public press of the State. He shall report and submit to the annual meeting of
the society all matter that has come into his possession, which, with its approval,
shall become a part of the transactions of the society. He shall receive and_ pay
over all moneys received from members or otherwise to the treasurer, from whom
he shall take a receipt therefor.

Arr. VII. The treasurer shall collect and be held responsible for all funds of
Lge and shall disburse the same only on the order of the executive com-
mittee.

Arr. VIII. The officers of this society shall be elected annually by ballot, and
shall hold their offices until their successors shall be elected.

Arr. IX. Every member shall be entitled to copies of the transactions of the
society, as often as the same shall be published, and it shall be the duty of the
secretary to forward the same to each member, by mail, express, or otherwise,
immediately after publication.

Art. X. The executive committee may call a meeting of the society at any
time and place they may deem advisable by a notice of at least ten days in the
public press.

Arr. XI. The society shall hold annual sessions on the second Tuesday in Jan-
uary of each year, at such place as the executive committee shall determine.

Arr. XII. Any person may become a member of this society by the payment
of $1 to the Secretary.

Art. XIII. It shall be the duty of the executive committee to prepare a pro-
gramme of exercises for each annual meeting, assigning to each division of arbort-
culture an essay or paper to be furnished by some member specially qualified for
this service.

Arr. XIV. The president and secretary shall have power to appoint delegates
to meetings of kindred associations.

Arr. XV. This constitution may be amended by a vote of two-thirds of the
members present at any annual meeting.

Under this organization, the officers first elected were, F. F. Drake, of
Saint Paul, President ; A. A. Soule, of Cottonwood County (first district),
Ignatius Donnelly, of Dakota County (second district), and John H.

106 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

Stevens, of Hennepin County (third district), Vice Presidents ; Leonard
B. Hodges, of Saint Paul, Secretary; Pennock Pusey, of Saint Paul,
Treasurer ; and Prof. C. Y. Lacy, of the State University, G. W. Fuller,
of Litchfield, C. F. Dunbar, of Faribault County, John P. Schoenbeck, of
Nicollet County, J. W. Blake, of Lyon County, with the ex-officio officers
above named, as Executive Committee.

The State Legislature, by an act passed March 2, 1876, appropriated
$2,500 to promote the objects of the Association, and in order to perfect
the organization and remove all doubts as to legality, it was deemed
proper to reorganize under the general laws of the State, which was done
in due form on the 28d day of November, 1876.

The means provided by State grant, and dues from members, enabled
the society to offer a series of premiums, which, although not large’ in
amount, were sufficiently numerous to stimulate competition, and the
objects and plan of the Society were widely published in time for the
planting season of 1876. The first Tuesday of May was fixed upon as
Arbor Day, and every citizen owning land was invited to devote this day
especially to tree-planting.

Dr. Hough says: Mr. L. B. Hodges, of Saint Paul, the Secretary of
the Association in a letter dated November 29, 1877, gives the latest re-
turns of operations for that year.

The spring planting reported by the several township assessors, amounted to
5,268,939 trees, of which 502,568 were planted on Arbor Day. The returns of fall
planting are coming in by every mail, and will come in till January. The total
amount for the year 1877 cannot fall short of 7,000,000, and will probably reach
10,000,000, forest trees planted in Minnesota during the entire planting season.

The returns of assessors are regarded by Mr. Hodges as very incom-
plete, as it is an extra service for which no pay is allowed, and many
appear to take no pains to get fullreturns. As to the proportion of these
ten millions of trees that have been planted under the stimulus of pre-
miums offered by the State, there are no means of knowing. We know
that some would have planted without special inducement beyond self-
interest.

Unlike the experience of the more humid regions of the Atlantic
States, timber culture west of the Mississippi has difficulties to encounter
which require energy and patience to overcome. During the past sum-
mer, in some ten or twelve counties of Minnesota, the grasshoppers
proved very destructive to young trees, especially to seedlings. The
correspondent just quoted mentions the following as within his experi-
ence:

In October and November, 1875, I planted 16 acres very thickly with cotton-
wood and willow cuttings, ash seed, and box-elder seeds, with a few thousands of
cottonwood yearlings. Nearly all from seeds and cuttings came up well, and on
the first of June last that patch of 16 acres of young forest trees on the broad
prairie was a beautiful sight. But during the months of June and July they were
nearly all devoured by the “hoppers.” I have this fall replanted the same ground,
and more too. May not grasshoppers, as well as fire, be one of the chief causes
of the treeless region ?

The State commissioner of statistics, in reporting for 1876, says that
estimates, based upon the returns received, show that a million and a
half of trees were planted on Arbor Day in 1876, and ten millions
durng the season. Of these about 70 per cent. were alive and in
healthy, growing condition October 15th. In noticing the results, he
says:

Indeed, from the sworn statements of parties competing for premiums, we as-

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 107

certain that in a large majority of instances, when the work was properly and in-
telligently performed, when the ground was properly fitted up, and the necessary
cultivation given at the proper periods during the growing season, that the per-
centage of loss is surprisingly small—in many instances less than 10 percent. In
analyzing the returns, we find a very large proportion of the tree-planting has
been done where there is the most pressing necessity for this kind of work, viz.,
in the treeless region and the counties bordering theron. For example, Faribault
County, with an area of 460,800 acres, had, at the time of the United States’ sur-
vey, 20,300 acres of timber, being about 64 acres to each quarter-section, if pro-
portionately distributed; enough to intice settlers into it, but not enough to last
them forever. This county, realizing her necessities in this regard, has distin-
guished herself by planting, as reported by assessors, on Arbor Day, 195,278 forest
trees and cuttings, and during the entire season the enormous number of 1,804,777,
clearly entitled her to the appellation of the “ Banner County,” as awarded by
the State Forestry Association.

Nobles county, with an area of 460,000 acres, had at the survey but
40 acres of timber. The assessors report in this county 121,052 trees
planted on Arbor Day, and 693,343 during the season. In the south-
western group of counties, intersected by or tributary to the Southern
Minnesota Railroad, the Saint Paul and Sioux City Railroad, and the
Winona and Saint Peter Railroad, in all fifteen counties, lying south of
the Minnesota river, and haying together an area of 6,216,680 acres, and
an average native supply of only 14 acres to each quarter-section, there
were planted on Arbor Day 799,348 trees, and during the season 5,084,828
forest trees and cuttings, or more than half the whole amount in the
State. In another group of counties, equally destitute of timber, on or
near the Saint Paul and Pacific Railroad. and the Hastings and Dakota
Railroad, lying north of the Minnesota river, comprising ten counties
and 4,753,400 acres, there were planted on Arbor Day 279,825 forest trees
and cuttings, and during the season 898,481.

The assessors report over 400 miles of windbreak and hedges as planted
during the season of 1876 on farms bordering upon highways.

Mr. John H. Stevens, of Minneapolis, in writing to the Department of
Agriculture upon tree planting in Minnesota, mentions the wliite, green,
and black ash, aspen, long-toothed poplar, linden, yellow and white
birch, black walnut, butternut, box elder, cottonwood, red and black
cherry, elms of several kinds, hackberry, shagbark and bitter-nut hick-
ories, red mulberry, several of the maples and oaks, and willows, tam-
arac, and many smaller trees and shrubs, as adapted to cultivation in
that State. As a rule, the evergreens had not done well, and the list of
those that might be planted with much chance of success were the pine,
balsam fir, swamp spruce, red and white cedar, and juniper.

Mr. Stevens insists upon the thorough breaking up of the sod before
planting, and advises that a hoed crop should be first cultivated so that
the native sod shall be thoroughly pulverized and rotten. After the
crop is removed the ground should be plowed deep and then harrowed.
He would set the cuttings deep and cultivate so as to destroy all weeds
and grass. He commends the white willow and Lombardy poplar for
windbreaks, and the buffalo berry (Shepardea argentea) as a hedge plant.
In starting the oak, he would plant the acorn where the tree is wanted,
as it is not easily transplanted. In some instances he had known a cot-
tonwood of fifteen years’ growth make a cord of wood. The black wal-
nut and butternut are well worthy of cultivation, especially the former,
which grows rapidly and is quite valuable. The locust had very often
failed, but it was hoped that it might yet succeed. He is confident that
tree planting may be successfully undertaken throughout Minnesota and

108 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

Dakota, and that prairie farms may be easily kept supplied with all the
wood needed for farm uses and for fuel, by proper care and management.

STATISTICS OF TREE PLANTING IN MINNESOTA.

The eighth annual report of the Assistant Secretary of State and Com-
missioner of Statistics, embracing the returns for 1876, shows the sg
ing results of forest tree ee by counties:

| CS s HS SN iy
| <5 Ss a8 Ses
ies = hee a0 =a SEE
2 on 4 SU q = oO
Counties. 348 mS 4 Ags 180
g ge 2ae BS
a6 a5 gee say
Ss 3 2.60
fia a,” = Bos
BeGer | iisleetoks neo esis ste ts Sree ache Se eee ee ee 6 169 2,724 10
BiciStone® ofa. Meine nk cece pains Sn a oe en: Se onal ae 41,200 50!S00F eeeeeee
BIW 6 Rar Ghia Fo: latah Oe te, arenes arse nctnayar rere tel eee Benoit) the 113,561 | 690,868 14,457
BE OWMA eles crete ca ania d UCL RE ET. sem ane tee ce emt Cnet | 51,663 102,529 | 649,946 | 7,362
Chippewa............. Se cheer ciaietclct cee AEE Eo 9 een 24,508 105,092 242,904 1,070
La home ete ore g pate sings riac\ale eeees ee ere Roce A eae eae | 200 17,650 BERN So ssco5
Cottonwood ayer ie. stan cece c etet Metre eeey eek yas 90,020 451,201 | 5a 2215 eee
Dakota ............ PaO BGRe Recomm inet aces oumaey sont oot | 236). 16,578 | 259,057 7,440
POUR LAS Hic s aspen nee Alen Sara eee Sere EIR ee ee 2,620 15,497 | 181,780 3,718
arab a ult choo ie So a ne ae cates SAL RR Bea tees 62.433 | 1,582,641 | 3,405,905 | 19,280
MlIMOre Ue eo clans we ake hoes OE er Lae 1,562 25,400 | 218,019 4,100
Freeborn 7,160 194,138 2,277,961 8,386
Goodhue nbs ne 5.427 11,279 | 711,477 11,679
Granite Esmee nn ciation: ee 8,576 77,087 | 48,957) eee een
Hennepin . 2,964 6,342 41,874 280
Houston. 47 50 | 2010223 eee eee
Jackson 29,238 349,565 | 1,283,022 4,521
Kan diy obins sch epesitcss sete ee ee nee eee oe eee 8,127 147,662 360,007 295
Lacsqut-Parleycicc cies cis einsroraice siren mio opera ee ate 12,743 125,678 293 5238 lee
TEOISTOUB Oe esas ccc ea the cel ee eee ie eee ale ee Mcrae 1,150 536 5,250 350
MANCOlN eae e ewe hess rniaetate ta Nee = 5, oe tebeneer tes 150 _ 10,870 16,941) (perce
AVON e er dack ceiome msec ergo ae ce aa eee age ctayoninais 49,553 216,931 O12:892 0 Seacrest
MCLGOG acre. eieaista sere noon ere p eee ne tee cae 15,796 84,749 100,275 | 288,897
EDEN) De ae ee a oreo asica Em Oh ein ary ta) Lae aa eeee BE Se 184,677 567,697 3,226,046 8,046
IMIGEK EF mictetiis ote ee meta mes cnc etre ee ena eee! 38,641 30,276 145,260 170
1) ORR CSR ep DES BBE eHEIn ck etd ao ate Rer ere RRA tome 6.895 210,830 | 1,554,099 2,879
Murnayasy sted scone tooo e Rea gee cep MES Ve 1,955 106,193 | 180,599 ¢
INU COM Obie c meraeectatc an nero aie ee eee Oe ei ois Teehe c eee BEE 7,540 44,915 227,221 385
a0) EY Sy aoa ene ee Aig pon rN Lb SORES SY ee | 63,120 | 536,232 | 1,956,050 |........
COULTNCGEL Gedaes Hee Sea E an neon Ree anna LLANES TO. 6,645 8,679 | 299,907 9,688
Otter Tail |" 5,136 11,503 | 15,189 80
Polk | 262 100 | TSQt) ae ce oeete
Pope 4.850 30,554 100,281 550
Ramsey tell 2 457 | 3,090 600
Redwood 17,671 132,613 | 403,923 1,588
Renville 16,399 182.700 | 749,710 72
Rice 10 767 | 107,075 25
Rock 22,890 466,247 | 786,320 9,604
RST) Calis, WS oo aes eG ER 5 Pda ie Sich Aba oh acai is Jo 64.612 | 122,640 383,583 1,834
SLCATNG oscil bce cae eee ese se iene ela ae eee hlome-c ere 10.247 54,802 | 122,964 742
Steeles or 6s bres Bate traraieee Sine ere ee roe ota ee ire eee 4,747 | 18,853 | 707,689 5,440
NR) IM ROSAS EE MEMICAISC Rac dot Shia. c CLOLeOMem TOC Or penscaoNcidehs Ae 16,770 116,525 | 461, O25 800
Sth hictenese'd Be iaeign Shae Ro lale init visttre ssh eee brdeirn Scares 9,060 26,910 125.932 220
MOG ae sesetrisiole veisveitciegetaios oaticite ove ue sinc eracwittsrcmeu to emeieteinioers 480 1,793 D7 AGRI ae ee
Wabasha. ities .cekc ct Gola sect: Scene nem aea ieee Bias 2,855 18.778 473,460 4,507
WABECA niscenci oc nomsiie Su aetentene re nietac sola aCe pio). tenis 7,224 90,773 | 814,075 830
Weatonwanl ws ci.s cr. veren ne eg ene stele sarod etoreeistel seamless et Hes 52,649 | 210,775 953,699" 3,387
WALK tere a isarct tennis Sak dic ape nese RECO ate on Rene 3,000 4,570 | 4,786! t|iceieeieere
WA MON soo iase aint crcrainrcietale wise erm soe canis ciciie be eieice sitet she 130 2.928 | 18.598 760
Vellow Medicine! ecewecsc cre os ctlee eee wiepacitete caieeleautets ste 23,746 105,766 | 237.0520 seers
Oval, we ee aco lopiqnctae leis Selele eine = ieee SET lee ae 928,581 6,792,911 | 26,437,088 | 424,662
: |

No returns are published from the counties of Aitkin, Anoka, Benton, Carlton, Carver, Chisago
Crow Wing, Dodge, Isanti, Kanabec, Lake, Mille Lacs, Morrison, Saint Louis, Scott, Sherburne
Wadena, Washington and Wright—19.

The above table is from the Statistics of Minnesota for 1876, p. 85.
Another table from returns made by assessors in the same epore pp.
161-181, is imperfect in many respects, but more in detail as to planting

fOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 109

by townships. The numbers in some cases agree with those in this
table, and at other places they largely exceed them.

Tree-plantiny in Kansas—Suggestions by Mr. Kelsey.

Mr. Kelsey, in an essay, read before the Kansas State Horticultural
Society, December 15, 1868, from an experience of twenty years in plant-
ing, of which six had been spent in Kansas, gave the results of his
observation, especially with the black walnut, cottonwood and silver
maple, which he preferred as best adapted for this region. In planting
black walnuts, he desired they be gathered soon after they drop, and to
be spread and covered two or three inches deep with moist earth, or,
better, with saw-dust, to keep them moist through the winter. They
should be planted two inches deep, early in spring, and with fair soil
and good cultivation, they will grow so as to be of some use as fuel in
five or six years, and in ten years, would make good fence-posts or rail-
road ties, and begin to bear nuts. In fifteen years they would make a
fine forest, and, if judiciously managed, would go on increasing in value
for a century, returning fair profits annually, and without expense. It
should not be transplanted, but the seed should be placed where the tree
is to stand. ,

Cottonwood might be started from shoots of last year’s growth cut in
the fall and packed in moist saw-dust, or buried in the earth till spring.
They should be a foot long, and might be set with a narrow spade, leavy-
ing an inch or two out, and pressing the soil firmly about them at. set-
ting. Small plants with roots might be easily got; they would begin to
be of service as wind-breaks and shelter for stock in four years, and the
wood makes a fair fire-wood. He suggested planting cottonwood altern-
ately with black walnut, to make the latter grow taller than if grown
alone.

Silver maple should be started from seed, which ripens from the 15th to
the 18th of May, and should be sown immediately in drills, and covered
with an inch of good, mellow soil. It will come up in six to ten days,
and by fall of the first year, will be two feet and a half high. The next
spring it should be set in forest rows, two inches deeper than it stood in
the shed--bed, the earth being pressed firmly about the roots. In ten
years it will be 25 to 30 feet high, and 10 to 12 inches in diameter. It
forms a beautiful tree while young, and its wood is more valuable than
cottonwood, being useful for cabinet-wares. Its sap will make sugar of
good quality, but less in quantity than the sugar maple. It has the
fault of forking, so as to make two or more stems, and, except in favor-
able circumstances is not likely, if left to itself, to make a large, straight
tree. Itis also split down too easily by the wind and by sleet.

THE CONGRESSIONAL TIMBER-CULTURE ACT.

As this act of Congress more directly concerns and affects our western
prairies, and the people living thereon, than is yet generally realized, I
deem it proper and useful to give in this place, not merely the act, as
amended, and under whose provisions we are now workin,g but, also,
a tolerably full statement and history of the whole business. I am led
to this, from the fact, that so many people are constantly enquiring as to
its provisions, many of whom seem, by their enquiries, to be consider-
ably confused as to their duties and requirements under the act.

Answers made to individual enquiries, seem to be generally forgotten
nearly as soon as answered, and I now propose to furnish such informa-

110 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

tion as to save myself, as well as the U.S. Land Officers a large amount
of labor that can just as well be avoided in the future. With this infor-
mation generally in the hands of the people, many errors can be avoided,
and much valuable time saved.

TIMBER-CULTURE ACTS OF 1873 AND 1874; AMENDMENTS OF 1876
D 1877.

An act entitled “ An act to encourage the growth of Timber on West-
ern Prairies,” approved March 3, 1873, was designed to offer direct
encouragement for the planting of trees upon the prairies. The provis-
ions of this act were briefly, as follows:

1. Any person who should plant, and for ten years protect and keep
in a healthy, growing condition, forty acres, (the trees’ being not more
than 12 feet apart each way) upon government land, was to be entitled
to a quarter-section (160 acres) at the end of the eight years, the facts to
be proved by two credible witnesses. Only one-quarter of any one sec-
tion could thus be granted.

2. The party applying for entry was to make affidavit before the Reg-
ister or Receiver of the proper land-district as to the purpose of the
entry, and must pay a fee of $10, and the prescribed commissions.

3. Upon proof that the person who has made the entry has abandoned
or failed to cultivate, protect, and keep in good condition the timber,
the tract was to revert to the United States.

4. Persons who have made a homestead entry, and who, at the end
of the third year of residence, might have had under cultivation for two
years one acre of timber, in the manner above designated, for each 16
acres of said homestead, might, upon due proof, receive his patent for
said homestead.

5. Lands thus acquired were not to become liable for debt prior to the
issuing of patent.

Forms and regulations were to be issued by the Commissioner of the
General Land Office, and penalties for perjury were imposed.

This act was amended March 13, 1874, as follows:

The privilege of entry was confined to persons who were heads of
families, or over 21 years of age, and were citizens of the United States,
or had declared their intention of becoming such. The planting might
include 40 acres in a quarter-section, or 20 acres in 80, or 10 acres in 40,
ora fourth part of any fractional subdivision of land less than 40 acres,
but not more than a quarter-section could be entered by one person.

The person making the entry is required to break one-fourth of the
area to be devoted to timber within one year from the date of entry ;
one-fourth part more within two years, and the remaining half within
three years from the date of entry.

One-fourth part of the area to be planted, must be set out in timber
within two years from the date of entry; another fourth within three
years, and the remaining half within four years. The same provisions
with respect to spaces between trees and their cultivation and protection,
that were embraced in the original act, are contained in the act as
amended, except as to the time for maintenance before the issue of a

atent.
In case of the death of the person before the full amount is planted,
his heirs are to have the option of completing his undertaking, or of
receiving apatent for a part upon relinquishing their claim to the remain-
der. No patent is to be issued sooner than eight years after entry, and

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. ilalg!

proofs of compliance with the terms of the law are required. Upon
proof of neglect or abandonment, the land becomes liable to homestead
entry, or entry under the provisions of the timber-culture act, but not
until the original claimant has been notified, and opportunity given for
defense.

The provision relating to planting by those who had already located
a homestead were continued, as also, the exemption from debt before
issuing of patent. The Register and Receiver of the district land-office
are entitled each to receive $2 at the time of entry, and the like sum
when the patent is issued. Those who had already made entries, were
allowed the benefit of this act of 1874, was further amended May 20,
1876, by adding a proviso:

That whenever a party holding a claim under the provisions of this act, or,
whenever making final proof under the same, shall prove by two good and cred—
ible witnesses, that the trees planted and growing on said claim were destroyed
by grasshoppers during any one or more years while holding said claim, said year
or years in which said trees were so destroyed, shall not work any forfeiture of
any of the rights or privileges conferred by this act ; and the time allowed by this

act in which to plant the trees and make final proof, shall be extended the same
- number of years as the trees planted on the said claim were destroyed in the

manner specified in this section.

That the planting of seeds, nuts, or cuttings, shall be considered a compliance
with the provisions of the timber-culture act: Provided, That such seeds, nuts, or

cuttings of the kind, and for the purpose contemplated in the original act shall
be properly and _ well planted, the ground properly prepared and cultivated ; and
in case such seeds, nuts, or cuttings should not germinate and grow, or should be
destroyed by the depredations of grasshoppers, or from other inevitable accident, -
that the ground shall be replanted, or the vacancies filled within one year from
the first planting: Provided, That the parties claiming the benefit of the provis-
ions of this act shall prove, by two good and credible witnesses, that the ground
was properly prepared and planted in such seeds, nuts, or cuttings, and were so
destroyed by inevitable accident in such year.

_ That it shall not be necessary to plant trees, seeds, nuts or cuttings in one body,

provided, the several bodies, not exceeding four in number, planted by measure-
ment, aggregate the amount required, and in the time required by the original
and amended act.

In rulings under this act. The General Land office has in some cases
excepted the Osage orange, box-elder and white willow from the classes
of timber that may be planted by those seeking to acquire title by tim-
ber culture. We are unable to see a just reason why either of these
should be thus excluded, as each of them in its proper soil and climate
becomes valuable. It would be difficult to find a more precious timber
for wagon-making than the Bois d’are (Osage orange) ot Arkansas and
Texas; a more serviceable tree than the box-elder on some parts of the
Western plains, or a better tree for screens and wind-breaks in Northern
Iowa and Western Minnesota than the white willow. These rulings are
not understood to have been general, and it is to be hoped they will not
in any case be permanent.

Some care has been taken to make personal inquiries of persons who
haye had opportunities for observing the operation of the timber-culture
act, and in addressing circulars of inquiry for statistical information
upon this subject, the Registers of land districts were asked to state any
suggestions of amendment which in their judgment were desirable, some
of these are given on the following page. With respects to its present

+By an act approved March 3, 1877, it'is provided, that where crops were destroyed or seriously
injured by grasshoppers, in 1877, the claimant is allowed to be absent from his lands till October 1,
1878, under such regulations as might be prescribed, and if these insects reappear in 1878, a like leave
is granted till October 1, 1879, without prejudice of rights.

ala FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

operation, I fully concur with Hon. Leonard B. Hodges, of Minnesota,
in his statement of the defects:— (Hough’s Report, p. 19.)

- First. It is requiring more of the settler than he is able to accomplish. The
result is, in a. very large majority of cases the law is not complied with any fur-
ther than to file the claim in the land office, pay the entry-fee, and break ten
acres. By this time the settler begins to realize the nature of the contract he
has undertaken to execute. He now sees clearly that he is too poor to do the
work asit should be done. He begins to evade the plain intent and spirit of the
law in the painful economy of time and labor he can so poorly afford to expend.
Not that he wishes to defraud the government or shirk his responsibilities, but
rather from an inadequate realization of what must be done, and a natural desire
to save what he has invested and can so poorly afford vo lose, leads him into such
crooked practice as we see on nine-tenths of the quarter-sections held under the
provisions of this act. Another defect in the law is in the extreme facility land
can be held by parties who make the claim, with no serious intention of planting
any trees, but simply to doa little breaking and take his chances in selling his
interest in it, in the course of the two years he can hold it, for a profit. In this
way, and aided by extensions of time, granted on account of destruction by grass-
hoppers and other unavoidable accidents, large quantities of very desirable goy-
ernment land is prevented from being occupied and improved by actual settlers.
Thousand of acres of government lands are thus held, tree of costs or taxes, and
I see no difficulty in a company of ingenious operators, doing an extensive real
estate business under the workings of this act, for quite an extended and indef-
inite period of time. Another defect in the Congressional timber-culture act is
the clause permitting the trees to be planted “not more than twelve feet apart
each way.”

This is a very serious defect, and of itself virtually defeats the objects and pur-
poses of the act. Nature shows us plainly how forests are grown, and it is folly
on the part of Congress to evade or repeal natural laws governing the
- growth of forests. Nature plants thickly, pays no regard to the permission of
Congress to plant so wide of the mark as twelve feet apart each way, and succeeds.
In her own way she grows more timber and better timber on ten acres than a set-
tler can in the mode indicated by Congress on forty acres, and at a tithe of the
expense. To illustrate: forty acres planted twelve feet apart each way must be
thoroughly cultivated during the growing season of each year, until the growing
trees have attained such proportions as to shade and mulch the ground. It
requires the constant daily labor of the settler during the growing season from
May to August. The parties sought to be benefited by the act are too poor to
give so large a portion of their time to the work. The “numan necessity for daily
bread” compels their atcention to the care of growing crops, upon which existence
depends. It is a notable fact that thus far the only successful and genuine cases
of tree-planting under the provisions of this act that have come under my notice
are those where the planter has been financially able to plant closely ; say on an
average of four feet apart each way. )

A forest so planted, with prompt and thorough cultivation for three years, is a
success. The chief cost is terminated in three years from planting; the young
trees make a straight, upright, vigorous growth ; they soon cover and shade the
ground so thoroughly as to effectually prevent the growth of weeds or grass
among the trees, and the annual mulching from the falling foliage keeps the
ground moist and friable, obviating the necessity of cultivation, and promotes the
“healthy growing condition” which the act of Congress very properly requires.

On the other hand, the evasions of the law are painfully conspicuous. In many
instances strips of breaking three or four feet wide, parallel with each other, are
either planted with tree-seeds or cuttings, so as to bring them within the distance
allowed by law. The planting is usually done in the raw sod, left without care or
cultivation, smothered in rank weeds and grass, and swept over by successive
prairie fires. It is difficult to employ language sutticiently vigorous in denouncing
such childish folly. It is as idle to expect to grow a crop of forty acres of forest-
trees without first breaking every foot, then tollowed after the decomposition of
the sod by thorough plowing and repeated harrowing, as it would be to expect to
grow a paying crop of corn by digging post holes 12 feet each way on theunbroken
prairie and dropping the seeds therein. A modification of the timber-culture act

t‘*Report of State Forestry Association,’ 1877, p. 44.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 113

requiring the settler to plant not less than 2,700 trees per acre, instead of 300,
and ten acres instead of forty, would accomplish the objects contemplated by the
framers of the act, and in time prove an incalculable blessing to the treeless
wastes of the Western and Northwestern States and Territories. * * * The
law, to be available and productive of the greatest good to the people and to the
country, should be so amended as to allow all who have already made claims
under its provisions to be allowed to plant ten acres instead of forty; to plant not
more than 4 feet apart each way, and to be planted within four years; two anda
half acres the second year; two anda half the third, and five the fourth. The
claimant should be compelled to report the actual condition of his timber planta-
tion annually to the Register of the land office of the districts in which the land
is located. He should be, by the terms of the act, compelled to do his work in a
thorough and workmanlike manner, to keep the ground well and thoroughly cul-
tivated, until such time as the growth and development of the trees shall have
rendered such further cultivation impracticable and unnecessary. And he should
be required to fill all vacancies occurring from any cause within one year; such
report to be verified by the affidavit of the claimant and also by the affidavits of
two competent and disinterested witnesses, failing in which the land should be
open to settlement by other parties.

It is urged in objection to such modifications of the timber-culture act, that
Congress never would consent to give away sixteen acres of land for the plantng
of one acre of timber.

Now this objection brings up one more modification, and that is to make the
provisions of the act cover every quarter section of government prairie land with-
in the timits of what is universally recognized as the “treeless region,” instead as
now only every fourth quarter-section.

This brings us along to the act we are now working under—a wonder-
ful improvement over the previous laws, and a long step in the right
direction. Here it is official, and fresh from the United States General
Land office at Washington:

AN ACT to amend an act entitled “An Act to encourage the growth of timber on
the Western Prairies.”

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That the act entitled “An Act to
amend the act entitled ‘An Act to encourage the growth of timber on the
Western Prairies,” approved March thirteenth, eighteen hundred and
seventy-four, be and the same is hereby amended so as to read as fol-
lows: That any person who is the head of a family, or who has arrived
at the age of twenty-one years, and is a citizen of the United States, or
who shall have filed his declaration of intention to become such, as re-
quired by the naturalization laws of the United States, who shall plant,
protect, and keep in a healthy, growing condition for eight years ten
acres of timber, on any quarter-section of any of the public lands of the
United States, or five acres of any legal subdivision of eighty acres, or
two and one-half acres on any legal subdivision of forty acres or less,
shall be entitled to a patent for the whole of said quarter-section, or of
such legal subdivision of eighty or forty acres, or fractional subdivision
of less than forty acres, as the case may be, at the expiration of said
eight years, on making proof of such fact by not less than two credible
witnesses, and a full compliance of the further conditions as provided in
section two: Provided further, That not more than one quarter of any
section shall be thus granted, and that no person shall make more than
one entry under the provisions of this act.

Src. 2. That the person. applying for the benefits of this act shall,
upon aplication to the register of the land district in which he or she is
about to make such entry, make affidavit, before the register or the
receiver, or the clerk of some court of record, or officer authorized to ad-
minister oaths in the district where the land is situated; which affidavit

114 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

shall be as follows, to wit: IL———,, having filed my application, num-
ber , for an entry under the provisions of an act entitled “An Act
to amend an act entitled ‘An Act to encourage the growth of timber on
the Western Prairies,’” approved , 187-, do solemnly swear (or
affirm) that I am the head of a family (or over twenty-one years of age),
and a citizen of the United States (or have declared my intention to be-
come such); that the section of land specified in my said application is
composed exclusively of prairie lands, or other lands devoid of timber;
that this filing and entry is made for the cultivation of timber, and for
my own exclusive use and benefit; that I have made the application in
good faith, and not for the purpose of speculation, or directly or indi-
rectly for the use or benefit of any other person whomsoever ; that I
intend to hold and cultivate the land, and to fully comply with the pro-
visions of this act; and that I have not heretofore made an entry under
this act, or the acts of which this is amendatory. And upon filing said
affidavit with said register and said receiver, and on payment of ten dol-
lars if the tract applied for is more than eighty acres, and five dollars if
it is eighty acres or less, he or she shall thereupon be permitted to enter
the quantity of land specified; and the party making an entry of a quar-
ter-section under the provisions of this act shall be required to break or
plow five acres covered thereby the first year, five acres the second year,
and to cultivate to crop or otherwise the first five acres broken or plowed
the first year; the third year he or she shall cultivate to crop or other-
wise the five acres broken the second year, and to plant in timber, seeds,
or cuttings the five first broken or plowed, and to cultivate and put in
crop or otherwise the remaining five acres, and the fourth year to plant
in timber, seeds, or cuttings the remaining five acres. All entries of less
quantity than one quarter-section shall be plowed, planted, cultivated
and planted to trees, tree-seeds, or cuttings, in the same manner and in
the same proportion as hereinbefore provided for a quarter-section. Pro-
vided, however, That in case such trees, seeds, or cuttings shall be destroyed
by grasshoppers, or by extreme and unusual drouth, for any year or
term of years, the time for planting such trees, seeds, or cuttings shall be
extended one year for every such year that they are so destroyed: Pro-
vided further, That the person making such entry shall, before he or she
shall be entitled to such extension of time, file with the register and
the receiver of the proper land office an affidavit, corroborated by two
witnesses, setting forth the destruction of such trees, and that, in conse-
quence of such destruction, he or she is compelled to ask an extention
of time, in accordance with the provisions of this act: And provided
further, That no final certificate shall be given, or patent issued, for the
land so entered until the expiration of eight years from the date of such
entry; and if, at the expiration of such time, or at any time within five
years thereafter, the person making such entry, or, if he or she be dead,
his or her heirs or legal representatives, shall prove by two credible wit-
nesses that he or she or they have planted, and, for not less than eight
years, have cultivated and protected such quantity and character of trees
as aforesaid; that not less than twenty-seven hundred trees were planted
on each acre, and that at the time of making such proof that there shall
be then growing at least six hundred and seventy-five living and thrifty
trees to each acre, they shall receive a patent for such tract of land.
Src. 3 Thatif at any time after the filing of said affidavit, and prior
to the issuing of the patent for said land, if the claimantshall fail to com-
ply with any of the requirements of this act, then and in that event

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 115

such land shall be subject to entry under the homestead laws, or by some
other person under the provisions of this act: Provided, That the party
making claim to said land, either as a homestead settler, or under this act,
shall give, at the time of filing his application, such notice to the origi-
nal claimant as shall be prescribed by the rules established by the Com-
missioner of the General Land Office; and the rights of the parties shall
be determined as in other contested cases.

Sec. 4. That no land acquired under the provisions of this act shall
in any event, become liable to the staisfaction of any debt or debts con-
_ tracted prior to the issuing of the final certificate thereof.

Src. 5. That the Commissioner of the General Land Office is hereby
required to prepare and issue such rules and regulations, consistent with
this act, as shall be necessary and proper to carry its provisions into
effect; and that the registers and receivers of the several land offices
shall each be entitled to receive two dollars at the time of entry, and the
like a when the claim is finally established and the final certificate
issued.

Src. 6. That the fifth section of the act entitled “An Act in addition
toan act to punish crimes against the United States, and for other pur-
poses,” approved March third, eighteen hundred and fifty-seven, shall
extend to all oaths, affirmations, and affidavits required or authorized by
this act.

Src. 7. That parties who have already made entries under the acts
approved March third, eighteen hundred and seventy-three, and March
thirteenth, eighteen hundred and seventy-four, of which this is amenda-
tory, shall be permitted to complete the same upon full compliance with
the provisions of this act, that is, they shall, at the time of making their
final proof, have had under cultivation, as required by this act, an
Se of timber sufficient to make the number of acres required by
this act.

Sec. 8. All acts and parts of acts in conflict with this act are hereby
repealed.

Approved June 14, 1878. .

And now, by connecting with the amendmend law the following
explanations of the changes made, together with the regulations, issued by
the Department of the Interior, General Land Office, Washington D. C.
Oct. Ist, 1878. We have all the information necessary for any one to
enable him to fully understand his duties, obligations, and rights under
the congressional timber culture act. Please study the law, the official
explanations and regulations and you will then know for yourselves
more than you can possibly learn by writing to any one for information
on this subject.

LAWS TO PROMOTE TIMBER CULTURE.

The timber culture act of March 3, 1873, having been amended by the
act of March 138, 1874, the latter has been further amended by the act of
June 14, 1878.

I.—Certain provisions of the act of March 18, 1874, are repealed by
the act of June 14,1878. —

1. The act of March 13, 1874, at the close of its first section, contains
the following; ‘“ Provided, That no more than one quarter of any section
shall be thus granted, and that no person shall make no more than one
entry under the provisions of this act, unless fractional subdivisions of
less than forty acres are entered, which, in the aggregate, shall not exceed —

116 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

one quarter section.” In the act of June 14, 1878, the concluding words, —
“unless fractional subdivisions of less than forty acres are entered,
which, in the aggregate, shall not exceed one quarter section,” are omit-
ted. Hence, the rule forbidding more than one entry 1s made universal,
and will govern in all future cases.

2 The provisions of the act of March, 13, 1874, requiring that, the trees
shall be not “more than twelve feet apart each way,” is omitted from
the act of June 14, 1878. The latter requires, however, that the final
proof shall show “that not less than twenty-seven hundred trees were
planted on each acre, and that at the time of making such proof there |
shall be growing at least six hundred and seventy-five living and thrifty
trees to each acre.’

3. The closing sentence of the second section of the act of March 13,
1874, provides that “in case of the death of a person who has complied
with the provisions of this act for the period of three years, his heirs or
legal representatives shall have the option to comply with the provisions
of this act, and receive, at the expiration of eight years, a patent for one
hundred and sixty acres, or receive, without delay, a patent for forty
acres, relinquistiing all claim to the remainder.” ‘This provision is not
contained in the act of June 14, 1878.

4. The following section of the act March 13, 1874, relating to home-
stead entries on which timber is cultivated, is ‘omitted from the act of
June 14, 1878:

Sec. 4 That each and every person who, under the provisions of the act entitled
“ An Act to secure homesteads to actual settlerson the public domain,” approved
May twentieth, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, or any amendment thereto, hay-
ing a homestead on said public domain, who, at any time after the end of the
third year of his or her residence thereon, shall, in addition to the settlement and
improvements now required by law, have had under cultivation, for two years,
one acre of timber, the trees thereon not being more than twelve feet apart each
way, and in good thrifty condition, for each and every sixteen acres of said home-
stead, shall, upon due proof of such fact by two credible witnesses, receive his or
her patent for said homestead.

The rights of claimants under entries actually made according to the
act of March 18, 1874, before the 14th of June, 1878, when the amenda-
tory took effect, are not affected by the repeal of the provisions referred
to. The parties interested, if they so elect, may consummate their entries
according to the provisions of the act under which they were initiated.
And homestead entries made before the 14th J une, 1878, will be patented
according to the fourth section above quoted, where the facts are such as
to bring ‘the cases within its provisions and the interested parties so
desire. But entries made since that time must be adjusted according to
the principles of the law as modified by the amendatory act.

II.—The principal points to be observed in proceedings thereunder,
may be stated as follows:

1. The privilege of entry under the act of June 14, 1878, is confined
to persons who are heads of families, or over twenty-one years of age,
and who are citizens of the United States, or have declared their inten-
tion to become such, according to the naturalization laws.

2. The affidavit required for initiating an entry under the act of June
14, 1878, may be made before the register or receiver of the district office
for the land district embracing the desired tract, before the clerk of some
court of record, or before any officer authorized to administer oaths in
that district.

3. Not more than one hundred and sixty acres in any one section can

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 117

be entered under this act, and no person can make more than one entry
thereunder.

4. The ratio of area required to be broken, planted, etc., in all entries un-
der the act of June 14, 1878, is one-sixteenth of the land embraced in the
entry, except where the entered tract is less than forty acres, in which case
it is one-sixteenth of that quantity. Theparty makingan entry of aquar-
ter section, or one hundred and sixty acres, is required to break or plow
five acres covered thereby during the first year, and five acresin addition
during the second year. The five acres broken or plowed during the
first year, he is required to cultivate by raising a crop, or otherwise, dur-
ing the second year, and to plant in timber, seeds, or cuttings, during
the third year. The five acres broken or plowed during the second year,
he is required to cultivate, by raismga crop, or otherwise, during the
third year, and to plant in timber, seeds, or cuttings, during the fourth
year. The tracts embraced in entries of a less quantity than one quar-
ter section are required to be broken or plowed, cultivated, and planted
in trees, tree-seeds, or cuttings, during the same periods, and to the same
extent, in proportion to their total areas, as are provided for in entries of
a quarter section. Provision is made in the act for an extension of time
in case the trees, seeds, or cuttings planted should be destroyed by grass-
hoppers or by extreme and unusual drought.

5. If, at the expiration of eight years from the date of entry, or at any
time within five years thereafter, the person making the entry, or, if he
be dead, his heirs or legal representatives, shall prove, by two credible
witnesses, the planting, cultivating, and protecting of the timber for not
less than eight years, according to the provisions of the act of June 14,
1878, he, or they, will be entitled to a patent for the land embraced in
the entry-

6. If,at any time after one year from the date of entry, and prior to
the issue of a patent therefor, the claimant shall fail tocomply with any
of the requirements of that act, then, and in that event, such entry will
become liable to a contest in the manner provided in homestead cases,
and upon due proof of such failure the entry will be canceled, and the
land become again subject to entry under the homestead laws, or by some
other person under the act of June 14, 1878.

7. No land acquired under the provisions of the actof June 14, 1878,
will in any event become liable to the satisfaction of any debt or debts
contracted prior to the issuing of the final certificate therefor.

8. The fees for enteries under the act of June 14, 1878, are ten dollars,
if the tract applied for is more than eighty acres; and five dollars, if it
is eighty acres or less; and the commissions of registers and receivers on
all entries (irrespective of area) are four dollars (two dollars to each) at
the date of entry, and a like sum at the date of final proof.

9. No distinction is made, as to area or the amount of fee and com-
missions, between minimum and double-minimum lands. A party may
enter one hundred and sixty acres of either on payment of the prescribed
fee and commissions.

10. The fifth section of the act approved March 3, 1857, entitled “An
Act in addition to an act to punish crimes against the United States, and
for other purposes,” is extended to all oaths, affirmations, and affidavits
required or authorized by the act of June 14, 1878.

11. Parties who have already made entries under the timber culture
acts of March 3, 1878, and March 13, 1874, of which the act of June 14,
1878, is amendatory, may complete the same by compliance with the

118 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

reqirements of the latter act; that is, they may do so by showing, at the
time of making their final proof, that they have had under cultivation,
as required by the act of June 14, 1878, an amount of timber sufficient
to make the number of acres required thereby, being one-fourth the num-
ber required by the former acts. ;

III.—The following regulations are prescribed pursuant to the fifth
section of the act of June 14, 1878, viz: ey

1. The register and receiver will not restrict entries under this act to
one quarter section only in each section, as was formerly done under the
acts to which this is amendatory, but may allow entries to be made of
subdivisions of different quarter sections; provided that each entry shall
form a compact body, not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres, and
that no more than that quantity shall be entered in any one section.
Before allowing any entry applied for, they will, by a careful examina-
tion of the plat and tract-books with reference to any previous entry or
entries within the limits of the same section, satisfy themselves that the
desired entry is admissible under this rule.

2. When they shall have satisfied themselves that the land applied for
is properly subject to such entry, they will require the party to make the
prescribed affidavit, and to pay the fee and that part of the commissions
payable at the date of entry, and the receiver will issue his receipt there-
for, in duplicate, giving the party a duplicate receipt. They will num-
ber the entry in its order, in a separate series of numbers, unless they
have already a series under the acts to which this act is amendatory, in
which case they will number the entry as one of thatseries; they will
note the entry on their records and report it in their monthly returns,
sending up all the papers therein, with an abstract of the entries allowed
during the month under this act. If the affidavit is made before a _jus-
tice of the peace, which the act admits of, his official character and the
genuineness of his signature must be certified under seal.

3. When a contest is instituted, as contemplated in the third section
of the act of June 14, 1878, the contestant will be allowed to make ap-
plication to enter the land. The register will thereupon indorse on the
application the date of its presentation, and will make the application,
and the contestant’s affidavit setting forth the grounds of contest, the
basis for further proceedings, these papers to accompany the report sub-
mitting the case to the General Land Office. Should the contest result
in the cancellation of the contested entry, the contestant may then
perfect his own, but no preference right will be allowed unless applica-
tion is made by him at date of instituting contest.

4. The fees and commissions in this class of entries, the receiver will
account for in the usual manner, indicating the same as fees and com-
missions on timber-culture entries, which will be charged against the
maximum of $3,000 now allowed by law.

5. In all cases under this act, it will be required that trees shall be
cultivated which shall be of the class included in the term “timber,” the
cultivation of shrubbery and fruit trees not being sufficient.

6. The applications, affidavits, and receipts in entries allowed under
the act of June 14, 1878, will be made out according to the forms hereto
attached, Nos. 38, 39 and 40.

PRUNING AND THINNING.

On tree-pruning, a great difference of opinion exists. You don’t want
to prune your trees late in the winter, nor when the sap is flowing freely.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 119

As to the exact time when to prune, I do not attach much importance;

so you do your pruning as soon as the tree needs it. When you grow a
young forest, you can almost do your pruning with your thumb and
finger, by pinching off the young shoots soon after they start. But,
when you have neglected this, and the limbs have been allowed to have
their own way any length of time, then the pruning knife or saw must
be brought into requisition. In my own experience, I have found any
time after the leaves are full grown, until late in the fall, is a good time
enough to prune in Minnesota. I doubt if any rules can be. properly
given on this subject. Your own judgment and common sense must
direct you largely in this matter. For wind-breaks, very little, if any
pruning is necessary. For a shade tree, you so prune as fo form a wide
spreading top ; but, for a young forest, in which the growing of timber
is the main object, you so prune as to get a long, straight body as free
from branches as possible; and if your young forest have been as
thickly planted as it should be, nature will do most of the pruning,
nearly, or quite as well as need be. First, know what you want of your
_tree, and then prune accordingly. You can so prune, and direct its
erowth as to give it almost any shape you choose. Bryant says:

“Tn pruning young trees designed for timber, the symmetry of their form is the
first consideration. When taken from the seed-bed, all side-branches should be
cut off; only one leading shoot should be allowed, which must not be permitted
to fork. All side branches which approach in size "and vigor to the leading shoot,
should be shortened or cut off entirely. Suckers from the base of the tree should
be cut away.”

Bryant also, says:

“The best time to prune is, in my opinion, the autumn after the ‘trees have
ceased their growth. The worst time to prune, is the latter part of winter, and
in the spring, just before or during the first flow of sap. % ee cs
Nevertheless, when trees are transplanted i in spring, they may be pruned, as they
do not bleed when recently taken up. When the young trees become large
enough to crowd, or materially check each other in growth, they must be thinned
to one foot apart in the rows. Care should be taken to leave the str aightest and
most vigorous trees. The thinning may be continued gradually, as the trees grow
larger, and those cut out, used for purposes to which their size and quality are
adapted.”

Fuller says :

“Tf the trees are properly pruned when young, there will be no necessity for
taking off large branches when they become old. Too many branches must not
be taken off at one time, as leaves are indispensable to growth ; but young trees
’ may produce more leaves than is necessary for a healthy | grow th, and a reduction
in number may increase rather than decrease strength. * # x Pruning
should not be practiced to such an extent that the tree may be eventually weak-
ened or checked in growth. * * * * * * Trees, when standing alone,
should have, at least, two-thirds of their height oceupied with branches. But,
when grown in thickets, and for the purpose of producing timber, this rule may
be reversed, and the branches occupy oa one-third, varying the rule accor ding
to the natural habit of the tree.” *

Fuller also, says further :

“There is no better time (to prune) than in summer, after the leaves have be-
come fully formed, and the tree has commenced to make a new growth. * * * *,
Pruning may also be done any time in summer, fall, or early winter. * * * *

* * Midsummer is the best time to prune all resinous trees.”

In pruning, use a sharp knife, and make a clean, smooth, upward
cut. Should the branches be too large for a knife, use a fine-tooth saw,
smoothing off the wound with a sharp knife. Where large wounds are
made, an application of common grafting-wax, or cow-manure when
warm, will exclude the air until there will be little danger of decay.

120 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

MOUNTAIN FORESTS AND THE WATER SUPPLY OF THE CONTINENT.

An Open Letter to the Hon. Carl Schurz, Secretary of the Interior, from Dr. John A.
Warder, President of the American Forestry Association.

Norrs Benp, Outo, January 8th, 1879.
Hon. Carl Schurz, Secretary of the Interior :

My Dear Srr—Observations made on a previous visit to Colorado,
and again during the past season, in a journey on the Medicine Bow
Range, in Wyoming, with my friend, Governor J. W. Hoyt, have filled
me with apprehensions as to the future water supply of our Western
rivers.

The destruction of the forests by fire is a most fearful and melancholy
subject to contemplate. An inspection of portions of the public domain
by one who has studied the subject, and who has either read of or wit-
nessed the disastrous effects of the spoiliation of the forests in elevated
mountain heights, can not fail to fill the mind with the most serious
apprehensions.

Your efforts, my dear Secretary, on behalf of the forests are highly
appreciated by those of us who have made the influence of the woods
upon the water supply of our country, a matter of study.

The mountains (up a certain elevation, close to the limit of perpetual
congelation) were designed for the forests, nor should they ever be
stripped of their aboreal covering; for, as you have well said in your
report of last year, if the forests in such regions be once destroyed they
will never be restored.

It were a work of supererogation, my dear sir, to attempt an explana-
tion or rationale of the action of the forests as receivers, reservoirs and
fountains of waters, to one who is evidently so well informed in regard
to forest science as yourself, whom I have been induced to suspect of
having been a pupil of Ebermayer, of Bernhardt, of Judeich, of Burck- _
hardt, or some others of the magnates in Foerstwirthschaf of the Vater-
land.

But to return to Wyoming, and what was seen while traversing a broad
plateau of the range, and passing through a glorious forest primeval—a
very Uhrwald. This is composed chiefly of pines, and among them, in
the lower and damper spots, the most lovely firs and spruces reared their
tall shafts, clothed with a mystic drapery of depending boughs, bearing
silvery green foliage of the Menzies, Douglas and Englemann spruces,
and of the Grandis firs. While contemplating these noble trees, we sud-
denly came upon a scene of appalling desolation. Upon atract of many
square miles in extent, as far as the eye could reach, in every direction,
over many thousands of acres, there was not a living tree to be seen!
All, all were standing bare, stark and stiff in death, their tall, dead
trunks blackened by fire, except where time had come to their relief and
stripped off the bark, leaving the bare poles that stood beside the way
like shivering ghosts in purgatory, waiting until the storms of years
should come to their relief and prostrate them to the earth that bore
them, when they would at length gradually crumble into mold to reno-
vate the soil, which had been deprived of all its humus by the fierce
flames.

The forest is destroyed, the noble trees are dead and gone, too often,
never in our time, to return and be a kindly covering and befitting garni-

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. a2

ture to these sad wastes ; nor to clothe these mountain sides with verdure.
Continued and continuous desolation is their doom!

Practically speaking, this is and must be so; whence can come
the seed-germs for the future aforesting of such extensive tracts? Man,
the improvident destructive, will not do it; the kindly winds can trans-
port the winged seeds but a short distance from the parent trees; the
cunning and provident squirrel has a still more limited range within
which to carry the seeds he may gather, and, with wise instinct, store up
for his liberal repast, from which a few might escape to germinate and
form nuclei, producing at length seeds for further transportaion in the
future.

Ages must be required to restore these forests in the course of nature,
and meanwhile the degrading agencies of every storm will be carrying
away the soil and scarring the mountain sides with frightful gullies,
occupied at times with violent torrents, for there is no longer any her-
bage, no moss, nor brush, nor any debris to cover the surface, and,
sponge-like, to absorb and retain the precipitated moisture.

Yes, my good Secretary, you are perfectly right in your assertion that
in these bared mountains the forests will never be restored. When thus
ruthlessly destroyed, in certain situations, and over such vast areas,
' practically speaking in reference to any period of time that it is worth
our while to calculate upon, any time that we or our progeny for many
generations need take any account of, this is true.

Prevention.

But, it may be asked, can not these terribly destructive fires be pre-
vented? Can not the calamitous results that must follow be avoided?
Yes! Yes! They may, and they must be prevented, and that at once,
lest our fair continent become a desert, unfitted for the many millions it
is capable of happily sustaining upon the broad territory of her fruitful
bosom.

That is, indeed, a great question, requiring the exercise of a high order
of statesmanship. It is truly a difficult question, but the interests at
stake are enormous, and are of infinitely greater importance to this
Nation than deciding who of all the great army of office-seekers shall be
gratified by an appointment to this or that petty place under the Gov-
ernment. Oh, that we could be blessed with a race of statesmen capa-
ble of grasping such problems as this!

Yes, the interests at stake are really enormous; they involve the wel-
fare of the country, since they concern the very existence and perma-
nence of our rivers. If neglected, will not the future explorer of the
vast Sahara that may be spread from the eastern slope of these moun-
tains, find, amid the shifting sands of that wide desert, only depressions
of the surface, marking the ancient beds of our great rivers and their
numerous tributaries, in that American Sahara, as Champollion observed
them in the wastes of Northern Africa; of which hesaid: “And so,
the astonishing truth dawns upon us, that this desert may once have
been a region of groves and fountains, and the abode of happy millions.
Is there any crime against Nature which draws down a more terrible
curse than that of stripping Mother Earth of her sylvan covering? The
hand of man has produced this desert, and, I verily believe, every other
desert upon the surface of this earth. Earth was Eden once, and our
misery is the punishment of our sins against the world of plants. The

122, FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

burning sun of the desert is the angel with the flaming sword who
stands between us and Paradise.”

But now shall this great work be accomplished? How shall we pre-
serve these treasure houses of the snow and rain, that they shall steadily
distill the streams that are to feed our rivers? ;

By wise legislation, after we shall have enlightened the public upon
the subject of an advanced forest science, and educated them up to a.
proper appreciation .of the importance, and of the special functions of:
the forests on these mountain heights as conservers of moisture, as receiv-
ers and as reservoirs of the water supplies of a large portion of the con-
tinent.

When so educated, and fully informed upon these important truths by
an enlightened public sentiment, the people will become more careful in
the use of this dangerous agent; they will be more watchful of their
camp fires, and will compel others to be more careful, and they will
stamp out the first beginnings of a conflagration.

In addition to this enlighted sentiment, and complementary to it legis-
lation, will be needed to operate upon those who may wickedly or igno-
rantly transgress.

Some of your own excellent suggestions, Mr. Secretary, as they were
incorporated in the bill of Senator Plumb, of Kansas, (Sen. No. 609,)
would prove valuable as preventive measures, if enacted; especially the
appointment of Forest Guards, (Forest Waerter,) in the third section, and
prescribing their duties. | .

Section 13 of this proposed law is one of great importance, being in-
tended to furnish protection against fires on the public domain, whether
prairies or timber. This is a much-needed provision, which has never
before existed in the case of Government lands, though provided for by
some of the States. The losses by fires are enormous, and should be
prevented.

We all know by sad and painful experience, how difficult at ask it is
for the philanthrophist who presents a simple proposition for the public
good, how great soever its importance, to arrest the attention of the pub-
lic. We have also learned how almost impossible it is to reach the ear
of the law-making powers, and to excite in their minds an active inter-
est in such questions as are here presented; in a word, how herculean an
undertaking is presented when we attempt to educate the people, and
those who represent them in the halls of Congress, up to a proper and
full appreciation .of such a subject as this of forestry, which so deeply
concerns the public weal.

More especially unpromising does such an effort appear when an at-
tempt is made to impress upon their minds the absolute neccessity of
keeping these extensive ranges of mountain hights in a condition best
adapted to attract and condense the atmospheric humidity, to receive the
precipitation, to retain it for a time, and then gradually and quickly to
give off, through perennial springs, the fluid to supply the fertilizing
streams, that shall fill the rivers, which are so happily and so extensively
distributed over our great continent.

And now, Mr. Secretary, hoping that you will excuse the prolixity
which must unavoidably attend the briefest exposition of the subject, be
pleased to accept the thanks of your countrymen for the noble stand
you have taken in defense of our forests on the public domain; and
allow an humble student of the great leaders and teachers of forest
science, on behalf of his associates in the upbuilding of an American

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. ie

Forestry, to beg your continuance in these efforts in behalf of the protect-
ion, preservation and extention of our heritage of woodlands.
Very respectfully yours, ~
JNO. A. WARDER, M. D.,
President A. F. A.

From Pioneer Press of January 15, 1879. :
TIMBER CULTURE.

Annual Meeting of the Minnesota Forestry Association—A Review of the Business of the
Year and Re-election of Officers.

An annual meeting of the State Forestry Association was held at the
capitol last evening, Mr. Ignatius Donnelly in the chair and Mr. L. B.
Hodges at the secretary’s desk.

Mr. Donnelly’s Annual Address.

About the first business in order, was thedelivery of the annual
address of the president, which was listened to with great interest by the
audience. After an interesting review of forest culture in Europe, Mr.
Donnelly said:

One of our unsolved problems is the origin of these prairies. Some
have claimed that they are due to a pecularity of the constitution of
the soil, which renders them unfit for the production of trees, but this
theory seems to be disproved by the fact that trees can be readily pro-
duced upon them ; and that a spontaneous growth of forest soon follows
the exclusion of the fires. Neither can we ascribe their first existence
to these fires, for this vast region must have existed long before the In-
dians could have been developed to apply the fire to the autumnal grass.
As soon as this portion of the continent emerged from the condition of
great lakes or lagoons and became marshes, trees must have sprung up
and covered the land, and long before man appeared on the scene, with
any knowledge of the use of fire, the country must have assumed the
character of a densely wooded region, which no conflagration could
destroy. If the soil was once denuded of its forest it would, indeed, be
easy for the prairie fires, kindled by savages, to keep down the growth
of young trees, and produce the state of things which the white settlers
found here; but what agency could, in the first place, have destroyed the
ancient forest growth, as heavy and dank as that of the everglades of
the South or the pine woods of Canada? It must be remembered that
the true prairie region, apart from the painless plains, is confined to cer-
tain prescribed limits, viz.: “The western part of Ohio, nearly the whole
of Indiana, Illinois and Iowa, the southern part of Michigan, the north-
ern part of Missouri, and portions of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas and
Nebraska.”

It would seem that either man must have existed, with a knowledge
of the uses of fires, at the time the swamps of this inter-continental
region were drained off sufficiently by the accretion of the soil or the
rising of the continent, to produce trees; and this would be, indeed, a
violent presumption; or else it would appear probable that some human
agency must have swept away the forest through all this region, precisely
as it was destroyed by white men, in the interest of senoulouies in
Europe. si z 3

124 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

It would seem not improbable that on this continent was worked out,
under the directing intelligence of the divine Architect, the greatscheme
of development. The explorations of Prof. O.C. Marsh, of Yale Col-
lege, in the Bad Lands at the base of the Rocky Mountains, demonstrate
that in that region were originated the elephant, the rhinocerous, the
tapir, the horse, the lion, the hyena, the monkey, the hog, and the camel.
And it is not improbable that on this continent human civilization
began. Here alone, as shown in a recent lecture of Dr. David Day,
traditions are preserved by existing races of the rise of man froma
brutish condition, the invention of the bow and arrow, and the first
working in metal. The iron age was preceded by the bronze age.
Bronze is an amalgam of copper and tin, and must have followed, prob-
ably ata vast interval, the use of copper itself; and only in America
do we find traces of an age when copper was used alone; and only on
Lake Superior do we find copper in so pure a state as to be capable of
being worked into implements without smelting; and there, too, we find
vast remains of ancient mining, evidently carried on for ages by some
extinct race; and in the Chippewa legends we have the traditions of the
manufacture of the first copper implement. In Mexico the Aztecs had
learned the art of hardening the edges of their cutting tools with tin, thus
prdoucing a veritable bronze. Here then we have in unbroken succes-
sion the genesis of metallurgy, stretching from the shores of Lake Super-
ior to Astyri, India and Egypt. = a ‘ 5

It is a strange, but not altogether improbable suggestion, that all the
prairie region was once occupied by the fields and gardens of a vast,
populous, peaceful, agricultural, religious people; as numerous as the
inhabitants of Egypt, in the days of the Rameses. It is well known
that their monuments do not extend east of Ohio; neither do prairies.
It can be supposed that thousands of years ago they were driven south-
ward to Mexico and Yucatan, by savage tribes, and then began a strug-
gle, which has lasted to our day, between the prairie-fires and the ad-
vancing forest, the latter crowding in from north, south, east and west,
and sheltering itself behind every lake and river from the tongues of
flame kindled annually by the Indians. * ss ee

The problem to which our people must address themselves, is how to
make these mighty plains pleasant homes for human beings ; how to
stop the sweep of the great winds which pour down on them from Mac-
kenzie’s river and the Rocky Mountains; for homes, to be pleasant,
should be built, like birds’ nests, amid the trees. If man has swept
away the forests from whole continents to procure fields, surely he has
genius and power enough to re-create lines of forest to protect the fields
which nature, or the labors of another race, has given him. It must
certainly be a harder task to lay bare of trees a thousand acres than to
fence it with groves. But construction needs a higher genius than de-
struction. “He who plants a tree labors for posterity,” says the pro-
verb ; and some are inclined to ask, in the words of Sir Boyle Roche :
“What has posterity done for me?” Hence, only the highest repre-
sentatives of the highest races are equal to the task of planting a crop
that will not ripen for ten or twenty years.

I need not speak to you of the effects of forest-growth upon the

climate of a country; with all that you are familiar. It would appear

as if the movements of storms were determined by the laws of electric-
ity. The tendency of showers to follow wooded hills and river courses
has often been observed.

i

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 125

W. W. Johnson, one of the Smithsonian Reporters, writes. from the
valleys of Montana: “The showers of summer are of much more fre-
quent occurrence along the mountain sides, and are always of longer
duration among the timbered peaks and foot-hills, than in the lower and
treeless portions of the country.”

I have every reason to believe that the presonce of groves, dotting the
whole extent of our prairies, would tend to equalize the fall of rain, and
prevent the excessive droughs which we suffer from at certain periods,
and the deluging storms which afflict us at other times. In fact, we are
now in the midst of a very curious experiment, viz: the effect upon
climate of the breaking up of the soil and the construction of railroads
and telegraph lines.

R.S. Elliott, industrial agent of the Kansas Pacific Railroad company,
writes to Prof. Henry, in 1870: “ Facts such as these, seem to sustain
the popular persuasion in Kansas, that a climatic change is taking place,
promoted by the spread of settlements westwardly, breaking up portions
of the prairie soil, covering the earth with plants that shade the ground
more than the short grasses, thus checking or modifying the reflection
of heat from the earth’s surface. The fact is also noted, that even where
the prairie soil is not disturbed, the short buffalo-grass disappears as the
frontier extends westward, and its place is taken by grasses and other
herbage of taller growth. The civil engineers of this railway believe
that the rains and humidity of the plains have increased during the
extension of the railroads and telegraphs across them. What effect, if
any, the digging and grading, the iron rails, the tension of steam in loco-
motives, the friction of metaliic surfaces, the poles and wires, the action
of batteries, etc.,could possibly have on the electrical conditions, as con-
nected with the phenomena of precipitation, I do not, of course, under-
take to say. It may be that wet seasons have merely happened to coin-
cide with railroads and telegraphy.”

A recent writer from Bismarck, D. T., speaking of an old settler in
Montana, says: “ Clendenning is agent of all the transportation com-
panies that have occasion to unload freight at Carroll. He has noticed
that the water is increasing in consequence of the additional rains. He
observes that cooleys, formerly dry in the fall, are now full of water.
The irrigation was unnecessary this year, and the Indians observe the
change. Civilization is turning Montana into a wet country.”

It would appear probable, that when four broad, double bands of iron
and numerous telegraph wires extend across the continent from Texas,
from Omaha, from Duluth, and from Winnipeg, united at their eastern
and western extremities by rivers, mountain chains, forests, and a grid-
iron of other railroads and telegraphs that climatic changes may result
of the most surprising character. The prosperity or the poverty of
great sections may depend upon causes now but little understood. If it
be true, as alleged, that earthquakes have ceased in California since the
construction of the Union Pacific railroad; and if it be also true, as
claimed by others, that earthquakes are electrical—the thunder-storms
of the earth—what strange results may not follow when man’s enter-
prise ribs all the continent with conductors of electricity hundreds of
thousands of miles in length ? :

If I was required to furnish a motto for our society, it would be the
one word, “ Perseverance.” Only those who have passed through it can
understand the long, hard, dark, continuous struggle which awaits the
settler in a new country; the battle with nature, her cruelties and uncer-

126 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

tainties, on the one hand; and the conflict with his fellow-man, his
greed, his cunning and his rapacity, on the other. The pioneer-farmer
seems sometimes to stand alone with everything in air, and on earth
making war on him; was nothing left to him but his indomitable soul.
For such a man, so struggling neck-deep in distress, to plant groves,
construct hedges, rear orchards and plant for posterity, requires a
breadth of mind that is the highest statesmanship. And yct, I would
say to all such, “Perseverance!”
“The columns of our stately fortunes
Are sculptured with the chisel, not the axe.”

HKven the gigantic tides of the St. Lawrence have their ebb, and mis
fortunes at last grow weary of submerging their victims and draw sullenly
off. And then how sweet the home, snatched like a brand from the
burning, won from innumerable battlings and sheltered amid arboreal
beauty that shall ever increase as the days roll on. There can be no
true home where.there are no trees. And so I conclude with that one
word for the great army of tree-planters—‘ Perseverance.” - ;

MR. HODGES TAKES THE FLOOR.

After the delivery of Mr. Donnelly’s address, the secretary was called
upon for a report, and he gave details as to the progress of tree-planting
during the past year. He thought.twenty or twenty-five millions of
trees had been planted within the last year or two. Amendments to the
national timber-culture law, so as to bring its advantages within reach
of the poor man, had been secured, and the results have been seen in
the increased demand for tree-claims upon the government domain. The
amount of tree-planting under the stimulus of the bargains offered by
the association, was not as great in 1876 as 1877. The premiums awarded
last year, only amounted to about $150 out of the $1,800 appropriated,
a large'number of applicants for premiums having been refused, be-
cause the trees were planted too far apart. In response to general
inquiry, Mr. Hodges said he was engaged in the preparation of a manual.
or pamphlet, on tree-culture, embodying information which was needed —
by tree-planters, which he would have ready for the press in the course
of a couple of months. In response to an inquiry, Mr. Hodges said the
interest in tree-planting was increasing among the people throughout the
treeless regions of the State. He thought the systems of premitims
might be improved by adopting the Massachusetts plan of offering large
premiums for the largest growers. The demand for forest-trees was so
great, that it was time to take steps to increase the supply, the natural
growth along the lakes and river bottoms being nearly exhausted.

ELECTION OF OFFICERS.

The following officers were then continued in office, by the passage of
a resolution to that effect, offered by Gen. Geo. L. Becker :

President—Ignatius Donnelly.

Vice Presidents—Ist, A. A. Soule; 2d, J. N. Bruler; 3d, J. H. Stevens.

Secretary—Leonard B. Hodges.

Treasurer—Pennock Pusey.

Executive Committee—C. Y. Lacy, B. Thompson, Herman Trott, Gen.
J. W. Bishop, W. R. Marshall.

The committee on award of premiums was continued, and the execu-
tive committee were instructed to act as a committee on legislation, the
necessity of which was commented upon, after which, the thanks of the

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 127

association were tendered to Mr. Donnelly, for his interesting address,
and an adjournment followed.

TREE CULTURE.
/ ee
Another Interesting Meeting of the Minnesota State Forestry Association—Address of
Prof. C. Y. Lacy, of the State University—Memorial to Congress for an Amend-
ment to the Tree Culture Act, and Other Proceedings.

An adjourned meeting of the State Forestry Association was held at the capitol
last evening, with a good attendance of persons interested in the scheme for cov-
ering our prairies with forest trees. Lieutenant Governor Wakefield presided,
and Mr. L. B. Hodges acted as secretary. Prof. Lacy, of the State University,
then read the following paper:

Address of Prof. Lacy.

A little more than a year ago a meeting was held in this hall, for the purpose of -
organizing a Forestry Association. On the following evening another meeting was
held, a constitution adopted and officers elected in accordance with it. Soon the
Association numbered more than one hundred members. Before the adjourn-
ment of the Legislature, the Association was entrusted with $2,500 to be awarded
in premiums for tree planting. The executive committee of the Association met
and constructed a list of premiums to be competed for. This premium list was
printed and distributed throughout the State at the expense of the Association.
The premiums have been competed for and many of them awarded.

Why this conceded, extended and continued action towards one end by men
engaged in the widely different pursuits of transportation, law, medicine, agricul-
ture, legislation and administration? Was it to gratify the whims of a few half-
crazy enthusiasts? Was it because it was easier to comply with the wishes of
such in cases of doubtful utility tlan to resist their arguments and entreaties ?
No. The Association includes such men as Geo. L. Becker, E. F. Drake, Herman
Trott, Wm. W. Folwell, L. B. Hodges, J. W. McClung, H. H. Sibley and J. S. Pills-
bury—men who have not been suspected of insanity in other affairs, men who
have not time to treat individual cases outside of the insane asylum, men who
have the sagacity to read the true nature of facts correctly, and the force of char-
acter to say no when their judgment demands it. The Minnesota State Forestry
Association was organized to meet and deal with the stern realities of facts. It
was organized to meet the fact that over more than one-third the great State of
Minnesota the winds rush with a howling fang and with a bitter cold that neither
beast nor fruit tree can resist or withstand, and for miles not a single forest tree
rears its head in protest. It was organized to meet the fact that in a climate
which affords six months of winter, much of it fearfully severe, there are thou-
sands of farms on which there does not grow one particle of fuel, and on which it
cannot be obtained without the expenditure of both money and labor by a peo-
ple often destitute of means. It was organized to meet the fact that for miles
and miles there is not a single landmark to guide the benumbed and benighted
traveler. It was organized to meet the fact that to induce human beings to make
their homes on such farms, is downright inhumanity. It was organized to meet
the fact that people cannot and will not submit to these conditions, but when
undeceived will abandon their new homes and seek elsewhere. This Association
was organized to deal with the fact that forests break the force and fury of
winds, yield fuel and material for fencing and building, and furnish land marks
_ for the traveler. It was organized to deal with the fact that forests can be grown.
_ Gentlemen, these are not mere figures of rhetoric. They are solemn statements
of facts which the most thorough investigation will only confirm. The force of
the wind on our western prairies cannot be conceived of by you who have always
lived within the area of forests. They are simply terrible to endure and appalling
to contemplate. They carry death alike to the unprotected beast and the more
tender forms of arboreal life. Fuel must not only be purchased at a fair price, but
must be transported by rail, and often in addition it must be hauled a distance
which requires a journey of one or even two days. When unexpectedly over-

128 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

taken on these broad prairies, by darkness or blinding snow, the traveler has no
guide and is biable to be overcome by cold and discouragement when within a
mile of his own home. It is cruel and inhuman to place human beings in the
midst of such conditions. And it is not uncommon for our frontier settlers to
abandon their inhospitable homes and to follow the flowing waters of the Missis-
sippi to more genial climates. To show that belts and blocks of forests on
every quarter section would completely change all these conditions, needs no
argument. That forests can be grown, the millions of trees that have been
planted in this State, and in Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska, and are now growing,
show conclusively. :

Thus far I have indulged in no speculation, no theory, no fancy. What I have
claimed for forests no man of good judgment will attempt to question or contra-
dict. But those who have given the subject most attention are firmly convinced
that forests will do more than arrest the wind, modify the cold, produce fuel, yield
lumber and fencing material, guide the traveler, invite the emigrant and retain
the pioneer settler. I am convinced that forests will modify climate in other
respects than its temperature. They will affect the rainfall. The experience of
Egypt and of one of the West Indies Islands indicates this, if it does not prove it.
In the former case rain fell after several million trees were planted in a district
where it was never known to fall before. In the latter instance where the forests
were destroyed the rains ceased to fall and streams dried up. The island was
allowed to grow up to forest and the rainfall returned. Again the island was
denuded, with the same result as before.

Forests will preserve our springs and streams. They prevent the rain from
flowing off from the surface as fast as it falls, thus producing destructive freshets,
and cause it to sink gradually in the soil, thence to feed constantly flowing springs
or the waste of evaporation.

Forests will distribute the fall of rain more equally throughout the year. It is
believed in the Eastern States that droughts are more protracted and severe than
in former years when forests were more extensive.

Forests will make the atmosphere more moist, more humid. With a brisk wind
blowing, the air is blown away as fast as it becomes moist by contact with the
earth. When the wind is arrested by forests, the moist air remains. ;

Through their influence on temperature, winds and moisture, forests will help to
solve the problem of successful fruit culture. The forest tree must precede the
fruit tree. Plant the former and the latter will follow with comparative ease.

May not fruits prove the ultimate solution of our most perplexing problem, the
grasshoppers? Insects are the chief food of many birds, and birds are doubtless the
instruments of Providence for keeping the insect world within proper limits. For-
ests harbor and protect myriads of birds that find no suitable home upon the open
prairie. The great difference in the kind and abundance of feathered life on com-
ing into the vicinity of a groveis very marked. At first thought it would seem to
need birds in greater numbers than-can possibly be obtained, to make any head-
way. But their capacity must not be undervalued. Each small bird can consume
the young grasshoppers almost by hundreds daily, and the eggs by tens of hun-
dreds, and living upon them year after year, the birds would much hasten the
decline and exhaustion of each migration. Besides, it is very probable that for-
ests may impede the migrations of the grasshopper. I do not consider it at all
unlikely that if Dakota and Nebraska had been forest instead of prairie region,
the grasshoppers would never have reached Minnesota and Iowa.

But the pressing need of forests in Minnesota is to break the force of the wind,
modify the temperature, and furnish fuel and lumber, and landmarks. For these
purposes we must have forests. These wants they can supply without a shadow
of doubt or question. We must grow these forests where they do not already
exist, and in our State they must be grown over a large area.

Different authorities differ in their estimates of the proper proportion between
forest and cultivated areas. The estimates run from 20 to 33 per cent., varying
somewhat according to the distance of the country from the ocean, or other large
bodies of water. Taking distance as a basis, the higher estimate would be none
too high for Minnesota, Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska and Iowa; but let us take the
lower estimate and see how Minnesota stands, and what she requires. Taken as
a whole, and compared with some other States she does not appear to be very
badly off. The census of 1876 showed 20 per cent. of the farm area in wood land
in Minnesota, while Iowa has but 16, Kansas 11, Nebraska 10 and California 4. Of
the. total area, 17 per cent. is estimated to be in wood land in Minnesota, while in

" FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 129

Iowa it is only 14, in Kansas 53, Nebraska 5, and California 8 per cent. But it is
not sufficient that there should be within the limits of the State a fair proportion
of wood land. Every farm must have its protecting belt and its supply of fuel
and fencing. And when we come to examine the different parts of the State we
do not find the results so encouraging. We find the wood land very unequally
distributed. Some counties are composed almost entirely of it. In others the
government Survey does not show any, and in several others. he wood land is
less than 500 acres, often lying in one piece along some stream. In one piece in
the southwestern part of the State, containing 23 counties and more than ten mil-
lions of acres, the government survey reported only 80,144 acres of wood land.

This is thought to be double’ the true amount of timber at the present time,
but if we allow that it is sufficient to supply the people of those counties with
fuel for the next five years we need not further take it into account. To put 20
per cent. of this area in forest will require the planting of two millions of acres.
As to the distance at which trees should stand authorities differ, but we will take
such a maximum as shall raise no dispute. We will assume that they should
stand at the end of ten years one rod apart each way or 160 to the acre. They
should be planted then in rows not more than eight feet apart and four feet in
the row, or 1,380 on each acre. : After the lapse of four or five years the necessary
thinning would supply fuel and fencing. ‘his gives us at the least calculation a
grand total of 2,760 millions of trees that should be planted next summer in order
to give these twenty-three counties a proper proportion of forest ten years hence.
If we were to allow for probable failures we should increase these figures by at
_ least 25 per cent.,and if we were to allow for the requirements of other parts of
the State, we should increase this result by at least 50 per cent. The numbers
already given are sufficient, however, to show the magnitude of the work
before us.

Humanity requires us to do this work, for to invite the emigrant to our treeless
prairies iscruel inhumanity. Public policy requires us to do this work, for, with-
out it the treeless regions will remain uninhabited, or else their inhabitants will
continually require the bounty of the State. Humanity, public policy and the
magnitude of the work all demand that we each and every one of us give it our
best encouragement and our best assistance.

What encouragement have we? In the first place we are assured that the
planting of trees will accomplish what we seek to accomplish—they will protect
from winds, modify the temperature, yield fuel and lumber.

In the second place we have good reason to believe that numerous other good
effects will follow, that the rainfall will be better destributed, our springs and
streams preserved, the air rendered more humid, fruit culture facilitated and
destructive insects checked.

In the third place we know that trees will grow on our prairies if properly
planted and protected. It was formerly believed, because nature had not per-
mitted them to grow, that trees would not grow on our prairies. This the num-
erous artificial groves scattered all over the States of Kansas, Nebraska and Iowa,
as well as our own experience here at home sufficiently refute.

In the fourth place we are not pioneers in this business of forestry. Foreign
governments long ago and very generally took measures for the preservation of
their forests. France, Germany, Russia, Egypt and other countries have planted
forests by the thousands of acres. There government actually does the work.
Here government is only asked to encourage what is so manifestly for the advan-
tage of the people. The people of Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska have led the way,
and now have groves of trees ten inches in diameter and forty to fifty feet high.
Minnesota has already began the work and planted so many trees that, were it
not for the vast necessities, it would seem that enough had been done. The
assessors’ returns of last summer show, in the twenty-three counties above
named, more than thirty-two millions of trees planted and growing. This num-
ber might be greatly increased, perhaps doubled, without exceeding the truth.
In either case the number is large, but how small compared with the 2,760 mil-
lions that need to be growing. The number is large enough to show that side by
side with the most wonderful torpidity and unbelief,some people are alive and
‘wide awake to the necessities and the possibilities of this great region. The
number is large enough to show that we have only to keep the ball in motion to
produce grand results—to show that our encouragement and assistance will not be
tendered in vain.

In the fifth place the growth of these trees on our prairie soils is rapid, and

130 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

even small. plantations produced material results in a very few years. It used to
be taught that he who planted trees planted for posterity. But the skillful modern
cultivator plants trees for himself as well as for posterity. Fruit trees yield fruit
in two or three years from planting. Forest trees rear their heads from 25 to 40
feet in the course of five to ten years. The few trees planted around a dwelling
for shade and ornament soon make the winds seem not to blow as they did before’
the trees were planted. Ten acres properly planted to forest trees will in five
years more than furnish the fuel and fencing necessary to furnish a large farm.

In the sixth place, while the planting of trees is a long investment compared
with the sowing of wheat and other like crops, there is no danger of its being a.
losing one. Properly planted on good prairie soil the trees are almost certain to
erow rapidly. There is no serious danger to be apprehended from insects. The
demand for wood is in no danger of being cut off or even seriously diminished.
Many claim that large profits will accrue, and while I do not doubt the fairness
of their statements, I am content to claim that there can be no loss.

In the seventh place we know that to plant a few trees is not so vast an under-
taking as is generally supposed. The experience of the past year bears directly
upon this point. We have the statements supported by affidavits of several men
who planted on last Arbor Day more than 2,500 reoted trees, and of two at least
who planted 5,000 or over. We have the statements similarily verified of more
than a dozen men who planted last Arbor Day upwards of 7,000 cuttings, four of
whom planted more than 10,000 each, and one of whom planted 15,411 cuttings, of
which more than 13,000 were liviny trees in October. We have the varied state
ment of a boy only 14 years old who planted on Arbor Day 7,500 cuttings.

But what, it may be asked, have we to do with this matter? We don’t live in
the treeless regions. We don’t suffer from violent winds, bitter cold or trackless
wastes. We can get plenty of fuel and of lumber at reasonable prices. Why
should we trouble ourselves to consider this matter? I answer, that we are a part
of this great commonwealth. So are these treeless regions and their inhabitants.
Our happiness, our reputation, and our continued prosperity do not depend alone
upgn our little home circle, but they depend upon the condition and prosperity
of the entire State. We cannot be happy while our fellow citizens are enduring
the pangs of cold and hunger. We cannot enjoy a good reputation while any
part of our State bears a stigma. We cannot continue prosperous when the tide
of productive labor if turned toward more genial climates or toward those States
which show more concern for the happiness and welfare of their people. Thus
it is our duty as well as our privilege to encourage this thing by showing the
faith that isin us, to assist it by imparting information to those who seek it and
will use it; to encourage and assist by such other means as may lie within our
power. Many of you are legislators. It is your duty to keep a watchful guard
over the interests of your own district, but still more your duty to study carefally
the interest of the entire State. It is for your judgment to determine how much
_you shall encourage this great interest of tree planting by official act. Monarchial
governments actually perform work of this kind. It is the duty of republican
governments to encourage the people to do it. Many States have already taken
measures to this end. In Massachusetts, with but two counties having less than
15 per cent. of woodland, a premium of $1,000 has been paid for the best grove of
forest trees ten years old. In New York, with but three counties having less than
12 per cent. of woodland, bounties are paid to encourage this object. Missouri,
Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska and California, are also encouraging tree planting, by the
payment of premiums. The Legislature of Minnesota at its last session appro-
priated $2,500 for the encouragement of tree planting, and does not the planting
of ten millions of trees last season justify the act? Itis the policy of good goy-
ernment everywhere to do or to encourage that which is for the good of its people.
The people and the State of Minnesota can do nothing that will be fraught with
greater or more lasting good than the planting of trees. In the prairie “counties
it is the prelude to increased production and to successful fruit culture. It is the
prelude or accompaniment to successful settlement. Nor will all the advantages of
tree planting be confined to the prairie counties. But few agricultural counties
in the State have over twenty per cent. of woodland. It is almost certain that
the productive capacity would be greatly increased by raising the proportion to’
20 or 25 per cent. Dr. John A. Warder, of Ohio, President of the American For-
estry Association, advises the farmers of that State to plant 25 per cent. of their
farms in forest, believing that the remainder will produce more than if the entire
area were cultivated. A nurseryman of New Jersey says that within the shelter

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. es |

of evergreen belts that had been allowed to grow up to a height of 25 to 30 feet in
his nursery, farm crops and crops of nursery trees averaged 50 per cent. better
than when not so protected. Other examples of the same kind might be named,
showing that while the prairie counties need tree-planting the most, they are not
the only ones to profit from it. The fact is that the natural forests are vanish-
ing so fast under the increasing demands of a fast-increasing population, that the |
whole nation must sooner or later turn its attention to tree planting.

But the planting of trees is not the only measure by which the treeless region
is to be redeemed. Stop the prairie fires and groves of trees of greater or less
extent will spring up and grow of themselves. Probably fire has done more than
any other agent to preserve the prairie, and when fire and cattle are restrained
trees are not long in making their appearance. Require the owners of stock to
take care of it, and you relieve these natural groves from another enemy. You
relieve our present forests from a great drain made upon them for fencing mater-
ial, and you facilitate the act of planting because you permit the settler to do it
at once instead of incurring first the labor and expense of fencing his tract.

Other Proceedings.

The Secretary read a communication from the Lac qui Parle Agricultural society
asking for a change in the Congressional tree culture act so that ten acres of trees
instead of 40 acres shall be necessary to secure claims of government land, and
requesting the co-operation of the State Forestry Association to secure the
amendment required. Numerous good reasons are given for the proposed
improvement. ’

Mr. Hodges, in a few remarks commended the soundness of the theory of plant-
ing forestry trees closer together than is required by the Congressional law, and
gave his own experience on the subject of tree planting. He claimed that more
good results will follow by planting trees four feet apart, than by placing them
twelve feet apart, as is now required by law.

Gen. Bishop took asimilar view, showing that a great deal of fraud was perpe-
trated under the present law, and that it did not work well. He endorsed the
ten acre plan, and said there was as little sense in planting corn twelve feet apart
as to plant trees at the same distance. The General furnished a good deal of
valuable information on the subject, and his remarks were listened to with great
interest.

The association approved a Congressional memorial to Congress to this effect,
and Mr, Donnelly was requested to present the matter to the Legislature.

Gov. Ramsey suggested that in view of the lateness of the season, that our
members of Congress should be communicated with at once.

On motion of Governor Marshall the Secretary of the Association was instructed
to forward the resolution to Congress.

Colonel Crooks thought that the Legislature would promptly act on the
premises.

A report of the committee to whom the matter was referred recommended that
the Legislature should appropriate $300 for the services of the Secretary for the
year 1877. As the Secretary worked last year for nothing, Mr. McClung moved
that the Legislature be requested to allow the same salary for last, in view of the
fact that over ten millions of trees had been planted under the supervision of the
Secretary, while a considerable balance of last year’s appropriation remains
unexpended.

On Motion of Hon. H. M. Rice, General Bishop and the Sccretary were
instructed to prepare the memorial to Congress in such a way as to make it apply
as far as practicable to those who have already commenced tree planting as well
as to those who may commence in the future.

An appropriation of $2,000 is asked of the Legislature for the premiums and
other expenses of the association for the year 1877. -

)

132 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

FOREST CULTURE IN MINNESOTA.

Extracts from an Essay Read at the Annual Meeting of the State Agricultaral Society at
the State University, in Minneapolis, February 5th, 1879—By Leonard B.
Hodges, Superintendent of Tree Planting, First “Division St. Panl &

Pacific Railroad Company.

* * * * * * = * * * * *

A large volume concisely written would fail to do justice to the sub-
ject, and I crave your charitable conslderation while presenting a few of
the most prominent points suggested in its practical bearings upon our
material interests.

While the northern and northeastern portions of Minnesota are
emphatically timbered regions, the southwest and western portions of
our State are very destitute of timber. While Minnesota as a State is
more abundantly supplied with timber than either Illinois, lowa, Kan-
sas, Nebraska, Nevada, Dakota or California, yet the subborn fact exists
that nearly or quite one-third of the finest agricultural lands of Minne-
sota are absolutely too destitute of timber to admit of settlement and
cultivation. Hence the propriety of the State Agricultural Society tak-
ing hold of this subject, and rendering such aid as the magnitude of
this interest demands. In the proper presentation of this subject, it
becomes neccessary to introduce facts bearing upon timber consumption
as well as timber culture, that the general knowledge of our present
necessities may enable us to make suitable provision against approach-
ing want. Many of us have been permitted to witness within the last
twenty-five years an increase of population from about 5,000 in 1850 to
about 600,000 in 1875.

Estimating five persons to a family, Minnesota now contains 120 000
families. To provide one family a comfortable degree of warmth
throughout the year, requires twelve cords of wood. This one item of
fuel for the household demands an annual consumption of 1,440,000
cords of wood.

We have in Minnesota, in round numbers, say two thousand miles of
railroad, with 230 or 240 locomotive engines, consuming annually, with
the necessary supply to railroad stations, not less than two hundred and
twenty thousand cords. The 5,000,000 ties entering into the original
construction of our 2,000 miles of railroad, used up not less than 240,-
000 cords, and as they have to be renewed as often as once in seven
years, here is another annual consumption of nearly 35,000 cords. .When
we also take into account the bridge timbers used in ‘the construction
and maintenance of our railroads, and the timber required for the con-
struction and maintenance of the necessary station houses, warehouses,
fences, &c., we can add another annual item of not less than 15 000
cords. When we take into account the consumption of timber in build-
ing our cities, towns and villages, and the amount consumed in fencing
the sixty thousand farms in Minnesota, we are just beginning to get
fairly into the merits of the question.

Let us recapitulate a moment.

Cords.
Poritousehold fuels si eeaeweere ec Gere teae eae aeeenne ee ee » 1,144,000
Horlocomiotives, Wes.,../20 acct as). sae eee chee Seen een ace 220,000
Nor repairing railroads, cl icant us. ss ccs te See ee 50,000

Totals’... .Jcseucelos ont ecible cedgtease> «ls bdecansMeMen woke by sll skit title Mmmm en mua

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 133

Estimating our timbered lands to yield an average of 23 cords per
acre, which I consider a liberal estimate, we find that about 75,000 acres
of the forests of Minnesota are being stripped annually for our house-
holds and railroads alone. For fencing our farms, bridges for public
highways, manufacturing purposes, the operation of our lumbermen who
furnish the material for building our towns and cities, not only for Min-
nesota, but to a large extent for lowa, Nebraska, Dakota and Manitoba,
no one will quarrel with me, if at a rough guess I place this consump-
tion equivalent to the annual stripping of another 75,000 acres. Hence
I have some reason from the above approximations, to infer that the
annual consumption of timber of this State is equivalentto the destruct-
ion of one hundred and fifty thousand acres of the primeval forests of
Minnesota every year. The geographies in use in the public schools of

Minnesota say its area is 83,531 square miles. Our Commissioner of

Statistics estimates our forests to cover one-sixth of our area. From
_ these data you can figure how long our mooi: will hold out with our
present population. —

Twenty-five years hence, with a malo or more of population, our
pineries exhausted, the Big Woods pretty well thinned out, the Missis-
sippi drying up, St. Paul and Minneapolis three or four hundred miles
above the head of steamboat navigation, mereury 40° below zero, and the
wind blowing a hurricane, is not the idle revery of a dreamer.

Destroying one hundred and fifty thousand acres of forest annually,
and planting to supply this loss—how much? Can this society answer?
Can the State of Minnesota? If you can, the answers are in order now,
for even now the grasshoppers has become a burden, and the mourners
go about the street; the frontier settlers of our treeless regions are twist-
ing up prairie erass for fuel, burning prairie sods, and erubbing out old
stumps and roots, doing their best to extract sufficient warmth there-
from to prevent their wives and little ones from freezing, alas! not always
succeeding. The honest farmers with loads of our great staple on their
way to the nearest market, overtaken with the pitiless storm and frozen
to death, without a tree or bush or shrub in sight; our public highways
and railroads blockaded, travel suspended, the mails stopped, commer-
cial and other great interests embarrassed.

Though the kindness of our worthy Secretary, I am enabled from
official date in the United States Surveyor General’s office, to lay before
you some artistics which are both “interesting and instructive.”

Estimates of timber in the following counties, from plats on file in the
United States Surveyor General’s office, St. Paul, Minn.:

Counties. Acres timber.
Reel e Nace eat), 64 aR mh Whee oN dalek obra e LEE nah : 700
Nobles Pn eset ee hs FASS ook aero c SIEM w 4URLA, [ions Saha beneautes AO
ie nabhian tes ey petra en est ee emietaive ele ncee thse. sletsp. Gre Aokewcasoeseieened! 2200
DH canto et UNG seme me sees Foe patetopeh buchen daa tee Vewelesd. Moet bel askbarte . 20,300
| PAN SYS) (S10) OL OAB REO RAS eS A Rr sen ES BSE, 35.0 EIS. Sneek ee hake 00
PN IoineNeca yangaee ta see snst=oket ash stacyemalcldaee sos A Aidlelstans d oda h wie aietikhedss 850
ClnuLoOMWOmGeemayteecth access eent eedaes oe Sanne GhGul. « OS eeR 50
Yat MIVA AEE sou dos eee eee ee L828 sate bias Suabsmanec castes). 2,800
HRea een Wats STORRS neha nftalsis Rie ntmuneee chs « sclatytded sits stented tome teans. 22,400
Riles 8 See reer so)? 52 se CRE MEREES ois asia SIA cad lato RNAS A 2,800
Hite SIMA) OO Oley PORE RErE Nas Sawicvewcatt 5, RietMaN Sansa «cia SeRRIES a MeROSE goo = 2,000

*This probably includes both Lyon and Lincoln counties.

134 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

‘Yellow. Medicine, 2p. 3. (tcc. x 0.. detente one dete Senet eae ne ee 1,500
Boenvilhe p25 soso ndacepepn le Se +p -e'v aint Boece 2s VERE ee OnPR coeree 4,000
Lac qui Parle..... 2,200
Chippewa ........ 3,020
Big SOME... ste she cn ncpee ox teeg oe vpie cig Ss one cabeee Ae ee ee ee 495
SWilts i Sckptecay. seeat sinc So seis facie Oe aReeesoht os oa Le Ne CL eee een as 1,470
TRAV ELSE 2% fede. cvssseceeis) see cheoee eres: aecce Se ccrae Sonat aan eae 00
POPC eistass, tis ise dusvinsting dercesh ree etece cis cele bck See cep er oeaa eek tee eee 13,500
SUC MEMS esti cece Cleat Msc oe eee een GELS Sete eeRIE Lae AtCLy a (hi MOR nese aa 686
Garam 45. 2. 0 2.0 dai os Loe See ueeete ae dete oe EER eae oe ae 373
Waa 708. 203 awk o Bae oe eae ea IT ge Oe Gla ea a 260
Om sted jos.53 55 oie olete Bie coed peice vel eaten nese te aman Mccann 170,000

I have placed Olmsted county in this list for the purpose of illustra-
tion and comparison. This county, named for my highly esteemed and
lamented friend, Hon. David Olmsted, one of the founders of Minnesota,
was settled in 1854, and organized in 1855. Its total area is about 422.
400 acres. Its timber area, at the time of its government survey in 1853
and 1854, was estimated by the government surveyors at 170,000 acres,
being about 64.4 acres of timber to each quarter section. Like the State,
this county is abundantly supplied with timber, but it was not conyeni-
ently distributed, the northwestern and southeastern portions being
heavily timbered on the Zumbro and Root rivers, with all the deciduous
varieties, while the river bluffs were in many places heavily timbered
with white pine and red cedar.

The intervening area was mainly prairie, with occasionally a small
grove, and patches of hazel, wild plum, cherry, crab-apple, jack oak and
aspen brush.

The old Dubuque and St. Paul stage road scarcely encountered a stick
of timber from intersection of the northern boundary of the county until
it struck the Root river timber near its southern boundary, with scarcely
any timber in sight. It was a common remark of the stage passengers
that this portion of Minnesota would never be settled, and in answer to
this remark made in the winter of 1854 and 1855 by a well-known,
wealthy and influential gentleman, then and yet a resident of St. Paul,
that we would have 10,000 people in there within ten years. I got the
sneering reply that we would have 10,000 fools if we did. To-day
20,000 people occupy that region; the largest, most expensive and mag-
nificent school house in Minnesota—if not in the United States—stands
within a few hundred yards of what was then the most desolate and
lonely point on this portion of the old stage road, and is occupied by
more than one thousand children who reside within rifle shot of this
school house, and the fools are not all dead yet! Olmsted county has
probably the largest proportion of cultivated land to its area of any
county in Minnesota, and yet a large proportion of her heaviest farmers
haul every stick of their fire-wood, fencing and building material, from
ten to twenty miles. With good roads they make a trip a day. On the.
eastern borders of the treeless region it takes the farmer two days to get
load of fire-wood; while a hundred miles from any timber to amount to
anything, the farmer can purchase fire-wood, seasoned hard maple, of
some of the railroad companies, cheaper than the same quality of wood
could be had in St. Paul, Rochester or Stillwater.

Wilkin county has a larger area than Olmsted county, and with a
reasonable supply of timber, would in a few years be as densely settled

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 135

and contribute as much revenue to the State. Yet should the present
population of Olmsted county be suddenly transferred to Wilkin county,
they would burn up every stick of fire-wood in that county in less than
thirty days of such weather as Minnesota has experienced within the
last month. . If they were transferred to Nobles county, they would con-
sume the timber of that county in less than a week; or, if transferred
to Pipe Stone or Traverse, they would consume the last stick of wood in
those counties in cooking their first meal of victuals.

Olmsted county, with an annual production of about two million
bushels of wheat, and other agricultural products in proportion, has not
yet reached more than half way to her maximum product, but a trifle
over one-third of her total area having yet been placed under cultiva-
tion. Twenty-five years hence, when fully developed, she will support a
population of 40,000.

Olmsted county pays into the State treasury over $20,000 per annum.
West of Olmsted county, on the same line of railway, out in the treeless
region, we strike Lyon ‘county. Just as good soil, capable of producing
as much wealth, yet with less than half an acre of timber to a quarter
section of prairie, has nearly reached her limit of population and
wealth. Lyon county contributed in 1873, $628.91 as her quota to the
State treasury. The same instructive comparison could be made with
23 other treeless counties.

It would take all the timber in Lyon county to run Olmsted county
eighteen months.

Does the State desire to see those treeless counties able to contribute
$20 to the State treasury where they now contribute one?

The State extracts about $20,000 revenue per annum in State taxes
from those most destitute counties of the treeless region; returns it all
as soon as.collected to keep the inhabitants from freezing to death every
winter, besides contributing twice as much in provisions ‘and seed wheat
to keep them from starving, and yet so far, refuse through their Legisla-
lature to appropriate a dollar to the only project which will ever redeem
those treeless counties from virtual pauperism, and place them in,a con-
dition which will enable them to subsist upon the fruit of their own
labors, and also pay their just quota to the revenues of the State.

A member of the Legislature should remember that he is not only the
representative of his own local district, but equally so of the State at
large, and while vigilantly guarding and promoting the interests of his
own immediate locality, should employ the same energy and vigilance
in promoting such interests as contribute to the ge mneral wellfare of the
State.

The State has also a direct interest in the improvement and conse-
quent developement of this treeless region, for she owns in fee simple not
less than seven hundred thousand acres of choice agricultural lands, in a
region so destitute of timber as to render them practically worthless.
As Minnesotians we are indignant, and justly condemn the selfish policy
of non-resident land holders, “who, "doing nothing themselves to enhance
their value, yet reap a profit on such inv estments, through the toil and
privations of our hardy pioneers. As a great landed proprietor, the State
owes it to herself to mark out, pursue and develope a system of forest:
tree culture which will, in a few years, render those lands valuable, and
consequently saleable. Hvery dollar judiciously, intelligently and hon-
estly expended on such a system would come back to the State treasury
in a few years with increase “an hundred fold,” like the seed we read of

136 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

“sown on good ground,” for it is emphatically good ground to plant
trees on.

The ready sale of lands thereby accruing, would in a comparatively
short time double our school fund, liquidate our State railroad bonds,
and bridge our streams. The State revenues would indirectly be so
augmented as to reduce our State tax to less than one mill on a dollar,
returning to the taxpayers of the timbered districts tenfold for their
temporary advances.

Agriculture, pre-eminently the great interest of Minnesota, the founda-
tion and support of all other interests, would thereby be enabled to so
spread itself that this treeless region, now dependent on the bounty of
the State for “seed wheat,” would in a short period be enabled not only
to return it “with usury,” but would also be able to add more than a
hundred millions of bushels of wheat to our exports annually, with a
proportionate increase of horses and cattle, butter and cheese.

Every consideration of sound policy, enlightened statesmanship, com-
mon sense and practical humanity, urges the State to the prompt inaug-
uration and rapid execution of such a comprehensive system of forest
tree culture, as will render such results possible.

That the State partially recognizes the importance of forest-tree culture
is apparent, when we refer to the legislation already had in this behalf.
But, it is only a step in the right direction. Such additional legislation
should at once be had as to render operative the acts already enacted.
The State should at once organize a tree-planting department, and ap-
propriate such a sum of money for its operations as to enable it to
accomplish such results as could be reasonably expected under a faith-
ful, practical, intelligent and honest administration of its affairs.

This society should awaken to a full sense of its duties in this behalf.
In the exercise of its appropriate and legitimate functions, the general
public expect it to lead off in the promotion of agricultural interest.
Any plan having for its immediate object the promotion of such inter-
ests, is entitled to its hearty co-operatiou and continued aid, or least, a
fair trial.

* * * * * * * *

The peculiar weakness of human nature, to be in haste to become
rich, continually acts as a drawback to the sure, but gradual accumula-
tion of wealth. The young man of enterprise, industry and ambition,
is generally in too big a hurry, for permanent success. The profits on a
quarter-section of wheat, with its speedy returns in ready money within
a year or two from the commencement of his work, is more alluring
than the slow accumulations through stock-growing and tree-planting,
and their consequent permanent values. The too common, but mistaken
idea, that it takes too long to wait to get any good from tree-planting,
must be corrected. .

Right here, I propose to challenge the present prevailing sentiments
and opinions about tree-planting, by a few assertions, which, if false, can
be readily disproved, and if true, will be of permanent value to this
State.

Ist. I assert that the farmer, on the bleakest portion of our treeless
regions, can, with less ready money, than it would cost to buy a break-
ing plow, surround his stock-yard and buildings with a wind-break
within five years, that will protect him as effectually as though he was
in the middle of the Big Woods.

2nd. That a crop of trees can be grown as surely, and in proportion
to its value, with far less expense than a crop of corn.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 137

ard. That ten acres, properly planted to timber, and properly culti-
vated, will, in five years supply fuel for a family in great abundance,
and also, fencing for the farm of 160 acres.

Ath. That the most worthless lands of our treeless regions, can,
through the intervention of the Tree-Planter, be sold for $100 per acre,
within twenty years.

5th. That the nett profits on a quarter-section of prairie, properly
prepared, planted and cultivated with forest trees, will, within ten years
exceed the nett profits of ten quarter sections of wheat.

6th. That a single cottonwood seed, although smaller than “a grain
of mustard,” can, by intelligent cultivation be developed into a cord of
fire-wood within twenty years.

7th. Thatany young man of muscular development and good “horse
sense,” can surely accomplish these results; providing, always, that he
is not in too great haste to get rich ; and

8th. That the genuine white willow, properly handled, will increase
faster than money at interest. at four per cent. per month, and that the
First Division of the St. Paul & Pacific railroad company is now pre-
pared to furnish it to settlers on their lines, delivered at any station on
the prairie free of transportation, at a cost from one to two dollars per
thousand trees. These may to some sound like bold, reckless, and,
perhaps, ignorant assertions, but they are hereby made, and I propose

stand by them.
toWe will now consider a few facts about the

Growth of Forest Trees.

I bring forward only Minnesota growths as specimens of what has
already been done.. We have no occasion to draw from other States for
facts for the encouragement of forest-culture. From many hundreds of
similar facts, I select the following as sufficient:

Cottonwoods, in Olmsted county, seventeen years old, are from 450 to
60 feet high, and from 60 to 81 inches in circumference. Cottonwood,
in Dakota county, seventeen years old, are over sixty feet high, from 81
to 90 inches in circumference, and will yield a cord of fire-wood per
tree, and are now standing on the farm of A. E. Messenger, Esq.

Basswood are now standing on timber land cleared by the writer, in
1857, in the town of Oronoco, Olmsted county, 30 feet high, 25 inches
in circumference. Ash, on same ground, 13 to 21 inches in circumfer-
ence, 25 feet high, 10 to 12 years old. Butternut, 15 inches in circum-
ference, 25 feet high, 14 years old. Pignut hickory, 15 inches in circum-
ference, 25 feet high, 10 to 14 years old. This is on ground cleared from
10 to 18 years ago, and left to the care of nature ever since.

On “grub prairie,” in the village of Oronoco, where the grubs did not
average two feet high, and nothing but oak to be seen twenty years ago,
now stands a grove from which I select jack-oak trees 20 to 26 inches in
circumference, and 25 to 30 feet high ; white-oak trees, 21 to 23 inches
in circumference, and 20 to 30 feet high ; butternut, 27 inches in circum-
ference, and 25 to 30 feet high.

All this without any cultivation, no protection from cattle, but pretty
well protected from fire. ts

In the door-yard of John K. Kepner, Little Valley, Olmsted county,
black walnut in bearing, 7 years old, from seed, 3 to 5 inches ‘in diam-
eter, 18 to 20 feet high; elm trees, 6 years from seed, 2 to 4 inches in
diameter; scarlet maple still larger; box elder, larger yet, and cotton-

138 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

woods, twice as large as the box-elder; honey locust rather slow grower, —
but hardy, only one in fifty having killed during the hard winter of
1872-8 ; white pine 20 feet high, 6 to 8 inches in diameter, transplanted
from the forest, seven and eight years ago, when only a few inches high ;
Balsam fir, 233 feet high, 38 inches in circumference, one foot above the
ground, 12 yeaars old. the branches covering a circle of more than fifty
feet.” On the farm of Hon. Dwight Rathburn, Fillmore county, black
ash, seven to eight years old from seed, 18 to 21 inches in circumference,
18 feet high, with beautifully shaped tops 15 to 18 feet across. In
door-yard of Gen. Gorman, St. Paul, tameracks transplanted from the
swamp eighteen years ago, 30 to 35 feet high, and 24 to 34 inches in cir-
cumference—large enough for railroad ties. Sugar maple, on Dayton
avenue, St. Paul, 28 to 26 inches in circumference. On the farm of
Harrison Waldron, of Byron, Olmsted county. white willow, 41 inches
in circumference one foot above the ground, and 40 feet high, eight years
from the cutting. Mr. G. N..Waldron, in the same vicinity, has white
willows of still larger growth. At Winona, bass wood, planted in 1859,
20 inches in circumference ; hard maple, same age, 16 inches in circum-
ference; soft maple, planted five or six years later, 28 inches in cireum-
ference ; elm, planted in 1859 or 60, 54 inches in circumference ; cotton-
wood, planted in same row at same time, 78 inches in circumference.
These results, gratifying as they are, might have been materially
ncreased by better cultivation, some of the trees having received no
cultivation, and many of them but little.

Besides the destruction of forests in Minnesota caused by the constant
demand for fuel, fencing and building material, the destruction caused
by the ravages of fire, and the depredations of horses, cattle and sheep,
is scarcely less. This loss is almost wholly unnecessary, and as the
result of sheer negligence our annual losses, without any equivalent gain,
are immense. I am indebted to the courtesy of Col. Griggs of St. Paul,
for the following item of fuel consumprion in St. Paul, which can be
relied upon as a very close approximation, based upon purchases and
sales of the wood and coal dealers in St. Paul for 1874:

WOO ds eo ea «ik eases ue agate tg eee cee re tts URE Rem eaten ee 40,000 cords
001 eM Risa el ape ara acl, 0 ahaa he smi ea . 20,000 tons.

Reducing coal to wood—one ton of coal equivalent to one and a half
cords of wood—gives 70,000 cords of wood as the actual consumption of
St. Paul for 1874. As this is nearly all the best quality of wood, chiefly
sugar maple, to reduce it to the average grade of our forests would swell
the measurement to about 96,000 thousand cords. Population, say 40,-
000; number of families, say 8,000, equals twelve cords to each family,
thus verifying my original estimate of twelve cords per annum to an
average family, of average wood. It may be objected by some that my
estimates are erroneous, because I do not wholly embrace the amount of
coal annually consumed in Minnesota. This is a point worth raising.
If Minnesota is already too destitute of timber to be unable to compete
with Lowa, Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania in the matter of supplying
her own people with cheap fuel, she had better go to growing forests at
once, stop the sending of money to other States for fuel, and keep it
among ourselves. In the timber estimates from the Surveyor General’s
office, it is proper to remark that these estimates are not absolutely cor-
rect, the timber not being meandered, its inter-section by township and
section lines and bearings noted. Although a close approximation,

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 139

my personal observation of the timber in many of those counties causes
me to think those estimates were originally high enough, while the con-
sumption and destruction since occurring by the settlers, by fire and cat-
tle, will far exceed the growth.

I might enlarge this paper, perhaps profitably, with a chapter on the
untimely effects sure to ensue from the destruction of our forests—the
drying up of our creeks and navigable streams, shortening of crops by
drought, destruction of property by floods, diminished and uncertain
rainfalls, &e. I might also show some of the blessings resulting from
extensive forest culture, in the favorable climatic changes sureto follow.
better sanitary conditions, and the virtual promotion of all the material
interests of the State; but I am admonished to be “short and concise,”
and will close by saying there is a rich mine of undeveloped wealth in
our treeless regions, which can only be developed by a comprehensive
broad gauge system of tree planting.

THE TEACHINGS OF MANY YEARS’ EXPERIENCE 1N FOREST
CULTURE.

Agricultural Editor of the Pioneer-Press :

Many years’ experience in timber culture on the farm in central Lowa, has
taught me that one hundred cords of wood can be successfully raised on one acre
of land, in ten years’ time, by planting in belts on the border of the farm.

That the white willow (Salia: alba) is the best border tree for the Northwest.
That the yellow cottonwood of the Missouri valley, when planted where it has
room to develope itself, has no equal save the yellow poplar, (tulip tree) of the
Middle States. That the catalpa is making a good growth as far north as the
' 42d parallel north latitude, is a fine ornamental tree, and is said to be valuable
timber for posts and railroad ties. That the seeds of the black walnut should be
planted in the fall as soon as gathered, either in the seed-bed or where it should
stand in the grove; should be taken from the seed-bed at one year old and trans-
planted in the grove of young trees that will not overshadow it while young, and
when it is twenty-five or thirty feet high the nurse trees should be taken out, that
it may develope into worth. That the white walnut is easily transplanted, and is
worthy of the attention of the tree-planting public. That the white or green ash is
a tree of great value for farm purposes, easily transplanted, and should be found
growing on every farm. That the sugar tree, sometimes called “hard maple,” is
one of our finest ornamental trees, stands transplanting well, and is not easily
broken by the storm, has few equals on the street or lawn. That the soft maple
is a valuable forest tree, and should be set in a thick grove, transplants well at one
and two years old,is one of the poorest for the border, as the storms break it
worse than almost any other tree. That the box-elder is one of the valuable
hardy trees for the border, street or lawn; can be cut in any shape, and will stand
more abuse than almost any other tree; makes a valuable shade for the pasture.
That the honey locust is a valuable timber tree, of thrifty growth, and transplants
well, and were it not for its thorn-producing propensity, would have few equals;
the thorny ones, if managed right, make a good hedge for those who like it. That
the buckthorn and berberry are hedge plants of value in the Northwest; though
slow of growth will make impenetrable barriers with proper care in time. That
the osage orange is a failure in 42 north latitude.

That tree culture in Linn and Benton counties, Iowa, has proved the best
investment made by those who have done the most of it, as acknowledged to me
by themselves.

W, L. BROCKMAN.

CaRROLL Crry, Iowa, January 15th, 1879.

140 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

FOREST CULTURE IN MINNESOTA.
A Paper Read before the State Forestry Association, at the Capitol, Saturday Evening,
Feb. 12th, 1876, by Leonard B. Hodges.

Mr. PRESIDENT:

In endeavoring to comply with the invitation of the State Forestry
Association to address them this evening on the important subject of
forest culture in Minnesota, I am painfully conscious of my inability to
do justice to a subject, the proper discussion of which might well occupy
the best minds of the State. I crave your indulgence and that of the
company present, while endeavoring to lay before you some of the
reasons which I trust may be of service in awakening a new interest in
a matter of vital importance to Minnesota; and in doing so, may per-
haps bring forward. facts and items not wholly new; yet of such practi-
cal importance as to bear repeating. With line upon line, precept upon
precept, here a little and there a little, all important truths are inculea-
ted. ee

Until within a few years, the emigrant to Minnesota has been able to
obtain good farming land, with plenty of good timber adjoining, or within |
convenient distance.

Thousands of the earlier settlers were fortunate in obtaining prairie,
timber and running water on the same farm. Others coming in later,
have obtained choice prairie farms with good timber within three to five
miles. And as emigration has gradually over-run the most desirable
agricultural portions of the State, the intervening distance between large
bodies of choice wheat land and groves of timber, has gradually widened
out, until now we find the great body of our most productive agricultural
lands so remote from timber as to seriously interfere with their settle-
ment.

The emigrant who now comes to Minnesota to obtain a farm under
the provisions of the Homestead or Pre-emption Law, is compelled to
make his choice either in the heavy timber or in the treelessregion. The
question for him.to determine at the outset is this: Shail I settle in the
heavy timber and spend a life-time in hewing out a farm, or shall I go
out into the treeless region and reverse the process—plant, cultivate and
prune, instead of cut and slash, burn and grub. Hence the importance
and necessity of a correct solution of a question which is of interest
not only to the poor emigrant and the well-to-do farmer hunting a new
location where he can obtain a thousand or five thousand acres of cheap
rich land where he can settle his half dozen sturdy lads ‘around him,
but also to the entire State, and more especially to the towns and cities
of the State, whose continued growth and prosperity can only be secured
and permanently maintained by the gradual and complete agricultural
development of what is known as the treeless region of Minnesota. This
region stretching away from the “Big Woods” on the east, to Dakota on
the west—from Iowa on the sonth, to Manitoba on the north—covering
an area of more than twenty thousand square miles—almost an empire
in extent—treally the fairest portion of Minnesota—capable, when fully
developed, of adding a hundred millions of bushels of wheat to the
exports of the State, with a corresponding amount of cattle and dairy
products—crossed and re-crossed by seven different lines of land-grant.
railroads, rendering it easily accessible from all quarters ; presenting to

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 141

the emigrant the largest, most fertile and most accessible body of govern-
ment land now remaining in the United States, needs only the interven-
tion of the tree-planter to transform this desertsolitude into what nature
intended it for, one of the granaries of the world. On this broad expanse
of fertile prairies, with natural meadows, lovely lakes and running
streams, forty thousand families can find free homesteads and a healthy
climate within hearing of the whistle of the locomotive.

The redemption of this treeless solitude; the conversion of its desert
wastes into fruitful fields ; is an object of great importance, not alone to
this particular region, but also to the entire State. The pioneer work to
be done in effecting this change is the patient, persistent, untiring labor
of the tree planter.

The Treeless Region.

To illustrate the necessity and magnitude of the work, let us take a
glance of what is known as the “Treeless Region.”

Fortunately for Minnesota, she embraces within her borders but a
fraction of that great waste which covers the greater portion of the inter-
ior section of the North American Continent.

The map which I have placed in view, compiled by Prof. Brewer of
Yale College, shows at a glance the treeless region. Our own portion is
so small compared with the whole, as at first glance to seem too insignifi-
cant to make such ado over. Yet we must take into account, small as it
appears on the map, itis capable when fully developed of sustaining
five times the present population of the State.

There is, in addition to the increased productive area to be developed
by an extended system of forest culture, the climatic changes and conse-
quent benefits resulting therefrom, to be considered.

The great objection, and really the only one that is urged against
Minnesota by rival interests, is the climate. We point with pride to the
progress of our State during the past twenty-five years. Its transforma-
tion from a howling wilderness to a sovereign state, with its common
schools, its colleges, its churches, its commercial and. manufacturing
interests, its 2000 miles of railroad, and its annual crop of 30,000,000
bushels of wheat.

We challenge the world to produce a finer brand of flourthan is made
every day in Minnesota from Minnesota wheat; we challenge the world
to produce an entire community of 600,000 people as well fed, as well
clothed, as well educated, as well supplied with the comforts of life, and
as well paid for their labor, as are the 600,000 inhabitants of Minnesota.
And thos. of us who have been here from the early days, whose labors,
privation®s, foresight and energy have contributed so largely to such mag-
‘nificent results—while we may individually regret lost opportunities,
each of us, can with more than Roman exultation exclaim, “I am a
Minnesotian.”

Yet knowing beyond the possibility of any mistake, that we can offer
to the; emigant better inducements than any other equal area on God’s
footstool; we are failing to get our share. The treeless, arid plains of
Kansas, Nebraska and Texas, with their protracted droughts, their grass-
hopper experiences and their malarial fevers, aremore than successfully
competing with Minnesota for emigration.

And why? Simply on account of the grossly exaggerated stories of
our winters. That in Minnesota men freeze to death going after a load
of wood; farmers freeze to death while hauling their wheat to their near-

j42 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

est market; and that there are weeks at a time when it is impossible for
aman to go from his house to his barn without oneend ofarope fastened
around him and the other end in the house, in his wife’s hands, so she
can haul him in, hand over hand, before he perishes; and that even in
St. Paul the principal occupation of the street commissioners and their
force in winter is in sweeping and shoveling up bushels and wagon loads
of fragments of frozen ears and noses which encumber the sidewalks and
pavements.

The great electrical storm of January 7th, 8th and 9th, 1873, which
swept over Manitoba, Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, Wisconsin,
Illinois and other extensive areas, carrying suffering and death into each
of those States and Territories, is all located by rival interests in Min-
nesota.

The story of that storm and its attendant horrors is more firmly estab-
lished and more vividly remembered among people seeking new homes
in the west, than even the Sioux outbreak in 1862, and is morelasting in
its effects.

Now, what are we going to do about it? While we laugh at the absur-
dity of such stories, we realize their disastrous effects. There is no use
in denying them, for the grain of truth we are willing to admit, carries
conviction as to the truth of the whole.

I see no way but “to take the bull by the horns” and“ face the music.”
Save the breath now spent in denying these absurdities for hard work.
Instead of a clothes-line running from the house to the barn, surround
that house and barn with a live windbreak of willow, cottonwood, larch,
pine and spruce; surround your farms with belts of forest timber ; line
your public highways with rows of elm, sugar maple, butternut, black
walnut, basswood and ash; plant plentifully of acorns in the shaded
places of your windbreaks and hedge rows; plant the seed of the ash,
elm, box elder, cottonwood, basswood and hackberry on every frontier
farm in the State. Take care of them, cultivate them and protect them
from fires and from cattle; extend this system over our entire treeless
region, and in a very few years our winters will be robbed oftheir terrors,
blizzards will be unknown, the grasshoppers will cease to be a burden,
the devastating hail storms of midsummer will fail to appear, protracted
droughts and devastating foods will be of rare occurrence. Snow block-
ades with their attendant embarrassments and loss of time and money
will be unknown, the average yield of our cereal crops will be increased,
cattle and horses will do better, the difficulties attendant upon fruit
growing will vanish, our treeless region will be densely settled, the reven-
ues of the State quadrupted, individual taxation lightened, and Minne-
sota triuphantly vindicated.

Work to be Done.

In looking over this last paragraph, I see there is a good deal of work
‘laid out. This work has got to be done. As a State, we are in a similar
predicament to the boy after the wood-chuck. We must have the wood-
chuck. How to dig him out the quickest and cheapest, is the question
always in order. We have all got to dig. This Minnesota State Forestry
Association has got to make the dirt fly. We propose to do a heap of
digging next Arbor Day, (ist Tuesday of May,) and to plant so many
trees in Minnesota on that day, that for the next hundred years people
will talk of that day’s work, and point to the results with gratitude and
pride.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 148

And right here I come to a tender spot: the members of this associa-
tion expect I’ll say something to the legislature in this behalf. Now, I
_ have been amember of the legislature myself, and so have most of the
members of the State Forestry Association.

We know what it is to be buzzed, button-holed, bored, and bamboozled
generally. We think we know ourselves better than to fool away our
time; besides, we have too much to do. As a society, we are giving the
State our experience and our services gratis, we work hard and board
ourselves ; we ask no pay for those services, virtue is its own reward.
But, we do ask the legislature to appropriate a small sum of money to
encourage forest- culture in Minnesota.

How do you propose to use it?

First, to expend a portion of the appropriation in the publication and
distribution of a small pamphlet for gratuitous circulation among the
people; this pamphlet to be clearly and tersely written, eminently prac-
tical, embodying the experience of practical men, pointing out the
proper methods of preparing the ground, how to plant, what to plant,
how and when to cultivate, cost of planting, how to propagate success-
fully from seeds and cuttings, in short, to give such information on
forest-culture, that the work may be done successfully, and that time and
money be not wasted; it should also contain the laws of Minnesota
relating to forestry, the congressional timber-culture act, the pre-emption
act, and the homestead act. It would come so near being an emigration
document, that a few chapters on the resources of Minnesota might be
profitably appropriately added without much extra cost. Then we pro-
pose to devote a large portion of the appropriation in premiums, to be
distributed among the people for the general observance of arbor day.

The very encouraging results obtained from the very inadequate pre-
miums offered by The Pioneer Press Company and the First Division of
St. Paul and Pacific Railroad Company, to parties planting the most
trees or cuttings on arbor day last spring, shows clearly what may be
accomplished by a premium list commensurate with the magnitude of
the work.

A Million of Trees Planted.

From the best information I can obtain, I feel safe in saying, that more
than a million of forest-trees were planted last arbor day, in Minnesota,
under the stimulus of less than $400, and none of that in money.

Those premiums were so offered, that but one in each county could,
by any possibility win. They were offered so late, that not half of the
people heard of the offer until the day was past.

This association propose to arrange a premium list so comprehensive
and so wide in its range, and to throw it before the public so early, that
every man, woman, boy or girl, in Minnesota can have a fair chance of
winning a prize. We do not rely solely on the legislature for help to
carry on this work: we are trying to help ourselves.

A month has not yet passed since the organization of the Minnesota
Forestry Association ; from initiation fees, and from donations, we can
already offer $700 for premiums next arbor day.

We can surely raise this amount to $1000 within a week.

The Practicability of the Work.

This is a question to be considered in this connection. Practical men
who have made forest-culture a study and a business, have no doubts
on this subject.

144 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

Impracticable men, educated fools, and those whose skulls are so thick
as to require a pile-driver to assist them in getting a new idea, denounce
it as impracticable.

I apprehend the great diversity of opinion on this subject, is in part,
to be accounted for in the wide range of territory the treeless region of
the North American Continent covers.

I apprehend, and indeed my own experience has suggested and con-
firmed the idea, that the difficulty increases in almost exact proportion
to the distance from large bodies of timber. wah

In my own work for three successive years, I have been obliged to
observe that the expense and difficulty of forest-culture increases in very
exact proportion to the distance west of the Big Woods. As far west as
Willmar, no difficulty has yet been experienced. West of that point,
we very soon observe a perceptible decrease of rain fall. We are grad-
ually approaching the arid treeless region of Dakota and the plains
country. .

As we gradually approach this arid region, greater care is found to be
necessary in preparing the soil. Greater care is necessary in handling
and planting the young trees and cuttings. More cultivation is necesary.
Excessive aridity is to be overcome, not by the water-pot, but by the
cultivator.

Heavy mulching will be found useful.

Greater skill, greater care, more and better cultivation, greater expe-
rience and more hard, horse sense, will be needed the farther you go
west. Our own portion of the treeless region can be redeemed by forest-
culture without any great difficulty or expense. Weare, as it were, only
on its borders. But when you get out among the sand-hills of the
Coteaus, and among the breeding places of the migratory grass-hopper
and Colorado beetle, you’ve struck a horse of another color. A big one,
and not easily curried.

I apprehend that the final redemption of the great treeless region of
the continent, will be by the gradual approaches of the tree-planter from
Minnesota, and other regions where rain-falls are sufficiently abundant
to ensure a reasonable degree of success.

My own impression is, that as these artificial plantations are increased
and pushed gradually out into the treeless region, that the earth and the
air will gradually become somewhat ameliorated ; that the excessive
aridity will gradually yield to increasing moisture, and that rainfalls, if
not more abundant, will be more durable in affect. Hence, the work we
accomplish in redeeming our own portion of the treeless region, sheds
its beneficial influences over Dakota, and as we incidentally help Dakota,
Dakota will more than repay us in the groves and wind-breaks, she will
be enabled to erect between us and Old Boreas.

Now, about the cost of this work enough has been said to show that
the cost varies with the locality in which the work is to be done.

I suppose that portion of the treeless region of Minnesota, which is
intersected by the Main Line of the First Division St. Paul and Pacific
Railroad, is a fair average of the treeless region of Minnesota—no better
and no worse. Now, my experience in this work on that range of
country, enables me to say with considerable confidence, that I can
figure as closely on the cost of growing 40 acres of forest timber out
there, as any farmer can on the cost of growing 40 acrés of wheat, or of
com, I might truly say, with more certainty, for there is less risk in
raising a crop of forest-trees ; if the corn fails to mature in season, no

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 145

atonement is possible ; not so with the trees, if they get a back-set one
year, they can make it all up the next. No crop grown for prafit in
Minnesota is more certain to afford satisfactory results.

Growing Timber for Profit.

In growing forest timber for profit, I should plant much closer than
_ 12 feet apart each way. I would advise planting first so as to be sure
of complying fully with the requirements of the law ; and then, instead
of planting corn or some other hoed crop, I would plant the intervening
spaces with forest-tree seeds, so as to have an average stand of four feet
apart each way.

The onject of thick planting is to compel the young trees to a correct
habit of growth, and to sooner shade the ground, thereby shortening up
the time of cultivation, and consequently, diminishing the cost of culti-
vation. ~)

After two or three years of good cultivation, the annual shedding of
the foliage of all the quick-growing varieties would so mulch the ground
as to render further cultivation unnecessary.

Ground pxoperly broken in June, re-plowed in October following, can
be planted at once. If you break too early or too late, I would not
undertake to say when you could plant it.

I can, however, say, without any mental reservation, that the men
who commence breaking before the grass is good enough for their oxen
to work on, or who continue to run their breaking plows after the prairie
grass stops growing, are not only fooling away their time and labor, but
laying the foundation for disappointment and failure. Every new comer
is pretty sure to fall into this error unless warned, and even then, bitter
experience is too often the result of knowing too much.

Protection and Preservation of owr Forests.

Closely alied to forest culture is the preservation of our native forests.
The rapidity of their destruction and the inevitable calamities resulting
therefrom ought to awaken us to a lively sense of our duty in this
regard. This rapid destruction of our native forests is increasing in exact
ratio to the developement of the country. Drafts upon them which
would have seemed incredible twenty-five years ago, are now made and
honored with scarcely a thought of the future.

Demands of Civilization on our Native Forests.

In my address before the State Agricultural Society, one year ago, I
estimated the annual consumption of wood in Minnesota, to call for an
amount equivalent to the annual destruction of 150,000 acres of the
native forests of Minnesota. Subsequent investigations confirm the truth
of that estimate. We have probably 9,000,000 acres of fair average for-
est in Minnesota. If our pesent condition remains unchanged, our sup-
ply is good for about 60 years, but if we as a State keep step with the
advance of civilization, there are persons now in this room who will .
live to see our present supply completely exhausted, unless the supply
is renewed by artificial planting.

If 600,000 people require 150,000 acres annually, 1,200,000 will require
300,000 acres annually, which would exhaust the present supply within
the probable lifetime of the young man just striking out for himself.

Wisconsin is destroying her forests at an equally rapid me

146 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

50,000 acres of Wisconsin forests are cut annually to supply the Kan- |
sas and Nebraska trade alone.

10,000 acres of forests goes into the stoves and furnaces of Chicago
every year. Many additional thousands of acres are annually required
to supply that city with the enormous conflagrations she has a habit
of indulging in.

The Lumberman’s Directory for 1874-5 says, the Chicago lumber
trade handles annually 1,350,000,000 feet of lumber, shingles and lath.

This aggregate, enormous as it seems, is but one-tenth of the annual
consumption of the country. .

The Chicago capital used in the lumber trade is $33,000,000.

Within the last ten years 12,000,000 acres have been burned over, sim-
ply to clear the land. |

It is calculated that 8,000,000 acres are cleared every year, and only
10,000 acres planted.

The Tariff and Transportation. |

Two causes peculiar to this country increase the consumption of our
own wood beyond its natural limits: adel

The first. is the tariff, which, by taxing foreign competition almost out
of the market, concentrates our demand upon our vanishing forests.

The second is, that prices do not advance, and so check demand.

The reason for this is, that transportation is the chief element of cost
in the wood delivered at our doors, and this increases so rapiply as to
counteract the otherwise inevitable increase in price. I can buy cord
wood for one dollar per cord on line of railroad within 110 miles of St.
Paul, but transportation will make it cost me $3 per cord by the time it
reaches this city. Gen. Brisbine, of the U.S. army, produces figures in
support of the assertion that “at the present rate of consumption, in ten,
or at most in twenty years, the forests of Michigan, Wisconsin and Min-
nesota will be swept away.” There is now left untouched, he says, in
the whole territory of the United States, but one really fine belt of tim-
ber—that growing on about one-half of Washington Territory and one-
third of Oregon; and this, when the Northern Pacific railroad is built,
will soon be destroyed. Then the last great American Forest will have
disappeared; and by the way, I am credibly informed that the material
for the construction of a common lumber wagon does not exist in that
great forest, or indeed, west of the great plains.

It should be borne in mind that to this time our great forests have
met the demands and destruction of a gradually increasing population,
from 3 to 40,000,000 people. We have now gone through and surrounded
our great timber reserves, and we enter on the margin of the great tree-
less waste, with our original store three-quarters consumed, the demand
accelerated and the consumers to rise rapidly from 40,000,000 to 50,000,-
000 within the last quarter of the present century. A little common
arithmetic will satisfy any thinking man of the consequences, and of the
proportion which the demand and supply will bear to each other at the
close, as compared with the commencement, of this century. Extend the
time another decade, with the added population, and it will be fortunate
if our people get boards three inches wide, as in China at the present
time.

The Demands of Civilization.
The increasing wants of civilization are running way ahead of the

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 147

supply accumulated by the growth of past centuries. Forests, those vast
aggregations of nature’s forces, accumulated by an allwise power for the
good of mankind, are melting away before the demands of the present,
like frost before the morning sun.

Civilization is dependent on the forests, and when they fail, civilization
goes up the spout. ;

In addition to the ever increasing demands of civilization, another
element, fire, is annually making such ravages in our forests, that the
ravages of the grasshopper and potato bug dwindle into insignificance
in comparison.

Between the demands of civilization and ravages from fire, our native
forests are getting badly squeezed. Cvilization and fire will in time rob
us of the Mississippi river, unless this thing is checked and regulated
pretty soon.

When our northern forests and the big woods west of us have disap-
peared, as they assuredly will, unless the State takes more interest in this
question than it has hitherto been inclined to, who will care to live in
Minnesota?

Gentlemen of the legislature, if you have any regard for the best inter-
ests of Minnesota, make it manifest by a liberal appropriation for the
immediate encouragement of forest culture. Guard it as carefully as you
please, but make it at once available. Don’t stop there; make arbor day
a legal holiday. Organize a State Land Department ; and appoint a com-
mission of the best men in the State to look into the condition of our
northern forests. Encourage the people in every practical way to plant
trees by the wholesale. Do this now, and the blessings of posterity will
follow you.

Government on Forestrg.

i am not of those who are continually holding up the example of for-
eign countries and governments as models for our own affairs. I do not
believe in purchasing new red flannel shirts for the amelioration of the
unfortunate infants of “ Barrioboola Gha,” while our own urchins are in
want of shirts. I cannot say that I can fully appreciate that high toned,
fashionable civilization which crowds the opera house of this city, to
listen to the dulcet strains of the Hutchinsons, or the ponderous elo-
quence of the companion of John Stuart Mill, Bradlaugh, or Queen
Victoria, in picturing the beauties of country life in England ; while such
men as Delano, Donnelly, Bishop, Marshall, Dunbar, Becker, Webb,
Drake, McClung and others have great difficulty in calling together a
corporal’s guard to take part in the discussion of home questions, upon
the proper discussion of which the existence of civilization depends.
But I do believe in applying the beneficial results of the experience of
foreign nations in the correct solution of great national problems like the
one now under discussion.

When the Khedive of Egypt by a sensible expenditure of government
funds in tree planting, demonstrates to the world the possibility of
redeeming even the deserts of Africa, and rendering them subservient to
the wants of civilization ; when the Government of France redeems entire
provinces from ruin from drifting sands, which gradually rises upon
crops as if they were inundated with water, and the herbage and even
the tops of trees which appear quite green and healthy, even to the
moment of their being overwhelmed with sand—arresting and effectu-
ally staying the progress of this desolation, by planting over 100,000

148 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

acres with the maritime pine, (pinus pilaster) which now produces im-
mense amounts of tar, resin, lampblack and timber; when in the north ©
of Germany immense tracts of loose, drifting sands have in like manner
been covered with pine forests; when even Russia has successfully
employed the tree planter in fixing the surface of the sandy wastes in
her southern provinces ; when the bared mountain tops of Germany and
Austria, of Sweden and Norway, are by government authority being
reclothed by the planting of new forests; when at this time most of the
goverments of Europe have, through the lessons of dear bought exper-
ience, been compelled to recognize the importance of forestry, and en-
courage it by all the fostering influences at their command ;—may not
we, profiting by their experience, take timely warning, and by timely
economy provide against approaching desolation ? «

Civilization Dependent on Forests.

The eminent scholar, G. P. Marsh, in his great work, entitled “ Man
and Nature,” says: “If we compare the present physisal condition of
the countries of which I am speaking (the Roman Empire) with the
descriptions that ancient historians and geographers have given of their
fertility and general capability of administering to human uses, we shall
find that more than one-half of their whole extent, including the
provinces the most celebrated for their profusion and variety of their
spontaneous, and their cuitivated products, and for the wealth and social
advancement of their inhabitants, is either deserted by civilized man,
and surrendered to hopeless desolation, or, at least, greatly reduced, both
in productiveness and population. Vast forests have disappeared from
mountain spurs and ridges; the vegetable earth accumulated beneath
the trees by the decay of leaves and fallen trunks; the soil of the alpine
pastures, which skirted and indented the woods, and the mould of the
upland fields are washed away ; meadows once productive, fertilized by
irrigation, are waste and unproductive, because the springs that fed them
are dried up; rivers, famous in history and song, have shrunk to humble
brooklets; the willows thet ornamented and protected their banks are
gone, and the rivulets have ceased to exist as perennial currents, because
the little water that finds its way into their old channels is evaporated
by the droughts of summer, or absorbed by the parched earth before it
reaches the low-lands ; the beds of the brooks have widened into broad
expanses of sand and gravel, over which, though in the hot season,
passed dry-shod, in winter sea-like torrents thunder; the entrances of
navigable streams are obstructed by sand-bars; and harbors, once marts
of an extensive commerce, are shoaled by the deposits of the rivers, at
whose mouths they lie.”

All this might have been prevented if the Roman grangers had passed
a few bills for the encouragement of tree-planting. But they did’nt do
it, and you now see what a fix they have got into, by not attending to
tree-planting in season.

The forests of Lebanon, once the supply of neighboring countries,
have long since disappeared; the mountain ranges of Syria, and the
once powerful kingdom of Persia, are now dry, barren ridges of naked
rock, absolutely incapable of re-producing the woods which once covered
them. ‘

Large tracts in the interior of Asia Minor, and even portions of Italy,
are now a horrible desert, seamed with ravines and gullies, or piled with
ridges of sand and gravel, and utterly irreclaimable to the use of man.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 149

Blanque, a French writer, quoted by Marsh, speaking of the destruc-
tion of the forest in certain mountainous parts of France, says, that he
found not a living soul in districts where he had enjoyed hospitality
thirty years before; the last inhabitant having been compelled to “ get
out of that” when the last tree fell.

Gentlemen, your duty is plain. Ignore this plain duty, and the his-
torian of the future will write of Minnesota, as an eminent writer, now
writes of another region, using these words: “ Many countries have, by
the destruction of the forests, been deprived of rain, moisture, springs,
and water courses, which are necessary to vegetable growth.

“Tn Palestine, and many other parts of Asia, and northern Africa,
which, in ancient times, were the granaries of Europe, fertile and popu-
lous, similar consequences have been experienced. These lands are now
deserts, and it is the destruction of the forests alone which has produced thas
desolation.”

On this point I could enlarge indefinitely. Evidenceof this character,
from the most eminent scientists of both hemispheres, can be piled up
mountain high, illustrating the absolute dependence of civilization upon
forests. It is a question of not merely local, but of national importance.
You are too well informed to need further argument. I trust I have not
exceeded the bounds of propriety in merely calling your attention in
plain and unmistakable language to the prompt performance of an
urgent duty.

I could not do my duty by doing less.

Fencing.

I had fortified myself with a large amount of statistics on the destruc-
tion of forests, and the inevitable results. But time is passing, and it
takes a better man than I am to entertain an intelligent audience over
thirty minutes. I had also, gathered some considerable information on
the subject of fencing, although somewhat foreign, it is so intimately
connected with forest-culture, as to really and fairly come within the
scope of this discussion. I merely say, that restraining cattle and
horses from running at large, would be a great encouragement to forest-
culture in Minnesota, and an immense relief to the agriculturist.

The cost of fencing against cattle and horses is the heaviest burden
the Minnesota farmer carries.

It costs the farmers of Minnesota more than two millions of dollars
per annum to fence against horses and cattle; enough to wipe out the
old State railroad bonded indebtedness in short order, and leave some-
thing for tree-planting. It occurs to me that the legislature should take
such action as to relieve the farming community of this Herculean
burden. The common law is clear on this point; that owners of live
stock must take care of them, or be held responsible for the damage
they commit.

An act of the legislature plainly interpreting the common law, and so
spreading it on our statute books as to clearly define the rights, duties,
and responsibilities of all parties concerned, is loudly called for.

It is also a well established principle of common law, that private
interests must give way to public intersts. On this principle, are based
_ the laws of eminent domain. Under those laws, the public can run a

highway through the middle of your farm, and you can’t help yourself.

A railroad corporation can run its lines through your private estate,
condemn and appropriate to their own use such portions as their wants

150 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

demand. They can even, and sometimes do, tear down your houses and
barns, and you are powerless to prevent it. You are in the way of the
public, you must get out of the way, for the public have the right of
way over all intervening obstacles. I am no lawyer, but have not lived
over fifty years without finding out that “common law” is simply com-
mon sense boiled down.

Let us apply this principle of common law, or common sense, to the
question involved. Common sense revolts at the idea of the “tail wag-
ging the dog.” Yet, under the absurd statute laws of Minnesota, the
tail of the dog swings the entire animal.

Let us examine into facts bearmg upon this question. Referring to
the report of the Auditor of State for the fiscal year ending November
30th, 1875, we find the total value of all the cattle, horses, mules and
asses in Minnesota, to be $17,492,980.

Referring to the latest statistics on crops, we find that they represent
of crops that have to be fenced in from cattle and horses, not less than
$40,000,000 annually in Minnesota, besides 20,000,000 young forest trees.

Here we may place the fences necessary to protect the growing crop
of $40,000,000, at a valuation of $20,000,000.

We thus observe that we invest $20,000,000 in fence, to protect $40,-
000,000 worth of crops from $17,492,980 worth of cattle and horses, or,
in other words, we exhibit the ludicrous spectacle of a $17,000,000
tail wagging a $60,000,000 dog.

But there is a moral principle involved in this question which enters
too largely into all its phases to be ignored. Under the laws of eminent
domain, you split my well-fenced cultivated farm into two unequal
sized, irregular shaped pieces. The arbitrary award of damages rarely,
if ever makes me whole, but I am further outraged by being compelled
to erect a lawful fence each side of this public highway to protect my
erowing crops, my young orchard and my grove of young forest and
ornamental trees from destruction from cattle and horses permitted by
the statutes of Minnesota to run at large in this christian country, in
this enlightened century, up to this centennial year.

Those cattle and horses are simply trespassers. JI am their victim.
Their owners have neither the right to allow them to run at large, or to
compel me to build that legal fiction, known as a lawful fence.

When I was a youngster, I followed surveying for a livelihood, and I
well remember the remark of an old Quaker, who gave me one of my
first jobs, in running and establishing his boundary lines; it was this:
““Good line fences are the foundation of true religion.” There is much
truth in that remark, but a long experience compels me to believe that a
general, sweeping herd law would promote true religion more effectually
than the labors of half the men who make the promotion of that caus
a specialty.

I feel safe in saying, that by far the greatest amount of difficulty and
bad feeling in every agricultural community is caused and kept in full
force, by keeping in force that relic of barbarism compelling the fencing
in of crops.

Any man who wants a new home, will give those counties the prefer-
ence who have had the good sense to adopt the herd law. Pass a general
herd law, applicable to every section of the State, and you wipe out a,
relic of barbarism, promote Christianity, encourage tree-planting, encour-
age emigration, and increase and promote the general welfare.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. ial

Number of plants or trees on an acre, at various distances apart:

Opeinehes a pakivedeh: Waviedtes - utteeyesy ite eae ois te sis sea hel slows 154,240
Baath Acie. TE REMOnSS Spire WEEE! n-ne ape ie eee ee 43,560
13 feet < is FE Oe NS SOULS Cae ete WE fe a a 19,360
Peeetn Oy fO0b 6s 2-6 2) Faem ae SP Mt eee cvs al De ue? vs “e - s'egat as! 21,780
PRC Cie PAnmeaC MW vcs oleic ce ya Mtaeneiles 0s). sis, leycer Ge) sya eso! ye ee) one 10,890
CID Nope Cima era memes Ma fe Me erate, ra) aM wal agedren en a. 7b) sete ee cs 7,260
MCE M PUR ECACIIU WANE sisi. Reis ies Pama co) SP. Se ahha Nolte era hoof atoms 4,840
4 feet “ iz A RS BERD Poe ee ee eee nen a me Pema 2,730
5 : ; 3 . se ea CORED RE RIC SEC ER en ce cate SECM 1,750
4 a rf i TS a, DO IES Co SERENE NEC aceon te eC tic enter rales eaey
RO ae emtcraren smi 78s etree 2b RPM RE gh ago
Ie “ce “ee “ce “ ah rug 300
nee i - eke ee ea oe
SME MMM MMM era fe et 1s oes) auch ly Phe career ie) as dwar LED
74 ea x s MNS ai fe terete TA DS Wes isis bor te St te er euteee | ciasi 110
a ; is ea Wane ey Ee Sei cine, SRL OLTeR ERC. cee wret seta be fac a eae 90
rl i i Ree ne Cathie. ae own cote i ates ca ea el Paetia eeeeee Bae Deeg Se d0

Rows six feet apart, and trees one foot apart in the row, 7,315 trees
per acre.

Rows 8 feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, 5,404 trees per acre.

Rows 10 feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, 4,389 per acre.

One mile of wind-breaks or shelter-belt, riquires 5,280 trees or cuttings
for a single row, one foot apart in the row.

The white willow cuttings can be bought for $1.50 per 1000.

Cottonwood cuttings, for $2.50 per 1000.

Well-rooted yearling or seedling cottonwood trees, ash, box-elder and
soft maple, for $3.00 to $5.00 per 1000.

Scotch Pine, 6 to 9 inches, $15.00 to $18.00 per 1000.

European Larch, 8 to 10 inches, $10.00 per 1000.

Robert Douglass & Son., Waukegan, Ilinois, grow larch and evergreens
more extensively, perhaps, than any other party in America. Send for
their catalogue. :

REPORT.

To His Excellency, Hon. John S. Pillsbury, Governor of Minnesota :

Sir :—The act of March 2nd, 1876, making an appropriation of $2,500
to the Minnesota State Forestry Association, requires that a report shall
be made to the Governor, to be transmitted to the next Legislature,
showing the disbursements of the same. In accordance herewith, I
respectfully submit the following :

On a call for a public meeting to be held at the capitol on Tuesday,
the 11th day of January, 1876, for the purpose of organizing a State
Forestry Association, signed by E. F. Drake, Wm. R. Marshall, Wm.
Lee, Horace Thompson, H. M. Rice, Wm. Crooks, Herman Trott, M. 8.
Wilkinson, O. P. Whitcomb, Ignatius Donnelly, Geo. L. Becker, H. H.
Sibley, J. W. Bishop, and many others, said meeting was held in the
hall of the House of Representatives, and a committee was appointed to
report a constitution for such association, and on the 12th of January,
at an adjourned meeting of the persons who had previously signified
their desire to become members of such association, the said committee
reported a constitution for said association, which was adopted, and the
following named persons were elected officers of such association under
said constitution, to-wit:

152 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

President—KE. F. Drake, of Ramsey county.

Vice-President—First Congressional District, A. A. Soule.

Vice President—Second Congressional District, Ignatius Donnelly.

Vice President—Third Congressional District, J. H. Stevens.

Secretary—L. B. Hodges, of Ramsey county.

Treasurer—Pennock Pusey, of Ramsey county.

Elective officers of Executive Committee—Charles Y. Lacy, of State
University, G. W. Fuller, of Meeker county; John P. Shoenbeck, of
Nicollet county, and J..W. Blake, of Lyon county.

On or about the first of November last, I was informed by State
Auditor Whitcomb, that he deemed it necessary for the State Forestry
Association to reorganize under the general laws of Minnesota, before he
felt justified in paying over to said association any money appropriated
by act of March 2nd, 1876. I at once notified the officers and members
of said association, that a meeting for such purpose would be held at
the Railroad Commissioner’s office, at the capitol, on the 23d day of No--
vember, 1876.

Said meeting was duly held, and articles of incorporation were execu-
ted, published and filed in the office of Secretary of State.

Having thus acquired a perfect legal organization, the association at
once commenced making arrangements for the payment of premiums
offered for tree-planting last spring, and which were to be awarded to the
successful contestants at the annual meeting of the association, com-
mencing on the second Tuesday in January, 1876.

The association, recognizing the importance of enlisting the vast army
of children in the great work before them, made special provision for
them in the list of premiums to be offered.

To the boy or girl under ten years of age, in each county in the State,
who planted not less than ten trees or twenty cuttings, was offered a
Centennial Medal or Badge.

To the hoy or girl in each county in the State, under 14 years old,who
planted the greatest number on Arbor day, not less than two thousand
cuttings, or one thousand trees, $5.00.

For the second greatest number as above, not less than five hundred
trees, or one thousand cuttings, $2.00. ;

To stimulate the good work among “ children of larger growth,” the
association offered for the greatest number, not less than seven thousand
cuttings, or twenty-five hundred trees, planted by any one person on
Arbor day, $10.00. .

For second greatest number as above, not less than four thousand
cuttings, or fifteen hundred trees, $5.00.

For third greatest number as above, not less than two thousand cut-
tings, or one thousand trees, $3.00.

For fourth greatest number as above, not less than one thousand cut-
tings, or five hundred trees, $2.00.

In addition to the above, Hon. F. R. Delano, of St. Paul, offered to
_ the association fifty dollars each year for five years, to the man, his wife
and children, who, in any one of the strictly prairie counties of Min-
nesota, plants during the planting season of each year the most trees and
cuttings, all kinds.

The Pioneer Press Company, also, offers a copy of the Daily Pioneer
Press to the party winning the ‘“ Delano Premium.”

The Pioneer Press Company, also, offered a copy of its Weekly to the
party in each county in the State, who won the $10.00 premium.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 153

‘Fhe Saint Paul Dispatch, also, offered a copy of its daily, to the per-
sons in each of ten of the prairie counties of the State, who should,
during the entire planting season, plant the most trees and cuttings, not
less than fifteen thousand cuttings, or five thousand trees.

Results.

In response to the foregoing offers of premiums for tree-planting, we
have returns from fifty counties in Minnesota, showing that not less
_ than fifteen hundred thousand forest trees and cuttings were planted on
Arbor day, (the first Tuesday in May, 1876,) and that from 8,000,000 to
10,000,000 were planted during the season of 1876.

Arbor Day.

I am often asked the meaning of Arbor Day, and why the greater
portion of the premiums were offered for work done on that day. In
answer, would say, that in this we copy from our neighboring States of
Towa and Nebraska, in dedicating one day during the planting season to

-tree-planting. This act of itself brings the matter of tree-planting before
the minds of the people, and keeps it there to some purpose.

The association, after a full and free interchange of experience and
opinion, decided on the first Tuesday of May, as probably the best day
that could be fixed on for Minnesota—neither too early nor too late.

The experience of its members was very uniform in the necessity of
planting as early as the condition of the ground would permit, ‘in order
to enable the young tree to get fairly to growing before the dry weather
comes on in the spring. Another reason, was to correct the widespread
prevailing opinion as to the amount of this kind of work an ordinary
able-bodied man could do in one day. It was absolutely held by many
that a thousand cuttings, or five hundred yearling, or two-year-old trees
was a good, average day’s work. My own experience in superintending
the work of tree-planting on the Main Line of the St. Paul & Pacific
railroad for several years, and on amore extensive scale than had hith-
erto been executed in Minnesota, had fully convinced me of the necessity

_ of disabusing the public in this regard.

The tree-planting crew of the St. Paul and Pacific road, had for years

averaged two thousand cuttings, or one thousand trees per man per day,

-and on extra occasions when it became necessary to save stock, which
was in a perishing condition, they had doubled that, and on Arbor day
of 1875, some of those boys planted between nine thousand and ten
thousand cuttings each, a feat never before to my knowledge surpassed,
yet the action of the association in offering so many premiums for this
sort of work on Arbor day, has fairly eclipsed the performances of my
old crew, in whom I took so much pride, and raised the standard to
about where it should be.

The men who can plant ten thousand cuttings each in a day, are by
no means, scarce in Minnesota.

The action of this association has also developed the fact, that there
are plenty of boys from ten to fifteen years old, who, on Arbor day,
planted from one thousand to seven thousand five hundred cuttings
each, and that several children less than ten years old, planted from
five hundred to one thousand each. Having thus in one year educated
the people to about what they can do in this direction, the necessity of
placing so many premiums for Arbor day performances, is not so press-
ing, and the great bulk of the premiums hereafter to be offered should

154 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

be to parties doing the greatest amount of work during the entire plant-
ing season.

When we take into consideration that many hundred thousand trees
are now standing in Minnesota, which will yield from half a cord to
one and a half cords each, have been grown from cuttings and from
seedlings, within from ten to twenty years, we see the great propriety of
encouraging the children by the award of such premiums as will add
new interest to the work; and when we take into further consideration
the unwelcome truth that nearly or quite one-third of the finest agricul-
tural lands in Minnesota, amounting to not much less than twelve mil-
lions of acres, are so destitute of timber, as not at the present time to
afford much over an acre of timber to a quarter section of prairie, we
begin to realize the fact that tree-planting to that portion of the State,is like
the religion of Christ to the impenitent sinner, “the one thing needful.”
That vast region of prairie, with a soil “as black as ink,” interspersed
with running streams, lovely lakes and natural meadows of the finest
native grasses, evidently designed by the Creator, as one of the great
granaries of the world, can only be made habitable for dense communi-
ties except through the intervention of the tree-planter. A few nomadic
settlemente can now prosper by stock-growing in spite of the grasshop-
per, but its present lack of timber forbids general settlement and cultiva-
tion, and I fully endorse the sentiment of Prof. Lacy, that it is “cruel
inhumanity” for the State to allure the immigrant into this region,
without, at the same time doing its full part in the great work of render-
ing this undeveloped region habitable for human beings.

I think I am not putting it too strong in saying, that a very large pro-
portion of the settlers now trying to develope that region will be com-
pelled to abandon it within another decade, unless they soon commence
a general, comprehensive and intelligent system of forest culture.

The chief aim of the State Forestry Association is the ultimate redemp-
tion of this region. In the terse language of the president of our asso-
ciation, “ the prairie must be conquered.”

I have deferred making this report tol now on account of many
claims for premiums by contestants who have not in their returns com-
plied with the rules and regulations of this association.

Section 1 of the act of March 2d, 1876, clearly indicates that all moneys ~
pele on premiums are to be awarded in accordance with rules and regu-

ations to be adopted by this association. In conformity with this
requirement, the State Forestry Association, at its meeting in March last,
in making out a premium list, also made and adopted the following

Rules and Regulations.

1st.—No trees or cuttings planted as above to be allowed to contest
for any of above premiums, except such as are alive and in a healthy
growing condition, and showing evidence of care and cultivation in the
month of October next after Arbor Day.

2d.—Each competitor to plant his own trees, but in case of sickness or
unavoidable absence on Arbor Day, he can employ a substitute.

3d.—All trees, cuttings or seeds to. produce the trees to compete for
above prizes must be planted on Arbor Day, (except otherwise men-
tioned), by the competitor or such substitnte as he may employ, and
the plantation for competition must not average less than 2,500 nor
more than 4,356 trees to an acre.

4th.—The competitor must count his trees and cuttings and send

FoRHST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 155 /

report of number planted to the secretary of this association on or before
the first day of June next.

5th.—The competitor must, in the month of October next succeeding
Arbor Day, in the presence of two witnesses, count his trees, (counting
only such as are alive,) and make affidavit before a justice of the peace,
or any officer authorized to administer oaths, as to the following matters:

A.—Whole number of trees planted last Arbor Day and now alive.

B.—Name and number of each kind. ~

-C.—How planted.

D.—How cultivated.

E.—Cost of plantation.

F.—Average size of each species.

And such affidavit shall be certified to by both witnesses of the count;
and the officer administering the oath shall certify to the identity and
credibility of the competitor and his witnesses.

6th.—All trees planted to compete for these premiums are to be for
permanent belts or groves and not to sell, except as they may be neces-
sarily thinned out. when they may have become crowded.

_7th.—The affidavits prescribed above to be forwarded to the secretary
at St. Paul, by the first day of December next after the count of the
trees.

8th.—No clubbing or joining of timber plantations upon lands owned
by different parties, for the purpose of securing the premiums, will be
allowed; every tub must stand on its own bottom.

9th.—Premiums will be awarded at the annual session of the associa-
tion, commencing on the second Tuesday of January next after receipt
of affidavits, and paid to order of party to whom awarded.

For the purpose of obtaining statistics of timber planting, for public
information, all persons not competing for the above premiums, who
may make tree plantations, are requested to furnish the following points
of information to the secretary, in return for which bhey, will be given a
copy of the transactions of this association:

1st.—Acres planted, or rods of trees in line planted.

2d.—Kinds, and number of each kind.

3d.—How many lived and grew well.

4th.—Cost of plantation.

To which append name and address.

Three thousand copies of the premium list, with the rules and regula-
tions as above, were printed and distributed to every portion of the
State during the month of March last.

At the annual session of the association, held at the capitol, com-
mencing on the second Tuesday of January last, for the purpose of
awarding premiums, it was found that a considerable number of con-
testants for premiuns, had, in making their returns, wholly ignored the
established rules and regulations of the association. As there was
nothing on the face of such returns indicating fraud, but rather evidence
that the statements and returns had been made by parties to whom such
-work was new and unaccustomed, the committee on awards decided to
extend the time for revising and correcting such imperfect returns, to
the first of March next, and that the claims of all contestants failing
to correct and perfect their statements in conformity with the rules and
regulations of the association, by the time aforesaid, should then cease
and be considered void and worthy of no further consideration.

The amount of money actually awarded and paid over as county

156 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

premiums, on claims made in accordance with the rules and regulations,
is two hundred and fifty-eight dollars. The amount which is liable to
be paid out on account of the suspended claims heretofore referred to,
cannot be definitely stated at the present time, but will probably not
exceed five hundred dollars.

In the matter of obtaining the centennial medals and badges as pre-
miums for the young tree planters, I found, on diligent application to
the subject in hand, that such medals as would be at all appropriate or
characteristic would have to be manufactured for the association. The
next question to decide was, whether to have this work done by one of
our own citizens and within our borders or in Chicago. I ascertained
that the work could be done as well in St. Paul as in Chicago, and at no
greater cost.

I accordingly contracted with Mr. A. EK. Melgren, of St. Paul, for the
manufacture of not less than three hundred dollars’ worth of medals
and badges for premiums for tree planting. By the terms of the contract,
the medals and badges were to be delivered to the association ready for
distribution prior to the annual meeting of the association in January.

A silver medal of coin standard, of the size of an American dollar, of
appropriate and characteristic design, each medal to have a hole drilled
through it, with ribbon and case, and to have the name of the person to
whom awarded engraved on one side of said medal, and a wreath of
forest leaves to encircle the name to be stamped in circle and at the
outer edge. On the reverse side the words: “Minnesota State Forestry
Association, 1876,” stamped in circle near the outer edge of the medal,
and within this the figure of an oak tree. Such medal to be furnished
as above for two dollars each. A copper medal exactly like the silver
medal, and struck from the same die, to be furnished for seventy-five
cents each. Acorn badges, of coin silver, to be mounted with pins so as
to be worn as convenience might dictate, to be furnished for one dollar
each. Acorn badges, the acorn of gold, mounted as above, for one dol-
lar and twenty-five cents each.

It is to be borne in mind that the award of this work to Mr. Melgren
was virtually the inauguration of a new manufacturing interest in Min-
nesota. Dies had to be made, a new and powerful press had to be man-
ufactured. Early in January the stamping of the medals had com-
menced, but the accidental breakage of the press has delayed the
completion of the job.

As the outlay of Mr. Melgren in obtaining the proper machinery for
the manufacture of the aforesaid medals and badges was largely in
excess of the entire amount of his contract, the association advanced
him two hundred dollars to commence with, and are to pay him the
remaining one hundred dollars on completion of the job.

An estimate of the money disbursed, or liable soon to be disbursed, by
the Minnesota State Forestry Association, would read about as follows:

Amount awarded and paid for premiums at the annual meeting, . . . . $258 00
Amount to be paid in premiums on suspended claims, say ...... - 500 00
Amount paid A. EK. Melgren for medals and badges, - ......... 300 00

$1,058 00

Leaving an unexpended balance of the appropriation of March 2nd,
1876, of probably about $1,442. In this connection, and just at this
point, it is proper to say that the appropriation of March 2d, 1876, was,
by the terms of the act, so tied up as to prevent the association from

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 157

using any portion of said appropriation for any other purpose than that
of paying premiums. Nota dollar could be used for the publication of
pamphlets on forest culture for gratuitous distribution among the peo-
ple, not a dollar for the purchase of young trees and cuttings for gratu-
itous distribution among people of the treeless region, who are anxious
and willing to plant, but who, owing to the successive grasshopper raids,
are unable to expend money for such purpose, in short, not even a dol-
lar for postage stamps and stationery or any other necessary expense of
the association All such expenses had to be incurred and paid, and the
association has so far, by the voluntary contributions of its members,
furnished the money for all its operating expenses, except for premiums.

This voluntary cash outlay for incidental and unavoidable running
expenses, which the association was compelled to make, in order to
accomplish any of its purposes, (without which it might as well have
- disbanded at the outset,) includes the payment for printing and circu-
lating one hundred and twenty thousand pages of printed matter on the
subject of forestry; for printing and distributing three thousand large
hand bills, containing premium list and rules and regulations of the
association ; for publishing articles of incorporation, and for the station-
ery and postage to enable the secretary of the association to keep up its
correspondence, which has involved the writing and answering of over
four hundred letters, on the subject of forestry in Minnesota.

Among the reports and letters received by the association from parties
engaged in forest culture in various portions of the State, are many that
of too much practical and permanent value to remain in obscurity.
They should be published for the instruction and encouragement of
others who are now making their first attempts in forest culture in Min-
nesota.

The various essays, addresses and other papers of great practiacl
value, which have been prepared and written at a large outlay of valu-
able time by gentlemen who have the welfare of the State at heart, are
voluntary contributions to the science of forestry. For all this outlay
of time and of money in preparing and publishing this kind of infor-
mation for gratuitous distribution among the people of Minnesota, the
State has so far never contributed a dollar. It cannot reasonably be
expected that this great work can much longer be upheld and success-
fully carried on by the voluntary contributions of a handful of public
spirited citizens. They have exemplified their faith by their works, and
have demonstrated, beyond cavil or doubt, the practicability and impor-
tance of the work. .

The Minnesota State Forestry Association is the pioneer institution for
reclaiming and rendering habitable and productive the last great tract
of fertile agricultural lands to which we can point the tide of emigra-
tion. It is comparatively an easy task to turn an immense tide of
immigration to that fertile region; but without fuel, or timber, or shade,
or shelter, can we keep them there? That’s the question.

This association, if liberally aided by the State, cannot only draw the
emigrant to this fertile but treeless region, but can keep him there by
aiding and teaching him to render his new home pleasant, attractive and
in every way desirable.

No small outlay of time, labor or money is so sure to be attended
with satisfactory results as in tree planting. The man who, by his intel-
ligent foresight, has raised a beautiful grove of forest trees around his
house and stock yard, has not only doubled the value of his farm, but

158 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

has become so attached to that homestead as not to abandon it for trivial.
or imaginary causes. He is going to stay there.

Of the hundred boys and girls of the treeless region, who have earned
their centennial: medal or badge this past season, at least nine-tenths of
them will do better from year to year, if only encouraged.

Every medal or badge so distributed becomes at once a preacher, a
missionary of tree planting. The one solitary boy out in Cottonwood,
or Brown, or Stevens or any other treeless county, who has earned his
silver medal or badge, shows it to all his playmates and acquaintances,
and next season, instead of one boy hesitating, doubtfully taking hold
of the good work, a dozen or may be a hundred resolute little fellows
are eager and ready to “pitch in.” Is there any better way to utilize
and turn to good account this immense and irrepressible force of Min-
nesota’s share of Young America?

We do not ask, or even expect aid enough from the State this year to
utilize and put into operation this immense power, but we do expect
some little aid in this direction.

There is probably no branch of industry where the intelligent and
correct application of common sense is more necessary to produce profit-
able results than in agriculture, horticulture and forestry. Nearly all
the failures that have occurred in tree planting are primarily the result
of either ignorance or heedlessness.

There is no more use of losing trees or cuttings from drought, than
in losing wheat or corn from the same cause. When such losses do
occur the planter is nine times out of ten more to blame than the weather.

We need money to publish ten thousand copies of a small pamphlet
giving the tree planter such correct and practical information as will
enable him to do his work correctly, and consequently, successfully.

The St. Paul & Pacific Railroad Company having, through its changed
management, abandoned tree planting, have donated millions of cut-
tings and young trees to this association for distribution among the peo-
ple of the treeless region. We need aid in rendering this donation of
any value, aid to pay the actual cost of preparing the cuttings, and dig-
ging the trees and shipping. A little aid now rendered by the State will
enable us to place hundreds of thousands of cuttings and young trees
in the hands of worthy men, who would, in transforming them into
groves, wind breaks and land marks, render back to the State, in a short
time, full value, pressed down and running over. The good results we
can accomplish are only limited by the amount we receive from the
State.

The association has carefully considered the question of how small
an amount will enable them to make reasonable progress in the work in
hand, and through their executive committee have placed the amount
to be asked for of the Legislature at two thousand dollars, in addition
to the unexpended balance of the appropriation of 1876.

It is to be borne in mind that this is a new organization, and on trial
before the State. It has a reputation to make for usefulness ; for ability
to meet its promises, and for prudent and economical management. Its
premium list, when circulated last spring, called forth in numerous
instances, the remark, that like the State Agricultural Society, the asso-
ce would prove a failure, and that its premiums would never be
paid. |
We point to our first year’s record with an honest pride; our pre-
miums are being paid off as fast as claims for payment are substantiated ;

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 159

every obligation of the association has been met at maturity, with the
same promptness that for many years has characterized its prominent
members in their individual capacity. When we can no longer meet
our obligations with absolute certainty, we will close up the concern
before any one has an opportunity to lose a dollar.

We have abundant reason to believe, that the competition for such
premiums as this association may offer the coming spring, will be con-
tested with an eagerness and energy worthy of the cause, and that every
dollar awarded by this association can be likened unto seed sowed on
good ground, bringing forth an hundred fold. The direct effects of
forest-culture, (I might more properly say, the immediate results,) are
well illustrated in the case of the First Division of the St. Paul & Pacifie
railroad company, as exemplified on its main line. At the time tree—
planting was commenced on said line, in the spring of 1873, by order of
Geo. L. Becker, then president of said railroad company, emigration to
either railroad or government land on that line, west of Willmar, was
small; in fact, for some months after the memorable storm of January
7th, 8th and 9th, 1873, more people abandoned that region than moved
into it. I well remember the persevering efforts of the land commis-
sioner of said company in endeavoring to get his share of what little
emigration the State was getting at that time--how difficult it was to
get any one to go westof Kandiyohi county; how he called my attention
to his original plan of “ sectional farming,” giving the settler time to
break an entire section of six hundred and forty acres, and raise three
crops on it without any cash payment—charging no interest, and taking
full payment for the land out of the third crop; and how, with all his
labor and planning, and advertising, the railroad lands did’nt go off like
hot cakes. And then, in March, 1876, when his department was taxed
to its utmost capacity, when he was selling more lands than any land
grant railroad in the United States, he came into my office one day, and
in his quiet, kind way, says to me, “ Mr. Hodges, I wish to do vou the
justice, to say that your tree-planting on our main line, is the best
advertisement of the company’s lands we have ever had, and is now
worth more to us than all the money we have expended for advertising.”
From that date up to the grasshopper invasion of July last, no such
rushing tide of emigration has been witnessed in Minnesota since 1857,
as poured over the main line, from February to July, 1876. The Saint
Paul and Pacific Railroad First Division Company, sold more land in
1875, than any other land-grant company in the United States, and when
I remark, that tree-planting on that line contributed as much or more,
than any other agency in producing such satisfactory result, ] am saying '
no more than the facts warrant. I mention this, that the State may avail
itself of any agency in peopling our broad prairies, that the Dutch
bond-holding interest fails to comprehend.

Congressional Timber-culture Act.

Before closing this report, J am compelled by the condition of exist-
ing facts, to call your attention to the actual workings of the timber-
culture act. Although repeatedly amended to meet the needs of the
people and the country it seeks to benefit, candor compels me to say, it
is not yet in good working order. As briefly as possible, I will point
out some of the defects. First, it is requiring more of the settler than
he is able to accomplish. The resultis,in a very large majority of cases
the law is not complied with any farther than to file the claim in the

160 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

land office, pay the entry fee and break ten acres. By this time the |
settler begins to realize the nature of the contract he has undertaken to
execute. He now sees clearly that he is too poor to do the work as it
should be done. He begins to evade the plain intent and spirit of the
law, in the painful economy of time and labor, he can so poorly afford
to expend. Not that he wishes to defraud the government, or shirk his
responsibilities, but rather from an inadequate realization of what must
be done, and a natural desire to save what he has invested, and can so
poorly afford to loose, leads him into such crooked practice as we see on
nine-tenths of the quarter-sections held under the provisions of this act.
Another defect in the law, is in the extreme facility land can be held by
parties who make the claim, with no serious intention of planting any
trees, but simply to do a little breaking and take his chances in selling
his interest in it, in the course of the two years he can hold it,
for a profit. In this way, and aided by extensions of time, granted on
account of destruction by grasshoppers and other unavoidable accidents,
large quantities of’ very dssirable government land is prevented from
being occupied and improved by actual settlers. Thousands of acres of
government lands are thus held, free of costs or taxes, and I see no
difficulty ina company of ingenious operators, doing an extensive real-
estate business under the workings of this act, for quite an extended
and indefinite period of time. Another defect in the Congressional Tim-
ber-culture Act, is the clause permitting the trees to be planted “ not
more than twelve feet apart each way.”

This is a very serious defect, and of itself, virtually defeats the objects
and purposes of the act. Nature shows as plainly how forests are
grown, and it is folly on the part of Congress to evade or repeal natural
laws governing the growth of forests. Nature plants thickly, pays no
regard to the permission of Congress to plant so wide of the mark as
twelve feet apart each way, and succeeds. In her own way she grows
more timber and better timber on ten acres, than the settler can in the
mode indicated by Congress, on forty acres, and at a tithe of the expense.
To illustrate—forty acres planted twelve feet apart each way, must be
thoroughly cultivated during the growing season of each year, until the
growing trees have attained such proportions as to shade and mulch the
ground. It requires the constant daily labor of the settler during the
growing season, from May to August. The parties sought to be benefited
by the act, are too poor to give so large a portion of their time to the
work. The “ human necessity for daily bread” compels their attention
to the care of growing crops upon which existence depends. It is a
notable fact, that thus far, the only successful and genuine cases of tree-
planting under the provisions of this act, that have come under my
notice, are those where the planter has been financially able to plant
closely. Say, on an average of four feet apart each way.

A forest so planted, with prompt and thorough cultivation for three
years, is a success—the chief cost is terminated in three years from
planting; the young trees make a straight, upright, vigorous growth ;—
they soon cover and ‘shade the ground so thoroughly, as to effectually
prevent tne growth of weeds or grass among the trees, and the annual
mulching from the falling foliage keeps the ground moist and friable,
obviating the necessity of cultivation, and promotes the “ healthy, grow-
ing condition ” which the act of Congress very properly requires.

On the other hand, the evasions of the law are painfully conspicuous.
In. many instances, strips of breaking, three or four feet wide, parallel

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 161

with each other, are either planted with tree seeds or cuttings, so as to
bring them within distance allowed by law. The planting is usually
done in the raw sod—left without care or cultivation, smothered in rank
weeds and grass, and swept over by successive prairie fires. It is
difficult to employ language sufficiently vigorous In denouncing such
childish folly. It is as idle to expect to grow successfully a crop of
forty acres of forest-trees without first breaking every foot of the forty
acres, then followed after the decomposition of the sod, by thorough
ploughing and repeated harrowing, as it would be to expect to grow a
paying crop of corn by digging post-holes twelve feet apart each way on
the unbroken prairie, and dropping the seed therein. A modification
of the timber-culture act, requiring the settler to plant not less than
2,700 trees per acre, instead of 3800 per acre, and ten acres instead of
forty acres, would accomplish the objects and purposes contemplated by
the framers of the act, and in time, prove an incalculable blessing to the
treeless wastes of the western and north-western States and territories.
I trust the action of the Lac qui Parle county agricultural society will
be followed up by similar societies in the treeless regions of the north-
west, that the legislatures of the different States interested therein, will
take such action in the premises as will compel the favorable action of
Congress in this behalf.

The law to be available and productive of the greatest good to the
people and to the country, should be so amended as to allow all who
have already made claims under its provisions to be allowed to plant
ten acres instead of forty; to plant not more than four feet apart each
way, to be planted within four years; two and a half acres the second
year ; two and a half acres the third year, and five acres the fourth year.
To compel the claimant to report the actual condition of his timber
plantation annually, to the register of the land office of the district in
which the land is located. He should be, by the terms of the act, com-
pelled to do his work in a thorough and workmanlike manner, to keep
the ground well and thoroughly cultivated, until such time as the growth
and development of trees shall have rendered such further cultivation
impracticable and unnecessary. And he should be required to fill all
vacancies occurring from any cause within one year; such report to be
_ verified by the affidavit of the claimant, and also, by the afhdavits of
two competent and disinterested witnesses, failing in which, the land
should be open to settlement by other parties.

It is urged, in objection to such modifications of the timber-culture
act, that Congress never would consent to give away sixteen acres of
land for the planting of one acre of timber.

Now, this objection brings up one more modification, and that is, to
make the provisions of the act cover every quarter-section of govern-
ment prairie land within the limits of what is universally recognized as
the “treeless region,” instead as now, only every fourth quarter section.

Such legislation would, in a few years,so change the condition of that
region as to render it for all time a selt-supporting, revenue-producing
region. The homes and the breeding places, and the hatching grounds
of the red-legged migratory grasshopper, and of the red-skinned and
migratory Sioux, would be invaded by an army of occupation come
there to stay, and the ultimate results would be the settlement not only
of the timber question, but of the grasshopper question, of the Indian
problem, and of every variety of land grant schemes. Could Congress,
by any other method, so dispose of this worse than a great blank on the
map to any better advantage to the country at large? 11

162 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

A grove of ten acres of forest-timber on every quarter-section of gov-
ernment prairie land would change this desolate region into a veritable
garden, “the wilderness and the solitary place would rejoice and be glad
thereof,” and the climatic changes resulting therefrom, would be wide- ~
spreading and of incalculable value. |

An act of the legislature of Minnesota, approved February 20th, 1873,
entitled “ An act to encourage the planting and growing of timber and
shade trees,” offers an annual bounty of two dollars an acre, and two
dollars for each half mile or more of forest-trees planted along any
public highway. Stimulated by this offer, numerous parties have in
good faith planted and cultivated groves of timber, and have adorned
the public highways with thousands of forest-trees. The law has been
largely used by railroad companies and others, as an inducement to
draw emigration to the treeless portion of the State, and in many
instances, with good effect. Yet, parties who have been induced by the
terms of this act to invest their time and money in tree-planting, after
three years of patient labor and waiting, are coolly informed that there
is, in no way, for them to get their promised bounty. I submit that
such legislation is due these parties as will enable the State to keep its
solemn promises and promptly redeem its pledges. As it now stands on
our statutes, it is a fraud; a delusion, and a snare to the unwary tree-
planter, and a disgrace to the State. Itexpires by its own limitations
within tive years from its passage. Good faith to the men who have
been induced by its promised bounties, demands prompt action from
the present session of the legislature.

GovERNoR.—In behalf of the Minnesota State Forestry Association,
of which you are a member, in behalf of the poor, shivering, hungry
pioneer settlers, living in sod cabins, in board shanties and in holes in
the earth, I thank you for the interest you have manifested in the objects
of this association, and for the kind words of encouragement you have
used in your annual messages, in commending this work to the consid-
eration of the legislature.

Very respectfully,
. LronarD B. Honpcss,
Sec’y Minnesota State Forestry Association.

Saint Paul, Feb. 9th, 1877.

RELATIONS OF FORESTS TO WATER SUPPLY.

Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen:

“Plant trees” is the injunction we hear from almost every quarter of the civil-
ized world. The Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture now offers
prizes for planting trees in a State in which the wanton destruction of forests has
proceeded almost for centuries.

The people of the United States, having thinned the forests of the Appalachian
slopes, find beyond them a vast territory destitute of forests, and offer to give it
to those who will plant one quarter of it to trees.

The State of Iowa gives a certain exemption from taxation for the planting of
trees, and her Horticultural Society offers premiums for the encouragement of the
same work.

The State of California offers premiums for the same purpose, and Nebraska
has its “Arbor Day.” Minnesota has laws encouraging the same work in a similar
manner, and a Forestry Association is devoting its energies toward the same end.

Editors and writers in agricultural papers, teachers and fruit growers are con-
stant in their appeals to plant forests and protect from waste those we now haye.

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 163

Our friend Hodges for years has pressed upon our attention the necessity of
planting trees in Minnesota.

Met on every side by these appeals, we ask, “What is the use of planting
trees?” Have forests anything to do with the moral, physical or pecuniary
interests of men? Do they mitigate or correct any evils? Do they confer any
benefits or exert any beneficial influence?

We may approach these questions by ascertaining the objections urged against
certain sections of country, by noting the unfavorable reports and the appeals
that reach our ears from different parts of the inhabited world.

Talk to the immigrant about settling in the prairie counties west of the Big
Woods, and if he knows anything of that treeless region, he will probably object:

1) That the winds are too violent.

2) That there is no wood for fuel, and no material for fencing.

3) That the landscape is too dreary and monotonous—there are no trees to
give it a home-like appearance; it is too lonesome.

5 That it is too cold out there.

(5) That you cannot raise fruit there.

Talk to him of some places, and he will object:

(6) That they are unhealthy.

Reports come to us:

(7) That the forests that now supply us with lumber for building and manufac-
turing purposes, are fast melting away before the woodsman’s axe.

(8) The reports of destructive insect invasions have not yet ceased to vibrate
in our ears.

Every year we hear:

(9) Of hail storms doing extensive injuries.

(10) Of floods and freshets carrying away bridges and dwellings, and destroy-
ing growing crops and human life.

I1) Of the injurious effects of long continued drought.

(12) Of the substitution of improved water wheels for those that formerly gave
sufficient power, and finally the complete substitution of steam for water power
in mills and manufactories.

Every year we listen to:

(13) Appeals for the improvement of commercial water routes.

All these objections, reports and appeals indicate imperfections that are com-
monly supposed to be without natural remedy ; but it is claimed for forests, and
with good reason too, that they are the natural remedy for some of these imper-
fections, and the natural means of relief in the case of others. It is claimed for
forests that they

(1) Break the force and meet the fury of the winds, and thus afford shelter
and protection to man and beast.

(2) That they supply fuel and material for fencing.

(3) That they give a home-like character to the prairie that is otherwise dreary
and monotonous.

(4) That they mitigate the cold of winter and the heat of summer.

(5) That they improve the conditions for fruit growing.

(6) That they improve the sanitary character of some localities.

(7) That they supply lumber for building and manufacturing purposes.

(8) That they diminish insect injuries, and

(9) The injuries of hail storms.

It is claimed that forests affect favorably the water supply of a region:

(10) Diminish the destructive effects of freshets,

(11) Diminish the injurious effects of drought,

(12) Increase the flow of springs,

(13) Equalize the quantity of water in our mill and navigable streams, and

(14) Distribute the rainfall throughout the year.

It has been abundantly shown, in this and other States, that trees can be grown,
in large numbers or in small, on any soil that will produce ordinary. farm crops.
This is all that is required to establish several of the above claims. Every one
has observed the capacity of trees:

(1) To break the force of winds,

(2) To supply fuel and material for fencing,

(3) To furnish lumber for building and manufacturing.

All who have traveled over the prairies know how welcome is the sight of

164 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

a belt or group of trees. and how much more habitable and home-like is a house
surrounded with trees than one standing alone.

(4) If forests break the force of winds, we are prepared to understand how they
mitigate the cold, for we all know how much colder it seems in windy than in’
calm weather. Some of you have noticed the difference in passing from forest to
open country. Firemen on railway trains observe that additional fuel is required
to keep up steam on passing from wooded into prairie regions.

(5) If forests break the force of winds and modify the cold of winter, they cer-
tainly improve the conditions for the growth of fruit. Horticulturists are pretty
well agreed upon the value of a protecting forest, either natural or artificial. f

(6) Ina paper read before the American Public Health Association, last fall,
Dr. Geo. L. Andrew reached, among other conclusions, the following: that “forests
and tree-belts are of undoubted value in preventing the dissemination of mal-
aria;” that “trees are of positive sanitary value in affording shelter from the
excessive heat of the sun, from the violence of winds, and in promoting esthetic
culture ;” that in some cases “extensive tree planting is not unaccompanied with
evil.”

(8) There is little doubt but that forests diminish insect injuries. Insects do not
multiply so rapidly in and near the woods, for there the birds, the consumers of
insects, build their nests and find protection. Marsh says: “It is only since the
felling of the forests of Asia Minor and Cyrene that the locust has become so
fearfully destructive in those countries.” It is pretty well established too, that

the native breeding places of our locust are barren plains and not forest covered
regions. I think it has been found, too. that the locust plague is less severe in
and near forests than on the open prairies. There is good evidence to the effect
that (8) forests render hail storms less frequent and severe. Hail storms on the
plains of Lombardy are believed to be more frequent than before the clearing of
the forests on the Alps and Appenines, and in several other provinces of Europe
hail storms are believed to be more frequent and destructive since the clearing of
the forests in their vicinity.

I fear I have presumed greatly on your patience in presenting this lengthy
introduction before entering on the more lengthy discussion of the relations of
forests to water supply.

This topic embraces, first, the influence of forests on rainfall and evaporation,
including the influence on droughts; and second, the influence of forests on drain
age, including the influence on springs, streams and lakes.

One word as to the character of our knowledge on this subject. It is not abso-
lutely perfect. Itis not entirely beyond doubt or question. We observe certain
facts in connection with certain other facts, but we are not positive that one is the
cause of the other. We observe springs ceasing to flow and streams diminishing
and this keeping steady pace with the destruction of the forests. We confidently
believe the destruction of the forests causes the diminished water supply, but this
result may possibly be caused by geological changes in the crust of the earth.

Hence the evidence I shall present you will consist in part of the convictions
of men best qualified by their study of the subject to judge ; in part of observed
facts which may possibly admit of question or of different explanations ; and in
part of experiments which appear to be, and probably are, correct and reliable ;
and, we may add, the support of our knowledge relating to the laws and condi-
tions of rainfall and evaporation.

In advance I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to the volume entitled
“Man and Nature” by Hon Geo. P. Marsh, in which I find the fullest discussion of
this subject, and from which I have quoted copiously in the following pages.

THE RELATIONS OF FORESTS TO RAINFALL.

RBoussingault, a noted French authority on rural subjects, quotes another French
writer who says “that at Malta rain has become so rare, since the woods were
cleared to make room for the growth of cotton, that at the time of his visit in
October, 1841, not a drop of rain had fallen for three years.” Boussingault further
savs. “The terrible droughts which desolate the Cape Verd Islands, must also be
attributed to the destruction of forests. In the Island of St. Helena, where the
wooded surface has considerably extended within a few years, it has been obser-
ved that the rain has increased in the same proportion. It is now in quantity
double what it was during the residenceof Napoleon. In Egypt recent plantations

oe

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 165

have caused rains which hitherto were aimost unknown.” But in commenting
on this testimony, Marsh says we have no evidence that Malta ever had any for-
ests. In 1611 there were few trees there but such as bear fruit. The other state-
ments referred to, have not been questioned.
Schacht, a German writer, draws the following reasonable conclusions from well
known facts: “The forest, presenting a considerable surface for evaporation
gives to its own soil and to all the adjacent ground an abundant and enlivening
dew. * * * * This increased deposition of dew on the neighboring fields, is
partly due to the forests themselves; for the dense, saturated strata of air which

- hover over the woods, descend in cool, calm evenings, like clouds to the valley,

and in the morning beads of due sparkle on the leaves of the grass and the flowers
of the field.”

Caultas, reasoning from established facts, thus concludes: “The ocean, winds
and woods may be regarded as the several parts of a grand distillatory apparatus.
The sea is the boiler in which vapor is raised by the solar heat, the winds are the
guiding tubes which carry the vapor with them to the forests where a lower tem-
perature prevails. This naturally condenses the vapor, and showers of rain are
thus distilled from the cloud masses which float in the atmosphere, by the woods
beneath them.” This may sound like a pretty fancy but concerning many of the
facts there is not a particle of question. Thesea, together with lakes is the boiler
from which arises the vapor which later forms the rain falling on our fields.
The winds are the guiding tubes which carry this vapor and distribute it over the
earth. Reason and experiment both prove that in summer forests do make the.
air in and about them cooler than in the open country. And itis beyond ques-
tion, too, that this cooling influence is exactly what is wanted to cause the fall of .
rain. But the doubtful point is whether this influence of the forest is ever act-
ually sufficient to cause a fall of rain that would not otherwise occur.

Sir John F. W. Herschel, enumerates among “the influences unfavorable to rain,
absence of vegetation in warm climates, and especially of tree. This is, no
doubt, “ continues he,” one of the causes of the extreme aridity of Spain. The
hatred of a Spaniard toward a tree, is proverbial. Many districts in France have
been materially injured by denudation, and, on the other hand, rain has become
more frequent in Egypt, since the more vigorous cultivation of the palm tree.”

“Hohenstein remarks: ‘With respect to the temperature in the forest, I have
already observed, that at certain times of the day and of the year, it is less than
in the open field. Hence, the woods may,in the day time,in summer and
toward the close of winter, tend to increase the fall of rain ; but it is otherwise in
summer nights, and at the beginning of winter, when there is a higher temper-
ature in the forest, which is not favorable to that effect. * * * * The wood
is, further, like the mountain, a mechanical obstruction to the motion of rain-
clouds, and, as it checks them in their course, it gives them occasion to deposit.
their water. These considerations render it probable that the forest increases
the quantity of rain ; but they do not establish the certainty of this conclusion.”

Barth, after describing the conditions of soil and atmosphere produced by
forests, says: Thus,a constant evaporation is produced, which keeps the forest
atmosphere moist, even in long droughts, when all other sources of humidity in
the forest itself, are dried up. * * * * Little is required to compel the
stratum of air resting upon a wood to give up its moisture, which thus, as rain,
fog, or dew, is returned to the forest. * * * * *,. The warm, moist currents -
of air, which come from other regions are cooled as they approach the wood, by
its less heated atmosphere, and obliged to let fall the humidity with which they
are charged. * * * * *. In consequence of these relations of the forest to
humidity, it follows that wooded districts have both more frequent and more
abundant rain, and, in general, are more humid, than woodless regions ; for, what
is true of the woods themselves, in this respect, is true, also, of their treeless
neighborhood. * * * *. When the districts stripped of trees, have long been
deprived of rain and dew, * * * * and the grass and the fruits of the field
are ready to wither, the grounds which are surrounded by woods, are green and
flourishing.” This, you will observe, is a purely theoretical conclusion.

Asbjornsen, who, like the last, is a Scandinavian writer, says: “The narratives
of travellers show the deplorable consequences of felling the woods in the Island
of Trinidad. Martinique, San Domingo, and, indeed, in almost the entire West
Indian group. * * * * In Palestine, and many other parts of Asia and
Northern Africa, which, in ancient times, were the granaries of Europe, fertile
and populous, similar consequences haye been experienced. These lands are

166 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

_ how deserts, and it is the destruction of the forests alone which has produced
this desolation. * * *. In Southern France, many districts have, from the
same cause, become barren wastes of stone, and the cultivation of the vine and
the olive has suffered severely since the baring of the neighboring mountains.
Since the extensive clearings between the Spree and the Oder, the inhabitants
complain that the clover crop is much less productive than before. On the other
hand, examples of the beneficial influence of planting and restoring the woods
are not wanting. In Scotland, where many miles square have been planted with
trees, the effect has been manifest, and similar observations have been made in
several places in Southern France. In Lower Egypt, both at Cairo, and near
Alexandria, rain rarely fell in considerable quantity—for example, during the
French occupation of Egypt, about 1798, it did not rain for sixteen months; but
since Mehemet Ali and Abrahim Pacha, executed their vast plantations, * * *
there, now, falls a good deal of rain, especially along the coast, in the months of
November, December and January, and even at Cairo, it rains both oftener and
more abundantly, so that real showers are no variety.”
Babinet, a French writer, says: “The forests of the Vasges and Ardennes,
produce the same effect,’ (increased rain-fall), “in the north-east of France, and
send us a great river, the Meuse, which is as remarkable for its volume as for the
small extent of its basin. Babinet repeats the suggestion of Mignet, that, to
produce a rain, a forest was as good as a mountain,” and he adds, “this is literally
true.”

Another French writer says: “For it is established that in wooded countries,
it rains oftener, and, that the quantity of rain being equal, they are more humid.”

Boussingault, who is an authority in agricultural science, thus sums up:—
‘“ Arguing from the meteorological facts collected in the agricultural regions, there
is reason to presume that clearings diminish the annual fall of rain.” And again
he says: “In my judgment, it is settled, that very large clearings must diminish
the anuual fall of rain in a country.

Marsh, also, gives us the other side of the story. Hesays: “On the other
hand, Faissac expresses the opinion, that forests have no influence on precipita-
tion, beyond that of promoting the deposit of dew in their vicinity, and he
states, as a fact of experience, that the planting of large vegetables, and especially
of tree, is a very efficient means of drying morasses, because the plants draw
from the earth a quantity of water larger than the average annual fall of rain.
Kloden, * * * * denied that the diminution of volume “(in the Oder and
Elbe),” is to be ascribed to a decrease of precipitation in consequence of the fell-
ing of the forests, and states, what other physicists confirm, that, during the same
period,” (since 1878,) “ meteorological records in various parts of Europe show
rather an augmentation than a reduction of rain.” Marsh also, giyes the obser-.
vations of Belgrond, which “tend to show, contrary to the general opinion, that
less rain falls in wooded than in denuded districts. Observations were made at
stations about eight miles apart in two valleys, believed to be alike in all respects,
except that one was entirely bare, the other well wooded. The rain-fall was as
follows:

Min.
For three cold months, inthe cleared valley .....-...... . .1797
ss H . S ee iwoodedks a. SCR ed MG ree nr amaic STi
“ five warm “ “ “cleared ~ “ 2 oe eee 3 Ee ene ene
"4 fa ef “ “wooded “ eV MeN ten UR Merinaree sre yatt % sc, L4KO VS
Marsh says: “This result is so contrary to what has been generally accepted

as a theoretical conclusion, that further experiment is required to determine the
question.” He thus sums up the whole subject of forest influence on rain-fall :
“The effect of the forest then is not entirely free from doubt, and we cannot,
positively affirm, that the total annual quantity of rain is diminished or increased
by the destruction of the woods, though both theoretical considerations and the
balance of testimony strongly favor of the opinion, that more rain falls in
wooded than in open countries. One important conclusion, at least, upon the
meteorological influence of forests, is certain and undisputed; the proposition,
namely, that, within their own limits, and near their own borders, they maintain
« more uniform degree of humidity in the atmosphere than is observed in the
cleared grounds. Scarcely less can it be questioned, that they promote the fre-
quency of showers, and, if they do not augment the amount of precipitation,
they equalize its distribution through the different seasons.”
From other sources, we gather some evidence. Prof. Mathiews, of the School

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 167

of Forestry, near Nancy, in France, has given the results of some experiments,
which have been translated by Hon. W. C. Flagg, of Illinois. For nearly three
years, the rain-fall was measured at two stations, about twelve miles apart, the
attitude, and all other conditions, so far as known, being the same, save, that one
was in the midst of a forest plateau, and the other in the midst of a farming
region. The rain-fall was as follows:

Last 8 months, 1866, forest plateau, 27.25} inches, farming region. . . . 23.254
Whole year. . 1867, “ 4 36.444“ % ihe a HO hast <1 BANOS
as crest: BOSE e, 29.483. “ zs Es, selaguy wet

A consecutive difference in favor of the forest plateau of 4 inches, 2} inches,
and 44 inches. A difference that would be considered conclusive proof by any
one that is acquainted with experiments of this nature. But, you remember
we did not accept, as final, the experiment giving a contrary result. So with this,
we must regard it simply as one link in the chain of evidence, albeit, a strong
one.

Careful and thoughtful observers in this country are almost unanimous in the
belief, that forests tend to a better distribution of the rain-fall, if they do not
actually augment it. Prof. Riley, a few years since in a horticultural convention,
expressed a doubt about the influence of forests on rain-fall, and could find no
one to agree with him.

Speaking of records of rain-fall, which he had prepared, Prof. F. B. Hough,
says: Although they reveal great irregularities in a series of years at any given

locality, they do not justify us in supposing that, in the general average of periods,
the amount is sensibly increasing or diminishing, although they do show, in some
_cases, greater tendencies to drouth for a series of years together, and often a more
unequal distribution of rain throughout the year. This growing tendency to
droughts and floods can be directly ascribed to the clearing up of wood-lands,
by which the rains quickly find their way into the streams, often swelling them
into destructive floods, instead of sinking into the earth to reappear as springs.”

The report of a congress of land and forest-cultivators, held in Vienna, after
naming many cases of the influence of forests on rain-fall already mentioned in

this paper, describes and mentions the following:’ Ismalia, upon the Suez canal,
was built upon a sandy desert; but since the ground has been saturated with
_water, trees, bushes and plants have grown, and with the appearance of
vegetation, the climate has changed. Four or five years ago, says the report, rain
was unknown in these regions; but in the year, from May, 1868, to May, 1869,
there were fourteen days of rain. So, also, near Trieste, a finely wooded district,
was destroyed by the Venetians, and twenty-five years ago rain had ceased to
fall; but, to save the country from total abandonment, the Austrian government
planted several millions of olive trees. It is stated, also, that the conversion of
the desert of Utah into a blooming country, has raised the Salt Lake seven feet
- above its old level. The volume of water in the Ohio, is stated to be evidently
diminishing. The same is true of the Hudson, upon which the extent of navi-
gable water is yearly receding. “I would ask you, can it be successfully denied
that the same thing is true of the Mississippi, and other streams of the State.
And if not, is there any better reason for it, than the destruction of the trees at
their rise, and and along their courses? Thus, it seems to me, is the influence of
forests on evaporation.

Every one knows that of the water falling as rain, a part sinks into the soil
and a part dries away. Whatis the influence of forests on the latter part?
Trees, themselves draw from the soil, through their roots large quantities of
water and exhale it in the form of vapor from their leaves. For large trees the
quantity exhaled is estimated at one, two and even three barrels daily when in
full growth. On the other hand the shade of the branches and foliage and the
coating of dead leaves on the surface of the ground by intercepting of the rays of

_ the sun and keeping the ground cool, retard very greatly direct evaporation from
the soil itself. Prof. Mathiew, carried his experiments to this point and he found
that the evaporation in the open field was four or five times as much as from the
forest. The same conditions, too, that retard evaporation, favor the absorption
and condensation of vapor from the air. But the retention and acquisition of
moisture by the soil, appears to be in excess of the loss by evaporation from the
soil and by exhalation from the leaves combined, for the soil of the forest itself
does not show the effects of drouth until long after cleared lands are dry and
parcheu. Forests certainly diminish evaporation from adjacent cleared lands,

168 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

The roots of the forest trees pump no. water from these grounds and the trees
diminish direct evaporation because they break the force of the winds and the
drying power of wind, air in motion above that of air at rest, is well known.
Thus at one end there is strong reason for believing that forests increase the fall
of rain, while at the other end, they certainly diminish the loss of water by evap-
oration. Such being the case forests must diminish the severity of drouth.

It remains to note the influence of forests on drainage,—their effect on springs
and lakes and streams and floods. The files of American agricultural journals
contain many instances of springs diminishing or ceasing in their flow with the
disappearance of surrounding or adjacent forests, but so far as I know these cases
have never been gathered into a single volume, so that I am again obliged to bor-
row European examples from Marsh’s Man and Nature. He says: As the for-
ests are destroyed, the springs which flowed from the woods, and consequently
the greater water course fed by them, diminish both in numberand in volume.
This fact is so familiar through the American States and British Provinces, that
there are few old residents of the interior of those districts who are not able to
testify to its truth as a matter of personal observation. My own recollection sug-
gests to me several instances of this sort, and I remember one case where asmall
mountain spring, which disappeared soon after the clearing of the ground where
it rose, was recovered about ten or twelve yearsago, by simply allowing the bushes
and young trees to grow up on a rocky knoll, not more than half an acre in ex-
tent, immediately above it, and has since continued to flow uninterruptedly. The
uplands in the Atlantic States formerly abounded in sources and rills, but in many
parts of those States which have been cleared for above a generation or two, the
hill pastures now suffer severely from drouth, and ia dry seasons no longer afford
either water or herbage for cattle.”

Clane gives an example in the forest of Mendon near Paris, and says: “After a
few rainy days pass along the Chevreuse road, which is bordered on the right by
the wood, on the left by cultivated fields. The fall of water and the continuance
of the rain have been the same on both sides; but the ditch on the side of the
forest will remain filled with water proceeding from the infiltration through the
wooded soil, long after the other, contiguous to the open ground, has performed
its office of drainage and become dry. The ditch on the left will have discharged
in a few hours a quantity of water, which the ditch on the right requires several
days to receive and carry down to the valley.”

Another case “before the felling of the woods, within the last few years * *
* the same furnished a regular and sufficient supply of water for the iron
works of Unterwyl, which was almost unaffected by drought or by heavy rains.
The same has now become a torrent, every shower occasions a flood, and after a
few days of fine weather, the current falls so low that it has been necessary to
change the water wheels, because those of the old construction are no longer able
to drive the machinery, and at last to introduce a steam engine to prevent the
stoppage of the works for the want of water.”

Another case. “When the factory of St. Ursaune was established, the river
that furnished its power was abundant, long known and tried, and had from time
immemorial, sufficed for the machinery of a previous factory. Afterward the
woods near its sources were cut. The supply of water fell off in consequence, the
factory wanted water for half the year, and was at last obliged to stop altogether.”

“The Wolf Spring furnishes a remakable example of the influence of the woods
upon fountains. A few years ago this spring did not exist.. At the place where
it now rises, a small thread of water was observed after very long rains, but the
stream dissappeared with the rain. The spot isin the middle of a very steep pas-
ture inclining to the south. Eighty years ago the owner of the land, perceiving
that young firs were shooting up in the upper part of it, determined to let them
grow and they soon formed a flourishing grove. Assoon as they were well grown,
a fine spring appeared in place of the occasional rill, and furnished abundant
water in the longest droughts. For forty or fifty years this spring was considered
the best in the Clos du Doubs. A few years since the grove was felled, and the
ground turned again toa pasture. The spring disappeared with the wood and is
now as dry as it was ninety years ago.”

Marsh quotes another case in which the forest is felled in regular succession
once in twenty years. “As the annual cuttings approach a certain point, the
springs yield less water, some of them none at all; but as the young growth shoots
up, they flow more and more freely, and at length bubble up again in all their
original abundance.”

“
on

FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 169

Marsh also quotes from Der. Pifer the following American example. “Within
about half amile of my residence there is a pond upon which mills have been
standing for a long time, dating back I believe, to the first settlement of the town.
These have been kept in constant operation until within some twenty or thirty years,
when the supply of water began to fail. The pond owes its existence to a stream
which has its source in the hills which stretch some miles to the south. Within
the time mentioned, these hills, which were clothed with .a dense forest, have
been almost entirely stripped of trees; and to the wonder and loss of the mill
owners, the water in the pond has failed, except in the season of freshets;. and
what was never heard of before, the stream itself has been entirely dry. Within
the last ten years a new growth of wood has sprung up on most of the land form-
rly occupied by the old forest ; and now the water runs through the year notwith-
standing the great droughts of the last few years.”

A letter from Wm. C. Bryant, the poet and editor, is also quoted. “It is a
common observation that our summers are become drier and our streams
smaller. Take the Cuyahoga as an illustration. Fifty years ago, large barges
loaded with goods, went up and down that river, and one of the vessels engaged
in the battle of Lake Erie, in which the gallant Perry was victorious, was built
at Old Portage, six miles north of Albion, and floated down to the lake. Now, in
an ordinary stage of water, a canoe or skiff can hardly pass down the stream.
Many a boat of fifty tons burden has been built and loaded in the Tuscarawas, at
New Portage, and sailed to New Orleans without breaking bulk. Now, the river
hardly affords a supply of water, at New Portage, for the canal. The same may
be said of other streams—they are drying up. And from the same cause, the
destruction of our forests, our summers are growing drier, and our winters
colder.”

Other cases might be added, but it is unnecessary. Those given are
in accordance with reason. The soil of forests is nearly always more
open and porous, than that of cleared land. So that rain, instead of
flowing off as it falls, sinks into the soil to reappear gradually in the springs
that feed the rivulets and irrigate the meadows. Besides, the porosity of the
soil, the surface is covered with leaves and twigs and roots, which impede the
flow of water over the surface and cause it to sink away into the soil. Snow fall-
ing in the woods does not melt away so suddenly, as on cleared land, and the
water from it reaches the streams later than that from the cleared lands,
thus diminishing the height, but prolonging the period of high water.

And now, in conclusion, I would ask. In view of the opinions of those well
qualified to judge, and in view of the facts cited,can it be doubted that the
unsparing destruction of forests is attended with disastrous results? In view of
the same, and of other facts stated in this paper, can it be doubted that the plant-
ing of forests, in treeless regions, especially, will be attended with equally good
results? Can it be doubted that extensive tree-planting will improve the distri-
bution of, if not actually augment the annual rain-fall. Can it be doubted, that
it will diminish the devastation of freshets, and shorten the duration of drouths?
Can it be doubted, that it will maintain the number and volume of our springs ;
equalize the supply of water in our lakes and streams, and thus preserve naviga-
tion in our inland streams, and power for our mills and manufactories? I have
tried to put you in possession of the facts, gentlemen, I leave it to your judg-
ments to answer these questions.

What the Minnesota State Forestry Association ‘did to aid the grass-
hopper sufferers in 1877.

The spring of 1877 opened inauspiciously for the tree planters of
Minnesota. Those on the great prairies had been harrassed by grasshop-
- pers, machine agents and creditors, “till they couldn’t rest.”

Discouraged and disheartened by repeated losses and failures, many
who had in good faith entered timber claims, were on the point of aban-
doning them from sheer inability to purchase the much needed trees and
cuttings for immediate planting. Sn

I was overwhelmed with letters from such parties asking for aid. Call-
ing the executive committee of the Association together, they appropri-
ated a small amount for the purchase and distribution of trees and cut-
tings to the most unfortunate of the applicants. fy

12

170 FOREST TREE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

I immediately addresed a circular letter to all the County commission- —
ers of the treeless counties, asking them to forward the names of worthy
parties, who having in good faith entered timber claims and by reason
of grasshopper damages were unable to plant, and were thereby in emi-
nent danger of loosing their claims—to forward the names of such only
as would if aided, so apply the aid as to carry out the provisions of the
timber culture act, and thereby save their claims. .

In response thereto several hundred names were forwarded to me by
the Commissioners.

Of these one hundred and seventy-three applicants were aided to an
extent sufficient to save their tree claims.

Three hundred and thirty-eight thousand (338.000) white willow and
cottonwood cuttings, and one hundred and eighty thousand (180.000)
ash and cottonwood trees, were thus distributed, and one hundred and
seventy three good men relieved and encouraged to prosecute their good
work at the expense of the State of $534.12.

The timber for the 338.C00 cuttings and 120.000 of these trees were
generously donated to the Association by the St. Paul & Pacific Rail-
road company. .

In the spring of 1878, the Association offered $1,800.00 in premiums to
be distributed in accordance with the rules and regulations as published
in compliance with the law granting the appropriation.

The tree planters competing therefor generally, ignored the prescribed
rules and regulations, and of the $1,080.00 so offered, but $135,00 was
awarded.

With this experience before them, the Executive Committee have not
up to this writing made up a premium list for 1879. :

The cost of preparation, publication and distribution of this pamphlet,
will probably be of as much service to forest culture in Minnesota, as the
same amount would be if distributed in premiums.

I have for many years collected and carevully preserved thousands of
items bearing on forestry ; and from this varied mass have selected such
as seemed to me practical and reliable. I could have more easily embod-
ied twice as much. The great difficulty has been to throw overboard
much that was worthy of preservation, but which we could possibly do
without.

In these pages will be found sufficient information to enable any one
of average ablility to grow his own fuel, shelter and shade.

I have aimed to give just the information called for in the thous-
ands of letters I have received on this subject, and can only say to
enquirers, study this little work thoroughly and you will find therein a
substantial answer to all reasonable interrogatories.

In conclusion, I wish to, so faras possible, make amends for the whole-
sale raid I have hereby made in pursuit of knowledge under difficulties.
I acknowledged to having plundered every available source of informa-
tion for what I was after, and now having obtained it and spread it
among the people, plead Pro Bono Publico as my excuse. If I have
done wrong I am willing to be forgiven. This work has been rushed
through at railroad speed, in hurried moments snatched from pressing
duties. I have pursued it con amore, and hereby dedicate it to the great
any of tree planters in Minnesota, with the smgle word PERSEVER-

Saint Paul, Minnesota March, 19th, 1879.

INDEX.

Preface.
Prepraation of the soil .

. 4
Time to break prairie. prison gael ay Notg tenis, pe NSRE omayaniis, obRapye tee ce j 4
Manner of breaking prairie. . Eile ek cviliis Cheb inch pion woe Veo aM Sa ert? Mie Uae Ems revere 4
(Cliszmn eulltuins Wieser ia Ge Neon On oe) Gk OMOn OL Ode: mac) to NGliaon so tac 4
Proper treatment of cold, sour, level prairie. ©. 2... 2 se eee ees 5
Its great value when regenerated, and its adaptability ‘to trees, wheat, grasses and
other crops. buitio eas. qo eben 6 Ap Co Ines Syeg bea . 5
HEMMeTOtyplantings \ricwe. | 4) avebver ier wie Sattaw cel wecrermte eM brejnra Vag so loko 5
Objects of tree planting. 5 esky lieianearagee Ue eum eI 7
Close planting. aero maa CeO Sood aac 6
Proper distribution of trees when planted . SE arena TiCeTOR eh TeickS Gaels tktC BARGER oved 6
Nature’s method of planting. See pon silt ee SOE cia oes Gane Rt aiies 7
Development of grub-prairie into Be TA, Grok) Baste ns aR es 6
Varieties of trees suitable for forest culture in Minnesota. ......... ch is 8
Varieties of trees suitable for planting along highways ........++4... 8
Metessouithe Bis Woods) by, ProfivN? El. Wanchell . 5.0 <p jas se msl os bres betel 14
sinenGreatie onirerousn istrict, by ],A. WheeloGk. 62. cslve ea gs 2 & a nen ts 17
Natural adaptability of the tree to its location . ..... My ua rated orper ees nears 16
Shelter-belts or wind breaks ........2..-. PM nd SUS bg 19
\uiasvinyy, [iris (C195 Guo ole eo adec one Sha ae Pe. | tenaa ye MEST? ficcok oamaitaits 19
10, JHI@ WAS Teiorore ON OCny Vee en ge one Colo CGnour cw Or ono Tol ute! SeRRe 19
WAnIetLEShO tm irees tomsnelter-Delts 40 5. o ier subs -f)ule lps) -epbefueupe shel) dota yiel lrstuen ae 19
Cuttings—how to prepare and plant them... .....-+-+-++---s Arige 20
BVeVereensitorssheltersDoltSic js as, pili ites Geltal le tc / ms) a eyyie le feel 9) ile) loins 20
Banriewurill owanmavet Ratna ws. 5s “Siacihe aber ’e Peele fe «4 © 29-32- 33: 34°35
The propagation of trees from cuttings ie-eriny erg rete Bron ie SLAs iteabone etoulns
iievashtandsthe larceny nn) atic. sc ne) ets a ile aire aeons Ir sip aah salaries Z 5
archi plantations, of the Duke'of Athol 2. oc)s) 2 soc cess ay perpen ae eleois he 36
A plea for the evergreen, by Jno. K. Kepner ....... dG nolo oc ae 52
The planting of J. H. Brown, of Lac qui Parle... 2... 12s s+ ee ees 58
sthebeechty eke aaah coh uaawhsh cubs ak shod ee ON OR CIEE phos! OY shy us Saya MaRepeSR OMe se Mayne 63
IPHERCH Esti te ea aet pheiesh emiseee lsc) voce te Grell jusculeey Uren reife fet edhe geome har, afaye 26
PN ERS Olea eure wiee eye dnatke eral feeader pe erinaetel | ora bsoy ire ieee) <getveem Ngee ea ponte 64.
sesh oxwal derma tinh wah ctsaeis isn bsinielh« <1 4 os yei\delaiirege ey 1elpde hie, fgerney wills Fae 65
Tine Gels", si ditt Sea kate cond eS Ak enon eae ne ge aaRene iyo car Peer per cue aar 66
Wine enn a Gr 5 A eal ae aioe eae a ieee er rE mech ne 9-23
MbetcotronweGedegs tcire ey cet tary sire, Geta sto eh ot Mle (te Mh wt col vel) loted saute ish lel ap Ve II
MRexeakAas peo egon tia! sere tial erp that regres Forkap) seh el baeys Neh Te Wee ee to MIor aati te 24
PBenmlackmwal nutwepead ete ue Resins ease Le Ordet sw 21 Sy Paitin imate el pe ne - .. + 10-96
UNG: Laat Se, uly Naa Gees ether ho iy Sortie: sae here Oahor ceo cian 6 age ANG 10
Tne siaene TNETONKS Vege Vee ad amronn eee cll Gel amelie 9 by ear earrmiCoyiec mic RinRlC rece oh yuwUn nc 10
GMA ee leae ds FEW Clan cused ete eons acute e eae eh ee eee galas: vege Cases esiiem ys Maes 65
rota New beniya mn oe rialeir is oaishigeim teat Len wes lenis elie esl iets a) ial eit fe 66
Sowingsand planting, .)- 29.0. 4202 2 ss Gs Bt irsiatas ahene poe Ree 68
Should we sow or plant?. ....... Sy Sec aeat ee Sees Kict, Sap lan th Okey coamelpred Somes «68
Experience of European foresters . .. Deel oeteuee tec mitepeln Tete) coms 69
Condition most favorable to the sree Gir torestaceds oan to tug., bs veers 68
Gathering ofp forest tree seeds ime: i setae) piece tier soho ol op he yton te Byer ore 69

Methods of planting forest tree Seed Ry ig erent oye Goat chase sere 72

ity INDEX.

Shelter to young trees in nurseries... ..... EER Sal era a Uy en. 78
Number) of streesito ithe racreksirey- wo lenc-like sai an ctee tate yeestcr onsen ie ae 73
Plantation of different species. ...... PALE ete Tet cee Sard oh i= ee 75
Relative value of growth at differentages. ........ PME! oh 6 75
Growth of wood in different years .........2....- oe as ican ae 76.
Advice of Horace Greely on tree planting ........... PUR 76
Evelyn or preparations for tree planting. . 2. - we we ee ee Bion ¢ Wh
Practical view of the timber question, by Hon. C. E. Whiting rapt ie reer Ui 33 77
Tree) planting in’ Massachusetts: ) byePimlersomien cyvelehe is ine) bese) ee) ee alee
Prohtsiot tree planting, by OF BY Galushaeeie yes een ich sna) oe ee ae 80
Rules for evergreen culture, by Ho Warmand 3). 85 5. | a tet ieee 81
Method of cultivation by the winner of a prize. ........2,5.5...2... 81
Dimbererowing in. Nebraskalpy-veaie- token ena uat Ts BSR Silay aman phen S05 82
Close planting of cottonwood, by ol BWI Bo) betes tel rec denice) ae 83
Mining sof plantations: ye.) sgiwe ts yews 3 Hat vial Metta Seyi oy oe 83
Means of destruction of insects iMKESHNS (hEes| ie uite) yeu = ep eM scbrd te cn eae 85
Shelter fortruit trees, bys DirsajerAe vv arnd er ie) .) 2) neice cin elie ier fas 87
Timber belts for farm protection, by W. Marlatt. .........2.2.2... 89
Timber belts for farm protection, by H. M. Thompson ........4.... gI
Timber belts for farm protection, by Prof, H. H.McAffee.......2.2.2.2. ~ °&«92
Need of wind breaks for the protection of human life. ........... : 92
Screens of wood land as a barrier to insects. . ........2-.2.+-+2-+..-. 93
Directions for planting larch and pine ..... . ou ah one ios ah tk Cue e apes ana 94
Experience of, 1.’C, Scofield) in tree: planting. "25 iy.) own oat ee 95
Expenmence! of treel culture inmelllimoisien -uateen tae eien inet tence tania Sek ein Sy 98
Comparative value of woods: forifuels 40.) ii) sian i waar sols Wane paape eet ona ee 99
Experiments in tree planting, by Jos, S, Fay . aie heist eo s9: (20 ga Speak gait ohele ae ore)
Suitable trees for shelter belts . . fil Scare Steeda eee 103
Experience of Illinois Industrial University i in tree planting aaa sSto 6! 103
@ansesroitarlureinveviergreenSr\--) foc. 8) ell neva oma cetera 104 °
Arbor Day in Minnesota ......... isle olsen ye cs ke eee 106
Constitution of Minnesota State Forestry Assdtiation: «i... aant ae 105
Advice of Col, H; Stevensiontree planting). 4) 2 2b on eee 107
Statisticsnof tree planting ime Mimmesota myencr es) teint tert eet ciel eae eee 108
Tree planting in Kansas .. . 109
The Congressional Timber Culture ‘Act, with instructions, rules, regulations, etc . 109
Pruninesand thinning es ower scien ae oa. one ec getete a cu kone ht ea 118
Mountain forest, and the water supply ‘of the continent: an open letter from Dr,

Marder to Carl Schurz . . . = peellse wey Sthcitey tala Saree 120
Annual meeting of Minnesota State Forestry ‘Association «..: 7). 123
Addressjonlenatinsi onnelly 7A ee ep itera) 20 eel eeinneriey rosie retreats =i Pee 123
Election of officersiof the M, S.FOAW a0 ies 0 126 .
Address ofsbroty Tacy tothe Mi Os Eyre mise) isn valence ulel feline) fe liletee sane mnanat 127
Extracts from an essay read at the annual meeting of the State ‘Agricultural Society

at the State University, February 5, 1875, by Leonard B. Hodges. . ... 126
Timber area of various counties in Minnesota .........-..4.+... MRS
Teaching of many years’ as in forest ee by W. S. Brockman... . 139
Forestry in Minnesota (L. B. Hodges) . SREP ded io. 132
Number of trees on an acre (tabulated) at various distances apart. 2 ss scaus 151
Report of M.S. F. A. to the Governor - .. A RTS RR ea TS GrUS Sof I51

Relation of forests to water supply, by Prof. Lacy Lah ei hig tess Ate pe ce toe 162

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