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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

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Accession .9.7.2.6.3

THE

FRUIT CULTURIST,

ADAPTED TO THE

CLIMATE OF THE NORTHERN STATES;

CONTAINING DIRECTIONS FOR

RAISING YOUNG TKEES IN THE NURSERY,

AND FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE

ORCHARD AND FRUIT GARDEN.

BY JOHN J? THOMAS.

NEW-YORK:
H. NEWMAN, 199 BROADWAY.
1846.

Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1846, by
V LUTHER TUCKER,

in the Clerk's Office for the Northern District of New- York.

PREFACE.

THE OBJECT OF THIS WORK, is not only to fur-
nish useful directions to those who may be little
acquainted with the management of Fruit Trees,
but to promote the culture of the best varieties,
and to improve their treatment so as to secure ex-
cellSnce and productiveness in a more eminent de-
gree than is usually attained.

It was a very just remark of Professor Lindley,
that those who have sought for information in
books on this subject, have generally found plenty
of rules for action, but very few reasons. The
writer has aimed to avoid this error, and by occa-
sionally presenting the rationale of operations, to
simplify the directions given, and render them
more clear and obvious to the practical cultivator.

As this is comparatively a small work, — intended
partly as an answer to numerous inquiries, — those
who need more extended information, especially
in relation to the different varieties of fruit known

4 PREFACE.

in this country, are referred to the excellent work
of A. J. Downing, on " The Fruits and Fruit Trees
of America," which has just issued from the press.
The writer is indebted to his father, David
Thomas, of Cayuga county, for several valuable
original notes, which will he found in various parts
of the work.

CONTENTS.

PART I.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS AND PRACTICES.

CHAP. I. Introductory Remarks 5 profits and advan-
tages of Fruit Culture, 9

" II. History, Improvement, and Nomenclature, 16
" III. Influence of Climate, Culture and other

Causes, 23

« IV. Best kinds of Stocks, 33

" V. Production of New Varieties, 36

« VI. Propagation by Budding and Grafting, by ,

Layers and by Cuttings, 42

« VII. Soil, Situation, and Enclosures, 54

" VIII. Transplanting, 60

" IX. Cultivation of the ground, , 68

" X. Pruning old Trees, and budding and graft-
ing new tops, 74

" XI. Causes of Fruitfulness, 80

« XII. Implements, 85

PART II.
ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FRUITS.

CHAP. I. TheApple, 93

« II. ThePear, Ill

« III. The Quince, 118

« IV. The Peach and Nectarine, , ........ 123

VI CONTENTS.

CHAP. V. The Apricot, „ 140

« VI. The Plum, 142

>" VII. TheCherry, 150

« VIII. The Grape...... 156

" IX. The Gooseberry and Currant, 164

« X. The Raspberry, 167

« XI. The Strawberry, Oo.,3 169

« XII. Work in the order of Time, 173

Selection of kinds, 178

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF FRUITS.

Apples, 180

Pears, 192

Cherries, 202

Plums, 206

Peaches, 211

Nectarines, 215

Apricots, 216

Note on Grafting the Vine, 217

Note on Pruning the Vine, 218

PART I,

GENERAL DIRECTIONS AND PRACTICE

<

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

CULTURE OF FRUIT.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

IT is believed that if our landowners knew that
a continued succession of the finer fruits, through-
out most of the year, could be had with very mode-
rate attention and labor, we should not much longer
witness such general destitution. The abundant
products of their gardens and orchards, already
prove that the fault is not in the climate and soil;
the contrast between the kinds they cultivate, and
those which rank as first rate, shows how much
they are losing; while the few choice collections
to be found, exhibit most plainly what might be
accomplished by all.

A single instance may serve to show what is
easily placed within our reach. A cultivator, pos-
sessing a moderate collection, had fully ripe upon
his trees at mid-summer, or at the time of wheat
harvest, three varieties of pear, five of apricot, two

10 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

of plum, four of apple, and several of the later
yarieties of cherry, — making nearly twenty in all ;
besides an early peach just beginning to ripen.
Most of these were good, and some of them delicious.

Intelligent persons are often greatly surprised at
such facts, which are but a specimen of what a
succession may afford for several months together.
In our latitude, the supply begins with the first
days of summfer; the earliest Strawberries and
Cherries ripen nearly together ; they are followed
for several weeks by other varieties, and by Rasp-
berries ; the earlier Apricots and Pears become ripe
from one to two weeks before our wheat harvest ;
Apples and Plums only a few days later ; and
soon after, from the latter part of summer to mid-
autumn and later, a host of the richest varieties of
Apples, Pears, Peaches and Nectarines, Plums and
Grapes, keep up a continued succession, to be fol-
lowed, in their turn, by the more durable winter
fruits. Pears and Grapes may be kept till spring,
and some of the best keeping Apples the whole
year through. Who that already has a bearing
orchard of all these, would forego the luxuries they
yield, for ten times the labor and expense they
have cost ?

It is not surprising that such fine fruits should
be neglected, when in fact most of them are un-
known to the mass of well informed persons. An
intelligent acquaintance remarked that he did not

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 11

consider so poor a fruit as the Cherry worth culti-
vating ; — but subsequent conversation proved that
he had never seen a good.one, — the names of such
delicious varieties as Elton, Florence, and Black
Eagle, being as unknown to him as Hebrew to an
untaught child. Another intelligent person, who
had spent a considerable portion of many years
in making a collection of bearing trees, had never
even seen an Apricot, nor had known that there was
such a fruit, hardy as the Peach, raised with nearly
the same facility, ripening at mid-summer, and
superior in delicious qualities to our finest and rich-
est plums.

But the expense of procuring and planting the
trees, and the time required for bearing, deter many
from the attempt. They do not know, perhaps,
that the unnecessary cost yearly lavished on fine
furniture, fine carriages and harness, and other
needless luxuries, would pay for and plant a fruit
garden, and in five years afford a hundred fold
more real enjoyment and utility. But will trees
come into plentiful bearing in five years ? They
will, with a selection of proper varieties and with
the best culture. It is true, more than twice
that period often passes, before the owner reaps
his reward ; but neglect is nearly always the cause.
What farmer would plant a field of corn, and,
omitting entirely the operations of cultivating and
hoeing, expect a crop in the midst of grass and

12 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

weeds ? Not less ruinous is the neglected culture
of newly planted fruit trees ; and the loss in the
delicious qualities of their subsequent products, as
well as in delay, is incredibly great. But when
selection and culture have been attended to, fre-
quent instances are witnessed of valuable returns
in three to five years from setting out. A Bartlett
pear tree, six feet high and two years from trans-
planting, bore a peck of superb fruit ; a Julienne,
even younger, yielded nearly the same ; a Jonathan
apple, removed to the orchard when not larger than
a carriage- whip, produced a bushel the fifth year;
and many similar cases might be named. But, in
every instance, the best treatment was given.

PROFITS.

Those with whom pecuniary considerations are
of importance, may be interested to know the re-
turns yielded by the best varieties. A cultivator
of fine fruit, well known to the writer, obtained in
market eight dollars for one year's crop, grown on
two fine early young cherry trees. In another sea-
son he received twenty-four dollars from four early
peach trees, only six years after they were budded.
Another acquaintance sold the crop of a Yellow
Spanish cherry tree for seven dollars ; another
sold the crop of one large apple tree, amounting
to forty bushels, for ten dollars ; and his neighbor
obtained thirty dollars for a crop of pears of equal

PROFITS. V 13

size from a single tree. More extraordinary re-
turns are on authentic record ; the preceding are
scarcely greater than good selection and good man-
agement will often insure. And what amount
would an acre of such trees yield to the owner ?
An acre of cherries, for instance, might include a
hundred and fifty trees. Four dollars from each,
the lowest example just given, would be six hun-
dred dollars per annum, a sum almost incredible,
and yet not impossible, with the best management
and selection, in the neighborhood of cities. The
same number of the best early peach trees, usually
of smaller growth than later sorts, — would occupy
an equal space, and the crop afforded would not
be less profitable. There are few trees, which,
well attended to, would yield less than two or
three bushels, and as a consequence afford a return
of three to ten dollars each. An acquaintance, on
being asked, last summer, what he received for his
fine early peaches, replied, " Whatever I ask."
The price was three to four dollars ; which was
but little more than that obtained by his neighbor,
whose peach orchard covered ten acres. But it
must be remembered that those often regarded
erroneously as very fine, will not command such a
market. A cultivator found he could sell fine
specimens of the Early York peach, sooner at a
dollar and a half per bushel, than the common
" rare-ripes,"of the country, on the same day, for

14 PROFITS.

half that sum. While the finest early Peaches
bring three or four dollars, some others, later and
poorer, will not sell for fifty cents.

Good winter apples always command a market.
For the, last thirty years, the Swaar, Rhode Island
Greening, and Esopus Spitzenburgh, have scarcely
varied from twenty-five cents a bushel in the most
productive portions of the State. Late keepers are
sold early in summer for more than triple that sum.
An acre of forty trees, with good culture, will
average through all seasons not less than two hun-
dred bushels, or fifty dollars a year. Instances are
frequent of thrice this amount. The farmer, then
who sets out twenty acres of good apple orchard,
and takes care of it, may expect at no remote pe-
riod a yearly return of five to fifteen hundred dol-
lars a year, and even more, if a considerable portion
is occupied'with late keepers. This is, it is true,
much more than the majority obtain; but 'the ma-
jority wholly neglect cultivating and enriching
the soils of their, orchards.

But where a market is not at hand, a plentiful
supply of fine fruit through most of the year, be-
comes a very important article in family economy.
The cost of providing for the table, is greatly les-
sened, where daily dishes of Strawberries, or Rasp-
berries, or Apricots, Nectarines, or Peaches, are at
hand. The great saving, too, as well as the com-
fort and health, from an abundance of good and

PROFITS. 15

highly flavored apples for culinary use, should not
be forgotten. How many pounds of sugar would
be saved in a family per year, by a constant use of
such rich fruit as the Tallman Sweeting, the Fall
Pippin, and the Spitzenburgh, for cooking, which
have been found cheaper for this very reason, at
thirty cents a bushel, than others commonly known
as " cooking apples" merely, at ten cents a bushel.
It may perhaps strike some as a reason for doubt-
ing the preceding estimates, that if such profitable
returns may be had, more people would, as a mat-
ter of course, have engaged in the business. But
this inference is by no means correct. From the
general neglect of cultivation, bearing trees are
looked upon as the result almost of a man's life
time ; and many, reasoning perhaps as he did,
who asked, " Why work for posterity — what has
posterity done for ns ?" unwittingly punish them-
selves instead. Slow and sure profits, are mostly
set aside for immediate results. The future is too
often eclipsed by the present. Benefits at a dis-
tance, give procrastination a thousand times stronger
foot-hold than those close at hand. Hence the l{
reason so many, in their eagerness for present
gain, exclude entirely the claims of the future, and
neglect what may certainly at some time prove
highly beneficial.

CHAPTER II.

HISTORY, IMPROVEMENTS, AND NOMENCLATURE.

earliest fruits mentioned in history, are the
Grape, the Apple, and the Fig, the former being
cultivated about the time of the deluge. The Al-
mond is mentioned repeatedly in the sacred records,
nearly 4000 years ago ; and Theophrastus, who
lived about 300 years before the Christian era, re-
marks that it was the only tree in Greece that pro-
duced blossoms before the leaves ; hence we may
safely infer that the Peach was then unknown.
The fact that the Jewish history no where speaks
of the Peach, indicates that it was not a native of
Persia, a country long inhabited by that people.*
It was known to the Eomans at the height of their
power, and the Nectarine was spoken of by Colu-
mella and by Pliny, as an admired fruit of their
time. The Apple and Pear were well known in
the days of Pliny, who speaks of twenty-two vari-
eties of the former, and thirty-six of the latter. The
Cherry, a native of Pontus and some parts of Eu-

* II is found wild on the Himalayan mountains, whence it was
probably carried to Persia, and to other parts of the world.

HISTORY. 17

rope, was introduced among the Romans at the
time of the Mithridatic war. The Plum was known
both to the Greeks and Romans ; and Pliny, who
sometimes dealt in the marvellous when writing
on fruits, asserts that they were grafted upon
apple stocks, producing what were called Apple-
Plums, and upon almond stocks, yielding both
fruits, the stone being like that of an almond.
And Virgil, with equal absurdity, speaks of grafting
Apples on planes, of adorning the wild ash with
the blossoms of the pear and represents swine as
crunching acorns under elms ; nor is it very long
since a few equally singular notions were held by
some moderns.

The cultivation of fruit in Britain, from which
so much of our own was obtained, began to receive
attention with other rural improvements. The
earliest British writer on this subject, was Richard
Arnold, who published a chapter in his "Chronicles"
in 1502, "On the crafteof graftynge andplantynge
and alterynge of fruits, as well in color as in taste."
He was succeeded about 1538 by Tusser ; in 1597
by Gerard; in 1629 by Parkinson; in 1658 by
Evelyn; in 1724 by Miller; in 1791 by Forsyth;
soon after which the great improvements intro-
duced by the late president Knight, and followed
by Lindley, Thompson, and others, formed a new
era in the cultivation of fruits. The gradual pro-
gress df the art is indicated in part by the number

18 HISTORY.

of varieties distinctly named or described by the
various authors already mentioned. u Apples of all
sorts," are mentioned by Tusser ; seven sorts by
Gerard;* Parkinson enumerates sixty-seven; Hart-
lib in 1650 alluded to one cultivator who possessed
two hundred, and believed there were not less
than five hundred ; Ray in 1688 says there were
seventy-eight cultivated in the London nurseries;
Forsyth in 1806 describes a hundred and ninety--
six kinds ; George Lindley, in 1831, minutely and
accurately described two hundred and fourteen;
while the Fruit Catalogue of the London Horticul-
tural Society gives a list of fourteen hundred va-
rieties, collected and cultivated by that society,
three fourths of which were found to be either the
same fruit under different names, or else unworthy
of cultivation. The same remark will apply, at least
in part, to the many hundreds advertised for sale
in different nurseries in the United States.

*It is of course evident from the very nature of the Apple,
and the facility with which new varieties are formed,
that this number was only a selection of a few ; as Gerard
himself says, " The fruit of Apples do differ in greatness,
form, color, and taste ; some covered with a redskin, others
yellow or green, varying exceedingly ; some very great,
some little, and many of a middle sort ; some are sweet of
taste, or something sour ; most are of a middle taste, be-
tween sweet and sour; the which to distinguish I think it
impossible, notwithstanding I hear of one that intended to
write a peculiar volume, of Apples, and the use of them."

IMPROVEMENT. 19

A similar progress, less in degree, is indicated
in the cultivation of the Pear. Tusser speaks " of
all sorts;" Parkinson enumerates sixty-four vari-
eties ; Miller, eighty ; and Lindley describes one
hundred and sixty- two.

Most of these writers also mention numerous
varieties of the Cherry and Plum.

Gerard describes the early, and the white, red,
and yellow peaches, and says there were many
others ; Parkinson enumerates twenty-one ; Miller
thirty-one; Lindley describes sixty; and in this
country, more favorable to the peach than Eng-
land, there are probably not less than two or three
hundred known and named varieties.

Eminent advantages have resulted from the ap-
plication of scientific principles, by Lindley, Knight
and others, in the cultivation of fruit, and in the
propagation of improved varieties. Several hun-
dred new Pears, some of them of the finest quality,
were obtained by Van Mons of Belgium, by a suc-
cessive selection of improved seedlings ; and Knight
in England has produced some of the finest varie-
ties of the Cherry, Plum, and Apple, by a cross
fertilization of old sorts.

One of the greatest difficulties yet remaining1,
is the confusion in the names of varieties. The
very slight shades of difference in many ; the im-
possibility of accurately defining these shades in
written descriptions ; and the changes produced

20 NOMENCLATURE.

in them by soil, situation, climate, and culture,
have largely contributed to this difficulty. It has
also been increased by looseness, carelessness, and
want of precision in descriptions, and especially
the almost total neglect of a classification of fla-
vors, usually the most unvarying and great deci-
sive point of distinction in varieties. " Some indi-
viduals," says Loudon, " who have cultivated,
fruited, or studied extensive collections of Apples,
Pears or Plums, may know at sight a considerable
number of varieties ; but in general, very few sorts
are known by one individual; and in the great
majority of cases a gentleman gardener can speak
with confidence regarding those sorts only which
are under his care. The reason of this is that the
shades which distinguish varieties are so fleeting
as not to be retained in memory, or only retained
to a very limited extent. An Apple may be dis-
tinguished from twenty other apples all very much
alike, when the whole twenty are placed together
before the eye ; but any one of the twenty, taken
apart, and delineated and described, however per-
fectly, will hardly present any marks sufficiently
distinctive to be remembered, and by which it
may be recognized with any degree of certainty."
The great number of names often given to one
fruit, either from ignorance or to promote its sale,
have added to the confusion. The celebrated
Virgalieu pear has thirty different names; the

NOMENCLATURE. 21

Brown Beurre, fourteen ; several others have nearly
an equal number. The confusion resulting also
from various applications of these different names
by different cultivators, may be easily imagined.
The varieties of the Peach which Lindley describes
as Grosse Mignonne, Neil's Early Purple, Pourpree
Hative, Royal Kensington, and Superb Royal, are
all described as a single variety by Mclntosh, under
the name Grosse Mignonne, to which he adds
twenty-seven synonyms.

The labors of the London Horticultural Society
have contributed much towards removing the be-
wildering confusion into which the numerous fruits
and their names were thrown. Large collections
were made from different countries ; and by a
careful and minute examination for several suc-
cessive years, innumerable mistakes were corrected.
The Massachusetts Horticultural Society, at Bos-
ton, in connexion with the labors of the late Robert
Manning of Salem, (whose collection of Pears
alone contained eight hundred sorts,) have tended
greatly towards the same useful end in this coun-
try. The subject is also receiving much attention
in various parts of the United States. The indis-
pensible necessity of a more thorough examina-
tion of fruits by those who propagate them for sale,
is more appreciated and becoming reduced to prac-
tice. Several extensive collections of American
and European fruits have recently been made or

22 NOMENCLATURE.

greatly augmented, for the purpose of a more tho-
rough examination, comparison, and selection of
varieties. .;o[)ib

That every difficulty may he removed, and every
disputed question settled, is not to he expected;
hut they will of course be diminished in proportion
to the extent and accuracy of these labors.
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CHAPTER HI.

.

INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, CULTURE, AND OTHER
CAUSES.

THE importance of attention to the variation in
, fruit, caused by a change in climate, soil, and culti-
vation, appears to be much underrated. While
the peculiar or essential character remains unchang-
ed, the quality, or degree of excellence, is variously
modified. This is sometimes so great that serious
disappointment results ; and high expectations caus-
ed by success in one case, are defeated by differ-
ent circumstances in another. Hence the neces-
sity of understanding these modifying influences.

The changes produced by climate are greater in
some classes of fruits than in others. The Cherry
varies but little in character and quality ; the fine
varieties originated by Thomas Andrew Knight
near London, are also among the finest when
removed to the northern states of America. This
may be owing in part to their period of maturity,
which, occurring early in summer, could not be
influenced by the length of the seasons. But
with the Apple, Pear, and Peach, the case is quite

24 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE.

otherwise. Very few of the whole British cata-
logue of Apples, are first in quality here. The
White Astracan, an apple of high reputation in
Russia, becomes very inferior in England ; and
a similar loss takes place on the removal to Eng-
land of some of the finest Apples of Italy. Some
of the best Peaches in the neighborhood of Phila-
delphia, become second or third rate in Western
New- York, the shorter and cooler summers of the
latter region not being sufficient to give full flavor
to many of the more southern varieties. American
peaches taken to England lose still more. Of fifty
sorts, from the middle and western states, tested
at the great Chiswick garden, all but two were
pronounced "worthless."

The Pear is perhaps more changed in quality and
flavor by external causes than any other species of
fruit. Variations in different regions of our own
country, and even in different seasons, are great
and striking. The Virgalieu, regarded on the
whole as the finest pear in Western New-York,
is pronounced by Kenrick in the neighborhood of
Boston, as an " outcast, intolerable even to sight."
Some sorts, which fail at Boston, are still cultivated
with success at Salem, only fifteen miles distant.

But the influence of seasons alone produces ex-
traordinary results. In the year 1842, the Wur-
temburg pear was regarded in Western New- York
as the finest foreign pear among several which had

INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. 25

then just fruited; but the two succeeding seasons
it was nearly worthless. The Bezi de la Motte,
about one year in seven, is a delicious melting pear,
and at other times dry and tasteless. Some stri-
king cases were mentioned by the late Robert Man-
ning of Salem. The Beurre Duval, which has a
high reputation in Europe, produced, the first year
of bearing, beautiful fruit ; but on ripening, they
were found tasteless and worthless. The next
year the same tree produced fewer pears, half the
size, different in shade of color, and delicious in
flavor. In another case the Hericart yielded fruit
which proved melting and high-flavored. The
next year it not only varied in size, shgpe, and
color, but was so tasteless as to be immediately
rejected as worthless. Again, the Calabash pear
produced in two seasons, oblong fruit with project-
ing ridges, the color being bright russet, and the
flesh breaking, melting, and very good. The next
year the fruit was more abundant, of larger size,
of a bright yellow color, without ridges, and the
flesh very insipid.* But these were unusual cases.
They serve to show however, the extreme caution
to be used, both in describing fruit, and deciding
upon the merits of new kinds. They also show the
propriety of aiming to select such as are little
affected by such influences, as the Madeleine and
Seckel, and in most localities, the Virgalieu.

* Hovey's Magazine, vol. 8, p. 87.

26 INFLUENCE OF CULTURE.

It is this liability to change, and occasionally to
become valueless, that has induced the opinion that
varieties are worn out by old age ; but this is dis-
proved by the facts that the same varieties flourish
elsewhere with undirninished excellence ; and that
some of the new sorts, when removed to ungenial
climates, also exhibit precisely the same symptoms
of " running out" and decay.*

The influence of our summers on the quality of
the peach is well known. But while some varie-
ties, as the Early York, are much better in warm
and favorable seasons, and worse in cold ones, oth-
ers, as the White Imperial and some yellow-fleshed
sorts, continue nearly unchanged through all the
fluctuations of temperature.

INFLUENCE OF CULTURE.

The effect of keeping the soil mellow by repeat-
ed stirring, on most of the finer and delicious fruits,
can be hardly believed by those who have only seen
it on the more common varieties of the apple. " No
stunted tree tears fine fruit. Even the Seckel pear,
of all sorts the highest flavored, is so inferior in
some situations, as to be scarcely worth gathering.
Some other pears however, lose their distinguish-
ing traits entirely, and bear nothing suitable for
human lips. Of this class has been the St. Ghis-
lain in my grounds, where the tree stood neglected

Sec Hovey's Magazine, vol. 5, p. 50.

INFLUENCE OF SOIL AND STOCK. 27

for several years, and caused me to wonder how
any thing so insipid could have passed through the
hands of Robert Manning. Yet that eminent and
worthy pomologist was not to blame. An acciden-
tal improvement of its condition, caused it the last
season to bear excellent fruit, increased some in
size, but immensely in flavor.

"It would seem that flavor is the last touch of
perfection that some pears receive ; and that if the
nourishment of the tree be exhausted with their
growth, so that nothing is left for the last finish,
they are tasteless and worthless. This is not the
case however with all sorts of fruit ; and exceptions
may be found in the Madeleine, Summer Bon
Chretien, Seckel, and Virgalieu ; but I think we
have no right to condemn any variety of the pear,
until the tree has done its best — that is, borne fruit
in a thriving condition."*

Pruning is also of great account. The Swaar
and Spitzenburgh never acquire their finest flavor
when the branches are stunted ; but thrifty branches
on old trees bear as good fruit as young trees.
This remark applies to other kinds and especially
to Peaches.

INFLUENCE OF SOIL, AND OF THE STOCK.

As the earth is colder a few feet below than near
the surface, it is highly probable that such soils as

* David Thomas, in Ohio Cultivator, 1845, p. 6.

28 INFLUENCE OF SOIL AND STOCK.

variously favor the downward extension of roots,
may modify the character of fruits, as well as the
changes of seasons. Other qualities of the soil
may have their part in such changes. Different
trees of the same variety are known to be affected
by slight shades of difference, which are often as-
cribed entirely to the stock, though the soil doubt-
less has a large share of influence. This view is
further indicated by the increased luxuriance of
some kinds when growing in a light soil, and of
others in a heavy soil, and by the fact that other
qualities are known to be hurtful or beneficial. Dif-
ferent degrees of fertility, often produce very mate-
rial effects, both in productiveness and flavor.

There is no doubt that stocks^ on which trees are
grafted, operate in some degree in a similar way.
Some, like a rich soil, assist the more rapid growth
of the branches ; others, like a sterile soil, retard
it ; hence corresponding results on the fruit may be
expected. The Pear, always easily affected, is
sometimes materially changed when grafted on the
Quince. Melting pears are in general thus improv-
ed, and breaking pears injured. It will be observ-
ed in this case that the trees are diminished to
mere dwarfs. Trifling influence on the fruit may
be expected where the vigor of growth is but little
lessened. All our grafted apple orchards, it will be
remembered, are upon all imaginable varieties of
seedlings; but a Khode Island Greening, a Spit-

INFLUENCE OF THE SOIL AND STOCK. 29

zenburgh, or a Bellflower, preserve their identity
upon them all.

Salt peaches or plums, show that foreign sub-
stances may enter the juices, and modify or change
the quality of the fruit, as well as poison or induce
disease in the tree. Soluble substances in the soil
may thus exert a sensible influence. In the same
way, the peculiar character of the sap and secre-
tions of a stock may produce a like result.

Stocks may hasten or retard ripening ; they may
affect the size, color, and quality of fruit. The
temperature, depth, and other characters of soils
may do the same. Tender kinds are made hardier
on hardy stocks, not because of any specific influ-
ence, but the usual supplies of sap are withheld
earlier in autumn, and the tender wood has more
time to mature — precisely similar to the planting
of tender trees on sterile or rocky soils, which cause
an earlier cessation of growth.*

No other influence than these can be produced
by the stock upon the graft. Lord Bacon correctly
remarked " that the scion overruleth the stock quite,
the stock being passive only." The change which
takes place when the sap is converted into the pro-
per juices, and thence into fruit, is effected entirely
by the leaves ; hence when a pear is grafted on a

* It would be interesting to inquire why the Maydukc
Cherry should frequently have ripe fruit on one branch of the
tree, and green fruit on another; and why other trees occa-
sionally present similar variations.

INFLUENCE OF THE STOCK.

quince, the entire elaboration is effected by the
leaves of the pear, and the perfect fruit of the pear
is the result. It is only modified in quality by the
slight degree of difference in the sap of the pear
and quince, and by the degree of facility with
which the sap of the quince stock is given to the
pear. Hence the absurdity of the notion formerly
held that the stock might produce a distinct specific
change, analogous to that in hybrids ; for so far
from altering the character of the species, even the
variety is only slightly modified.

" In proportion," says Lindley, " as the scion and
the stock approach each other closely in constitu-
tion, the less effect is produced by the latter ; and
on the contrary, in proportion to the constitutional
difference between the stock and the scion, is the
effect of the former important. Thus, when pears
are grafted or budded on the wild species, apples
upon crabs, plums upon plums, and peaches upon
peaches or almonds, the scion is, in regard to fer-
tility, exactly in the same state as if it had not
been grafted at all; while on the other hand, a
great increase of fertility is the result of grafting
pears upon quinces, peaches upon plums, apples
upon white-thorn, and the like. In these latter
cases, the food absorbed from the earth by the root
of the stock, is communicated slowly and unwil-
lingly to the scion : under no circumstance is the
communication between the one and the other as

INFLUENCE OF PRODUCTIVENESS. 31

free and perfect as if their natures had been more
nearly the same ; the sap is impeded in its ascent,
and the proper juices are impeded in their descent,
whence arises that accumulation of secretion which
is sure to be attended with increased fertility."

As a general rule, therefore, the influence of the
stock is not to be taken into account in practice, as
it is usually so small, except on stocks of very dif-
ferent natures, as to amount to nothing perceptible.
Cultivation and fertility of soil, are of incalculably
greater importance. And while the effects of cli-
mate are to be attentively observed in making a
selection of fitting varieties ; the improvement of
those selected sorts to the highest degree of per-
fection, is only to be attained by culture.

INFLUENCE OF PRODUCTIVENESS.

When fruit is thick upon the branches, both size
and flavor are diminished. Many kinds are ren-
dered nearly worthless by overbearing. It is often
observed that early apples and peaches, remaining
last on the tree, are much more delicious than the
earlier portions which ripened on crowded limbs.
With some varieties, the effect of productiveness is
so great as wholly to alter the character. A tree
of the Heath cling, before unknown to the person
who raised it, bore the first year a very abundant
crop ; and the fruit, which had been recommended
as of great size and excellence, was small, green,
with only a disagreeable, bitter taste. In the

32 INFLUENCE OF PRODUCTIVENESS.

warmer and longer summer of the following1 year,
the fruit, which had been thinned by the frost, was
three inches in diameter, very handsome, and of
sweet and excellent flavor. The importance of
understanding these' influences, before deciding on
the quality of a new fruit, is hence at once evident.
The advantages of pruning are to be ascribed in
part to the same cause.

CHAPTER IV.

THE BEST KINDS OF STOCKS.

As a general rule, fruit trees do best when graft-
ed on seedlings of their own species. Apples are
best upon seedling apple stocks ; pears on seedling
pears; and plums and cherries on seedling stocks
of their own kinds respectively. Suckers, when
their roots diverge evenly on all sides, often make
good stocks ; but the uncertainty of finding such
roots, and the inconvenience of crooked, one-sided,
or stunted trees, so often produced from suckers,
renders them on the whole greatly inferior to seed-
lings.

In some cases, stocks of a different kind from the
graft are best, where particular objects are to be at-
tained. When for instance it is intended to raise
dwarf trees of the apple and pear, that they may
cover less ground, or bear sooner, stocks of smaller
size and of diminished growth are chosen. The
quince is used as a stock for dwarf pear trees;
the small paradise and the Doucin or French
stock, for dwarf apples. Besides increasing the
productiveness of some varieties, the quality too is
changed and sometimes improved, as described in

34 BEST KINDS OF STOCKS.

the preceding chapter. But such dwarfs are com-
paratively short-lived.

Sometimes different stocks are used as a protec-
tion from the attacks of insects. For example, the '
peach and apricot, which are very liable to attacks
of the peach-worm, are budded upon the plum,
which very seldom suffers. The quince is often
destroyed or injured by the borer, but the pear is
exempt from this injury ; hence the former may be
grafted on the latter. But such expedients are not
always successful. Instances have been observed
where the peach- worm, not to be thwarted in this
way, had attacked the apricot at the place of
union on the plum, even as high as three feet from
the ground. Yet, although such failures are not
usual, it may be questioned whether the advantages
of plum stocks are as great as many suppose. A
careful attention, without which fruit trees cannot
prosper, will easily keep all peach trees clear of
the worm, as hereafter to be shown.

In a few cases it becomes necessary to use dissi-
milar stocks, from the difficulty of obtaining others.
Thus, in England, it is not unusual to graft the
pear on the hawthorn; and in this country, to bud
the plum on the peach ; from the scarcity of other
stocks. Pears on the thorn, should be grafted at
the ground, to prevent the deformity resulting from
the more rapid growth of the former. Such pear
trees flourish well; but the fruit is said to be injur-

BEST KINDS OF STOCKS. 35

ed somewhat in quality, probably from the more
scanty supply of food from the roots. Some varie-
ties of plums succeed well on peach stocks, if bud-
ded below the surface, and continue to bear and
flourish when large trees, with no diminution in
the quality of the fruit.

CHAPTER V.

PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES.

THE tendency is more or less common in all
plants, to vary from the character first stamped up-
on them. This disposition is increased by remo-
val from their native climate or locality, and greatly
by cultivation. By a constant selection of some
particular quality in successive crops, a gradual re-
moval from the character of the original is effected.
Most of our finest fruits, we have reason to believe,
have been gradually produced by the improvement
of the original native kinds.

The improvements effected in former ages, were
doubtless the result of accident, as the ancients
were ignorant of the means for their systematic
accomplishment. The greatest progress in the art
which has been made in modern times, was effect-
ed by Van Mons in Belgium and by Knight in
England.

The former, who directed his labors chiefly to
the pear, produced many new and excellent varie-
ties, by a constant and successive selection of the
best seedlings. He first made a large collection
of natural stocks, choosing those which, from the

PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES. 37

appearance of the wood and leaf, he had reason to
believe, would be most likely to produce the best
fruit. As soon as the first of these bore, he select-
ed the best, and planted the seeds. Selections
were again made from the first fruit of these, and
so on in continued succession, the best and soonest
in bearing were uniformly chosen. He thus ob-
tained fruit from the eighth generation ; each suc-
cessive experiment yielding an improved result on
the preceding. At the fourth generation many of
the fruits were good, several excellent, but a smaller
number still bad. He had, in the early part of this
series of experiments, no less than eighty thousand
trees ; hence in selecting from so large a number,
his chance for fine ones was vastly greater than
from a small collection ; and hence too the reason
why, after seven or eight improving generations,
he had obtained so many hundred fine sorts. In
the early stages of his operations, he found " that
twelve or fifteen years was the mean term of time,
from the moment of planting the first seed of an
ancient variety of the domestic pear, to the first
fructification of the trees which sprung from them.
The trees from the second sowing, yielded their
first fruit at an age of from ten to twelve years;
those of the third generation, at an age of from
eight to ten years ; those of the fourth generation,
at an age of from six to eight; and those of the
fifth generation at the age of six years. Van Mons,

38

PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES.

being actually at the eighth generation, has in-
formed me that he has obtained several pear trees
which fruited at the age of four years"* When
his seedlings were at the age of three or four years,
he was able to judge of their appearances, though
they had not as yet borne ; such only were taken
for further trial, as exhibited the strongest proba-
bility of excellence. It is hardly necessary to re-
mark that in all these trials, the young trees were
kept in the highest state of cultivation.

Van Mons maintained that by planting the seeds
of the first crop, the product would be less liable to
run back to the original variety, than where the
seeds were taken from a crop produced on an old
bearing tree ; and to this practice he chiefly ascrib-
ed his success.

CROSSING THE SORTS.

The production of new varieties is greatly facili-
tated by cross-impregnation, or by intermixing the
pollen and stigma of two varieties, for the purpose
of procuring something of an intermediate nature.
This was performed with great success by Knight.
Selecting two varieties for operation, while yet
early in flower, and before the anthers had burst
and discharged the pollen, he cut out with a fine
pair of scissors all the stamens, leaving the stigma
untouched. When the stigma became mature, he

* Poiteau.

PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES. 39

introduced the pollen, (the fine dust of the bursting
anthers,) ot the other variety, either hy shaking
the flower of the latter, deprived of its petals, over
the stigma, or hy transferring it on the point of
a camePs-hair pencil, from one flower to the other.
The seeds of the fruit, thus yielded, partake of the
nature of both ; and the trees growing from them,
bear fruit of various intermediate mixtures.

In performing these operations, it is necessary
to use these precautions : — The flower must be de-
prived of its stamens before they burst and disperse
their pollen ; as soon as the stigma becomes gluti-
nous so as to hold the pollen, it must be applied;
otherwise the stigma may be inoculated with the
pollen of its own or some other flower, and then
the intended pollen will not take. For, a stigma
once inoculated, cannot be inoculated again. It is
safest to force the tree to be inoculated, a few days
forward of other trees, so as to secure it from acci-
dental inoculations by pollen floating in the air, or
spread by bees.1* From want of these precautions,
many fancy they have obtained hybrids, when they
only have natural seedlings.!

" The sorts," says Loudon, " proper for crossing,
appear to be those which have many qualities in
common, and some different qualities. A small

* A temporary covering of gauze will exclude these in-
sects.

f Gardener's Chronicle.

40 PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES.

sized apple crossed by a large sort, will be more
certain of producing a new variety; but it will be
almost equally certain of producing a variety desti-
tute of valuable qualities; the qualities of parents
of so opposite natures being as it were crudely
jumbled together in the offspring."

Some of the best varieties thus obtained, are
Coe's Golden Drop plum, from the white Mag-
num Bonum or Egg plum, and the Green Gage ;
the Elton cherry, from the White Heart, and
Big&rreau ; Knight's Early Black, and Waterloo,
from the Mayduke and Bigarreau ; the Downton
pippin, the red and yellow Ingestrie, and Grange
pippin, from the seed of the Orange pippin and
pollen of the Golden pippin. The Bringwood pip-
pin was produced from Golden pippin blossoms,
(divested of their stamens,) dusted with the pollen
of the Golden Harvey apple.*

The limits within which experiments of this kind
may be successfully practiced, are narrow. Cross-
fertilization rarely takes place between different
species, unless they are nearly related to each
other. The offspring of different species is fre-
quently sterile, or if it possess the power of multi-
plying itself, by seed, its progeny returns to the
state of one or the other of its parents.

But there are some exceptions. A gooseberry,
current, and black currant, are species of the same

* London.

PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES. 441

genus and nearly related, but hybrids between
them have never been produced. Neither have
any ever been obtained between the apple and the
pear, or the pear and quince. But different species
of other plants, as of the Heaths, and some of the
Cacti, intermingle freely. The Rhododendron will
fertilize the Azaleas, and the Red Cedar has
been made to inoculate the American Arbor-vitse,
though both these examples are between plants of
different genera.

CHAPTEE VI.

PROPAGATION BY BUDDING AND GRAFTING, BY
LAYERS AND BY CUTTINGS.

WHEN trees are raised from seeds, as already ex-
plained, there is no certainty that the same identi-
cal variety will be produced. In many cases, the
shade of variation will scarcely be perceptible ; in
others it will be wide and distinct. It hence be-
comes desirable to adopt some other mode of pro-
pagation, for the purpose of multiplying varieties
of peculiar excellence which already exist, instead
of creating new ones. This is effected usually in
four ways; 1, by Cuttings; 2, by Layers; 3, by
Grafting ; 4, by Budding.

I. CUTTINGS.

This is the simplest mode of multiplying a vari-
ety. It consists merely in cutting off a branch or
shoot from the tree, and inserting it into the soil,
leaving the upper end above the surface. The
moisture of the soil supplies the sap. The buds
swell, the leaves spread, and the elaborated juice
for the formation of new wood passes down-
ward in the inner bark, as in other cases of

PROPAGATION BY LAYERS. 43

growth ; on arriving at the lower end of the shoot,
it expends itself in the production of new roots,
which shoot downwards into the soil. A new
plant or tree is thus formed. This method of pro-
pagation is applicable to such species only as rea-
dily throw out roots, as the currant, gooseberry,
quince, and grape. * A shoot should be taken of
sufficient length, to contain a good portion of sap
within it ; and to keep it from drying, it is best to
place the cutting below the surface, except one or
two buds on the upper extremity. Even these may
be covered with leaves or moss. Some operators
are careful to cut off the lower end close to a leaf-
bud, or close below a joint if the cutting is a vine,
believing it facilitates more readily the emission of
roots, which the thick, hard bark obstructs.

II. LAYERS.

Many plants which cannot be increased by
cuttings, and indeed with great difficulty by bud-
ding and grafting, may be propagated readily
by layers. This consists in bending down the
tranches to the ground, and covering the mid-
dle portion with soil. This portion takes root, and
then the branch is separated. Layers differ from

* Cuttings of the apple and pear, are sometimes made to
strike roots, when placed in very favorable circumstances
under a bell glass to confine the moisture; but in open air,
never. The stories which go the rounds of the papers every
few years, of making trees by sticking cuttings into potatoes,
or covering them with wax, are not founded on fact.

44 PROPAGATION BY LAYERS.

the cuttings, by maintaining their connexion with
the main plant, and receiving its nourishment, until
roots are formed. When these are freely emitted,
simply bending the middle of the branch into the
soil is enough to ensure success. But in cases of
difficulty, other expedients are resorted to ; one of
the most common is to split a portion of it up to the
origin of a bud ; which enables the newly forming
roots to pass freely and at once into the soil, with-
out the resistance of the thick bark, which they
otherwise must pierce. Sometimes the branch is
cut partly off to intercept the downward passage of
the fluids and induce them to form into roots. At
other times a wire ligature, or the removal of a
narrow ring of bark, effects the same purpose.
Burying the layer several inches under the surface
is necessary to keep it in moist earth ; and in
drouth, moderate watering would be beneficial.
A small excavation of the soil at the spot is conve-
nient ; and when the branch is stiff, it must be
fastened down with a forked stick.

The excavation should be made with a spade.
Use both hands in bending the shoot, so that it
may not be bent too short, and break. • If properly
done, it will press against the nearest side of the
hole, rest on the bottom, and rise up, pressing
against the opposite side, when it should be fasten-
ed, upright, to a small stake. At the time of bend-
ing, a sod or other weight may be laid on to keep

GRAFTING. 45

it down till the hole is filled ; and if the mellow
earth be pressed firmly down with the foot, no
forked stick will be usually necessary.

Layering is largely made use of in propagating
the grape, occasionally for the quince, and some-
times for the apple. It is also of very extensive
application in propagating many ornamental trees

and shrubs.

\

III. GRAFTING.

The great number of modes described in books,
have tended rather to bewilder than to enlighten
beginners ; the following remarks, therefore, are
more for the purpose of laying down reasons on
which success depends, than for pointing out the
peculiar modes of operation, which may be varied
according to convenience, provided attention is
given to the essential particulars.

Propagation by grafting differs mainly and es-
sentially from increasing by cuttings, by inserting
the cutting into the growing stock of another tree,
instead of directly into the soil. The stock thus
supplies the sap, as the soil does in the case of a
cutting ; and the graft, instead of making roots of
its own, extends its forming wood downwards,
through the inner bark, into the stock itself. Hence
there are two chief requisites for success : the first,
that the graft be so set in the stock, that the sap
may flow upward without interruption; and the

46 GRAFTING.

second, that the forming- wood may flow downward
uninterruptedly through the inner bark.

To effect these two requisites, it is needful, jfrff,
that the operation be performed with a sharp knife,
that the vessels and pores may be cut smoothly and
evenly, and the two parts be brought into immedi-
ate and even contact. Secondly, that the operation
be so contrived that a permanent and considerable
pressure be applied to keep all parts of these cut
faces closely together. Thirdly, that the line of
division between the inner bark and the wood,
should coincide or exactly correspond in each ; for
if the inner bark of the one sets wholly on the
wood of the other, the upward current through the
wood and back through the bark, is broken, and
the graft cannot flourish nor grow. And, fourthly,
that the wounded parts made by the operation, be
effectually excluded from the external air, chiefly
to retain a due quantity of moisture in the graft,
but also to exclude the wet, until, by the growth of
the graft, the union is effected.

1. The first requisite is best attained by keeping
a keen, flat-bladed knife to cut the faces, and
another knife for other purposes.

2. The second requires that the jaws of the stock
in cleft-grafting; press with some force, but not too
much, against the wedge-shaped sides of the graft.
A stock one-third of an inch in diameter will some-
times do this sufficiently ; but three-quarters of an

GRAFTING. 47

inch is a more convenient size. In whip-grafting,
the tongue and slit should he firmly crowded or
hound together.

3. The third requisite is attained hy close exa-
mination.

4. The fourth is accomplished hy plasters of
graft ing- wax, and by the application of grafting-
clay. Grafting- wax may be made by melting to-
gether one pound of beeswax, two of tallow, and
four of rosin.* It is spread, when melted or soften-
ed, on muslin or thin unsized paper, with a brush
or spatula. It is sometimes applied without plas-
ters, in which case it should be worked with wet
hands, until it may be drawn out into ribbons of
wax, which are wrapped round the part. In all
cases it should be applied closely, so as to allow if
possible no interstices, and cover every cut or split
surface otherwise exposed to the air. In cool
weather, a lantern, chafing-dish, or hot brick, is
necessary to soften the plasters before applying
them.

The annexed figures represent the two most
common modes usually adopted for fruit-trees; fig.
1, representing whip-grafting, which if well per-
formed with the parts closely pressed together,
needs no ligature to keep the graft to its place ;
and fig. 2, the common mode, or cleft-grafting,

* More wax and less rosin is less adhesive to the hands,
but more expensive.

48 BUDDING.

which, except for small stocks, is generally found
best and most certain of success.

It is hardly necessary here to
mention that propagation by graft-
ing and by cuttings is to be per-
formed early in spring before the
buds swell ;* and that the grafts or
cuttings may be cut late in autumn
or at any time during winter, pro-
vided the natural moisture is pre-
served until they are used. A con-
Fig, i. Fig 2. venient mode of thus preserving
them, is to wrap or imbed them in damp, not wet,
moss; or bury them in a box, beneath the surface
of a dry spot of earth, the box to be open down-
wards, and the grafts to be kept from contact with
the earth by sticks across the inside of the box.

IV. BUDDING, t

This is performed by introducing the bud of one
tree, with a portion of bark and a little wood adher-
ing to it, beneath the bark of another tree, and
upon the face of the newly forming wood. It is to
be performed while the stock is in a state of vigor-
ous growth. An incision is made lengthwise

* Grafts, if kept in a cold place, in a dormant state, till the
leaves of the stock are expanded, may generally be inserted
with success, if of the apple and pear. Cuttings are used at
various seasons of the year, in hot-house culture.

f Sometimes termed " Inoculating."

BUDDING. 49

through the bark of the stock, and a small cut at
right angles at the top, the whole somewhat re-
sembling the letter T. A bud is then taken from
a shoot of the present year's growth, by shaving
off the bark an inch or an inch and a half in length
with a small part of the wood directly beneath the
bud. The edges of the bark at the incision in the
stock are then raised a little, and the bud pushed
downwards under the bark. A bandage of bass,
corn-husk, or other substance, is then wrapped
snugly round, covering all parts but the bud ; and
even this may be covered if not very prominent,
especially if the pressure be rather less than on

other parts. The pressure should be sufficient to
keep the inserted portion closely to the stock, but
not such as to bruise or cut the bark. Fig. 3, rep-
resents the operation ; a the cut stock, b the bu.d
4

t>0 BUDDING.

ready to insert, and c the whole after the ligature
is applied.

When by growth, the bandage cuts into the
stock, usually in ten days to three weeks, it is to
be removed. The bud remains dormant till the
following spring, when the stock is cut off an inch
or more above it. If cut closer, the end of the
stock sometimes dies and the b.ud perishes. All
other buds must be.then removed, and all the vigor
of the stock thrown*into the remaining bud, which
immediately commences a rapid growth.

The essential requisites for success in budding
are, first, a thrifty, rapidly growing stock, so that
the bark will peel very freely. Secondly, a proper
time ; not too early, when there is little cambium,
or mucilaginous cement between the bark and the
wood, for the adhesion of the bud, — nor too late,
when the bark will not peelireely, nor the subse-
quent growth sufficiently cement the bud to the
wood. Thirdly, wood sufficiently mature from
which the buds are taken. Fourthly, a keen flat
knife, for shaving off the bud, that it may lie
closely upon the wood of the stock. Fifthly, the '
application of a ligature with moderate pressure,
causing the bud to fit closely to the stock.

Various modifications have been proposed for the

'improvement of budding. One is to make the

cross-cut at the bottom of the long slit instead of

at the top, as the latter is supposed to impede the

BUDDING. 51

descent of nourishment. Another is to raise the
bark all on one side of the slit, making a small
notch in the edge of the bark for the bud, this
mode being supposed to avoid the bad consequences
of the mutilation of the wood by the knife. But
these modes are both inconvenient, and are found
to possess no advantage in practice ; the supposed
evils they are intended to obviate being too small
to take into account.

Budding is performed in summer, grafting in
spring, and both have their advantages. Budding
is a simpler operation and more successfully per-
formed by a novice. It is also the best means to
multiply the peach and nectarine, grafting very
rarely proving successful. But it requires in all
cases thrifty stocks. In England, where most fruit
trees do not make so rapid a growth as here> bud-
ding is less esteemed; while from the moisture of
the climate preserving grafts from dying, grafting
becomes more successful.

In former ages of the world, it was supposed
that grafting, the origin of which is hid in the ob-
scurity of antiquity, could be performed between
every species of tree and shrub. Roses, it was
said, became black when grafted on black currants,
and oranges crimson if worked oh the pomegranate.
But the operation is never successful unless the
graft and stock are nearly allied, and the greater
the affinity the more certain the success. " Varie-

5£ GRAFTING.

ties of the same species unite most freely, then
species of the same genus, then genera of the same
natural order ; beyond which the power does not
extend. For instance, pears work freely upon
pears, very well on quinces, less willingly on ap-
ples or thorns, and not at all upon plums or cher-
ries ; while the lilac will take on the ash, and the
olive on the Phillyrea, because they are plants of
the same natural order. M. De Candolle even
says that he has succeeded, notwithstanding the
great difference in their vegetation, to work the li-
lac on the Phillyrea, the olive on the ash, and the
Bignonia radicans on the Catalpa (in all cases of
the same natural order;) but plants so obtained, are
very short-lived."*

There are however some exceptions to this rule.
Thus, the cultivated cherry, and most species of
wild cherry, though of the same genus, will not
agree. The pear succeeds better on the quince
than on the apple, although the apple and pear are
within the same genus, and the pear and quince
are by most regarded as of distinct genera ; the
superior firmness of the wood of the quince, a
quality so important to successful grafting, more
than making up the difference in affinity.

Lindley mentions also some exceptions which
are apparent only. In one case, the fig was sup-
posed to grow on the olive. But the graft, being

* Lindley, Theory Hort.

GRAFTING. 53

below the surface of the soil, rooted in it, independ-
ently of the fig stock. Pliny speaks of a tree
grafted to bear, on the same stem, pears, apples,
figs, plums, olives, almonds, grapes, &c. This, if
true, was perhaps by a similar process to that now
performed in Italy, for growing jasmines and other
flexible plants, on an orange stock, by the mere
cheat of boring out the orange stem, through which
the stems of the other plants are made to pass, and
which soon grow so as to fill it closely, and to ap-
pear as if growing together, the roots interming-
ling. They are, of course, very short-lived.

CHAPTER VII.

SOIL, SITUATION, AND ENCLOSURES.

SOIL.

THE soil for fruit- trees, as well as for farm crops,
should be good. Whatever kind will usually pro-
mote a vigorous growth of corn or potatoes, will in
general be best for fruit trees. Sterile soil is un-
favorable for both ; but especially so for the latter,
for while it only lessens in quantity the growth of
farm crops, it lessens the quantity and greatly in-
jures the quality of fruit.

Good soils vary in many particulars; but as a
general rule, one which is dry, firm, mellow and
fertile, is well suited to the cultivation of fruit trees.
It should be deep, to allow the extension of the roots ;
dry, or else well drained, to prevent injury from
stagnant water below the surface ; firm, and not
peaty or spongy, to preclude disaster from frost.

Very few soils exist in this country, which would
not be much benefited, for all decidedly hardy kinds,
as the apple and pear, by good manuring. Shal-
low soils should be loosened deeply by heavy far-
rows and manure ; or if the whole surface cannot
be thus treated, a strip of ground eight feet wide,
where the row of trees is to stand, should be ren-

SOIL. 55

dered in this way deep and fertile for their growth.
The manure should be very thoroughly intermixed
with the soil by repeated harrowings. The kinds
of trees which will not bear so much fertility, are
those brought originally from warmer countries,
and liable to suffer from the frost of winter ; as the
peach, nectarine, and apricot ; for they are stimu-
lated to grow too late in the season, and frost
strikes them when the wood is immature.

Clayey and light soils in some cases require op-
posite management. The former, for instance, is
much benefited by the admixture of chip-dirt,
which renders it looser, lighter, and more retentive
of moisture. But on light soils the effect is not so
beneficial. Hence, while eminent success has at-
tended the use of chip-dirt on heavy soils, on dry
gravel it has in some cases been found decidedly
injurious.

Peaty and spongy soils are particularly injurious
to tender fruits. Such soils become very warm by
day, and radiate the heat rapidly in clear frosty
nights ; hence peaches and apricots generally perish
when growing in them, the heat of the sun promo-
ting a rapid succulent growth, which is the more
easily destroyed by the succeeding intensity of cold.

SITUATION.

Trees of a very hardy nature, such as the apple,
will mostly succeed well in any situation, whether

56 SITUATION.

high or low, if the soil be good. But with the
more tender kinds, the case is different. Peaches
for example, if placed in a low, warm spot, are
more liable to destruction, than if on one more cool
and elevated. The buds are started in winter by
the reflected heat of warm localities. This fijls
them with moisture, even when they increase little
in size ; and the frosts to which low sheltered pla-
ces are peculiarly liable, subsequently cause their
death. Hence a cool elevated situation, by obvia-
ting this evil, is to be preferred.

Practice accords entirely with theory on this
subject. An early settler of Wayne County, N.
Y. succeeded in raising crops of peaches for twenty-
three successive years, — and all but two of them
abundant, — by planting his peach orchard on a hill
a hundred feet above his dwelling ; although one
crop in five is usually destroyed on the ordinary
level, and nearly half the crops in low places.
Many other experiments have given a similar result.
There is little doubt that many parts of the north-
ern states, where the peach is wholly uncultivated,
would admit of its successful culture, by leaving
the low and warm valleys, and occupying the
neighboring heights.

But there are some apparent exceptions. Where
a deep lake, not freezing in winter, lies in the bot-
tom of a valley, its softening influence on the
frosty air prevents injury. Sometimes the effect

ENCLOSURES. 57

of unfavorable soil more than overbalances that of
situation. In some of the hilly parts of western
New- York, where the highest land is peaty, spongy,
or springy, and the valleys dry and firm, the latter
are found best for the peach. " Some years ago,
we drained a shallow swamp ; and though the
situation is high and airy, peach trees of the best
bearing kinds planted there, have always been un-
productive."*

ENCLOSURES.

This subject is of the most vital consequence to
all who would cultivate fine fruit. The morality
of some Americans, whatever it may be on other
points, is, on this, far behind the ages of barbarism.
A large part of our population is brought up to re-
gard fine fruit, — wherever it may be growing, —
whatever of money, and time, and labor, and pa-
tience, it may have cost the public-spirited owner, —
as common plunder. Hence the great uncertainty
and slim hope, with which many regard all attempts
to possess this delicious luxury. Why the young
man, who pilfers from the pocket-book, is to be
scouted from society, — while he, who takes what
has cost the owner more, what he values more, and
which money will not replace, is allowed to run at
large, is one of the anomalies of the times.t

* D. Thomas, Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc. Vol. I. See
some additional facts under the head Peach in this work,
t " The native fruit of a thickly populated country, grow-

58 ENCLOSURES.

But such is the evil, and it becomes cultivators to
guard against it as effectually as possible. Apples,
except the early varieties, are not much liable to
be stolen; but all early fruit, including cherries,
pears, apples, plums, apricots, and peaches, and all
the delicious sorts which ripen through autumn, are
pre-eminently liable to the attacks of these relent-
less marauders. Hence all these kinds should be
effectually protected by a thorn hedge. A good
dog is often a great help ; but a hedge, which a boy
cannot pass, is most quiet and secure.

The English hawthorn has been much used in
America for hedges, and in some cases has con-
ing without culture, and free for all, has doubtless had its
share in producing this laxity of morals. e I would sooner
have a hundred Irishmen round me than one Yankee,' was
the declaration of a sufferer, whose fruit had been plundered
near the line of the Erie canal, when that great work was in
progress. But Europeans are generally more exemplary on
this point than Americans — shame onus! When Professor
Stowe was in Prussia, where the roads are lined with fruit
trees by order of the government, he observed a wisp of
straw attached to particular trees, to protect the fruit ; a suf-
ficient guard; but he suggested to the coachman, that in
America, it might only prove an invitation to plunder.
'Have you no schools ?' was the significant reply.

" Yes, we have schools; but how many where the child is
taught to respect his neighbor's property ? Too often he ac-
quires literature and vice at the same time. The state of
New-York is famous for her schools and her prisons : the lat-
ter to supply the defects of the former system, which they do
however, very imperfectly. Better let the mandate go
forth that the morality of the Bible shall be one of the chief
objects of instruction. TEACH HER CHILDREN TO BE
HONEST, and then with science and literature, a foundation
for true greatness and prosperity would be laid." — David
Thomas, in Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc. Vol. I, p. 223.

ENCLOSURES. 59

tinued to succeed well. But the heavy losses from
its sudden death in others, render it too uncertain
for dependance. The Newcastle thorn, (Cratcegus
crus-galli,) appears to have failed in no case what-
ever ; and its formidable spines render it effectual
against all intruders. It is, however, hard to pro-
cure ; and in common with all trees for hedges, it
needs constant cultivation of the soil while young,
and cutting down until the growth becomes impene-
trably thick. For a fruit-garden, however, other
trees or shrubs may be used, provided a high board
or picket fence is kept up besides. This fence will
keep out cattle, and all law abiding animals; while
a row of terrific thorns will keep out lawless ones.*

* The Michigan Rose, of very vigorous growth, and suffi-
ciently prickly, is very formidable in conjunction with a
picket fence. It may be questioned whether any marauder
would attempt to cross it where it grows thick, over-topping
and winding among the pickets. It grows freely from cut-
tings set in a rich mellow soil. — D. Thomas.

CHAPTER VIII.

TRANSPLANTING.

" WHEN young trees are taken from the nursery,
inquiry is often made how soon they will come in-
to bearing ? It is a very proper question, and it
would be a proper answer to say : — Very much ac-
cording to the treatment they shall get. When
they are set in holes cut out of a sod, just large
enough to receive the roots with some crowding,
and are then left to take care of themselves, we
have no right to expect them to come soon into
bearing, nor to bear much when they do. Neither
half starved cows, nor half starved trees will be
found profitable. In the latter case especially,
the interest on the purchase money is generally
lost for some years, and not unfrequently the pur-
chase too ; but we hardly ever lose a tree in good
condition, set in mellow ground, which is kept mel-
low."*

It is obvious that if a tree could be removed with
all its roots, and placed in its new situation precise-
ly as it stood before, it would suffer no check in

* D. Thomas, in Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc. Vol. I.

TRANSPLANTING.

61

growth. The nearer, then, we can approach this,
the greater will be our success.

Hence a first and essential point is to remove
the tree with as little tearing of the roots as possi-
ble. The spade should be set into the earth at a
distance from the tree, and the whole carefully
lifted, not forcibly drawn, from the soil. The roots
should then be dipped in thick mud, prepared for
the occasion, which will coat them over, prevent
them from drying, and assist in forming a close
bed of earth round them when they are set out.
Nurserymen, who send trees to a distance, some-
times neglect this ; if so, it should be done as soon
as they are received by the purchaser.

" Newly planted trees being acted on as levers
by the wind, often press the earth round their stems
aside, and make an opening down to their roots,
which in consequence suffer from both drouth and
disturbance. To prevent this disaster, it is there-
fore important that stakes should be pro-
vided to support and stiffen them. If
driven before the trees are planted, they
may be erect, as in fig. 4 ; if driven af-
terwards, they may be slanting ; and in
both cases, straw bands should be first
wrapped once round, to prevent the trees
from chafing."*
" Fig. 4? The hole should in all cases be large

* David Thomas, in Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc. Vol. I.

9t

62 TRANSPLANTING.

enough to receive freely all the roots when
spread out, without bending, just as they lay
in the soil before. Fine mellow earth is to be fill-
ed in among them, and the fingers used to spread
out all the fibres during the operation. No empty
space among them should be-left; but the roots
should be closely imbedded on every side, and es-
pecially under the middle of the tree. Downing
says, " Nine-tenths of the deaths from transplant-
ing, arise from the hollows left among the roots, by
a careless and rapid mode of shoveling in the
earth." A pail of water dashed in among the roots
before the hole is quite filled, is eminently service-
able in settling the soil about them, and should not
be omitted. The surrounding soil soon absorbs all
the superabundant water, and leaves them in fine
condition for growing.

When roots are bruised or mutilated in removal,
their broken and ragged extremities remain open
to the introduction of water, and decay follows.
If all such parts are pared off smoothly with a sharp
knife, the vessels contract, and the wound heals by
granulations.

It is desirable that nearly the same depth should
be preserved; when trees are transplanted, as be-
fore. But the mellow earth should rise two or three
inches above the surrounding surface, to allow for
its subsequent settling.

The size of the holes should depend somewhat

TRANSPLANTING. 63

upon circumstances. If the soil has been already
rendered fertile and mellow to the depth of nearly
a foot, very large holes are not needed. But
where this has not, or cannot he done, holes not
less than six feet in diameter and fifteen inches
deep should be made. The soil should be placed
by the hole ready for filling in again ; and the less
fertile subsoil scattered back out .of the way. If
this large hole is. then filled with tich mellow
mould, it will form a fine bed for the easy and rapid
extension of the new roots, which otherwise would
have to force their way slowly through a hard sub-
soil. The resulting advantages, in thriftiness and
fine fruit, will many times repay the cost of the ad-
ditional labor.

Fresh manure should never come in contact with
the roots ; but earth enriched by previous manur-
ing and cultivation, is of very great advantage.

Much discussion has taken place on the relative
advantages of autumn and spring transplanting.
When the work is well done, as it always should
be, both are successful. For apple and other hardy
trees, autumn is perhaps rather the best, as the soil
becomes well settled about the roots, and the trees
commence growing without interruption in spring.*

* The remark of Dr. Lindley that early fall transplanting
is decidedly best, by permitting the formation of small roots
and a consequent establishment of the tree in the soil before
winter, though applicable to the moist climate and long- mild
autumns of England, is not so here, where the growth while

64 TRANSPLANTING.

The more tender trees, as apricots and peaches, re-
moved to a colder region, may be in more danger, if
the roots have been much mutilated and the setting
out badly done. A neighbor purchased fifty peach
trees in the autumn, and lost half of them the fol-
lowing severe winter ; another bought fifty the
next spring, and lost only one. Was this a conclu-
sive proof that spring planting was best ? By no
means; for in the former case they were set out in
grass land, and received no culture; in the latter,
they had the best care. The same autumn another
purchaser, saved all his peach trees by good man-
agement ; the same spring another lost. most of his
by neglect. We may hence infer that good manage-
ment is of incomparably more importance than the
season of the year.

But there are many things to be taken into ac-
count in drawing conclusions. It has been remark-
ed that tender trees taken to a colder climate may
be in danger of winter frosts. Good, thrifty, and
well ripened wood, however, where the trees have
/ grown on high, dry, firm soil, even from a warmer
region of country, would be much safer than tre,es
of succulent growth and badly ripened wood, from
a colder. So again, trees equally hardy, might
perish when set out on a low, sheltered place, or on
a wet soil, while they would endure the severest

it lasts is more rapid, its cessation more sudden, and the dry-
ness of the air unfavorable to removal before growth ceases.

TRANSPLANTING. 65

rigors of our winters on a drier and more elevated
piece of ground.

Again, success has sometimes attended careless
transplanting; while on the other hand, the great-
est care has resulted in loss. In the first instance,
the trees may have been in the best condition, the
roots uninjured, the soil just right, and every at-
tending circumstance favorable. In the other,
every thing may have been done right, but some
accidental disaster proved ruinous. A neighbor, as
an instance, set out several peach trees in autumn
in a first rate manner ; but his soil was low, and
became soaked with water in winter, causing their
death. Removal from high and exposed, to low and
frosty ground, or the reverse, may often influence
the result. Even a wet subsoil, where the surface
has been dry, has destroyed tender trees in winter,
as the apricot, without removal.

Again, when the soil is a heavy clay, and holds
water like a tub, tender trees are in great danger
from autumn transplanting, unless provision is made
for draining the holes ; which may be effected by
running a deep furrow from one hole to the other,
along the line of trees, and using brush, cornstalks,
or straw, as a temporary under-drain for the water
to soak away.

It sometimes happens, when trees are received
from a distance after long delay on the road, that
they become dry and withered, and giveli#j:<rfiope

5

66 TRANSPLANTING.

of growing. They may be often saved however,
by burying them wholly in the earth, until they
become plump by the absorption of moisture into
the stem and branches. Some put the trees in wa-
ter half way up the stems for a day or so.

The question is often asked, How large may
young fruit trees be, for safe removal? This de-
pends very much on their management previously,
as well as at the time of the operation. If they
have been occasionally transplanted while yet in
the nursery, thus shortening the long roots, and in-
creasing in number the short ones, they are easily
taken up without mutilation, and the danger is
greatly lessened in every case. Trees of small or
moderate size, meet with little check in growth,
where this preparatory work has been performed ;
and those much larger are transplanted with safety,
whose size would otherwise almost preclude it. In
some European nurseries, it is common to keep
fruit trees until they bear, keeping the roots short,
so that the purchaser examines the fruit on the tree,
when he makes a selection.

The apprehended danger from transplanting
trees may be exceedingly reduced, if not Avholly
removed, by an attention to the requisites already
laid down, viz : —

1. Carefully digging up the tree.

2. Pruning off all bruised parts.

3. Immersing the roots in mud.

TRANSPLANTING. 67

4. Filling large holes with rich mellow earth.

5. Staking to prevent injury by the wind.

6. Filling up closely all empty spaces among the
Toots.

7. Spreading the small roots out on all sides.

8. Setting the trees no deeper than before.

9. Selecting good, dry, firm soil, and avoiding
standing water on or below the surface.

10. Occasional previous transplanting to prepare
the roots.

CHAPTER IX.

CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.

THE importance of good transplanting has been
already noticed ; yet very few practice it as xt should
be done.

There is another department in the care of fruit
trees, still less known and appreciated, and still
more important ; perhaps not so much so m itself
as from its almost universal neglect, and the con-
sequent disastrous results. This is thorough cul-
tivation of the soil. For, of many hundreds of
trees which the writer has seen transplanted by
various cultivators, more have been lost from NEG-
LECTED AFTER-CULTURE, than from all other causes
put together.

Persons who purchase young trees treat them
variously, as follows : '

1. Some kill them at once by drying them in
the sun or wind, or freezing them in the cold.

2. Others kill them by crowding the roots into
small holes in hard ground, where they can never
flourish, and rarely live.

3. Others set them out well, but that is all.
This done, they consider the whole work as finish-

CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. 69

ed. The trees are suffered to become choked with
grass, weeds, or crops of grain — some live and linger,
others die under the hardship ; or else are broken
off by cattle, or broken, down by the team which
cultivates the ground.

An intelligent friend purchased fifty very fine
peach trees, handsomely rooted, and of vigorous
growth ; they were well set out in a field contain-
ing a fine crop of heavy clover and timothy. The
following summer was very dry ; and a luxuriant
growth of meadow grass nearly obscured them from
sight. What was the consequence ? Most of
them necessarily perished.

Another person bought sixty, of worse quality in
growth ; he set them out well, and kept them well
cultivated with potatoes. He lost but one tree ;
and /continuing to cultivate them with low hoed
crops, they now promise to afford loads of rich
peaches, before the dead stubs of his neighbor, just
mentioned, have disappeared from his grounds.

Another neighbor a year ago bought fifty good
trees. Passing his house late in summer, he said
to me, " I thought a crop of wheat one of the best
for young peach trees ?" — " Just the reverse; it is
one of the worst — all sown crops are injurious, all
low hoed ones beneficial." — " Well," answered he,
" I have found it so — my fifty trees all lived it is
true, but I have lost one year of their growth by
my want of knowledge." His trees were examined ;

70 CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.

they were in an excellent soil, and had been well
set out. All the rows but one had stood in a field
of wheat ; that one was hoed with a crop of pota-
toes. The result was striking. Of the trees that
stood among the wheat, some had made shoots the
same year, an inch long, some two inches, and a
very few, five or six inches. While on the other
hand, on nearly every one that grew with the po-
tatoes, new shoots a foot and a half could be found,
and on some the growth had been two feet, two
and a half, and three feet. Other cases have fur-
nished nearly as decisive contrasts.

An eminent cultivator of fine fruit, whose trees
have borne for many years, says in a late letter,
u My fruit garden would be worth twice as much
as it is, if the trees had been planted in thick rows
two rods apart so that I could have cultivated 'them
with the plough. Unless fruit grows on thrifty
trees, we can form no proper judgment of it. Some
that we have cultivated this season, after a long
neglect, seem like new kinds, and the flavor is in
proportion to the size. Bearing trees often stand
in thick grass, and poor crops and poor fruit are
the usual result ; and the nurseryman who sold
them is not unfrequently pronounced a rogue for
thus distributing worthless kinds, when good cul-
tivation would wholly change their character.

The " thick rows" two rods apart, spoken of in the
preceding extract, may be composed of trees which

CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. 71

stand from six to ten feet apart in the rows. This
mode admits of deep and thorough cultivation, and
the team can pass freely in one direction, until
close to the row, where the soil need not he turned

Fig. 5. Fig. 6.

up so deeply, or so as to injure the roots. Fig. 5
exhibits this mode of planting ; and Fig. 6, another
mode, where the trees are in hexagons or on the
corners of eqilateral triangles, and are thus more
equally distributed over the ground than by any
other arrangement. They may thus be cultivated
in three directions. For landscape effect, this is
undoubtedly better than any other regular order.

Trees are frequently mutilated in cultivating the
ground with a team; to obviate this diffiulty, ar-
range the horses when they work near the line of
trees, one before the other, ad tandem; let a boy
ride the forward one, use long traces, and a short
whipple-tree, and place the whole in the charge of
a careful man who knows that one tree is worth
more than fifty hills of corn or potatoes, and no
danger need be feared.

When it becomes necessary for trees to stand in
grass, as in some instances near dwellings, a circle
of several feet round each tree, must be kept mellow

72 CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.

by the spade. The work should
be shallow near the tree to pre-
vent injury to the roots, and grad-
ually deepen as it recedes. This
operation when repeated several
times during summer, has been
known to increase the growth
fiye f0^. But a not less import-
Fig. 8. ant result is the exclusion of the
mice, for which this is by far the most effectual
method, if the surface is raised nine or ten inches
round the tree just before winter. The grass no
longer affords these animals any hiding place ; and
the embankment round the stem prevents the col-
lection of deep snow. It proves completely effect-
ual. Fig. 8 represents the mode in which this
embanking should be done.*

Among the crops which are best suited to young
trees, are potatees, ruta bagas, beets, carrots, beans,
and all low hoed crops. Corn, though a hoed crop,
is of too tall a growth, shading young trees too much
by its formidable stalks. All sown crops are to be
avoided,! and grass is still worse. Meadows are

* The writer has often saved young trees of the pear and
apple, which have been girdled by mice, by fitting in small
pieces of wood with the fresh bark, so as to restore the con-
connexion between the two severed portions of the bark,
covering the whole with grafting wax.

f Peas are by manjr regarded as a good crop for orchards.
They are much worse than corn which is kept hoed, though

CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. 73

ruinous. An acquaintance who purchased a hun-
dred peach trees and placed them in meadow land,
lost most of them, hy the overgrowth of the grass ;
and the. following winter the mice, who avoid clean
culture, destroyed the remainder. Every one was
lost. A clean, mellow, cultivated piece of ground,
kept so a few years, might have saved the whole
of them, and brought them soon into bearing.

the corn shades the young trees more. A friend had a large
peach orchard sown with peas, and bordered on one side
with corn, in which one row stood. Such was the benefit
to the peach trees, from the hoeing given to the corn, that the
row standing in it was conspicuously marked out by the
deeper green of its foliage, at the distance of half a mile.

CHAPTER X.

PRUNING; AND BUDDING AND GRAFTING NEW
TOPS ON OLD TREES.

FRUITS are acid in cold summers, and compara-
tively destitute of flavor. Forced fruit, grown in
winter when there is little light, cannot compare in
quality with that ripened under the full hlaze of a
summer's sun ; and melons, grown in frames cov-
ered with mats, possess none of the luscious flavor
of those cultivated in the open air. Hence the ad-
vantage of a free admission of light and air among
the branches of fruit trees, instead of allowing them
to be covered with an impenetrable shade of
leaves.*

A distinguished practical writer says, " The ad-
vantage of pruning apple trees is generally known ;
and unless many of the limbs are cut out, some of
the finest varieties become comparatively diminu-
tive and insipid. The same care, however, is rare-

* The position, with regard to shade or sunshine, where
some fruits grew, may be ascertained by their color. This
remark is very applicable to the Spitzenburgh. Such as have
been fully exposed to the sun are of a deep red, and the fla-
vor is rich in proportion to the deepness of the color; while
such as grow in the shade are pale and insipid. Hence the
necessity of good pruning.— D. Thomas.

PRUNING. 75

ly extended to other fruit trees. When the twigs
become stunted and mossy, sometimes they are
trimmed hy the tempest, or broken down by an un-
timely fall of snow ; and then the benefits of prun-
ing are manifest, even when done in that rough
style. Tt is better, however, to depend on art than
accident. As a general rule, the best flavored
fruit of the kind grows on the most vigorous branch-
es well exposed to sun and air ; and with this idea
constantly before ws, we shall hardly do amiss when
we apply the axe, the saw, or the chisel ; though
we may specify that cross branches should be lop-
ped, and thrifty shoots that have room to spread,
should be saved."

There is, however, more care and judgment
needed in pruning large trees, than perhaps any
other operation in their management. It is next to
impossible to give particular rules, as circumstances
vary so much that no two trees are to be treated
precisely alike.

The best practice, undoubtedly, is trimming
moderately every year or two, as trees may need it,
which obviates the necessity of cutting away much
at a time, or making large wounds by sawing off
heavy branches.

A very common error in pruning old trees, con-
sists in trimming up the branches to a height of
ten or fifteen feet from the ground ; which, without
much benefiting the growth of the tree, renders its

76

PRUNING.

appearance extremely unsightly, and precludes the
possibility of gathering the fruit without great dif-

Fig. 9.

ficulty. Fig. 9, represents two specimens of bad
pruning, such as are frequently seen. Fig. 10,
shows how they ought to
be trimmed, to cause a new,
thrifty and neat head, not
so high as to be above easy
reach, nor so low as to pre-
vent the cultivation of the
ground.

In heading down all large
trees, it will be obvious that
Fig. 10. the broad wounds need a

covering ; the best, is a mixture of tar and brick-
dust, applied hot to the fresh surface. A portion
of the branches should always be left to shade the

PRUNING. 77

south-west side from the hot sun, until new branch-
es have grown.

"Nothing," says A. J. Downing, "is more gene-
eral, of late years, than complaints of the short pe-
riod of productiveness in the peach tree, through-
out the middle states. Although this is often ow-
ing to the worm, which girdles the tree at the root,
yet the almost total neglect of pruning is a frequent
cause of sterility and decay. When left to itself,
the interior of the head of the tree becomes filled
with small dead branches, and the trunk and larg-
er limbs bark-bound and moss-covered ; the whole
tree is enfeebled ; leaves are only produced at the
extremity of the long branches, and the fruit
borne, if any, is comparatively worthless."

A convenient time* of year for pruning bearing
apple trees, is late in autumn and winter. The
wounds dry, and the vessels contract, and prevent
the flow of sap from them in spring, which always
takes place when the work is done while the sap is
first in motion. After a time, however, the demand
upon the system by the newly formed leaves, be-
comes so great that there is no surplus, and the ef-
fusion of the sap from the wound ceases. Hence,
summer has also been found a favorable time ; al-
though the leisure season of winter gives it the
preference. All wounds, more than an inch in di-
ameter, should have a coating of tar and brick-
dust.

78 PRUNING.

Small trees may be pruned with safety at any
season of the year. Summer is usually found to
be the most convenient.

When a branch or portion of a tree is cut off, the
vigor of the sap from the roots is thrown into the
rest. If, for instance, there are fifty leaf buds on a
young tree, and all the buds are removed but one,
the whole strength will be thrown into that one ;
it will receive all the sap, and soon form a single
thrifty stem of itself. It has hence been thought
that pruning young trees closely when transplant-
ed, would be beneficial in the same vvay ; but it
must be remembered that the roots of a transplant-
ed tree are not in the state of vigor which they
would otherwise possess. On the other hand, the
great object is to restore the roots, which are shot
forth only in proportion to the action of the leaves.
As many of the branches and leaves, therefore,
should be suffered to remain as the case will admit ;
for if there be too many, the perspiration from
them will exhaust the tree faster than the roots
will restore. When, therefore, the roots are but
little injured, little or no pruning will be advisa-
ble ; and it is only to be resorted to in proportion •
to the amount of mutilation of the roots.

It often happens that fruit on large trees is
worthless, and it becomes an important object to
change the top, by grafting or budding it with
some better variety. In this case, instead of cut-

PRUNING. 79

ting off large branches and grafting them at once,
it is better to prune the top in part, as shown by
Fig. 10, page 76, which will cause an emission of
vigorous shoots. These are then budded or graft-
ed with ease and success. And, as the grafts grad-
ually extend by growth, the remainder of the top
may, by successive excisions, be entirely removed.
Where trees are not too old, and the ground is
kept cultivated, good sized trees are thus obtained
much sooner than by setting out young ones. But
those which are old, crooked, stunted or diseased,
should be rejected at once.*

* It may perhaps be expected that something should be
said on wall -train ing-, and on espaliers. The former, though
highly essential in the cool, eqjiable climate of England,
where so much is gained by a warm reflecting wall, and so
little feared from intense winters, has been little tested in
this country, though doubtless it would prove of great ser-
vice in the early ripening of many of our hardy fruits. The
latter, which consists merely in the horizontal training of the
branches in two opposite directions from the tree, is used in
gardens, where little room can be afforded for spreading
tops.

CHAPTER XL

CAUSES OF FRUITFULNESS.

WHATEVER tends to a rapid circulation of the sap,
and to increase the growth of a -tree, causes also
the formation of leaf buds instead of flower buds.
On the contrary, whatever tends to an accumula-
tion of sap in any part, or to retard its circulation,
induces the production of flower instead of leaf
buds. When trees are young, and the bark and
wood soft and flexible, the sap flows freely and
without check ; hence, leaf buds and the vigorous
growth of branches are the result ; but as trees be-
come older, and the bark and other parts more ri-
gid, they appear to offer more resistance to a free
circulation, and hence the production of flowers and
consequent fruitfulness of the tree.

This principle enables us to apply artificial
means at pleasure for the promotion of the same
objects. When trees are young and small, a rapid
growth and the attainment of size is desirable,
which is given by enriching the ground, and
thorough and constant cultivation. A neglect of
these operations, would check free growth and cir-

CAUSES OF FRTJITFULNESS. 81

culation, and cause the tree to bear. This would,
however, be at the expense of the future vigor and
size of the tree, and of the size and excellence of
the fruit. Indeed, it often happens, that with the
best treatment, trees will bear as young as their
ultimate success requires.

There are, however, some varieties, which, in
rich soil, continue growing a long time in an un-
productive state. Fruitfulness is caused in various
ways. 1. By neglecting cultivation, or suffering
grass to grow under them, which diminishes their
growth. 2. Pruning the roots beneath the surface,
by cutting off a part of the larger ones, causing the
same result. 3. Ringing the branches, or remov-
ing a small ring of bark round them, which pre-
vents the fluids from flowing back or downwards,
and consequently induces their accumulation, to
the formation of flower buds. 4. Bending the
branches downwards, causing a similar accumula-
tion with a like result. 5. Grafting on dissimilar
s tocks, which prevents a free flow of sap and j ui-
ces at the point of junction.

1. Suffering grass to grow among trees, though
beneficial in some very rare instances, is not on the
whole advisable. The loss in the quality of the
fruit is too great, and is not balanced by the advan-
tages. The complaint of unfruitfulness has been
more frequently applied to the pear; but a selec-
tion of many new sorts, originated in the present

6

82 CAUSES OF FRTJITFULNESS.

century, and which bear while yet very young, en-
tirely obviates the difficulty.

2. Pruning the roots, is of recent invention, and
in some instances has proved eminently successful,
but has not as yet been sufficiently tested in this
country.

3. Ringing the branches is effected by taking out
a narrow ring of bark, extending round the branch.
By obstructing the downward descent of the jui-
ces, and by their accumulation above the ring, it
not only causes fruitfulness, but frequently alters
the appearance and quality of the fruit. In some
cases, it has doubled the size ; in others it has
brightened the colors. In the Court Pendu apple, *
the colors are changed from green and dull red, to
brilliant yellow and scarlet. But Lindley says, " If
performed extensively upon a tree, it is apt, if not
to kill it, to render it incurably unhealthy ; for if
the rings are not sufficiently wide to cut off all
communication between the upper and lower lips
of the wound, they produce little effect, and if they
are they are difficult to heal. For these reasons,
the operation is but little employed."!

* An English variety.

f Many years ago I had a tree of the Mammoth Sweeting,
which had two principal branches. It comes into bearing
very tardily ; and I became very impatient to see the fruit.
I therefore drew my knife and cut through the bark trans-
versely, forcing open the bark by straining the knife side-
ways, as I drew it along an inch or so at a time; so that
when the ring round the branch was completed, it had a zig-

CAUSES OF FRUITFULNESS. 83

4. Bending the branches doivnwards, by changing
their natural position, as well as causing a partial
obstruction where bent, is said eminently to pro-
mote their fruitfulness.

In all these modes, it must be remembered that
the desired result will not be produced at once, as
the first year is occupied in the formation of flower
buds; and the next in their growth into fruit.
This delay, however, will not take place, where
the difficulty consists merely in the fruit not setting,
the buds being already formed.

5. The influence of the stock, when it differs in
nature from the graft, is often of importance. The
more widely they differ, the greater will be the
effect. Thus, when pears grow upon pears, the
effect is the same as when not grafted at all. But
pears on quinces are attended with an increase of
fertility. Hence the quince stock is adopted for
some otherwise sterile varieties. Such trees how-
ever, are short lived.

These artificial modes of inducing fruitfulness
are not to be recommended for general practice. It
is true that trees will yield fruit sooner; but heavy
crops from young trees are not desirable, as stunt-

zag appearance. Observe that no bark was cut out, though
the wood was scraped. This operation was very effectual
however. The next season that branch bore plentifully,
while the other branch remained as unproductive as before.
The cutting never appeared to injure the branch. — D.
Thomas.

84 CAUSES OF FRTJITFULNESS.

ing the tree and inferior fruit are often the conse-
quence. Let them grow freely for a few years,
and the amount ultimately obtained from them
will be the greater. Indeed, the period of fruit-
fulness is often hastened by cultivation and retard-
ed by neglect. Except for the sake of experiment,
the preceding modes are not to be applied until trees
are large, when most varieties will bear sufficiently
without them

CHAPTER XII.

IMPLEMENTS, &c.

THE more common tools needed, are the shovel,
the spade, and the hoe, for digging holes, trans-
planting, and cultivating the ground. The rake is
useful in mixing manures with the soil for filling
the remote parts of large holes.

INSTRUMENTS.

The pruning-knife, (fig. 11,) is a large hooked

Fig. 11

knife, for removing useless "branches. The pru-
ning-saw is needed in taking off larger limbs ; at-
tached to a handle several feet long, it will reach
those at a distance from the ground. The pruning
chisel, set on a pole or long handle, is used for the
smaller branches, by a stroke of the mallet. The

Fig. 12,

budding-knife, (fig. 12,) should have a broad, flat

IMPLEMENTS.

blade, the edge of which is to be rounded outwards
for the more ready incision of the bark.

Fig. 13.

A grafting-tool, (fig. 13,) described in the Cul-
tivator, vol. IX, p. 55, is useful in grafting large
apple trees. It may be made of iron, the edge set
with steel. It is used for splitting the stock, after
it is sawed off and pared. The part A should be
two inches broad with a sharp edge, which should
curve inwards, that the bark, in splitting, may be
cut first, to give it a smooth flat face. The wedge
B opens the stock to receive the graft. By the
hook C, it is hung on a twig close at hand, when
not in use. Grafting wedges for common use, may
be made by grinding down a large sized cut nail.

CL
Fig. 14.

A great improvement in grafting was made by
Abel Thomas of Cayuga county, N. Y., by the in-
vention and use of the grafting-shears. They con-
sist of a short thin blade of the best steel, A, fig.

IMPLEMENTS. 87

14, two or three inches long, set at an angle of
about a hundred and twenty degrees with the han-
dle B, which moves it, against a concave bed in the
wooden piece, C. The angle which the blade and
its bed form with the handles, imparts a sawing
motion to the knife, which renders it more effect-
ive. It may be used on stocks an inch or an inch
and a half in diameter. Pressing the top of the
stock from the operator with one hand, it is cut off
with remarkable ease by a single stroke given to
the shears 'with the other hand. Another perpen-
dicular stroke slits the stock for the graft, leaving
a perfectly smooth face cut for its reception. The
expedition and perfection of the work is thus greatly
facilitated.

Small shears attached to a pole and worked by a
cord, (fig. 15) are useful for cutting grafts on tall
trees ; in removing the eggs of ca-
terpillars, (see chapter on the ap-
ple ;) and in taking off fine fruit to
prevent bruising, by attaching a
basket to the pole immediately un-
der the shears. Apples, and some
of the harder fruits, may also be
Fig.'is. gathered with an iron hook or
large bent nail, in the end of a pole, to draw the
fruit from the branch, caught in a basket just un-
derneath.

In using the long handled pruning-saw, the pru-

bO IMPLEMENTS.

ning-chisel, the graft-cutter, or the fruit-gatherer,
the operator may stand on a ladder or high stool,
as an additional assistance in reaching the higher
parts of the tree.

Self-sustaining fruit-ladders are very useful in
gathering fine fruit, to prevent
mutilation and bruising of the
bark and branches. Fig. 16, is
one of small size and simple
construction, is easily carried in
_one hand, and will raise one's
Fig. 16. feet a yard or more from the

ground. It consists of a small piece of light plank
at the top, supported on legs not
larger than common chair legs.
Fig. 17, represents one from
eight to twelve feet high, the
two single legs moving on joints,
for closing against the ladder in
carrying, and spreading like a
tripod in setting up under the
Jree.

Labels for standard
fruit trees are often
needed to preserve the
names. Fig. 18, repre-
sents a simple kind,
made of a slip of wood
three inches long, hung

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18,

IMPLEMENTS. 89

to the branch by a loop of wire, of which cop-
per is best. The name will last several
years, if written with a pencil on a very
thin coat of fresh white paint. Zinc labels,
written on with a mixture of two parts
verdigris, two of sal-ammoniac, one of
lamp-black, and forty of water, well mix-
ed and dissolved, are said to be much
more durable. Lead labels, (fig. 19,)
stamped with type, and suspended with
copper wire, well twisted against the hole,

MOORPARK

Fig. 19. to prevent wearing by the motion of the
wind, are still more lasting. Fig. 20, shows the
mode of stamping, by sli-
ding the sheet lead between
two plates of iron, A, B,
screwed together, and set-
ting the types successively
against the upper plate, A,
and stamping one at a time.
Fig. 20. The letters are thus kept in

a straight line. The imprinted end of the sheet
lead is then cut off, and forms the label.*

» It is sometimes a matter of convenience to mark the
names on specimens of the fruit itself. This is quickly and
permanently done by tracing the name with a blunt stick, or
a pencil, pressing hard enough to indent the surface, but not
to tear the skin. This succeeds best on pears, the writing
soon changing color and becoming conspicuous.

PART II,

ON THE

DIFFERENT KINDS OF FRUITS.

CHAPTER I.

THE APPLE.

THIS fruit, though less delicious than the peach,
pear and apricot, possesses, from its hardiness, pro-
ductiveness, long continuance, and various uses,
an importance not equalled by any other fruit in
temperate climates.

VARIETIES. These, by continued propagation
from seed, have become very numerous. The Lon-
don Horticultural Society collected fourteen hun-
dred, three quarters of which proved to be either
fruits under different names, or else unworthy of cul-
tivation. Probably not less than two thousand have
been advertised in the nursery catalogues of the
United States within the last thirty years ; in these,
great confusion exists, both by the frequent appli-
cation of the same name to different and distinct
fruits ; and again, the same fruit is often found un-
der several different names. Some fine and well
known varieties however, do not present this diffi-
culty; their wide dissemination or clearly marked
characters, prevent the confusion so often preva-
lent. On this subject, Lindley remarks with much
truth — " In apples, a greater confusion exists in this

94 THE APPLE.

respect, than in any other description of fruit. This
arises not so much from the great number of varie-
ties grown, as from the number of growers, some
of whom seek to profit by their crops alone, regard-
ing but little their nomenclature. Nurserymen,
who are more anxious to grow a large stock for
sale, than to be careful as to its character, are led
into error by taking it for granted that the name of
the fruit they propagate is the correct one, and no
other ; hence arises the frequency of so many fruits
being sold under wrong names. Gardeners, who
purchase trees, become deceived by this procedure,
and do not discover the error, unless they have been
imposed upon by something worthless, and obviously
at variance with the character of the fruit sold them.
This is a serious evil, to say nothing of the disap-
pointment to the purchaser ; for unless the mistake
be detected at first, the longer the tree grows before
it is discovered, the more time will have been lost
by its cultivation ; and, be it remembered, this time
is irrecoverable."

SELECT LIST. It would be a difficult task, even
for one well acquainted with all the good varieties,
to give a complete selected list of the finest ; varia-
tions in taste, changes wrought by climate, and oth-
er controlling causes, would still increase the diffi-
culty. With some, high and delicious flavor for
the table, is the chief object, and with others, fine
appearance and productiveness for market; early

SUMMER APPLES. 95

maturity, long keeping, thrifty growth, bearing
when young, and various other qualities, materially
affect their value.

SUMMER FRUIT.

Yellow Harvest. Tree small, a great bearer, fruit
medial size, yellow, acid ; perhaps the best very
early apple.

Summer Rose, or Woolmarfs Early. Fruit medi-
al size or small, slightly flattish, delicately striped
and marbled with red, flesh delicately breaking in
texture, sub-acid, juicy, fine. A moderate bearer.

Early Sweet Bough. Tree rather small, of com-
pact growth, a good bearer, fruit large, nearly glo-
bular, slightly oblong-conical, flesh delicate, very
sweet, and of excellent flavor. Probably the best
early sweet apple.

American Red Juneating. Tree of upright growth,
fruit medial size, oblong-conical, streaked with a
high brilliant red, flavor sub-acid and fine. An
abundant bearer every alternate year. Several
worthless varieties are cultivated under this name.

Sine Qua Non. Tree small and of slow growth,
fruit medial size, somewhat conical, green becom-
ing yellow, texture delicate, flavor sub-acid and
excellent. A great bearer, and a decidedly first
rate fruit in every respect.

Buffington's Early. Fruit medial size, flat, yel-
lowish white, very delicate, sub-acid, excellent. A
moderate bearer, but unsurpassed as a table fruit.

96 EARLY AUTUMN APPLES.

The Red Astracan, the Summer Pearmain, Wil-
liam's Red, Sevan's Favorite, and Benoni, are also
regarded as among the finest varieties cultivated in
this country.

EARLY AUTUMN FRUIT.

Several of the preceding varieties extend their
time of ripening into autumn. In addition, the
following are among some of the best to succeed
them :

Summer Queen. Fruit rather large, round, and
somewhat conical, striped with rich red, flavor
acid, rich, spicy ; one of the best summer cooking
apples known, but liable to become scrubby on hard
clayey soils. A good bearer.

Late Strawberry. Tree of very rapid growth
when small, but never attaining the largest size, a
great bearer, fruit medial size, nearly globular,
slightly oblong-conical, striped with light and dark
red, flesh very tender, juicy, and of an exceedingly
pleasant and agreeable flavor.

Autumnal Swaar. Fruit rather large, flat, yel-
low, very sweet, spicy, and high-flavored. A good
bearer.

Gravenstein. Tree of vigorous growth, a good
bearer, fruit medial size, inclining to flat, striped
with bright red, flavor acid, exceedingly rich and
high-flavored. A fruit of the highest value, recent-
ly introduced fromGermany.

EARLY WINTER APPLES. 97

The Belle-Bonne, a fine, fair, and productive va-
riety ; the Alexander, a large and handsome fruit,
but hardly first rate ; the Dut chess of Oldenburg, a
handsome and excellent apple, hardly yet tested in
this country ; the Maiden's Slush, a handsome fruit
and great bearer, but inferior in richness ; all de-
serve notice, together with the Porter, a celebrated
New England apple.

LATE AUTUMN AND EARLY WINTER.

Rambo. Fruit medial size, striped and dotted
with dull light red, flavor slightly sub-acid, spicy,
rich, and excellent. A good bearer.

Ribston Pippi?i. Medial size, or rather large,
greenish yellow, with a reddish brown shade next
the sun, acid, very rich and fine.

Wine Apple. Fruit round-oblong, rather large,
bright red, flesh tender, sub-acid, rich and plea-
sant.

Fall Pippin. Very large, has weighed 23 ounces,
flattish-conical, rich yellow when ripe, sub-.acid,
spicy, and excellent. Fine for the table, unequal-
ed for stewing, but often inclining to become
scrubby. Often a good, sometimes a moderate
bearer.

Bell-flower. Fruit often large, variable, long
ovate-conical, irregular, light yellow when ripe,
very delicate, acid, and of very fine flavor. A good
bearer.

Rhode Island Greening. The fruit of this well

7

98 EARLY WINTER APPLES.

known variety, is large, flat, green, acid, rich and
high-flavored ; tree of the largest size, a great bear-
er, and fruit always fair. A resident of Ontario coun-
ty, picked in 1843, from one tree, 40 bushels. Its
great and uniform productiveness, and free growth,
though the fruit is scarcely equal to some others in
flavor, render it the most extensively cultivated
market apple of Western New- York.

Esopus Spitzenburgh. Fruit rather large, bright
red, round-oblong, acid, spicy, and unsurpassed in
richness of flavor. The tree a moderate grower,
but attains a large size, and bears well.*

Swaar. Fruit often large, flattish, green, becom
ing rich yellow, slightly sub-acid, of an exceedingly
rich and agreeable flavor. Considered by many
excellent judges as the best of all winter apples.
A good bearer; fruit sometimes liable to become
scrubby.

Baldwin. Large, nearly round, striped with red,
flesh fine, juicy, with a most agreeable sub-acid
flavor. This apple stands as one of the first among
the first, both in quality and great productiveness,
and is by way of pre-eminence, the apple of New
England.

Jonathan. Introduced by Buel. Partaking of
the character of the Spitzenburgh, size medial,
nearly round, a handsome bright red, acid, and
very high flavored. An abundant bearer.

* Said to be better in New-York than in New-England.

LONG KEEPING APPLES. 99

Peck^s Pleasant. Fruit rather large, uniformly
smooth and fair, nearly round, greenish yellow,
sub-acid, and of very fine flavor, partaking slightly
of the character of the Newtown Pippin. A good
bearer.

Tollman Siveeting. Medial size, flattish, often
inclining to oblong, yellow, distinguished by a dis-
tinct dark line on the surface, from the stem to-
wards the blossom, very sweet, rich and firm, admi-
rable as a winter baking apple. The tree is of
moderate size, but a great bearer every other year.

LONG KEEPERS.

Black Gilliflower. Rather large, very oblong and
conical, dark dull purple, slightly acid, rather dry, but
otherwise a rich and high-flavored fruit, an abun-
dant bearer, and an excellent keeper ; and hence
may be profitable for the spring feeding of animals.

Newtown Pippin. Tree of rather slow growth,
fruit medial size, sometimes large, nearly round,
green with a brown shade, becoming yellowish,
sub-acid, of fine flavor, which it remarkably retains
for a long time. Fine fruit of this variety com-
mands a very high price in the New- York and
English markets. It is liable to become scrubby,
and selection for sale is of great consequence; a
distinguished cultivator sent three hundred barrels
to London, and received for them only seventeen
shillings and sixpence, after paying freight; and
again by a most choice selection, he sold them for

100 RAISING YOUNG APPLE TREES.

twenty-one dollars per barrel. In northern and
western New-York, the summers appear to be too
short for its full perfection.

Northern Spy. A new variety, from East Bloom-
field, N. Y. Fruit large, round, inclining- to coni-
cal, bright red, sub-acid, of a pleasant and agreea-
ble flavor ; it retains its freshness in a remarkable
degree till late in spring, and is an excellent keep-
er. The liability of the fruit to become scrubby on
old trees, is a drawback on its value.*

Roxbury Russet. Medial size, flattish, greenish
russet, acid, good but not very high flavored; fruit
always fair, exceeds all others for long keeping,
and may be had the year round.

RAISING THE YOUNG TREES.

These should be always from seedlings, budded
or grafted with the desired kinds. The seeds are
most easily obtained from the pomace of cider
mills. This is to be broken up fine, in a large
wash tub, mixed with water, stirred, and allowed
to st/md a few seconds, when the seeds will settle
to the bottom, and the apple pulp is then racked
off. A man will thus wash out half a bushel of
seeds in a day. The clean seed are more evenly
and conveniently sown than in the pomace, which
• may be done either in autumn or spring. If not

* The owner of the original orchard succeeded, by select-
ing from seventy-five barrels, in getting only fifteen fit for
market.

RAISING YOUNG APPLE TREES. 101

done till spring, they should be mixed till then
with sand, and exposed to the weather. If pomace
is sown, it should be mixed with a portion of ash-
es, to neutralize the sourness.

The seeds may be sown in drills from one to two
feet apart, and the young plants thinned to three
inches apart, A part of them will be large enough
to take up for root grafting after the first year's
growth. Those less than a quarter of an inch in
diameter, may be left another year, and budded the
following summer, or grafted the succeeding spring.

Root grafting is done by the whip method, al-
ready described. The young trees are taken up,
the tops cut off, the grafts set on, the wounds cov-
ered with wax plasters, and then set out in rows in
the nursery, to remain until finally removed to the
orchard. The grafting is usually performed in the
latter part of winter or early in spring, within
doors, the grafted trees being packed in boxes, in
clean moist sand. The tongue and cleft of the
graft and stock, should so firmly interlock, as not to
be easily displaced in handling. Wax plasters
are often omitted, and adhesion made to take place
by growth in a warm place while yet in the boxes ;
but the plasters render the operation more sure in
all other cases, especially if dry weather succeeds.
The root of a young tree may usually be cut into
two or three pieces, each of which will support a
graft. Unlike larger trees, they suffer no detri-

102 RAISING YOUNG APPLE TREES.

ment if the projecting fibrous roots are mostly trim-
med off, new ones always shooting out from the
main root.

The grafts are most expeditiously set
out with a dibble, or a sharp tool, shod
with iron or steel, about an inch and a
half in diameter, one stroke of which
into the mellow soil forms a hole for the
roots, and two or three lighter strokes press
Fig. 21. tne garth dosely about them. Fig. 21,
represents a convenient form for this instrument,
which may be made of the handle of a
broken spade. Fig. 22, shows the graft
and root, ready for setting out. To keep
the whole moist, till sufficient growth takes
place, the place of union between the root
and graft should be at least three inches
below the surface.

The chief care afterwards is to keep the
Fig. 22. ground constantly cultivated and perfectly
clean, which will increase the growth during sum-
mer, and exclude mice in winter; the trees are
to be trained up to one leading stem, not trimming
so closely as to make them slender; they are to be
kept straight, by tying them when necessary to
upright stakes ; and all destructive insects must be
watched and destroyed.

If the ground is rich and kept perfectly clean,
they will grow from one and a half to two feet the

SOIL FOR ORCHARDS. 103

first summer after grafting; from three to four
feet, the second summer ; five to six or seven
feet the third summer, when many of them will be
large enough for removal to the orchard, and most
of the remainder in one year more. If suffered to
remain longer in the nursery, they should be taken
up and set out again, for the purpose of shortening
the long roots, without which subsequent trans-
planting would be attended with too great a check
in the growth, if not actual danger to the tree.

When young trees are budded, it should be done
within two or three inches of the ground, as hand-
some trees are produced in this way only ; and
they need in other respects precisely the same
treatment as grafted trees.

SOIL FOR ORCHARDS.

The apple is a vigorous and hardy tree, and will
grow upon most soils. It does best however, on
such as are deep, rich and good, such as will give
good crops of Indian corn. Hard, shallow, and wet
grounds, are to be avoided. Improvement by
manuring and deep cultivation is desirable, as a
material difference in quality and productiveness
often results from a difference in fertility.

DISTANCE.

Where the quantity of ground is limited, trees
may for a time stand within fifteen or twenty feet ;

104 PLANTING ORCHARDS.

but for large and permanent orchards they should
not be nearer than thirty feet. There is however,
a material difference in the size of varieties, hence
a variation may be allowed. But this variation in
distance should not break the rows which are to
be preserved for convenience in cultivation. The
rows may be kept entire, by varying the distance
in one way only, as in the annexed figure. The
middle portion is for trees of the largest size, as
the Spitzenburgh, Fall Pippin, and Rhode Island
Greening; those of smallest size, as Bough, Yellow
Harvest and Sine Qua Non, are on the left ; and
those of middle growth, as the Swaar, Black Gilli-
flower, and Tallman Sweeting are on the right.

TRANSPLANTING.

Full directions have been given in a preceding
chapter, where the superior advantages of broad,
deep, and loose beds of earth, made by digging
large holes, have been strongly urged. This care
is often thought unnecessary with so hardy a tree
as the apple. But a just comparison of the two
modes would exhibit its eminent advantages. A
hundred holes, six feet in diameter, may be dug by

PLANTING ORCHARDS. 105

a man in eight days, — and filled with muck or
rich mould in four days more ; the cost with team,
eleven dollars. A hundred small holes may be
dug in four days ; cost, three dollars ; difference
against large holes, eight dollars. The trees plant-
ed in the large holes would probably yield with
good attention, a bushel a tree, in five years, mak-
ing 100 bushels ; the sixth year 120 bushels; the
seventh, 150; the eighth, 190; the ninth, 240;
the tenth 300; total 1000 bushels, — worth, at 20
cents, $200. The other would not probably produce
100 bushels in less than ten years, which would be
worth $20. Difference in favor of large holes,
$180, to balance $S, against them. Although the
calculation cannot be precise, it is probably a tole-
rable approximation, and must appear moderate
when the increased size of the trees and superiori-
ty of the crop for many years afterwards is taken
into account.

The objection that such work must be done at
a very busy season of the year, may be obviated
by digging the holes and filling them at some other
time.

CULTIVATION.

The importance of thorough cultivation, has
been already noticed, and cannot be too well under-
stood. If two specimens could be exhibited side
by side, the one showing the stunted, lingering,

106 GATHERING AND PRESERVING APPLES.

mice-eaten and moss-covered trees, caused by neg-
lect, and the growth of weeds and grass ; — and the
other, the vigorous and thrifty growth, and the
fair and abundant crops, resulting from fine and
clean culture ; none could fail to be satisfied of the
superiority of the one and impolicy of the other.

GATHERING AND PRESERVING.

It is of great consequence ingathering all kinds
of fine fruit, to avoid bruising ; the high quality of
some sorts is nearly destroyed by carelessness in
gathering, and they are rendered unfit for home
use or for market. Hence careful hand-picking
becomes indispensible.

Preserving in barrels is usually most convenient.
They should be filled sufficiently to cause a
slight pressure when the barrel head is put in, to
prevent rattling ; and the barrels should rest on
their sides and not on the ends. Winter fruit has
been preserved with great success and with much
freshness, by alternating the layers of apples in the
barrel with layers of dry chafT mixed with a small
portion of dry pulverized lime. Apples may be
well kept till spring, if buried late in autumn ; but
to prevent swelling, cracking, and a loss of flavor,
they should be placed in a box or on a bed of straw,
and entirely excluded from contact with the damp
earth. Where cool cellars are at hand, they are
kept best for winter use on large shelves.

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS. 107

THE USES of the apple are various. In addition
to culinary purposes and for the table, they have
been found excellent for fattening hogs, and feed-
ing cows, horses, and other domestic animals. For
cattle and horses, sweet ones are best. Molasses
is obtained by evaporating the fresh juice of sweet
apples in clean vessels ; and also by steaming
sweet or sour apples in a large vessel, a pan being
placed at the bottom to collect the molasses as it
descends. The manufacture of sugar from this
fruit is worthy of attention and experiment.

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS.

These are not usually formidable, but occasion-
ally become so. Among the chief are, 1. Cater-
pillar; 2. Borer ; 3. Canker worm ; 4. Apple worm;
5. American Blight.

1. Caterpillar. This has been the most seri-
ous enemy to the apple, in most parts of the coun-
try. It has its seasons of increase and decrease.
Some years it has nearly stripped whole orchards ;
and again it has diminished in numbers in succes-
sive years, till few could be found. It appears at
the present time to be rapidly on the increase.

There are many species which feed on the apple
leaf; but the only one of importance, is that known
as the common orchard caterpillar, which is hatch-
ed in spring as soon as the leaf buds begin to open.
At this time, it is not the tenth of an inch long,

108 DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS.

nor so large as a cambric needle, but it continues
to increase constantly in size for
several weeks, until two inches
long and a quarter of an inch in
diameter. It then spins a co-
coon and passes to the pupa state.
In the latter part of summer, it
comes out a yellowish brown mil-
ler, lays its eggs and dies. The
eggs are deposited in cylinders
or rings, containing three to five
hundred each, encircling the
smaller branches, and usually
within a few inches of the extre-
mity. The accompanying figure
(fig. 23,) represents one of these
Fig; 23. masses of eggs of the natural

size. They remain through winter, protected from
the weather by a vesicular water-proof varnish, and
hatch in spring, as just stated. Each collection of
eggs, makes a nest of caterpillars.

One nest is enough to defoliate a large branch,
and when several are on a tree, the size and qual-
ity of the fruit is seriously lessened.

The best mode, incomparably, for their destruc-
tion, is to cut off the small branches which hold the
eggs during autumn or winter, and commit them
to the fire. The most convenient implement is a
long pole, armed with a pair of clipping-shears,

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS. 109

worked by a cord ; or a sharp, hooked knife, on the
end of a pole, will answer nearly as well. The
eggs are seen at a glance, after a little practice ; a
cloudy day should be selected to prevent pain to
the eyes. Every nest of eggs thus removed, which
is done in a few seconds, totally prevents a nest of
caterpillars in the spring, and is far more expedi-
tious and effectual than the usual modes of brush-
ing off the caterpillars with poles, brushes, or
washing them with soap-suds, ley, or white-wash.
2. Borer. This insect enters the tree and cuts
into the solid wood near the surface of the earth.
It is a dangerous enemy, but not as yet very ex-
tensively spread. Its presence is perceived by the
dust it ejects from its hole. If the trees are watch-
ed, and it is taken early, it is easily cut out with
the point of a knife. If deeper in the wood, it may
be extracted by a flexible barbed wire, or punched
to death in its hole by a flexible twig.

3. Canker worm. This
! caterpillar appears to have
been as yet chiefly confined
in its destructive ravages, to
portions of New-England.
The accompanying figures
represent the perfect insect,
the male with wings, the fe-
male nearly destitute. (Fig.
Fig. 24. 24.) The canker worm at-

110 DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS.

tacks both fruit and leaves ; when numerous, the
small webs they make, added to the destruction
of the foliage, give the tree the appearance of hav-
ing been scorched. The remedies consist in vari-
ous contrivances to prevent the insects ascending
the tree, but none have been yet discovered of easy,
safe, and effectual application.

Fig. 25.

4. The Apple-worm attacks the fruit, by enter-
ing at the blossom, and feeding at the core. In
some years, it has been so common, as seriously to
injure the quality of the crop. The annexed fig-
ures, (fig. 2-5,) show it in different stages of growth.*"
The best preventive is to allow swine to pick up

* The curculio or plum weevil is sometimes found in the
apple, but never the apple worm in the plum.

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS. Ill

the wormy fruit as it falls, thus destroying the en-
closed insect, and preventing its spread.

5. American Blight. This is a species of aphis
or plant-louse, covered with long, white, cottony
hair. In England, it has proved very destructive ;
and on young trees in this country it has done
some injury. It is destroyed by whale-oil soap,
and by lime wash. Other species of aphis often
infest the young leaves ; they are easily killed by
a solution of whale-oil soap, which may be applied
by a syringe or by immersing the branches.

CHAPTER If.

THE PEAR.

THE pear is distinguished by great delicacy of
texture in the finer varieties, and by mild and deli-
cious flavor. In these points, it much excels the
apple, but falls far short in keeping properties and
in general and extensive uses.

VARIETIES. The following, which are among the
best, have either originated in this country, or have
been thoroughly proved and found adapted to the
climate.

SUMMER FRUIT.

Amire Joannet. Fruit very small, good, but not
first rate, a great bearer, chiefly valuable for its
early maturity, often ripening two weeks before
wheat harvest. .The Little Musk or Primitive, is
smaller, a week later, and not so good.

Madeleine. Fruit medial size, green, of a deli-
cious melting flesh and fine flavor. Probably the
best very early pear, ripening with early wheat-
cutting. A sub-variety, hardly so good, has less
of the peculiar green of the skin and none of the
slight shade of acid, which mark the true variety.

SUMMER AND AUTUMN PEARS. 113

Skinless. Medial size, sometimes small, sweet,
juicy, good, a great and constant bearer, and its
qualities unchanged by the variations of seasons.

Dearborn's Seedling. Medial size, of a delicate
texture and flavor, melting and very fine. A most
desirable early variety.

Julienne. The fruit much resembles the last,
but much inferior in flavor ; remarkable for bearing
while very young, often before removed from the
nursery.

Bloodgood. Medial size, or rather large, yellow
with russet spots, flesh tender and melting, flavor
rich and fine. The three last ripen nearly at the
same time, or latter part of 8 mo. (Aug.) and all
come into bearing while young.

AUTUMN FRUIT.

Washington. Medial size, often small, variable ;
of a very sweet, spicy, and delicious flavor, which
it retains unchanged by seasons. Eipens the be-
ginning of autumn.

Bartlett, or William's Bonchretien. Very large,
good, flesh very melting. Though not equal in
richness of flavor to some others, its free growth,
large size, beauty and great productiveness, render
it well worthy of extensive cultivation. It will
probably prove one of the most valuable for early
market. A tree only an inch and a half in diame-

114 ATTTI7MN AND WINTER PEARS.

ter, on the grounds of the writer, bore about one
peck of fine fruit.

Summer Bonchretien or September. Branches
very flexuous, fruit large, rich yellow, not melting,
but very sweet, juicy, rich and excellent. A most
valuable variety, unchanged in flavor by seasons.
It has succeeded finely when grafted on the apple.

SeckeL Tree of slow growth, fruit small, flavor
spicy, slightly musky, and of unequalled richness.
Ripens at mid-autumn.

Urbaniste. Large, melting, sub-acid, excellent,
ripening middle and latter part of autumn.

Virgalieu ; St. Michael of New-England, Butter
pear of Pa., and known by more than twenty other
names. Does not succeed at Boston, but is known
in most parts of New- York and in other places, as
a fruit of nearly unequalled excellence.

The Frederick of Wurtemburgm some seasons
is a very fine fruit ; but like many of the new for-
eign pears, is greatly variable and often worthless,
and hence can hardly be recommended for exten-
sive cultivation.

WINTER FRUIT.

Little attention has been given as yet, in many
parts of the country, to the cultivation and manage-
ment of winter pears ; and their fitness for general
culture is not yet established. Some of the late
autumn varieties, as the Virgalieu, may be kept

WINTER PEARS. 115

through the early part of winter in a cold place, and
ripened by removal to a warm room. The Beurre
j)iel, a larger, coarser, and later fruit than the Vir-
galieu, may be thus kept till mid-winter. The
Passe Colmar and Easter Beurre, are regarded as
among the best winter pears. The former, when
well ripened, has been found very excellent. The
latter is a longer keeper and more difficult to ripen
successfully. The best mode of management is
to keep them in a cold room till near the usual
period of maturity, and then expose them for a few
days to a temperature as high as 70 degrees Fah.
In this way they soon attain fine order for eating.
Late autumn and winter pears of the finest quality
have been rejected as worthless from the simple
fact that they were allowed to ripen in the cold.

The pear is more easily influenced in quality by
circumstances than any other fruit ; hence the same
variety is sometimes superb and at others tasteless
and worthless ; difference of climate, locality, soil,
culture, seasons, management in ripening, and
other causes, have a great bearing on the result.
Hence the care and experience necessary for selec-
tion and decision. And hence, also, the importance
of selecting, so far as practicable, those varieties
least influenced by external causes.

RAISING THE YOUNG TREES.

The best pear trees are raised by grafting and

116 RAISING PEAR TREES.

budding on seedling stocks. Stocks from suckers
sometimes do well; but unless they are well pro-
vided with fibrous roots on all sides when set out,
the growth is apt to be diminutive, and the trees
crooked or one-sided. The planting and manage-
ment of the young trees may be the same as with
young apples ; but as the stocks are more valuable
than apple stocks, they are not usually taken up for
root grafting, but grafted or budded near the surface
of the ground where they stand, which may be re-
peated in case of any failures. Seedlings are, how-
ever, great! y improved by transplanting at one or
two years of age ; cutting off the lower end of the
tap root, induces them to throw out lateral roots,
and renders their final removal from the nursery
more easy and safe.

As a general rule, pears should be grafted or
budded on pear stocks. On the apple, hawthorn
and quince, their fruitfulness is increased, but the
duration of the life of the tree is diminished. The
same cause which produces an accumulation of the
elaborated juices in the branches, and consequent-
ly an increase of flower buds and a heavy crop of
fruit, also prevents the proper flow and free diffusion
of the sap and secretions, and shortens life. There
are, however, several advantages in the employ-
ment of such stocks in certain cases.

One of the most important of these is the pro-
duction of dwarfs. These are chiefly desirable in

DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF PEAR TREES. 117

small gardens and on very limited grounds. The
quince is much the best stock for this purpose. In
some very highly manured soils, and with some
unproductive varieties, the quince has been found
absolutely necessary to produce a crop. This stock
also improves the quality of some of the melting
pears, of which theDuchesse d'Angouleme is given
as a striking instance.

SETTING OUT. Pear trees, on account of their
upright, pyramidal growth, require much less space
than apples. Twenty feet distance is sufficient in
all cases.

The same remarks with regard to soils, made in
relation to the apple, will apply with little varia-
tion to the pear. Fast growing varieties, as the
Madeleine, if on low and very rich ground, are apt
to be injured by winter.

Trees of the pear have been known for centu-
ties to maintain their productiveness, thriftiness
and vigor.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

The only formidable disease to which the pear
tree is subject, is the Fire-blight. This usually
makes its appearance during the early part of sum-
mer. The branches affected by it, suddenly turn
black and die. If not arrested in its progress, it
usually extends down the tree and destroys it.

There is but one remedy. This is the immedi-
ate excision of the affected parts, or within a day

118 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF PEAR TREES.

or two after the disaster appears. As the malady
extends downwards, the limb should be cut off two
or three feet below all appearance of the blight.
When promptly and thoroughly applied, this rem-
edy has proved completely effectual. But a fear-
less application of the remedy will only insure
success. All delays and half-way attempts will
end in failure.

The cause of this disease is a matter of dispute.
Professor Peck and others believe it to originate
from an insect (Scolytus pyri,} which eats round
the branch under the bark. Hence all affected
limbs, when removed, should be committed to the
fire, to prevent further ravages. Others again, as-
cribe it to the influence of cold on late-growing
unripened wood.* Both these causes may produce
it, as the insect has evidently been discovered ;
and again numerous cases have occurred where the
closest examinations have failed in its discovery.!
But the same remedy, the removal of the branches,
is equally applicable to both, and equally success-
ful ; in one it prevents the further ravages of the
insects ; in the other, it prevents the extension of
the disease by the downward flow of the poisoned
and fermented juices from the affected limbs.

* Which must not be confounded with winter-killing-,
causing death at once, the influence of the cold being only
sufficient to produce disease in the case mentioned, eventu-
ally resulting in death.

f For a full explanation of this theory, and for several
striking cases in illustration, see Cultivator for 1845, p. 5L

CHAPTER III.

THE QUINCE.

THE quince is usually propagated by layers and
by cuttings. When by cuttings, they are to be
taken from the trees in the spring, and buried in
an upright position, in a light deep soil, and in a
moist shaded place, not less than ten inches or a
foot deep, and leaving but a small portion above
ground. If the shaded place cannot be had, spread
over the surface of the ground, after they are plant-
ed, a coat of moss, or partially decayed leaves. If
the weather becomes very dry, water them.

To propagate by layers, the young shoots are to
be laid down in the spring, and buried so as to
leave only two or three buds at the extremity above
ground. When these buds have well started, the
best only should be left for growing. A part of
them will thr^w out roots by autumn, and may be
removed from the parent tree and set out in rows ;
the rest should remain a second year till rooted.
If the ground is rich, and they are kept well culti-
vated and well straightened by stakes, the cuttings
and layers will produce trees fit for removal as
standards in two or three years.

120 THE QUINCE.

The soil for the quince, should be deep, rich, and
more inclining to be moist than dry. The alluvial
banks of rivers are said to be well suited to its
growth. The distance asunder need not be more
than ten feet.

A very necessary operation is pruning. The
trees tend to throw up many suckers, which great-
ly lessen their fruitfulness, and render the fruit
small, knotty, and worthless. A neighbor had
several trees, with an abundance of suckers, as
represented in the annexed figure, (fig. 26,) and
which yielded nothing. By the use of the axe and
saw, he pruned them as represented in fig. 27,
since which they have yielded fine crops.

Fig. 27. Fig. 26.

The principal varieties are the Orange, the Pear,
and the Portugal quince.

The Orange, sometimes called from its shape,
the Apple quince, has large roundish fruit, with a
short thick neck, and is of a beautiful rich yellow
color. It ripens about the middle of autumn. It is
the only variety extensively cultivated in this coun-

THE QUINCE. 121

try, for which it appears to be best adapted.
There appear to be several sub-varieties, differing
slightly in shape and considerably in size, but lit-
tle in quality. The largest sometimes weigh a
pound.

The Pear or oblong quince, has slenderer leaves,
and smoother, more delicate and more elongated
fruit, of a regular pear shape. It is quite distinct
from the preceding, resembles it in quality, but
is of more delicate texture.

The Portugal quince, though largely cultivated
in England, appears to be little known in this
country. According to Loudon, it has broad cor-
date leaves, and an oblong fruit, which is more
juicy and less harsh than the others, and therefore
the most desirable. It is rather a " shy bearer,"
which must form a decided objection, as cultivators
already find sufficient difficulty even with the
most prolific varieties.

The Japan and Chinese quinces are cultivated
merely as ornamental shrubs.

A very formidable, and nearly the sole enemy
to the quince, is the BORER. This is the larva of
an insect which attacks the wood of the trunk near
the surface of the ground, and works inwards, usu-
ally upwards, but sometimes downwards, to a dis-
tance of several inches into the wood, during the
summer season.

As the borer frequently destroys the tree, vari-

122 THE QUINCE.

ous means of prevention have been resorted to.
The application of charcoal, blacksmith's cinders,
tar, and unleached ashes, have been tried with va-
rious degrees of success. It has been proposed to
inject upon them a strong solution of soap, or a de-
coction of tobacco; but their efficacy may be ques-
tioned, as some larva continue to live even when
immersed in sulphuric acid or a solution of corro-
sive sublimate. The application of oil, by choking
their air-vessels, might do well.

The best method appears to be direct attack.
Scrape the soil from the trunk, and cut with a
knife lengthwise, and not across the bark and wood,
till the insects are found. Repeat the operation
once a week for several times, as a part escape the
first examination. Then cover the wounded parts
with a mixture of warm tar with ochre or brick-
dust. It is a great saving of labor to arrest early
their progress ; hence trees should be examined
frequently. They may sometimes be extracted by
a flexible barbed wire, when cutting out would too
much mutilate the tree.

Grafting the quince on pear stocks would proba-
bly prevent the evil, as the pear is not attacked by
the borer.

CHAPTER IV.

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.

THE only difference between the peach and nec-
tarine being the downy skin of the former, and the
smooth glossy surface of the latter, the same gene-
ral rules of culture will apply to both.

RAISING THE YOUNG TREES.

Peach trees are raised by budding seedling
stocks with the desired varieties. The stones
should be mixed with moist sand or earth within a
few weeks after maturity ; they may afterwards be
planted either in autumn or spring. The depth
should not exceed two or three inches. A few
vegetate the first season ; the remainder, more than
nine-tenths, the second season. Cracking the
stones insures their growth the first year. The
distance should be the same as for young apple
trees, already noticed.

If the soil is good, and is kept clean and mellow,
a part of them will be fit for budding by the latter
part of the first summer. Where it is deferred till
the second year, all the stocks should be cut down
near the ground, one good bud being allowed to

124 THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.

grow, and the rest rubbed off as fast as they ap-
pear. All the strength of the roots being thus sent
up into one shoot, its growth is correspondingly
thrifty ; and the operation of budding, the success
of which always depends more on a thrifty stock
than on any thing else, is rendered the more cer-
tain.

Transplanting, by shortening and multiplying
roots, if well done, always improves the peach tree
at this age. The removal from the original seed
bed to nursery rows, may be done after the first
summer's growth. Tf the stocks have been budded,
the removal is best done early in spring, the top
being headed down at the time to within two or
three inches of the inserted bud. If they have not
been budded, they should be headed down to a
good bud, to grow for the insertion of a new one,
as already described.

When the new bud has grown a few inches, it
should be tied to the portion of the stock left above
it, which keeps it straight, and prevents danger of
its being broken off by accident or by wind. The
ligature which thus secures it should be removed
by the middle of summer, and the remaining stub
cut off neatly, down to the new shoot.

Peach buds being very liable to become winter-
killed in the more northern states, the oldest and
largest on vigorous shoots should be selected for in-
sertion into the stock. On old trees, the triple buds

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 125

near the base of the young twigs, the middle one
being a leaf bud, are more likely to endure winter,
than the smaller and more lately formed near the
upper extremities. The best knowledge on this
subject may be gained, by a careful observation, in
the early part of summer, of such as have with-
stood the cold of the preceding winter, — the same
buds dying, whether on the parent tree, or inserted
into the stocks. A high and dry soil is much bet-
ter than one low, rich or mucky ; and warm val-
leys are liable to more severe night frosts and con-
sequent disaster, than exposed hills.

The same care as with the apple, is needed in
staking up and in trimming the growing trees.
Setting the trees in grass land, unless they are con-
stantly kept widely and deeply spaded round, is lit-
tle better than throwing them away.

SOIL.

The best soil for the peach is -a sandy loam. A
light soil is usually preferred ; but is not indispen-
sible. I have known this tree to succeed admira-
bly on heavy soils, when large holes were dug, (six
or eight feet in diameter,) and filled with loose and
good earth. Young peach trees, unlike the apple,
do not need the previous application of much ma-
nure. A soil too fertile, tends to promote the late
growth of succulent wood, unfitted to withstand the

126 THE PEACH \NP NECTARINE.

severity of winter. But thorough, clean, and con-
stant cultivation, is indispensible for success.

TRANSPLANTING.

Peach trees, when transplanted, should not be
large. A small thrifty tree, well set out, from the
little check it receives in removal, often attains a
large growth sooner than a large tree stunted hy
transplanting.

ARRANGEMENT OF VARIETIES.

It is commonly supposed that varieties of the
peach may be continued without change, merely
by planting the seed ; hence many neglect their
propagation by budding. The least improved va-
rieties doubtless vary least ; the common Indian
peach, for instance, continues nearly the same
through successive ages, though many sub-varie-
ties exist. But the finest peaches, being farthest
removed from the wild or natural state, are most
liable to variation, and the original is rarely produ-
ced from seed. The nice shades of difference,
however, which distinguish different varieties, are
frequently overlooked, and the error thus becomes
confirmed.

Tp obtain good varieties with any degree of cer-
tainty, budding must be resorted to. Grafting rare-
ly succeeds, and never unless performed with un-
usual care on such kinds as have the firmest wood.

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 127

When the great difference between good and
bad varieties is remembered, the importance of ob-
taining the best, must be obvious. The reputation
of some which are truly excellent, has been greatly
injured by numerous errors in names. Not only
those of fine varieties are given by mistake to
worthless fruit, but good varieties, increased by
seed, receive the genuine name, which is still con-
tinued through successive plantings, though wide
departures from the original are thus gradually
produced.

This confusion and misapplication of names, and
the consequent perplexity to the cultivator, have in-
duced the attempt to arrange the varieties and dis-
tinctive characters. The peach presents facilities
for this purpose, not existing in other fruits. The
following arrangement, which is generally adopted
as the best, is from Lindley. Peaches and necta-
rines, (which may be considered as one and the
same fruit, the latter having smooth skins,) are
separated into three general classes, each of which
has three divisions ; these are again separated into
two sub- divisions, and every sub-division into two
sections; consisting in all of thirty^six sections.
Only a part of these sections contain varieties with
which we are acquainted, and are only to be filled
up as others are discovered.

Class Z, comprehends those whose leaves are

128 THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.

deeply and doubly serrated (or cut like saw-teeth,)
and having no glands on the serratures. Fig. 28.

Fig. 28. Fig. 29. Fig. 30.

Class IIt contains those whose leaves are crenate
or serrulate (or with smaller and more rounded
teeth,) and having globose glands. Fig. 29.

Class III, includes all those whose leaves are
crenate or serrulate, having reniform (or kidney-
shaped) glands. Fig. 30.

"The form of the glands," observes Lindley,
"as well as their position, is perfectly distinct;
they are fully developed in the month of May, and
they continue to the last, permanent in their cha-
racter, and are not affected by cultivation. The
globose glands are situated, one, two, or more, on the
foot-stalks, and one, two, or more on the tips
or points of the serratures of the leaves. The
reniform glands grow also on the footstalks of the
leaves, but those on the leaves are placed within

THE TEACH AND NECTARINE. 129

the serratures, connecting, as it were, the upper
and lower teeth of the serratures together ; their
leaves, when taken from a branch of a vigorous
growth, have more glands than the leaves of the
globose varieties. It will, however, sometimes
happen that glands are not discernible on some of
the leaves, especially on those produced on weak
branches ; in this case, other branches must be
sought for which do produce them."

These classes, thus formed, are each divided into
three divisions.

Div. I, embraces those which produce large flow-
ers.

Div. II, includes those which produce flowers
of medium size.

Div. Ill, contains those which produce small
flowers.

These divisions are not so distinctly marked as
the classes ; the middle and small flowers only dif-
fering by the former being larger in all their parts.

The sub-divisions, two in number, are determined
by the fruit. The first comprehends true peaches,
or those which have a downy skin ; the second in-
cludes nectarines, or those which have a smooth
skin, similar to that of the plum.

Each of these sub-divisions are again divided into
two sections; the former including the pavies or
clingstones; the law**, the metiers or free-stones.

The following sy*<*f lical table will exhibit these

130

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.

divisions and subdivisions as applied to the first

' Sec. 1.
Pavies.
Sec. 2.
Melters.
• Sec. 1.
Pavies.
Sec. 2.
Melters.

> Sec. 1.
Pavies.

Sec. 2.
Melters.

> Sec. 1.
Pavies.

Sec. 2.
Melters.
' Sec. 1.
Pavies.
Sec. 2.
Melters.
? Sec. 1.
Pavies.
Sec. 2.
I Melters.

The same arrangement may be adopted with the
other classes.

The following list contains some of the best va-
rieties known in this country, arranged according
to the preceding method.
SERRATED GLANDLESS LEAVES. LARGE FLOWER.

Peaches — Pavies.
Old Newington. .
Early Newington, or Smith's Newington.

class :

7

Sub. 1.

Peaches.

.*•-•- "

Div. I.

Large

flowers.

Sub. 2.

A> '

Nectarines. *

V" ' _ ...

£13

Sub. 1.

CLASS I.

Leaves deeply
and doubly

Div. 2.

Middle ,

Peaches.

serrated, with-
out glands.

flowers.

Sub. 2.

Nectarines.

Sub. I.

Div. 3.

Peaches.

Small

flowers.

Sub. 2.

** _ . . • + -

Nectarines, j

(

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 131

Peaches — Melters.
Early Anne.
Malta.
Noblesse.
Early White Nutmeg.

Nectarines — Pavies.
Scarlet Newington.
Tawny Newington.
SERRATED GLANDLESS LEAVES. SMALL FLOWER.

Peach es — Melters.
Royal George.
Early Tillotson.
Belle de Vitry.

CRENATED LEAVES, WITH GLOBOSE GLANDS.
LARGE FLOWER.
Peaches — Melters.
Grosse Mignonne.

CRENATED LEAVES, WITH GLOBOSE GLANDS.
SMALL FLOWER.
Peaches — Melters.
Bellegarde. ;?s
White Imperial.
Teton de Venus.
George the Fourth.
President.
CRENATED LEAVES, WITH RENIFORM GLANDS.

LARGE FLOWER.
Nectarines — Melters.
Fairchild's.

132 THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.

CRENATED LEAVES, WITH RENIFORM GLANDS.
SMALL FLOWER.
Peaches — Pavies.
Incomparable.
Catharine.

Pea ches — Melters.
Chancellor.
Late Purple.

Nectarines — Melters.
Common Elruge.
Violet Hative.
Aromatic.

LIST OF VARIETIES.

The peaches named in the following list, afford
a succession from a period immediately after wheat
harvest till late autumnal frosts.

Early White Nutmeg. Very small, about one
inch in diameter, good, but not of high flavor. A
very slow grower and poor bearer, the trees hard
to raise, and very rarely yielding more than a pint
or two each at a time. Cultivated only for its early
maturity, and can scarcely be . considered as any
thing but a curiosity, as its place is well supplied
by the later apricots, and excellent peaches follow
within two weeks.

Red or Brown Nutmeg. Somewhat larger than
the preceding, a little later, and hardly equal to it
in flavor. It is a yellow fleshed peach, and conse-

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 133

quently, the leaves are never subject to mildew, —
and it is of easy propagation. Both these varie-
ties, possessing but little down on the skin, are
liable to the attacks of the curculio, which must be
guarded against by the means described for the
PLUM.

Early Anne, or Green Nutmeg. This resembles
the early white nutmeg in the growth and appear-
ance of the tree, but is a much better bearer, the
fruit is double' the size, and superior in flavor. It
ripens seven or eight days after.

Sweetwater. This originated from the Early
Anne, which it greatly resembles, but is of higher
flavor, twice the size, being a medial sized peach,
and in ripening 3 or 4 days later. It would be a
variety of much value, were it not for its slow
growth and difficult propagation.

Early Tillotson. Fruit medial size, very fine,
an abundant bearer. It belongs to the class of
" Early rareripes," and is perhaps the earliest truly
valuable variety, ripening nearly with the Sweet-
water, and scarcely a week after the Early Anne.
It has serrated glandless leaves, and is slightly lia-
ble to mildew when young, but is of comparatively
free growth and easy propagation.

Red Rareripe. There are several varieties under
this name, possessing generally, fine qualities and
productiveness, and ripening immediately after the
Tillotson.

134 THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.

Early York. Fruit large, excellent ; leaves ere-
nated with globose glands, and the tree a free
grower and abundant bearer.

White Imperial. Originated on the grounds of
D. Thomas, of Cayuga Co., N. Y. Fruit large,
white with a slight blush, flavor excellent, which
it retains unchanged through all the variations of
seasons. Tree an unusually fine grower, a good
bearer, but the fruit never injured by overbearing.

Yellow Alberge. Fruit large, flesh yellow, with
a dark red cheek, of very fine flavor. Tree hardy,
a free grower, and abundant bearer.

Malacotoon. Fruit large, flesh yellow, and of
excellent flavor.

The Malta, President, and some other varieties,
ripen later, but in cold seasons the flavor is not
first rate. The Heath cling, a very large and ex-
cellent variety, ripening late in autumn, does not
succeed in cold seasons. This variety, with the
Early Newington, Old Mixon, Old Neivington, and
Lemon cling, are regarded as among the best cling-
stones.

The peach varies materially in quality, by the
influence of climate. Fine American varieties are
pronounced worthless in England. In this coun-
try, some, often delicious, are of little value^ in un-
favorable seasons. Some which succeed finely, as
far south as Philadelphia, lose much by removal
to Western New- York, from the slightly diminished

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 135

warmth of our summers. Hence a different selec-
tion of sorts is needed in different regions of country.
Overbearing greatly injures the quality; thus
the Heath clingstone, under favorable circumstan-
ces, is a very large and excellent fruit ; but if per-
mitted to overbear, it is small and worthless.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

Peach and nectarine trees are liable to destruc-
tion from iwo causes, the worm and the yellows.
The presence of the worm is readily detected by
the gum mixed with excrementitious matter, re-
sembling saw-dust, oozing from the trunk of the
tree at the surface of the ground. The best, and
probably the only effectual remedy, is to scrape
away the earth, and then with a knife to follow the
holes made by the worm to their termination. As
this insect confines itself to the bark, its destruction
is very easy. It rarely happens that trees are com-
pletely destroyed by it, except they be small ;
death can only take place when the tree is girdled.
Timely care will prevent this; the evil in fact is
only to be dreaded by negligent cultivators.

The disease termed the Yellows, is truly formi-
dable. Its cause has never been satisfactorily as-
certained. The first indication is an irregular and
premature ripening of the fruit, accompanied with
purple discolor at ions of the flesh. This usually oc-
curs the first season on a part of the tree only.

136 THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.

The following season, numerous small wiry shoots
often grow from the larger branches, the leaves be-
come yellow, the whole tree assumes a sickly ap-
pearance, and eventually perishes. This disease
is still more to be dreaded from its contagious na-
ture. If not checked, it commonly spreads through
the whole orchard. It appears to be communicated
at the time of blossoming by means of the pollen.
But the infection may be conveyed in ether ways.
The bud from a diseased tree inserted in a healthy
stock, will cause its death, and even the use of a
knife in pruning, which has been previously used
on a diseased tree. Facts also greatly strengthen
the suspicion that the roots of healthy trees have
imbibed the contagion by mere contact with those
of diseased ones. It is also probable that planting
the seed of diseased trees will communicate the
disease to the seedlings.

After it has once attacked a tree, there is no re-
medy; and to prevent it from spreading to others,
the diseased tree should be immediately destroyed.
No young trees should be planted on the same spot,
as the diseased roots still remain in the soil. Coxe
says, " The peach tree cannot be cultivated with
success on the site of a former plantation, until
some years of an intermediate course of cultivation
have intervened." As it is probable that the kerr
nel may become infected, caution would direct that
stones from diseased trees be never used for plant-
ing.

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 137

The shortness of life in the peach tree, and the
consequent difficulty of its culture in the vicinity
of New- York and Philadelphia, and in other pla-
ces, appears to be chiefly owing to this disease. In
western New- York, it is comparatively unknown,
and great care should be used by cultivators that it
be not introduced by importations of trees.

The peach tree, though generally supposed to be
very short lived, when not destroyed by unnatural
causes, will continue to flourish and bear for many
years. Trees, twenty years old and upwards, are
frequently seen in western New- York ; and in the
town of Farmington, Ontario county, were lately
the remains of an Indian orchard, containing peach
trees a foot in diameter and probably fifty years
old, in a bearing state.

The curled leaf, which frequently appears on
peach trees early in summer, is occasioned by frost.
These leaves soon drop, and the tree assumes a
healthy appearance. It would not be worth noti-
cing except that it sometimes occasions unnecessa-
ry alarm.

The growth of peach trees is often retarded by
mildew upon the leaves. This is confined to
glandless, cut-leaved varieties only; such as the
Early White Nutmeg, the Early Anne, and some
of the earliest varieties of the red rareripe. Yel-
low fleshed peaches never suffer from it. It is not
often a formidable evil.

138 THE PEACH AND NECTARINE.

The Nectarine, from its smooth skin, is eminent-
ly liable to destruction from the attacks of the cur-
culio. For a description of this insect, and effectual
modes of preventing its depredations, see the chap-
ter on the PLUM.

The effect of warm weather in winter, in starting
peach buds, and their great danger afterwards from
severe frosts, have been noticed when treating of
the " SITUATION" for fruit gardens. Crops are
obviously safest in cold situations, where the buds
are not started until the warm weather of spring.
[n one case, a bank of snow covering the lower
limb of a peach tree, saved the fruit, while all on
the rest of the tree perished.* In another, a row
of peach trees close along the north side of a fence,
where snow-drifts lay, were more fruitful than the
other trees. Hence the practice of piling snow
round them has been recommended, and in some
cases practiced with success. " It cannot be con-
sidered infallible in any situation. It is only use-
ful where a slight reduction of temperature is suf-
ficient to prevent the starting of the buds. We

* Dr. Kirtland in Elliott's Magazine, mentions the case of
a peach tree, a large branch of which was split down on the
ground, early in winter. The flower buds on the prostrate
branch were uninjured, while the whole crop of peach buds
elsewhere was destroyed. The branch was carefully raised,
and was loaded with fruit; the rest of the tree was entirely
barren.

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE. 139

can easily conceive such a time, when a part of the
buds start, and a part do not. In one season, the
lower buds on the tree, which received the reflect-
ed heat from the ground, nearly all started, and
were killed, while those on the tops of the trees
were not injured. It is evident that a very slight
depression of temperature would have been suffi-
cient to have prevented the lower buds from start-
ing. But the warmth may be so great, either late
in autumn or in mid -winter, that no check of the
kind would be sufficient." (D. Thomas.)

It has often been observed that woods or thick
trees, buildings, high board fences, or steep hills,
on the east side of peach orchards, protect the crop.
Hence the erroneous opinion, that it is the east
wind which does the damage. It is the sunshine
upon the frozen buds which destroys them; hence,
a clouded sky after a clear frosty night, by prevent-
ing sudden thawing, sometimes saves a crop.

CHAPTER V.

THE APRICOT.

IT is remarkable that a fruit of such excellence
as the apricot, and ripening from one to two months
before the best early peaches, should be so little
known. In its natural character, it is more nearly
allied to the plum than the peach, resembling the
former in its leaf and in the stone of its fruit ; but
downy like the peach, and partaking largely of its
flavor and excellence.

The apricot is budded on seedling apricots, and
on peach and plum stocks. Plum stocks are pre-
ferred ; but their superiority is not so great as is
often ascribed to them. They have not always af-
forded protection from the peach worm ; as that
insect, not to be thwarted, has penetrated the bark
of the apricot three feet from the ground.

The soil should be deep and dry. Young trees
frequently perish in winter from a wet subsoil, even
where the surface is dry. They are about equal
in hardiness to the earlier varieties of the peach.
They are, however, peculiarly liable to the attacks
of the curculio, and the usual destruction of the
young crop by this insect, has led to the erroneous

THE APRICOT. 141

conclusion that the apricot is not adapted to our
climate. For modes of destroying them see next
chapter.

VARIETIES.

These appear to have been less examined than
those of most other kinds of fruit. The earliest
appear to be the

Masculine, or Early Masculine. Fruit small,
nearly round, an inch and a quarter in diameter,
slightly acid, chiefly valuable for its earliness,
ripening in seventh month (July.)

Breda Apricot. Fruit medial size, round, flesh
deep yellow, rich, juicy, and good. Like the
Orange, which is inferior, it has a sweet kernel ;
but differs by the easy separation of the flesh from
its stone.

Peach and Moorpark. Regarded by many as iden-
tical, and closely resembling each other.- These
varieties are considered as the finest. Fruit large,
sometimes two inches in diameter on young trees ;
flesh light yellow, approaching to fawn color, melt-
ing, full of very sweet and highly perfumed juice.
Ripen later than the two preceding, and nearly at
the usual time of wheat harvest.

The Musch, the Royal and the Turkey, are re-
garded as excellent sorts. The Black Apricot,
though inferior in flavor, is valuable for its perfect
hardiness, withstanding the cold of winter on all
soils.

CHAPTER VI.

THE PLUM.

RAISING THE YOUNG TREES.

To obtain seedling stocks, which are always the
best, plum stones must be treated like those of
the peach. But as they are smaller, more care
is needed to prevent drying before they are put
into the ground. A part of them only vegetate the
first year.

The plum is propagated both by budding and
grafting. If by the former, the stocks should be
in the most thrifty condition, and the work perform-
ed at the period of the most rapid growth. If by
the latter, it should be done early in spring, and
firm and well ripened wood chosen for the grafts.

Plums are sometimes budded at the surface of
the ground into peach stocks. If the soil is after-
wards kept banked up round them ; and when they
are transplanted, if they are set some inches below
the place of union, they are found to grow and suc-
ceed finely. Large and productive trees are known,
thus propagated ; and the peach thus proves a good
substitute in the absence of plum stocks.

THE PLUM. 143

SELECTION OF VARIETIES.

White Primordian, Early Yellow, or Jaune Na-
tive, is one of the very earliest of plums, ripening
generally in western New- York about the middle
of the seventh month, (July.) It is a small yellow
fruit, a good bearer, with a sweet and good flavor.
It appears to be the best plum at the season.

Morocco. This is a small plum, very productive,
skin a dark purple, flesh juicy and high flavored.
It ripens early in the eighth month, (August.)

Wilmofs Early Orleans. A large fine fruit,
ripening with the Morocco.

Green Gage. This is generally admitted to be
the finest of all plums ; the genuine fruit is of me-
dium size, and round ; the stalk half an inch long,
a little bent and inserted in a small funnel-shaped
cavity ; the skin is yellowish green, when fully ripe
nearly yellow, mottled with russety red near the
stem ; flesh melting, separating imperfectly from
the stone, juicy, sugary, and of exquisite flavor.
There are many varieties cultivated under the
name of Green Gage, originated by planting the
stones of the genuine variety, but greatly inferior
in flavor. There are other varieties of a small
green plum, scarcely worth cultivating, which are
frequently found in the gardens of our farmers,
also called the Green Gage, but they bear no re-
semblance to the genuine fruit.

Imperial Gage. Fruit large, and the tree very

144 THE PLUM.

productive. Manning says that this is " the most
productive and profitable of all plums." Kenrick
says, "A single tree of this variety at Charles-
town, (Mass.,) owned by S. R. Johnson, has for
several successive years yielded crops which were
sold at from $40 to $50 per annum."

Orleans. Fruit nearly round, middle sized or
rather large, skin reddish purple, flesh yellow,
firm and good, separating freely from the stone.
An excellent fruit, ripening about the time of the
Green Gage.

Huling's Superb. Fruit very large, often two
inches in length, equal in richness, but more acid
than the Green Gage.

Washington. Fruit large, orange yellow, with
a fine blush next the sun ; flesh yellow, firm, sweet
and excellent. Though the flavor of this is infe-
rior to that of some other varieties, it is highly es-
teemed as a first rate plum. Ripens about a week
later than the Orleans.

Imperatrice. A good plum, ripening in the tenth
month, (Oct.) One of the best late plums.

Coe's Golden Drop. Fruit of large size, skin
golden yellow, spotted with rich red next the sun,
flesh yellow, sweet and delicious. Like the pre-
ceding, slightly necked next the stem, a clingstone,
and a great bearer. The best late plum. The
writer has measured them more than 2 1-4 inches
long.

THE PLUM. 145

The Egg Plum, or Yellow Magnum Bonum, is
a very large plum, of a sweet agreeable flavor,
but as the texture is rather coarse, is chiefly used
for cooking and preserving. The same remark ap-
plies to the Red Magnum Bonum. These two are
admired as table fruit where finer varieties are un-
known.

There are some other fine varieties, as the Jef-
ferson, Lawrence gage, and Bleecker's gage, well
worthy of cultivation.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

The chief are the Curculio, and the Black Ex-
crescences on the limbs.

The Curculio, represented in the
annexed figure, (fig. 31,) is a
Fig. 31. small insect not more than a quar-
ter of an inch long, of a dark brown color, the
sheaths covering the wings slightly variegated
with lighter colors, the body resembling in size and
appearance a ripe hemp seed.

About the time the young fruit
attains the size of a pea, the
curculio begins its work of de-
struction. It makes a small
crescent shaped incision in the
young fruit, and lays its egg in
the opening. The presence of the egg may be
easily detected by these incisions upon the surface ;

the annexed figure, (fi>. 32,) represents one of
10

146 THE PLUM.

these, magnified twice in diameter. The egg soon
hatches into a small white larva, which enters
the hody of the fruit and feeds upon it, causing
usually, its premature fall to the ground.

The insect, soon after the fall of the fruit, makes
its way into the earth, where it remains till the
following spring, probably in the pupa or torpid
state, and is then transformed into the perfect in-
sect to lay its eggs and perpetuate its race. It
has the power of using its wings in flying; but
whether it crawls up the tree or ascends by flight,
appears not to be certainly ascertained.

Several expedients have been proposed for its
destruction, or expulsion. These expedients may
be divided into two classes ; the first including
those for repelling or killing the perfect insect
when it takes possession of the tree to lay its eggs ;
and the second, those for the destruction of the
larva before it makes its escape to the earth, and
which consequently affords protection to the suc-
ceeding crop only.

1. Among the first may be mentioned various
modes for frightening it from the tree. The fre-
quent passing near trees planted by door-paths,
usually accomplishes this end, and hence trees in
the most frequented places often bear abundantly
while the crops on those more remote are destroyed.

In one case, a string from a pump-handle fast-
ened to a tree, by the repeated shaking thus given,

THE PLUM. 147

preserved the fruit. But the best remedy among
the first class of expedients, and indeed one of the
most thoroughly effectual ever yet devised, is to
jar the insects from the tree upon white sheets
spread beneath, and destroy them at once by a
pinch of the thumb and finger. While lying upon
the sheet they may not be distinguished by the
unpracticed eye from the withered blossoms; but a
moment of attention obviates this difficulty. A
quick and sudden jar is important, and may be
given by the stroke of a mallet, upon the short
stump of one of the smaller limbs, sawed off for
this purpose, arid which prevents bruising the bark.
David Thomas, (who first proposed this method,)
in a communication to the Genesee Farmer, in
1832, says, "Not three days ago, I saw that many
of the plums were punctured, and began to suspect
that shaking the tree was not sufficient. Under
a tree in a remote part of the fruit garden, having
spread the sheets, I therefore made the following
experiment : On shaking it well, I caught five cur-
culios ; O7i jarring it with the hand, I caught twelve
more ; and on striking the tree with a stone, eight
more dropped on the sheets. I was now convinced
that T had been in an error; and calling in the
necessary assistance, and using a hammer to jar
the tree violently, we caught in less than an hour
more than two hundred and sixty of these insects."
The same successful cultivator has pursued this

148 THE PLUM.

course ever since ; and when the remedy has been
daily and unremittingly applied, he has never fail-
ed to obtain abundant crops of plums, nectarines,
and apricots, even in seasons where these insects
have elsewhere committed the most destructive
ravages. In some years, more than two thousand
insects have been thus destroyed.

The best time for this work is in the cool of
morning, when the insects are stupid from cold, and
will drop quickly. It should be commenced very
early in the season, as soon as the fruit begins to
set. A few minutes are sufficient for many trees,
if two boys can be had to carry the sheets, which
should be kept stretched by cross sticks across the
ends. One day's work for the season, may thus
save entire crops.

2. The second class of remedies includes those
for destroying the fallen fruit, as soon as it drops,
and before the larvae escape to the earth.

One of these consists in beating the ground
smooth beneath the tree, sweeping up the fallen
fruit daily, and feeding it to hogs. Paving with
brick answers the same end. Confining a suf-
ficient number of geese or swine among the trees,
to pick up the fallen fruit, accomplishes easily
and effectually the same purpose. It does not, of
course, save the present crop ; but where tried for
many successive seasons, it has uniformly afforded
abundant crops. The planting of plums, nectarines,.

THE PLUM. 149

apricots, and the earliest peaches, separately from
the rest of the trees, for the confinement of swine,
should not he forgotten.

The application of salt under the trees is said
to prevent the ravages of the curculio. To deter-
mine its efficacy, and the quantity the trees will
bear, further experiments are desirable. From one
to two pailfuls of brine for one tree have been tried,
and though killing grass and weeds, have not in-
jured the tree.

Black excrescences, supposed to be from the at-
tacks of an insect, but doubted by some, spread
from one part of the tree to another, and from tree
to tree, and unless speedily checked cause death.
The only remedy known, but which if promptly,
fearlessly and unremittingly applied, has never
been known to fail, is the immediate excision and
burning of the affected branches. But the same
spirit of procrastination, which neglects the spread
of this evil till too late, and puts off till to-morrow
the extinguishment of the city conflagration, has
resulted in the total loss of some of the finest plum
orchards in the country.

CHAPTER VIL

THE CHERRY.

THE cultivated varieties of the cherry consist of
two distinct classes of sorts ; the first, comprising
the Mazzards, Hearts, and Bigarreaus, is charac-
terized usually by the tall upright growth and py-
ramidal form of the tree, by the large, vigorous, and
straight young branches, and by a sweet or bitter,
but not a sour taste. The second class, or round-
fruited, including the Dukes, Morelloes, and the
common pie cherry, has small, irregular, and
thickly growing branches, and a decidedly acid
fruit.* Observation will soon enable any one to
distinguish these two classes, even where the trees
are not more than a foot in height. It is the for-
mer only that are valuable as stocks for grafting
and budding, on account of their straight and ra-
pid growth.

Cherry stocks, in common with those of other
kinds of fruit, are much the best when raised from
seed. The stones, as soon as they are taken from

* The French divided their cherries into griottes, or tender-
fleshed [sour]; bigarreaux, or hard-fleshed; and guignes, or
small fruits. Loud. Enc. Plants.

THE CHERRY. 151

the fruit, should be dried only enough to prevent
their becoming mouldy, and then mixed with an
equal quantity of clean moist sand. The sand
preserves a proper degree of moisture till early
the following spring, and admits of their easy sepa-
ration in planting. If they become much dried,
vegetation is wholly prevented.

TJie seeds should be planted in spring, as soon
as the ground is open, as they sprout and grow on
the first approach of warm weather. The distance
apart should be the same as for the peach and
apple, and the same directions also apply to their
removal to nursery rows ; but they are not to be
headed down at the time, as is practiced with the
peach.

In propagating the slower- growing, round-fruited
varieties, good trees are soonest obtained by graft-
ing or budding them at standard height into large
straight stocks. If grafted, they soon form a hand-
some head ; if budded, care must be taken by ju-
dicious pruning to prevent the young shoots from
growing all on one side.

Great difficulty is often experienced in success-
fully grafting the cherry. The operation succeeds
best when performed very early in spring, before
the buds have swollen. After this period, it is
usually attended with failure.

Budding has also been found difficult. It can only
succeed with thrifty, freely growing stocks, at or a

152 THE CHERRY.

little after their most vigorous stage of growth,
which is scarcely ever later than the middle of
summer. If too early, the new bud has not become
sufficiently mature to withstand the change ; and
if too late, its adhesion to the stock cannot take
place.

For standard trees, the soil should be dry and
fertile. On moist soils, they do not nourish.
Pruning is rarely practiced, and not often needed;
but when the fruit suffers from crowded branches
and stunted growth, this operation would be doubt-
less beneficial.

VARIETIES.

In many parts of the country, the cultivation of
bad varieties, to the exclusion of good, has been
more practiced than with any other kind of fruit ;
and many intelligent cultivators, have never seen
the finest sorts. Even those who have the best,
have perhaps never seen them ripe ; as picking
them, when not full grown, and but half matured,
is almost universal. The depredations of birds
and boys, often compel the cultivator to resort to
this practice from necessity. But if some varie-
ties could remain two weeks longer than usual on
the tree, the improvement in their fine qualities
would be such that they would be scarcely recog-
nized.

Among some of the best are the following:

THE CHERRY. 153

I. HEART-SHAPED FRUIT.

May Bigarreau. This appears to be the earliest
variety of value. Fruit medial size, oblong —
heart-shaped, dark red, and of good, but not high
flavor. An abundant bearer. Ripens the first of
sixth month (June,) with the Early May, the
earliest sour cherry, which from its dwarfish growth
and poor bearing, is scarcely worth cultivation.

Black Tartarian. Fruit, when not crowded, of
large size, sometimes an inch in diameter, heart-
shaped, the surface slightly wavy or irregular,
sweet and very fine ; not of so high flavor as some
others, but on the whole decidedly first-rate and
well worthy of cultivation.

Elton. Large, light red, and of exceedingly
rich and delicious flavor, by many regarded as the
finest of cherries.

Yellow Spanish.* Very large, yellowish red, of
fine but not of the highest flavor, a great and constant
bearer, and worthy of a place in all collections.

Florence. Large, light red, of excellent flavor,
ripening late, a fruit of the highest character.

Knight's Early Black, Large White Bigarreau,
White Heart, Downton, Black Eagle, and others,
are also of first-rate quality.

II. ROUND OR SOUR FRUIT.

Early Richmond, or true Kentish Red. Ripens

* Known also as the Graffion, and the White Bigarreau of
Manning.

154 THE CHERRY.

with Black Tartarian ; when fully matured of good
size, tender, rich, juicy, acid.

May Duke. Fruit large, rich, excellent, when
ripe nearly black. Commences ripening with
Black Tartarian, and continues to ripen often for
several weeks, the fruit on one part of the tree being
fit for eating, while on other parts it may be nearly
green. Hence propagating from different branches
has produced early and late trees of the same va-
riety, to which different names have been given.
The May Duke is usually gathered before it has
attained full size, and but half its flavor.

Carnation. Large, fine, handsome, ripening a
month after Black Tartarian, or early in 7 mo.,
(July.)

THE DISEASES AND ENEMIES,

To which the cherry is liable, are few and not for-
midable. After the young trees are procured, they
are consequently of remarkably safe and easy cul-
tivation.

There are however some varieties which are
liable to black excrescences on the branches, which,
gradually increasing and extending, destroy the
tree. These are supposed to be the work of an in-
sect. The only means of arresting their progress,
and which, when vigorously and unremittingly ap-
plied, does not fail, is to cut off the injured branch-
es at once, and commit them to the fire.

THE CHERRY. 155

The black aphis, or plant louse, is often very in-
jurious to young trees in the nursery, causing a
stunted and distorted growth, and when abundant
on newly grafted trees, sometimes destroying them.

The best remedy is the application of whale oil
soap. A teacupful is dissolved in a pail of water,
and applied by a syringe, or by the immersion of
infested branches, which causes the immediate
death of the insects, and must be repeated every
few days till no more are found.

The "Cherry Slug," (fig. 37,) when in large
numbers, does serious injury by eating the leaves,
^is animal» which appears to be
the larva of an insect, is about
half an inch long, and dark green-
Fig. 37. isn brown when filled with food.
Its smooth, shining, and jelly-like skin, and snail-
like appearance, have given it the name " Slug."
It may be repelled by dusting the cherry leaves
regularly, while wet with dew, with dry fresh ashes.

Perhaps the greatest enemy to the cultivation of
the cherry, next to lawless boys, is the small brown,
crested bird, known as the Cedar bird. These
birds will in a short time, eat, mutilate, and pollute,
all the best fruit on a tree. The only effectual re-
medy appears to be powder and shot. They soon
become fearful and less destructive. A net thrown
over the tree,- would doubtless afford protection, and
might be done in case of some choice varieties.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE GRAPE.

• « ' • /"• ' ,, r* ' •* "» • *

PROPAGATION.

THE vine is propagated from seed, layers, cut-
tings, and by grafting.

Seed are used for obtaining new varieties, by
cross fertilization, as already described in this work.

Layers are the easiest and best way of propaga-
ting existing varieties. The middle of the new
shoots are buried early in summer, in a few inches
of soil, into which roots will be sent by autumn,
when they are to be removed from the parent plant.
They may be laid in the soil together, till spring ;
or set out at once. One layer will usually make
two plants, by cutting in two in the middle.

Cuttings, for open air culture, are inferior to lay-
ers in vigor of growth and certainty of success.
They are, however, sometimes useful and necessa-
ry. They should be taken from the vine in win-
ter, from the most vigorous last summer's shoots.
They should be a foot or more long ; a portion of
the old wood is useful, and they are to be buried
in a sloping position, in a deep, rich, light, and
rather moist soil, with one bud above ground. Sue-

THE GRAPE. 157

cess is more sure, if two or three inches of manure
is then spread upon them, which keeps the soil
moist. Before the following winter, the new shoot
should be cut down to two or three buds, and the
whole covered by a slight hilling with the hoe, as
young plants are often destroyed by winter the first
year.

Grafting is seldom practiced and rarely needed.
It is however, sometimes useful in replacing a large
worthless vine with a fine one, in much less time
than by digging up and setting out a new plant, a
single year's growth on a vigorous stock, being
often sufficient to produce good crops. Rendering
tender grapes hardier, by insertion into hardy
stocks, is well worthy of trial. To prevent " bleed-
ing," it should be performed when the sap is not
in motion, or, if in spring, upon the root below the
surface. — See Appendix.

The soil for the grape, as for most fruits, should
be deep, fertile, and with a dry bottom. The grape
requires a mellow and clean surface. The hardy
American varieties, it is true, grow and bear with
neglected culture ; but the superiority both in quan-
tity and excellence more than repays good manage-
ment.

The distance asunder may vary with circumstan-
ces. Eight feet is usually adopted. Rapid grow-
ers may need more space, and old vines need more
than young ones.

158 THE GRAPE.

Trellis, for the support of vines. These are usu-
ally made by setting tall upright posts, and nailing
to them light horizontal rails at different distances
from the ground. Wire trellis is made by driving
successive horizontal rows of large nails into the
posts, about one foot from each other, arid stretch-
ing wires from post to post by passing once round
each nail, till the trtllis is completed. This mode
of construction is cheap and durable, and enables the
grapes to support themselves by the tendrils, which
clasp freely the small wires. The annexed figure,

Fig. 34.

(fig. 34,) represents a good and cheap grape trellis,
described in the Cultivator by J. M. Harlan. The
posts are six feet apart and ten or twelve feet high,
and stiff enough to support a ladder in gathering.
Pins, pointing upwards, in rows two feet apart,

THE GRAPE. 159

support horizontal poles; and projecting six inches
from the posts, the basket may be hung upon them
in gathering. A trellis is best if running north and
south, to receive the sun on both sides.

Pruning and Training. The hardy American
grapes are often much neglected in pruning, and
this neglect is sometimes even commended. But
as they are liable to the same laws of growth as
fruit trees, there can be no question that like them
they are benefited by thinning out superabundant
shoots, and promoting the vigorous growth of few-
er branches.

Various modes are adopted in pruning grapes for
the trellis. The great leading object should be, to
have a proper number of strong growing branches,
evenly distributed over the surface. For this pur-
pose, old and irregular branches should be removed,
that their places may be supplied by new ones from
the dormant buds near their base.

A general rule for all grape pruning, is to cut
down all shoots late in fall or in winter, to three or
four buds ; and new shoots should start as low-
down as possible, to- form the future bearing wood;
otherwise the old wood gradually extends upwards
to the top of the frames.

The annexed figures exhibit two modes of train-
ing, variations in which may be made to suit cir-
cumstances, and the preferences of the cultivator.
The first is the fan or fruit-tree method, in which

160

THE GRAPE.

the branches are evenly but irregularly spread over
the surface of the trellis, and the shoots shortened

down to the
stump, as space
and vigor of
growth require,
(fig. 35.) The
second, (figure
Fig. 35, 36,) exhibits a

more regular and systematic mode, and when once
understood, requires less judgment and skill for

performance, and is
on the whole decided-
ly superior. Two
branches are first ob-
tained by heading the
•pig. 36. young plant down to

two buds. These branches grow upright, and are
afterwards bent down horizontally. The summer
growth is shortened every winter by pruning, but
is suffered to extend a little farther each year, un-
til of the desired length, or about four or five feet
each way from the center. From these horizontal
branches, the new fruit bearing branches are al-
lowed to grow, and are again trimmed down to a
few eyes. If the trellis is high, and they do not
reach the top, a tall upright shoot may be left, from
which a second set of horizontal branches may ex-
tend. The shoots may be secured to their places
by twine or small strips of bass. — See Appendix

THE GRAPE. 161

Vines of the Isabella, and some other hardy va-
rieties, may be trained on trees ; and having thus
much space for growth, will in a few years bear
large crops. They may thus cover shade trees on
the farm, being protected while young from sheep
and cattle. L. B. Langworthy of Rochester, had a
single vine of the Isabella, ten years old, thus
trained, which yielded from ten to fifteen bushels a
year.

VARIETIES. These may be divided into two dis-
tinct kinds. The first includes the American har-
dy grapes, some of the best of which are varieties
of the Vitis Labrusca; the second contains the
exotic grapes, or varieties of the Vitis vinifera.

I. AMERICAN HARDY GRAPES.

Isabella. A luxuriant grower, and a great and
uniform bearer. Fruit slightly oval, about five-
eighths of an inch in diameter, sweet, slightly
musky, high flavored and delicious. In short and
unfavorable seasons, it does not fully ripen in the
more northern parts of the United States. The
Alexander much resembles it, but is sourer and in-
ferior in flavor.

York Madeira. Smaller, earlier, and hardier
than the Isabella, and free from its pulpy core and
muskiness ; it is hence preferred by some. In
growth and leaf, it is precisely similar, but smaller
in size.

11

162 THE GRAPE.

Catawba. A free grower and abundant bearer.
Fruit round, a little larger than the Isabella, red-
dish brown inclining to purple, juicy, rich, sub-
acid.

Bland. Resembles the Catawba, but smaller
and of lighter color. As far north as Boston and
Rochester, it ripens only in favorable seasons or in
warm places. When ripe, it is a fine, juicy, acid,
and delicious fruit.

The Clinton grape, and Gimbrede's Blue, are
hardy, of good quality, and ripen well in western
New-York.

II. EXOTIC GRAPES.

Black Cluster, Black Orleans, or Burgundy.
Fruit and bunches of small size, very thickly set,
dark purple, slightly acid, fine and high-flavored.
Nearly the only foreign variety of value, which en-
dures our winters without protection ; the fruit con-
tinues to ripen well in open air, for many years,
nearly unaffected by mildew.

White Sweet Water. One of the most delicious
of all grapes ; half an inch or more in diameter,
light green approaching to yellow, nearly transpa-
rent ; juicy, sweet, and excellent. It ripens early
in autumn.. The White Chasselas, the Chasselas
de Fontairibleau, and White Muscadine, much re-
semble this variety, and by some are thought to
be identical. It requires protection in winter, by

THE GRAPE. 163

laying down and covering with a few inches of
earth.

Black Hamburg, so me times called Red Hamburg.
Fruit large, deep purple, regarded as the finest of
all exotic grapes, but less hardy than the Sweet
Water, and cultivated chiefly in grape houses.

The White Muscat of Alexandria, is a large and
very fine grape, but requires the heat of a grape
house*

DISEASES AND ENEMIES.

Various insects occasionally attack the vine, but
they are rarely numerous or formidable. The only
serious difficulty appears to be mildew, which is
confined to exotic grapes. These, especially the
White Sweet Water, do well for three or four
years, and then become worthless. No means for
preventing the disaster appear to have proved en-
tirely successful, except by the successive produc-
tion of new plants every two or three years, by lay-
ers from the old vines, which are then destroyed.

KEEPING GRAPES THROUGH WINTER.

Grapes, packed in large jars, in baked saw-dust,
or in cotton batting, by alternate layers of the grape
and the packing, and then excluded from the air
by sealing the cover with wax or tallow, will keep
in a cool place till mid-winter or spring.

CHAPTER IX. ,

GOOSEBERRY AND CURRANT.

THE GOOSEBERRY

Is propagated by cuttings. New varieties are
raised from seed.

Cuttings should be taken from bearing shoots,
and all the buds removed except three or four at
the top. The new plants should be trained up to
a single stem a foot above ground. A very rich
moist soil is best.

The gooseberry has received comparatively
little attention in this country, and the English va-
rieties best adapted to our climate have not been
sufficiently tested. Many of the larger ones ap-
pear much subject to mildew; a defect, however,
which is often removed by rich soil, pruning, and
good cultivation. English writers enumerate sev-
eral hundred varieties, some of which have weigh-
ed an ounce and a half; but the larger sorts are
neither so good in flavor, nor so profitable for cul-
ture as those of medium size.

THE CURRANT,

From its hardiness, free growth, great and uni-

THE CURRANT. 165

form productiveness, pleasant flavor, and early ri-
pening, is one of the most valuable of our summer
fruits.

It is propagated, like the gooseberry, from cut-
tings, for which vigorous shoots of the last year's
production, should be chosen. Two or three buds
only, at the top of the shoot, should be left ; and
the plants should be kept trained up to a single
stem, till ten inches or a foot high, when the branch-
es should radiate on all sides in an upward direction
so as to form a handsome spreading top.

Currants, from their hardiness, usually receive
no attention nor culture, but are suffered to become
overrun with weeds and grass, and to become
crowded with a profusion of suckers. Small and
inferior fruit is the result. A great improvement
both in size and quality, is made by rich soil, good
cultivation, and judicious pruning. The differ-
ence in flavor between fruit ripened on well trim-
med branches, with air and sun freely admitted,
and that which is shaded by a dense growth of
leaves and branches, is greater than most would
believe.

The Red currant possesses the highest flavor;
but the White, being less acid, is by many prefer-
red. A mixture of the two sorts, makes an agree-
able dish for the table. Of the improved varieties,
the Red Dutch, Knight's Large Red, Knight's
Sweet Red, and the II hite Dutch, are recommend-

166 THE CURRANT.

ed as among the best in the Catalogue of the Lon-
don Horticultural Society. But rich soil, clean cul-
ture, and good pruning, have doubled the size of
our common varieties.

CHAPTER X.

THE RASPBERRY.

MOST varieties are increased with great facility
by suckers ; a few, as the American Black and
American White, are propagated readily by layers,
the tips of the recurved branches when slightly bu-
ried, soon taking root. New varieties are raised
from seeds, and come into bearing the second year.

The soil for the raspberry should be rich and
moist, and an admixture of swamp muck is useful.
The more tender varieties, as the White Antwerp,
may be raised on higher, drier and firmer spots of
ground, being there less liable to severe frosts, it*
cases where winter covering cannot be applied. A
shaded situation is usually preferred.

The culture is simple. It consists in pruning
each spring, keeping all weeds and grass well
cleared away from the stems, and the soil kept
mellow and clean by cultivation.

The pruning should be done early in spring. All
dead stems are to be removed, grass and weeds
cleared away, and all the smaller shoots cut off
even with the ground, leaving only four or five of
the best of the last summer's growth for future

168 THE RASPBERRY.

bearing; these are to be cut off three or four feet
high, and neatly tied together, using a stake to
stiffen them if necessary. In tying, they should be
allowed to spread slightly at the top in the form of
a wine-glass. The distance apart should be three
or four feet.

In many parts of the northern states, some ten-
der varieties, and more especially the White Ant-
werp, need winter protection. This is easily given
by covering the stems when prostrate, with a few
inches of earth, placing a small mound of earth
against the bottom of the stems before laying them
down, to bend upon and prevent breaking. This
covering is to be removed early in spring.

The best of well known varieties, are the Red
and the Yellow or White Antwerp, " which hold a
similar rank in this class of fruit to that occupied
by the Red and White. Dutch among currants."*
The Barnet, the Cretan Red, and the Franconia,
are also recommended as of fine quality, but they
have not yet been extensively cultivated in this
country. The Black American or wild raspberry,
(Rubus occidentalism affords fruit of very fine flavor,
which might doubtless be much improved by cul-
tivation.

A plantation of raspberries will continue in bear-
ing five or six years, when it should be renewed.

« Cat. of Lond. Hort. Soc.

CHAPTER XL

THE STRAWBERRY.

THIS delicious fruit, so universally esteemed, is
much neglected in cultivation. Failure from bad
management has contributed to this neglect.

The requisites for success are,

1. A good rich soil;

2. Clean cultivation between the rows.

3. A renewal by planting once in three years ;

4. Selection of good varieties.

Soil. Any deep rich soil, which is good for corn
or potatoes, will afford fine crops of strawberries.

Clean cultivation is of the greatest consequence,
and by far the most economical way to procure a
given amount of fruit. This may be accomplished
with one quarter the usual expense by horse culti-
vation. Let the rows extend across the garden,
and if two feet apart, they will freely admit a horse
between them.

A renewal of the planting may be effected every
three years, whether hand or horse cultivation is
employed, by the spontaneous growth of the plants,
as follows: — Plant the rows, in the first place, from
two to three feet apart, and the plants a foot asun-

170 THE STRAWBERRY.

der in the rows, and keep them clean as already
described. When a new planting is needed, let
the runners extend and fill up these spaces with
new plants ; and then spade under by hand, or turn
under with a furrow, the old rows, keeping the
ground clean where they stood, until a new plant-
ing is needed. In this way, the productiveness of
the plantation may be preserved an indefinite num-
ber of years, and the overgrowth of old beds by
grass, and the setting out of new beds by hand,
are at once avoided.

Where it is requisite to form new beds by trans-
planting, late in summer or very early in autumn
is a proper time for the work, if the weather be not
very dry. Watering at the time should not be
omitted. Early in spring is also attended with
success. But late in autumn is often attended
with failure, from the young plants being thrown
out or destroyed by frost ; a disaster which may be
in part prevented by treading the soil closely about
the roots before freezing, and by a covering of
leaves, straw or chaff. New plants, only a year
old, are always better than those which are older
and have already borne fruit.

SELECTION OF VARIETIES.

The Duke of Kent and Early Scarlet, are among
the best very early varieties; and the Roseberry,
Bishop's Orange, Keene's Seedling, and Hovey's

THE STRAWBERRY. 171

Seedling, are known for good quality, large size,
and productiveness.* The two latter being tender,

* Much discussion has arisen from the supposed dioecious
character of some varieties; or barrenness, supposed to result
from imperfectly formed flowers. The question appears to
be still involved in conjecture.

It is well known that fertility in all flowers, is caused by
fertilizing the pistils with the pollen or dust from the sta-
mens. Where both are perfect in the same flower, no diffi-
culty can exist. But if one or the other is imperfect or
wanting, sterility must result. If the stamens are absent,
pollen from other flowers may supply the deficiency. But
if the pistils are imperfect or gone, there is of course no re-
medy.

The Wood and Alpine strawberries, and some other vari-
eties, possess perfect flowers; but some of the larger and
more highly improved sorts, appear often to have imperfect
flowers, and are accompanied with barrenness. Some have
supposed these to be really dioecious, or permanently staminate
or pistillate; but if so, any single productive variety must al-
ways be pistillate, as, having increased by runners from a sin-
gle original seedling, its character in this respect cannot
change. Hence, it would always need the fertilizing influ-
ence of some other, nearly allied variety, planted near, but not
so as to intermix and cause confusion among the roots.

The more common opinion is, that the flowers of certain
varieties become imperfect by cultivation or other controll-
ing causes, in a manner analogous to that by which stamens
are converted into the petals of double flowers, and by which
their fertilizing power is known to be lost. The opinion
just slated, is strengthened by the fact that some varieties
on very rich ground and with high culture, though flowering
abundantly, are rendered comparatively barren, unless fertil-
ized from other flowers, while they are found to be pro-
ductive under different circumstances.

Those who maintain the distinct dioecious character of the
strawberry, affirm that the staminate plants increase more
rapidly and obtain the ascendancy ; and hence the reason
why beds often become gradually sterile, which is only to
be prevented by destroying the staminate plants.

Thorough, extensive, and accurate experiments, are need-
ed in the investigation of this subject.

172 THE STRAWBERRY.

need a covering of straw or chaff in winter. Ho-
vey's Seedling is regarded by many who have cul-
tivated it, as the most desirable of all varieties;
but, as with all new fruits, it should not be exclu-
sively nor very extensively cultivated, till years of
trial have thoroughly proved its character and free-
dom from unforeseen defects. The Red and White
Alpine, though inferior in flavor, continue in bear-
ing, in moist shady places, through most -of the
season ; the Bush Alpine bears still later, an in-
stance occurring where a half pint was picked on
the first of 12 mo. (Dec.) — and being free from run-
ners, it might be used as edging to flower beds.
Several other varieties are much admired by differ-
ent cultivators , a selection from which must be left
to taste and circumstances.

.-.;•:• CHAPTER XII.

-\ • -. '-A.- -"L.r. ; » ••*.- % /.*"•".. / •*' '' -• :'-.*• - ' *V

WORK IN THE ORDER OF TIME.

FIRST MONTH, JANUARY.

TREES not prepared against attacks of mice, as
directed under 11 mo., should have the snow trod-
den compactly round them, soon after its fall.
Prune orchards ; cut grafts ; trim hardy grapes ; as
described already under these respective heads.

SECOND MONTH, FEBRUARY.

Work described under last month, may be per-
formed, if not already done, — as pruning grapes and
fruit trees, and procuring shoots for cuttings and for
grafts. Root grafting may be commenced, as de-
scribed in the chapter on the apple. Caterpillars'
eggs, near the ends of the branches, should be
clipped off and burned.

THIRD MONTH, MARCH.

Unpruned grape vines should be trimmed with-
out delay ; trees in bud should be headed down ;
gooseberries and currants pruned ; cherry and plum
trees grafted in mild weather; raspberries pruned

174 MONTHLY CALENDAR.

and tied to stakes when the weather admits ; cher-
ry stones for stocks, planted as early as possible ;
apple and other seeds soon after ; peach stones
cracked and planted ; and root-grafting may be con-
tinued through the month. Caterpillars' eggs, not
already removed, should be attended to without
delay, as described under " The Apple."

FOURTH MONTH, APRIL.

Tender grapes and raspberries, should have their
winter covering removed; strawberry beds cleaned
and dressed, — and new beds set out ; raspberries
pruned and tied to stakes if not already done ; "cut-
tings of grapes, gooseberries, currants, and quinces,
put out; the seeds of all fruit trees as speedily sown
as possible, — the cherry first, then apples, pears and
plums,. and lastly peaches; fruit trees transplanted
as soon as the ground will admit, transplanting the
hardiest trees first ; seedlings for stocks and all
root-grafted trees should be transplanted; if the
work be late, dip all the roots in mud before setting
out, and the danger will be greatly lessened, and
the growth unchecked.

FIFTH MONTH, MAY.

The work of last month should be finished as
speedily as possible. All young weeds springing
up, should be destroyed at the outset, and save
nine-tenths of the labor ; shoots around young

MONTHLY CALENDAR. 175

grafted and budded trees, rubbed off; crooked trees
staked up ; the peach and apple examined for the
worm and borer; and layers made for propagating
the quince.

SIXTH MONTH, JUNE. '

. Y; \ ..";? tfijFjsVl - ' s-. T . '•*.»" "•.'

The rapidly growing season having now arrived,
no work is more important than keeping all young
trees widely and deeply spaded round, or otherwise
deeply cultivated and kept clean. Strawberries,
raspberries, gooseberries, and currants, need the
same attention. Young trees in the nursery are to
be straightened up and staked, and useless shoots
at the bottom rubbed off. Vines should be trained,
and fruit thinned out on overbearing trees. Con-
stant attention must be given to the curculio, as al-
ready described, and a strict watch kept for fire-
blight on the pear, and black-knot on the plum.

SEVENTH MONTH, JULY.

Thorough and clean cultivation is to be continu-
ed. If the soil should become very dry, and young
trees need watering, several inches of the surface
should be first removed, and replaced after water-
ing. Small trees should be staked up and trim-
med ; and shoots from buds tied to the stock above
them, before the wood becomes stiff. Cherries and
plums should be budded the last half of the month;
apples near the end. Grape and other layers should

176 MONTHLY CALENDAR.

be made. Finish the destruction of the curculio,
and keep an eye to black-knot, and fire-blight, and
the peach worm and borer.

.' ^ *

EIGHTH MONTH, AUGUST.

Clean cultivation is to be constantly attended to ;
and unfinished work of past month early completed.
Apples should be budded early in the month, and
peaches from the middle to the end ; and the ban-
dages removed as soon as they begin to indent the
stock. If the weather is wet, strawberry plants
may be set out, and they will become firmly es-
tablished before winter.

NINTH MONTH, SEPTEMBER.

Strawberry beds should be made as early in the
month as practicable ; peach budding, if not finish-
ed, should be speedily completed, and all bandages
timely removed. Ground may be prepared for
transplanting trees, and large holes for their recep-
tion may now be made and filled with fertile soil.

TENTH MONTH, OCTOBER.

The work of last month may be continued, and
transplanting commenced in the latter part of the
month. Hardy trees are best removed in autumn ;
tender in spring; very small trees should be set
out in spring to prevent heaving by frost. Peach
and apricot trees if set in autumn on heavy soils,

MONTHLY CALENDAR. 177

need the precautions mentioned under "Transplant-
ing."

ELEVENTH MONTH, NOVEMBER.

Spade in manure round unthrifty fruit-trees, that
the wet soil may absorb its strength ; apply a top
dressing of manure to strawberry beds, which pro-
tects the tender varieties, and the enriching parts
soak into the soil without being evaporated. Bank
up fresh earth round trees to prevent the attacks of
mice. Lay down and cover tender grapes ; newly
transplanted strawberries should be covered with
leaves or manure; protect tender raspberries with
evergreen boughs. Transplanting may be contin-
ued as directed last month. Grape layers may be
removed from the vine, and laid in for winter; if
hardy they may be set out. Grafts may be cut, and
preserved as described under grafting.

TWELFTH MONTH, DECEMBER.

All unfinished work of the past month should be
completed. Grapes may be pruned, the cuttings
preserved by packing as grafts. Grafts may be
cut any time during winter. Snow should be trod
round fruit trees, where they need such protection
from mice. Marking sticks and labels for trees,
stakes for tying up young trees, and trellis for
grapes, may be made at any season of leisure
during the winter.

12

SELECTION OF KINDS

TO SUPPLY A FAMILY WITH FRUIT.

THE number must be governed by the age of
the trees in bearing, by climate and circumstances,
but more than all else by the cultivation given. A
very few trees, ten or fifteen years old, and receiv-
ing the best treatment, will afford a larger supply
than tripple the number with bad management.
The following may serve as a guide in selection,
the number of each to be increased or diminished
with circumstunces. When raising fruit for sale
becomes an object, a different selection is of course
to be made.

12 cherry trees, supplying fruit for 2 months.

§ apricot " " " 1 "

18 pear " " " 9 "

10 plum " " " 3 "

15 peach " " " 2 "

4 nectarine " " " 1 "

33 apple " " " 12 "

100

Two or three square rods of strawberries, two
dozen raspberry bushes, two dozen currants, and
one dozen gooseberries, will, if well managed, afford
an abundant supply for a family.

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF FRUITS.

SHORT and select lists have been given in the
preceding part of this work. The following more
extended catalogue is intended for reference.

The experienced cultivator will at once perceive
that the characters given may vary materially with
climate, soil, circumstances and tastes. An apple of
large size at one time, or place of growth, may be
only medium at another. The same remark will
apply in a greater or less degree to the form, color,
quality and time of maturity, of many fruits.

Pears are more liable to vary than most other
fruits, and especially the new Flemish pears, which,
from their mode of origin, are regarded as pecu-
liarly subject to change. Hence, some of those
new varieties, though marked as first-rate, may
prove of only second or even third quality, after
thorough trial in this country. Some of them have
already been found, occasionally delicious, but in
most seasons worthless. In addition to this draw-
back, it must be also remembered, that many vs.*
rieties are admired because they are new — hence
some which at first excite general admiration, after
a while pass away and are forgotten.

The new and excellent work of A. J. Downing,
published since the preceding part of the volume
was in type, has been found of essential value in
preparing the following lists, especially of the
Pears.

180

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2'g

NOTE ON GRAFTING THE VINE.

(See page 157.)

" Grafting the Vine is attended with great suc-
cess in the cleft manner, if treated as follows : —
Cut your scions during winter, keeping them par-
tially buried in a cool damp cellar till wanted. As
soon as the leaves of the old vine or stock are fully
expanded, and all danger of bleeding is past, say
about the 10th of June, cut it off smoothly below
the surface of the ground, and split the stock and
insert one or two scions in the usual manner, bind-
ing the cleft well together if it does not close firm-
ly. Draw the soil carefully over the whole, leav-
ing two or three buds of the scion above the sur-
face. If the root of the stock is a strong native
grape, the graft will frequently grow ten or fifteen
feet during the first season, and yield a fair crop
during the second year.

" The Vine may also be grafted with good suc-
cess at the usual season if grafted below the ground,
but above ground it should not be attempted on
account of bleeding, until the leaves are nearly
expanded." — Downing^ Fruit and Fruit Trees of
America.

m

NOTE ON PRUNING GRAPES.

(See page 160.)

A very intelligent and successful cultivator of
hardy grapes, has furnished the following more
minute description of the mode adopted, than that
contained in the body of this work :

" Retain, in the first place, simply one upright
of young growth, which in the winter should be
trimmed down to five or six buds. The next sea-
son, allow one branch to grow on each side, which
at the winter trimming should be laid down in a
horizontal direction. These arms will send upright
shoots, which will bear the fruit. The next sea-
son, the arms as well as all the uprights should be
cut ofT, except the upright nearest the body of the
vine; and so continue pruning each successive
year.

" The original upright, when the root shall be
strong enough to bear it, may be allowed to grow
longer so as to have another set of arms, perhaps
about three feet above the others, always taking
care to let the arms grow from the wood of the pre-
vious year.

220 PRUNING GRAPES.

" When the grapes have attained about the size
of a pea, the ends of the branches bearing them
may be nipped, that they may not interfere in
growth with the arms above. It is also well to take
off the grapes which form on the upright shoot next
the body of the vine, in order thus to insure a
thrifty shoot for an arm the next season. The late-
rals or branches starting from the bud over each
leaf, should be carefully taken off excepting one or
two eyes. If they are all taken off, the bud which
produces the fruit-bearing branch of the next year
is sometimes forced, and a second growth of
grapes will sometimes form, but never ripen."

*«

VC *-
I D H /