UMASS/AMHERST 3]iEDt.bDD515TfilD i r I I ! 1 1 1 i M i 1 1 1 1 ; ; ' 1 1 f ( H ; rt ( ■fliiiijiin iiifiii ■lUill lOii; ■ ',' V ' I.I.I nun; ' In interesting discovery has been naade in ; France with regard to engrafting fruit trees.— Instead of making use of a graft, a slip ia taken fi-ora an apple tree, for example, and planted in a potatoe, so that a couple of inches of the slip, remain visible. It soon takes root, developes itself, and finally becomes a handsome tree bearing fi"'' fruit. This method is due to a Bo- hemian gardner. _^. . ritti* ageitwn* (rfpears, is,gathcrii^.*)>^m^the propir. ^'^ ten-dSs before t&y are r^Pe^^^^^ . -t io-ct a ior-^ni2:ht, ana win^r peaSs as | SiSpSle abom the time the tfeesst^pi Z^,,%r -lildtcn till tiie commen«em«»t ot Eem of the leaf they are wortMcss. A ^ar ripened on tl;e tree is generaHy nof fit to tie fit to be taken into the house to ripen, is to Mt ?hein lip on the tree ; if, upon ^^^^'^^'^^^^^^ they part readily from the stalk, they can be nicked off. Never shake down pears; hand P 5f 4 cSfall, standing upon steps forthep-ai-pose- . apple and pear, there are different forms of the fruit branch. In the first place the fruit sptcr {A, fig. 12), a group of buds like a bouquet ; these are little stunt- ed branches on the older wood that have assumed this form. The most important fruit branches of these trees are the vigorous shoots of the last season's growth, containing both fruit and wood buds (fig. 13), and the slender fruit branches, bearing all single fruit buds, except a wood bud or two at the base. Fig. 14 represents such a branch of the peach, A and J5 being wood buds. The fruit branches of the j^Zi^m and cherry^ and the gooseberry and cicrra/nt^ are similarly pro- duced. A yearling shoot, for instance, the second season, will produce a shoot from its terminal bud, and probably shoots from two or three other buds immediately below the ter- minal, whilst those lower down will be trans- formed into fruit buds, and produce fruit the third season. Fig. 15 is a branch of the cherry. A is the two-year-old wood; J3^ one year ; C and 7>, fruit spurs on the two- year-old wood, with a wood bud usually at the point. Fig. 16 is a fruit spur from the older wood; J[, the wood bud at its point. Fig. 13 Fig. 13, mixed wood and fruit branches of the peach ; G'. D. E. fruit buds ; F G, H, leaf buds ; /, double buds ; C, triple buds, the two side buds being fruit buds,' and the centre one a leaf bud. •%'", spurs. Fig. 18 is a Fig. 14. Fig. 14, a slender fruit branch of ,jf|'^ the peach ; all the buds except ^ and B, and the terminal one, are fruit buds. fruit spur from older wood. The wood bud in the cen- tre of these groups of buds on the spur enables them to increase in length every season. E^ew buds are produced to replace those that bear, and so the spurs continue fruit- ful for several years, ac- cording to the vigor of Fig. 16. Fig. 15. Fiff. 15, branch of the cherry ; A-, two- year- old wood ; B, one year ; C and D, fruit spurs. Fig. 16, fruit spur of the cherry ; the bud ^, in the centre of the group, is a wood bud. the tree, and the manner in which it is treated. 14 GENERAL PEINCIPLES. Fig. 18. The fruit branches of the quince and the onedlar are slender twigs on the sides of lateral branches, and the fruit is borne on their points. Section 4. — Buds. 1st. The Nature and Fimctions of Buds. — In a prac- tical j)oint of view, buds are certainly the most important organs of trees, be- cause it is through them we are en- abled completely to direct and control their forms and Fio. 17. Fig. 17, branch of the plum ; JL, two-year-old ^^^y^. produCtiveUeSS. wood ; B, one year old ; O and D, spurs. Fig. 18, ^ fruit spur of the plum on the old wood. >» llOCVer, therCIOre, wishes to become a skilful and successful tree culturist, must not fail to make himself familiar with all their forms, modifications, modes of development, and the purposes they are adapted to fulfil in the formation of the tree and its products. The immediate causes of the j)roduction of buds on the growing shoots of trees, and the sources from which they spring or in which they originate, are alike thus far mysterious, notwithstanding they have been the subject of a vast deal of research and speculation among botanists and vegetable physiologists for many ages. We are able, however, to trace clearly and satisfactorily the objects they are BUDS. 15 intended to fulfil in the development of the tree, their connection with, and dependency upon other parts, and the circmxistances under which thej can be made to ac- complish specific pm'poses. Every bud contains the rudiments of, and is capable, under favorable circumstances, of producing a new indi- vidual similar to that on which it is borne. This fact is clearly demonstrated in the propagation of trees by budding, where a single eye is removed from one shoot and placed in the wood of another, to which it unites and forms a new individual similar to its parent. So in propagation by eyes, as in the grape vine, w^here a single bud with a small portion of wood attached, becomes a perfect plant. Every perfect bud we find on a young yearling tree or shoot is capable of being developed into a branch. Na- turally, they do not ; but we know that by the application of art they can be readily forced to do so. For instance, the buds of a yearling tree, if left to take their natural course, will only in part produce branches, and these will generally be nearer to the extremities, where they are the most excitable, being in closer con- nection with the centre of vegetation : but we cause the lower ones to develope branches, by cutting off those above them to the extent that the particular character of the species or variety, or of the buds themselves in respect to vigor and vitality, may require. Hence it is that the forms of trees are so completely under our control when we possess the requisite knowledge of the character and modes of vegetation of buds. 2d. Different Names and Characters of Buds. — All buds are either, 1st, terminal., as when on the points of shoots ((7, fig. 19); 2d, axillary., when accompanied by a leaf situated in the angle made by the projection of the leaf from the shoot or branch {A B^ fig. 19) ; Sd, adventi- 16 GENERAL PEINCrPLES. tious or accidental^ when originating accidentally as it were, or without any regularity, on the older parts of trees, Fig. 19. — Lateral Branch. Fig. 19. t^j a superior bud. B, inferior. C, terminal. Jl and B, axillary. and unaccompanied by a leaf. They are often produced by the breaking or cutting off a branch, or by a woimd or incision made in the bark. In the management of trained trees special means are taken to produce these buds on spaces of the trunk that it is desirable to fill uj). We sometimes see instances of such buds on the stumps of old trees. The temiinal and axillary buds produced on young shoots, seem to have a different origin from these acci- dental buds — the former are connected with the pith of the shoot, as we may see by dissecting them. On cutting into a young shoot below a bud we find a cylinder of pith entering into the bud from the pith of the shoot, but we do not find this connection existing in the case of the adventitious buds. Practically considered, buds are classified as follows : — 1. Lateral. — ^Those on the sides or circumference of shoots, being the axillary buds of the botanist {A^ B^ 19). _ 2. Terminal. — ^Those on the points of shoots ((7, fig. 19). 3. Suj^erior. — Those on the upper sides of horizontal branches {A^ fig. 19). BUDS. IT 4. Inferior. — ^Those on tlie lower side of horizontal branches (^, fig. 19). 5. Stijndai'. — The small, barely visible buds found at the base of ordinary buds. 6. Dormant or Latent. — ^These are scarcely apparent buds, generally towards the base of branches : They may remain dormant for several years, and then, in some species, be excited into growth by pruning close to them. Buds are again classed as leafhiids s^nd fruit hiids. 7. Leaf Buds (i^, G^ H^ fig. 13) produce either leaves or branches ; they difier in form from fruit buds in being in most cases longer and more pointed in the same species. These are again designated as — • Single.^ when only one is produced at the same point (^, fig. 13). Doidjle., when two are together (/, fig. 13). Trijyl'e^ when in threes {C and «/, fig. 13). These double and triple buds are almost peculiar to the stone fruits, and especially the peach, apricot, and nectarine. The size, form, and prominence of leaf buds vary in a striking degree in different varieties of the same species, and these peculiarities are found to be of considerable service in identifying and describing sorts. Thus, the buds of one variety will be long, pointed and compressed, or lying close to the shoot. Others will be large, oval and prominent, or standing boldly out from the shoot. Others will be small, full, and round. Thus, for instance, the wood buds of the Gloiit Morceau are short and conical, broad at the base, and taper suddenly to a very sharp point inclined towards the shoot ; they have also very pro- minent shoulders, that is, their base forms a prominent projection on the shoot. The scales are also dark, with 18 GENERAL PRmCIPLES. liglit gray edges. In the JosepMne de Maline pear the buds are quite remarkable for their roundness, bluntness and prominence. If shoots of th^ Bartlett and Sechel pears, two well known varieties, be compared, although they present no decidedly obvious peculiarities, yet they will be found very different. Those of the Sechel are much broader at the base, more pointed, and lighter colored, being a dark drab^ wdiilst those of the Bartlett are reddish. These miscellaneous instances are chosen simply to draw attention to these points, and to show the ordinary modes of comparison. When w^e speak of leaf buds, we have reference only to the simple bud and not to the large, pointed, spur-like productions frequently pro- duced towards the middle or lower part of young shoots that have made a second growth, that is where growth has ceased for a wliile and the terminal bud has been formed, and afterwards, in the same season, commenced anew, and made a second growth. 8. Fruit Buds. — In the early stages of tlieir formation and growth all buds are but leaf buds. Thus, on a young shoot of the cherry and the plum, for example, of one sea- son's growth, the buds are all leaf buds. The next spring a part of these produce new shoots, and others are transformed into fruit buds that will bear fruit the follow- ing season. The transformation is accomplished during the second year of their existence, and it usually happens that they are the smallest and least fully developed that are so transformed : the more vigorous pushing into branches. In the peach, the apricot, e^c, on which the fruit buds are produced in one year, the change from a leaf to a fruit bud occurs towards the latter part of the sea- son. The primary cause of the transformation of leaf into fruit buds is not satisfactorily known, although many theo- ries exist on the subject. Observation, however, has taught us many things in relation to it. It seems that all trees BUDS. 19 must acquire a certain maturity, either natural or forced, in order to produce blossoms or fruit. A tree that is fur- nished with a rich, humid soil, containing an abundance of watery nutriment, and left in all respects unrestrained in its upward growth, may attain the age of ten or fifteen years before it commences to form fruit buds ; whilst in a soil of a different quality, dry and less favorable to rapid growth, or if constrained in its growth by being grafted on some particular stock, or by some particular mode of train- ing, it may produce fruit in two or three years. An apple tree on a common stock, planted out in ordi- nary orchard soil, does not usually bear until it is in most cases seven years old from the bud, often more ; wdiilst the same variety grafted or budded on a paradise apj^le stocls: will produce in two or three at most. We frequently see one branch of a tree that has been accidentally j^laced in a more horizontal position than the other parts, or that has been tightly compressed with a bandage or something of that sort, bear fruit abundantly ; whilst the erect, uncon- strained portion of the tree gives no sign of fruitfulness whatever. As a general thing, we find that where there is an abundant and constant supply of sap or nutriment furnished to the roots of trees and conveyed by them through the unrestrained channels which the large cells and porous character of young wood afford, the whole forces of the tree will be spent in the production of new shoots ; but that as trees grow old, the cells become small- er, and the tree being also more branched the free course of the saj) is obstructed, and becomes in consequence bet- ter elaborated, or in other words more mature^ and com- mences the production of fruit. Circumstances similar in all respects to these and answering exactly the same pur- pose, can be produced by art at an early age of the tree ; and this is one of the leading points in the culture and management of garden trees, where smallness of size and 20 GEXEEAL PRINCIPLES. early fniitfulness are so higUy desirable. Tliis will come under consideration in another place. Fruit buds in most cases are distinguishable from wood buds by their rounder and fuller form ; the scales that cover fhem are broader and less numerous, and in the spring they begin to swell and show signs of opening at an earlier pe- riod. Like the wood buds they are single^ double^ or trijple^ according to the number found together. They are single in pears, apples, and other trees of that class. Single^ double^ and triple^ variously, on the stone fruits, gooseber- ries, and currants. Fruit buds are also simjple and comjponnd. Shn^le^ as in the jpeach^ ajpricot^ and almond^ each bud of which pro- duces but one flower. Com- powid^ as in the plum^ cherry^ wp- ple^ 2?ear^ &c., each bud of which produces two or more flow- ers. Those of the plum produce two or three, hence we find plums usually borne in pairs ; those of the cher- ry four or five (fig. 20), and of the ajDple and pear six to and hence we often find these fruits borne in clus- They are also lateral or terminal^ as they occuj^y the sides or ends of the branches or spnrs on which they are produced. The ordinary position of the fruit buds of dif- ferent classes of trees will be understood from the j)reced- ing descriptions of fruit branches. Fto. 20. Fig. 20, flower of the cherry, showing the product of a compound bud. eight ; ters. LEAVES. 21 Section 5. — Leaves. 1st. Structure and Functions of Leaves. — The leaves of all hardy fruit trees cultivated in our climate are decidu- ous, that is — they decay and fall in the autumn and are succeeded by others on the return of spring. The otiices they perform during the growing season are of the high- est imj)ortance to the life and health of the tree, and deserve the most attentive consideration. A leaf (fig. 21) is composed of two prin- cipal parts, the leaf stalk or petiole {A\ which connects it with the tree or branch on which it is borne, and the expanded part {A^ B^ D\ called the hlade. Tlie hase is the end (6) attached to the stalk, and the apex on' point {D) the opposite one. The length is the dis- tance from the base to the point {C to 2>), and the widths a line cut- ting the length at right angles, and extending from margin to margin {A to B). The leaf stalk and its branches, forminar the nerves or veins of the blade, are composed of woody vessels in the form of Fig. 21. Fig. 21, a leaf of the pear. A. the petiole or leaf stalk. Jl, B, D, the blade. C, the base. D, the point. Line A, B, the width. 22 GENERAL PEINCIPLES. a tube, similar to the woody parts of the tree or branch that bears it, inside of which is a pith, similar to the pith of the tree ; the leaf is thus connected with the pith and wood of the shoot, and consequently the ascending sap, as we may readily see, by making a vertical cut through the leaf stalk and shoot. The veins of the leaf are filled up with a cellular substance similar to the pith, called pare7ichyma^ and the whole is covered with a thin skin (ej^idermis). This cellular substance is connected with the inner bark, and consequently the descending sap or cambium, that forms the new layers of wood. Both sur faces of the leaf are furnished with small pores, through which exhalation and absorption are carried on. Absorp- tion is performed principally by the pores of the imder surface, and they are the largest ; exhalation principally by those of the upper surface. This property ,of the leaves to receive and give out air and moisture through the pores on their sm-face, has caused them to be likened to the lungs of animals, and this comparison is to some extent correct ; for wx know that without leaves, or organs performing their offices, trees do not grow. And in proportion to their natural and healthy action, do we find the vigor and growth of the tree. To prove that leaves have the power, in a greater or less degree, to absorb fluids, we have but to apply water to the drooping foliage of a plant sufiering from drought, and see how quickly it becomes refreshed. Dews of a single night, we know, too, will revive plants that the heat and drought of the previous day had prostrated ; and even if we put a flagging plant in a damp atmosphere, it recovers. Even the leaves of a boquet can be kept fresh for a long time by sprinkling them with water. That plants exJiale moisture and gases cannot be doubt- ed. It is this very exhaling process that causes plants LEAVES. 23 to wilt under a hot sun or in a dry atmosphere. Plants that are transphmted with their foliage on, as annuals are in the spring or summer, will wilt and even die if ex- posed to the air and sun ; but if transplanted in a moist day, or covered, so that evaporation cannot take place, the plant does not appear to feel the removal. So with cuttings of many jDlants thus propagated ; if j^laced in the earth with a certain amount of foliage on, and left uncovered, they will immediately die ; but when w^e place a bell glass or a hand glass over them to 2:)revent evapo- ration, they remain as fresh as though they had roots supplying them with moisture from the soil. It is on this account that transplanted trees so often die when the branches and shoots are not in proportion to the roots. In transplantmg, a portion of the roots are destroyed, and all are more or less deranged, so that their functions are feebly performed for some time after planting. If all the branches and shoots are left on, they wdll, as usual, produce leaves, but the absorj^tion at the roots being so much less than the exhalation of the leaves, the juices contained in the tree, previously laid up, soon become ex- hausted, the leaves droop and wither, and the whole fabric perishes. In budding, too, if the wdiole leaf were left attached, the evaporation would be so great as to kill the bud ; hence we remove all but a portion of the stalk. A tree can neither mature its wood nor its fruit without the full and healthy exercise of the leaves. If in the grow- ing season, a tree is deprived of its foliage by blight, insects, &c., w^e see that growth is entirely susj^ended for a time, until new leaves are developed ; and if the leaves be removed from a tree bearing fruit, we see the fruit shrivel and dry up, or ripen prematurely and become worthless. These facts, and many others that might be cited, show" the intimate connection existing between the leaves and the other organs of trees, and the influence 24 GENEEAL PKmCIPLES. they liave on their growth and productiveness. It is be- lieved that the opening of the leaf bnds in spring induces the formation of new roots ; this is doubtful, as new roots may be seen forming at times when there are no leaves on the tree and apparently no growth whatever going on in the buds. But if the roots are not roused into action by the leaves, it is well known they will not continue and grow long if leaves do not make their appearance. We observe in the case of trees the tops of which have been so much injured by drying and exposure that scarcely a sound bud is left to grow, in this case the roots, although in perfect order, remain nearly dormant until new shoots and leaves are produced, and in proportion as the leaves in- crease so do the roots. The fact of the absorption and exhalation by leaves of certain fluids, has, to a very con- siderable extent, established the theory that the sap of trees is taken up from the roots through the cells or sap vessels of the wood of the trunk and branches in a crude state^ and j)asses into the leaves ; that in their tissue spread out under the sun's rays, it receives certain modifications. Carbonic acid, which has been taken in a state of solution from the soil and by the leaves from the atmosphere, is decomposed, its oxygen is given off into the air, carbon becomes fixed, and thus the component f)arts of the tree, starch, sugar, gum, &c., are formed. After passing through this purifying or concentrating process, the sap acquires a more solid consistence, and is called ecmibium / so prepared it returns downwards through the nerves or vessels of the leaf to the base of the leaf stalk, and then betv\'een the wood and bark of the stem, forming new layers on its passage. Such is, at present, the most j)opu- lar theory of the functions of the leaves and the ascent, assimilation, and descent of the sap. Some distinguished writers on the subject reject this theory, alleging that — " there is no such thing as crude sap, that as soon as it LEAVES. 25 enters the roots it becomes assimilated and lit for tlie pro- duction of new cells, and that it passes upwards, forming new wood or cells by a chemical process."* Observation, however, has clearly established that in the leaves of healthy trees chemical processes depending on light and heat, and absolutely essential to the well-being of the tree, ai'e continually going on, for trees shut out from the light always make a feeble growth and have a blanched and sickly hue, compared with the same species in the free air and exposed to the rays of the sun. If one side or portion of a tree is shaded or deprived of its full share of light, it ceases to grow in its natural w^ay, and the shoots are lean, slender, and imperfect. 2d. Different Forms and Characters of Leaves. — ^The different sizes and forms of the leaves of fruit trees, the divisions of their edges, the absence or presence of glands, the smoothness or roughness of their surfaces, are all more or less serviceable in describing and identifying varieties. The terms designating forms are seldom mathema- tically correct, but merely made by comparison, for in- stance— Oval (fig. 22), when about twice as long as broad, and nearly of equal width at both ends. Oblong (fig. 23), three times or more, as long as broad, and differing but little in width in any part. Lance Shaj)ed (fig. 24), lanceolate, when three or more times as long as broad, and tapering gradually to a sharp j)oint. Ovate (fig. 25), when twice as long as broad, tapering to the apex, and widest towards the base. Ohovate (fig. 26), the inverse of ovate, the greatest dia- meter being in the upper part. * Schleiden's Principles of Botaoy 26 GENERAL PEINCIPLES. Hound ^ roundish^ as they approach a circular fonii like fig. 21. The point is often a distinguishing feature, some terminating suddenly in a sharp point, others drawn out to a long, shai-p point, pealced^ whilst others are nearly round. They differ much, too, in the form of the base, some are rounded, some sharp, and some heart-shaped. Figs. 22 to 29, forms of leaves. 22, oval. 23, oblong. 24, lanceolate. 25, ovate. 26, obovate. The divisions of the edges are serrated or toothed^ when the edges are cut into sharp teeth, directed towards the point of the leaf; finely (fig. 27) or coarsely (fig. 28) ser- rate^ as these teeth are fine or coarse; doiihly serrate^ when the principal division or tooth is subdivided. Crenate (fig. 29), when the divisions are rounded, instead of being sharp like teeth. LEAVES. 27 Lobed^ when deeply cut, and the penetrating angle large, as in the cnrrant, goosebeny, gi*ape, &c. (Fig. 30). Fig. 11, a leaf, folded, refleseJ, and finely serrated or toothed. Fig. 28, coarsely serrated. Fig. 29, crenate. Flat^ when the sur- face is even (fig. 21). Folded^ when the edges are turn- ed inward (fig. 27). Reflexed^ when the apex or point tm-ns back- wards, giving the leaf more or less the form of a ring (27). FiQ. 30. Waved^ wrinkled^ Fig. 30, a leaf of the currant, lobcd. SmOOt/l^ TOligJl^ GENERAL PEUSrCIPLES. etc., are all terms used, but well enough under- stood. The leaf stalk has often striking peculiarities in certain varieties, such as unusually lo7ig, stout, slwrt, or slender. There are also glands on the leaf-stalk, close to the base, and in certain cases on the leaf itself, that are chiefly taken notice of in identifying varieties of the peach and necta- rine ; these difier in shape too, being globiir- lar (as in fig. 31), reni- form or hidney-sJiajped (fig. 32); these little glands are supposed to be, and no doubt are, or- gans of secretion. These are all interest- ing items in the study of the beautiful and almost endless variety of forms which the difterent classes of fruit trees, and even difierent varieties of the same class, exhibit in their foliage. Fig. 31. Fig.Z\, a leaf of the peach w-ith globular glands. Fig. 32. Fig. 32, the sanie, with reniform or kid- ney-shaped glands. , Section 6. — Flowees. 1st. Different Parts of Flowers. — Flowers are the principal reproductive organs of trees, and consist of floral envelopes, the calyx and corolla / and of sexual organs, stamens and jpistils. The Calyx {A, fig. 35) is the outer covering, and is usually green like the leaves. The corolla (A, fig. 33) is within the calyx, and is the colored, showy part of the fiower ; its divisions are called petals. Stainens (fig. 3-1) are the male organs of plants. They are delicate, thread-like productions (^,fig. 3tt) in the cen- tre of the flower, supporting on their extremities the anthers FLOWERS. 29 F/Vs. 33 to 35 —Different parts of a flower. Fig. 33, ^, the petals. 34, a stamen, ^, filament or stalk. B, anther. C, pollen. 35, the calyx, ovary, pistil united. B, ovary. C, style. D, stigma. (j5, %. 3i). The pistil {O, Z>, iig. 35) is the female organ and stands in the centre of the stamens. It consists of the ovmy at its base (5, fig. 35), which con- tains the seeds. The sti/le ((7, fig. 35) is the erect por- tion, and the stigma {B, fig. 35) is the small glandnlous body on its summit that receives the fertilizing powder (pollen) ((7, fig. S-i) from the anthers. Flowers may be deficient in any of these organs except the ovary^ antners^ and stigma. These are indispensable to fructification, and must be present in some form or other or the flowers will be barren. 2d. Sexual Distinctions. — The fac.t that the two sexes or sexual organs, the stamens and j)^'Stils^ are in certain species united on the same flower, and in others on dif- ferent flowers, and even on dififerent trees, has created the necessity for the following distinctions : Trees or jylants are called liermajpliTodite (as in fig. 33) when both stamens and pistils are present on the same flower, l^early all our cultivated fruits are of this class. Monoecious^ when the male and female flowers are borne on the same tree, as in the filbert flower (fig. 36, A^ the male, and B^ the female flowers). Dioecious^ when the male flowers (fig. 37) are on one j)lant, and the female 30 GENERAL PUmCIPLES. Fig. 37. Fig. 37, male or staminate flower of the strawberry. Fig. 36. Fig. 36, flower of the fil bert. (fig. 38) on another. The most familiar instance among plants cnltivated for their fraits, is the strawberry. In many varieties we find the stamens or male organs so in- completely devel- oped (fig. 38) that they are of no ser- vice in fructifying the flowers, and hence we plant near them varieties with p.n abundance of these organs strongly exhibited. 3d. Imjpregnatwn. — The process of im- pregnation is efiected in this way : When the flowers first open, the pollen granules or powder in the anthers, is covered over by a delicate membrane. In a short time this membrane bursts in a manner similar to an explosion that scatters the pollen by its force, so that it reaches the stigma of the pistil ; this is composed of glutinous or sticky secretions to which the pollen adheres ; there it forms new- cells that expand into tubes ; these tubes penetrate through the style of the pistil to the ovary, where the impregnation takes place, and new cells are immediately formed into an embryo plant. This impregnation is sometimes, from certain causes, only partially efiected in the cases of fruit where the ova- ry or seed vessel is composed of several cells, as in the apple, pear, &c., and hence the fruit takes an imperfect, one-sided development from the beginning. The difficulty that appears to arise in the way of the impregnation of the stigma of one flower by the pollen of Fig. 38. Fig. 38, female or pistillate flow- er. FLOWERS. 31 another, distantly situated, either on the same plant as in monoecious trees, or on a different plant as in dioecious, is wonderfully obviated by the provision that nature has made for its transmission, not only By the atmosphere, but by insects, that pass from one flower to another feed- ing on their honied secretions ; the pollen adheres to them and they carry it from one to another. All natural flowers of the same species j^resent the same number of petals in their flowers, but occasionally the stamens are converted into petals, and thus what are called doithle flowers are produced. Among fruit trees we have double flowering apples, plums, peaches, and cherries. These seldom produce fruit; when perfectly double never. All our double flowers, roses, paeonies, dahlias, &c., have been obtained by this transformation of the stamens into petals. It is supposed to be caused by an excessively high cultivation given to the plants that produce the seeds from which these double varieties spring. ' 4. Period of Blossomioig. — In treating of fruit buds allusion has been made to the causes which, according to observation and experience, promote fruitfulness. These are chiefly a slow or moderate growth, and a branching or S2:)reading, constrained form, instead of an upright one. Some species of trees bloom at a much earlier age than others. Thus the ]3each, the apricot, and the cherry will bloom in nearly one-fourth less time from the bud, all things being equal, than the pear. Some species bloom at an earlier period of the season than others ; the apricot and the peach bloom very early, and this is the chief rea- son why the crop is so often destroyed in localities subject to late spring frosts. Among fruits even of the same spe- cies there is much difference in the jjeriod of blooming : one variety of apple being nearly two weeks later than another. This, in some sections, is an important quality, where every day the blossom is retarded renders the crop 32 GENERAL PEENCIPLES. surer, being more likely to escape frost. These diiferences are caused by various circumstances. 1st. The Climate. — ^The period of blossoming of the same species varies much in different localities. Rochester is at least a week earlier than Buffalo, although the distance is less than one hundred miles ; and it is nearly two weeks earlier than Toronto, which is still nearer. The large bodies of ice in the lakes, at both Buffalo and Toron- to, have no doubt a considerable effect in retanling the blossoming period. 2d. TJie Seaso7i and Position. — In the same locality, one season is frequently a week earlier than othei-s, and trees on the south side of a wall or building will expand their blossoms several days before the same variety in the open ground only a few rods distant, and ten days to a fortnight before those on a north wall. 3d. The Soil. — On warm and light soils, the roots of trees are excited into activity much sooner than in cold, damp, and heavy soils, and the blossoming period is ear- lier in consequence. The different Character of Flowers. — ^Flowers vary in size.^ form.^ color .^ and other qualities, even in the same spe- cies. In the peach those distinctions are so obvious, that one of the principal classifications of pomologists is found- ed on them. Thus there are varieties with large.^ shoioy floioers (fig. 39), as the sei^rate early Yorla^ and small (fig. 40) as large early Yorh^ Craw- ford Early ^ etc. The color also presents variations, some being deejy^ others pale rose, and some almost white / two or three varieties of the peach have flowers wholly white, as the snoic.^ for instance. In all the other fruits, Fig. 39. Fig. 40. Fig. 39, large flower of the peach. Fig. 40, small flower of the peach. FLOWEKS. ^3 a; in apples^ ]jectTS^ ])lums^ cliemes^ &c., tlie flowers vary but slightly in form and color, and tlie differences are only taken note of in very full and minute scientific descrip- tions. A few cases, however, are wxll marked, as the Jargonelle pear, the flowers of which are nearly twice as large as most others. In connection with the flowers it may be proper to ex- plain the important process of Hyhridization. — This is performed by fertilizing the pistil of one species or variety with j^ollen from the stamens of another. The seeds produced by the flower so impregnated will produce a cross or hybrid between the two parents. This process is now well understood, and is carried on to a wonderful extent, especially in the pro- duction of new flowers. Comparatively few of our popu- lar fruits have been produced in this way. A few good sorts have been produced by the late Mr. Knight, a dis- tinguished English experimentalist, who effected much in his time towards establishing many difiicult and disputed points in vegetable physiology. IS'early all the native fruits of this country are accidental hybrids. A vast deal may be done to improve, in this way, all our fruits. The size, hardiness, and |)roductiveness of one variety may be combined with the delicacy of texture and flavor of another, and endless variations and improvements may be eftected. To obtain a true hybrid certain precautions are necessary. The two subjects selected must flower at the same time. The stamens must be carefully removed from the one intended for the mother, without injury to the stigma. It must also be guarded from accidental im- pregnation by other varieties, and the pollen from the selected male be applied at the proper moment, that is, when it bursts from the anther. Hybridization is only possible between species closely related^ for although there is a relation between the apple and \h.'^peaT^ and between O-K- 34 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. the gooseberry and the currant^ they will not hybridize ; but diiierent varieties of the apple will hybridize with each other, and so with all the rest. Blossoming in Alternate Years. — Many varieties of apple, pears, &c., fruits that take the whole season to matm-e, produce flowers in alternate years only, with great regularity. The reason is supposed to be this: The fruit during the bearing year, attracts a large quantity of the ascending sap of the tree in the same way as the leaves do; but instead of returning it to the tree, they consume it themselves. The consequence is, the buds that would have blossomed the following year if they had received their due share of nutriment, fail in attaining the proper condition, and produce only rosettes of leaves. During the unfruitful season, immense quantities of fruit- buds are again brought forward, and the year following, the tree is overloaded; so it proceeds in regular succes- sion. This is never experienced in trees regularly j)runed, and may be remedied by thinning out the croj) in bearing years, leaving on but a reasonable amount that will not exhaust the tree. The bearing years have been completely reversed by removing the blossom-buds or fruits on the bearing year. Section Y. — ^The Fkuit. 1st. Cliaracter of the Fruit. — As soon as the ovary is imj)regnated it begins to swell ; the petals, stamens, and other parts of the flower fall ofi", and we then say the fruit is " set?"^ As a fruit bud is but a ti*ansformed leaf-bud, a fruit occupies the same relative connection with the tree as a branch ; it attracts food from the stem and the atmosphere in the same manner, and performs all the same functions, except that it does not, like the leaf. THE FEITIT. 35 return anything to the tree, but appropriates all to its own use ; and this is the reason, as we have before remarked, that trees having borne a heavy crop of fruit one season are unfruitful the next — this is the case only w^itli fruits, as the apple and pear, that require nearly the whole sea- son to mature them. Cherries, and other fruits that mature in a shorter period, and that draw more lightly on the juices of the tree, do not produce this exhaustion, and consequently bear year after year uninterruptedly. 2d. Olassification. — In some fruits, as the ap23le for in- stance, the fruit is formed helow or at the base of the calyx, the segments of which are still visible in the mature fruit ; and often serves to some extent by its size and other peculiarities, as being spread out, or closed to- gether in a point, to identify varieties. In other species, as the plum and cherry, the fruit is formed within the calyx, or on the top of it. Fruits of the former character forming below the calyx and including it in their struc- ture are classed as inferior — the a^~)jjle^ ])em\ quince^ gooseberry^ and cnrrant are all inferior, having the calyx adhering. Those formed within the calyx, having the pistil alone connected wdth the ovary, are called supeTior j such are the peachy ])lmn^ ajpricot^ nectarine^ clierry^ rasjjljerry^ straw- berry^ and grape. The more natural, jDopular, and useful classification of fruits, is that by wdiich they are divided into Pomes or Kernel Fruits^ as the apj}le^ pear^ quince^ med- lar^ etc. In speaking of these we call the pericarp the Jlesli^ and the dry, bony seed capsules the core. Drupes or Stone Fruits. — Those having a soft, pulpy pericarp, and the seed enclosed in a shell like a nut, as the peach.^ plum.^ apricot.^ cherry.^ etc. The peri- carp of these is called the flesli.^ and the seed, the pit or stone 36 GENIEEAL PKINCIPLES. Berries. — These have soft, pulpy flesh, containing seeds without capsules, as the gooseherry^ currant^ raspherry^ strawberry^ and grajye. A^uts, or capsule fruit, as the filbert^ cliestmit^ etc., the fi'uits of which are nuts contained in husks or cups, that when ri2:)e, open and let the fruit drop. The outlines or forms of fruits and their colors exhibit great variations, even in the same species. Every portion of the fruit, the sMn^ flesh (6', fig. 41), care (Z>, fig. 41), seeds {E) or stones', stems (J[), and in ker- nel fruits the c ■ yx (^), have all, in some cases, marked peculi- arities, and in others more minute and scarcely perceptible ; but yet in a strictly scientific study of po- mology, of more or less service. It would be foreign to the pur- poses of this work to notice these points in detail ; all that is deemed necessary, useful, or appropriate, is to point out well-defined and practical distinctions, and the tenns ordinarily made use of in popular descriptions. 3d. Different Parts of tJie Fruit: Tlie Base [A) is the end in which the stem is inserted. The Eye (B) is the opposite end, in the apple, pear, etc., that have an adhering calyx. The Neck^ in pears, the contracted part near the stalk, as seen in fig. 49. The Point is the end opposite the stem in stone fiTiits ; Pg'. 41, vertical section (f an apple, showing its difi'erent parts. A, the base. B, the eye. C, the flesh. Z>, the core. jE, the seed. A, stem. B, calyx. THE FEurr. 37 berries, etc., that have no calyx, and consequently no eye. The Leiigtli is the distance from stem to point or eye, A to B, fig. 41. Tlie Widths the line D E- — cntting the fruit across, or at right angles with the length. The JBctsin^ the depression around the eye or calyx in kernel fruit, B^ fig. 41. TJie Cavity^ the depression around the stem. The Suture^ in stone fruits the furrow-like depression run- ning from the base to the point. 4th. Different ProjpeTties of Fruits : Besides the principal divisions which have been alluded to, fruits are considered in regard to their size^ color^ form^ textxire^ fla'V(yi\ and season of ripening. 1st. The Size. — Besides the natural difference in size that exists among different varieties of the same species, as, for instance, between the Bartlett and Seckel Pears, or the Fall Pi]?pin and Lady Apples^ there are great dif- ferences between the same varieties owing chiefly to the following circumstances : Soil — Wq find that in new and fresh soils, the nutritive properties of which have not been impaired by cultivation, as in the virgin soils of the "West, fruit of the same variety attains nearly doiMe tJie size that it does in older parts of the country, where the soil has long been under cultivation ; and that in the same orchard, the tree growing in a deep, alluvial soil, will give fruit much larger than the one on a hard gravelly knoll. Culture — ^This has an important influence on the size of fruits. If an orchard has been for several years neglected, and the ground about the trees become covered with grass and weeds, the fruit is small ; and if the same orchard be ploughed up, some manure turned in around the roots, and the ground be kept loose and clean by tillage, the fruit will double in size in a single season. Seasoris — In 38 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. a diy season, when the supply of moisture at the roots and in the atmosphere is very limited, fruits are invari- ably smaller than in seasons of an opposite character. Niimljer of fruits on the tree — This affects the size of the fruit to a great extent in all seasons, soils, and climates, and under all grades of culture. It is perfectly obvious, that the greater the number of fruits a tree bears, the smaller they will be, for as they derive their sustenance from the tree, a large number cannot be so well supplied as a smaller number. We cannot go into an orchard where there are many varieties without seeing an illustration of this. Here is a prolific variety loaded in every part ; the fruits are small, cer- tainly not over medium size. There is a moderate bearer ; its fruits are thinly and evenly distributed over the tree ; its fruits are consequently large. So in the case of fruits that have been tliinned ; that is, a certain portion removed while young, either by accidental circumstances or by design, every sj^ecimen is twice as large, as if the whole crop had been allowed to mature. The English goose- berry growers^ in preparing their prize specimens, leave but a few on each bush — not over a twentieth, or perhaps a fiftieth part of the entire crop. So in peaches, grapes, etc., grown carefully in houses. Where the size and beauty of the fruit, and the health and vigor of the trees are kept in view, a large portion of the crops, from one half to two thirds, is thinned out before matmity. Age of the trees — ^This influences the size of fruits to a great extent; we see fruit so large on young trees as to be entirely out of character : As trees grow older, the vigor decreases, and the number of fruits increase, and they are consequently diminished in size. The Mnd of stock has a tendency to modify the size ; thus we find many pears much larger on the Quince stock than on the pear, and many apples larger on the Paradise than on the common TIIE FEUIT. 39 apple stock. The reason of this is, no doubt, that on the quince and paradise the juices of the tree are better pre- pared, richer, and better suited to the growth of the fruit. In the common pear and apple stocks the sap is taken up in greater quantities, is watery, and better adapted to form wood than fruit. CLASSIFICATION OF SIZE. The terms qualifying the sizes of fruits are always given comjDaratively, in regard to the two extremes, the largest and the smallest of the species ; for instance — in apples, we may consider the Gloria Mundi and Twenty Ounce as extremely large^ and the Lady apple as extremely small. The terms used, therefore, are such as to represent the v^arious grades between the tw^o extremes. These are Very large., as the Gloria Mundi Ap]3le, DiicJiesse d^An- goideme Pear, Oratoford''s Early Peach, Yelloio Egg Plum, and Napoleon Bigarreau Cherry. Large., as the Baldwhi Apple, Bartlett Pear, Bed Cheeh Melocoton Peach, WasMngto7i Plum, and Black Eagle Cherry. Medium., as the Ramlo Apple, WMte Doyenne Pear, Imperial Gage Plum, and the A7nerican Amher Cherry. Small^ as the Early Strawberry Apple, Dearlorn^s Seed- ling Pear, Green Gage Plum, and Bauman^s May Cherry. Very Small., as the Amire JoTiannet Pear,. Lady Apple^ Winter Damson Plum, and the Indulle {Early May) Cherry. The distance between some of these grades, as be- tween medium and large, &c., is so short that they are fi-equently confounded ; still they give a notion of com- parative size that answers all practical purposes. It 40 GENERAL PEmCIPLES. would, perhaps, have been more accurate, and, at tlie same time, more satisfactory to persons entirely im- acquainted with fruits to have given the comparative measurement of these different grades in inches and parts ; but the varieties quoted as examples are common, and very generally known. 2d. Form. — It is exceedingly difficult, even impossible, to find any single term that will give a mathematically accurate notion of the forms of fruits ; for although we call an apj)le round or conical, it may not be, strictly speaking, either ; perhaps partakes to some extent of both forms. But that is no reason why we should desig- nate it conical round : we simply call it round^ or roundish^ if nearer round than any other form ; and if it inclines slightly to the conical, we cannot so well convey the knowledge of that fact any other way as by simply say- ing so. In the apple the round form prevails, and in the pear the pja-amidal ; hence, it is necessary to apply a different class of descriptive terms to each. FOEMS OF AFPLES. Hound or Roundish (fig. 42). — When the outline is round, or nearly so, the length being about equal to the breadth. Flat (fig. 45). — ^When the ends are compressed, and the width considerably greater than the length. Conical (fig. 43). — In the form of a cone, tapering from the base to the eye. Ovate^ or egg-sTia/ped (fig. 44). Ohlong (fig. 46). — When the length is considerably greater than the width, and the width about equal at both ends, not tapering as in the conical. THE FETJIT. 41 In addition to these forais and their various modifi- cations, some varieties are Pigs. 42 to 47, forms of apples. 42, round. 43, conical. 44, ovate. 45, flat. 46, oblong. 47, ribbed. Angular^ having projecting angles on the sides. One-sided^ having one side larger than the other. Ribbed (47), when the surface presents a series of ridges and furrows running from eye to stem. FORMS OF PEAES. It has been remarked that the pyramidal form prevails in pears ; but they taper from the eye to the stem, which is just the reverse of the tajDcring form in apples. Their forms are designated thus — Pyriform. — "When tapering from the eye to the base, and the sides more or less hollowed (concave) (fig. 48). JLong Pyriform. — When long and narrow, and tapering to a point at the stem (fig. 49). Obtuse Pyriform. — "When the small end is somewhat flat- tened (fig. 50). Obovate or egg-shaped. — JSTearly in foiTQ of an Qgg.^ the small end being nearest the stem (fig. 51). 42 GENERAL PEINCIPLES. TurMnate or top-sliape(l.—^\\^ sides somewhat rounded, and tapering to a point at the stem (fig. 52). Figs. 48 to 54, forms of pears 48, pyriform. 49, long pyriform. 60, obtuse pyriform. 61, obovate. 52, turbinate. 53, oval. 54, round. Oval. — Largest in the middle, tapering more or less to each end (fig. 53). Bound. — When the outline is nearly round (fig. 54). FOKMS OF PEACHES. There is too much uniformity in the forms of peaches to render the adoption of any set of terms descriptive of them very serviceable. They are mostly round, occasion- ally approaching to oblong and oval', two sides are fre- quently compressed, flattened, exhibiting a suture or fur- row running from the point to the base : the w^idth, depth, &c., of this suture are, in many cases, peculiar, or at least worthy of note. FOKMS OF PLUMS. Plums are round., oval., or oblong^ as the peach, and marked, in some cases, by a similar flattening of the sides, and by the suture. THE FRIJIT. 43 FORMS OF CHERRIES. Cherries are round or Jieart-sliaped / obtuse lieari^sliajped^ wlien too round to be fully heart-shaped ; and pointed^ when the point is more than ordinarily sharp or peaked. The suture is also taken note of as in plums and peaches. Gooseterries and Grarpes are always round or oval. Cur- rants always round. Strawberries round, conical, or oval, sometimes with a neck ; that is, the base is drawn out at the stem in the form of a narrow neck. Raspberries are conical, roundish, or long. 3d. Color. — ^The color of fruits depends much on their exposure to the sun's rays. We find that in orchard trees, where the heads are dense, and a large portion of the fruit shaded and shut out from the sun, there is a great difference in the color ; indeed, so great, frequently, as to make their identity from appearance quite doubtful. Yarieties that are naturally — when proj)erly exposed to the sun — of a bright red or a glowing crimson, remain green in the shade. The climate, too, seems to have con- siderable effect on the color. As a general thing, we observe that northern apples are clearer and brighter colored than those of the south. Dry soils and elevated situations produce more highly- colored fruit than damp and low valleys. The terms used in describing colors, are all simple and well under- stood. 4th. Flavor., in table fruits, is one of the most impor- tant of qualities ; for however large or fair a fruit may be, if insipid or astringent to an unpleasant degree, or if it possesses some other disagreeable quality, it is unfit for the table. There are various kinds of flavor even among varieties of the same species : in pears, particularly, it is filmost endless, the shades and degrees of sweet and acAd.^ 44 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. and the various perfumes tliat mingle with these, are ahnost infinite. The same circumstances mentioned as favorable to high and brilliant coloring, are also favorable to the production of fine flavor. Liglit^ lieat^ a dry soil, and moderate growth, seem to be all essential to fine flavor. On trees somewhat advanced in age, fruits are apt to be higher flavored than on young trees that have just commenced bearing, and in a dry than a wet season. The philosophy of all this is, that in a damp soil or season, or in a shaded situation, when trees are young and growing rapidly, the fruit receives more sap from the tree than can be pro- perly elaborated by the action of the sun and atmosphere on its surface, and, consequently, the sugary principle is produced in small quantities^ — the juice is watery, som*, or insipid, as the case may be. The various terms by which flavor is designated, such as sweet, acid, sub-acid, s^riglitly, perfumed, onuslcy, sjncy, &c., are all well understood. Section 8. — ^The Seed. The perfect seed contains the rudiments of a plant of the same nature as that which produced it. This rudi- ment of the new plant is called the embryo. It con- sists of three j^arts — the cotyledons {c c, fig. 55), which are the rudiments of the first pair of leaves ; these are the parts that first make their appearance. The bases of these cotyledons are united, and send down the radicle {h), or root, and between them is a bud {a), which sends up the stem, and is usually called the plnmide. As soon as the seed is excited into germination by the heat and moisture of the earth, this radicle or root begins to pene- trate the soil, and the plumule ascends in an opj)Osite di- rection ; and thus the growth of the tree goes forward THE SEED. 45 in the manner already described under the heading, Koot, Stem, &g. It has been remarked that seed con- tains the rudiment of a plant similar to that on which it is produced ; but this needs some explanation. Li distinct sjjecies^ this will be true ; but the seeds of varieties that have been produced by culture and hybridizing, seldom or never reproduce exactly their like, hence the necessity for the various artificial methods of multiplication, such as grafting, budding, layering, &c. It is to these operations that we are indebted for the preservation of varieties that were originated hun- dreds of years ago. Germination. — Heat and moistm*e, air, and the exclusion of light, are all necessary to the healthy and perfect germination of seeds. It may be well to consider, briefly, the part which each of these has to perform. 1st. Moisture. — When seeds are sown in a time when the ground is parched, they will show no signs of germi- nation until it is, in some way or other, moistened. The quantity of moistm*e necessary to a seed depends on the nature of its covering and its size. A small seed, with a thin covering, will vegetate much sooner and with less moisture than a large seed, with a hard, bony covering. The moisture must, in the first place, soften the covering, penetrate to the mealy j^art of the seed, and ]3repare it for the chemical changes necessary to convert it into food for the embryo plant. If apple or pear seeds be kept in a dry, warm room all winter, they will not be likely to vegetate the following spring, but if sown will probably Fig. 55. Fig. 55, germinating seed, a, plumule, b, radicle, c Cj cotyledors. 46 GENERAL PBINCIPLES. lie in the ground all summer, and possibly germinate tlie sj^ring following. If cherry seeds are kej)t dry for any length of time, say two or three months, they w^ill not germinate the season following ; and peaches and plums have actually to be in the ground all wdnter, under the action of frost, to insure their germination the spring fol- lowing. Seeds will germinate much quicker when freshly gathered than after they have dried, because heat, mois- ture, and air have easier access to them, and act more quickly on them. These facts, of w^hich all are well aware, show the necessity for moisture and the nature of its influence. 2d. Heat is the next most important element. Seeds do not grow in winter. We sow our apple, pear, peach, and plum seeds in E'ovember ; but they show^ no signs of ger- mination until a change of season. When the warmth of spring penetrates the soil, it reaches the seed, and, in con- nection with the moisture already imbibed, induces w^hat we usually call fermentation. This chemical process ex- cites the vital energies of the germ, decomposes the mealy part of the seed, and prej)ares it for the temporary nutrition of the young plant. 3d. Air. — Although seeds may have heat and moisture in the requisite proportions, still it has been proved by many experiments, that without aii\ germination cannot take place. Practical cultivators are aware that seeds planted too deeply do not grow ; many kinds will lie bm^ied in the ground for years without growing, and when turned up near the surface will germinate immediately. It is the oxygen of the air that constitutes its importance ; it pro- duces, by forming new combinations with the gases con- tained in the seed, that chemical process which converts the starch into sugar and gum, as we observe in ordinary cases of feraientation. THE SEED. 47 4tli. Exclusion of Light. — ^The manner in which self- sown seeds in the forest are covered with fallen and decaying foliage, plainly indicates that nature never intended the light to strike germinating seeds. A seed entirely exposed wonld be at one time satm-ated with moistm*e, and at another j^arched with drought ; chemical changes would be alternately promoted and checked, mitil the vital principle would be destroyed, or so weaken- ed as to produce a feeble and worthless plant. The depth of the covering should always be regulated by the size of the seeds. Small and delicate seeds may be sown almost on the surface, whilst large ones may be imbedded to the depth of four or five inches. The small seed requires little moisture, and has but a feeble force to penetrate an earthy covering ; but the large requires much moistm'e, and has force enough to push its way up. CHAPTEE II. ' SOILS. Section 1. — Diffeeent Kinds of Soil. Soils are usually designated by terms expressive of the predominant material in their composition, thus we hear of sandy ^ loamy ^ gravelly^ clcf^y<^y', calcareous or clialky^ and alluvial soils. A sandy soil is that in which sand is the principal in- gredient. Such soil is usually quite defective. It is so porous that it parts almost instantaneously with moisture, and plants in it suffer from drought. All the soluble parts of manures are also quickly washed out of it, and hence it requires continual additions to produce even a scanty growth. The great point in improving it, is to render it more retentive by the addition of clay, ashes, &c. A clayey soil is that in which clay predominates. It may be considered the opposite of sandy, inasmuch as its defects are, that it retains moisture too long, is too adhe- sive, in dry weather it becomes as hard as a burnt brick, impervious to dews or light showers, and when thoroughly saturated with wet it is tough, and requires a long time to dry. [N'o fruit tree succeeds well in such a soil ; but it is capable of being improved and fitted for many species, and especially the plum and the pear. The obvious way to improve it is, by incorporating with it lighter porous soils, as sand, muck, or leaf mould. SOILS. 49 A gravelly soil is one made up in greater part of small stones, 23ebbles, decomposed rock, &c. ; such soils, as a general thing, are unfit for fruit trees, unless great labor is incurred in trenching, deepening, and mixing with claj, muck, &c., of opposite characters, A loamy soil is one we hear a great deal about, and may be understood in various w^ays. It may be considered a mixture of equal parts of sandy, clayey, and vegetable soil. It is neither so light as the sandy, on the one hand, nor so tenacious as clay on the other ; and, as a general thing, contains such elements, and is of such a texture, as to ren- der it eligible for all ordinary purposes of cultivation, and especially so for fruit trees. Loamy soils are spoken of as sandy loanns^ when sand forms a large ingredient, say one half of their composition ; gravelly^ when pretty largely mixed with small stones ; calcareous^ when lime is found in them. Oalcareoiis or chalky soils have a large amount of lime mixed with the other iuOTcdients of which thev are com- posed. All the lands in limestone districts are of this character, and, as a general thing, are well adapted to fruit culture. Peaty soil consists chiefly of vegetable mould from de- cayed marsh plants, in low, wet places. It is unfit, in itself, for fruit trees, but is valuable for improving both light and heavy soils. Alluvial soils are composed of decomposed vegeta- ble substances, the sediment of rivers, and materials washed down from neighboring hills ; the valleys of all our rivers and streams are composed of this, and it is the richest of all soils. Fruit trees in such soils make a rank, vigorous growth, but they are not so hardy nor so fruit- ful, nor is the fruit so high flavored as on soils with more sand, clay, or gravel, and less vegetable mould. 3 50 GENERAL PEINCIPLES. In treating of the different classes of fruits, we shall refer to the particular soils best adapted to them. Section 2. — Different Modes of Improving Soils. In regard to depth, soils vary materially, some being not oyer eight or ten inches in depth of surface, others a foot, while in deep alluyial valleys they are often two feet. For orchard and garden purposes, a dee2J soil is quite essential to enable the roots to penetrate freely in search of food, and to enable them to withstand the demands of protracted droughts. Few soils in their ordinary condition of farm culture are, in this respect, suitable for trees. Even where naturally deep and loamy, if the upper part only (say to the depth of six inches, which is as deep as most people plough) be in a friable condition, it cannot be considered as in a proper state for the reception of trees, for their roots cannot be confined to six inches of the surface. Some means of loosening and deepening must be resorted to, and what are they ? 1. SUBSOIL PLOUGHING. This is the cheapest and best method, where a large quantity of ground is to be prepared for extensive plant- ing. The conmion plough goes first, and takes as deep a furrow, as practicable. The subsoiler follows in the same furrow and loosens, without turning up, the lower part of the surface and a j^art of the subsoil. Except in cases where the subsoil is a very stiff clay or a hard gravel and near the surface, the two j)loughs can go to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches. This is our mode of pre- paring nursery grounds. If a single ploughing in this way does not accomplish the desired end, a second may be given, going down still deeper. SOILS. 51 "We had a piece of soil the surface of which was about a foot deep of black vegetable mould, with a slight admix- ture of sand, resting on a stiff clay subsoil, which pre- vented the water from passing off. In this condition we found it entirely unfit for trees ; w^e subsoil ploughed it six or eight inches deep, turning up the clay subsoil and mixing it with the surface ; we also drained it, and sj^read over the surface the clay that came out of the drains, and in this condition we find it producing the finest trees, especially aj)ples, pears, and plums. The soil is more substantial, and the surface w^ater passes off freely. 2. TEENCHING. In gardens too limited in extent to admit of j^loughs, or where it is desired to make the soil thorough and perma- nently deep, trenching is the means. The sjDade is the implement used in this operation. A trench two feet wide is opened on one side of the ground, and the earth taken out of it is carried to the opposite side. Another trench is opened, the surface sj^adeful be- ing thrown in the bottom, and the next lower on the top of that, and so on till it is opened the required depth, which, for a good fruit garden, should be about two feet. If the subsoil be poor and gravelly, it is better to loosen it up thoroughly with a pick, and let it remain, than to throw it out on the surface. When the whole plot is trenched over in this way, the earth taken out of the first trench will fill up the last one, and the work is done. If the soil be poor, a layer of well-decomposed manure may be added alternately with the layers of earth ; and if the soil be too light and sandy, clay, ashes, etc., can be added ; and if too heavy, sand, lime, muck, peat, scrapings of dead leaves from the woods, or any other material calculated to render it porous and friable. If a garden is thus trenched 52 GENERAL PiitNCIPLJiib'. in the fall or winter, and tlien turned over once in the spring to effect a thorough mixture of all the materials, it will be in suitable order for planting. This is something like the way to prepare soil for a garden ; and let no one say it is too troublesome or too expensive, for in two years the extra pleasure and profit it will yield, will pay for all. Nothing is so expensive or so troublesome as an ill-prepared soil. 3. DEAINES'G. There is a false notion very prevalent among people, that where water does not lodge on the sm-face of a soil, it is " dry enough." However this may be in regard to meadows or annual crops, it is cpiite erroneous- when ap- plied to orchards or fruit gardens. Stagnant onoisture either in the surface or subsoil is highly injurious — ^i-uin- ous to fruit trees. In such situations we invariably find them mithrifty and unfruitful, the bark mossy, and the fruit imperfect and insipid. All the soils, then, not per- fectly free from stagnant moistm-e, both above and below, should be drained. In draining, it is, of course, neces- sary to have a fall or outlet for the water. Having se- lected this, the next point is to open the drains. We usually make them three feet deep, and wide enough to give sufficient room to work — say three feet wide at top, narrowing gradually to six inches at the bottom, which should be even and sloping enough to the outlet of the water to enable it to run. A laborer who understands di^aining, will make two rods of these in a day ; and good pipe-tile, two inches wide, can be had at the rate of about one cent per foot. Draining, therefore, is not so costly an operation as many suppose. "Where draining tiles are not to be had conveniently, small stones may be used. The bottom of the drain SOILS. ■ 53 slionld be filled with tliem to the depth of eight or ten inches. In using these, the drains require to be at least six inches deeper than for tiles, in order that a sufficient quantity of stones can be used without coming too near the surface. Some brush, or turf, with the grassy side downwards, should be laid on the stones before fillins" in the earth, to keep it from filling up the crevices. CHAPTEE III. MAIS'UEES. Section 1. — Lvipoktai^ce of Manuees. ISTo soil, whatever may be its original fertility, can sus- tain a heavy and continned vegetation for many years without becoming, to some extent, exhausted. Indeed, there are few people so fortunate, except those w^ho settle upon new, uncultivated lands, as to procure a soil that does not need manuring to fit it for the first planting with trees. It is, then, a matter of importance for every man who has more or less land to cultivate, to inform himself well on the subject of saving, pre^^aring, and applying manures. In this country, the only class of men, gene- rally speaking, who can be properly said to collect and manage manures with system and care, are nurserymen and market gardeners near our large towns. It is very seldom that people generally give the matter a thought until garden-making time comes around in the spring ; and then, anvthino- in the form of manure is carried into the garden, and applied whether fit or unfit. This is not the proper course. Every garden should have its manure heap, that, in the fall or spring, when it comes to be apj^lied, w^ill cut like paste. In that state only is it safe to apply it. All parts of it are then decomposed thoroughly ; all seeds of noxious plants are dead, and it is in a condition capable of yielding at once, to the roots of growing plants, M.LNUKES. 55 healthy nutrition, that will j^roduce a vigorous^ firm^ sounds and fruitful growth; and this is precisely what is wanted : far better to have a tree starved and stunted, than forced into a rank, plethoric growth, with crude, ill- prepared manures. Section 2.- — PkiIpaeation of Manukes. The best gardeners pursue a system something like this : A. trench is prepared two or three feet deep, and large enough to hold what manure may be wanted. In the bottom of this trench, a layer of muck, grassy turf, ashes, anything and everything cajDable of being decom- posed, is laid down, say a foot deep. On the top of this, a thick layer of stable or barnyard manure, two or three feet deep, then another layer of muck, gypsum, etc. In this way it remains till more manure has accumulated around the stables ; it is then carried and deposited in another layer, with a layer of the other materials on the top. The manure should always be saturated w^ith mois- ture, and trodden down firmly to hasten its decay, and if an occasional load of night soil could be mixed in with it all the better. The layer of muck and other substances being always placed on the top of the last layer of manure absorbs the evaporations of the heap, and hastens the decay of all. "When stable manure is thrown down and left uncovered, a dense steam will be seen to rise from it ; and this is the very essence of it escaping to be lost, and if it be thrown down in a heap dry it will im- mediately burn — that is, dry rot. Tts enriching ingre- dients all pass off by evaporation, and there is nothing left but its ashes, so to speak. "When the heap has accumulated for four or five months as described, the whole should be turned over, completely mixed, and piled up in a compact, firmly- 56 GENKRAL PKINCIPLES. trodden mass, when it will undergo farther decomposition, and, in a shoii; time, become like loaste. Adjoining eveiy manm-e heap, there should be an excavation to receive its liquid drainage, in order that it may be saved, and either applied in the growing season, in a liquid state, diluted with water, or be thrown over the heap. " Special manures" have been much talked of lately. By the word " special," is meant a particular quantity, of a particular mixture, for certain species, and even for certain varieties of fruits. ISTearly all the suggestions on the subject are speculative and unreliable. The subject is an important one, but we want direct and careful ex- periments. It is only when we know to a certainty what material certain trees need most of, and in what degree it abounds or is wanting in our soil, that we can apply it safely. The experience of fanners and gardeners, grain and fruit growers, all over the world, affords undoubted evidence of the enriching qualities of stable raanure. On all soils, and for all soi'ts of crops, it is an unfailing and powerful fertilizer ; and we make it the base of all oiu* manure and compost heaps. By mixing with it the in- gredients we have mentioned, we hasten its decay, save its parts from waste, and, at the same time, combine with it other substances that w^ill not only enrich but improve the texture of soils, and increase the supjDl}^ of the mine- ral substances required by plants. Dr. Daubney, a dis- tinguished wiiter on the character and improvement of soils, etc., says, " Fortunately we are provided in the dung of animals with a species of manure of which the land can never be said to tire, for this simple reason, that it contains within itself not one alone, but all the ingre- dients which plants require for their nuti-ition, and that, too, existing in the precise condition in which they are most readily taken in and assimilated." But a good sub- stitute for this article, where it cannot be obtained, is an MANURES. 67 important point. Some time ago, we noticed in the re- port of a discussion on manures in Boston, that the Hon. M. P. Wilder, one of the most distinguished horticulturists in America, stated that he had found the following com- post equal to stable manm^e for gardening purposes gene- rally, and for fruit trees. " One cord of meadow muck, having been exposed to the action of the air and frost at least one year ; twelve bushels leached ashes ; six bushels crushed bones. This mixture cost him at the rate of $4 50 cents per cord. Latterly he added to this his stable manure, and about an eighth of the whole bulk of fine refuse charcoal from the depot of venders, which was delivered to him at $5 per cord ; and in this way he found it the best, as a general manure, he had ever used. On fruit trees its effect was remarkable. " In the spring of 1847, he planted a square in the nur- sery with imported trees from England, this compost having been spread and ploughed in. These trees were from four to five feet in height, and although it is not usual for trees to make a large growth the first year, they acquired branches of three to four feet, and were so hand- some as to command $1 25 each, for a row of fifty trees, without any selection. " In June last, which is very late to set out trees, he prepared another square on rather poor land, and planted trees just received from England upon it. The soil had been thrown up to the frost the previous winter, and the compost here was aj^plied in the trenches near the roots. Mr. Wilder exhibited two shoots which had grown from those trees since they were set in June. The shoots were four feet in length, and the wood hard and well ripened." In addition to all these sources for manure, it may be added that fallen leaves, scrapings of streets, weeds, wood chips, sawdust, the ashes of all prunings of trees 3^- 58 GENERAL PEINCIPLES. and brush, soot, blood, animal flesh, soap suds, and slops from the kitchen, and, in fact, everything decomposable may be used, to increase the bulk of the manure heap, taking care that everything likely to waste by evapora- tion be covered at once with muck, charcoal, or some material calculated to absorb the gases evolved by de- composition. We very frequently see people, in the spring of the year, when their garden is undergoing a purifying and fitting up process, carry to the highway all the brush, dry stems of plants, and all the wreck of the pre\aous season's work, there to make a bonfire to get it out of the way, while at the same moment they complain sadly of the lack of manm'e. There was no such thing as a manm^e heap on the pre- mises. Section 3. — Modes of Applying Manuee. Where an acre or several acres of ground are to be prepared for trees, the better way is to spread the manm'e over the surface and turn it in with the plough. When it is scarce and economy necessary, it may be applied around the roots, by mixing with the earth at planting time. Quantity to he Applied. — ^This, of course, depends on two things, the necessities of the soil and the quality of the manm-e. If the land be poor, an even covering of two or three inches should be given ; if in tolerable good condition, one inch will be sufiicient. One inch of well decomposed animal manure will be equal to three inches of a partially decayed compost. Section 4. — Liquid Manure. Manure in a liquid state has these advantages to recom- mend it. It can be applied to trees and plants in a grow- ing state withont in the least distm-bing the surface of the soil, and it supplies, at the same time, both nutriment and moisture. It can be applied to bearing trees, strawber- ries, etc., in fruity if defective in vigor, or suffering from drought, and yield an immediate sustenance that will enable them to produce much larger and finer fruit than they could have done without it. It may either be collected in a tank, kept on purpose near the barns, or it may be made when wanted by dis- solving manure in water. It may be much strons^er for trees, the roots of which are a considerable distance from the surface, than for such plants as have their roots near the surface. It is the only prompt and effectual stimu- lant for trees on a poor soil, to enable them to perfect their crop. We have frequently witnessed its astonishing effects. It should be applied in the evening, and in such quantity as to penetrate to the roots ; half a dozen water- ings will be sufficient in most cases, but it is better to apply it well diluted and often, than a smaller quantity too strong. A dozen shovelfuls of animal manure will make a barrel of liquid powerful enough for most pur- poses ; and if pure liquid soakage of the manure heap or urine of animals is used, at least one half rain water should be added. Soap suds form an excellent liquid manure for all trees. The grajDC vine is especially be- nefited by liberal and frequent a2:)plication. CHAPTEE lY. THE DIFFERETh'T MODES OF PEOPAGATING FEUIT TEEES. General Remarlcs. — The propagation of fruit trees may be classed under two principal heads — the Natural^ which is by seeds j and the Artificial^ by the division of the plants^ as in cuttings^ layers^ suckers^ hiids^ and grafts. PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. Seedling fruit trees are proi3agated, either to obtain new varieties, or stocks for budding or grafting. It is only where the very rudest system of fruit culture is practised, as for instance in newly-settled countries, that seedlings are planted out to bear, for the reason that, unless in very rare instances, varieties worthy of cultiva- tion do not reproduce themselves from seed. The im- portant differences that exist between the seeds of dif- ferent classes of fruit trees, render it necessary to treat of each separately ; their management will therefore be given in detail, in connection wdth the ^propagation of stocks. There are some points, however, of general application that may be considered here with propriety. It scarcely admits of a doubt, but that the greater part of the difficul- ties met with in fruit tree cidture, as maladies of various sorts, unfruitfulness, etc., are induced by a careless and PROrAGATION BY SEEDS. 61 imdiscriminating system of propagation. The stock has a most important influence on the health, longevity, fruit- fulness, and symmetry of trees, and it does not seem pos- sible that our indiscriminate mode of saving seeds for stocks is at all consistent with rational, intelligent cul- ture. What is the ordinary course ? To raise aj)ple seedlings, a quantity of pomace is procured at the cider mill, with- out the least regard to the quality or matm-ity of the fruits from which it was produced, or of the health, vigor, and hardiness of the trees that bore the fruit — these points are never thought of. So it is in the case of pear seeds. During the last few years, these seeds have been nearly as valuable as gold dust ; the price being seldom less than $5 per quart. The present season, a neighboring nm'seryman has paid at the rate of $4 per quart for a bushel. How is this seed procured ? Is it selected from healthy, vigorous trees, with sound con'fetitutions, and from j)erfect, well-matured fruits ? By chance it may be ; but seed collectors are usually glad to find fruits of any Tcind^ and from any sort of tree^ if they have only seeds apparently good. We do not, by any means, intend to charge upon any man a fraudulent intent in this matter. The seed collector is no more to blame than the nm^sery- man, for the nurseryman seldom asks any j^articulars about the origin of the seeds. Plow is it with peach trees ? The peach is a short-lived tree, highly susceptible of deteriora- tion from bad treatment ; and it is obviously impossible for an unhealthy, feeble tree, to produce sound and healthy plants from their seeds. In some districts of the country, a sound, vigorous peach tree is a rarity ; and yet, how are peach seeds saved and procured? The seeds are brought in to the seedsman, he buys them without asking any ques- tions about either the health or sickness of the trees that produced them. They are peach stones, and that is all ne- 62 GENERAL PEINCIPLES. cessaiy to be known. The nurseryman buys of the seeds- man j ust as he received them ; this is the way that the coun- try has been filled with miserable, diseased, and unsightly trees, and who is in the fault ? " Why," most people would say, the " nurserymen^ of course. They ought to be more careful in selecting their seeds, so that they might be cer- tain of having sound and healthy stocks. They ought to select the fruits, from which to obtain their seeds, while on the tree, and see that the trees are not in an incipient, or, perhaps, an advanced state of decay, but in full health and vigor, possessing such characters, as to habit, growth, and hardiness, as are desirable in the best quality of nursery stock." Very true, it must be admitted. This is precisely the course that nurserymen ought to pursue. It is the course followed in the great orchard districts of France, and that ought to be adopted everywhere. But we must have cheapo easy^ and labor-saving modes of doing things now- a-days ; as well the raising of trees as everything else. Suppose a nurseryman could be found who would go about the culture of trees after some such system as we have indi- cated, it must be very clear that he could not sell his trees as cheap as another, who followed the present almost uni- versal hap-hazard course, and if he could not do this, the probability is he would be compelled to keep them ; for purchasers of trees, as a general thing, make no such discri- minations. It happened one season that more than the usual quantities of seedling, unworked, peach trees were brought into the streets of Kochester for sale ; they were as miserable, in all resjpects^ as trees could be ; yet they were sold by the thousand, at from 4 to 8 cents apiece, and scarcely one of them ever grew, for they were killed by exposure, fortunately. At that very time there were large stocks in the nurseries, about town, of good worked trees of the best varieties, offered at one sMlling each. This instance is quoted simply to show who are to blame PROPAGATION BY SEEES. 63 rbr the defective and vicious systems of propagation usually practised. That there will be a reform soon is not to be doubted. A discriminating spirit is already becoming ap- parent among the best classes of cultivators, and their example will soon be felt. The selection of seeds for stocks is a point of more than ordinary importance, and merits the special attention of every man engaged, to whatever extent, in the propagation of fruit trees. Production of New Yarieties. — IN'ew varieties are pro- duced from seeds that have been properly hybridized, as described in the article on hybridization, or from seeds of the best specimens of the best varieties. Where it is desired to obtain seedlings of a particular variety, free from any crossing with others, the flowers should be protected while in blossom, to guard them against foreign impregnation ; seeds should be saved only from large, perfect, fine flavored specimens, and the seeds themselves should be plump and mature. Sometimes a good variety is obtained by selecting from beds of seed- lings, such as possess marked evidences of improvement, vigorous^ luxuriant growth^ large heavy foliage^ pro- minent huds^ and smooth^ tliornless wood. These charac- ters indicate superiority, but do not always ensure superior fruit. The stock is supposed to exert considerable influ- ence on the seed ; and if this be the case, it would be well to get such varieties as we wish seeds from, on their own roots, by layering, or grafting on roots in the ground, so that the graft will itself strike root. Mr. Knight's mode of obtaining seedlings, of the best varieties, was to prepare stocks from some good sort that would strike from cuttings. These stocks he planted in rich warm soil, and grafted with the kind he wanted the seeds from. The first season after grafting he took them up, reduced the roots, and planted again. In this way he had them bear fruit in two 64 GENERAL PKLNCIPLES. years. He allowed only a couple of specimens to remain on each tree, and these, consequently, were very large, matm*e, and every way fine, and from these the seeds were taken. Seedlings may be tested quickly, by budding or grafting them on bearing trees. We may fruit apj)les and pears in this way, in fom* or five years, whilst ten or fif- teen would be necessary on their own roots. Experimenters on this subject have found the seeds of new varieties are more certain to produce good fruit than the seed of old ones. 2. By Divisimi of the Plants. — It has been remarkecl in the article on buds, that every bud is capable, under favorable circumstances, of producing a new individual, similar to that from w^hich it is taken. Hence it is, that out of the young annual wood of an ap- ple, pear, peach, or any other fruit tree, we frequently make several himdreds. Every good, well-formed bud, properly separated, and inserted under the bark of the in- dividuals of the same, or a closely allied, species, will, in one year from its insertion, or with one season's growth, have become a new tree. It is by these means we are enabled to disseminate new varieties with such wonderful rapidity. If a young tree of a new variety will make half a dozen shoots the first season, each bearing half a dozen buds, we can, if we have stocks to bud on, be in possession of thirty trees of that variety in two years from the time we obtained one tree, and in another year we may have fom- times that number. The production of a tree from a Imd^ a graft.^ a layei\ or 2i cutting^ is but the same thing efiected by difierent means. In all the cases, a part of the parent plant, with one or more buds attached, is separated from it. The cutting^ sometimes composed of one bud or joint, and sometimes of several, we put directly in the ground, where it forms roots. The graft is a cutting in- PEOPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 65 serted, not in the ground, but in the wood of another plant to which it unites. The bud inserted under the bark of another tree, and the one buried in the ground, differ only in this, that one draws its support directly from the soil, and the other indirectly, through the tree to which it unites. Section 1. — Pkopagation by Cuttings. A cutting is a shoot, or part of a shoot, generally of one season's growth. The length of the cutting varies from a single eye or joint, to a foot, according to the nature of the species, or the circumstances under which they are to be grown. The wood should be as stout and mature as pos- sible, and should be cut close and smooth to a bud at both ends (fig. 56). In all cases, cuttings taken off closely to the old wood, with the base attached, as in fig. 57, are Figs. 56 to 59 cuttings. 56, a cutting, all of young wood. 57, a cutting, with a heel of old wood. 58, a cutting, with 2 or 3 eyes of old wood. 59, a cutting, of a single eye of the grape vine. 60, a long cutting of the grape, line A, B, surface of the ground. 66 *• GENERAL PRINCIPLES. more successful tLan when cut at several joints above; and in many cases, as in the quince for example, an inch or tv7o of the old wood left attached to the base of the cut- ting, as in fig. 58, renders it still more certain of success. The more buds we can get around the base of a cutting, the better, other things being equal ; for these buds, as soon as thev become active, send down new matter, from which the roots are emitted. Cuttings of the grape are sometimes made of a single eye (fig. 59), with an inch or so of wood above and be- low it. The tiine to mal'e cuttings is in the fal], as soon as the wood is ripe, and through the early winter months. It should not be deferred later than January. The soil for cuttings is of the greatest importance to their success, for if, on the one hand, it be cold, damp, and compact, they will decay, and if too loose and sandy, they will dry up for the want of suflicient moisture. A soil so mellow that it cannot bake, and yet so comj^act as to retain humidity enough to support the cuttings, until new roots are formed, seems to be absolutely necessary — such a soil as we may suppose a good garden border to be composed of. Rooted plants can endure extremes, but cuttings require the most favorable circumstances. Time to Plant. — ^The fall would be the better season to plant all cuttings, if we could cover them so as to j)revent the frost from heaving them out. It is on account of this difficulty that we plant, from necessity, in the spring ; but spring planting must be done very early, that vegetation may proceed gradually. If late planted, warm weather comes on them at once, before they have formed roots sufficient to support the demands of the young leaves. Where only a few are grown, shading might, at certain times, be given, and some light substance, like saw dust, PEOPAGATION BY LAYEKING. ' 67 be spread about them, to preserve an even temperature and humidity, or they might be put in a cold frame, where they could receive any required attention. Where acres of cuttings are grown, these things are not practicable. De^ptli to plant. — As a general thing, cuttings should be inserted so deep, that only two buds will be above the surface of the ground, and in the vine only 07ie. If cut- tings are long, they need not be set perpendicular, but sloping, so as to be within reach of heat and air. A cutting of a single eye of the vine with a piece of wood attached, must be entirely covered, say half an inch deep; see figures 56 to 60, ground line, ^, B. But such cuttings are seldom planted, except in pots, in houses, or in hotbeds. Preserving CiUtings. — ^If cuttings are not j^lanted in the autumn, they should at least be prepared quite early in the winter, and be buried in the earth out of doors, in a pit. A mound of earth should be drawn up over the pit to throw oflf water. At the very first favorable moment in the spring they should be j^lanted. Trenches are opened as deep as necessary with a spade, and the cuttings set in it at the proper distance, from three inches to a foot, ac- cording to circumstances. When the cuttings are in the trench, the earth is partly filled in, and trod firmly down w^ith the foot, then the balance is filled in and levelled up. Cuttings require particular attention, in the way of weed- ing and hoeing ; if weeds grow up thickly, and appropri- ate the moisture of the ground, or if the surface be allowed to crack, as it may after rains, if not quite sandy, they will either make a feeble growth, or fail entirely. The ground wants repeated stirring, to keep it friable and perfectly free from weeds. 68 GENEEAL PEDTCIPLES. Section 2. — Propagation by Layering. A lajer is similar to a cutting, except that it is allowed to remain in jDartial connection with the parent plant until it has emitted roots. On this account, layers are much more certain than cuttings. It is the best method of propagating the grai^e and the gooseberry^ and also the quince^ paradise^ and Doucain^ for stocks. It may be performed in the spring with shoots of the previous year's growth, before vegetation has commenced, or in July and August on wood of the same season's growth. The ordinary mode of doing it is, first, to spade over and prepare the groimd in which the branch is to be laid, in order to make it light and friable. The branch is then brought down to the ground (fig. 61), an incision is made at the base of bud A^ through the bark, and partly through the wood ; the knife is drawn upward, splitting the shoot an inch or two in length, and the branch is laid in the earth with the cut open, and kept doT\m by means of a crooked or hooked wooden peg, B. The earth is then drawn in smoothly around, cov- ering it two or three inches deejD; and the end of the shoot that is above ground, is tied up to a stick ((7), if it re- quires support. In the grape^ gooseberry^ or currant^ a sim23le notch below a bud is suflScient, and they will root if simply pegged down ; but roots are formed more rapidly when the shoot is cut one third through, and slit as described. A long shoot of the vine may be layered at several points, and thus produce several rooted plants in the Fig. 61. Fig. 61, a common layer. A, the incision. £, hooked peg. C, stake. PROPAGATION BY LAYERING. 69 course of one season. This is called serpenthie layering (fig. 62). Tlie Quince^ Paradise^ and Doucain stocks, where raised in large quantities, are proj)agated in a different way from that described. The pro- cess requires much less labor ; and where plants root so freely as they do, it answers every purpose. We will take a plant of the quince, for ex- ^'''- ^^• ample, and, in ^'"- ^^' Serpentlue layer. the spring, before growth commences, we cut it doTvm nearly to the ground, leaving four or five buds at its base {A^ fig. 63). During that season, a number of vigorous shoots will be made. The following autumn or spring the earth is drawn up around the base of the plant, so that the crown w^here it w^as cut will be covered, and, con- sequently, the base of all the shoots for several inches in height. Dur- ing the next sum- mer's growth every branch is suffi- ciently rooted to be separated and placed in nursery F/^. 63, Mound layering or banking up. A, tlie point j.^^.g ^]^g followiuo" at which the mother plant was cut back. ^ ^ ^ C? spring. This is the way to obtain strong stocks ; for the cutting back of the mother plant produces very vigorous shoots the first Fig. 63. VO GENERAL PEINCIPLES. season, and v^hen another season's growth is added they are as strong as can be desired. We succeed in rooting these shoots the first season of their growth by earthing them up about midsummer ; but they are not quite strong enough, or sufiiciently rooted, for transplanting and bud- ding the following season. Section 3. — Propagation by Suckers. Suckers are shoots sent up from the roots. We ob- serve them most frequently around trees that have had their roots wounded by the spade or plough. The wounds induce the formation of buds, and these buds send up shoots. They are occasionally used from necessity for stocks, but should not be employed where seedlings can be obtained. Occasionally we find certain varieties of plum throw up fine vigorous suckers, that would make excellent stocks if taken off with good roots ; but their tendency to produce suckers renders them exceedingly annoying in gardens, and on this account objectionable. The roots of the rasj^berry are full of buds, and, con- sequently, throw up great quantities of suckers ; and the smallest cuttings of the roots will grow. Suckers of any plants that can easily be propagated by cuttings or layers, should never be used. Section 4. — Propagation by Budding. This operation is performed during the growing season, and usually on young trees from one to five years old, with a smooth soft bark. It consists in separating a bud with a portion of bark attached, from a shoot of the cur- rent season's growth of one tree, and inserting it below the bark of another. AYhen this bud begins to grow, all that part of the stock above it is cut away, the bud grows on, and eventually forms a tree of the same variet^^ as PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 71 that from wliicli it was taken. Buds may be inserted in June, and make considerable growth the same season, but as a general thing this is not desirable in the propa- gation of fruit trees. The ordinary season in the N'orthern States is from the middle of July till the middle of Sep- tember, and the earliness or lateness at which a species is budded depends, other things being equal, on the con- dition of its growth. Those accomplishing their growth early in the season are budded early, and those that grow until the autumn are budded late — thus the season extends over a period exceeding two months. In all cases, the following condi- tions are necessary : 1st. The huds must he pey^fectly develojped in the axils of the leaves on the young shoots intended to bud from. This is seldom the case until the shoot has temporarily ceased to lengthen, as indicated by the perfect formation of its terminal bud. If buds are wanted before this condition naturally ar- rives, their maturity may be hastened very much by pinching the tips of the shoots. In ten or twelve days after the pinching of a very soft shoot, its buds are fit for working. 2d. The l^arTc must rise freely from the stocks to he l)ud- ded. This only happens when the stocks are in a thrifty and growing state. Where only a few stocks are to be worked, they can be easily watered, if necessary, a week or so before it is desirable to bud them. Trees that ac- complish most of their growth early in the season, must be watched and budded before they cease to grow ; those that grow very late, must not be budded early, or the formation of new wood will surround and cover the buds ; in gardener's language, they will be " drowned by the sap." The imjplements needed are a pruning hnife to dress 72 GENERAL PEINCIPLES. the stocks, by removing any brandies that may be in the way of inserting the bud ; and a hudding hiife to take off the buds and make the incisions in the stock. The latter should have a very thin, smooth, and keen edge. Strings for tying in the huds are either taken from bass mats, or they are prepared from the bark of the bass- wood. We always prepare our own ; we send to the woods and strip the bark off the trees in Jnne ; we then put it in water from two to three weeks, according to the age of the bark, until its tissue is decomposed, and the fibrous, paper-like inner bark is easily separated from the outer, when it is torn into strips, dried, and put away for use. Before using, it should always be moistened to make it tough and pliable. Cutting and Preparing the Buds. — ^ Young shoots in the condition described, are cut below the lowest plump bud ; an inch or two of the base of every shoot, where the buds are very close together, and quite small, should be left. The leaves are then stripped off, leaving half of each leaf stalk to handle the bud by, as in fig. 63. Preserving tlie Buds. — When a considerable quantity is cut at once, they should be wrapped in a damp cloth as soon as cut and stripped of the leaves, and they may be preserved in good order for ten days, by keeping them in a cool cellar among damp saw-dust, or closely envelop ed in damp cloths, matting, or moss. We often send buds a week's journey, packed in moss slightly moistened ; the leaves being off, the evaporation is trifling, none in fact when packed up, consequently very little moistm'e is needed. Having the stocks, buds, and implements in the condi- tion described, the operation is performed in this way : The shoot to bud from is taken in one hand, and the budding knife in the other, the lower part of the edge of the knife is placed on the shoot half an inch above the PIIOPAGATION BY BUDDING. 73 bud to be removed (JL, fig. 64), the tliumb of the knife- liand rests on the slioot 61 r\ below the bud {B\ a drawing cut is then made, parallel with the shoot, removing the bud and the bark to which it is attached, half an inch above, and three quarters be- low it. This is the usual length, but it may in many cases be shorter. The cut is made just deep enough to be below the bark, a small portion of the wood is always taken e'i^ 64. Figs. 64 to 70, Budding. Fig. 64, a shoot of buds with the leaves taken oft'. Jl, the point above the bud where the knife was inserted. B, the point below where it comes out. Fig. 65, is a bud badly taken off, with a hollow in the centre. Fig. 66, a good bud. ^1, root of the bud. i>, root of the leaf. Fig. 67, a stock with the bark slit vertically and across. Fig. 68, the samo with the bark raised as far as the dotted line. Fig. 69, the same with the bud inserted. Fig. 70, the same tied up. off with it, and if this adheres fii-mly it should be allowed 4 74; GENEKAL PKINCIPLES. to remain; if it parts freely, it sliould be taken out, bnt in doing so the root of the bud must be carefully preserved, for if it comes out with the wood, the bud is useless. The root of the bud, as it is termed, is a small portion of wood in the hollow part of the inside of the bud. Fig. 64 is a good bud, A^ root of bud, B^ root of leaf. Fig. 65 is im- perfect, the roots of leaf and bud both out. A smooth place on the stock, clear of branches, is then chosen, where two incisions are made to the dejDth of the bark, one across the end of the other, so as to form a T, fig. 67; the bark on the two edges of the perpendicular cut is raised (fig. 68) with the smooth ivory handle of the budding knife, and the bud is inserted between them (fig. 69) ; the upper end of the bark attached to the bud is cut square, to fit to the horizontal cut on the stock, the bass string is then wound around tightly, commencing at the bottom, and covering every part of the incision, leaving the bud itself, and the leaf-stalk, uncovered (fig. 70), the string is fastened above the horizontal cut, and the work is done. The success of the operation, as far as its execution is con- cerned, depends, in a great measure, on smooth cuts^ an exact Jit of the hud to the incision iiiade for it^ secure^ close tying^ that will completely exclude air and rain wa- ter, and the quick performance of the whole. The inser- tion of a bud should not, in any case, occupy more than a TYiimite; ordinary practised budders will set two in that time, and often two hundred in an hour with a person to tie. Where the stocks and buds work well, two thousand is not an uncommon day's work in om' nurseries, especially of cherries, peaches, and aj^ples. Where only a few buds are to be set, a cool, moist day or evening should be selected, as they will be more cer- tain of success than if inserted during the middle of a hot, dry day. The chief difficulty experienced by beginners in bud- rEOPAGATION BY GEAFTING. 75 ding, is the j^i'oper removal of the bud. When it happens that the knife passes exactly between the bark and wood, the bud cannot fail to be good ; but this rarely happens— more or less wood is attached, and the removal of this is the nice point. Where the buds are flat, the ditficulty is less than when they have large prominent shoulders, as the plum and -peav have, in many cases. When all the wood is taken out of these, a cavity remains, which does not come in contact with the wood on which the bud is placed, and therefore, although the bark unites well, the bud will not grow. Sometimes, such as these are sepa- rated by making an incision through the bark ; lift the eda^e of the bark attached to the bud with the knife, and push it off w^ith the fingers. A safer w^ay still is to cut around the bud, and draw a strong silk thread between the bark and wood, thus removing the bud in perfection. Section 5. — Propagation by Grafting. Grafting is the insertion of a scion of one sj)ecies or variety on the stem or branch of another, which is called the stocJc. Its principal object is to increase certain varie- ties that cannot be reproduced from seed with certainty ; but it is frequently performed with other objects in view. For instance — ■ To Fndt a New Yariety. — A scion inserted in a branch of a bearing tree, will bear fruit perhaps the second year from the graft ; but if the same scion had been put on a young seedling, it w^ould not have borne in ten years. One sjMoies is frequently grafted with success ujDon another, by which certain important modifications are wrought upon both the size and fruitfulness of trees, and the quality of the fruits. Thus, we can graft, in many cases, with highly beneficial results, the peach and apri- 76 GLNEKAL PRINCIPLES. cot on the plum ; the pear on the quince ; strong grow- ing sj)ecies and varieties on weaker ones, and vice versa. But experience has established the fact, that there must be between the stock and graft a close alliance. We cannot graft an ajyple on ^ peachy nor a cJierry on aj?mr/ but the pear, the apple, quince, medlar, thorn, and moun- tain ash — a naturally allied group — may, with more or less success, be worked upon one another. The French horticultm-ists, who are the most skilful and curious in all matters pertaining to the propagation of plants, describe in their works uj)wards of one hun- dred different modes of grafting, practised in different ages and countries, and for the attainment of particular objects ; but, however interesting the study of all these may ' be to the student and experimentalist, the great bulk of them are of little practical utility, and are never applied in the multij)lication of fruit trees. It is, there- fore, mmecessary to fill up the pages of such a treatise as this, with either a historical account or descri]3tion of them. The methods described below are those univer- sally adopted, with slight modifications, by the best prac- tical propagators everywhere at the present day. Stocks are of all as^es from a yearlino^ seedling: to a tree forty or fifty years old ; but of whatever age, they should be sound and healthy. ISTursery stocks will be more particularly spoken of in the proper place. Scions are generally shoots of the previous year's growth. Rarely those bearing fruit buds are used for the purpose of exj^eriment, but in such cases only. They should be cut in the autumn after the fall of the leaf, or in the winter, and be preserved carefully in earth till wanted for use. If intended for root-grafting early in the spring in the house, it will be sufiicient to bury their lower ends in earth, in a cool, dry cellar ; but if wanted for out-door grafting, they should be bmied in dry sanely i-xc^i AGATION BY GRAFTING. T7 soil^ in a pit, on the north side of a wall or fence, and deeply covered with earth drawn np in a nionnd to throw off the water. They are thus kept perfectly dormant nntil nsed, and not so dry as to shrivel the bark. They should always be taken from healthy, vigorous trees ex- clusively^ and be of firm, well-ripened wood. A mode- rate-sized shoot or scion, if well matured and sound, is much better than one as thick as a man's finger, j^^YAy and unripe. People are by no means so careful and dis- criminating in this respect as they ought to be. Half of the maladies of trees originate in negligent and vicious systems of propagation. The implements used in graft- ing are the grafting-hiife^ saw^ and chisel (see imple- ments). In whip-grafting or splice-grafting, the stocks being small require the knife only, or not more than the knife and chisel. It is always better to have two knives — one to prune and do the rough work, and the other to prepare the scion. Grafting convposition is pre- pared in various ways. Iiosin, heeswax^ and talloio^ in about equal parts, answer very Vv'ell. Lately, however, we have found it better to use more rosin and less bees- wax and tallow ; thus, to two pounds of rosin we add one and one fourth pounds of beeswax, and three fourths of a pound of tallow. For whip-grafting on the root, and small trees in the nursery, we use cloth saturated with this composition, instead of the composition itself, and find it more convenient and expeditious. If we have no old calico, v.'e buy a very thin article, at about four cents per yard. This we tear into narrow strips, roll into balls, and then soak in the liquid composition until every pore of the cloth is filled with it. The person who ap2:>lies it to the grafts takes it from these balls, tears it in pieces the length and breadth required by the size of the stock, and two or three turns of it around the graft secure it completely. This thin cloth soon decays, and yields to 78 GENERAL PEmCIPLES. the enlargement of tlie parts it encloses. We have tried tow, paper, and other materials, but find this the best. Having the scions, implements, and composition in readi- ness, the work is performed as follows : WMj)- Grafting on the Root. — For this pni-pose, seed- ling stocks are generally used, one or two years old, vary- ing from one fourth to th^ree eighths of an inch in diameter. The graft is always made at the collar, and, therefore, the stems of the plants are cut off at that point ; the small tap-roots and any cmnbrous fibres are removed, leaving them about four inches in length (fig. 71) ; they ai-e then washed clean, and are ready for the operation. The grafter then makes a smooth, even, sloping cut, an inch long, upwards on the collar of the root, A / and in the centre of this cut, he makes a slit or tongue, B^ downwards. Tlie scion, which should be three or four inches long (fig. 72), is cut on the lower end with a sloping cut down- wards, and similar in all respects to that made on the stock; a slit, or tongue, is made in it upwards, B^ cor- responding, also, with that on the stock ; and they are then neatly fitted together, the tongue of the one within the other (^, fig. 73), and the inner barks of both placed in close and perfect contact, at C • 11. Figs. 71 to 73, Root Grafting. Fis- 71. the root. Jl, the sloping cut. B. the tongue. Fig. 72, the scion. .^, the sloping cut. B, tongue. C bud at top. Fig. 73, the union of scion and stock. PEOPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 79 least on one side. The fit slionld be so complete as to sit close and firm in all parts. The person who applies the wax, takes a narrow strip of the cloth described, and w^raps it firmly around, covering the parts united. A man and boy can graft of these twelve to fifteen hundred per day, and by a special eftbrt two thousand. When the grafting is thus performed, the grafted plants are j)^^t away as closely as they can be packed in small boxes, with sandy earth among the roots, and deposited either in a cold cellar or in a dry place out of doors, where frost cannot penetrate to the roots, until planting time in spring. Whip Grafting on small trees, standing in the open ground, is performed in precisely the same manner, the oblique or sloping cut and tongue, corresponding in stock and graft, fitting into each other with precision, and the inner bark of both, at least on one side, placed in close contact. Stocks an inch in diameter can be grafted in this way. Either the cloth or the liquid composition may be applied, the latter put on with a brush. For all moderate sized stocks the cloth is ^^referable. In cold weather, a small furnace can be kept at hand to keep the com]30si- tion in w^orking order. Cleft Grafting is practised on trees or branches too large for whip grafting, say from an inch in diameter up- wards. In this case, the scion is cut precisely in the form of a wedge (fig. 74). The part cut for insertion in the stock, should be about an inch or an inch and a half long, with a bud {A) at the shoulder, where it is to rest on the stock ; this bud hastens the union of the j)arts, in the same way as a bud at the base of a cutting, set in the earth, hastens and facilitates the emission of roots : the outer edge should also be somewhat thicker than the inner. A sloping cut (^, fig 75) is then made on the stock, an inch and a half 80 GEXEEAL PKIXCIPLES. 74. long, anotlier cut {B) is made across this cut, about half way down, as at point B, the stock is split on one side of the pith, by laying the chisel on the horizontal surftice, and striking lightly with a mallet; the split is kept open with the knife or chisel till the scion is inserted with the thick side out (J., fig. 74). Grafts of this kind heal much more ra- pidly than when cut at once horizontally. Yery large branches are sawed horizon- tally off at the point to be grafted (J., tig. TY); the surface is then pared smooth \| with the knife, a split is made with -J 1 • 1 1 • -^'s- ""^' ^^® scion prepared with a slop'n^^ cut on the chisel, nearly m each side like a wedge. A, a bud at the shoulder. the centre, and two ^'S- 'S- t^^e .stock cut and split. Jl, the sloping cut. . , B, the horizontal cut. Fig. 76, the scion inserted in wedge-like scions m- the stock. serted(^,^,fig.78); if both grow, and they are afterwards too close, one can be cut away. Another mode of grafting such large stocks, or branches, is to cut them off horizontally, as above, and pare them smooth with the knife ; then cut the scion on o?ie side, about an inch and a half long, making a shoulder at the top, then raise the bark from the stock with the handle of a budding knife, and insert the scion between the bark and wood, and apply the composition the same as in the others, all over the cut part. Two or three scions may be put in each. The principal objection to this mode is, that Figs. 74 to 76, Cleft Grafting. PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 81 the grafts, if they grow rapidly, are apt to be blown off before they have united strongly to the stock. The great points to observe always are, to have shar}:) instruments that will make smooth clean cuts, to have placed in per- fect contact the inner barks of scion and stock, and the whole cut surface, and every portion of the split perfectly covered with the comjDOsition, to exclude air and water. The scion should always be cut close to a bud at the point (c', fig. Yl), and have a bud at the shoulder, or point of union with the stock (^, fig. 73). In grafting the heads of large trees, it is not convenient to use the composition in a melted state, to be put on with the brush, and the large cut surfaces cannot well be covered with the cloth ; it is therefore better to use the composi- tion in such a state that it can be put on with the hands. A very small quantity of brick dust may be advantage- ously mixed with it, when intended for this pm'j^ose, to prevent its being melted by the sun. Double Worhing. — ^When we graft or bud a tree al- ready budded or grafted, w^e call it "double worked." Certain very important advantages are gained by it. Some varieties are of such feeble growth, that it is impossible to make good trees of them in the ordinary way of working on common stocks. In such cases, we use worked trees of strong growing sorts as stocks for thorn. 4^f 77 and 78, cleft grafting, large trees or branches. 77, the stock cut horizontally at A. 78, the same, with two scions inserted. 82 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. Many varieties of the pear do not unite well with the quince stock ; we therefore bnd other varieties of strong growth that do succeed, and use them for stocks to work the others on. By this means we are enabled to possess dwarf trees of many varieties, that we could not otherwise have in that form. We have fruited the Dix in two years by double working on the quince, when otherwise it would have taken not less than seven. A great many improve- ments may be eifected, not only in the form and growth of trees, but in the quality of the fruit, by double working. Yery few experiments have yet been made on the subject in this country, except from necessity ; but the general in- terest now felt on all matters pertaining to fniit tree cul- ture, cannot fail to direct attention to this and similar matters that have heretofore, in a great measure, been overlooked. CHAPTEE Y. PEUISING ITS PEIjN^CIPLES AND PRACTICE. This is one of the most important operations connected with the management of trees. From the removal of the seedling plant from the seed bed, throngh all its succes- sive stages of growth and maturity, pruning, to some extent, and for some purpose, is necessary. It may, therefore, be reasonably presumed, that no one is capable of managing trees successfully, and especially those con- ducted imder certain forms, more or less opj^osed to nature, without knowing well how to jprune^ what to jprime^ and when to prune. This knowledge can only be acquired by a careful study of the structure of trees, because the pruning applied to a tree must (aside from the general principles on which all pnming depends) be adaj^ted to its particular habits of growth and mode of bearing its fruit. It is in view of this fact that the chajDter on the structure and mode of fonnation of the different parts of fruit trees has been given in the first part of this treatise, that it may form the basis of this branch of culture. The idea that our bright American sun and clear atmosphere render pruning an almost unnecessary ope- ration, has not only been inculcated by horticultural wi'iters, but has been acted upon in practice to such an extent that more than three fourths of all the bearing fruit trees in the country, at this moment, are either lean, misshaped skeletons, or the heads are perfect masses of 84 GEKER^yL rEINCIPLES. wood, unable to yield more tliaii one bushel of fniit in ten, well matured, colored, and ripened. This is actually the case even in what may be called, in comparison, well managed orchards. Look at the dif ference between the fruits produced on young and old trees. Tlie former are open, the fruits are exposed to the sun, and, therefore, they are not only large and perfect, but their skins are smooth and brilliant, as though they were j)ainted and polished. This ought to teach us something about pruning ; but this is only one point. We prune one por- tion of a tree to reduce its vigor, and to favor the growth of another and weaker part. We prune a stem, a branch, or a shoot to produce ramifications of these parts, and thus change or modify the form of the whole tree. We prune to induce fruitfulness, and to diminish it. AVe prune in the growing as well as in the dormant season ; and, finally, vre prune both roots and branches. Thus we see that pruning is applied to all parts of the tree, at all seasons, and to produce the most opposite results. It appears necessary to treat of pruning under each of these circumstances separately. 1st. Pruning to Direct the Growth from one Part of a Tree to another. — ^Tlie fi^rst period in the existence and growth of a tree in which this becomes necessary, is in the nursery. Those who have had any exj^erience in tree culture, have observed that young trees in nursery rows have a tendency to increase in height without acquiring a well-proportioned increase in diameter. In certain cases, this want of proportion becomes so great, that the tree bends under its own weight ; and hence, it is necessary to resort to some luethod of propping it up. Tliis con- dition is attributable to several causes. First, the absence of a suflRcient amount of air and light around the stem, to enable the leaves on it to fulfil their functions propei-ly. It has been shown that the formation of new wood de- PEHNING. 85 pends upon the elaborating j^rocess carried on in the leaves, and that this j)rocess can be maintained only in a free exposure to the sun and air. This being the case, it is obvions that any part of the tree excluded from the action of these agents, cannot keep pace in growth with other parts to which they have full access. In nursery rows, as trees are usually j)l anted, the stems, after the first year's growth, are, to a great extent, excluded from the light, consequently the buds and leaves on them can- not perform their parts in the creation of new wood. The top of the tree, however, is fully exposed, and, conse- quently, it makes a rapid growth towards the free air and light. "When this is continued for two or three years in succession, the tree becomes top-heavy ; the quantity of woody fibre at the top is as great as, and it may be greater than, at the bottom ; and hence it bends under its own w^eight. 2d. The Tendency of tlie Sap to the Growing Points at the Top of the Tree. — Growth is always the most active andvigorous, w^hen trees are in a natural condition, at the newly-formed parts. The young buds are the most excit- able, and the more direct their communication with the roots, the more rapid will be their growth. Hence it is that a yearling tree furnished wdth fifteen to twenty buds or more, from its base to its top, frequently produces a shoot from its terminal bud only, and seldom more than three or four shoots from the whole number of buds, and these at the top. This natural tendency, and the exclusion of light from the stems of nursery trees, by their closeness to one another, are the chief causes of weak and crooked trees, to counteract which we resort io pruning. In " heading down?'' a young tree^ we cut aw^ay one third or one half of the length of the stem, and this removes the actively growing parts ; the sap must then find new channels. Its v/hole force is directed to the buds that were S6 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. before dormant, they are excited into growth, and produce new wood and leaves ; these send do^ai new layers of woody fibre on the old stem, and it increases rapidly in diameter, so that by the time it has attained its former height, the base is two or three times as thick as the top, and possesses sufficient strength to maintain an erect position. Maintaining an equal growth among the hranches of a tree is conducted on the same principle. Branches that are more favorably placed than others, appropriate more than their due proportion of the sap, and grow too vigor- ously, are checked, by removing more or less of their grow- ing points ; this lessens the flow of sap to that point, and it naturally takes its com-se to the growing parts of the weaker branches that were left entire, and thus a balance is restored. Pruning to renew tlie Groicth of Stunted Trees. — It frequently happens that trees, fi'om certain causes, become stunted, and almost cease to grow ; the sap vessels be- come contracted, and every part assumes a comparatively dormant condition. In such cases they are cut back, the number of their buds and leaves is reduced, the whole force of the sap is made to act upon the small number re- maining, and enal)les them to produce vigorous young shoots ; these send down new woody matter to the stem, new roots are also formed, and thus the whole tree is re- newed and invio^orated. Pruning to induce Fmdtfidness. — ^This is conducted on the principle that whatever is favorable to rapid, vigorous growth, is unfavorable to the immediate jDroduction of fruit. Hence the object in view must be to check growth and impede the circulation of the sap, just the opposite of pruning to renew growth. The only period at which this pruning can be performed, is after vegetation has com- menced. If a tree is severely pruned immediately after PKUNING. 87 it lias put forth its leaves, it receives siicli a check as to be unable to produce a vigorous growth the same season; the sap is imj^ecled in its circulation, and the result is that a large number of the joung shoots that would have made vigorous w^ood branches, had they not been checked, as- sume the character of fruit spurs and branches. Pincli- ing is the principal mode of pruning to promote fruitful- ness, and will be ex2)lained hereafter. It depends upon the above principle, of impeding the circulation of the sap and checking growth. JPriming to dhninish fruitfulness^ is conducted on the same principle as that to renew growth, for this, in fact, is the object. Pruning the Hoots. — ^This is practised as well to j^ro- mote fruitfulness, as to lessen the dimensions of trees. The roots, as has been shown, are the organs that absorb from the ground the principal food of the tree, and in pro- portion to their number, size, and activity, other things being equal, are the vigor and growth of the stem and branches. Hence when a tree is dej)rived of a certain portion of its roots, its supply of food from the soil is les- sened, growth is checked, the sap moves slowly in its channels, is better elaborated in the leaves, and the young branches and buds begin to assume a fruitful character. Roots are also pruned to prevent them from penetrat- ing too deeply into the earth, and induce the formation of lateral roots near the surface, similar to the cutting back of a stem to produce lateral branches ; the p>rinciple is the same. Pruning at the tione of Transplanting. — This is per- formed, not only to remove bruised and broken roots and branches, but to restore the ti'ee to a proper balance. As trees are ordinarily taken from the gromid, the roots are bruised, broken, or mutilated, to a greater or less extent. This obviously destroys the natural balance or proportion 88 GENERAL TKINCIPLES. til at existed between the roots and stem, and in such a condition the tree is unable to grow. The demand upon the roots must therefore be lessened, by reducing the stem and branches in length or number, or both ; and the more the roots have suffered, the srreater must be the reduction of the stem and branches, to bring them to a correspond- ing condition. PEIINING MECHAKICALLY CONSIDERED. Having now treated of the principles on which j)riui- ing depends, it remains to speak of its mechanical execution ; for it is not only necessary to know what and why, but Tioio to prune. Theory is only useful as it serves to guide in practice. 1st. Pruning Steins or Branches. — ^The great point to be observed in making incisions on the stems and branches of trees, is to provide for the speedy and perfect healing of the wounds or cut surfaces. In removing a portion of a branch or stem, if we cut between two joints, and thus leave a portion of wood above the bud intended to be cut to, as in iig. 79, this wood dies, and we have the trouble of another pruning to remove it. If we cut too close to the bud, and thus remove a j^ortion of the wood with which it is connected, as in fig. 80, the bud will either die or disappoint us by producing a very feeble growth. The j^roper way is to take the branch to be operated on in the left hand, place the edge of the knife on it, opposite the lower part of the bud to be cut to, and then make a firm, quick, smooth draw-cut, slop- ing upwards, so that the knife will come out on a level with the point of the bud, as in fig. 81. In soft- wooded, pithy trees, like the grape vine, for examjDle, half an inch of wood ought to be left above the bud. The cut should also be made as much as possible on the PEUNING. 89 lower side of the branch to prevent rain from lodging in the centre. The position of the hnd cut to, is also worthy of consideration in i^runing, to produce or modify certain Figs. 79 to 82, pruning. Fig. 79, cutting too far above the bud. Fig. SO, cutting too close. Fig. 81, the cut as it should lie. Fig. 8-2. removal of a branch, the cross line indicat- ing the proper place for the cut. forms. When we wish the new shoot of a lateral branch to take, as much as possible, an ii/priglit direction, we prune to a bud on the inside / and if we wish it to spread^ we choose one on the outside. In the annual suppression, or cutting back young trees, to form a stem or side branches, the bud selected to form the leader is chosen on opposite sides every successive yea/r^ in order to maintain the growth in a straight line. If cut every year to a bud on the same side, it w^ould, in two or three seasons, show an inclination to that side injurious to the symmetry of the tree. TJie Removed of Large Brandies^ where they are to be entirely separated from the tree, is often very clumsily performed. In orchards, it is not at all uncommon to see them chopped off with a common axe ; and even in gar- dens there seem to be few persons who either know how, or take the proper care in this matter. They are either cut so that a portion of the base of the branch remains, and sends out vigorous shoots, defeating the objects of tho 90 GENERAL PEES^CIPLES. pruning, or tliey are cut so close that a portion of the wood of the main branch or stem is taken witii them, and a wound made that years are required to heal up. Both these extremes ought to be avoided. The surface of the cut made by the removal of a branch should in no case be larger than the base of the branch. Where a branch is miited to another, or to the main stem, we notice both above and below the j)oint of union, a small projection or shoulder, as at the cross line in fig. 82. The knife must enter just below that shoulder, and, by being drawn upwards in a straight line, the base is so completely removed that no shoots can be produced there ; and yet the cut surface on the stem is no larger than the base of the branch. When the saw is used, the surface of the cut should be pared smooth with tlie knife, to pre- vent water lodging on it, and facilitate the healing of the woimd. 2d. Pruning the Roots.- — ^This is performed by opening a trench around the tree, just at the extremities of the roots : the distance from the tree will, therefore, depend on its size, and the sj^reading characters of the roots. The trench should be the width of a common garden spade, and deep enough to admit of an inspection of all the roots of the tree. If the lateral roots are to be shortened, this is done first. The knife should be placed on the lower side of the root, and the part separated with a clean draw-cut, such as would be performed on a branch. If the tree has vertical, or tap roots, they are most easily operated on with a sharp spade, prepared and kept for the pm-pose. A smart stroke with such a spade, in as nearly a horizontal direction as possible, will separate a pretty strong root. The extent to which root pruning may be performed, depends on tlie character of the species, the condition of the tree as regards gi'owth, and the object aimed at. Those practisbig it for the first time, PRUNING. 91 should go to work with great caution. It will be better to oj^erate too lightly than too severely. As regards the season, it may be 23erformed either at the end of the first growth, in July or August, or in the autumn or winter, when vegetation is quite suspended. We have operated on cherry trees with complete success in August, in a dry time, when little growth was going on. At this season, a copious watering should be given after the pruning is per- formed. Imj)lements of pruning, and the mode of using them, will be treated of in the chapter on implements, to be given hereafter. The Season foi' Priming. — We are not permitted to be very definite on this point. The climate, the nature of the species, etc., control the period of pruning to a great extent. In the south, what we term the winter ]3runing — that performed during the dormant season — may be done very soon after the fall of the leaf. In the north, it is deferred to February, March, and even April. Li western l^ew York, we piTine apples^ pears^ and other hardy fruits, as soon as our severe frosts are over- — say the latter end of February and beginning of March. If pruned sooner, the ends of the shoots are liable to be injured, and the terminal bud so weakened as not to fulfil its purposes. Besides, the wounds do not heal well. Th.Q peach we prune just as the buds begin to swell. The fruit and leaf buds are then easily distinguished from one another, and the objects of the pruning are ac- complished with more precision. Grapes may be pruned any time in the winter, as a portion of wood is always left above the bud. Goose- berries and currants also, any time in winter. The stone fruits should always be lightly pruned, because severe amputations almost invariably produce the gum, "Where it is absolutely necessary in the spring, the wound 92 GENERAL PRES^CIPLES. should be coated witli grafting comj^osition, or with that recommended by Mr. Downing : " Alcohol, with sufficient gmn shellac dissolved in it, to make a liquid of the con- sistence of paint, to be put on with a brush." This excludes air, and is not affected by changes of weather. Pinching is a sort of anticipated pruning, jDractised upon the young growing shoots, intended to promote a uni- form circulation of the sap, and thus regulate the growth, and also to induce fruitfulness. 1st. To Regulate tJte Growth. — ^In the management of trees, this is an operation of great importance, as it obvi- ates the necessity of heavy amputations being made at the winter or spring pruning. Instead of allowing certain superfluous or misplaced shoots to acquire their full deve- lopment at the expense of other parts, we pinch them early, and give to the necessary parts, or branches of the tree, the nutriment which they would have appropriated, if allowed to remain. In this way, we are able to obtain .results in one season, that two or more would be required for, if we depended wholly on the winter j)runing. We will suppose, for an example, the case of a young nm-sery tree in the second year, intended for a standard. In ordi- nary cases, the terminal bud, either the natural one or that pruned to, is developed into the leading shoot or stem, and a greater or less number of buds below it produce branches ; and it frequently hapj^ens that some of these, if not pinched, acquire so much vigor as to injure the leader and produce a consequent deformity in the tree. Fig 83 {A) represents a case of this kind, which is very common, and too often neglected. The shoots, «, «, ought to have been pinched the moment they began to exhibit a dispo- sition to outgrow the leader. There are other cases still worse than this, familiar to all tree growers ; for instance, where a strong shoot is produced on the middle or lower PEUKUSTG. 93 part of the stem, attracting an undue proportion of the sap, thus contracting the growth of all other parts, and giving the young tree a deformed character. All such ai a • B Fig. 83 (iJ). Fig. as, A. head of a young tree ; B. the leader; a, a, vigorous shoots below it, that ought to have been pinched. Fig. 83, B, a branch of the pear, twice cut back with the lateral shoots pinched ; a. a, the first section ; c, c, c, the second ; b, and d, d, shoots pinched close to favor the leader, and those below them. shoots as these should be nipped early, the moment their character is apparent, and thus a year's growth nearly will be saved to the tree, and its proper form and propor- tions be preserved. In conducting young trees for pyra- mids, the constant and careful application of pinching is 04: GENEEAL PRINCIPLES. absolutely necessary, for in them we must have the lower branches always the strongest and longest, and it is only by operating on the shoots, in their earliest stages of growth, that we can fully attain this end ; for the strong- est shoots do not always grow at the desired point, but by timely attention they are perfectly within our control. The various accidents and circumstances to which young trees are subject, give rise, in a multitude of cases, to an unequal distribution of the sap in their diiferent parts, and this produces, to a greater or less extent, deformity of growth. This, at once, shows the necessity for pinching, to check the strong and favor the weak. Pincliing to promote Fruitfidness. — Those who have never practised this, or observed its results, may have seen, if experienced in tree growing, that a shoot of which the point was broken, bruised, or otherwise injured, dur- ing the growing season, frequently becomes a fruit branch, either during the same or the following season ; and this, especially if situated in the interior of the tree, or on the older and lower parts of the branches. The check given to the extension of the shoot concentrates the sap in the part remaining; and, imless the check has been given very early in the season, or the growth very vigorous in the tree, so that the buds will break and form shoots, they are certain to prepare for the production of fruit. It is on this principle of checking the growth, and concen- trating the sap in the pinched shoot, that pinching to in- duce fruitfulness is performed ; and its efficiency may be estimated from the fact, that trees on which it has been practised, have borne fruit four or five, and j)erhaps seven years, sooner than they would have done without it. It is a most useful operation in the case of vigorous growing and tardy bearing sorts. The best illustration, on a large scale in this country, is the specimen plantation of pear trees of Messrs. Hovey & Co., of Boston. A large PRUNING. 95 number of these are pyramidal in form, and on pear stocks, verj beautiful trees, indeed the best specimens of the kind in any American nurserj^, and though, now in 1850, only Y years old (the oldest), yet they have as a general thing produced fruit, and many of them for 2 or 3 years past. This result has been obtained by pinching, which has been regularly, but not to the fullest extent, practised upon them every season. The mode of jperforming it^ is to pinch off the end of the shoot with the finger and thumb ; if a small portion of the remaining part be bruised, no matter, it offers a greater check than if a clean cut were made, as in pruning to a bud ; and in the general winter or spring pruning which follows, the bruised j^arts can be cleanly separated. The thne to 'perform it depends wholly on circumstances. If the object be to regulate growth, then the time to do it is, when the tendency to undue or ill-23roportioned growth is first observable, and this will be from the time the young shoots are two to three inches long and upwards. The particular season of the year or day of the month will, of course, depend upon the earliness or lateness of the season, and on the soil and situation as well as on the habits of growth of the species or variety to be operated on. The true way is to be always on the watch. If the object be to induce fruitfiilness, the length which the shoots should attain before being pinched^ depends upon the nature or mode of growth and bearing of the species, and will be more definitely treated under the head of " The Pruning of Trees," hereafter, the object now being merely to indicate general principles and modes of operating. To illustrate this, let us suppose the lateral branch of a pear tree, (fig. 83, B). This was cut back the first time to 5, and below that 23oint five shoots were j)ro- duced, none of which were needed for branches. We, therefore, pinched them in June, when about three inches long or therea.bouts, and the result is, they are now fruit 96 GENEKAJL PEINCIPLES. branches. The same branch was cut back the second time to d^ cZ, and on that section seven shoots were pro- duced that were not needed in the form of the tree, and were consequently pinched, and will become fruit branches. At the points ^, and cZ, rZ, are small spurs, the base of shoots that have been ^jinched close to favor the growth of the leader, as well as the development of the shoots below. Without pinching it would have been impossible to obtain such results in this branch in the same time. M. Dubreuil, formerly Professor of Arboriculture in the Garden of Plants at Rouen, in France, sums up the general principles of jDruning as follows. (I may remark here, that in 1849, I visited the Rouen garden, and found M. Du- breuil's theory and practice beautifully illustrated on the trees in his charge. My visit was made at the time of his practical lectures, and I was able to examine the whole with the most satisfactory minuteness. The trees there, under all fonns, and embracing all the hardy spe- cies of fruits, were the best that I anywhere foimd, not even excepting the much admired and famous pj-ramidal pear trees of M. Cappe, at Paris. They were not only per- fect in form, but as regards vigor qa\^ friiitfulness^ in the most admirable condition.) He says : " The theory of tbe pruning of fruit trees rests on the follow- ing six general principles : " 1. The vigor of a trce^ suhjeded to pruning^ depends, in a great measure, on the equal distrihution of sap in all its branches. " In fruit trees abandoned to themselves, the sap is equally dis- tributed in the different parts without any other aid than nature, because the tree assumes the form most in harmony with the natural tendency of the sap.* * This is tiot in all cases true. Peach trees, we know, left to themselves, exhibit a very striking example of the unequal distribution of the sap. The ends of the branches attract nearly the whole, leaving the lateral shoots and PKUNING. 97 " But ia those submitted to pruning, it is different ; the forms imposed on them, such as espalier, pyramid, vase, &c., change more or less the normal direction of the sap, and prevent it from taking the form proper to its species. Thus nearly all the forms given to trees require the development of ramifications more or less numerous, and of greater or less dimensions at the base of the stem. And, as the sap tends by preference towards the summit of the tree, it happens that, unless great care be taken, the branches at the base become feeble, and finally dry up, and the form intended to be obtained disappears, to be replaced by the natural form, that is a stem or a trunk with a branching head. It is then indispensable, if we wish to preserve the form we im- pose upon trees, to employ certain means, by the aid of which the natural direction of the sap can be changed and directed towards the points where we wish to obtain the most vigorous growth. To do this we must arrest vegetation in the parts to which the sap is carried in too great abundance, and on the con- trary favor the parts that do not receive enough. To accomplish this the following means must be successively employed. " 1. Prune the branches of the most vigorous parts very short, and those of the iveak parts long. We know that the sap is at- tracted by the leaves. The removal of a large number of wood- buds from the vigorous parts, deprives these parts of the leaves which these buds would have produced ; consequently the sap is attracted there in less quantities, and the growth thereby dimi- nished. The feeble parts being pruned long, present a great num- ber of buds, which produce a large surface of leaves, and these attract the sap and acquire a vigorous growth. This principle holds good in all trees, under whatever form they may be con- ducted. "2. Leave a large quantity of fruit on the strong part, and remove the whole, or greater part, from the feehle. We know already that the fruit has the property of attracting to it the sap f;om the roots, and of employing it entirely to its own growth. lower parts to die out. In other species, similar instances might be quoted, and as a general thing, the proposition is unsound, except in a comparative sense. 5 98 GENERAL PEmCIPLES. The necessary result of this is, what we are about to point out, viz., that all the sap which arrives in the strong parts, will be ab- sorbed by the fruits, and the wood there, in consequence, will make but little growth, while on the feeble part, deprived of fruits, the sap will all be appropriated by the growing parts, and they will increase in size and strength. " 3. Bend the strong parts and keep the weak erect. The more erect the branches and stem are, the greater will be the flow of sap to the growing parts ; hence, the feeble parts being erect, attract much more sap than the strong parts inclined, and, con- sequently, make a more vigorous growth, and soon recover their balance. This remedy is more especially applied to espalier trees. " 4. Remove from the vigorous parts the superfluous shoots as early in the season as possible^ and from the feeble parts as late as possible. The fewer the number of young shoots there are on a branch, the fewer there are of leaves, and consequently the less is the sap attracted there. Hence, in leaving the young shoots on the feeble part, their leaves attract the sap there, and induce a vigorous growth. *' 5. Pinch early the soft extremities of the shoots on the vigorous parts, and as late as possible on the feeble parts, excepting always any shoots which may be too vigorous for their position. By thus pinching early the strong part, the flow of sap to that point is checked, and naturally turns to the growing parts that have not been pinched ; this remedy is applicable to trees in all forms. " 6. Lay in the strong shoots on the trellis early, and leave the feeble parts loose as lo7ig as possible. Laying in the strong parts obstructs the circulation of the sap in them, and consequently favors the weak parts that are loose. This is only applicable to espaliers. " 7. In espalier trees, giving the feeble parts the benefit of the light, and confining the strong parts more in the shade, restores a balance, for light is the agent which enables leaves to perform their functions and their action on the roots, and the parts receiv- ing the greatest proportion of it acquire the most vigorous de- velopment. PRUNING. 99 2. " The sap acts with greater force and produces more vigorous growth on a branch or shoot pruned shorty than on one pruned long. This is easily explained. The sap acting on two buds must evidently produce a greater development of wood on them, than if it were divided between fifteen or twenty buds. " It follows from this, that if we wish to obtain wood branches, we prune short, for vigorous shoots produce few fruit buds. On the contrary, if we wish to obtain fruit branches, we prune long, because the most slender or feeble shoots are the most disposed to fruit. " Another application of this principle is to prune short for a year or two, such trees or parts as have become enfeebled by overbearing. (This principle deserves especial attention, as its application is of great importance.) 3. " The sap tending always to the extremities of the shoots causes the terminal bud to push with greater vigor than the laterals. Ac- cording to this principle, when we wish a prolongment of a stem or branch, we should prune to a vigorous wood bud, and leave no production that can interfere with the action of the sap on it. 4. " The more the sap is obstructed in its circulation, the more likely it will be to produce fruit buds. This principle is founded on a fact to which we have already had occasion to refer, viz. — that the sap circulating slowly is subjected to a more complete elaboration in the tissues of the tree, and becomes better adapted to the formation of fruit buds. " This principle can be applied to produce the following result : When we wish to produce fruit buds on a branch, we prevent a free circulation of the sap by bending the branches, or by making annu- lar or circular incisions on it ; and on the contrary, when we wish to change a fruit branch into a wood branch, we give it a vertical position, or prune it to two or three buds, on which we concentrate the action of the sap and thus induce their vigorous development. 5. " The leaves serve to prepare the sap absorbed by the roots for the nourishment of the tree, arid aid the formation of buds on the shoots. All trees, therefore, deprived of their leaves are liable to perish. This principle shows how dangerous it is to remove a 100 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. large quantity of leaves from trees, under the pretext of aiding the growth or ripening of fruits, for the leaves are the nourishing organs, and the trees deprived of them cannot continue to grow, neither can the fruit ; and the branches so stripped will have feeble, ill-formed buds, which will, the following year, produce a weak and sickly growth. 6. " Where the buds of any shoot or branch do not develope before the age of two years, they can only be forced into activity by a very close pruning, and in some cases, as the peach, this even will often fail. This last principle shows the importance of prun- ing the main branches of espaliers particularly, so as to ensure the development of the buds of their successive sections, and to preserve well the side shoots thus produced, for without this, the interior of the tree will become naked and unproductive, and a remedy will be very difficult." If these principles and practices of pnining be carefully studied in connection with the habits of growth and bear- ing of the different fruit trees, pruning will be compara- tively an easy matter. The mode of obtaining any par- ticular form or character cannot fail to be perfectly plain and simple ; yet no one need hope to accomplish, in all things, the precise results aimed at, for even the most skilful operator is sometimes disappointed : but those w^ho give constant attention to their trees, will always discover a failure in time to apply a remedy. I insist upon it, because I have been taught it by most abundant experience, that the most unremitting watch- fulness is necessary in conducting trees in particular forms. It is not, by any means, labor that is required ; but attention that the most delicate hand can perform, fifteen or twenty minutes at a time, say three times a week during active growth, will be sufficient to examine every shoot on a moderate collection of garden trees ; for the eye very soon becomes trained so well to the work, that a glance at a tree w^ill detect the parts that are either too strong or too weak, or that in any way require atten- PRUNING. 101 tion. This is one of the most interesting features in the management of garden trees. We are never allowed to forget them. From day to day they require some atten- tion, and offer some new point of interest that attracts us to them, and augments our solicitude for their prosperity, until it actually grows into enthusiasm. PxlRT II. THE NURSERY THE NURSEEY. CHAPTER I. Section 1. — Soil, Situation, etc. It is not a part of the design of this treatise to give anything like a full exposition of nursery operations ; for this would, in itself, be a subject sufficiently extensive to form a volume ; but as all frnit growers should possess at least some knowledge of nnrsery management, it seems quite necessary that the more important points should be noticed. 1st. The Soil^ as to Dryness. — For a fruit tree nursery the soil must be perfectly dry^ both above and below. In damp, springy soils, or where the subsoil is so compact as not to admit of the surface water passing off immediately, trees do not thrive, the roots are destitute of fibres, the wood is watery and delicate, and where frosts are severe the trees are cast out of the ground by the ex23ansion of the water with which the soil is filled. We have known of a sins^-le instance in which several thousand dollars o were lost by planting a pear nursery on a soil imj^erfectly drained. The plants grew finely the first season, were budded, the buds had taken, and in the autumn all looked prosperous; but the autumn rains filled the soil with water, the situation was low and level, and the subsoil compact, so that the water could not possibly get away. The consequence was, the roots decayed, the plants were cast out of the ground, and the injury was so great and 5- . . - 106 THE NUESEEY. SO general that the whole |)lantation had to be taken up. This ground was then thoroughly drained, and is now as good a pear soil as can be found — a stock of beautiful trees standing on it at the present time. This single in- stance illustrates the importance of a dry soil, as well as twenty would. We frequently find that in the same row of trees, if there happens to be a low, damp spot, the trees in it have no fibrous roots, and are altogether inferior to those on the adjacent dry ground. 2d. Depth. — As a general thing, the soil of a nursery should be a foot to eighteen inches deep ; but all trees do not require the same depth. Those (such as the pear) whose roots descend more than they sp^^ead^ require the deepest soil. The best quality of nursery trees are grown on common farming land, twice ploughed with the com- mon and subsoil ploughs, one following the other, as de- scribed in the chapter on soils. This gives depth enough for all ordinary purposes. 3d. Texture. — A soil of medium texture between the heavy and the light, is, on the whole, the most advan- tageous, as being the best adapted to general purposes. A good fiiable loam, with a gravelly subsoil, or a mixture of sand, gravel, and clay, that will allow water to pass off freely, and yet not too fast, will be found suitable for almost any species ; and one great advantage of such, a soil is, that it admits of rotation in crops. 4th. Quality. — For the growth of young fruit trees, a soil should be in such a condition as to furnish a sufficient sup- ply of nutriment to ensure a vigorous and robust growth ; but it may be too rich, and produce rank wood that will not mature properly, and be unable to withstand the change of climate or soil consequent upon transplanting. Where manures are used, they should be well decom- posed ; fresh warm manures excite trees into a very rapid growth, but the wood is watery and feeble. A dry soil of SOIL. 107 moderate richness produces hardy trees, their wood is firm, the buds phimp and close together, and the parts well pro- portioned. 5. Laying out. — Where the nursery is of considerable extent, the ground should be laid out and arranged in square or rectangular plots of convenient size, and be intersected with walks. One portion should be set apart for the ^propagation of stocks from layers, another for cut- tings, another for seeds, &c. In setting apart ground for the different kinds of trees, if there be a choice, the pear should have the deepest and best, the plum the most com- pact or clayey, the peach, apricot, cherry, &c., the lightest and dryest. 6. Exposure. — I^ursery ground for fruit trees should be well elevated, but not fully exposed to the prevailing high winds, as the young trees are apt to be broken off during the first year's growth if not kept well tied uj) to stakes. In our section we find it very advantageous to have some protection from the west winds especially, though we sometimes have a south wind quite destructive in exposed places to the young buds. Situations where snow is liable to drift into, should be avoided, in sections where heavy snow storms prevail, for sometimes vast quantities of trees are broken down in corners of fences and sheltered situa- tions where the snow accumulates in heavy drifls. V. Botation or Succession of Crops. — ^This is quite as important in the management of the nursery as of the farm. Not more than one crop of one species should be planted on the same ground ; and those of the most opposite character should follow one another. Where one species is grown on the same ground for eight or ten years, it is found by experience that even the most liberal manuring fails to produce such fine, sound, healthy, and vigorous trees as new ground without manure. Where land is scarce, and it is necessary to use the same ground for the 108 THE NURSERY. same kind of trees, it should at least be allowed one season's rest, and be well supplied with such material as the trees to be grown in it require in the largest quantities, or in which the soil is found to be most deficient. Section 2. — Description and Propagation of Stocks. This branch of the subject is of such importance, and involves so many considerations, that it seems to be more methodical to treat it sej^arate from subsequent operations. 1st. Stocks for the Ajyple. — The principal stocks in use for the apple are the common seedling^ or free stoclc^ the Doucain^ and the Paradise. Seedlings^ or free stocks^ are ordinarily produced from seeds taken promiscuously from the cider mill in the autumn. Preparing the Seed. — ^The cakes of pressed pomace are broken up, and the coarser materials, straw, &c., sepa- rated from it by means of a coarse sieve, the sifted pomace is then put into large tubs, and subjected to repeated washings until clean. The clean plump seed falls to the bottom, and the pomace and light poor seed are carried off in the washings. When fruits have been selected for the seeds, they are placed in heaps until fermentation and decay have reduced the flesh to a soft pulpy state, when they are washed in tubs, in the same manner as pomace. Saving the Seed. — ^When the seed is washed out as above, it must be spread thinly on boards, and repeatedly turned over until perfectly dry, when it is put away in boxes, mixed with sand, containing a slight degree of moisture. The boxes should be well secured against ver- min, and be kept in a dry, cool place, till the time of planting. Season and Mode of Planting. — If the ground be in readiness, and perfectly dry and friable, the best time is PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 109 the fall, as soon as tlie seeds are cleaned. At this season the pomace, seeds and all, as it comes from the j)ress, may be planted without any washing. It should be broken up fine, so that it may be evenly distributed in the seed bed. The difficulty of doing this, is a serious objection to this mode. By taking some pains in the sowing, we raise as good stocks in this as in any other way; the decayed pulp contributes considerable nutriment to the young plants in their earliest stage of growth. When deferred till spring, it should be done at the earliest moment that the condition of the ground will ad- mit. When the ground is ready, a line is stretched along one side of the plot, and a drill opened with a hoe about eight or ten inches wide and three deep ; the seeds are then dropped, and the fine earth drawn over them with the hoe as regular as possible, covering them about three inches deep. If some leaf mould from the woods or old decomposed manure in a fit state for spreading could be had, and a covering of an inch deep of it spread on the top of the drills, it would prevent the surface from baking or cracking, and allow the plants to come up with greater strength and regularity. Whatever depth of such a cover- ing be used, should be deducted from the covering of common earth. Distance to Plant. — ^When large quantities are raised, the drills should be three feet apart to admit of the culti- vator passing between them ; for the ground should be kept perfectly clean and mellow around seedlings the whole season. After Management. — It is of great importance that they be not in any way stunted, either in first coming through the soil by a hard surface, or afterwards by weeds and lack of culture ; seedlings stunted during the early stages of their growth never make vigorous, healthy stocks, and indeed should never be planted. When they appear 110 THE NUESEET. above tlie surface and are too close together, they should as soon as possible be thinned out to regular distances ; for when grown up in dense masses, they are generally feeble and worthless. One hundred good vigorous stocks are worth five hundred poor ones. It is very common to see seedlings of one year larger than those of two years, under different management, and in such a case the year- lings are worth twice as much as the others. A very good plan is to thin out all the weakest plants when about four or five inches high, leaving those only of vigorous habit and large foliage. The Doucain is a distinct species of apple ; the tree is of medium size, bears small sweet fruit, and reproduces itself from seed. It is used for stocks for apple trees of medium ^\zq^ pyramids^ or dwarf standards for gardens. It is propagated almost exclusively from layers ; see fig. 63. The plants to be propagated from are planted in a rich deep friable soil, and cut back to within four to six inches of the collar ; the buds, or the part below the cut, will, during the next season, produce strong shoots ; the following spring the earth is drawn up around each plant in the form of a mound, so that the whole of the stem and the base of all the shoots will be covered at least three inches deep ; during that season all the shoots will pro- duce roots, and should be separated from the mother plant or stool, as such plants are termed, in the fall. If left on till spring the frost would be likely to injure them. The stools are then dressed, the soil around them is spaded up and enriched with well decayed manure, and \hQ follow- ing season another crop of shoots is produced, much more numerous than the first, to be treated in the same way. Every year these stool plants increase in size and in the quantity of their productions, if well treated. Another course, but not so good, is frequently pursued when stocks are scarce. The shoots are layered, by bend- PEOPAGATION OF STOCKS. Ill ing down as described in layering, the first season of their growth in July, and may be sufficiently rooted in the fall to be transferred to nursery rows in the spring following ; a year is thus saved, but the stocks are, of course, much inferior. If earthed up in midsummer, they will be par- tially rooted in the autumn too, but not so well as if bent down, for the bending has a tendency to stop the sap at the point fastened to the ground, and hastens the forma- tion of roots. Tlie Paradise. — ^This also is a distinct species of apple. The tree is of very small size, never attaining over three to four feet in height. It is used for stocks for dwarf trees or bushes that occupy but a small space in the gar- den. It is propagated in precisely the same manner as that described for the Doucain. 2d. Stocks for the Pear. — The jpear seedling and the quince are the only two stocks on w^hich the pear can be advantageously worked to any considerable extent. The mountain ash and the thorn are occasionally used for special purposes only. Pear Seedlings^ — The seeds are obtained by collecting such fruits as can be had, containing perfect seeds. Great care should be taken to gather the fruits of hardy, healthy, vigorous trees only, and the seeds should be full and plump. The seeds are separated and washed, as de- scribed for apples. They are also saved and planted in a manner similar in all respects ; but in this country it is a much more difficult matter to succeed with pear seedlings than with the apple. This difiiculty is owning chiefiy to a species of rust or blight that attacks the leaves of the young plants, very often before they have completed their first season's grow^th. To obviate the difficulty which this malady presents, a vigorous growth should be obtained early in the season. New soil, or that in wdiich trees have not been grown in l)efore, should be selected. The 112 THE NUKSEKY. autumn before planting, it should be trenched or subsoil j)loughed to the depth of two feet, for the pear has long tap roots, and liberally em^iched with a compost of stcMe manure, leaf mould or muck^ and wood ashes^ in about equal parts : four inches deep of this spread over the sur- face before ploughing, will be sufficient for any ordinary soil. Lime should also be given liberally, unless the soil be naturally and strongly calcareous. A soil ,pre]3ared thus in the fall, will require another ploughing or spading in the spring, to mix all the materials proj^erly with the soil, and fit it for the seeds. Where large quantities are grown, the drills may be the same distance apart as that recommended for apples, three feet ', but if only a few, twelve to eighteen inches will be sufficient, as the clean- ing can be done with the hoe. The seeds should be scat- tered thinly, that every plant may have sufficient space without any thinning. From time to time we find re- gular recipes given for raising pear seedlings, with the same precision that pudding recipes are given in the cook books. Bone dust^ hlacksmitlis' cinders^ imick^ lime^ ^oood ashes^ and half a dozen other things, are recom- mended to be compounded in pecks and half pecks, all with a view to remedy the rust or leaf blight that no man can say originates in any defect of the soil. The cause may be in the atmosphere, or it may be an insect, or it may be something else, for aught anybody yet knows to the contrary. The end to aim at, as before re- marked, is to get good growth, say eighteen to twenty inches in height, and stout in proportion, before the first of August. This can be done in any deeply-trenched, fresh soil, well prepared and manured as described above. During the past season, a lot of very fine seedling j^ears were raised in fresh, new soily in Ontario county; their foliage was quite fresh when the frosts came, and they had received no special manuring either. Pear seedlingc* PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 113 should always be taken up in the fall, after the first season's growth, the largest selected for transplanting into the nursery, and the smaller to be put into beds, to remain another season. Quince Stoclcs are propagated with considerable success by cuttings. These should be strong shoots, six inches to a foot long, taken off close to the old wood, and, if pos- sible, with a small portion attached, pre]3ared as directed in article on cuttings, early in the winter, and kept in pits two or three feet below the surface of the soil, in a dry place, till planting time in spring. They should be planted in a light ^ friahle^ deep soil^ in rows eighteen inches to two. feet apart, four to six inches apart in the row, and so deep that but a couple of buds remain above the sm*face. The ground should be kept clean and mel- low amongst them all summer, and if the cuttings were stout and long, they will in the autumn be fit for taking up and preparing for planting into nursery rows the fol- lowing spring. The best and surest method of propagat- ing the quince stock, however, is by layers^ as the best variety for that purpose does not strike so freely from cut- tings as the common sorts. The manner of layering is that recommended for the Doucain and paradise^ by earthing up. The stool plants should be set out in a fine, rich, deep border of warm, friable soil, and be about six feet apart, when designed to be permanent. As each stool, by the system recommended, can only yield a crop of plants every two years, there should be two sets, so that an annual supply may be obtained. By the ordinary system of bending down the shoots, and slitting, or even without the slitting, a crop may be obtained every year, that is, the shoots of the current sea- son's growth may be layered in July or August, but no such stocks can be obtained as by the earthing up and 114: THE NURSERY. taking a crop every two years. This is the system recom- mended to those who wantjirst rate quince stocks. The very general lack of information in this country on the subject of quince stocks for pears has given rise to a great many misapj^rehensions and erroneous statements in regard to them, both by horticultural writers and others. At first it was said that the stock used by the French and imported by nurserymen here were the Portugal. Again, it was discovered they were nothing more than the com- mon apple quince ; consequently a multitude of the apple quinces have been worked, and sent out as " dwarf pears. "^"^ The slow and feeble growth of this variety unfits it entirely for a stock for the pear, and only a very few varieties will form a union with it that will last over three or four years. Such trees cannot fail to give general dissatisfaction, and among people who know no better, create a prejudice against quince stocks in general. Indeed this is the cause why so much has been said about the pears on quince beins: so short-lived. The truth is, that the varieties used in France are nei- ther the Apple nor the Portugal Quince, but vigorous hybrids that have been originated there, and found to answer this purpose particularly well. The great requisite of a quince stock for the pear is 2^. free^vigoroiis and rajpid groiuth. A variety originated at the town of Angers in France, and extensively used, propagated and sold there, as the Angers Quince^ is probably the best yet known for a pear stock generally. It is a very rapid, vigorous grower, making strong shoots three feet long in one season. It has large foliage resembling the Portugal. In some parts of France, as in Normandy, it is known as the hroad-leaved. There is another variety with smaller leaves, but of free, vigorous growth too, almost exclusively cultivated in some districts. Several extensive nurserymen at Orleans, Paris, and elsewhere, consider it superior to the broad-leaved, PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 115 and especially for very vigorous growing sorts. It is known as the small-leaved. We have tried both extensively, and find but very little difference thus far in the results obtained. We are now engaged in experiments testing the fitness of another variety quite distinct in its character, habits of growth, ple^])eai% cherry^ and phun^ say one fourth of an inch and upwards in diameter, and well rooted layers of the qiiince^ ^aradise^ and Doucain^ of the same size, j)lanted in the spring in a good soil, and kej^t under good clean culture will, as a general thing, be in a fit state for budding in July, August, or September following. The budding may therefore be considered as the first season's work. The details of this operation may be divided for consideration, as follows : 1. Time for Budding. — 2. Preparation of the Stocks, BUDDING, GEAFTING, ETC. 133 — 3. Pre-paring the Buds. — 4. Insertion of the Buds. — 5. Untying. 1st. The time for budding each species or class of fruits depends upon its habits of growth. Such as cease to grow early in the season, must be budded early, because it can only be done while the stocks are in a free, growing state, full of sap. Such as grow until late in the autumn, must be budded late,^otherwise the new layers of wood formed after the insertion of the bud, would grow over and destroy it, or the bud would be forced into a prema- ture growth towards autumn, which in fruit trees should always be avoided. The common sorts of plum terminate their growth early in the season, and are therefore budded early, whether with plums, peaches, or apricots, at Ro- chester usually about the last of July, or beginning of August. The native or Canada plum, and the cherry or tnyrohalan^ grow freely till late in the fall, and may be budded in the latter end of August, or beginning of Sep- tember. Pears on pear stocks are usually budded here in July, in anticipation of the leaf blight which stops their growth when it attacks them. Where no such thing as this is apprehended, they should not be budded before the middle of August, as the buds are not generally mature till that time. Apples on free stocks, and on the paradise and Doucain, may be budded as soon as the buds are ma- ture, which is usually, here, about the first to the middle of August. Cherries on free 'mazzard stocks — as soon as buds are ripe hei'e, about the first of August. Pears on quince^ and cherries on mahalel?^ not before the first of September, and from that to the middle of the month, as the quince and mahaleb grow late, and especially the latter. Peach stocks should always be budded the same season the seeds are planted, and, as they grow rapidly until very late, are not usually budded till about the mid- dle of September, The budding period varies in different 131 THE NUESERY. seasons. In a dry, warm season, the yonng wood matures earlier, and stocks cease to grow sooner, and are, there- fore, budded earlier than in a cool, moist season, that pro- longs the growth of the stocks, and retards the maturity of the buds. Stocks growing feebly require to be budded earlier than those growing freely. It is necessary to keep an eye to all these points. The destruction of insects must be promptly attended to. An army of slugs may devour the foliage of the pear and cherry, and even the plum, in a day or two, and pre- vent their being worked that season. The apMs^ too, fre- quently appears in snch multitudes as to check the growth. Dry lime or ashes thro^m on the slugs willjkill them, and strong soap suds, or tobacco water, so strong as to assume the color of strong beer, will kill the aphis. 2d. JPrejparation of the Stochs. — ^This consists in remov- ing such lateral shoots from the stock as may be likely to obstruct the insertion of the bud. Our practice is to do this at the moment of budding, one person doing the work in advance of the bndders. If done a few days pre- vious, and several shoots are removed, it checks the growth of the stocks, and they do not work so well. It might answer very well to do it two or three weeks pre- vious, so that they might recover from the check before being budded. 3d. Insertion of tlie Bud. — Having treated so fully of the manner of preparing and inserting the bnds in the article on budding, nothing farther need be said on these points here. In free stocks the bud shonld be inserted within three or four inches of the ground. In some parts of the west, Wisconsin, Illinois, and some other places, certain rapid, late-growing, and rather tender varieties are liable to be winter-killed if budded close to the ground, probably by the sudden thawing of that part BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC. 135 caused hj the refraction of heat from the ground. In view of such a difficulty, it may be well enough to bud high up, but, as a general thing, low budding makes the best trees. All dwarf stocks should be budded as close to the surface of the ground as it is possible, and even some of the earth may be removed and put back when the budding is done. The necessity for this lies in the fact that all dwarf stocks should be wholly below the ground when finally planted out in the garden or orchard. 4th. TJntying the Buds. — In ten days or a fortnight after the buds are inserted, they should be examined, and such as have failed may be budded again if the stocks continue to grow. In some cases it may be necessary, and particularly with cherries, to loosen the buds and tie them over again, as rapid growth will cause the string to cut the bark before the bud has completely united, or is fit to be untied. This seldom occurs, however ; as a general thing, the strings may be removed in three weeks to a month after the budding ; and they should never be left on over the winter, as moisture lodges around them to the detriment of the bud. As soon as the budding is done, the ground should be worked over with the cultivator or forked spade. The first season's management of stocks too small for budding consists simply in keeping the soil clean and mellow, and in guarding against the attacks of insects. The treatment of root grafts the first season consists in cleaning and loosening the ground, the removal of suckers from the roots as fast as they appear, and pinching early any strong side shoots likely to weaken the leader. Second Year. — ^Where the buds failed the previous sea- son, the stocks should now be whip-grafted near the sur- face of the ground. They will be little behind the buds, and will make nearly as good trees, if neatly done. Plums and cherries must be done before, or as soon as the buds 186 THE NTTESEET. begin to swell (saj in March here); pears and apples may be done later. The second sized stocks^ planted last season^ and intended to be budded this, should, if in a feebly growing or stunted condition, be cut back to within two or three inches of the surface of the ground. This wdll give the roots new vig^or, and thrifty shoots will be made by budding time that will work more easily and successfully than the old stock. In a month or so after being cut down, all the shoots but the strongest one should be removed. The stocks budded last season are headed down to within three or four inches of the bud, just as the leaves are beginning to appear, and all buds starting into growth on the stock, either below or above them, rubbed off. Treatment of the growing hud consists in keeping all shoots that appear on the stock rubbed off. If side shoots appear early, and are likely to contract the growth of the leader, they should be pinched oft'. Any that assume a reclining or crooked habit should be tied up to the stock, or to a support, which may be a wooden pole four feet long, sunk a foot in the ground at the root of the stock ; both the stock and growing shoot should be fast- ened to it (fig. 87), but not so close as to impede the growth. This is only necessary with certain weak, irregular growing sorts. In August the portion of the stock left Fig- 87. above the bud at the heading down in the A younff budded . i i i i i -ii i • tree in its first sea- sprmg should bc Temovcd With a slopmg son-s growth, sup- (j^^t, closc and smooth, as at A (fig. 87), at the TTe^iine^t A in- hlghcst polut of uniou betwecii the bud and dicates the cutting gtock. The ucw laycrs of wood made after away of the stock , . . -, tip close to the bud. this time covers the wound beiore growth ceases in the fall. Side shoots, when they appear, must BUDDING, GEAFTING, ETC. 13T be checked, if too vigorous, by pinching off their ends, but not entirely removed, as they assist in giving size and strength to the lower part of the body of the young tree. The peach almost invariably produces numerous side branches the first season, and it is a very common but very erroneous practice to prune these all off in mid-summer. The proper- course is to maintain an uniform vigor amongst them by pinching, and to prevent any from encroaching on the leading shoot ; in this way we get stout, well-propor- tioned trees. This brings us to the end of the second year, and gives us young trees of one year's growth. Peach trees should always be planted out at this age, and all trees intended for training in particular forms ; but as this part of the subject will be considered under the head of " Selec- tions of Trees^^ we will proceed to the course of manage- ment for the Thikd Year. — We commence this year with trees of one year's growth ; and the first point is to determine what form is to be given them, whether tall or dwarf stand- ards^ pyramids^ hushes^ or espaliers. Having settled these matters, we have but to follow up the proper course to accomplish the desired ends. It may be well to take each of these forms in succession, and point out the necessary management under various circumstances. 1st. Standards. — Until very lately, trees of all sorts, and for every situation, were grown as tall standards, w^ith naked trunks six and even eight feet high. Indeed, it appeared as though an impression existed amongst people that a tree was not in reality a tree, nor worthy of a place on their grounds, if it had not this particular form. Lat- terly, however, since fruit tree culture has become more practised, and somewhat better understood, this impres- sion has been gradually losing ground, and in all parts of the country low trees are finding advocates. Experience is beginning to teach people that whilst tall 138 THE NURSERY. standards in an orchard possess the single advantage of admitting the operations of the plongh under the branches, low standards are much more secure against the numerous fatal diseases that attack the trunks — are much more accessible for the performance of all the necessary details of management, and for the gathering of the fruit. These are all very important advantages certainly ; but the most important one is the safety of the tree against diseases of the trunk. In all parts of this country, we have a powerful sun in summer, and in winter and spring sudden and violent changes from one extreme to another; and experience has shown, that the trunk and large branches, being fully exposed to all external influences, are generally the parts first attacked with disease. Cul- tivators are, of course, at liberty to choose for themselves ; but, except to meet the wants of some particular circum- stances, no standard tree should have a branchless stem above jive feet in height : four is preferable for all, ex- cept orchards of common ap]3les for cider or stock. Trees with heads only four feet from the ground, are always easy of access, and the natural spread of the branches aifords a great protection to the trunk at all seasons. IN'ursery- men should by all means encourage by precept and ex- ample the cultivation of low-headed trees. Starting with the yearling trees for standards, we examine the habit of the variety, whether stout or slen- der, w^hether branched, as many varieties are the first season, or without branches. Before . proceeding to the operation of cutting down to increase the size of tlie trmik, the reader is referred to the principles and prac- tices of pruning in the first part of the work, ^o prun- ing should be attempted for the attainment of any special purpose without having first carefully studied these. If slender and without side branches, as in fig. 88, they should be cut back twelve to twenty inches, as at A. BUDDING, GEAFTIKG, ETC 189 This removes the buds that would push first, and retains the sap in the lower parts, which will give a stout body. Tlie taller and more slender the tree, and the smaller the buds, the farther it becomes necessary to cut back. In fact, some very feeble growing sorts must be cut back till within a foot or less of the base. Dur- ing the summer, trees cut back in this w^ay may produce lateral shoots on the greater part of their length. These must not be pruned off, but kept in an uniform size and vigor, by pinching any that threaten to exceed their proper bounds. The shoots immediately below the leader, must be w^atch- ed, as they are always inclined to push too strongly. Fig. 88, a yearling tree ; from the ^ ^^.^^ ^]^^^g ^^^^ back, aud the bud J, indicates the cutting back to . make a stout stem for a standard. B side brauchcs regulated by pmch- and C. tie cutting back for pyra- ^ ^-^i -^^ ^^^ |>^|1 ^^^^ ^ g^^^^|. mids or low standards. D. the cut- t?' ' ting back for dwarfs or espaliers, body, aucl prescut the appcarauce P/^. 89. a young tree once cut back ^ g^ g^^ Where the VCarliugS to form trunk for a standard. & , are short and stout, and are fur- nished with a few lateral shoots, cutting back may be unnecessary. The largest of the side shoots may be pruned off wholly, and the small ones left to retain the sap in the lower part of the stem, at least till midsummer, when new ones will have been produced. There are cer- tain stout-growing, branching varieties of all the fruits that require no shortening and very little pruning of any kind, to form stout trunks, and especially when not planted too close. Fig. 89. 140 THE NTJESERY. Dwarf Standards. — ^The management of yearly buds to produce these, is similar to that described for standards, varying it always to suit the particular habit of the spe- cies or variety ; tall slender growing sorts require cutting back, and the suppression of branches at the top; but many varieties of cherries and plums, some very stout growing pears and ajDjDles, and all apricots and peaches, may commence the formation of heads this season. The stem is cut at the point desired, two to three feet from the ground, to form the head on, and three or four of the stoutest shoots, growing in opposite directions, are pre- served, whilst all others close to them are pinched off, when two or three inches long ; side branches are allowed to remain that season on the stem to strengthen it, but they are kept short and regular by pinching. In the fall these trees will be fit for the final planting out, whilst those of weaker habit will require another season, if they be wanted with heads. Pyramids. — Yearling trees intended for pyramids are cut back so far as to ensure the production of vigorous side branches within six or eight inches of the stock. The habits of growth of the species and variety must be care- fully taken into account. Some are disposed, from the beginning, to form lateral branches, and others require vigorous measures to force them to do so. As examples, the Bloodgood pear is very much inclined to branch the fii-st year, whilst the Louise Bonne de Jersey and Duchess d'Angou^eme seldom do so, unless m some way the growing point be checked. So it is in cherries ; most of the Dukes and Morellos are inclined to produce laterals the first season, but the free growing sorts. Hearts and Bigarreaus.^ rarely do so, unless the point is checked early in the sea- son. So it is in all the fruits, and therefore no general rule can be given, but the appearance of the tree indicates the treatment required. Where we see side branches BUDDING, GEAFTING, ETC. lil naturally produced tlie first season, we at once conclude that the buds are well disposed to break, and the cutting back may be comparatively light. Where no side branches are produced, we must be governed by the appearance of the buds on the lower part of the tree, where it is desired to produce the lower branches ; if they be small and flat, it will take close cutting to arouse them, but if plump and prominent, less vigorous measures will be necessary. In the case of short, stout, and branched yearlings, a few of the best placed, lowest, and strongest branches are reserved, whilst the others are entirely re- moved. We then shorten the reserved branches accord- ing to their position, leaving the lowest the longest. The leading shoot is shortened, so that all the buds left will be sure to push and form shoots. When these have attained the length of two or three inches, the strongest and best placed are selected for permanent branches, and the others are piiiched off. Yearlings that have no side branches, figure 88, we generally cut back one half as to i?, and in many cases two thirds to C^ in order to obtain strong branches near the ground. Every bud below the one we cut to, should push, and when shoots of two inches or so are made, we select two, three, or such number as may be wanted, of the strongest and best situated to be reserved, and pinch the others. It very generally happens that two or three buds next below the one we cut to, push with such vigor as to injure both the leading shoot above and the side shoots below them. They must be watched and pinched as soon as this disposition becomes obvious. Yearling trees managed in this way will present in the fall the appearance of fig. 90. Purchasers are very apt to favor tall trees, even at the expense of their forms ; and nurserymen, even those who know better, with a view to suiting the tastes of their cus- 142 THE NURSERY. tomers, rarely cut tlieir trees back sufficiently to make pyramids. The first branches are seldom less than two feet from the ground, and it is quite dif- ficult to make nice pyramids of such trees afterwards ; at all events, it incurs a great loss of time, for the whole ot the branches and half of the stem must be cut away to produce the required form. Dwarf Bushes. — The apple on para- dise is generally grown in this form, with six to twelve inches of a stem and spreading heads. The Morello cherry and the cherry and Mirabelle plums, and many kinds of pears, may be grown as dwarf bushes, if desirable. The stocks must all be of a dwarf cha- racter. Plants from which the strongest have been selected for dwarf standards and pyramids, will make very good bushes. The branches being so near the root renders a less amount of vigor necessary. Yery strong yearling plants may be allowed to form heads the second year, but such as are very slender w^ill require cut- ting back and another season's growth, before the head is allowed to form ; and they will require a similar course of treatment, as has been recommended for standards, and dwarf standards. ISTo matter what the character of the tree is, a stout stem is necessary, and although the mea- sures taken to obtain this seem to require in some cases a loss of time, still there is a gain in the end ; for trees allowed to form heads before the stems are amply suffi- cient to support them, require a great deal of extra care after j^lanting out, and a course of shortening back, that Fig. 90. Fig. 90, a two year old tree cut back once, and intended for a pyramid. The cross lines indicate the second cutting back. BUDDING, GEAFTlNCr, ETC. 143 offsets the temporary advantage of forming the head a year sooner. This hokls good in all cases. The mode of form- ing the heads of dwarf bushes is similar to that described for standards. Espalier Trees. — These have a few advantages peculiar to themselves, which will be explained under the head of " the selection of trees for the garden." To form espaliers, yearling trees are usually chosen, planted in the place where they are to remain and cut back to within four or five buds of the stocks, as at Z>, fig. 88 ; these buds break and produce shoots from wdiich the strongest are chosen to form the arms, and the others are rubbed oft". The peach grows so vigorously that, if the growing bud be checked when a foot high, it will produce side shoots, from which tw^o may be selected from the main branches of the espalier, and thus a year ^\l\\ be saved. Another way is to insert two buds, one on each side of the stock. Yery nice espalier trees may be grown in the form of a pyramid wdth a main stem and lateral branches, the lowest being the longest. Trees for this form require the same management as pyramids, except that the branches should be placed opposite on two sides. This brings us to the end of the third year, and the trees are now two years old from the bud. At this age we take it for granted that all trees on dwarf stocks iov pyra- mids^ dwarfs^ and espaliers., and all standards even, of the peach, apricot, and nectarine, and in most cases the cherry and plum, w^ill be finally planted out. Standard pears and apples are almost the only trees that require to be left longer in the nursery, and their management during the third and fourth years of their growth, if allowed to remain so long, will be similar to that de- scribed for the second. In the spring, February or March, the leading shoot is cut back in order to increase 144 THE NUESERY. the stoutness of the stem as it advances in height; and during the summer, the side shoots are kept of uniform length and vigor by pinching. The lower side branches are removed gradually every season as the tree becomes strong enough to dispense with them. As it has been be- fore remarked, the cutting back depends always on the natural character of the subject — stout, short-jointed, mod- erate growing sorts, that naturally increase in height and diameter of stem in proper proportions, will require no cutting back. Yery few, however, have this habit. In nearly all cases more or less shortening in, every spring, is necessary until the stem has arrived at the requisite height, and is well proportioned, decreasing gradually in diameter from the base to the top. The Treatment of the Soil. — During the whole period the trees remain in the nursery, the ground about them must be kept clean and finely pulverized on the surface by relocated and continual stirring. Every spring, as soon as the heavy rains are over, and the ground settled and dry, the space between the rows should be ploughed, if they are far enough apart to admit of it. A small one- hoi"se plough, such as is used for ploughing cornfields (see implements), is suitable, but it should not be allowed to go nearer the tree than six inches, nor so deep as to come in contact with the roots. After ploughing, the cultivator may be nm through once each way between the rows, every week or two, and this will leave very little hoeing to be done. If the rows are so close as not to admit the plough and cultivator, the forked spade must be used in the spring to give the ground a thorough stirring, and the hoe afterwards. If the ground be naturally adhesive, a second or even a third ploughing or sj^ading may be necessary in the course of the summer ; for it must at all times be kept in a loose, porous condition, or the roots will be deprived of the benefits of the air and moisture. Stir- THE GEAPE TINE. 145 ring the ground so often that weeds barely make their appearance, is not only the best, but most economical cul- ture. It need scarcely be added that in using the j^lough or cultivator among trees, a very s'hort whiffletree should be used, the horse should be gentle and steady, and the ploughman both careful and skilful ; and laborers who use the spade or hoe, should be duly cautioned against cutting or bruising the trees with their implements. Section 5. — Peopagation and Nueseey Cultuee of Seveeal Feuit Teees and Sheijbs not usually Geafted oe Budded. 1st. Tlie Grape Vine. — ^This is one of the easiest sub- jects to propagate among all our fruit trees. In all stages of its growth it should have a dry and rich soil^ dryness first and most of all. The surest method of ^propagation for unpractised hands, is layering. A branch or shoot of the current season's growth, laid down in June, in the manner described in the first j)art of this book (figs. Gl and 62), will be well enough rooted to bear transplanting in the fall or spring following. The reader is referred to the instructions on layering. The next mode is by long cuttings. At the winter pruning, the strongest, roundest, and firmest shoots of the previous season's growth are selected, and cut into pieces twelve to eighteen inches long, with two or three eyes, as in fig. 60. They are cut close to an eye at the lower end, or a piece of the old wood may be attached, like fig. 68^ These cuttings are buried in dry, sandy earth, till the ground is fit to receive them in the spring. In planting, the whole cutting is buried but one eye, and some cover that even as much as an inch deep. The long cutting must be laid in the trench obliquely, as in 7 14:6 THE NUKSERY. fig. 60, SO that the lower part will not be out of reach of air and heat, without which new roots will not be formed. During the summer, the earth must be kept clean and friable around them ; and, in dry seasons, a thick mulch- ing will be very beneficial in preserving a uniformity of heat and moisture. In the fall, the plants will be fit for final transplanting ; but if they remain another season, they should be pruned back in winter to two or three buds at the base, and during the following summer only one or two shoots be allowed to grow, all others being rubbed off early. Layers, when taken from the mother plant, and set in nursery rows, should be cut back in the same manner, in order to obtain one or two vigorous shoots when the plant is to be finally set out. Short Cuttings. — These consist of only one eye, from the stoutest and firmest shoots of the previous year's wood (fig. 59), with not more than an inch of wood on each side of it. These cuttings, however, seldom succeed so well in the open ground as others. They require a little artificial bottom heat. The simplest way to treat them is to make a sort of hotbed, with two to three feet of half-decayed stable manure, well mixed, and six or eight inches of light sandy soil. The cuttings are planted in this a quarter to half an inch deep, and covered with a glazed sash. If carefully and regularly watered, and well ventilated, they will make fine plants by the autumn. A better way than this is, especially in propagating the foreign varieties, to put them into pots, and put the pots in the hotbed. A single cutting may be put into a small three inch pot, covered a fourth of an inch deep ; or several cuttings may be inserted in a larger pot. In this case they should be placed around the sides. When they have made a growth of about six inches, they may be shifted into THE CUREANT. 147 larger pots, with good, rich compost. In one season they will make good, strong plants. Plenty of air should always be given them, as soon as they are rooted, to prevent their being drawn up into wxak, watery shoots. When the native hardy sorts are raised from eyes in the hotbed as described, the yearling plants should be pruned to a couple of eyes, and transplanted into nursery rows, where one season's growth will fit them for final setting. Single eyes^ in all cases, make the best plants. 2d. TJie Currant. — Every one knows how to propagat<5 this. A yearling shoot, six inches to a foot long, taken off close to the old wood, and planted half or two thirds its length in the ground, in the spring, will make a strong, well-rooted j)lant in the autumn. To j)revent shoots from springing up below the surface of the ground, the eyes on that j)art are cut out, or they may be left the first season, and cut out when the plants are rooted. The buds aid in the formation of roots. "When a variety is rare and scarce, the young shoots may all be layered in July, and they will make well-rooted plants in the fall. 3d. Gooseberries are propagated in the same way, and with almost equal facility, as currants, though, as a gene- ral thing, they do not grow with such rapidity. Layers are the surest, but they require to be one year in the nursery rows after being separated from the mother plant to make them strong enough for the final planting. An inch or two of swamp moss laid over the surface of the ground in which layers are made, assists in retaining the moisture. This is applicable to all kinds of layers. 4th. Straioberries are propagated by the runners, which spread on the sm-face of the ground in all directions from the plant as soon as it begins to grow in the spring. Where a variety is scarce, and it is desirable to multiply it carefully, these runners should be sunk slightly in tliQ 14:8 THE NUESEEY. ground, and pegged do^n with small hooked sticks, as they will root and form plants fit for removal much quicker than if left to root in their own way. With good management, a single j)lant may produce twenty- five to fifty, and even one hundred in one season. Plants to be propagated from, should have abundance of space, and a deej), rich soil. An application of liquid manure will stimulate their vigor, and increase the number and strength of the runners. 5th. Easjpberries are propagated from suckers, or shoots produced from the collar, or spreading roots of the plant. They are renewed every season. The canes bearing but once, they may be propagated by layjering the young canes in midsummer, and by cuttings of the roots. The latter mode is advantageously applied in the case of new or rare sorts. 6th. Berherries are propagated by seeds, suckers, and layers, in the simplest manner. Rare sorts are also grafted successfully on the common ones early in the spring, in the cleft mode. Yth. MiiXberries. — ^The large black mulberry is the only one worthy of culture for the fruit. It is easily propa- gated both by cuttings and layers. The latter mode is the surest. 8th. Chestnuts. — The common xVmerican chestnut may be propagated from seeds either planted in the fall or kept in sand all winter, and planted early in the spring. In one season they are fit to transplant into nursery rows, and in two years more at most may be finally planted out. The Spanish chestnut is propagated either from seeds or by grafting on the common chestnut. Its fruit is three times as large as the common. 9th. FlTberts are propagated either from suckers or by grafting. If seedlings are used for stocks, the grafted LABELS FOR NURSERY TREES. 149 plants are the best, as they are not only more prolific, bnt they do not throw np snckers. They may be grown either as low standards, with stems three feet high, or as pyramids or dwarf bushes. 10th. Walnuts are propagated from seeds or by graft- ing, in the same way as filberts. There is a dwarf pro- lific variety, that bears quite young, and makes handsome pyramidal garden trees. Section 6. — Labels for E^ursery Trees. It is highly important that a correct system for preserv ing the names of varieties be adoj)ted. Our jDractice is, to make labels of cedar, eighteen inches long, three inches wide, and about an inch thick. These are pointed on one end, to be sunk in the ground eight or ten inches^ and the face is painted white. When a variety is to be budded or grafted, the name, or a number inferring to a regular record is written on it, and it is put in the ground in front of the first tree of the variety. Besides this, we invariably record in the nursery book each row, with the kind or kinds worked on it, in the order they stand in the square. In case of the accidental loss of the labels, the record preserves the names. Figure 91 represents this kind of label, and though there are many others in use, we believe this is one of the simplest and best. At the time of budding or grafting, we usually write the name on with pencil, and after the Fig. 91, la- square has been all w^orked, the numbers are bei for nur- ^^^^ ^-^.j^ ^ \iYv,^ and black paint. sery rows. ^ 150 THE NURSERY. Section Y. — Taking up Trees from the !N"ursery. This is an operation that should be well understood, and performed with the greatest care. The importance of the fibrous roots has been already explained. It has been shown that they are the principal absorbing parts of the roots, and when they are destroyed the tree receives a great shock, from which it requires good treatment and a long time to recover. There is a great difierence in the character of roots, some penetrating the ground to a great depth, and requiring much labor in the removal, others quite fibrous near the surface, and consequently very easily taken up. This difierence is not owing alone to the difierence in the species, but to whether the subjects have or have not been fi*equently transplanted. The way to take up a tree properly, is to dig a trench on each side at the extremities of the lateral or spreading roots, taking care that the edge, and not the face of the spade, be kept next the tree, so that the roots will not be cut oft'. When this trench is so deep as to be below all the lateral roots, a slight pull, and a pry on each side with the spade, will generally bring out the trees. If there be strong tap roots, running down to a great depth, they may be cut with a stroke of the spade. Laborers who have not been accustomed to the work, invariably perform it badly, and it is difficult to get it properly done even by experienced hands. It is a work requiring care and leisure, though it is usually performed slovenly and in great haste. Lcibelling. — "When a tree, or a number of trees, of any variety are taken up, a label, with the name wi-itten on it, should at once be attached. The kind of label used in the nurseries here, is a piece of pine about three and a half inches long, three fourths of an inch wide, and one eighth TAKING UP TREES FROM THE NURSERY. 151 Fio. 92. of an inch thick. A neck is made on one end by cutting into each edge about an eighth of an inch ; a piece of No. 32 copper wire, about seven or eight inches long, is then fastened in the middle, on the neck of the label, with two or three twists. The two ends of the wire are then placed around the stem, or a branch of the tree, and are fastened with a twist or two. This kind of wire and label we find by experience to be not only safe, but more expeditiously attached than any other. If a little paint is rubbed on just before being used, the waiting will be more legible and permanent, but it wire labei for trees. should be so light as to be barely perceptible, else it will clog the pencil. These labels are made very quickly, as follows: take a common inch board planed, cut into pieces the length of the label, make a groove with a knife or saw along both sides, at one end for the neck, and then set the piece on its end, and split off the labels with a knife ; this can be done nearly as fast as one person can pick them up. The wire costs three shillings per pound, and is cut into lengths with a pair of common shears. Packing. — Persons who are ignorant of the structure of trees, never appreciate the importance of packing ; and that is the reason w^hy so many trees are every year destroyed by exposure. It is not uncommon, in this part of the country, to see apple trees loaded on hayracks, like so much brush, without a particle of covering on any part of them, to travel a journey of three or four wrecks in this condition. Of course it is utterly impossible that such trees can live or thrive ; and yet the persons who thus conduct their nursery operations, are doing the most profitable business. Such practices are not only dishonest. 152 THE NTESEEY. but Iiighly injurious and disreputable to the trade ; and it is by no means fair to class such people amongst re- spectable and honorable nurserymen. Purchasers are often at lault in this matter. Nursery- men have to buy and pay for the material used in pack- ing. Mats cost one to two shillings apiece ; straw, three cents per small bundle ; yam, one to two shillings per pound ; moss, three to four dollars per load, in many cases ; and besides, the labor of packing, when well done^ is very great. It is, therefore, not unreasonable that a charge be made ; but some people, rather than pay twenty-five or fifty cents for packing fifty trees, would expose themselves to the risk of losing all. Purchasers should invariably charge the nurseryman to whom they send their orders, to jj><2(?A; in the hest manner. Better pay one or even two cents per tree for packing, than lose it or injure it so much as to make it almost worthless. The mode of packing pursued here is this : Where the ti'ees are packed in bundles, a number of ties are first laid down, then a layer of long rye straw, three or four inches deep ; the trees are then laid compactly together, Btraw being placed among the tops to prevent their being chafed when drawn together, and damp moss from the swamp is shaken among the roots. When the bundle is built, long straw is placed on the top as below, and it is then bound up as tightly as it can be drawn. Straw is then placed around the roots sufliciently thick to exclude the air, and then a bass mat is sewed on over the straw. If the bundle is only to go a short distance, the straw can be so secured around the roots that the mats may be dispensed with ; but if it has a long journey to perform, it should be matted from bottom to top, and sewed with strong tarred spun yarn, about as thick as a goose quill. Boxes are rather more secure for very long journeys ; they should be made of white wood, or some light. timber TAKING UP TEEES FEOM THE NUKSEEY. 153 tliat holds nails well. If the trees are composed of seve- ral varieties, they should be tied in small parcels of fom' to six each, according to the size. The sides and ends of the box should be well lined with straw, and the roots bedded in moss and the tops in straw, to prevent chafing. If the box be large, two rows of cleats are necessary — one in the middle and one in the top, to hold the trees in their place and to keep the box from sjDreading. When the box is nailed uj^, it should be banded at both ends with iron hoops, fastened with wrought nails. Packed in this way, trees may go any distance with safety. The season of the year modifies the mode of packing. The roots should always for a long journey be immersed in a thin mud before being 2:)acked, as this excludes the air ; but in the fall, this mud should be dry before the package is made up, and the moss should contain very little mois- ture. In a frosty time the less moisture there is about the roots the better ; but an abundance of straw should be used to exclude the air and frost. Heeling in. — When trees are taken up, and cannot be either packed or planted at once, they are laid in by the roots in trenches ; the longer they have to remain in this situation the better it should be performed. Trees are often wintered in this way, and if the trenches are dug deep, and the roots well spread out and deeply covered, they are perfectly safe. It should be done in such cases with almost as much care as the final planting of a tree. When great bundles of the roots are huddled in together, and only three or four inches of earth thrown over them, both air and frost act upon them, and they sustain serious injury. Tender trees likely to suffer from the freezing of the shoots, should be laid in an inclined, almost horizon- tal position, and be covered with brush, evergreen boughs, or something that wiU break off the violence of the wind 154 THE NUESEKY. and frost. Straw should not be nsed, as it attracts vermin. Some rough litter or manure should also be thrown around the roots, and in this way the most tender of all om* fruit trees may be wintered with safety. PAiiT iir. THE LAYING OUT, ARRANGEMENT AND GENERAL MAN- AGEMENT OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF PERMANENT PLAN- TATIONS OF FRUIT TREES, SELECTION OF TREES, AND VARIETIES, AND PRUNING AND CONDUCTING TREES UNDER VARIOUS FORMS. CHAPTEK I. PEEMANET^T PLAISTTATIONS OF EPvUIT TP.EES. Section 1. — ^The Diffekent Kinds of Plantations. These are of several kinds, and may be classed as fol- lows— 1st. The Family Orchard^ which is a portion of the farm set apart for the production of the more hardy and common fruit, principally apples, for the use of the farm stock and the family. 2d. The Market or Commer- cial Orchard, is a large plantation of the various species of fruit trees for the production of fruit as an article of commerce. 3d. The Fruit Garden^ with the Farmer is a plot of ground near the dwelling, in Avhich the finer fruits, as pears, peaches, plums, cherries, apricots, &c., and all the small fruits are cultivated. In many cases, and even in most cases, it is a portion of the kitchen gar- den, where the table or culinary vegetables are grown. With the professional man, the merchant, the mechanic, and others who reside in cities, villages, and their suburbs, possessing but small tracts of land, at most but a few acres, the fruit garden is the only source for the supply of fruits for their families, and is usually planted with the more rare, perishable, and valuable sorts that cannot so easily be procured in market. The pleasure and prgfit derived from fruit plantations, 158 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. under any or all of these circumstances, depend upon the judicious selection of soil^ situation^ trces^ and va- rieties^ and their proper arrangement and management. These are the essential points, and every man who con- templates planting to a greater or less extent, should avail himself of all the light which experience has shed upon these various branches of the subject, before making the first movement towards the execution of his project. Section 2. — ^The Okchakd. The orchard is distinguished from the fruit garden in this, that the trees planted in it are generally of the larg- est size to which the species attain ; they are grown in the natural, or, as it is called, standard form, without any particular training, and the varieties are generally the most hardy and productive of the species. 1. The situation of an orchard with regard to exposure or aspect, requires very little consideration in some parts of the country. Where, as in Western E'ew York for in- stance, the winters are uniform, or comparatively so, in temperature, and late spring frosts do not prevail, the main difficulties to guard against are the prevailing high winds from the west and north that injure the blossoms and blow off the fruit before it is mature. If possible, a situation should be chosen where some natural obstacle, as a hill or a belt of woods, would break the force and influence of these destructive winds. Where no such obstacle natm-ally exists, a belt or border of rapid grow- ing trees, such as soft maples^ white pines, and Abeles, should be planted simultaneously with the planting of the orchard, that they may grow up and form a protec- tion by the time the trees have come into bearing. In other sections, as in some of the central and south- em counties of "New York, and in some parts of Ohio, THE OECHAED. 159 Illinois, Wisconsin, and others of tlie western as well as in the sonthern States, where late and fatal spring frosts prevail, the selection of a situation is a most important point. In snch localities an eastern and southern expo- sure, and low grounds, are to be avoided. John J. Thomas, in his Fruit Culturist, states that, " In the valley of the Conhocton, which is flanked by hills five hundred feet high, peach trees have been completely killed to the ground, but on one of the neighboring hills, ^ve hundred feet above, and probably twelve hundred feet above the level of the sea, an orchard planted in good soil yields regular crops. In the town of Spencer, Tioga County, near the head of Cayuga inlet, peaches have with- stood the climate and done well at an elevation of seven hundred feet above Cayuga Lake." Lawrence Young, Esq., Chairman of the Kentucky Fruit Committee, reported to the Pomological Convention at Cincinnati, in 1850, the case of an orchard in that State, lying within the peach district, occupying the slopes of hills of no great height, inclining gently toward a river distant only a few hundred yards. Its success was that common to a fickle western climate — a fruit year and a failure, or perhaps two years of productiveness and three of disappointment in every Within five miles of this orchard, however, is located a hill six hundred feet high, upon which the peach crop has not failed since he first knew it, ^Numerous other instances are quoted and the particulars given with great accuracy, showing the efiects of even very slight eleva- tions. Among others is an instance of the heath-peach bearing a full crop in one part of an orchard, whilst in another part thirty feet lower, the same variety bore not a single fruit. Multitudes of such cases might be collected in all parts of the country where the climate is variable, because 160 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. in sncli situations vegetation is earlier excited than in those more elevated and colder, and frosts always fall more heavily on low than on high grounds. Every one who has paid the slightest attention to the action of frost on vegetation is aware, that even an elevation of two or three feet of one portion of the same field or garden above the other frequently proves a protection from an untimely frost. In a dry and firm soil, vegetation is more exempt from inju- ries by frost than in a damp, soft, and spongy soil on the same level, not only because trees on such soils are more mature and hardier in their j^arts, but because the soil and the atmosphere above it are less charged with watery par- ticles that attract the frost. Bodies of water that do not freeze in winter, such as some of om- inland lakes, exert a favorable influence for a considerable distance from their margins in protecting vegetation from late spring and early autumn frosts. In some parts of the West, as in Wisconsin and Illinois, the winters are so variable — during the day as mild as spring, and in the night the mercury falling many degrees below zero — ^that even apj^le and pear trees in soft, damp, and rich soils, are frequently killed to the ground. In such localities, experience has taught cultivators that elevated, dry, firm, and moderately rich soil, that will produce a firm, well-matured growth, is the only safeguard against the destruction of plantations in the winter. In all localities where fruit culture has made any considerable progress, there is generally exj)erience enough to be found, if carefully sought for and collected, to guide beginners in fixing upon sites for orchards ; and no man should venture to plant without giving due attention to the subject, and availing himself of all the experience of his neighbors ; for experience, after all, is the only truly reliable guide. THE ORCHARD. 161 2d. The Soil. — Having treated already of tlie different characters and modes of amelioration of soils, it is only necessary liere to point out what particular qualities or kinds are best adapted to the different classes of fruit trees, as far as experience will warrant in so doing. There are soils of a certain texture and quality, in which, by proper management, all our hardy fruits may be grown to perfection. For instance, the soil of our specimen orchard, which is that usually termed a sandy loam.^ with a sandy clay suhsoil, so dry that it can be w^orked imme- diately after a rain of twenty-four hours. On this we have apples, j)ears, plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, and, indeed, all the/ruits planted promiscuously, side by side, not by choice but necessity, and all these yield bountiful crops of the finest fruit every season, and that, so far, without any special attention in the way of manures or composts. Our country abounds in such soils, and others somewhat different in character, but equally eligible for all fruit trees when w^ell managed. On the other hand, there are soils wholly unfit for fruit trees of any kind — such are peaty or mucky, and damp, cold, and spongy soils. For an orchard of apples or pears, a dry, deep, substantial soil, between sandy and a clayey loam, and possessing among its inorganic parts a considerable j)ortion of lime, is, according to all ex]3erience, the best.^ On such soils we find the greatest and most enduring vigor and fertility, the healthiest and hardiest trees, and the fairest and best- flavored fruits. Trees both of apples and pears, j)lanted on such soils in western l^ew York, upwards of fifty * The ashes of the bark of apple trees disclose the fact, that in one hundred parts upwards of fifty are lime. In the sapwood eighteen of lime, seventeen of phosphate of lime (similar to bone earth) , and sixteen of potash. In the heart or perfect wood, thirty-seven of lime. In the ashes of the sapwood of the pear of one hundred parts, twelve of lime, twenty- seven phosphate of lime, and twenty-two of potash. In the ash of the bark, thirty of lime. 162 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. years ago, are, at tliis day, in the very heiglit of their vigor and productiveness, without having received more than the most ordinary culture. In some of these soils, where the pear and apple flourish so well, and endure so long, the peach does not succeed at all. The reason is, it is too stiff and compact. The plum succeeds best, as a general thing, on a clayey loam, rather stiff. The Canada or native plum, however, succeeds well on very light soils. The cherry^ the peach, apricot, 7iectarine, and almo7icI, require a light, dry, and warm soil, and will not succeed on any other. The best and most enduring peach orchards are on dry, sandy loams ; but good orchards are raised with proper manage- ment on loose, light sands, though on such the trees are shorter lived, and require constant care in the way of dressings of manure and compost. There are two points to be observed in res^ard to soils under all circumstances. They must possess the inorganic substances, such as lime, jDotash, etc., that constitute a large portion of the ashes of the wood and bark when burned, and a suflicient amount of organic matter, vegetable mould, which dis- solves and furnishes material for the formation and growth of new parts. "When large and permanent plan- tations are to be made, it will well repay the trouble and expense of procuring the analysis of the soil, in order to ascertain somewhat correctly its merits and defects. People who have been long engaged in the culture of the soil, can judge pretty correctly of its quality by its appearance, texture, subsoil, and the character of the rocks and stones that underlie and prevail in it ; but the inexperienced do not understand such indications, and will do well to have recourse to a careful analysis by some competent person. 3d. Preparation of Soil for an Orchard. — The season before planting, the soil should be at least twice ploughed THE ORCHARD. 163 witli a common and subsoil plough, enriched with suitable composts, and drained, if necessary. It should be eighteen inches to two feet deep, and quite dry. 4th. Enclosures. — Before a tree is planted, it is neces- sary that the ground be enclosed with a fence, suthcient to protect it against the invasion of animals. It is no un- common thing to hear people regret that the cattle broke into the orchard and destroyed many trees. Indeed it fre- quently happens that more damage is done in this way than, if duly estimated, would have fenced the w^hole orchard. There is much inquiry now-a-days on the subject of fences, and various plans and materials are suggested and tried. Live hedges are unquestionably the most orna- mental and appropriate enclosures for extensive planta- tions of fruit trees, and in time will no doubt be generally adopted. Hitherto the failure of many plants tried, and the cost and difficulty of obtaining others, have retarded their introduction. Experience, however, has at length pretty fairly decided that the Osage orange is the hest for the %oest and south loest^ and the hiickthom for the north and east. The seeds of both these plants are now easily procured, and plants of them may be obtained in nurseries at $5 or $6 per 1000, and about 2000 will fence an acre of ground, setting the plants twelve inches apart in two rows six inches apart, which is the strongest way. A single roAV at six inches apart will make a good fence with pro- per shearing to thicken them at the bottom ; either way they will make a beautiful and efficient hedge in five or six years. The honey locust is also a strong, hardy, rapid growing plant, and makes a hedge in three or four years that animals will be afraid to looh at. It is sometimes objected to hedges that they harbor birds, but it is to be remembered that birds are the natural foes of insects, and never fail to accomj^lish a vast amount of labor for the good of the fruit grower, for which they ought to be fully 164 PEEMANENT PLANTATIONS. entitled to a particij^ation in his enjo}Tnents. As the fea- thered race are persecuted and driven away from our gar- dens, insects become more numerous and destructive ; at least this is the experience of most peoi3le, and should lessen, if not entirely prevent, the cruel hostility that is continually waged against them. 5th. — Selection of Yarieties of Fruits for cm Orchard. — - This is a most important point ; the selection of varieties must in all cases be made with reference to the uses to which they are to be approj^riated. The family orchard of the far- mer, we will suppose to contain apple trees alone, as all the other fruits are, or ought to be, grown in the fr^iit ga7'de7i. His selection of varieties must be adapted to his w^ants and circumstances. In the first place, the number of his family must regulate the proportion of kitchen and table varieties. In the second place, he must consider how many he will want for sauce, how many for hciMng and drying, how many for cider, and how many for the dessert, and what proportion of sweet and of acid. These are all considerations that depend upon the habits, taste, and mode of living of families, and for which no man can provide, or suggest, but the j^lanter himself. Then, again, he must consider to what extent it may be advantageous to feed aj^ples to his stock, and provide for it accordingly. Without considering well all these points, a man may sit down and select what are called " the best varie- ties," and yet find himself badly suited when they come to bear ; for so it happens that a variety that may be Ijest for the dessert will be exceedingly unprofitable for other purposes. A hardy, vigorous, and productive variety of medium quality, quite unfit for the table, may be infi- nitely more advantageous for feeding stock, than a feeble growing, shy bearing variety, quite indispensable for the dessert ; and an apple may be excellent for sauce, for bak- THE OECHAKD. 165 iiig, or drying, and unfit for the dessert; these points shonld all be duly considered. The Market or Commercial Orchardist must exercise the same discrimination in the selection of his varieties, adaj^ting them to the mode of culture he intends to pur- sue and the market he intends to supply. In the imme- diate vicinity of large cities and towns, where the or- chardist may carry his fruit to market in a few hours, the most profitable culture will, generally speaking, be summer and early autumn fruits, or such as require to be consumed immediately after maturity, and are unfit for distant transportation. Early apj)les and pears only will be profitable for him, because the autumn and winter va- rieties can be sent so easily from the most distant portions of the interior v/ith such facilities as our present system of railroads, plank roads, canals, and steamboats afibrd. In addition to early apples and pears, his position gives him great advantages for the profitable culture of all the stone fruits^ gooseherries^ currants^ ras^jberries^ grajpes^ and such soft fruits, when intended to be disposed of in a raw state. The Market grower of the interior will find his most profitable culture to be principally, autumn and winter apples and pears^ to which he may add quinces j because all these can be packed and transported to a great dis- tance with safety, and the comparative cheapness of his lands enables him to compete advantageously with those more favorably situated in regard to market. lie can only cultivate the summer fruits with a view to drying or preserving, or for the supply of a local demand. All orchard fruits, intended for profitable orchard culture, should be first^ in regard to the trees, Tiardy^ vigorous^ and productive. The fruits should be of good size^ fair appearance.^ good keepers.^ and of good quality. It should 166 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. be borne in mind that many of the very best fruits are very unprofitable for general market culture. Under cer- tain circumstances this may not be the case, as for exam- ple, in the neighborhood of such a city as London^ or JParis^ or even JYew York or Boston. A class of people are to be found in such places, who will pay almost any price for extra fine fruits. Where apples can be sold for $2 23er bushel, pears at $1 per dozen, graj)es at $1 per pound, and other fine fruits in proportion, growers are warranted in cultivating very choice sorts, even if they be diflicult to manage and comj)aratively unproductive. As a general thing, however, taking the markets as they are, the great bulk of consumers preferring fruit of toler- able good quality and moderate prices, to the very best at twice or three times the ordinary price, the most profitable varieties will be those that can be produced at the least ex23ense, provided always that they be good j for fruits of a decidedly inferior quality, wiiatever may be their other merits, are wholly unworthy of cultivation for the market. Another thing is the selection of varieties that succeed best in the locality where they are to be cul- tivated. A variety that succeeds remarkably well in any particular locality should, other things being nearly equal, be cultivated largely. The Newtoion jpippin apple, for instance, is a j)rofitable orchard fruit on Long Island and on the Hudson, but in Western ISTew York, no system of management would make it yield one-fourth as much net profit as the Northern 8])y^ Rhode Island Greening.^ or Ixoxbury Russet. Large plantations, for profit, should always be made up of well proved varieties, that have been tested in the locality, or one similar in regard to soil and situation. A list of select varieties will be given in a succeeding and separate part of the work. 6th. Selection of Trees. — For the fanner's orchard, where the o-round amon^^ the trees is to be cultivated THE ORCHAED. 167 mainly with the plough, and occasionally cropped, stand- ard trees, with stems fonr or five feet in height, will be the most eligible, and ought to be at time of planting three or four years old from the bud or graft, well grown, with stout, straight, well proportioned trunks. Low, stout trees are always preferable to tall, slender ones. Inexpe- rienced planters are generally more particular about the height than the diameter of the trunk, but it should be just the other way. If trees are stout, and have good roots, a foot in height is comparatively unimj^ortant, unless to one who wishes to turn cattle into his orchard and have the heads of his trees at once out of their way. Few peo- ple, however, follow such a ^^I'^ctice. In very elevated and exposed situations low trees are to be preferred, as the wind does not strike them with such force as it does the tall ones. 7th. Arrangeinent of the Trees. — The distance between the trees in an apple orchard should be thirty feet from tree to tree in all directions. In a very strong and deep soil, where the trees attain the largest size, forty feet is not too much, especially after the first fifteen or twenty years. There is a great difference between the size that different varieties attain, and in their habits of growth. One will attain nearly double the size of another within ten years. Some are erect in their habits (as fig. 3) ; oth- ers spreading (as fig. 5) ; and it will add greatly to the symmetry of the plantation, if the trees of the same size and habit of growth be planted together. Yarieties that ripen about the same time should also be planted together, as the maturity can be more easily watched and the fruit gathered with much less inconvenience. The largest fruits being most liable to be blown off*, should be placed in the least exposed quarter. The ordinary arrangement of orchard trees, is the square or regular form, in rows the same distance a]3art, 168 PEKMAlsENT PLANTATIONS. and an equal distance between eacli tree. Thus, in plant- ing a square of one hundred feet, for example, the trees to be twenty-five feet apart, we commence on one side, laying a line the whole length. On this line we measm^e off the distances for the trees, and place a stake indicat- ing the point for the tree. Thus, in fig. 93, we have five rows of five trees each, making twenty-five in all, and all twenty-five feet apart. This is the simplest, and probably the best for very small orchards. The better plan for large orchards is what is called quincunx (fig. 94:), in which the trees of one row are opposite the s^^aces SJS ^4" '^ 4 3 "'^-,,0,,-^ ^-^-J- 10 20 30 ^0 50 I I I I L_ ion FT. J Fig. 93, square planting. Fig. 94, quincunx planting. in the next. In this way, although the trees are at equal distances, there is a larger clear area around each tree. In fig. 9-1, the square form, every tree stands in the corner of a square in the centre of, and equally distant fron foxir others. In the quincunx, every tree stands in the angle of a triangle of equal sides, and in the centre of, and equally distant from six others. Thus, in the latter, THE ORCHARD. 1G9 there is a greater space left for the admission of light and air, and trees so planted may be at less distances than in the other. The operation of planting is more compli- cated than that of the sqnare, the rows not being the same distance a^^art as the trees are in the row. The first thing to be done is to find the two measures. Sup- pose, for instance, we propose to plant a plot of ground one hundred feet sqnare, and to have the trees twenty- five feet apart every way, we make a triangle of wood, A^B^D^ each side of which is twenty-five feet ; we then measure the distance from the angle B to the centre of the opposite side at (7, and this gives ns the distance be- tween the rows, which will be about twenty-one feet. This will be called the sinall measure ; and with this we measure off on two sides the distances for the rows, and 2:)ut down a stake at each. We then commence on the first row, and with the long (twenty-five feet) measure mark oflT the places for the trees, and put down a stake to each. The measurements must be made with exactness, in order to have the plantation present a regular appear- ance, as in fig. 94. 8th. Selection of Trees for the Mcurliet or Coimnercial OrcJiarcl. — The remarks made in reference to the selec- tion of standard trees for the family orchard, may be applied with equal propriety to these ; but the orchardist must be supposed to have invested a considerable amoimt of capital, and probably devotes his entire attention to his trees, and depends upon them for his support. It is, therefore, a great object with him to have early returns in the form of products. An orchard of standard apj^les will not produce any considerable quantity of fruit before the eighth or tenth year, nor pears before the twelfth or fifteenth year. In the mean time, it is highly desirable to occupy the ground amongst the trees in some way that will at least b«ar the expenses of cultivation. If this S 170 TEEMANENT PLAYSTATIONS. can be done, it is as miicli as can be expected in the usual practice of cultivating root crops. The most pro- fitable manner of turning to account th'e spaces between the standard trees for the first ten or twelve years at least, is to plant them with dwarf and pyramidal trees, or dwarf standards, that will commence bearing the third or fourth year after planting. This is the course pursued by the orchardists of France and Belgium, where land is valuable, and the cultivators are compelled to turn every inch of it to the best account. Attention has been slightly called to this mode of management in this country, and a few persons have already carried it into practice. As soon as it comes to be considered, it cannot fail to recommend itself to those who are embarking extensively in the orchard culture of fruits for the market, on high-priced lands. It is only surprising that it should have been so Ions: overlooked bv shrewd and enterprising orchardists. An acre of land, for example, planted with, standard apple trees, at thirty feet apart, contains forty-five to fifty ; and if we fill up the spaces with dwarfs on paradise, at six feet apart, leaving ten feet clear around each standard, we get in about five hundred dwarf trees. These Avill bear the third year, and during the next five years the average value of their products will be at least twenty to fifty cents each. We "would plant them in such a w^ay that the plough and cultivator could be used among them, two dwarfs be- tween each standard, and two full rows between each row of standards, as in fig. 95. In very rich and deep soil, when it may be necessary to give the standards thirty-five or forty feet, there may be two pyramidal, or low standards, on the Doucain stock between two standards, and one row of pyramids and two rows of dwarfs between two row^s of standards THE OECIIARD. 171 In seven or eight years the dwarfs might be taken out, and the pyramids remain till the twelfth year. Orchards of standard ^:>ricots. — Dwarf standard on plum, eight to ten feet apart ; do., pyramids, six to eight feet apart. Peaches. — Low standards on peach, ten to twelve feet apart ; do., on plum, eight to ten feet. Nectarines. — Same as peaches. Quinces. — Pyramids or bushes, six to eight feet apart. Filberts^ do., six to eight feet apart. Gooseberries and Cxtrrants^ four to five feet apart. Pasjyberries^ two to three feet apart. Mr. Pivere gives the following distances in his " Minia- ture Fruit Garden.'^ THE FRUIT GARDEN. 201 Pyramidal Pear Trees^ on quince stocks, root pruned for small gardens, four feet ajDart. The same, in larger gardens, not root pruned, six feet apart. Pyramidal Pear Trees^ on the pear stock, root pruned, six feet apart. The same roots, not j)runed, eight to ten feet — the latter if the soil be very rich. Horizontal Espalier Pear Trees^ on the quince stock for rails or walls, fifteen feet apart. ZPpright Esjpaliers^ on the quince stock for rails or walls, four to six feet apart. Horizontal Esjpaliers^ on the pear stock for rails or walls, twenty to twenty-four feet apart. Pyramidal Plum Trees^ six feet apart. Espalier Plum Trees^ twenty feet apart. Pyramidal Apple Trees^ on the paradise stock, root- pruned for small gardens, four feet apart. The same roots not pruned, six feet apart. Espalier Apple Trees^ on the paradise stock, fifteen feet apart. The same, on the crab stock, twenty to twenty-four feet apart. PeacJtes and Nectarines for walls, twenty feet apart. Apricots for walls, twenty-four feet apart. Cherries^ as bushes on the mahaleb stock, roots pruned for small gardens, four feet apart. The same, roots not pruned, six feet apart. Espalier Cherry Trees^ on the mahaleb, for rails or walls, twelve to fifteen feet ajDart. DISTANCE FOK ESPALIEE TREES ON WALLS OR TRELLISES. The distances between espalier trees must be regulated not only by the growth of the species and variety, but by the height of the wall or trellis. If these be low, a greater length, of course, will be necessary than if high ; for every tree must have a certain extent of surface to be spread upon. Hence, if a trellis be only eight feet high, 9* 202 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS. nearly double the length, and, consequently, double the distance between the trees will be required that would be on a trellis fifteen or sixteen feet high. As a general thing, jpeaches^ apricots^ or nectarines^ on w^alls or trelliset^ eight or ten feet high, should be fifteen to twenty feet apart, if on free stocks, and twelve to fifteen if dwarfed on the plum. Cherries^ ten to twelve feet. Our native gra^es^ Isabella^ Catawba^ etc., at least thirty feet apart, on an eight feet high trellis, as their rapid growth covers a great space in a short time. Foreign varieties will not require half this ; indeed, the better way is, to keep these trained to simple stakes, and planted in the border, where their out-door culture is attempted. In this way they are easily laid down and protected. CHAPTEE II. PRUjS^I^G applied to the DIFFEREXT SPECIES OF FRUIT TREES UNDER DIFFERENT FORMS. Section 1. — Pkuning the Apple and the Peak. These two trees belong to the same natural order, ])0- maeecB^ and to the same genus jpyrus ; their habits of growth and bearing are similar, and they may therefore be treated as regards their pruning, under the same head. If we take for example a shoot of last season (fig. 6), we find it in the spring, before vegetation commences, fur- nished on all its length with wood buds ; w^hen growth commences, the terminal bud, and probably two or three of the others nearest to it, produce shoots, the others to- w^ards the middle produce small shoots that are in subse- quent years transformed into fruit branches (like fig. 10). Some do not push at all, but are converted into fruit buds (as in figs. 7 and 8), whilst those at the base gene- rally remain dormant, until excited into growth by close pruning. All the buds on these trees have small incon- spicuous buds at their base, which are capable of produc- ing shoots when the principal bud is destroyed or injured, and these buds render the fruit sj^urs so enduring. In young trees the fruit buds are many years in process of formation, and in bearing trees three to four years, accord- 204: PEUNmo. ing to circumstances. When the trees are not subjected to pruning, the result of the mode of growth described is, that the terminal buds grow and form one section upon another, leaving the lower parts mainly destitute of bear- ing wood, unless it be an occasional spur, the sap always tending to the points. 1st. /Standards. — The management of this form of trees has been fully treated of in all our works on fruit culture, and in all the agricultural and horticultural journals, so that now it is pretty well understood, and especially by those who give considerable attention to the subject of fruit trees ; it will not be necessary therefore to enter upon much detail in regard to it. A standard apple or pear tree for the orchard, w^hen taken from the nursery to be finally planted out, we will suppose to have a straight, stout trunk, four to six feet in height, as the case may be, and a head composed of a certain number of shoots or branches, but generally shoots of one year's growth. At the time of planting, three or four of these shoots should be selected to form the main branches, or frame-work, on which to build the whole head, and the remainder cut clean out; those reserved should be cut back full one-half, and from the shoots pro- duced on these at and below the cut, two of the strongest are selected each on opposite sides, and the others are rubbed off while they are soft. In selecting these shoots, care must be taken to have them equally distant from one another, and pointing in such directions as not to cross or interfere. During the first season these young shoots must be watched and kept in a regular state of vigor. If any threaten to become too vigorous, they must be pinched and checked at once, so that perfect uniformity be pre- served. This is the time to secure a well formed and nicely balanced head. A very slight circumstance some- THE APPLE AND THE PEAE. 205 times throws the growth into one side or one branch of a young tree, and produces a deformity from which it never recovers. The trunk must be kept clear of all shoots, by rubbing off such as appear at the earliest possible moment, wdien it can be done without the use of a knife. Suj^pos- ing we commenced the head with three branches at time of planting, there will be at the end of the first season, six. The attention required after this will be to maintain an uniform o-rowth amono* these six branches, and their mem- bers and divisions, and to prevent the growth of shoots in the centre. The leading defect in all our orchard trees is too 7rmch wood^ the heads are kept so dense with small shoots that the sun and air are in. a great measure ex- cluded, and the fruit on the outside of the tree only is marketable or fit for use. The head should be kept open, rather in the form of a vase, so that the wood, leaves, blossoms and fruit may all, on every part, enjoy the full benefit of the sun and air, without w^hich they cannot per- form their functions, or maintain maturity and perfection. Too many |)eople imagine that trees can take care of themselves, as trees in the forest, on the ground that nature preserves a balance in all her works ; but it should be borne in mind that a fruit "" tree is not exactly a natural production. It is far removed from the natural state by culture, and the farther it is removed, that is, the more its nature is refined and improved, the more care it requires. Fig. 103 represents a young standard pear tree, stem four feet high, and the head twice cut back, as at the letters a ^^^ ^' tree, trunk 4 feet high, PincTling. If this be properly at- ^^^^ formed on three main T T , Tiii 1 •/> • -n tranches, twice pruned as tended to, very little kniie prunmg will at o and b Fio. 103. A young standard pear 206 PRUNING. be necessary, except to shorten the leading shoots, becanse as soon as a superfluous or misj)laced shoot appears, it is rubbed off, and when one becomes too vigorous, it is pinched and checked ; the great advantage of pinching is, that 1st., It economizes the sap of the tree. That which would be expended on superfluous shoots is turned to the benefit of the parts reserved, and thus the growth is greatly promoted. 2d. All wounds necessarily inflicted, where knife prun- ing is depended on, are completely avoided. These facts should be remembered. Standard apples and pears are not generally pruned with a view to hastening their bear- ino;, but are allowed to arrive at that state in their natu- ral way. In the case of tardy bearing sorts, however, it "tnay be desirable to apply artificial means, and these will be pointed out in treating of dwarfs and pyramids hereafter. Dwarf Standards. — ^These are similar to standards, except that the trunks are low, not over two or three feet in height, and the head is retained in a smaller space. Their management is always much easier w^hen the stocks are such as to dwarf or restrain the growth. Thus, apples on the paradise or Doucain^ and pears on the quince. The main branches or frame-work of the head, are produced by cutting back the three or four branches that form the head of the tree as it comes from the nursery, in the same manner as recommended for stand- ards. The first season.^ all superfluous productions are rubbed ofl', and a balance maintained among the shoots by pinch- ing. The second year^ in the winter or spring, the shoots of last season are shortened, say one half, as a general thing. This induces the development of the buds on their whole parts. The cut is made at a good, plump bud, caj^table THE APPLE AND THE PEAK. 207 of producing a vigorous shoot ; and this is selected to prolong the branch. If one or two secondary branches are needed to fill up a space, those next the leader, if properly situated to fill the space, are chosen, and all be- low them are pinched ^vhen about two or three inches long, in order to check the production of wood where it is not wanted, and to convert them into fruit branches or spurs. The growth of all the main and secondary branches is regulated and balanced by pinching ; and if the pinched shoots intended for fi-uit spurs start again into growth, they must be again pinched. The tJiird season the shoots of the previous year are cut back as before, say to four, five, or six eyes, according to their strength. One shoot is chosen to continue the pro- longment of the branch, and the others are pinched in season to convert them into fruit spurs. Thus the tree is conducted from year to year, until it has attained the full size required. In this way the trees commence bearing quite young, and every branch is furnished in all its length with fruit spurs. Pyramids. — Under the head of " the selection of trees," it has been recommended to obtain thrifty year- ling trees in preference to older ones not properly man- aged. We will, therefore, begin with the yearling tree, and although the management of this the first year after cutting back has been given in the nursery, it may be well to repeat it here, to save the reader the trouble of referring back. Ohjects of cutting 'back. — The object in doing this is to produce branches near the stock that will form the base of the future pyramid. If left entire, the tendency of the sap to the extremities would produce shoots there only, leaving a naked space entirely inconsistent with the form in view. We, therefore^ reduce the stem to such an extent, that but a small number of buds is left on it, 20S PEOONG. and the sap acting on these with great force causes their development. How far to cut hack. — It is obvions that this must de- pend on the character of the subject. In yearling plants, both of the pear and apple, there is presented a great diSerence in diflerent varieties. Some invariably pro- duce lateral branches the first season. The buds are so perfectly developed, that when the second growth takes place in midsummer, they break and form branches, in some cases as much as a foot long, and in othei*s only a few inches. Then among the varieties which do not thus produce side branches in the second growth, there is a great difference in the plumpness and prominence of the buds. In some they are larger, and stand out boldly from the wood on the whole length of the stem, appa- rently ready to push under the least excitement. In others they are small, lie flat to the wood, and have every appearance of being difiicult to excite into growth, and especially those towards the base. It should always be borne in mind that it is better to cut too low than not low enough. The difficulty of cutting too low is, that the shoots produced are nearly all of equal length, and a certain number of them require to be checked to give each one its proper dimensions. The difficulty of not cutting low enough is, that where we should have branches at the base we have none, or, if any, they are smaller, instead of larger, than those above them. The remedv in this case is more difficult than the other. The vigorous shoots at the summit must be checked, and even the leading shoot, in order to throw back the sap into the lower parts to act upon the buds there. The error which produces such a difficulty, is very common, as we know by experience, amongst persons not familiar with the growth of young trees or the development of the buds on theii* stems. It must be laid down as a THE APPLE AI^D THE PEAR. 209 general rule, that the w:ore feeble the plant^ and tlie smaller and the more imperfectly devclojped the huds^ the loioer it is necessary to cut. The condition of the roots, too, must be taken into account ; for where the roots are weak, broken, or injured, and consequently unfit to yield to the stem any considera- ble amount of nutriment, the buds will break with less force, and a more severe retrenchment will be necessary. All these circumstances must be considered. For example, we will take a young pear tree of one year's growth from the bud, without branches (fig. 104), which we will suppose to be four feet, which is the ordinary average height of yearlings. If the buds are full and prominent on it, we cut to a good bud at twenty inches from the stock ; but if the buds are less prominent, cut to fifteen or eighteen inches, and if very feeble, with small buds, cut to within twelve inches, or five or six buds of the stock. If the roots have been injured much, and the stem somewhat dried or shrivelled, it should be cut to within three ches. The cross- or four buds of the base. These difterent l^"^ ^"^*^^'"' *^'^ first pruning or cases are mentioned because it frequently cutting back. happens that persons who live at a great distance from nurseries, find their trees frequently, on their arrival, in the condition described, and it is necessary that a course of treatment for them should be indicated. The bud cut to, should, if possible, be one of the best on the stem, and be on the side of the tree opposite that in which the bud was inserted, so as to continue the stem in a straight line. It is a great advantage to have a tree well established in the ground, before cutting it back to produce the first branches to form the pyramid ; because, in that condition, it is capable of producing vigorous shoots the first season. Fig. 104. A yearling pear tree without bran- 210 PRUNING. It is on this account that a young tree, cut back in the nur- sery, presents a much more perfect form at the end of the second year, than those that have been transplanted. Some of the French cultivators advise to defer the cutting back for the formation of the permanent branches, till the plant has stood one year after transplanting ; but the course is attended with many difficulties, and on the whole it is better to cut back when the tree is planted, even if we obtain but a moderate grow^th, for the older the buds are on the lower parts of the tree, the more obstinate and unmanageable they are. Pruning the Branched Yearling. — Among trees of this kind, some have branches a foot or more in length, while in others they resemble short, stiff spurs, two to four inches long. These two characters require diflerent modes of treatment. Where there are branches of sufficient force and properly situated to form the first series of main branches, they must be treated in the same manner as though the tree were two years old. The strongest and best situated are selected and pruned to within four to six inches of their base, according to their vigor and position ; the lowest should be not more than six inches from the stock. The small, feeble, superfluous ones are entirely removed ; the leading shoot^ which, in such cases, is short and provided with plump buds, does not require a heavy shortening ; in most cases one half will be quite sufficient. Fig. 105 rej^resents a tree of this kind : the cross-lines indicate the cuts. Fi?. 105. Yearling i)ear tree AVherc thc lateral branchcs are short and with bran. hes. the gp^^p_iii^e, thcv will rcQuire verv careful treat- pruning indicated ^ t i/ x ^ by the spaces. mcut ; the strougcst and best placed are reserved. If the lower ones have good terminal buds, thev are left entire ; those above them are shortened, the THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 211 lower to three, tlie next above to two, and the uppermost, next the leading shoot, to one bnd. This will give their productions a proper relative degree of vigor. The leader is cut back further than in the well branched subject, because it is presumed the buds are less excitable. As a general thing, within four to six buds of the highest lateral, or one half of its length. There is another class of trees necessary to be noticed here, because they are very common — two year old nur- sery trees that have not heen projperly treated. Fig. 106 represents a tree of this kind. A few inches only of the top were taken off at the commencement of the second year's growth, and after that it was left to itself. Branches, therefore, w^ere produced only at the top, leaving a vacant space of two feet, the very part that should have produced the first set of main branches. The best disposi- tion to make of such a tree would be to con- duct it in the form of a dwarf standard, which it really is at present ; but it happens that in some cases it is desired to convert them intq pyramids, and therefore it is essential that the proper means be pointed out. Two year okl trees, like yearlings, differ materially in the character of the buds on the low^er part of the tack far enough , r\ l^ ', -J- the first season ; stem. Un some, these are quite prominent, so ^j^^ second prun- much so as to. appear to have made some ad- i"s. to produce ^ , ., . -, .branches below, is vance towards development, while m others indicated by the they are quite flat and dormant. It is obvious ^"^^"^ ^^"^• that trees in the first condition will not require that severe retrenchment on the head to produce branches below, as the last. In this case it will generally be sufficient, and especially if the space between the stock and first branches does not exceed two feet, to cut back the leader to three Fig. 106. A two year old pear tree, not cut 212 PEUNING. buds, and the lateral branches below it to one bud ; but when the buds are small and backward, or when the branchless space is over two feet in length, the two year old wood must be cut back to within eighteen inches to two feet of the base. We find that in the case of imported trees, or those carried a great distance, and more or less injured, nothing short of this severe cutting can ensure branches low enough to form a pyramidal tree. It seems a great pity to cut back a tree in this manner, and lose a year or two of its growth and bearing, but it is absolutely necessary when the pyramidal form is wanted. There is still another class of trees that we sometimes see sent out from the nurseries. These are two or three years old ; have been cut back, and are pretty well furnished, in all their length, with lateral branches ; but from the want of proper care, those on the upper j)arts have acquired greater vigor than those below, presenting the tree in a situation just the reverse, in this respect, of w^hat it ought to be. In pruning this subject at the time of planting, the lower branches must either be shortened very slightly in order to get a strong bud for a leader, or they must be left entire, while those above will be cut close ; where we want the longest and strongest branches, there we leave the most wood. The most important pruning performed upon a tree is the Jlrst 07ie, for it is this which makes all future manage- ment easy and successful, or difticult and unsatisfactory. This is the reason why it has appeared necessary to treat )f it so minutely. Having encountered all the difficulties :hat others are likely to encounter, and having described :hem and pointed out the means by which they are to be A^ercome, it is believed that the matter has been made so plain, that any man of ordinary intelligence, and possess- ing the slightest knowledge of tree cultm*e, can take his knife and prepare his trees in such a. manner as to give THE APPLE AND TIIE PEAK. 213 him a most reasonable hope of attaining his ends. "We now proceed to the iSuminer inanageine7it of trees thus cut hach. — We will first consider the case of the yearling without branches. If it has been cut low enough, as directed, all the buds below the cut will push. As a space of six inches should be kept clear between the ground and the first or lowest tier of branches, such shoots as may appear on that part will be rubbed off at once. Of the remaining ones, a certain number, three to six, according to the length of the stem, will be reserved. These must be the strongest, and properly situated on the stei^i, within eight to ten inches of space between each branch, and that immedi- ately above it, and regularly placed on all sides of the stem. Some recommend leaving on all the shoots that are produced the first season ; but in certain cases this would be bad practice, for if the buds be very close, the shoots would be so numerous that the strength of them all would be impaired, and much pruning would be required the next season. The better way is to select such as are wanted, and rub off the others ; the sap which they would have appropriated will be turned to the account of the permanent branches, and increase their vigor. The leading shoot must be directed in a straight line ; in some cases a support may be necessary. If the branches immediately below it are so vigorous as to inter- fere with its growth, they must be checked by pinching. In some cases it may be necessary to do this when they are an inch or two in length. It sometimes occurs that the bud cut to is injured by the weather, close cutting, or some other cause, and j)ushes so feebly that the laterals below it having more vigor take the lead. This must be prevented in time. A proper relative degree of vigor must be maintained among all the branches, by checking when necessary the most vigorous. 214 PETJNING. Tlie first summer's treatment of the brancliecl yearling (fig. 105.) will consist in maintaining a miiform growth among the lateral branches, and in the case of the leading shoot, as already described. Some lateral shoots will be j^roduced on the branches, and these must all be pinched at an inch or two, as it is yet too soon to allow of the for- mation of secondary branches. The summer treatment of fiir. 106, the two year old tree, will be conducted on the same principles. The encouragement of the leading shoot will require special attention to secure it in an up right j)osition, as, in many cases, where two year old wood is cut back, the leadins; shoots assume a horizontal or curved direction. The second pruning. — ^We have now a tree composed of two sections : the first is the two-year-old part, furnished with lateral branches ; and the second, the leading shoot produced last season. (Fig. 107.) In pruning it, our object will be to establish a new section of branches on the leader, to continue the prolongment of the lower branches, and to induce the formation of fruit sj)urs towards their base. To accomj^lish these ends, we shorten the leader or stem, on the same principle in relatiop. to its character, as | already directed for the yearling trees, Tom one-half to two-thirds its length, and sometimes more. Every bud between the one we cut to and the base of the shoot, should 23ush ; and the bud to produce the leader should be large, perfectly formed, and opposite the cut of the previous year. The lateral branches on the first section are shortened according to their vigor, always remembering that the lowest must be the longest, to carry out the pyramidal firstprunino Fig. 107. A two year old pear tree, having made one year's growth after the THE APPLE Al^fD THE PEAR. 215 form. They should also be cut back sufficiently to insure the growth of all the buds on them. This point requires considerable care, for if not cut back enough, the interior of the trees becomes naked, instead of being supplied with shoots for bearing spurs; and if cut back too far, the shoots will be too vigorous and difficult to control. The appearance of the buds, and the habits of the variety, will be a sufficient guide if properly studied. Treatment of the gnnving shoots: — When the buds have all started and made a growth of an inch or two, their force and forwardness will indicate the uses to be made of them. Each of the main branches of the first section may be considered as a stem ; its leader will require the same treatment to favor its extension. At this time a secondary branch may be required to fill up the space which widens as the branches extend. If so, a shoot is selected for this 23urpose, and all the others on the same branch are checked at two inches, and converted into fruit branches. All the laterals are treated in this way. The second section, now in process of formation, must be managed as directed for the first section. During the first season, the requisite number of shoots is preserved, and the superfluous ones removed early. The leader is maintained erect ; and the laterals immediately below it, being always inclined to vigorous grow^th, must be checked to keep them in a proper condition relative to the leader and the branches below them. The leading shoot must always maintain its pre-eminence. It often happens that the lateral shoots of the main branches that have been pinched will start and grow again. In such cases an- other pinching must be performed witliin an inch of the previous one. As a general thing, this will be sufficient ; but if not, a third must be given in the same way ; for if they be allowed to extend into w^ood branches they will require knife pruning, and create confusion among all 216 PRUNING. parts of the tree. A veiy general error in conducting trees of this kind, and indeed all others, is to allow the branches to be too close to each other, so that when they come to bear, the wood, foliage, and fruit, on the interior, are so excluded from the air and light that they all suifer. The fruit is imperfect, and the spurs become feeble and gradually i^erish. The tree has now two branched sections, each from twelve inches to two feet, as the case may be, and with four to six branches on each ; the leading shoot is from one to three feet in length. The a veraffe hei2:ht of three year old trees, on the quince in our grounds, transplanted at one year old, and twice pruned, is five to six feet. A few very vigo- rous growing varieties, that throw up a leader every season three to four feet in length, are seven to eight feet; but these are comparatively few in number. Third pruning. — ^This is done on precisely the same principles laid down for the second. The leader of the stems is cut back in proportion to its vigor, the lateral branches are also short- '" f"^' ''""^ ^^^'^ ^^^'' ""^^^ '^'^^ t^'"^^ pruned, having three branch sections, a. b, c, ened in the same man- seven feet high, and furnished in the lower ner. It must always be f"'' """^ fruit spurs. The cross lines indicate ^ the lourtli pruning. kept in mind that the Fig. 108. THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 217 lowest brandies must be longest, and when it happens that they do not take their due proj)ortion of vigor, as compared with those above them, and if pinching has not been duly attended to the past summer, to maintain regularity, the w^eaker must now be favored with a long pruning. Fig. 108 represents a four-year old pear tree of the w^hite Doyenne, three times pruned, a, J, c. It has been remarked, that the habits of growth and bearing of the pear and apple are similar, but it should be noted, that in treating them as pyramids, the apple tree is more liable to lose its vigor at the top, and there- fore it is necessary to keep an eye to this point in their management. From w^hat has been said with reference to an equal distribution of the sap, the remedy for this difficulty will be obvious, viz., to reduce the vigor of the lower parts by pinching, shortening, and heavy crops, and to favor the upper part by long pruning and thin- ning, or wholly removing the fruits. Management of the fruit 'branches. — About the sixth to the eighth year, from the first pruning of the tree, it will have attained nearly as great dimensions as in many cases will be desirable, and be well furnished with fruit branches. After this period, the object of the pruning will be to prevent the extension of the tree, and maintain the fruit bearing parts in a healthy and productive state. Without proper care they will be liable to suffer from bearing too much, or from the growth of young wood on the extremi- ties of young branches. To diminish the growth, and favor the fruit branches, the young shoots must be pruned shorter than before, in order to turn the sap more to the benefit of the fruits, and when the fruit sj^urs become too numerous, so as to be too near one another, and produce more fruit than the tree lu 218 pBumNG. can sustain with safety, a portion of tliem must be prnned off. The lower parts always experience this difficulty first, the saj) circulating more slowly there than in the summit. Fruit spurs of the pear and apple, if well managed, continue in a vigorous bearing state for a great many years. To renew and prolong their vigor, the older parts must, from time to time, be cut away, and new pro- ductions created at their base to take their place. Pruning and management of the Apj^le as a dioarf on tJie paradise stock. ]^othing is more simple than the treatment of these little bushes. They should have short stems, six to eight inches from the ground, and the head should not be allowed to exceed three to three and a half feet in height, because the roots are very small, and do not take such a firm hold of the ground as to admit of a head that would offer much ob- stacle to the wind. The branches should be evenly dis- tributed around the head, open in the centre, in the fonn of a vase, and be furnished in all their parts with bearing spurs. These are the points to aim at in commencing the formation of these trees. The pi-oceedings are as follows : 1st. Pruning. — We will suppose that the subject is a yearling bud or graft, a single shoot eighteen to twenty inches in height. In this case, the stem is cut back to the point where it is intended to form the head, six to ten inches, as the case may be, from the stock. Below this, most of the buds will start and form shoots, from which we select three or four of the strongest and best situated, equally distant, if possible, around the stem, and rub or pinch off all the others. The growth of the branches thus selected for a head, is encouraged during the first season, by keeping down all other productions that may appear. THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 219 2d. Pruning. — ^The tree lias now three or four brandies destined to be the basis of the frame-work of the head. These branches are cnt back full one half their length, according as the buds in the variety are easily excited or not, the object being to induce all tlie buds below the cut to push. After growth has commenced, and an inch or two of new wood been made, the shoot from the bud cut to, will be chosen as a leader to continue the extension of the branch ; and if secondary branches be wanted, they will be chosen from those best situated, to fill up the existing vacancies. All the other shoots are pinched when two or three inches long, to convert them into fruit spurs, and to prevent their interfering with the growth of the wood branches. If one pinching is not sufficient, another must be given in the same way as recommended for pyramidal trees. Indeed, the whole process, as far as it goes, is the same ; but the same efforts are not necessary to maintain an equal distribution of the sap, for the tree is so low, and the form so natural, that no branch is more favorably situated than another ; and hence they are easily kept in an uniform state of vigor. The branches of irregular-growing sorts will require to be secured by stakes in their proper places for a year or two at first, until they have assumed a permanent position. The third, and all subsequent co^'p^^^J of four main branches _' -•■ and several secondary branches ; pruningS, will be conducted on pruned three times as at a, 6, now the same principles as the first in a bearing state. and second, already described, until the tree hus attained Fig. 101. Dwarf ai pie tree, four years old, stem ten inches high, head 220 PRUNING. its full size. Fig. 109 represents a dwarf apple tree, four years old, three times pruned — the two last prunings are indicated by the letters a and h. Management of the Bearing Tree. — In most cases the apple on the paradise is disposed to excessive fruitfulness, and unless the fruit branches be occasionally thinned and shortened, in order to reduce the number of bearing buds, and to produce new wood, the trees become enfee- bled. Bad management of this kind has promulgated the belief that the apple on the paradise is exceed- ingly short-lived ; but the fact that plantations exists in the most perfect vigor at the end of twelve to fifteen years after planting, shows that by proper treatment their exist- ence is not so fleeting. The spurs must be managed in a manner similar to that described in treating of pyramids, to renew them, and the slender fruit branches must be short- ened. This, in addition to the mannring to be hereafter described, constitutes the substance of their management. The Priming and Management of the Ajyj^^e and Pear as espaliers. — In the cool, moist climate of England, this is a popular and advantageous method of training apples and pears. The specimens of this kind in public and private gardens there, are admirable in their way, and illustrate the skill and handiwork of the English gardener very favorably. But our climate is not suitable as a gen- eral thing for espaliers ; the branches are so exposed to the rays of our powerful sun, that the sap is impeded in its circulation, and the fruits fall. It is, therefore, un- necessary to enter into any detail respecting this mode of training ; but there may be situations where such a sys- tem may succeed, and especially in the north. The best espalier form for the apple and pear, is that of the hori- zontal^ that is, an upright central stem, with horizontal arms or branches at equal distances on both sides (fig. 110). The production of this tree depends in the main THE APPLE AND THE PEAK. 221 on the same principles as the pyramid, and does not re- quire illustration. The young tree is cut back to within six inches of the ground. From the shoots produced be- FiG. no. Pear tree trained horizontally. low that point, three are selected, the U23per one to form the upright leader or stem, and two lateral or side ones to form the two first arms. The first season these shoots are allowed to grow upright and are kejDt in equal vigor. At the commencement of the second season, they are all cut back far enough, say one third to one half their length, or even more in some cases, to ensure the grow^th of all the buds. The upper shoot on each is selected for a leader, and the others are pinched at tw^o inches or less. After the pruning, the arms are brought down half way to a hori- zontal position, and towards the latter end of the season, wholly. An uniformity of growth among all the parts is maintained according to the means and principles already laid down, and year after year the tree is thus treated until the requisite height and number of horizontal arms or branches be obtained. In the case of very vigorous growing sorts the leader may be stopped in June, and thus a second pair of arms be produced in one year. The upright leader and the branches are treated in a similar manner — a difierence in vigor always requiring a corres- j)onding difierence in treatment. For espaliers, the apple should be on the paradise or Doucain^ and the ^Dear on 222 PEUNIKG. the quince^ because these stocks all diminish the vigor of wood growth, which is often the chief difficulty in man- aging trained trees. The aspect for these trees should never be due south. A railing to train such trees on, is made of upright posts sunk in the ground, and connected with cross bars, at eight to twelve inches apart, upon which the arms of the espalier are fastened with willow or bass matting. Mr. Eivers, in his " Miniature Fruit Garden," exhibits a sys- tem of growing pears in espalier, in the form of pyramids, as adopted by himself. I saw these trees when in Eng- land, in 1849, and although it appeared a very ingenious and economical arrangement, admitting a great number of varieties in a small space, and besides very well adapted to an English climate, yet it did not appear to offer any advantages that would warrant its recommendation in this country, unless under rare circumstances in the most northern sections. Whoever will study attentively the means described for conducting a pyramid, can suc- ceed fully in training the espaliers or wall pyramid. Section 2. — Pkuistng and Training the Quince. As ordinarily grown, the quince is the most neglected, and consequently, the most unsightly, deformed tree to be found in the orchard or garden, and yet, when well treated, it is really, both when in blossom and in fruit, one of the most beautiful of all our fruit trees. Its fruit is more esteemed, and more generally used in this than in any other country. It is naturally a crooked or spreading bush, and without some attention to j)runing and training when young, it assumes an irregular form, branching near the ground, and quite destitute of bearing wood on all its lower and interior parts. It is in this neglected form we most generally find it. To make a regular and handsome THE QUINCE. 223 little tree, we have only, in tiie first place, to rear a straight and stout trunk about two or three feet high. If the plants be weak or crooked when planted, they should be cut low down to obtain a stout and straight stem. The young shoot should be kept tied up to a stake to prevent it from straggling. The second year, if the growth has been vigorous, and low trees are desired, the head may be commenced. But if a stem three or four feet high be desired, it should be at least one inch in diameter, and another year's growth may be necessary. The head is formed in the same manner as described for standard and dwarf apples and pears. It should be round, symmetrical, and open, and well furnished on all parts with bearing wood. The bearing branches or spurs of the quince are small twiggy shoots {B^ fig. Ill), produced on wood at least two years old. These bear two, three, or more fruit buds. These produce shoots two or three inches long ((7, fig. Ill), on the point of which the fruit is borne singly. These spurs have al- ways wood buds as well as fruit buds, and there- fore they should be shortened back as to A^ fig. Ill, the spring Fig. in. P, , 1 1 _ 1 B, fruit branch of the quince. C, the shoot pro- after they have borne, ,^^;, ,^^^ ,,^ ,^^,, Z. a, point at which it in order to produce new should be cut back after bearing. spurs at the same point. 224 PKUOTNG. The French conduct it in beantiful pyramids, on pre- cisely the same principle as the pear and apple ; bnt the leading shoot must be kept fastened to an upright sup- port— a small rod attached to the base — on account of its reclining^ habit. The medlar is but little cultivated. Its treatment may be exactly similar to that described for the quince, its habits of growth and bearing being similar. Section 3. — Petjnino the Cheery. The cherry is conducted in any desirable form with as much facility as any of all our hardy fruit trees. The heart and higarreau classes are very rapid growers, often attaining the height of six feet the first season from the bud or 2:raft, and in two years formino; fine standard trees six to seven feet high, with a few top shoots. They have also large, drooping leaves, and, with few excej^tions, stifi*, erect, or slightly curved branches. The chd'e class does not grow so rapidly. The branches are stifl' and erect, the leaves smaller as a general thing than the preceding classes, more erect, thicker, and of a deeper, darker green color. The raorellos are of a bushy habit, with smaller leaves than any of the preceding classes, and the branches are more slender and closer together. The bark of all is very tough, being composed of several layers of poAverful fibres and tissue. It does not yield readily, like that of most other fruit trees, to the expansion or growth of the wood- and this occasions the burstino; and exudino; of 2:um in certain localities, especially in the more rapid growing classes. The mode of bearing has already been described under the head of fruit branches, in the beginning of the work. The fruit is produced on wood tln-ee years old thus : The shoot of last year's growth, wliich is furnished now with leaf buds in all its length, will produce at the THE CHEEKY. 225 point, if not shortened, one or more shoots, and all the buds remaining are, dm*ing the season, transformed into clusters of fruit buds, and produce fruit the year follow- in o^. In the centre of these clusters of fruit buds there is always a wood bud, and this grows a little and produces new clusters of fruit buds to replace those that have borne. Some of the morellos produce fruit on tw^o-year- old wood, like the peach, the leaf buds being transformed into fruit buds. During the second growth of the first season of their formation, the fruit bud is very easily distinguished from the leaf bud by its roundness and plumpness. Pruning the Cherry as a Standard. — In Western !New York the cherry succeeds so well, and is so totally exempt from the bursting of the bark, that trees can be grown safelv with trunks ^yq or six feet hii>:h ; but in the West, when this malady prevails, the less there be of a naked trunk the better ; for it is the trunk and large branches that are generally so affected. As a standard, the cherry requires very little pruning. To form a round ojpen head. — We will take for exam- ple a young tree two years old, having three or four top branches. These at the time of planting should be cut back to within four or five buds of their base, and when growth has commenced, the requisite number of shoots, say four or five, to form the framework of the head are selected, evenly distributed on all sides, and all the others pinched or rubbed oif. The following season these shoots may again be short- ened to produce secondary branches to fill up spaces, and those arising in the centre should be pinched out, for the head must be kept open and accessible to the sun and light. In about three years of such treatment, the head of the tree assumes a permanent form, and thereafter, may be left to itself, except to remove occasionally branches 10* 226 PRUNING. that may cross or interfere with one another. Oiir stand- ard trees here are in the best possible condition, and have not had a knife on them, except to cnt scions for bndding or grafting, in sev^en years. Pyramidal Headed Standards. — Certain varieties, for instance, Siyarhaiok^ s Hoiiey^ Dmcner^s^CMna Bigarreau^ Black Tartarian.^ Black Heart., and some others, make fine pyramidal shaped heads withont pruning, more than to give the leader its due superiority at the beginning, and to remove afterwards crossing and superfluous branches. Such varieties as the Yellow Spanish, Black Eagle, Knight's Ey. Black, Elton, and all the spreading sorts, should have round open heads built upon three or four main branches as described. Pruning the Cherry as a Pyramid. — ^The same process recommended for the pyramidal training of the pear and apple, may be applied with complete success to the cherry. We have now in our specimen grounds a collection of all the classes trained, according to the method described, and their condition is in every respect satisfactory ; they have all given fruit the third year. In most cases the trees, were taken from the nursery rows at the end of their first season's growth from the bud. Some had no side branches, and others had. It is very common for cherries and especially the Dukes and Morel- los to form a number of lateral branches the first season. Growth becomes slightly suspended, or at least goes on very slowly in July ; during this time the buds on the lower part acquire a sort of maturity, and when a new growth commences they push and form shoots. Cherry trees of this kind are in a good condition for pyramids. We select from these the strongest and best situated to form the lower tier of permanent branches ; the lower ones are shortened to fom* or five buds, and the upper ones to two or three. The leader or stem is cut back to withio THE CHERRY. 227 six, eight, or ten buds of the branches. Those having no branches are cut back to within six or eight buds of the stock. And this is the first pruning. Treat'inent during the fiorst Suminer after Pruning. — When the young shoots have grown a couple of inches in length, such as are intended for permanent branches are chosen, and the others are pinched in the same manner as recommended for pears and apples. Such as accpiire more vigor than is consistent with their position, must be checked. It frequently happens that unless the leader has been cut back close, only three or four shoots will be produced at the extremity, leaving a vacant space below. This can be remedied in most cases by pinching the shoots around the leader when they have grown about an inch. In some cases it may be necessary even to check the leader to force the lower buds into growth. This is a point of considerable importance in conducting a pyramid, and should never be lost sight of. The Cherry as an Espalier. — Except it be the training of the morello, or some other late varieties, on a north wall to ]3rolong their season of maturity, the cherry is sel- dom grown as an esj)alier tree in this country, nor is it to be recommended except in some rare instances. The simplest and probably the best form is that suggested for pears and apples, an uj^right stem with horizontal branches. To produce this the same means are employed as have been previously described. If the tree has no side branches proper for the first arms, it must be cut back to within six inches of the ground, and from the shoots pro- duced below that, one is selected for the leader, and one on each side for the first horizontal branches ; the other shoots are pinched ofif. At the next pruning, the leader is again shortened to produce another pair of side branches eight or ten inches from the first ; the leader is continued in an upright direction, and the side branches are brought 228 PSTJNING. half way down in midsnmmer, and at tlie following spring pruning tliey are placed in the horizontal position. The leading shoot of rapid growing sorts may be stopped about the end of June, and this will produce side shoots from which another pair of arms may be taken, and thus gain a year in the formation of the tree, or covering the wall or trellis. For weak growing sorts, the fan form or some modi- fication of it would, perhaps, be more suitable than the horizontal, as it offers less restraint to the circulation of the sap in the branches. Tlie Cherry as a Dioarf or Busli. — The slow growing sorts, such as the choices and moreUos^ when worked on the mahaleb stock, make very pretty and very easily man- aged prolific bushes, and by occasional root pruning they may be confined to as small a space as a dwarf apple tree. To produce this form, the young tree is cut back to within five or six buds of its base ; and from the shoots produced below that, four or five evenly distributed around the tree are selected for the permanent branches or frame-work of the tree. The others are rubbed off. At the next pruning the branches thus produced are shortened to jDroduce secondary branches ; and thus it is treated from year to year until the tree is formed and full grown. The branches must be kept far enough apart to admit the sun and air freely amongst them. AVhen the tree is five or six years old, if it grows too vigorously, requiring more space than can be given it, the larger roots may be shortened in Julv or Auo-ust, or in the winter. This and the pyramid, and the dwarf standard, with stems two feet high, are the most eligible garden forms for the cherry.* =* Mr. Rivers states in his " Miniature Fruit Garden," that he has a plant of the late duke cherry ten years old, that never was root-pruned, and yet is a small prolific tree, five feet in height, and the branches the same in THE PEACH. 229 The divarf standard is treated precisely as the dwan, and differs from it only in having two feet instead of six or eight inches of stem. In prnning and training the cherry, it should always be borne in mind that when large branches are removed, it is liable to suffer from the gum, and, therefore, the regulation of the shoots should be carefully attended to in summer, that amputations of woody parts may be avoided as far as possible. When it is necessary, however, the cut surface heals more rapidly and surely when made in the summer, during the growing season. Section 4. — Pruning and Management of the Peach. The peach is universally regarded as the most delicious fruit of our climate, and ranks in importance for orchard culture next to the apj^le and the pear. JSTowhere in the w^orld is it produced in such quantities, and with so little labor, as in America. An English or French gardener will expend more labor on a single tree, than the majority of our orchardists do upon one hundred. Our favorable climate obviates a multitude of difficulties that have to be contended with in other countries, and renders unneces- sary the minute and laborious systems of management which they find it absolutely necessary to pursue. But this very excellence of our climate has given rise to a most negligent and defective system of cultivation, as is everywhere illustrated in the condition of orchards. The peach, of all other trees, is one that, from its mode of growth and bearing, requires constant pruning to maintain it in a shapely, thrifty, and productive state. The sap tends powerfully to the extremities of the shoots, diameter. We have in our specimen grounds trees of several dukes and morellos, six years old, on mahaleb stocks, not over four or five feet high, and pictures of fruitfulness. 230 PEUNING. more so than in any other fruit tree. The buds that do not j)nsh and form shoots the first season after their for- mation, are lost ; they cannot, as in most other trees, be excited into growth ; and hence it is that the lower -parts become so rapidly denuded of young wood, and that trees left to themselves for six or seven years are in a measure worn out and worthless. The fruit is borne only on wood of the preceding year (see fruit branches), and every part destitute of such wood must be worthless ; consequently one of the great objects of pruning is to keep all parts of the tree fur- nished with a regular and constant succession of annual bearing shoots. This fact must never be lost sight of. The case of a single shoot will illustrate the influence of j^runing and its necessity. By refe rising to the fruit branch, it will be seen that it is furnished with a certain number of wood buds and fruit buds. At the base there are always one or two wood buds at least. J^ow, if that shoot were not ^^I'uned, all the fruit buds on it would probably produce fruit — one, two, or three of the wood buds at the top would make new shoots ; these would necessarily be very weak in consequence of the number of fruit below them. At the end of the season there would be a long, vacant sj^ace, entirely des- titute of a young shoot or a living bud. This is the way that the interior and lower parts of trees become so soon degarnished. But w^hen that shoot is shortened, we will say one half, the sap is retained in its lower parts, one half of the fruit buds are removed, and the consequence is that large and fine fruits are obtained from those remaining ; young vigorous shoots are produced from the lower buds to bear next year, and take the place of those which have already borne. In this way regular uniform crops of THE PEACH. 231 large and fine fruit are obtained, and a constant succession of young shoots is kept up. To form the head of a standard Peach Tree. — We will suppose it the intention to form a standard tree, with a trunk two feet in height, and a round, open, and sym- metrical head like fig. 112. We take a yearling tree and cut it back to within two feet and a half of the ground in the spring. Below this cut a certain number of shoots will be produced, from which three will be selected to form the main branches or frame-work of the head. All the others are rub- bed off when two or three inches long or sooner. At the end of the season we have a tree with three branches. The second year these three branches are cut back full one half their length, and from each we take a shoot to continue the branch, and one to form a secondary branch. The other shoots produced below these are pinched or checked to prevent them from inter- fering with the growth of the leading branches. In the fall of the year we have a tree with six leading branches, and some bearing shoots below on the older wood. The third year each of these six branches is short ened one half, in order to obtain more secondary branches, and some fruit branches on the lower parts. All young shoots on the old wood, whether fruit branches or not, should be cut back one half, or as far as may be necessary, to cause the wood buds at their base to push, and make shoots to bear next year. The formation of the head goes on as described for two or three years more, when it is complete ; for peach trees, Fig n-2. Form of a low standard peacn tree, witli a stem two feet high and a round, open head. 232 PEUNING. properly primed, do not assume such wide-spreading forms as tliey do naturally. The main branches and secondary branches should be at equal distances throughout, and far enough apart to give the bearing wood on their sides the full benefit of the sun and air. An equality of vigor should also be preserved amongst them by summer pinching. It is not uncommon to see a very vigorous shoot start up in a peach tree, and appro- priate so much of the sap as to injure a whole branch ; these should be checked the moment their character is observed, unless they may be wanted to fill a vacancy. Every part of the branches shoidd be furnished with beaiing shoots, and these should, every spring, be short- ened in one half or more, to produce others at their base, w^hilst those that have borne are cut out. Some jDCople imagine that when they have taken a 23air of hedge shears, or some such instrument, and shorn off the ends of the shoots on the outside of the tree indis- criminately, they are " shortening in," and so they are, as they would a hedge ! Some of the shoots are cut away entirely, fruit buds and all, whilst others remain untouched, and the tree becomes like a brush on the out- side and naked within. This is almost as bad as the let- alone system. Every shoot should be cut separately. The most expeditious instrument for doing this, is a pair of light hand-pruning shears, such as the French secateur (see instruments). A person accustomed to its use can prune every shoot on a full-grown tree in an almost in- credibly short space of time, as compared with that re- quired with the knife. Extensive orchardists may be deterred from such a labor, looking to the cost ; but if they will engage quick, active, intelligent ^^ersons to do the work, and estimate the increased value of the fruit. THE PEACH. 233 and longevity and beauty of their trees, there can be no doubt but it will be found a paying investment. Iioot Pruning. — In gardens where the soil is rich, and trees very full of vigor, disposed to grow too much and bear too little, root pruning should be practised once in two or three years — the first lightly, removing only the ends of the large feeding roots. The safest time to do it is between the fall of the leaf and the opening of spring. Yegetation in the peach seldom becomes sufficiently inactive during the growing season, to enable the roots to be pruned with safety. The Peach in the form of a vase. — Among all the forms in which trees are conducted, this is, when well done, one of the most graceful. It consists of a short stem two to five feet, according to fancy, with a head composed of three or four main branches, and two or three times that number of second- ary branches, all trained by means of light stakes at first, and afterwards wire or wooden hoops in the form of a vase or goblet. The branches are arranged in a circle, with bearing shoots filling up the spaces. I^o shoots are permitted either in the interior or in front that is project- ing from the exterior surface of the goblet. The most beautiful trees of this form are to be seen in the gardens of the Luxembourg, at Paris, and elsewhere in France. Mr. Louis Gaudry, who has a very pretty little plan- tation in Paris, and who has published a small work on pruning and training trees, gives the annexed cut as a representation of one of his vase peach trees of eight years' growth (fig. 113). The following is the substance of his mode of conducting them. First Pruning. — The stem of the yearling tree is cut back to the point at which it is desired to commence the head to three buds, forming a triangle and as nearly as 234 PRUNING. possible of the same height. Three shoots are obtained from these three buds to form the first or main branches ':^ Fig. 113. Peach tree in the form of a vase, with four main branches, each having several secondary branches. The stem in the figure is five feet, but should no*, exceed two. THE PEACH. 235 or frame-work of the vase. To favor tlie growth of these, all the shoots produced below them are rubbed off. In order to give them the proper inclination, three small stakes are inserted in the ground, to which the three branches are fastened; it is supposed that if these stakes be sunk as far from the base of the tree as the roots extend, and in an upright j)osition, there will be a sufficient opening or space in the centre. The branches should be thus brought out about August, so that the for- mation of new layers of wood subsequent to that time may fix them in their places. The side shoots, which are produced on the young branches, towards the latter part of the season, designated by the French hourgeons anticijjes^ are pinched to one or two leaves. 2d. Pruning.- — ^The spring following, the branches are loosed from the stakes, and shortened to six or eicht inches of their base, to a leaf bud on the outside or front of the branch, and with a bud below it, either on the right or left side. The front bud continues the main branch, and the side bud forms a secondary branch. The three branches are pruned in this way, taking care that the secondary branch on each is on the same side, so that two of them cannot come in contact. To favor the £:rowth of these new shoots, all those situated below them that acquire too much vigor, must be ^^hiched at three or four leaves. A wooden hoop may now be placed in the centre, to which the branches are attached to keep them in their places. In this way the tree progresses ; every year one or more secondary branches are produced, the main branches increase in length, and fruit shoots are produced on all the intervals of the branches, on their two sides. All shoots that push either inside or in front of the vase ave pinched off, and pinching is practised at all times to maintain equal growth between the different parts, and to check any too great tendency of the sap to the extremities. 236 PEUNING. Third pruning. — ^The fruit brandies are pruned to three or four buds, to induce the lower wood buds to push and form new wood for the next season. The main branches are cut back to ten or twelve inches above the previous ]3runing, to a bud on the fi'ont to con- tinue the branch ; the buds selected to produce another series of secondary branches, must all be on the side ojypo- site the previous ones. If the position of the buds renders this impossible, then they may all be chosen on the same side as the first. The hoops this year will requu-e to be larger in dia- meter than the preceding, in order to give increased width to the vase as it proceeds upwards. All the other opera- tions are conducted in the same manner. Tlie hoops in- side are placed within six to eight inches of one another, and the circular branches within twelve to fifteen inches. As the tree advances in age, the growth may become too vigorous at the top ; and in this case, the main branches, always the most vigorous, must be pruned short, and even pinched during summer, to turn the sap to the benefit of the w^eaker parts. These are the main points in the management of these vases. It may be added, that the apple, pear, cherry, and indeed all other trees may be grown in this form, and by the same means, varying it only to suit difierent modes of growth and bearing, and degrees of vigor. Tlie Peach as an Esjyalier. — Espalier training will never be practised in this country to any very great extent, and therefore it may be considered, in comparison with open ground systems, unimportant. Yet there are some dis- tricts not so favorably situated as to be able to produce peaches, apricots, and nectarines, in the open ground. For these a proper system of espalier training is impor- tant, because in this form trees are easily protected from THE PEACH. 237 winter or spring frosts, and they ripen their fruits j^er- fectly, where open ground or standard trees would not. The Peach as an Espalier trained on a wall or trellis. — There are a multitude of forms for espalier trees where training on walls or trellises is necessarily and extensively practised, as in England and France. The great requi- sites in a wall tree are, first^ to have all the wall covered ; and, second,, to have the different parts of the tree alike favorably j)laced, with reference to its growth. JSText to these are simplicity and naturalness. The most popular form in England is that called the Fig. 114. Fan-shaped Espalier. fan (fig. 114). In it the branches are spread out so as to resemble a fan ; the lower ones are nearly or quite hori- zontal ; the next more oblique ; and so they proceed until the centre ones are quite upright, and this appears to be the defect of this form ; for the horizontal branches cannot maintain such a vigor as those more erect above them. The square espalier, invented by M. Felix Malo, of France, and now extensively practised by some of the best peach growers of the celebrated town of Montreuil, seems to possess more advantages, all in all, than any other. The " Bon Jardinier^"^ from which the following description of the method of conducting these trees is 238 PRUNIKG. taken, sajs : " This generally approved form begins to find imitators, and it is probable tliat one day it will be adopted by all intelligent gardeners." First year. — We will begin with a peach tree one year from the bud, and cut it down to within six or eight inches, or three or four buds of the stock. From the buds produced below the cut, two of the strongest are chosen, one on each side, to form the two main branches — hranclies mere I all the other shoots are destroyed, and these two are allowed to grow upright, and in the fall they will be three to four feet high. Second year (fig. 115). — In the spring, when hard frosts are no longer apprehend- a a ed, the branches are ex- \ / \ ^ amined to see if they be \ f "'^K^ sound and healthy, free 9^^ from bruises, insects, etc., fjs- h^- Fig. iie. T ,1 , T 1 , Second year. Third year. and they are cut back to twelve or fifteen inches of their base, according to their strength ; a weak branch ought always to be cut back in such a case as this further than a strong one. The bud cut to, should, if possible, be on the inside^ and the next bud below it on the outside^ the first to continue the main branch, and the other to form the firsi exterior secondary branch. All shoots starting on the front or rear of the main branch should be rubbed ofi\, and those on the sides laid in early to prevent their acquiring too much vigor. The main branches are left till July, when they are brought down to the form of a Y, and attached to the wall or trellis in this position. The exterior secondary branch is placed more oblique, and the fruit branches are kept in a uniform and moderate growth by pinching and laying in. The most vigorous should alwavs be laid in first to check them, and favor the others. Third year (fig. IIG). — After loosening the tree from THE PEACH. 239 tlie trellis, the two main branches are cut back to sixteen or eighteen inches of the previous pruning, and the two lower or secondary branches to twelve or sixteen inches. The fruit branches are shortened to within two or three buds of their base, and all are again fastened back in their places. When the young shoots have reached the length of three, four, or five inches, such as are badly placed on the front or rear of the branches, or in any j)lace inju- rious to the symmetry of the tree, are removed. During the summer the different branches must be laid in from time to time, the most vigorous first. This year two more secondary branches must be obtained on each side, in the same manner as in the previous year. Their growth is also promoted by the same means. The fruit branches on the sides of the main branches may give a few fruit this year, and those on the second- ary branches may bear next year; The fruit branches that have borne are to be cut away each year and replaced by others, therefore we must com- mence to j)rovide for these branches of replacement. They are produced as follows : First, it may be observed that fruit branches have gen- erally one or more wood buds at their base. Sometimes these will push and form branches of replacement with- out any assistance, more than cutting back. In such a case there is no difiiculty. When the fruit is ripe, or at the next pruning, the fruit branch that has borne is cut away, and the new one takes its place. But nature does not always act thus. It is generally necessary to force the development of these branches of replacement, without which the branches in all their lower parts would become entirely denuded. Hence, then, when a branch of replacement falls to appear by the ordinary method of shortening, we have 240 PEUNING. two modes of forcing it : one is to make, after the fruit is set, an incision through the bark two inches above one of the wood buds, and pinch close all the shoots on the fruit branch, leaving only rosettes of leaves necessary to the perfection of the fruit ; pinching must be repeated all thetime that the shoots on the fruit branch continue to grow. Fourth Year (fig. 117). — After having examined if the tree is equally vigorous in all its parts, and having de- cided upon the means of restoring the balance if it has been lost, the tree is detached from the wall or trellis, and pruned, commencing with the fruit branches that have borne. These, it must be remembered, are to be cut back each year to the new branch of replacement produced at its base. The young shoot then becomes the fruit branch, and is pruned within four to fourteen inches, according to their vigor and the situation of the fruit buds. The two main branches are cut back to within about twenty inches of the previous pruning ; the first shoot on the inside is chosen to conti- nue the branchy and the next one below it^ Fis- 117 Fig. 118. on the lower ^""^'"^ ^'^'- ^''"^ ^''^'- and outer side, to produce the third exterior secondary branch. The two secondary branches already formed are cut back to about twelve to fifteen inches of the previous pruning, in order to make all the lateral buds on them push. The terminal bud produces a leader to continue them ; all the others are fruit branches. In attaching the tree again to the wall, the angle that exists between the two main branches is gradually widened, the branches a litt ■ e more spread at every pruning. THE PEACH. 24:1 Fifth year (fig. 118). — The tree is now composed of two main branches, both of which have three secondary branches on their exterior lower sides, and fruit branches on all their length on the interior and upper side ; and all that is wanted to complete it, is to transform three of the bearing shoots on the upper sides into three secondary branches, corres2:)onding and alternating with the three lower ones. To do this, we select the fruit branch on each, nearest the fork or base of the main branches. The growth of this is favored by training it in an upright posi- tion, and by pinchiug any vigorous shoots near it. The tree is managed thus, as in- preceding years, in regard to laying in the shoots according to their vigor, and pinching to maintain regularity, &c. The sixth year (fig. 119). — The pruning is conducted on the same principles precisely, and another interior secondary branch is produced in the same way as last year. The seventh year (fig. 120). — Another is produced on A Fig. 119. Sixth year. each, and then the tree with its two main branches, and twelve secondary branches, all trained in the form of a parallelogram is com- plete (fig. 121). 11 Fig. 120. Seventh year. Fig. 121. Eighth year. 242 PEUNLNG. Fig. 122 represents the tree complete, bearing shoots and all. The main branches should be permanently „. fixed at an an- |gleof45^. The ® lowest exte- s rior secondary I branches at 15^. ^Cx\'C:^^PI'('loii^(/i'^^^cl1/ i''^l I Some cultiva- -^^.^^-^vv V .--V. .^mm r f /v . V..JK1 ! ,,fs ^ ^^j,g recommend o o that the inte- 0 rior secondary ■^ branches con- ■^ vero'e to the cen- ;= tre at an angle .lof 45°. This I;'' k3 ^ 2 a-ives them an ■ I oblique direc- - tion, and j)laces ® them upon a 1 more equal foot- ^ ing with the I other parts. S In training I such trees, an £ imaginary cn-- J- cular line is produced on the wall or trellis, and this is di- vided oif into parts, corresponding to the degrees of a circle, commenc- ing ac the centre above, and numbering both ways to the THE PEACH. 243 "base : this enables the persons who conduct the tree, to lay in the branches on both sides at an eqnal angle with pre- cision, which is quite requisite to maintain uniformity of growth and vigor. It has been considered necessary to treat this subject somewhat minutely, for the pm'pose of giving to persons wholly imacquainted with training, some knowledge of the principles on which it depends, and the mode of its execution. The form described above is one of the simplest of all espaliers, except the horizontal, described in treating of the apple and the pear ; but whoever can train a tree in this manner well, can do it in all others, for the principles of growth are the same always ; and he who understands these, can mould his trees at pleasure, pro\dded he can bestow the necessary labor. The peach may be grown in any or all the espalier forms. Laying in^ and fastening the trees to walls and trel- lises.— ^When trees are trained to a wall or fence, the branches are fastened in the desired position by means of shreds of cloth or list, half an inch wide, and from two to three inches long, according to the size of the branch to be laid in. Yery small nails are necessary to train on boards, but larger ones on a brick and stone wall. On a trellis, strings of bass matting are used instead of nails and cloth ; and in fastening to simple rails, small willows may be used. The i^rinciple to be observed, in laying in and fastening the branches and shoots of es23alier trees, is that strong shoots must he laid in sooner than ^oeaJi oiies^ and also more inclined from the vertical direction. A great deal may be done towards maintaining uniformity of growth in the different parts of a trained tree, by laying in the branches in a judicious and discriminating manner. '24:4: PRUNING. Section 5. — ^Pruning and Management of the Plum. The phim bears its fruit on spurs produced on wood two years old and nj^wards, like tlie cherry (see fruit branches). On yoimg trees these spurs are several years in the process of formation ; but when they commence to bear they endm-e, if well managed, for many years. They are generally furnished with wood buds on their lower parts ; and when they begin to grow feeble, they ought to be renewed by cutting back. The plum is almost universally grown as a standard, and the head may be conducted in the same manner as described for the cherry. The branches should be mainly regulated by summer pinching, to obviate the necessity of knife i^nming, that frequently gives rise to the gum. Some varieties of very rapid growth produce shoots three or four feet long in one season ; and if not shortened back at the spring pruning, the tree presents long naked branches in a short time. The chief difficulty in the way of conducting it as a pjTamid, is its great vigor ; but this can in a great mea- sure be overcome by the use of dwarfing stocks^ \>j piiicJi- mg and by root jyvuning. The latter will be found a most efficient mode of keeping the trees small and fruitful. We have had no experience with the plum as a pyramid ; but Mr. Rivers says, that by root pruning annually in October and ^November, he has succeeded in making handsome pyramidal trees. Stand- ards and dwarf standards may also be root pruned to advantage in small gardens, and where it is desirable to get them into early bearing. The plum may be trained in any of the espalier forms already described, and in the same manner. the apeicot. 245 Section 6. — Pkunestg and Management of the Apkioot. The apricot, like the peach, has fruit and wood buds mixed on the shoots of one year's growth. It has also little fruit branches or spurs like the plum, which are capable of being renewed by shortening. The mode of pruning must therefore have in view the production of young wood, and maintaining the spurs in a vigorous and fruitful state. When neglected, it be- comes, like the peach, denuded of young bearing wood in the interior, and enfeebled by over-fruitfulness. The shoots should therefore be shortened every season accord- ing to their length, as recommended for the j)each, to reduce the number of blossom buds, and favor the p>ro- duction of new bearing wood. It is very liable to the gum, and severe pruning with the knife should be obviated as far as possible by pinch- ing. It may be conducted as a standard, pyramid, dwarf, or espalier, on the same principle as other trees. When trees become enfeebled by neglect or age, they can be renewed by heading down close to the stem. JSTew and vigorous shoots are immediately produced that form a new tree. This heading dawn should be done very early in the spring, and the wounds be carefully covered with grafting wax. It is one of the first of our fruit trees to blossom in the spring, and therefore in some localities the flowers are killed by the frost. Where this is apprehended, it may be well to plant on the north side of a wall, or something that will rather retard the period of blooming, and subject it less to freezing and thawing. We have apricots trained here on a south aspect, yet in seven years the blossoms have not been killed, though in one or two instances they 246 PEIJNING. have been slightly injured. The espalier trees offer great facility for protection ; and therefore, where spring frosts prevail, the apricot shonld be so trained. Mats or straw hnrdles can be placed against them, both in spring and winter if necessary, with the same ease that a common frame is covered. Section 7. — Pktjning the J^ECTAEDfE. The nectarine is bnt a smooth skinned peach. The trees are so similar in their mode of growth, bnds, etc., that they cannot be distingnished from one another, and, therefore, whatever has been said respecting the pruning and treatment of one, applies with equal force to the other. This fruit is so infested with the cnrcnlio, that it is almost impossible to obtain a crop that will pay for culture in any part of the country in the open ground. Un- less some more effective remedy be discovered than any yet known, it will soon have to retire from the garden, and take up its residence with the foreign grape in glass houses. It produces excellent crops trained in espaliers, on a back wall, or a centre trellis of one of those cold graperies now becoming so popular. Section 8. — Culture, Pkuning, and Training Haedy Geape Yines. Tlie management of our native grapes is exceedingly simple. Immense crops of Catawba and Isabella, and especially the latter, are raised throughout the country in the entire absence of any systematic mode of training or pruning. A single vine in a neighbor's garden, carried to the flat roof of an outbuilding, and allowed to ram- ble there at pleasure, without any care Ijut a very imper- THE GKAPE VINE. 24:7 feet pruning every spring, produces annually many bushels of fruit. But the quality is, of course, greatly inferior to that produced on well-pruned, trained, and dressed vines. A grape vine neatly trained on a trellis, with its luxuriant ample foliage, and rich pendulous clusters of fruit, is really one of the most interesting objects in a fruit garden, and, at the same time, one of the most j)rofitable ; for the shade and ornament alone that it produces, are a sufficient recompense for its culture. In planting a grape vine the first point is to prepare a border for the roots. This must, in the first place, be perfectly dry. If the soil or situation be wet or damp, it must be drained thoroughly, so that no stagnant moisture can exist in it. In the next place it must be deep — three feet is a good depth ; and it must not be less than two where abundant and fine crops are expected. The mode of preparation is, to dig out the natural soil to the required depth, and the length and w^idth necessary. For a single vine, the border should be eight or ten feet long and four wdde. When the excavation is made, if the soil be stiif or damp, a few inches, or a foot deep, of small stones, brick, rubbish, etc., may be laid on the bottom as a sort of drainage. On the top of this deposit the compost for the border. This may consist of two parts of good, fresh, friable loam, one of old, well-rotted manure, and one of ashes, shells, broken bones, etc., all completely mixed with one another. The top of the border, when finished, should be at least a foot higher than the surface of the ground, so that it may still remain higher after settling. Having the border thus prepared, the next ]3oint is the trellis. The form of this will depend on the situation it is to occupy, and the mode of training to be adopted. Fig. 123 represents one intended for a wall. The prin- 248 PErnSTESTG. cipal bars or frame-work are incli and a half boards, three inches wide, nailed together at the angles. . ■ 1 . -* e ■ . • -• , ^ i f ♦ ^ • , I , -, -. . U .— 1— .— 1— ■— .— j — 1— .—!—■— l—.—l — . Fig. 1^3. Trellis for a grape vine. It is intended for one vine, and may be the height of the wall that it is intended to occupy. The vertical or upright bars are three feet apart and the cross ones six feet ; between them are rods of stout wire. The first or lowest cross bar may be two feet from the ground. It is fastened to the wall by iron hooks or brackets. The best and simplest mode of ti-aining a vine on sucli a trellis as this, is to produce two main branches or arms to be trained in a horizontal manner on the first cross bar. From these two arms, permanent, upright canes are trained, one to each of the upright bars of the trellis. These upright canes produce on their sides a succession of bearing shoots from year to year, being pruned after what is called the " spm-" system. Planting the Yine. — As in planting any other tree, the roots should be carefully spread out, and the fine earth THE GEAPE VINE. 249 worked well in amongst them. Its position should be exactly in the centre of the trellis it is to be trained on. Priming. — It mnst first be observed that the grape vine bears its fruit on shoots of the current year, pro- duced from eyes on the previous year's wood. Fig. 124 represent the old wood, with its bearing shoot. It is im- Fig Fruit branch of the grape. The cross line towards the points shows where it ought to be stopped. portant to understand this, because it shows the necessity of keeping up a supply of young wood wherever we desire fruit to be produced. To illustrate the pruning, we will suppose the plant to be one or two years old, as ordinarily sent out from the nursery. It may have only one shoot, or it may have several. However this may be, all are pruned off bat the strongest, and it is cut back to within two eyes of its base. These two eyes will produce shoots, and when they have made a growth of two or three inches, the weaker one is rubbed off and the strong one trained up. It is allowed to grow on till September, when the bud is pinched to mature and strengthen it. Any side shoots that appear during the summer, should be pinched ofi", as well as any suckers that may appear about the roots. Second Year. — If the shoot of last year made a strong growth of ten or twelve feet, it may be now cut back to three eyes, and two canes be trained up ; but if it made only a weak growth, it should again be cut back to two 11* 250 PEinmTG. eyet', and one slioot only trained np. Side slioot,s and suckers are pinched off during the summer ; and in Sep- tember these canes are stopped as before, and no fruit is allowed. Third Year. — "We have now two strong canes with which we commence the frame-work of the ViMf Each of these is cut back at the winter imining to T'ithin two or three feet of its base, and laid in, as in hg. 125, and fastened to the lower horizontal bar of the trellis. The Fig. 125. Grape vine at the beginning of the second year. The arms shortened at c, a, 6, etc., are buds. bud on the end of each at (?, will produce a shoot to con- tinue the prolongment in a horizontal direction, and a bud {a) on the upper side of each will produce a shoot to be trained to one of the upright bars — the first one on its division, or half of its trellis ; all others are rubbed off, or the buds cut out. Thus each of these arms produces two shoots — an upright and a horizontal one. During the summer, these shoots are carefully tied in as required, and side shoots and suckers pinched off when they ap- pear. They are also topped in September, as before. Fourth year. — Each of last year's shoots is cut back to within three feet of its base. It may be necessary to cut the horizontal ones closer than the upright ones, to obtain another strong upright shoot. The two upright canes already established, will produce a shoot from their tops, to continue their extension uj^wards, and the hori- zontal ones, as before, produce a shoot at the point to be carried outwards, and one on the top to be trained up to one of the upright bars. This year^ several fridt shoots THE GRAPE VINE. 251 will be produced, on each of wliicli, one or two bunches of grr.pes may be ripened. In this way the vine goes on adding every season two new upriglit canes, and tvv-o or three feet in length to tlie previous ones, until the whole trellis is covered ; when the management will consist in pruning the spurs every winter to about three eyes. Each fruit branch should only be allowed to produce two bunches of fruit, and the top should be pinched at the second eye, or joint above the fruit (see cross line, fig. 124), in order to arrest the production of useless wood, and turn the sap to the benefit of the fruit. Fig. 126 represents the appearance of a vine trained in this way. By such a system as this the trellis is covered in part with wood, the fruit and the foliage are all exposed fully to the sun, an uniformity of every bearing vigor is maintained Fig. 126, Trained, witli horizontal arms, A, B, supporting vertical permanent canes, spur pruned. between the differ- ent parts, and the appearance is beau- tiful. A trellis may be covered with a vine by other modes requiring less labor perhaps, and less time, but none will be found more beneficial or satisfactory in the end. In the management of a grape vine, as in the manage- ment of other trees, summer pruning is of great conse- quence. If a vine is left to itself all summer, or from one w^inter pruning to another, it will be found that a vast quantity of useless wood has been produced, and that to the serious detriment of the bearing shoots for the follow- ing year. Every two weeks the growing vine should be t52 PETJNING. >dsited, slioots tied in, strong ones checked, snperilnons ones rubbed oiF, and every part kept in its j) roper ])lace, and in a proper degree of vigor. In certain cases, where the mode of trainino^ above described cannot be conveni- ently adopted, two or three poles, twelve to fifteen feet high, may be snnk in the ground, w^ith a space of three or four feet between them at the bottom, and fastened toge- ther at the top, forming a cone, around which the perma- nent canes may be trained in a spiral manner. This produces a very beautiful effect, and occupies com- paratively little space, but the grapes will not all ripen so well, nor will the training be so easy as on the flat surface of a trellis. Yery tasteful arbors may also be made over some of the walks, by training the vine over the woodwork, in the same manner as on a trellis. This is a very common practice and offers many advan- tages. Ingenious persons who care well for their garden, as well in its appearance as its productions, will conceive other plans still better adapted to their particular wants and taste than an}^ of these; but the main point must always be kept in view, that is, to provide for the foliage and the fruit, a free oj)en exposure to the sun. Any sys- tem that does not secure this, will fail to a greater or less extent. The Isabella grape succeeds well even as far north as Maine, by laying it down in winter and covering it with mats, straw, boughs of evergreens, &c. Yineyard culture. — Yineyards are located on dry sunny hill sides ; the land is deeply trenched with the spade or subsoil plough (generally the former, as it is more tho- rough), and liberally manured. The Adnes are planted in row^s, six to eight feet aj^art, and four to six feet apart in the rows, and are trained to oak or cedar posts, six to eight feet high. The young vines are cut back close for the THE GRAPE VINE. 253 first year or two, until they have become well rooted and strong, and only one shoot is allowed to grow. About the third year, one shoot, six feet long or so, is left to frnit, and a new shoot is carried np that season to bear the next. At the following pruning the cane that bore is cut away, and thus a continual succession is kept up. During the summer suckers and superfluous shoots are kept down, and the ground is kept in good clean condition with a horse cultivator principally. As the vines grow old, two and sometimes three bearing canes are taken from each stool. The vineyards of Cincinnati cover several hundred acres, and from the Catawba grape they make a " sparkling champagne," as good as the French. This is destined to be an important branch of culture. OultuTG of fo7'eign Grapes in cold vineries. — Eepeated experiments made during many years in all parts of the country, have convinced people generally that the deli- cious varieties of the foreign grape cannot be produced with any considerable degree of success in the open air. A large number of the hardiest French and German sorts have been tested in our ground, but not one of them has borne satisfactorily. A few good bunches have been obtained the first season or two under very favorable circumstances ; but after that the failure is complete. This has rendered glass, heat, and shelter necessary. The huildi7ig. — These are constructed of all sizes and at various degrees of expense, from $50 to $500. Some have single lean-to roofs ; others have double or span roofs. The walls of some are built of brick or stone; others are of wood, wholly. The cheapest and simplest structure of this kind is the lean-to. The back may be nine or ten feet high, composed of strong cedar posts six feet apart, and boarded up on both sides. The ends are made in the same rnanner. The front may be two feet 254 PEUNESTG. high, or three, made of posts, and boards or planks, same as the back. Sills or plates are 2:»ut on the front and back walls, and then rafters at tliree and a half to fonr feet apart. The sashes slip in between the rafters, and rest on a strip of wood on their sides. Unless the graperj be ver}^ small, the sash should be in two parts, the lower one twice as long as the upper, and fixed. The upper to slide down over the under one on pulleys, to ventilate the house ; doors are in each, end at the back, and means are provided for admitting air in front bv the oj^ening of boards like shutters. The })order is made for the vines outside the front wall, or part outside and part in, twelve to sixteen feet wide, also two or three deep. This is done by digging a trench or pit the length and width ; draining it thoroughly, that not a drop of water can lodge about it. Then lay a few inches of small stones, broken bricks, shells, etc., in the bottom for drainage ; and fill up the remainder six inches above the level of the ground, and sloping outwards, with a good compost, of one half surface loam (turf from an old pasture), and the other of well rotted stable manure, shells, street scrapings, a small portion of night soil, offal, etc. All these must be prepared by frequent turning and mixing a few months beforehand. Tlie mnes may be one or two years old, and are prefer- able in pots raised from single eyes. They should be planted in the spring. A plant is placed under each rafter outside, and carried through under the wall into the house. The stem is cut back to two or three eyes, and when these break the strongest shoot is selected, and the others pinched ofif. This shoot is trained, as it grows, to a light trellis of iron, or thick wire rods attached to the rafter, and eight or ten inches from the glass. If all goes well, "it reaches the top of the house that season. In September the top may be pinched to check the flow of sap to the THE GKAPE VINE. 255 jDoint, and throw it more into the lateral Lnds to increase their strength. Dnring the summer no other shoot is allowed to grow but this. Pruning. — In l^ovember or December it is taken down, pruned, if according to the spur system, which is the sim- plest, to within three or four feet of its base, laid on the ground, and covered with leaves, evergreen boughs, or mats. There it remains till the buds begin to swell in the spring, when it is again fastened to the trellis. The shoot from the terminal bud continues the cane, and no fruit is allowed on it. Those below it produce lateral shoots, from each of which a bunch of grapes may be taken, and each of these must be stoj^ped at two eyes above the bunch ; and this is repeated as often as neces- sary, to give the fruit the whole benefit of the sap. The leading shoot is again stopped in September by pinching off its point, to increase the vigor of its lateral buds. In the fall, when the leaves have dropped, the ^ine is again taken down. The leader is pruned back to within three to fom^ feet of the old wood. The laterals that have borne are jDruned to three eyes, and it is then covered up. This is the routine of spur training. In long cane pruning, the young shoot, after the first season's growth, is cut back to three eyes, and the next season two shoots are trained uj). The next season the strongest is selected for fruit, and pruned to about three feet; each of the eyes left will produce a fruit shoot, from which one bunch only will be taken. The weaker cane is cut back to one eve, and this produces a shoot for next year's bearing, and so this goes on. "When the vine becomes strong, several bearing canes may be provided for every season. This renewal or lono- cane is very simple, and requires much less cutting than the spur. It also produces a superior quality of fruit, but in general not so large a quantity. Thinning the Fruit. — When the fruit attains the size 256 PRUNING. of a garden pea, one third of the smaller ones should be cut out carefully with pointed scissors (see implements) that are prepared for this purpose. The object of this is, to allow the fruits to swell out to their full size. Yarie- ties that produce very comj^act bunches require more severe thinniug than those of a loose, open bunch. Cleaninq the Vine. — At the time the vines are taken from their winter quarters and trellised, they should be well washed with a solution of soft soap and tobacco water, to kill all eggs of insects, and remove all loose bark and filth that may have accumulated on them dur- ing the season previous. The house, too, should be cleaned and renovated at the same time. Syringing the Vines and the Fruit. — Every one who has a grapery must be provided with a good hand syringe, for this is necessary during the w^hole season. As soon as they begin to grow, they should be occasionally syi'inged in the morning, except while they are in bloom. After the fruit has set, they should be syringed every evening, and the house kept closed till the next forenoon when the sun is out warm. Hegulating the temperature. — ^When the temperature exceeds ninety to one hundred degrees, air should be ad- mitted at the top, and, if necessary, at the bottom. To prevent mildew. — This may be looked for in July. Syringing freely night and morning, and the admission of air during the warmest hours of the day, are the best preventives of this disease. Mr. Allen recommends dusting sulphur on the floor, at the rate of one pound for every twenty square feet ; and if it continues to increase, to svrino^e the vines in the evenino^, and dust the folias^e with it. Mr. Buist recommends a solution of five pounds of flour of sulphur in four gallons of water, and after it has set- THE FILBEET. 257 tied to add one fourtli of it to the water used in syring- ing. This is but an imperfect outline of the management of a cold grapery. Those Avho wish full information on all points of the subject, should consult Allen's excellent work, which treats of all kinds of graperies and their management in complete detail. Section 9. — Peuning and Training the Filbert. The filbert in this country is a neglected fruit. It is seldom found in the garden, and more rarely still in a prolific, well-grown condition. Of all other trees, it re- quires regular and proper pruning to maintain its fruitful- ness. The blossoms are monoecious — that is, the male organs which are in long catkins (fig. 36), are produced from one bud, and the female flowers from another. The blossom or fruit buds are produced on shoots of one year's growth, and bear fruit the next. The fruit is borne in a cluster on the end of a small twig produced from the bud bearing the female organs. It is said that in the neighborhood of Maidstone, county of Kent, England, the filbert orchards occupy several hundred acres, and from these the principal supply of the London market is obtained. One acre has been known to produce £50 sterling, or $250 worth, in one season. The pruning of these Kent growers is supposed to be most perfect of its kind, es]3ecially for their soil and climate. It is described as follows in the " Transactions of the Lon- don Horticultural Society :" " The suckers are taken from the parent plant generally in the autumn, and planted in nursery beds (being first shortened to ten or twelve inches), where they remain three or four years. They are slightly pruned every year, in order to form strong lateral shoots, the number of which varies from four to six. But though 258 PRUNING. it is the usual practice to plant the suckers in nursery beds, I would advise every one to plant them where they are to remain, whether they are intended for a garden or a larger plantation ; and after being suffered to grow without restraint for three or four years, to cut them down within a few inches of the ground. From the remaining part, if the trees are well rooted in the soil, five or six strong shoots will be produced. Whichever method is practised, the subsequent treatment of the trees will be exactly the same. '' In the second year after ctitting down, these shoots are shortened ; generally one-third is taken off. If very weak, I would advise that the trees be quite cut down a second time, as in the previous spring ; but it would be much better not to cut them down till the trees give evident tokens of their being able to pro- duce shoots of sufficient strength. When they are thus shortened, that they may appear regular, let a small hoop be placed within the branches, to which the shoots are to be fastened at equal dis- tances. By ttiis practice two considerable advantages will be gained — the trees will grow more regular, and the middle will be kept hollow, so as to admit the influence of the sun and air, " In the third year a shoot will spring from each bud ; these must be suffered to grow till the following autumn, or fourth year, when they are to be cut off nearly close to the original stem, and the leading shoot of the last year shortened two-thirds. " In the fifth year several small shoots will arise from the bases of the side branches which were cut off the preceding year ; these are produced from small buds, and would not have been emitted had not the branch on which they are situated been shortened, the whole nourishment being carried to the upper part of the branch. It is from these shoots that fruit is to be expected. These productive shoots will in a few years become very numerous, and many of them must be taken off, particularly the strongest, in order to encourage the production of the smaller ones ; for those of the former year become so exhausted that they generally decay ; but whether decayed or not, they are always cut out by the pruner, and a fresh supply must therefore be provided to pro- duce the fruit in the succeeding year. The leading shoot is every THE FILBERT. 259 year to be shortened two-tliirds, or more should the tree be weak, and the whole height of the branches must not exceed six feet. " The method of pruning above detailed might, in a few words, be called a method of spurring, by which bearing shoots are pro- duced, which otherwise would have had no existence. Old trees are easily induced to bear in this manner, by selecting a sufficient number of the main branches, and then cutting the side shoots off nearly close, excepting any should be so situated as not to interfere with the others, and there should be no main branch di- rected to that particular part. It will, however, be two or three years before the full effect will be produced. By the above method of pruning, thirty hundred per acre have been grown in particular grounds and in particular years, yet twenty hundred is considered a large crop, and rather more than half that quantity may be called a more usual one ; and even then the crop totally fails three years out of five ; so that the annual average quantity cannot be reckoned at more than five hundred per acre. " When I reflected upon the reason of failure happening so often as three years out of five, it occurred to me that possibly it might arise from the excessive productiveness of the other two. In order to ensure fruit every year, I have usually left a large pro- portion of those shoots which, from their strength, I suspected would not be so productive of blossom-buds as the shorter ones; leaving them more in a state of nature than is usually done, not pruning them so closely as to weaken the trees by excessive bear- ing, nor leaving them so entirely to their natural growth, as to cause their annual productiveness to be destroyed by a superfluity of wood. These shoots, in the spring of the year, I have usual]- shortened to a blossom-bud." Sucli is tlie manao-ement of tliese celebrated filbert growers, their principal object being to keep the trees small, open in the centre, and covered in every part with fruit spurs. A similar system, but less severe in the cut- ting back, may be pursued here ; some such course of treatment as recommended for the head of the quince as to form and fruitfulness. 260 PEUNING. Instead of relying on the spring pruning to subdue vigor and induce fruitfulness, pinching should be prac- tised during the summer; for this not only checks the production of wood, but of roots. Root pruning, too, may be safely j)ractised in August, when pruning and pinch- ing of the branches prove insufficient. In all cases, suckers must be completely eradicated every season, or as soon as they make their appearance. The want of pruning, and the growth of suckers, make the filbert in nearly all our gardens completely barren ; a rank production of wood only is obtained year after year. We find that grafting the finer kinds on stocks of the common filbert raised from seed, renders the trees much more prolific naturally, and also smaller in size. We have trees here now bearing only three years from the graft ; the stems are eighteen inches to two feet high, and they are very pretty. Their natural vigor is greatly sub- dued by the graft. The French conduct them in pyramids with great success, on the same principle as other trees. Section 10. — Cultijee, Pkitntng, and Training of the Fig. In the ISTorthern States the fig is cultivated with very little success in the open ground, but fine crops are pro- duced in the vineries recommended for foreign grapes ; and it is in these only that its culture can yield any con- siderable degree of satisfaction, north of Maryland at least. Propagation. — The surest and best mode is by layers. A large branch may be layered in the spring, and will be sufficiently rooted in the fall to be planted out. Cuttings also strike freely, and make good plants in one season. All the modes of propagation recommended for the quince, may be applied to the fig. Cuttmgs are generalb- preferred in the South. THE FIG. 261 ;§Qil^ — It succeeds in any good rich, warm garden soil, suitable for other fruit trees. In very light or dry soils the fraits fall before maturit}, as they require at that season in particular a large amount of moisture ; but it is better that it be too dry than too moist, for in tlie latter case nothing but soft unripe and unfruitful shoots is obtained, whilst in the former moisture can be supplied at the time when it may be required. The wood should be short-jointed, the buds not more than one-fourth of an inch apart. In England dry chalky soils produce the finest crops. Pruning. — The fig is somewhat peculiar in its mode of bearing, '^o blossoms appear, but the figs are produced on the stem, appearing at first like buds. The young shoots of last season bear fruit the next; and the shoots produced during first growth produce fruit the same season, and this is called the " second crop." These never ripen, and should never be encouraged where the plants require protection. In warm climates, as in some of our Southern States, these two crops ripen jDcrfectly, though the first from the previous season's wood is larger and better. This mode of bearing shows that little pruning is neces- sary, beyond the cutting away of old or worn out branches, and thinning and regulating others. Unfruitful trees, in a moist and rich ground, should be pinched in summer to check their growth, and concentrate the sap more in the lateral buds. Hoot Priming^ too, may be applied as on other trees. Mr. Downing rec()mmends this in his Fruit and Fruit Trees. Training. — Wherever the trees are hardy enough to withstand the winter without protection, they may be grown in the form of low standards, as recommended for the peach ; but when protection is required, where the branches have to be laid down and covered during winter, 262 PRUNING. they must be grown in stools or bushes, with a dozen or more stems rising from the socket. These are easily laid down and covered, and easily brought nj) to their places again, in the way that raspberry canes are managed. To produce this form, the young tree is j)lanted in the bottom of a trench about a third deeper than in ordinary cases, and a basin is left around it. At the end of the first season's growth, it is cut back to a few inches of the base ; there a number of shoots are produced. As these grow up the earth is drawn in around them, to favor the production of other shoots at their base ; and in this way it is managed until the requisite number of branches is ob- tained. Protection. — Trained in this way, a trench is opened for each branch, or three or four may be put in one trench, if convenient ; they are fastened down with hooked j^egs as in layering, and covered with a foot of earth, which should be drawn up in the mound form, to throw off the water. Ripening the fruit. — In fig growing countries, and to some extent here, there is a practice of applying a drop of olive oil to the eye of the fruit, to hasten its maturity. This is usually done by means of a straw. Training in Graijeries.- — ^The back wall of a lean-to cold vinery is an excellent place for the fig. It may be trained on a trellis in the fan or horizontal manner, but severe pruning must not be practised to produce regu- larity. Section 11. — Pruning the Goossbeert. The gooseberry produces fruit buds and spurs on wood two years old and upwards. Fig. 12T represents the two- yoar-old wood, ^, with fruit buds (7, (7, and B^ the one- THE GOOSEBEEEY. 263 -B 1« S A yi J:^-. }X'ar old wood with wood buds, Z>, D> Of these wood buds, the upper one next season would produce a shoot, and the lower ones would probably be transformed into fruit buds. At the base of one of the fruit buds, C, may be seen a small wood bud d ; this during next season will j)i'c>duce a small shoot or spur. The great point to aim at in this country, must always be to maintain a vigorous condition; the moment the plant becomes feeble or stinted, the fruit is so at- tacked with mildew or rust as to be utterly worthless. Hence it is that young jDlants usually bear excellent crops for the first or second year, while after that the mildew is in some varieties and situations miconquer- able. The bush should have a stem of three or four inches in height, and a head composed of five or six main branches, placed at equal distances and inclined outwards, to j^revent gooseberry, a, two denseness and confusion in the centre. ^^^^ " ^°^' J one year, C. C, These main branches should be furnished fmit buroductive on the quince. — September. Foreign. 3. Bloodgood. — An American pear of the first quality; medium size, buttery, melting, and rich ; tree is a fair grower ; succeeds well, and makes a fine pyramid on the quince. — August. 4. Bartlett (William's Bonchretien). — One of the most 23opular pears ; large, buttery, and melting, with a rich musky flavor ; tree a fair, erect grower ; bears young and abundantly, both on pear and quince ; the fruit ripens perfectly in the house, if gathered even two or three weeks before its time of ripening ; this prolongs its sea- son.— Last of September. 5. Canandaigua. — So named by the Congress Fruit Growers, in 1849 ; previously called " Catharine.''^ It is, in a]3pearance, very similar to the Bartlett, nearly as large and as good ; melting and fine flavored ; tree is an upright, vigorous grower on both pear and quince, and very productive. In season middle of September. 6. Deavljorn^s Seedling. — Rather below medium size, pale yellow, melting and delicious ; tree a rapid, fine grower, both on pear and quince, and bears young and profusely ; one of the very best early summer pears, ripe 300 SELECT YAKIETIES OF FKUITS. immediately after the BloodgoocL— About the last of August. 7. Doyenne cVEte (Summer Doyenne).— A beautiful little melting sweet pear ; tree a fine grower and bearer, and succeeds well on the quince. — August. 8. Edioard's Henrietta. — A medium-sized, greenish pear, melting, juicy, and sprightly; tree very productive; originated at Kew Haven, Conn. — September. Kot much disseminated. 9. Jargonelle^ English. — A good old variety, large size, flesh rather coarse, but juicy and pleasant ; should be ripened in the house. The tree is a very strong grower, with jDurplish spreading shoots, and large foliage and flowers. It makes a fine prolific pyramid on the quince, but is not recommended for small collections. — Be2:innin2: of Auo-ust. 10. LeecKs Kingsessing. — A new pear recently intro- duced by Dr. Brinkle, of Philadelphia. It is described as being large, of a " sea-green" color, and " rich, buttery, and delicately flavored ;" ripe last of August. It proves with us a strong grower, and will make a handsome pyra- mid on the quince. 11. Madeleine. — ^This is the earliest good pear we have ; size medium, flesh melting, sweet and delicate ; tree a fair grower, and good, early bearer on both pear and qnince. 12. Striped Madeleine — is a variety, with wood and fruit striped with green, yellow and red, of same quality and season as the preceding. 13. 2Iuscadine. — Medium size, melting, musky flavored and good. The tree has vigorous dark shoots, similar to Jargonelle ; does not a2:)pear to succeed well on the quince. — Early in September. 14. Moyamensing (Smith's). — Originated in Philadel- phia; large size, buttery, melting, and fine flavored; decays very soon after ripening ; tree is a fair grower on PEAES. 301 both pear and quince ; ripens at Philadelphia from the middle of July till August ; north proportionably later. 15. Muscat Bobert. — A small, pale yellow, half-melting fruit, very juicy and sweet ; tree hardy, productive, and vigorous, leaves large and flat, shoots quite yellowish; bears abundant crops on the quince ; not so good as Madeleine or Bloodgood. 16. Otf's Seedling. — A small, yellow, delicious, high flavored pear ; originated near Philadelphia, and brought to notice by Dr. Brinkle, who considers it nearly as good as the Seckel. — August and September. 17. OsbancVs Summer. — A medium sized, excellent fruit, half-melting, mild, and pleasant flavored ; tree a fair, erect grower, on both pear and quince, and very pro- ductive ; ripens here early part of August ; origin, "Wajme county, ]Sr. Y. ; recently introduced. 18. Rousselet Stuttgart. — Medium size or rather small, greenish brown, half-melting, juicy, and fine flavored; tree a fine grower, and very productive on both pear and quince. German. — August and September. 19. Bostiezer. — Medium size, yellowish green, w^ith a brown cheek ; flesh juicy, sweet, and high flavored ; the tree is vigorous, with dark-colored shoots ; succeeds well on the quince ; of German origin, and not long introduced here, but so far has proved first-rate in its season. — First of S3[;tember. 20. Summer Franc Real. — Medium size, juicy, melting, and rich ; tree very hardy, and a stout, fine grower and good bearer on both pear and quince ; makes a beautiful pyramid ; foliage and 3'oung shoots look mealy, being covered with a light down ; fruit should always be ripened in the house. — End of August and beginning of Sep- tember. 21. Skinless (Sanspeau of the French). — Bather small pyriform, pale yellow, with a tinge of red on the sunny 302 SELECT VARIETIES OF FKUITS. side ; melting, juicj, and sweet ; tree a rapid, erect grower, and very j^rodnctive. — August. 22. Tyson. — Katlier above medium size, melting, juicj, sweet, and fine flavored ; tree very vigorous and rapid grower, both on quince and pear ; one of the finest summer varieties ; origin, Jenkintown, Pa. — Se^^tember. CLASS n. ATITTIMK PEAES. 23. Andreios (Amory or Gibson). — Rather above me- dium size, pyramidal, yellow, with a dull red cheek ; juicy, melting, and good ; tree a fair grower, and a good bearer ; very popular in Boston. September and October. IsTative of Dorchester, Mass. 24. Bleeker'^s Meadow. — Medium size, round, half-melt- ing ; second rate ; but the tree is exceeding hardy and vigorous, and bears enormous crops ; fine for stewing, etc. ■ — October. 25. Buffum. — Yery similar to the White Doyenne, and nearly as good ; buttery, sweet, and fine flavored ; tree a remarkably vigorous, upright grower, with light reddish brown shoots ; succeeds well on the quince. — Last of Sep- tember. 26. JBeurre^ Brown. — A very fine old fruit ; not well spoken of in ]^ew England, but does well in this State ; fruit medium size to large, melting, very juicy, with a sprightly vinous flavor. It is rather a tardy bearer and poor grower on the pear, but on the quince it grows well and makes a fine prolific pyramid. It is inclined to over- bear, and should be pruned close, to maintain its vigor. 2T. Beurre.^ Bosc. — A large and beautiful pear, melting or nearly so, high flavored and delicious ; a good grower on pear, but does not succeed on the quince, except double worked. — September and October. 28. Beurre d'^Amcdis Panache. — In quality similar to PEARS. 803 Number 37, but the wood and fruit curiously striped with red and yellow, like the striped Madeleine and Doyenne. 29. BexiTre dJ^Anjou. — A large fine pear, buttery and melting, with sprightly vinous flavor ; tree a fine grower on both pear and quince. — October and JSTovember. For- eign ; first imported by Col. Wilder. 30. JSeurre Capiaumont. — Medium size, yellow, with a red cheek ; melting, sweet, and rich, but somewhat vari- able ; a good grower and abundant bearer ; makes a beautiful productive pyramid on the quince. — October. 31. Beurre Diet. — One of the largest pears, buttery, rich, and fine ; sometimes gritty at the core on pear stock ; invariably first-rate on the quince ; growth very strong and rapid, with large roundish leaves. — October and I^o- vember ; and if picked early and ripened gradually in the house, may be kept to December. 32. Beurre^ Golden of BiXboa. — A large and beautiful pear of the first quality, buttery and melting, with a ricli sprightly flavor ; a strong, upright, handsome grower ; succeeds particularly well on the quince. — September and October. 33. Bergamotte Cadette (Beurre Beauchamps). — A me- dium size, oval, melting rich pear ; tree a fine grower, and very prolific both on pear and quince ; makes a fine pyra- mid.— Ripe in E^ovember, and keeps well till December. 34. Bergamot Gansels. — Medium to large size, round- ish, skin rough, brown; fiesh melting, juicy, rich, and high flavored ; rather a poor grower, with slender spread- ing branches and gray leaves ; a tardy bearer, does not succeed on the quince. — October. 35. Bezi de Montigny. — A very fair, medium-sized fruit, melting and sweet, with a pleasant, musky flavor ; very vigorous and productive ; makes a fine fruitful pyra- 804 SELECT VARIETIES OF FKriTS. mid on the quince, nearly as good as White Doyenne. — October. 36. Belle Lucrative' (Fondante d'Automne). — Medium size, melting and delicious ; a fair, upright grower ; makes a beautiful pyramid on the quince, and bears early and abundantly ; first quality in all respects. — September and October. 37. Beitrre d^Amalis.—K large, melting, fine j^ear, resembling the Brown Beurre, and with the same high vinous fiavor ; a strong grower, and most abundant bearer on the quince. — September and October. 38. Comte de Lamy. — A medium-sized, melting, fine flavored fruit ; a good grower ; makes a fine pyramid on the quince. — October. 39. Gushing. — Medium size, oblong, pale green, brown- ish next the sun ; juicy, melting, and delicious ; tree very productive ; one of the very best Massachusetts varieties. — September. 40. Dumnore (Knight's). — A large, fine pear, with a sprightly sub-acid flavor like the Brown Beurre ; rather variable ; sometimes first-rate — September. 41. Dix. — A large, fine pear, melting, juicy, and rich ; a fair grower ; slender, yellowish shoots ; succeeds on the quince double worked, but not otherwise. — October. Ori- gin, Boston. 42 Duchesse d^Angouleme. — The largest of all our good pears ; it attains its highest perfection on the quince, and is a beautiful, vigorous tree ; profitable for market. — October and ]N^ovember. 43. Bicchesse d'' Orleans. — A new, large, and delicious pear, " with the flavor of Gansell's Bergamot ;" succeeds well on the quince, and bears quite young ; has proved fine at Boston, but not so good with us. — October. 44. Doyenne Boiissoch. — A new, large, delicious pear, PEAES. 305 like a very large White Doyenne ; tree a strong, rapid grower ; succeeds well on the qnince. — October. 45. Doyenne White. — A w^ell known and universally esteemed variety of the highest excellence ; growing and bearing equally well on both pear and quince ; young trees on the quince are inclined to bear too much, on this account the fruit requires thinning, and the tree pretty close pruning, to keep up a vigorous growth. — October and November. 46. Doyenne Gray. — Similar in quality to the preced ing ; fruit of a reddish russet color ; tree not quite so strong a grower. 47. Doyenne Panaclie (Striped Doyenne). — Similar in character to the White ; wood and fruit are curiously striped. 48. JExcellentissiTua. — A very beautiful and excellent new Belgian variety, as large as the Bartlett ; oblong, pyriform, yellow, with a tinge of red in the sun ; buttery, melting, and rich. — October. It must become a most popular variety. 49. Forelle or Trout Pear. — A beautiful German pear, finely speckled, buttery, melting and rich ; succeeds well on the quince ; bears early and profusely. — ISTovember. 50. FlemisJi Deauty. — A large, beautiful, melting, rich pear ; tree vigorous and fruitful : has not succeeded Avell on the quince wdth us yet. — September and October. 51. Frederick of Wurtemherff. — ^A large and beautiful pear, sometimes first-rate, and often insipid ; a vigorous grower both on pear and quince, and an early good bearer. — September. 52. Fulton. — A native j)ear, round and russety, melt- ing, rich and excellent, hardy and vigorous; succeeds w^ell in the north where many others are tender. — October and November. 53. Henry lY. (We have sent out some trees of this 306 SELECT VARIETIES OF FEUITS. variety, imported as " Ananas"). — A medium sized, melt- ing, delicious pear, of a dull greenish color ; a free stout grower, and a most profuse bearer; succeeds well on tlie quince ; should be ripened in the house. — September. 54. Heathcote. — A buttery, melting, fine-flavored pear, about the size of White Doyenne, hardy and productive. — September. Originated in the vicinity of Boston. 55. Iloivell. — A very good and very handsome variety, originated at New Haven, Conn. Large or medium, obo- vate, inclining to pyramidal, lemon yellow tinged, with red in the sun; melting, juicy and vinous, rather coarse. Tree vigorous, branches rather spreading and drooping. — September and October. 56. Hanners (Hannas). — A native of Boston or vicinity ; of medium size, resembling the Gushing, with somewhat the flavor of AVhite Doyenne. — September. 57. Henkel. — Medium size, roundish obovate, yellow, slightly russeted ; buttery, melting and fine. One of the very best Belgian varieties. — November and December. 58. Hacoii's Incomjxirable.- — 'A very large round pear, buttery, melting and rich. Trees spreading and very pro- ductive. One of the finest English varieties, but a little variable in this country. — October. 59. Harvard. — A very popular and profitable market fruit around Boston; large, oblong, russety, melting and juicy; should be house ripened. The tree is vigorous and upright ; a tardy but very abundant bearer. — September. 60. Jolionnot. — Medium size, roundish obovate, green- ish yellow, slightly russeted, rather coarse but melting, rich and musky. The tree is a good grower, succeeds well on the quince. Originated in Salem, Mass. 61. KnigJifs Seedling. — Originated in Bhode Island. Large, melting, sweet and good ; should be gathered before ripe ; tree a good grower. — September to October. 62. Louise Bonne de Jersey. — One of the finest of all PEARS. 807 pears, large, beautiful and delicious ; it succeeds well both on pear and quince, but on the latter, especially, it is all that can be desired. — September and October. Foreign. 63. Long Green (Verte Longue). — Really long and green, juicy, sweet and good ; a fine strong grower and good bearer on the quince. — October. Foreign. 64. Long Green^ Striped (Yerte Longue Panache). — A variety of the preceding, with striped wood and fruit, but nferior in quality. 65. Las Canas. — A fine Belgian variety, first fruited by Mr. Manning. Medium size, pyriform, yellow and slightly russeted, juicy, melting and fine. — October. QQ. Lodge. — Medium size, brownish, russety, juicy, melting, rich ; native of Philadelphia ; usually first-rate. — September and October. %^. Marie Louise. — A large melting pear of the first quality ; the tree is a straggling, crooked grower, but hardy, and bears young and abundantly ; does not succeed on the quince. 68. Najpoleon. — A large, juicy, melting, fine fruit; tree vigorous, hardy and productive, makes a fine pyramid on the quince ; bears young, ripens in [N'ovember, and may be kept till December. Should be rij)ened in a warm room. 69. Onondaga. — See Swan's Orange. 70. Oswego Beurre. — An excellent new pear, from Os- wego, ISTew York, medium size, melting, with a rich vinov flavor. Tree very hardy and productive ; mak^s a beauxi- ful pyramid on the quince ; a most valuable pear ; rij^ens in October to December. 71. Paradise d'^Automne. — A large, fine melting pear, of the first quality; resembles Beurre Bosc in shape and color. — October. 72. Pratt. — A native of Rhode Island, medium size, 308 SELECT VARIETIES OF FEUITS. melting, buttery, rich and good ; nearly first rate. — Sep- tember and October. Y3. Petre. — l^ative of Pennsylvania ; medium size, obovate, pale yellow, slightly riisseted, buttery, melting and rich ; generally first rate. — September. 74. Pennsylvania. — Medium to large size, half melting; highly esteemed at Philadelphia, where it originated; does not j)rove so good in other places. Tree a good grower, both on pear and quince. — Se^^tember. 75. Surpass Yirgoidouse (or Yirgalieu). A very fine fruit, nearly equal in all respects to the White Doyenne, introduced by the late Mr. Parmentier, of Brooklyn. — October. 76. SecJcel. — ^The highest flavored pear known ; consi- dered as the standard of excellence ; a stout, erect grower, not rapid, a good bearer; grows well on the quince with us. — September and October. 77. St. GMslain. — A medium sized, fine melting pear; tree a rapid and beautiful grower and good bearer ; should be ripened in the house. — September. 78. Stevens^ Genesee. — A large, roundish, buttery, fine- flavored 23ear, vigorous and highly productive ; succeeds w^ell on both pear and quince ; a native of Monroe county, IN'ew York. — September and October. 79. Swan's Orange (Onondaga). — A very large, melting, high-flavored pear, vigorous and extremely productive, one of the best pears of its size and season ;. succeeds well on the quince. — October and N^ovember. 80. Urhaniste (Beurre Picquery of the French). — A large, melting, buttery pear, a tardy bearer on the pear, but succeeds well on the quince. — October and I^^ovember. 81. Ya7i Mons Leon Leclerc. — A very large pear, four and a half inches in length, and three in diameter, of an orange color at maturity. Tree vigorous and productive, succeeds well on the quince, and bears quite yoimg ; PEAES. 309 cracks a little in some seasons, and should have a rich, warm soil. — October and E"ovember. 82. Wasliingto7i. — A medium sized, beautiful pear, sweet and delicious ; a fine grower on the pear, but does not succeed on the quince. — Middle of September. 83. Wilkinson. — A very hardy and productive Rhode Island variety of second quality, medium size, obovate, yellow, melting, sweet and rich. Tree upright and vigo- rous.— October to November. 84. Wilbur. — Medium, obovate, greenish and russety; rather coarse, melting, juicy and good. Native. CLASS III. WINTER PEAKS. 85. Beurre d? Areinberg . — One of the finest winter pears, large, melting, rich, vinous flavored, ripens well without any extra care ; tree vigorous and productive ; succeeds well on the quince. — December to January. 86. Beurre.^ Easter. — A very large, fine melting pear ; better on the quince than on the pear ; keeps till sjjring. 87. Beurre Gris cVHiver Nouveau. — A large, new, melting, buttery pear, of the highest qualit}^, flavor rich and vinous, like the brown Beurre, but milder ; tree suc- ceeds well on the quince, bearing quite young. — Novem- ber and December, and may be kept till January. 88. Beurre Bance. — A fine, melting, rich pear, keep- ing till spring ; tree a poor grower. 89. CJtaiimontel (English). — A large, fine, buttery, melting, rich pear ; should have a warm soil and situa- tion ; succeeds well on the quince.-^December. 90. Columbia.- — A large, handsome, native pear, melt- ing, buttery and rich ; tree vigorous and remarkably pro- ductive ; grows well on the quince with us. — November and January. 91. Doyenne cVHiver I^ouveau or cPAlengon. — A large 810 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. and very line late-keeping variety received from France ; golden yellow, with a brown tinge in the sim, melting, buttery and rich ; tree upright and vigorous, and very pro- ductive on the quince ; have had it very fine on the 1st of March, ripened in the cellar ; will prove very valu- able. 92. Glout Morceau. — A large, melting, buttery, sweet pear ; tree vigorous and productive ; like the Duchesse d'Angouleme, Louise Bonne, and some others, it is de- cidedly superior on the quince, and makes a beautiful pyramid. — December. 93. Josephine de Malines. — A new Flemish winter pear, pronounced both in France and England to be the finest winter variety ; medium in size, melting and rich ; the tree is a moderate grower, with quite small leaves ; it appears to succeed well on the quince ; keeps till spring. 94. Lawrence. — A fine, large, melting, rich flavored pear, a native of Long Island ; tree a fair grower on both pear and quince ; a regular and abundant bearer. — ^ISTo- vember to February. Ripens well in the cellar. 95. Passe Colmar. — Large, buttery, and rich; tree a fine, free grower on both pear and quince ; so disposed to over-fruitfulness that thinning is quite necessary to obtain fine fruit. — December. 96. Sieulle (Doyenne Sieulle). — A large, roundish, melt- ing pear, that keeps till January ; tree vigorous and up- right ; succeeds remarkably well on the quince. 97. St. Germain.^ Prince's. — A medium sized, juicy, fine flavored fruit ; rijDcns in the cellar, like an appie through the w^inter ; a moderate grower and good bearer. — March. 98. St. Gerwuin. — An old variety, large, melting, and sweet ; succeeds well on the quince ; bears young and abundantly. — December to January. 99. Yicav of Winkfield or Monsieur Le Cure. — A PEARS. - 311 large, long pear, fair and handsome, of good, but not first- rate quality ; tree a most vigorous grower on both pear and quince, and on the latter makes a beautiful and pro- ductive pyramid ; one of the most valuable of all late pears. — I^ovemberto January. Kipens well in the cellar. 100. Winter Nelis (Bonne de Maline and Beurre de Maline, of some French catalogues). — One of the best of early winter pears, medium size, melting and buttery, with a rich, sprightly flavor ; tree is rather slender, strag- gling growth. — November and January. CLASS IV. SELECT BAKING AND STEWING PEARS. 101. Boncliretien (Flemish). — Medium to large size ; tree vigorous, spreading, and irregular, and bears great crops ; keeps through w^inter. 102. Boncliretien (Spanish). — Medium to large, pyri- form, tapering to the stalk, yellow with a red cheek ; cooks well. — December and January. 103. Cattillac. — Yery large, roundish, bears quite young and abundantly on the quince; keeps all winter. 104. Chaptal. — Yery large, somewhat resembling Duchesse d'Angouleme ; keeps till spring ; cooks finely, and is sometimes tolerable for eating ; tree vigorous ; bears very young on the quince. 105. Easter Bergamot. — Medium size, rough, greenish ; keeps well, and cooks finely ; trees remarkably vigorous, erect, and fruitful ; bears quite young on the quince. 106. Pound (Angora, Uvedale's St. Germain). — Mon- strous size ; often weighs two pounds ; stews well ; tender, and of a rich crimson color ; trees vigorous, and very ^^ro- ductive ; liable to be blown off standard trees ; succeeds w^ell on the quince, and bears young; keeps all winter. 312 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. SELECT ASSORTMENTS OF PEARS. Profitable varieties for market orchards. — Kos. 4, 31, 42, 45, 46, 50, Q^, 78, 85, 86, 94, 99, 106. Ten very hardy prolific sorts. — JS^os. 20, 24, 25, 52, 59, TO, 94, 97, 99, 106. The great market pear of Western New York, is the White Doyenne or Yirgalieu. -N^o better can be desired of the season ; for summer the Bartlett. The Windsor or Summer Belle.^ and the Summer JBonchretien^ are both veiy profitable pears, at present brought into our markets in large quantities. IN'either of them is described, be- cause it is not desirable to extend their cultivation whilst we have the Bartlett. Ihoentyfive fine varieties for tlie garden.^ on quince stocJcs.—'Nos. 3, 4, 6, 19, 22, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 42, 45, 46, 53, 62, 68, 76, 78, 79, 85, 86, 87, 92, 99, 106. Any or all of these mav be chosen without nmning any risk of a failure. First-rate sorts for pear stocks, or to he double worked on the qtcince.—'Nos. 27, 34, 41, 50, 67, 71. NEW AND RARE PEARS, RECENTLY INTRODUCED, THAT GIVE PROMISE OF EXCELLENCE. THOSE THAT HAVE BEEN PROVED TO SUCCEED ON THE QUINCE ARE DESIGNATED BY A (q) . 107. Adele de St. Denis. — I^ew Belgian, medium size, very handsome, russety, melting, vinous, and perfumed. — October. 108. Arch Due Charles. — Medium size, melting ; tree a vigorous, fine grower, both on pear and quince. — October. 109. Alpha (N"ew Belgian). — Medium size, greenish yellow, buttery and fine ; highly recommended by Mr. Manning. — October. PEARS. 313 110. Ai'hre Cour'bG or Amiral (Yan Mons). — Medium to large, melting and delicious ; branches irregular and crooked . — September. 111. Belle et Bomie des Zees or Bonne des Zees. — A new, large, and fine Belgian variety, ripening immediately after the Bartlett ; obovate, yellow, red next the sun ; melting and perfumed. 112. Brandyivine. — [Recently introduced by Dr. Brin- kle, of Philadelphia ; originated in that vicinity ; ripens same season as the Bartlett ; obovate, yellow, and slightly russeted ; melting, sweet, and perfumed. — September. 113. Beurre Benoist. — Large, obovate, yellow with a red cheek ; melting, juicy, and sweet. — October. From France recently ; found in a hedge. 114. Beurre Bretonneau (Es];)erin, Belgium). — Medium to large, oval, slightly pyramidal ; half melting ; tree vigorous and productive ; keeps till April or May. 115. Beurre Clairgeau. — A new French variety, de- scribed to us as being as large as Duchesse d'Angouleme, and of excellent quality. — October and J^ovember. 116. Bezi Sans Pareil. — A new winter variety from France ; large, greenish, half melting. — February. 117. Beurre Curtet (Bouvier).^ — -Medium size, melting, and fine (q). — October. French. 118. Beurre Davis. — Large, melting, productive (q). — October. French. 119. Beurre Duval. — Large, melting ; tree vigorous and productive (q). — October and November. French. 120. Beurre Giffard or Giffart. — Medium size, melt- ing ; tree has erect, slender branches ; ]3roductive ; one of the best new, early varieties (q). — August. French. 121. Beurre Gouhault. — Medium size, roundish, half melting ; tree vigorous and very prolific ; bears quite young (q) ; new. — September. Angers, France. 122. Beurre Moire. — Medium size, melting ; tree vigo- 14 314 SELECT VAEIETIES OF FRUITS. roiis and productive (q).— September and October. French. 123. Beurre Sujperfine.—'M.Q^mm size, melting, very productive ; new (q). — October. French. 124. Beurre St. Nicholas.— l^^a'gQ^ green, and russet, melting, a little coarse, juicy, and high flavored.— Sep- tember and October. French. 125. Beurre Hardy. — A new variety introduced by Jamin, of Paris ; large, melting, and good ; tree a vigorous and beautiful grower on the quince. — October. 126. Beurre de Waterloo. — Medium, obovate pyriform, greenish yellow, with a blush next the sun ; flesh buttery, melting, and high flavored ; received from France in 1843 ; was the best pear we tasted in 1850 ; ripe latter end of October. 127. Beurre Langelier. — A splendid new variety, intro- duced by Mr. Langelier of the isle of Jersey. Mr. Hovey, who has had it bear, gives it the highest character, and thinks it will prove one of the finest winter varieties from abroad. Large, greenish, with a shade of red in the sun ; melting, juicy, and vinous ; tree a beautiful grower, with large, shining foliage ; succeeds finely on the quince. — Decem- ber and January. 128. Brandes St. Germain (Van Mons). — Medium, pyriform, oblong, green and russet, melting, sugary, and rich ; tree vigorous, shoots slender and spreading. — De- cember to March. Will prove a valuable winter variety ; first introduced by Mr. Manning. 129. Broomparh (Knight's) English. ■ — Medium, round- ish, of a beautiful cinnamon russet, melting and juicy, " partaking of the flavor of a melon and pine-apple." — January. 130. Burling hame. — A seedling raised in Marietta, Ohio ; medium size, very productive, melting, and good. — July and August. PEARS. 315 131. Colinar Musqite. — Medium size, turbinate, golden yellow, texture and flavor of Bartlett ; ripe in October ; a most delicious variety ; bears young and abundantly ; received from France in 1848. 132. Cahot (Massachusetts). — Medium size, buttery and sweet, very productive. — September and October. 133. Catinha (Esperin). — Large, melting, and excel- lent ; new ; said to be in eating for five or six weeks (q). 134. Colmar Bonnet (Yan Mons). — Medium size, melt- ing and sugary (q). — September and October. 135. Colmar d^Areniberg. — Yery large, of second qua- lity ; tree very vigorous and ]3roductive (q). — October and [N^ovember. 136. Commodore. — Medium size, buttery, and sweet. — October. 137. CJiapman (Penn.). — Large, half melting. — Sep- tember and October. 138. Chancellor (Penn.). — Large, melting, and rich ; new. — September and October. 139. Delwes de Jodoigne (Bouvier). — Large, melting ; tree vigorous and productive ; new (q). — IS^ovember. 140. De Bavay. — Large, melting, said to be first quality (q). — September. 141. Dug de Bordeaux (Epine Dumas). — Medium size, half melting, vigorous, and j^roductive (q). — November. 142. De Lepine. — Medium size, half melting, produc- tive (q). — September. 143. Delices d'' Hardempont. — Medium size to large, melting, productive (q). — ]N"ovember and December. 144. Dillen or " Doyenne DillenP — Medium size, melt- ing and good (q). — December. 145. Doyenne Gouhaidt. — Medium size, melting and good, very productive (q). — Winter. 146. Doyenne BoMn. — A new variety from Angers, 316 SELECT VARIETIES OF FEUITS. France, said to be very large, beautiful, and excellent ; ripens in October. 147. Doyenne Hose. — One of the most beantiful of all pears, resembling tbe White Dojenne in size and form, but not so good ; Same season. 148. Dicchesse de Mars. — Medium, roundish, obovate, pale yellow, fair and smooth, juicy, melting, and very highly perfumed. — October. Received from France in 1848 ; succeeds on the quince ; tree rather delicate. 149. Eyeioood (Knight, Eng.). — Medium size, melting and rich, high flavored. — l^ovember. 150. Ferdinand de 3feestei\ or Rousselet de Meester (Yan Mons). — Medium size, melting and good. — Septem- ber and October. 151. Fleur de Niege. — Medium size, melting and pro- ductive (q). — October. 152. Fortunee. — Eather small, melting, high flavored ; succeeds well on the quince ; keeps till spring. Episco- pal has proved synonymous with this. 153. Fredriha Bremer. — A variety recently brought to notice by Mr. John C. Hastings, of Clinton, IS". Y. It is large, obovate inclining to pyriform ; green, changing to yellow as it matures ; melting, buttery, and sprightly ; may prove to be a fine variety. October and I^ovember. The tree is said to be very productive, and some speci- mens to attain the weight of sixteen oimces. 154. Fondante de Maline. — A new Belgian winter variety, melting and good ; very productive ; succeeds well on the quince. Keeps till February. 155. Figue. — A very distinct, greenish pear ; medium size, pyi'iform, stem fleshy; melting, juicy, and good. November. Tree vigorous, and exceedingly productive on the quince. 156. Gratioli of Jersey. — Medium size, melting ; very sweet and good ; succeeds well on the quince. — October. PEAES. 317 157. IIuU (Mass.). — Medium size, melting, fair and good. — September and October. 158. Inconmie Yan Mons. — Medimn size, melting, and fine. — January to February. 159. Jalousie de Fontenay Yendee. — Medium size, melting and rich ; new. — September. Has proved excel- lent so far. 160. Joneses Seedling (Pbila.) — I^ew, and said to be excellent ; grows well on the quince. 161. Kniglit''8 March Bergamot. — One of Knight's best seedlings, described as resembling the Autumn Bergamot ; buttery and rich ; valuable for its long keeping. — March. Yery hardy and productive. 162. Kirtland. — A seckel seedling, raised in Ohio by H. P. Kirtland, Esq., and introduced by Prof. Kirtland, of Cleveland, who describes it as medium size, globular- ovate, crimson russet, varying to a dull green ; melting, juicy, rich, and in the highest degree delicious ; tree has the thrifty habit of White Doyenne. — September. 163. Louise de Boulogne. — Large, breaking, keeps through winter ; succeeds on the quince. 164. Louise d"^ Orleans (Yan Mons). — Medium size, oblong, brownish green ; melting and sugary. — ISTovember. 165. 3foccas (Knight's, Eng.). — Medium size, obovate, brown ; melting, juicy, and high flavored ; tree very hardy and productive. — December. 166. Monarch (Knight's). — Spurious varieties have been disseminated. The true one is large, roundish obovate, brownish, buttery, and slightly musky ; tree hardy and productive, but a tardy bearer ; succeeds double worked on the quince. — January. 167. Muskingum. — ^A native of Ohio ; rather large, roundish, greenish yellow, russeted, melting, juicy, sweet, and high flavored. September. It is said to be hardy, productive, and a fine grower; may prove valuable. 318 SELECT VAEIETIES OF FEriTS. 168. McLaughlin. — A native of Maine ; medinm size, obovate, brownish yellow ; a little coarse, but juicy and ricb ; very hardy and productive ; may be valuable for the N^orth. — November and December. 169. Nouveau Poiteau (Van Mons). — A large, fine, melt- ing pear ; has fruited at Boston, and is pronounced excel- lent.— October and JS^ovember. Tree vigorous and pro- ductive. 170. Osborne. — Medium to small, bright yellow, melt- ing, juicy, and sweet ; tree vigorous : originated in Lidiana, proves good at Cincinnati ; may prove a valu- able early variety for the West. — August at Cincinnati. 171. Passe Tardive. — Large, breaking, productive ; for cooking all through \vinter. 172. Queen of the IjOW Countries. — Medium to large, half-melting. — October and jSTovember. 173. Peine d^Hiver. — Medium, half-melting; i3roduc- tive. — December to January. 174. Seigneur d''Esperin. — Medium size, melting ; first quality. — October. 175. St. Andre. — Medium size, half-melting, very pro- ductive.— October and November. 176. Sageret. — Medium size, melting, sweet and sugary. — December to March. 177. St. Michael Archangel. — Large, melting, very productive. — October. 178. Suzette de Bavay. — Medium, melting, first quality, remarkably productive ; is said to keep all winter ; best in March and April. 179. St. Dorothee. — Large to medium, greenish yellow, russeted ; melting, sprightly, and fine. October. This has borne wdth Mr. Hovey, who gives it a very high character. 180. Triorrt2)he de Jodoigne (BouvierV — \^ery large, QUINCES. 319 melting ; tree very vigorous and productive. I^^ovember and December. Has proved good at Boston. 181. Tarquin. — Large, coarse; for cooking only; tree very vigorous and productive ; is said to keep two years. 182. Viscomte jSpoelherg. — Medium size to small, yellow tinged with red next the sun ; buttery and melting ; first- rate under good culture ; succeeds well on the quince. — ^November. Section 3. — Quinces. 1. Apple-Shaped or Orange. — Large, roundish, with a short neck ; of a bright golden yellow color ; tree has rather slender shoots and oval leaves ; very productive. This is the variety most extensively cultivated for the fruit. — Kipe in October. 2. Pear- Shaped. — This has generally more of a pyri- form shape than the preceding ; the fruit is larger and finer, the tree stronger. 3. Portugal. — The fruit of this is more oblong than the preceding, of a lighter color and better quality, but not so good a bearer ; the shoots are stouter, and the leaves thicker and broader ; usually propagated by budding or grafting on the Apple Quince. A week or two later than the Apple. 4. Angers. — A variety of the Portugal, the strongest -grower of all the quinces, and the best for pear stocks. The fruit is also said to be larger and rather better than any of the others. We have not seen it yet, but expect our trees to bear this season, 1851. 5. Upright. — A variety with slender erect branches ; grows more freely from cuttings than any other. We have not fruited it, nor found it anywhere described, but have trees now showing fruit buds. Received among stocks from France. 320 SELECT VARIETIES OF FKUITS. G. Chinese. — Usuallj cultivated for ornament. Quite different in appearance from the others. The leaves are glossy, sharply and beautifully toothed ; the fruit is large, oblong, bright yellow, and keeps till spring ; little used. The flowers are large and showy, with the fragrance of the violet ; worked on the other sorts ; rather tender, '•equiring a sheltered situation. A very tardy bearer. T. Japan. — This is very distinct from all the others ; very bushy, thorny, and hardy. There are two varieties. The common one has beautiful bright red blossoms, and the other blush ; the most beautiful of all our hardy spring flowering shrubs. Fruit about as large as a chicken's egg ; green, and quite unfit for use. SECOND DIVISION.— STONE FRUITS— APRICOTS, CHERRIES, PEACHES, NECTARINES AND PLUMS. Section 4. — Select Apktcots. 1. Breda. — Small, round, dull orange, marked with red in the sun, flesh orange colored, juicy, rich and vinous ; parts from the stone, kernel sweet, tree hardy, robust and jDrolific. — End of July and beginning of August. 2. Early Golden (Dubois). — Small, pale orange, flesh orange, juicy and sweet ; kernel sweet; tree very hardy and productive. The original tree at Fishkill is said to have yielded $90 worth of fruit in one season. — Beginning of July. 3. Large Early. — Large, orange, with a red cheek, flesh sweet, rich and excellent, parts from the stone ; tree vigo- rous and productive. — Beginning of August. 4. Moorjyarh. — One of the largest and finest apricots, yellow, with a red cheek, flesh orange, sweet, juicy and rich, parts from the stone ; growth rather slow, but stout and short jointed ; very productive. * CHERRIES. 321 5. Orange. — Medium size, orange, with a ruddy cheek, flesh rather dry, requires ripening in the house ; adheres slightly to the stone. — End of July. 6. Peacli. — A very large, handsome and excellent va- riety, quite similar to the Moorpark ; the shoots are not so short jointed, and the fruit a degree larger. 7. — Pur])l6 or Black Apricot. — This is quite distinct in all respects from others, very much like a plum, small, pale red, purple in the sun, flesh yellow, juicy and plea- sant. The tree has slender dark shoots, and small, oval, glossy foliage. It is as hardy as a plum, and therefore worthy of attention where the finer sorts are too tender. — August. ISTos. 1 and 2 are the surest and most abundant bearers, but 3, 4 and 6 are the largest and finest. ]^o. Y is only recommended by its hardiness, for localities where the others do not succeed. Section 5. — Select Cherries. class i. heart cherries. Fruit heart shaped, with tender sweet flesh. Trees of rapid growth, with large, soft drooping leaves. 1. Atnerican Airiber. — Medium size, amber, shaded and mottled with bright red; tender, juicy, sweet and deli- cious ; hangs very long on the tree without rotting ; re- markably vigorous and productive. — End of June till mid- dle of July. 2. BaumarCs May. — Small, dark red; tender, juicy and sweet. Tree a vigorous grower, and a most abundant bearer. Kipens very early ; middle of June here. French. 3. Black Heart. — An excellent old variety; rather large, black, tender, juicy and rich. Tree grows large, and is very prolific. — Beginning of July. French, 322 SELECT YAEIETIES OF FEriTS. 4. Black Eagle.— LiivgQ^ iDlack, tender, jnicy, rich and high flavored. Tree a rapid, stont grower and productive. Eipe beginning of Jnly to the 15th. English. 5. Blach Tartarian. — Yerj large, purplish black, half tender; flavor mild and pleasant. Tree a remarkably vigorous, erect and beautiful grower, and an immense bearer. — Eipe last of June and beginning of July. One of the most poj^ular varieties in all parts of the country. Russian. 6. Burr'^s Seedling. — Large, pointed; flesh color in the shade, pale red in the sun ; tender, sweet and delicious. Li luxuriant foliage and stateliness of growth it surpasses even the Black Tartarian. — Beginning of July. !New; origin, Perrinton, Monroe county. I^ew York. T. Coe^s Transjyareiit. — Medium size, pale amber, red and mottled next the sun ; tender, sweet and fine. — End of June here. Tree vigorous and erect. Origin, Middle- town, Conn. 8. Davenport'' s Early. — Yery similar in all respects to Black Heart, but a few days earlier. American. 9. Boivner-s Late Red. — Bather large, light red, tender and juicy; slightly bitter until fully ripe, when it is most delicious. Tree is a vigorous erect grower, and pro- ductive.— Tenth to twentieth of July. American, and one of the best of all. 10. EaMy White Heart. — Medium size, yellowish white, red in the sun ; tender and sweet, growth moderately vigorous and erect. — Middle and last of June. 11. Early Purjple Guigne. — Small to medium size, pur- ple, tender, juicy and sweet. Growth slender and spread- ing.— Bipe at same time as Bauman's May. French. 12. Elton. — Large, pointed ; pale yellow, nearly covered with light red; half tender, juicy, rich and delicious. Tree vigorous, spreading and irregular. — End of June. English. CIIEKRIES. 323 13. Kniglit^s Early Black. — Large, black, tender, juicy, rich and excellent. Tree vigorous and very productive ; branches spreading. — Rij^e a few days before Black Tar- tarian. English. 14. Manning^ 8 Mottled. — Kather large, amber shaded and mottled distinctly with red ; tender, swxet and deli- cious. Tree erect, vigorous and productive. — End of June. Massachusetts. 15. Sweet Montmorency. — Small, light red, tender and sweet. Tree vigorous, erect and productive. — Ripens about the same time as Sparhawk's Honey, or a few days later. American. 16. White French Guigne (probably the " Merisier a gros fruit blanc," of the French). — A distinct and beauti- ful cherry, rather large, creamy white, flesh tender and melting; juice colorless, sweet, with a scarcely percepti- ble degree of bitterness ; jiot attacked by the birds, like red and black cherries. Tree is vigorous and very pro- ductive.— Middle of July. French. 17. WilMfison. — Medium size, black, tender, juicy and rich. Tree vigorous, erect and productive. — Ripens late, succeeds Downer's. Massachusetts. 18. Spar hawk'' s Honey. Medium size, roundish, light red, sweet and delicious ; stone large. Tree a vigorous, pyramidal grower and very productive. — Ripens with Downer's late, and hangs long on the tree ; a great favo- rite with most people. Massachusetts. CLASS n. BIGAEEEAU CHEKRIES. These are chiefly distinguished from the preceding class by their firmer flesh. Their growth is vigorous, branches spreading, and foliage luxm*iant, mAi and droop- ing. 19. Bigarreau^ or Yellow Spanish — Large, pale yel- 321 SELECT VAUIETIES OF FEUITS. low, with a bright red cheek in the sun ; flesh firm, jnicy and delicious; one of the best, most beautiful, and popular of all light colored cherries. Tree vigorous and produc- tive.— End of June. Turkish. 20. Btittner^s Yellow. — Medium size, yellow, flesh crisp, juicy and sweet. Tree vigorous and productive. Its pe- culiar and beautiful color makes this sort desirable. — End of July. 21. China Bicjarreau. — Medium sizo, oval, red, beauti- fully speckled ; firm, sweet and rich, with a scarcely per- ceptible bitterness. Tree vigorous, erect, and a most pro- fuse bearer ; a very distinct and j)retty variety. — Begin- ning of July. Hangs long on the tree. 22. Flesh-Colored Bigarrcau (Bigarrean couleur de chair). — A large and beautiful cherry, resembling the Elton, and ripening about the same time. French. 23. Florence. — A beautiful cherry, resembling the Bi- garrean ; but firmer, and a week later. From Florence. 24. Gridley or Apple Cherry. — Medium size, dark brow^n, nearly black; flesh very firm, sprightly sub-acid, high flavored. Tree grows rapidly and erect, and bears immense crops. Its firmness and lateness make it very valuable for market. — Middle to last of July. Mass. 25. Hildesheiin Bigarreau. — Medium size, yellow, red in the sun ; fiesh firm, sweet and agreeable. Tree is a good grower, but the ends of the young shoots are apt to get winter killed here. — Beginning of August. German. 26. Holland Bigarreau. — A very large and beautiful <^herry; pale yellow, covered with bright red in the sun; flesh firm, juicy, sweet and fine flavored. Tree vigorous, with spreading, irregular branches. — ^End of June and be- ginning of July. Dutch. 2T. Large ^Heart-shaped Bigarreau (Gros Couret). — Large, dark, shining brown ; firm, rich and excellent. CHEREIES. »325 Tree vigorous, branches spreading. — Middle of July. French. 28. Madison JBigarreau. — Medium size, amber, co- vered with red in the sun ; flesh half tender, sweet and fine flavored. — End of June and beginning of July. American. 29. Merveille de Sept. — A new French cherry, remark- able 07ily for its lateness. — Ripens with us the last of August. Tree a vigorous grower and good bearer. Fruit small, firm, rather dry and sweet. 30. Naijoleon JBigarreau. — A magnificent, large cherry, surpassing in size and beauty all the others ; pale yellow, with a bright red cheek; flesh very firm until fully ripe, when it becomes tender, juicy and sweet. Tree is a vigorous grower, and bears enormous croj)s. — Beginning of July. French. 31. Rockjjort Bigarreau (Dr. Kirkland). — Large, pale amber in the shade, light red in the sun ; half tender, sweet and good. Tree vigorous and erect. — Ripe same time as Black Tartarian. Ohio. 32. Tradescanfs JBlach Heart (Elkhorn). — Yery large, black, firm, juicy and good. Tree vigorous and upright, w^ith peculiar gray bark. A great bearer, and so late as to be very valuable. — Middle and last of July. England. 33. Tardive d^'Argental. — Large, long, dark, shining, red, nearly black; tender, when ripe ; juicy, with a pecu- liar flavor, something like raspberry. Tree is an upright, vigorous grower, with peculiar small, light, wavy leaves. —Middle of July. CLASS III. DUKE AlSTD MOEELLO CHEREIES. These two classes of cherries are very distinct from the preceding. The trees are of smaller size and grow slowly ; the leayes are thicker and more erect, and of a 32 G SELECT YAEIETIES OF FRUITS. deeper green. The fruit is grenerally round, and in color varying from light red, like Belle de CJwisy^ to dark brown, like Maydiike or Morello. The Dulies have stout, erect branches usually, and some of them, like Belle de Choisy and Eeine Hortense^ quite sweet, whilst the Morellos have slender, spreading branches, and acid fruit invariably. These two classes are peculiarly appropriate for dwarfs and pyramids, on the mahaleb stock, and their hardiness renders them well worthy of attention in localities where the Hearts and Bigarreatis are too tender. 3J:. Belle de Ohoisy. — Medium size, amber shaded and mottled with red ; tender, melting, sw^eetand rich ; rather a shy bearer ; tree makes a pretty pyramid. — End of June. French. 35. Belle Magnifique. — A magnificent, large, red, late cherry ; excellent for cooking, and fine for table when fully ripe, rather acid, tender, juicy, rich ; tree is a slow grower, but a most profuse bearer ; makes a fine dwarf or a pyramid on the mahaleb. — Last of July. French. 36. Carnation. — Large, light, red mottled with orange ; tender, juicy, a little acid, rich, and excellent ; tree is a good grower and a profuse bearer ; makes a fine dwarf. — Middle and last of July. 37. Donna Maria. — Medium size, dark red, tender, juicy, acid, rich, fine for cooking ; tree small, very j)ro- lific. — Middle of July. French. 38. Du Nord Nouvelle. — A new French morello, ripens all through August ; medium size, bright red, tender, acid ; useful on account of its lateness ; makes a beau- tiful dwarf or pyramid. 39. Early Biclmiond^ Kentish or 3£ontmorency. — An early, red, acid cherry, very valuable for cooking early in the season. — Kipens through June. 40. Flemish Montr)%orency . — A remarkablv short-stem- CHEEEIES. 327 med, flattened cherry ; medium size, red, tender, jnicj, acid, good for cooking ; rather a poor bearer, but curious. 41. Indulle^ Wain Precoce. — The earliest of all cher- ries, ripening about the last of May or first of June ; it is dwarf in habit, and makes a pretty bush on the mahaleb stock ; the foliage is small, dark, and glossy, and it is quite prolific. French. 42. Jeffries Duke. — Medium size, red, tender, sub-acid ; branches erect and stiff ; makes a beautiful pyramid. — • Middle of June. 43. Late Duke. — Large, light red, late and excellent ; tree makes a nice dwarf or pyramid. — End of July. 44. May Duke. — An old, w^ell known, excellent variety, large, dark red, juicy, sub-acid, rich ; tree hardy, vigo- rous, and fruitful ; ripens a long time in succession ; fine for dwarfs and pyramids. — Middle of June, for several weeks. 45. Morello (English). — Large, dark red, nearly black, tender, juicy, sub-acid, rich ; tree small and slender ; makes a fine bush on the mahaleb ; if trained on a north wall, it may be in use through all the month of August. 46. Plumstone Morello. — Large, dark red, rich and fine ; the best of all the morellos ; tree a slender, slow grower ; makes a nice bush on the mahaleb. — Jnly and August. 47. Peine Hortense.^ Monstreuse de Pavay. — A new French cherry of great excellence ; large, bright red, tender, juicy, nearly sweet, and delicious ; tree vigorous, and bears well ; makes a beautiful pyramid. NEW AND EARE CHEKEnES EECENTLY BEOTJGHT TO NOTICE. 48. Pigarreau Monstreuse de Mezel. — A very large, fine variety, recently introduced from France, but not fully equal to the character given it in the French jour- 32 S SELECT VARIETIES OF FETJITS. nals. It is quite as large as Tradescanfs Blacky and somewhat similar in form ; of a dark red, approaching a mahogany color when ripe ; very firm ; tree of a vigorous habit, similar to the Elton. 49. Belle dWrleans. — A beautiful medium sized pale cherry, ripening immediately after Bauman's May and Early Purple ; from France. 50. Chamjpagne. — A new variety, raised by Mr. Charles Do^-ning, of JSTewburgh ; described in " Hort.," vol. v., as being very hardy, a great bearer, fruit medium size, brick red, " with a lively rich flavor, a mingling of sugar and acid ;" ripe twentieth of June, and hangs long on the tree. 51. Downing^ s Red CheeJc. — This is also described in the " Hort.," as " far handsomer, as well as more tender and sweet, than the Bigarreau or Grafiion, which it some- what resembles," and jDrecedes a few days in ripening. 52. Great Bigarreau. — This name has been given by Mr. Downing " temporarily, until its real name be found," to a very large, fine cherry, recently brought into notice by Mr. L. M. Ferris, of Orange county, ^ew York, who found it among imported fruit trees growing upon an estate of which he has recently come into possession. It is described as larger than the Black Tartarian, and fully equal in quality, and ripening a few days later; described in " Hort.," in January, 1851. 53. Neio Large Black Bigarreaii. — Described in " Ho- vey's Magazine," December, 1850, as brought from the south of France fifteen or twenty years ago, by a gentle- man of Charlestown, Mass. ^No doubt, identical with " the Great Bigarreau" of Mr. Downing ; and as it has been known for many years by this name, it will, of course, take the preference if they prove identical. 54. Boberti Bed Heart, — A heait variety, raised in CHERKIES. 829 Salem, Mass., medium size, pale amber, mottled with red, juicj, and sweet; a great bearer ; ripe last of June. 55. VaiVs August DuTce. — This is described as being one third larger than the May DuJce^ and ripening at Troy about the eighth or tenth of August ; of a bright red color and flavor like the May Duke ; originated by Henry Yail, Esq., of Troy; described in "Hort.," vol. iv. SMALL SELECT LISTS. For the Garden.— Nos. 11, 13, 4, 44, 12, 9, 34, 35, and 45. For the JfarJcet Orchard.— Nos. 5, 19, 30, 24, 32, 4, and 13. For Small Eardy Trees.— 'Nos. 34, 35, 36, 41, 45, 46, 47, and 39. Section 6. — Select ITectaeines. The nectarine tree differs in nothing from a peach, and the fruit only in being smooth skinned. It is peculiarly liable to be destroyed by the curculio, so that it is not advisable to plant it in small gardens. 1 . Boston. — Large, bright yellow, with a red cheek ; flesh yellow, sweet and j)leasant flavor, freestone. — First of September. 2. Downton. — Large, greenish white, with a dark red cheek ; flesh greenish white, rich and high flavored ; one of the best. Free. 3. Early Violet.^ Yiolette Hative. — Medium size, yel- lowish green, with a purple cheek ; flesh pale green, meJt- incr, rich and his^h flavored. Free. — Last of Auo-ust. 4. Elruge. — Medium size, greenish yellow, with a dark red cheek ; flesh greenish white, juicy, and high flavored ; excellent. — Beginning of September. Free. 330 SELECT VARIETIES OF FKTTITS. 5. Early Neioington. — Large, pale green, red in the snn ; flesh jDale, red at the stone, jnic}^, and rich ; adheres to the stone. Cling. 6. Hunfs Tcavny. — Medinm size ; yellow, with a red cheek ; flesh yellow, rich, and juicy- — Beginning of Au- gust. Free. 7. Hardwick Seedling. — Large, pale green, with a vio- let red cheek ; flesh jDale green, juicy, melting, and rich. — End of August. Free. ]N"os. 2, 3, and 4, w^ere recommended for general culti- vation by the Pomological Congress at ISTew York in 1849. The Great Stanwick Nectarine., of which so much has been said in England, will soon be introduced here, and will be well worthy the attention of those w^ho can give it a w^all or a place under glass. Section 7. — Select Peaches. CLASS I. freestones. Fl. S. DENOTES SMALL FLOWERS ; gl. GLANDS ; glob, GLOBOSE ; AND ren. reniform. 1. ATherge Yellow (Barnard's, Yellow Rare-Pipe, etc.). — Large, deep yellow, with a dull red cheek, flesh yellow, juicy, and rich ; tree vigorous, hardy, and productive. — Beginning of September. Fls. small, globose glands. 2. Bergen'^s Yellow. — Yery large, orange, red in the sun ; flesh yellow, juicy and fine flavored ; tree produc- tive. This is considered one of the best of yellow peaches. — Middle of September. Glands ren. fl. small. 3. Brevoort^ or Brevoorfs Morris. — Large, dull white, with a red cheek ; flesh pale, sweet, and fine flavored ; a good and regular bearer. — Beginning of September. Fls. small, glands ren. PEACHES. 331 4. Coleh Early Red. — Medium size, mostly cloiided and mottled with red ; flesli pale, juicy, rich, and deli- cious ; tree vigorous, and an abnndant bearer. — Middle of August. Glands globose, flowers small. 5. Cooledge's Favorite. — A most beantiful and excellent peach ; skin white, delicately mottled with red ; flesh pale, juicy, and rich ; tree vigorous and productive. — Middle to end of August. Flowers small, globose glands. 6. Crawford's Early. — A magnificent, large, yellow peach, of good quality ; tree exceedingly vigorous and prolific ; its size, beauty, and productiveness, make it one of the most popular orchard varieties. — Beginning of September. Glands globose, flowers small. 7. Craioford''s Late Melocoton (Crawford's Superb). — Really a superb yellow peach, very large, productive and good, ripening about the close of the peach season. — Last of September. Glands globose, fl. small. 8. Druid Hill. — Large, roundish, greenish white, cloud- ed with red next the sun ; fiesh greenish w^hite, jviicy, and rich ; very productive. — Middle of September. Origin- ated at Baltimore. Fl. s. gl. glob. 9. Early Newington Free. — Large, whitish, with a red cheek ; flesh pale, red at the stone, rich and vinous flavor. — End of August. Fl. s. gl. ren. 10. Early Anne (Green Kutmeg). — Small, greenish white, with a red cheek ; flesh pale, sweet, and good. — End of July. Flowers large, no glands, unthrifty, and liable to mildew ; only recommended for its earliness. 11. Early Yorh (Early Purple, Serrate Early York, etc.). — Medium size ; on young thrifty trees large, green- ish white, covered in the sun with dull purplish red ; flesli juicy, rich and excellent ; tree a fair grower and very prolific ; one of the best early orchard varieties. — Middle of August. Leaves serrate, flowers large. 12. Early Tillotson. — An excellent variety, ripeninp- 832 SELECT VARIETIES OF FEUITS. with the preceding, about the same size, and of excellent flavor ; the tree is sometimes considerably affected with mildew, and in i^articnlar cases the fruit also ; it should have warm, light soil, and oj^en exposure. Serrate, fls. small. 13. Gewge the Fourth. — Large, white, with a red cheek ; flesh pale, juicy, and rich ; tree vigorous, and bears moderate crops, of the highest quality. — End of August. Gl. glob., fls. small. 14. Grosse Mignoiine. — Large, dull white, with a red cheek ; flesh pale, juicy, with a rich, vinous flavor ; a free grower and good bearer. In England it is called " the best peach in cultivation." — End of August. Elowers large, globose glands. 15. Haine's Early. — Large, white, with a red cheek ; flesh pale, juicy, and delicious ; tree hardy and very pro- ductive ; one of the best varieties. — Middle of August. Els. small, glob. gl. 16. Jacques^ Rare-JRij^e. — A superb yellow peach, full as large and as good as Crawford's early, and ripening a week or ten days later ; origin, Massachusetts. Glands ren. fl. s. IT. Large Early YorJc. — A large and beautiful variety, white, with a red cheek ; flesh juicy and delicious ; tree very vigorous and productive ; one of the very best. — End of August. Gl. glob. fl. s. 18. Late Lxed Liare-Liipe. — Large, roundish oval, grey- ish white, marbled with red in the sun ; flesh pale, rich and fine. — Beginning of September. Fl. s. gl. glob. 19. Late Admirable. — Large, roundish, oval, yellowish green, with a red cheek ; flesh pale, fine flavored. — End of September. Fl. s. gl. glob. 20. La, Grange. — Large, greenish white, slightly red- dened in the sun, flesh pale, juicy, sweet, and rich. Its lateness and color make it a desirable variety for pre- PEACHES. 333 serving. It should have the warmest soil and situation north of !N^ew York, or it will not ripen well. — Last of Sep- tember or beginning of October ; fl. small, glands ren. 21. Morris'' White. — Medium size, dull creamy white, tinged with red in the sun, flesh white to the stone, juicy and delicious ; tree a good bearer ; highly prized for preserving on account of the entire absence of red in the flesh. — Middle of September ; gl. ren., fl. small. 22. Morris^ lied Rare Rijpe. — Large, roundish, green- ish white, with a red cheek, flesh pale, light red at the stone, juicy and rich; trees very productive; fl. small, glands glob. ; similar to George lY. 23. Old Mixon Freestone. — Large, greenish white and red, flesh pale, juicy, and rich; tree hardy and exceed- ingly productive ; a standard orchard variety. — Middle of September for the north. 24. Red Rare Rijpe (Ey. Red Eare Ripe). — A fine old sort, whitish, with a dark red cheek ; flesh pale, rich, and high flavored. — End of August. Slightly subject to mil- dew ; fl. small ; frequently comfounded with the follow- ing: 25. Royal Kensington. — Yery similar to, if not iden- tical with the Grosse Mignonne ; several varieties of white fleshed peaches are cultivated about Rochester as the " Kensington." 26. Royal George. — Medium to large size, white, with a deep red cheek, flesh white, deep red at the stone, juic}", melting and rich ; tree productive. — End of August ; fl. small. 27. Red Cheeh Melocoton. — A famous, old, well known, and popular variety ; large, oval, yellow, with a red cheek ; flesh yellow, juicy, rich and vinous ; tree very hardy and prolific ; valuable for the orchard. — Middle to end of September. Glands glob., fl. small. 28. Snow Peach. — A beautiful fruit, medium size, skin 334 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUrrS. and flesh clear, creamy white throughout ; tree hardy and productive, and shoots greenish, very distinct, and one of the most desirable of white j^eaches for preserving. — Beginning to middle of September ; fl. small, white. 29. Scotfs Non])aTeil.—K new, very large and fine yel- low peach, from Xew Jersey, highly esteemed as a valu- able market variety. — Middle to end of September; fl. small, glands glob. 30. Van Zandfs Sv]?erb. — A beautiful smooth fruit, large size, whitish, with a red cheek ; flesh pale, juicy, sweet, and good. — First of September ; fl. small, glands glob. ; origin, Long Island. 31. WarxVs Late Free. — Large, yellowish white, with a red cheek ; flesh pale, juicy, and good ; a standard pro- fitable late sort among the Delaware orchardists ; will probably not ripen north of New York. 32. Weld^s Freestone. — A very large, roundish oval, late peach ; greenish white, streaked and marbled with red next the sun ; flesh j)ale, pale, juicy, and good ; never fails to give an abundant crop at Rochester. Beginning to middle of October ; fl. small, glands ren. ; succeeds well in Massachusetts. 33. White Im/perial. — Medium to large size, pale, yel- lowish white, faintly marked with red ; flesh pale, juicy, sweet, and good ; tree vigorous ; fl. small, gl. glob. CLASS n. — CLINGSTONES. 34. Heath Cling. — A magnificent late peach, cream colored, w^th a light blush next the sun ; flesh greenish white, tender, juicy, and of the highest flavor ; fl. small, glands ren. ; tree very productive. — Bipe in October ; and has the rare property of keeping well for several weeks after being gathered ; should be grown on a trellis or wall north of J^ew York to bring it to j)erfection. PLUMS. ^S5 35. Large White Cling. — Large, greenish white, lightly reddened in the sun, jnicy, sweet, and rich ; tree very hardy and productive; higlily esteemed for preserving on account of its light color ; il. small, glands glob. 36. Lemon Cling. — A very large and beautiful lemon- sha2:)ed variety, light yellow, reddened in the sun ; flesh yellow, rich, and vinous ; excellent for preserving ; tree hardy and productive. — End of September. Glands ren., fi. small. 37. Old Mixon Clingstone. — Large, round, whitish, with a red cheek ; flesh pale, sweet, and rich flavored ; fl. small, glands glob. — Beginning of September. 38. Old Neioington Cling. — Large, yellowish white, with a red cheek ; flesh pale, red at the stone, rich, juicy, and good. — Middle of Se23tember ; fl. large ; no glands. Select lists of Peaches. — Our most profitable orchard varieties in Western E"ew York are, N"os. 1, 4, 6, 11, 15 or 17, 23, 27, and No. 6, the most valuable single variety, on account of its great size and beauty, and the vigor and productiveness of the tree. Select Garden Varieties. — E'os. 2, 4, 5, 11, 13, 21, 23, and 28. Robert Manning selects for E"ew England, out of seventy varieties that he has tested, ]^os. 11, 13, 22, 6, 2, 19, 37, 7, besides Nivette and "Walter's Early. These ten he con- siders "unimpeachable," and l^o. 6 he considers com- bines, in the greatest degree, all desirable quality. With these he recommends Nos. 5, 4, 14, 16, 21, 16, 27, 36, and 32, with several others we have not thought it necessary to describe. He ranks them in regard to relative merit as the numbers are placed. Section 7. — Select Plums. 1. Autumn Gage^ or Eoe^s Axitumn Gage. — Medium 336 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. size, oval, pale yellow, sweet, juicy and good ; parts from the stone ; tree a slow grower, but very productive. — Middle to end of September. 2. Binglimn. — Large and handsome, oval, deep yellow, with a few red spots ; juicy and rich ; parts from the stone ; tree very productive. — Beginning of September. 3. Bleeker'^s Gage. — Above medium size, roundish oval, yellowish ; flesh yellow, juicy, and rich ; parts from the stone ; tree a fair grower and productive. — Last of August. 4. Cherry^ or Early Scarlet. — Rather small, round, red, very pretty, juicy, soft, sub-acid, adheres to the stone. — Last of July. Makes a very pretty dwarf bush. 5. Coe''s Golden Drop. — Large and handsome, oval, light yellow, flesh firm, rich and sweet ; adheres to the stone ; tree a fair grower and very productive, but does not bear so young as many others ; valuable not only on account of its large size and fine appearance, but its lateness and hanging long on the tree. — Last of September. 6. Columbia. — Large and handsome, roundish, purple, flesh yellow, juicy and rich ; parts from the stone ; tree vigorous and very productive. — September. '7. Cruger'^s Scarlet. — Medium size, roundish, reddish lilac ; juicy, but not rich ; an extraordinary bearer ; always requires thinning; particulai'ly valuable in light soils ; profitable. — September. 8. Draj) cVOr. — A fine golden yellow plum, somewhat resembling the old green gage ; very good ; vigorous shoots, a little downy. — Early. 9. Drap cVOr cVEsjyerin. — A new Belgian variety, resembling the Washington, and probably no better. The first trees were sold at Ghent in 1848 at ^10 each. 10. Diamond. — One of the largest and most produc- tive of purple plums, but coarse ; only for cooking. — September. PLUMS. 837 11. Dennison''s Red. — Large, round oval, light red, flesh juicy and rich, parts from the stone. — End of August. 12. Dennison^s Sujyei'h. — Pretty large, beautiful, round, yellowish green, with purple dots ; flesh juicy, rich, and parts from the stone ; tree vigorous and productive. — End of August. 13. Duane^s Purple, — Yery large and handsome, oval, reddish purple ; flesh juicy and sweet, adheres to the stone ; tree a good grower and very productive. — Begin- ning of September. 14. Emerald Drop. — Medium size, oval, yellow^ish green ; flesh juicy and good, adheres slightly to the stone ; a good grower and profuse bearer. 15. Fellenherg. — A fine late plum, oval, purple ; flesh juicy and delicious, parts from the stone ; fine for drying ; tree very productive. — September. 16. Frost Gage. — Rather small, round, purple ; an im- mense bearer ; very late ; profitable for market. — October. 17. Green Gage. — Small, but of the highest excellence ; tree a slow grower. — Middle of August. 18. German Prxine (Quetsche). — Large, long oval, dark purple, blue, free, fine for drying, and good to eat ; grows spontaneously in Germany. — September. 19. Gen. Hand. — One of the largest American varie- ties, introduced by Messrs. Sinclair & Corse, Balti- more. It is of a golden yellow color, sweet but not high flavored. — First of September. Will be valuable for the market, as it is very productive, besides being so attrac- tive in size and beauty. 20. Guthrie's Apricot. — Medium size, yellow, has the flavor of the Apricot; of Scotch origin. — End September. 21. Hiding'' s Superh. — Large and handsome, round, yel- lowish green ; flesh juicy, rich and fine flavored, parts freely from the stone ; tree grows well and is very produc- tive.— Middle of August. 338 SELECT VAEIETIES OF FEUITS. 22. Ickworth Imperatrice. — An English late variety, pur- ple, flesh juicj, sweet and rich ; may be kept into winter. 23. Imperial Gage. — Large, oval, greenish ; flesh juicy, rich and delicious, parts from the stone ; one of the best growers, most productive, and best of plums ; profitable for market. — Middle of August. 24. Ives^ Seedling. — Eaised by Mr. J. M. Ives, of Salem, Mass. ; large, roundish, oblong, yellow, mottled with red, melting and rich ; freestone. — First of September. Tree a strong, rapid grower. 25. Jaime Hative. — A nice little yellow plum, ripening last of July ; earliness is its chief quality. W. Jefferson. — A new American variety, of the high- est reputation ; yellow, with a red cheek ; flesh orange- colored, juicy and rich, parts from the stone ; an excellent variety, but we have never seen it superior to the Impe- rial Gao^e. — End of Ausrust. 27. Kirlts (from England). — A large, fine, violet fruit, rich and sugary ; freestone. — September. Shoots stout and smooth, like those of the red mag. bon. 28. iMcomVs Nonsuch (English). — A large, roundish, greenish plum, nearly as large and as good as the Wash- ington. 29. Lawrence's Favorite. — Large, roundish, yellowish green ; flesh juicy, melting, and rich, parts from the stone ; tree vigorous and very productive. — Middle and end of August. 30. Lombard. — Medium size, oval, violet red ; flesh yellow, jnicy, and pleasant ; a great bearer, and said to be peculiarly well adapted to light soils. — End of August. Profitable for market. 31. I^ong Scarlet^ or Scarlet Gage. — Medium^ size, ob- long, bright red ; flesh juicy, sweet when fully ripe, adheres to the stone ; tree a good grower, and a most abiuidant bearer. — End of Auo-ust. PLUMS. 66\) 32. Magnmn Bonmn^ Yellow. — A very large and beautiful egg-shaped yellow plum ; a little coarse, but excellent for cooking ; tree vigorous and very productive. — End of August. Profitable. 33. Magnum Bonum.^ Bed. — Large and beautiful, Q^g shaped, violet red ; of second quality, valuable for cook- ing ; tree vigorous and productive. — End of August. Pro- fitable for market. 34. Mamelonne. — A curious looking, distinct fruit ; round, with a neck like a pear, greenish, similar in qua- lity and season to the green gage ; tree vigorous and pro- ductive ; new from France. 35. Mirahelle. — A small, round, yellow plum, very prolific and fine for preserving. — August and September. 36. Mirohelle d'^Octobre. — A late variety recently re- ceived from France ; very hardy and prolific. 37. Orange. — One of the largest varieties, oval, yellow, rather coarse ; tree vigorous and very productive. — First of October. Profitable for market. 38. Orleans Early. — ^Medium size, round, purple ; flesh sweet and good ; tree a great bearer. — Middle of August. 39. Orleans Smitli's. — 'A very large and excellent va- riety, oval, reddish purple, with a thick coat of bloom ; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, and rich ; tree vigorous and very productive. — Last of August. Profitable for market. 40. Peach. — A very large and beautiful plum, round- ish, dull red; flesh a little coarse ; tree very productive. — • End of August. 41. Prime d'^Agen^ or Bote de Sergent. — A new French variety, first quality for drying ; tree very prolific ; medium size, purple, sweet, and good. — September. 42. Purple Favomte. — Medium size, brownish purple ; flesh juicy, melting, and sweet ; one of the very best of plums ; tree a slow grower. — Beginning of September. 43. Purple Gage (Keine Claude Yiolette). — Medium diJ SELECT VAKIETIES OF FKUITS. size, roiindisli, violet, with a blue bloom, rich, siigaiy, and fine ; freestone ; hangs long on the tree, and shrivels in ripening : shoots smooth. — September and October. 44. Red Diaper (Diapree Eouge, French). — One of the finest of all j)lmns, brownish red, dark in the sun, freestone. End of August. Hangs long on the tree. This is called Mimms in England, and is difierent from the Red Diaper of some. 45. Heine Claude de Bavay (Esperin). — The best new foreign variety, as large as the Washington, and in flavor equal to the green gage ; roundish, oval, greenish, mark- ed with red in the sun ; tree vigorous and remarkably productive. — Middle of September. Hangs long on the tree. 46. Schenectady Catharine. — Rather below medium size, purj^le ; flesh melting, sweet and excellent. — Middle of August. It is said to reproduce itself from seed with- out variation. 47. St. Martin-s Quetsche (German). — Medium size, oval, pale yellow, juicy and rich. — September. Hangs long on the tree ; bears the most abimdant crops ; flne for drying ; very profitable. 48. Thomas (of Boston). — Large, roundish, oblong, amber colored, juicy and good. — September. Shoots stout, a little downy, a great bearer, and very handsome. 49. Washington. — A magnificent, large plum ; round- ish, green, usually marked w^ith red ; juicy, sweet and good ; tree vigorous and exceedingly productive ; one of the very best. — End of August. 50. Winter or Late Damson. — A small, dark purple variety, esteemed for preserving. — October. 51. Yellow Gage. — Large, yellow, oval ; flesh yellow, juicy, and rich ; tree remarkably vigorous and produc- tive ; an excellent and profitable variety. — Middle of August. CUKEANTS. 341 SMALL SELECT LISTS OF PLTJMS. For the Garden— 'Eoq. 17, 23, 26, 29, 39, 42, 43, 45, 5. For 3£arket—^o^. 16, 23, 32, 33, 39, 49. For D^ymg. — ISTos. 15, 18, 41, 47. THIRD DIVISION.— BERRIES. currants, gooseberries, raspberries stra"svberries, bee- berries, blackberries, mulberries, grapes, and figs. Section 8. — Select Currants. The currant is a most useful fruit, indeed indispen- sable to every garden, large or small ; it fills a space of a couple of weeks after the strawberries, raspberries, and cherries, and before the apricots, early apples, and pears ; and besides this, it possesses such a remarkable combination of sweet and acid, as fits it for an almost endless variety of useful and agreeable preparations, both in the green and ripe state. The white varieties are mildest flavored, and, therefore, better for using in a raw state when ripe. The red are preferable for jellies, etc., on account of their beautiful color. 1. Black English^ or common black, well known. 2. Black Najples. — The largest and best black currant ; bears profusely ; valuable for jam and jellies ; bunches short, milder flavored, and later than the j)i*eceding. 3. Cherry. — Largest of all currants, exceeding an inch in circumference, bunches short, color dark red, ripens same time as Red Dutch, shoots stout, short jointed and erect, foliage thick, dark green, slightly folded, and bhmtlv and coarse! v serrated. 042 SELECT YAEIETIES OF FEUITS. 4. Red Dutch. — A well known variety, bunches three inches long or more ; fine. 5. Bed KnigJifs Sweet. — Similar to the preceding, but of rather a milder acid. 6. Victoria or Hoiigliton Castle. — Yery large, bright red, bunches five or six inches long ; hangs on the bushes after others are gone ; distinguished at once by its re- markably long bunches, and bright red color, and by the foliage, which is quite distinct, dark green, coarsely and bluntly serrated, quite flat, and frequently reflexed or turned backwards at the edges ; the shoots are not so stout and erect as those of the cherry. Y. White Dutch. — Yellowish white, transparent, milder than the red, and better for using raw ; excellent. 8. White Grape. — Larger every way than the preced- ing ; the largest white currant ; growth rather spreading, foliage thicker, deeper green, and more reflexed. 9. Missouri Yellow Floioering. — Fine yellow, fragrant flowers, and sweet fruit of a violet blue. 10. Missouri Large Fruited. — Large, blue, sweet fruit, very pleasant. The two last are seldom cultivated for the fruit. 11. Long Bunched Bed Dutch (Grosse Rouge de Hol- land).— ^This is a variety we received lately from France, and it promises to be valuable. There are several sorts under cultivation, more or less unworthy of notice, unless to those who are making large collections. Section 9. — Goosebekeies. The following, from the large English sorts, have all proved excellent. 1. Bed. — Albion, Crovvmbob, Echo, Houghton's Bog- gart, L-onmonger, Lancashire Red, Prince Regent, Roar- EASPBERRIES. S43 ing Lion, Shakspeare, Sportsman, Top Sawyer, Wine- beny. Young's Wonderful. 2. White. — Chorister, Meur de Lis, Leigh's Toper, Queen Caroline, Smiling Beauty, Whitesmith, Welling- ton's Glory, White Muslin, etc. 3. Green. — Berrier's Greenwood, Chipendale's Con- quering Hero, Green Mountain, Green Yale, Green Wil- low, Green Ocean, Independent, Jolly Cutler, Massey's Heart of Oak, Profit. 4. Yellow. — Bunker Hill, Capper's Early Sulphur, Gol- den Drop, Husbandman, etc. 5. Houghton's Seedling. — Raised in Massachusetts from the seed of a native variety ; it is small and rather indif- ferent in flavor, but is not subject to the mildew, and bears most abundantly, small, oval, dull brownish red. The following sorts were recommended by the Pomo- logical Congress : Houghton's Seedling, Whitesmith, Crownbob, Ped Champagne, Warrington, Laurel, L'on- monger. Early Sulphur, Green Gage, Green Walnut. Section 10. — Select Paspbekeies. 1. Antwerp.) Heel. — ^This is an excellent variety, and very popular in market ; three quarters of an acre of land on the Hudson, planted with it, have yielded $330 ; and three acres in the same locality, $1,500 in one season. The berry is large, conical, dark red, rich and juicy; canes have a few small, purple spines. 2. Antwerp.) Yellow or White. — Fruit large, pale yel- low, sweet and rich; a beautiful and excellent fruit, but not so firm and so well adapted to marketing as the pre- ceding; canes thickly covered with greenish spines. 3. Fastolff. — Fruit larger and rounder than the Ped Antwerp, but rather softer ; of a purplish red, canes more spiny; very hardy and productive. 344 SELECT YAEIETIES OF FEUITS. 4. Franco7iia. — Fruit very large, of a purplish red, ra- ther darker than the Red Antwerp or Fastolff ; canes very strong, with a few short purple spines, and thicker, firmer and smoother, or less crimped or wrinkled leaves than any of the others. 5. Knevett'^s Giant. — This is an English variety of the Red Antwerp, from which it differs only in being some- w^hat hardier. The " Col. TF^7<^^r" and " Cushing^^ are two seedling varieties produced by Dr. Brinkle, of Philadelphia, that give promise of superiority, the first especially, which is described as a beautiful " cream-colored" fruit and very hardy. The American Red, White and Black are well known. 6. Large Fruited Montlily (I^ew). — Large red, bears in favorable weather from August to ISTovember ; canes long, rather slender, purplish in the sun, and pretty thickly covered with dark purple spines ; quite different from the " Ohio Everbearing," a worthless variety. We saw fruit on this in January, in Mr. Rivers' nur- sery, in 1848. If the autumn be dry, the plant should be watered occasionally ; and to ensure a good autumn crop, the canes should be pruned in spring to within a foot of the ground. Section 11. — Select Steawbeeeies. Those strongly pistillate or deficient in stamens are marked (p). 1. Alpine.^ Bed IfontJdy. — Small, high-flavored variety, and highly valuable in all collections, on account of bear- ing a long time. 2. Alpijie, White MontJdy. — As above, except color. 3. Alpine.^ Red Bush. — ^These have no rumiers, like STRAWBEKKIES. 34:5 other varieties, and are well adapted to edging walks in the kitclien garden. They are small, but of delicious flavor, and continue bearing till antumn. 4. Alpine^ White Bush. — Same as above, but in color. 5. British Queen (Myatt's). — The most magnificent in appearance of all strawberries, often measuring six or seven inches in circumference ; but it is a shy bearer and rather tender ; plant very luxuriant. 6. BishojPs Orange. — Eather large, light orange scarlet, productive and fine flavored (p). 7. Boston Pine. — Large light red, good, hardy and ex- ceedingly productive ; with plenty of room and good cul- ture the yield is very great. 8. Burros Seedling. — A very prolific medium sized va- riety ; hardy and of fair quality ; from Ohio. 9. Burr\ New Pine. — Large, light orange, scarlet; of the highest and most delicious flavor imiformly ; plant hardy and productive ; one of the very best sorts (p). Ohio. 10. Burr'^s Rival Hudson. — Medium size, dark red, rather acid ; valuable for marketing and preserving ; hardy and productive (p). Ohio. 11. Burv's Columhus. — Large, hardy and productive; flavor medium (p). Ohio. 12. Burros Soadet Melting. ^A. very pretty light scar- let fruit, and a most profuse bearer, but very tender ; not fit for marketing. 13. Black Prince. — A large and beautiful fruit, of a dark blackish crimson color ; variable in quality ; some seasons first rate, others insipid ; hardy and productive (p). 14. Climax Scarlet. — Medium size, conical, slightly necked, light scarlet, rather acid ; bears immense crops (p). 15. DuJce of Kent. — Small, with a long neck ; very pro- lific and valuable for its earliness in a large collection. 16. Genesee. — Large, roundish, dark crimson, good; 15- 346 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. plant very luxuriant ; fi-uit stalks very stout, supporting the fruit well ; most j)rofuse bearer, rather late. 17. ITudson. — Medium size, scarlet, firm, acid ; very productive, and esteemed for marketing; grown much around Cincinnati (p). 18. Hovey^s Seedling. — A well-known magnificent berry ; plant hardy and luxuriant; bears large crops in some places and seasons (p). 19. Jemmfs Seedling — Yery large, roundish, dark scarlet, flavor medium, plant vigorous, and a moderate bearer (p). 20. Large Early Scarlet. — An excellent standard sort, light scarlet, rather acid ; bears uniformly great crops ; early. 21. Monroe Scarlet. — Large, roundish, light scarlet, good; very prolific; over 100 perfect berries have been gathered at once from a single plant (p). 22. Orange Prolific. — Large, orange scarlet ; rather acid, but a great bearer and quite late. 23. Princess Alice Maud. — A very large and handsome English variety ; very productive, but of indifferent flavor. 24. Prolific Hautbois. — A large, purplish, conical fruit, with a peculiar musky flavor, very productive ; plant grows tall and luxuriant, with peculiar crimped foliage, and has very large, showy blossoms ; a distinct species ; late. 25. Swainstone'' s Seedling. — A very large and beautiful fruit, of the most delicious flavor; color light shining scarlet, ripens gradually ; a poor bearer ; English. 26. Scotch Pine Ajpjple^ or Crimson Cone. — One of the most beautiful varieties in appearance ; medium size, uni- form, regularly conical, rich dark crimson ; seeds deeply imbedded, giving the sm-face a rasj^-like aj^pearance; rather acid but good, and very productive. ITos. Y, 9, 18 and 20 are the best for general cultivation; for a larger collection, Kos. 5, IT and 25, besides the BLACKBERRIES. 347 alpines, may be added ; Xos. 14, 16, 21, 22 are new seed- lings produced here that promise well. The wood and alpines should be rene"wed from seed frequently. Section 12. — BERBERRtES. EPIN.-VINETTE OF THE FRENCH. Comrtxmi Red. — ^This is everywhere well known ; gro»vn not only for the fruit, which is used for preserves, jellies and pickles, but for ornament. The bright scarlet oval fruit is borne in rich clusters, and hang on till late in the autumn. Sweet-Fruited (Berberis dulcis). — The fruit of this is much less acid than the common. The plant is not so vigorous. Besides these, there are several species and varieties cultivated chiefly for ornament : The White-fruited^ The Yiolet-fruited^ The Yariegated-leaved^ foliage marked with yellow ; The Purjple-lect'oed.^ the most unique and ornamental of all, with beautiful violet-purple foliage. They are all easily propagated by layers or suckers, and the rare soi*ts by grafting. Section 13. — Blackberries. The Improved High Biish. — ^This Blackberry is begin- ninp" to receive considerable attention. The Massachu- setts Horticultural Society has offered large premiums to encourage its culture, and the result already has been great improvement. Capt. Lovett, of Beverly, has pre- sent specimens an inch and a half long. It bids fair to become a valuable and popular fruit. The berry is long, egg-shaped, shining black, juicy, and rich, the plant erect, 348 SELECT YAEIETIES OF FRTJITS. blossoms white, ripens at a most timely season, after the Raspberry. Section 14. — Mulbeeeies. Black. — This is a native of Persia, and is really the only one valuable for its fruit. The berry is an inch and a half long, and nearly an inch in diameter, black, suc- culent, sugary and rich. The tree is highly ornamental, very erect, with a large spreading head. The leaves appear late in spring, are large, heart-shaped, sometimes lobed, deep green, and form a dense shade. Section 15. — Geapes. select haedt geapes. 1. Catawba. — ^This is the best flavored of all native grapes that ripen as far north as lat. 43 deg., and is con- sidered the best yet discovered for making wine. Bunches large ; berries large, red, becoming a coppery color when ripe ; juicy, sweet, and musky ; hardy, and very pro- ductive. 2. Clinton. — A very hardy, native variety, resembling in foliage the common Fox Grape. Bunches small and very compact ; berries rather small, black, juicy, inferior in flavor to the ]3receding. It ripens here two or three weeks before the Isabella or Catawba, and this is its chief value ; very productive. 3. Diana. — ^This is a variety that originated near Boston, similar to the Catawba ; not cpiite so large, but earlier and better adapted to the north. 4. Isabella. — This is the most popular variety. It ripens well in almost every part of the country, and bears iDimense crops under the most ordinary management. GKAPES. 849 Bunches long and large ; berries large, oval, black, juicy, sweet, slightly musky. SELECT EOKEIGN GEAPES. 1. Black Chister.' — Small, roundish oval, black, sweet and good ; bunches small, very compact ; one of the hardiest and best for open air culture ; early. 2. Black Prince. — Large, oval, black; bunches long, rather open ; sweet and fine ; a profuse bearer. 3. Black Froiitignan. — Berries medium size, round, black, bunches long ; flavor rich and musky ; prolific. 4. Blach Ilamhurg. — A fine grape, and a general favorite for the vinery ; bunches are large, very much shouldered — that is, branched ; berries large, deep blnck, sweet and rich. 5. Chasselas de Foiitaivihleau. — This is esteemed the finest table grape in France, and succeeds admirably here in vineries, and occasionally in the open air. Bunches large, somewhat shouldered ; berries large, round, greenish white, becoming slightly colored or reddened in the sun ; canes stout, of a yellowish color ; leaves large and shining ; very productive. The Golden Chasselas is very similar to, if not identical with this. 6. Grizzly Fronticjnan. — This is one of the most deli- cious grapes when grown in the vinery, and very beau- tiful too. Bunches long, slightly shouldered ; berries medium size, round, colored red and violet-purple in the sun ; rich, musky flavor. 7. White Frontignan (Muscat Blanc of the French). — One of the oldest varieties ; bunches pretty large ; berries roundish, changing from green to amber as they ripen in the sun ; rich and quite musky ; later than the preceding. 8. White Muscat of Alexandria. — ^This is a most deli- cious variety, considered the same as the imported 350 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS. " Malaga." Bunches large, branched and loose ; berries large, oval, white, becoming amber ; firm and rich, with a high musky flavor; growth vigorous; leaves shining and deeply lobed. 9. White Sweetwater.— This and the Black Cluster are the most common foreign varieties in this country. Bunches of good size, open; berries of medium size, round, green, becoming slightly colored in the sun ; sweet and watery ; occasionally produced in tolerable perfection in the open air. The Pomological Congress at New York, in 1849, recommend for culture under glass, l^os. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Section 16. — ^Figs. Yery little is known here from experience of the par- ticular qualities of the difterent kinds of figs. Several varieties have been tested, and are grown successfully in the Boston graperies. The varieties most desirable for out-door culture for their hardiness are : The Broicn Txirliey. — Large, oblong, pear-shaped ; skin dark, brownish purple ; flesh red, leaves large. Black Ischia. — Medium size, roundish, dark violet, nearly black ; flesh deep red, sweet and fine. This is one of the most productive varieties. Yiolette de Bordeaux (Figue poire de Bordeaux. — Large, long, pear-shaped, brownish red ; flesh reddish, medium quality ; extensively cultivated about Paris for its productiveness and hardiness. White Marseilles. — Small, roundish, nearly white; flesh white ; not quite so hardy as the preceding sorts, but very productive ; one of the most abundant in the Paris markets. Upwards of forty varieties are described in the London CHESTNUTS. oo. Horticultural Society's catalogue ; fifteen are described in Downing's Fruit and Fruit Trees. FOURTH DIVISION.— ALMONDS, CHESTNUTS, FILBERTS, AND WALNUTS. Section 17. — Almonds. 1. Sweet Jlard Shell. — This is a hardy and productive variety, succeeding well in the climate of "Western New York, and still farther north. ]^ut very large, with a hard shell and a large sweet kernel ; ripe here about the first of October. The tree is very vigorous, has smooth glaucous leaves, and when in bloom in the spring, is more brilliant and showy than any other fruit tree. 2. Soft Sweet Shelly Ladies' Thin Shelly etc. — ^This is the almond of the shops, of wdiich such immense quan- tities are annually imported from abroad. It and all its sub-varieties, as far as we know, are too tender for our northern climate, unless carefully grown on a wall or trellis, and protected. South of Virginia, we believe, it succeeds well ; and so beautiful a tree, and so estimable a fruit, deserve the attention of all fruit growers. 3. The Bitter Almond.- -T\ii^ is hardy and productive ; nut similar to No. 1 in appearance, but bitter, and only useful in confectionery or medicine. Its chief product is the prussic acid of the druggists. Section 18. — Chestnuts. The American or Common Chestmit is well known as one of our most beautiful forest trees. It is seldom grown as a fruit tree, although the fruit is highly es- teeme ^ . 352 SELECT YAEIETIES OF FEUITS. It should have a place in all large collections of stand- ard fruit trees. It reproduces itself from seed. TliG Dwarf Chestnut or Cliinquajpin^ is a small tree eight or ten feet high, and very prolific, but the nuts are small. It grows spontaneously in Maryland, Yirginia, and southward. The Spanish Chestnut or Marron. — This is the large, sweet nut, as large as a horse chestnut, imported from abroad. There are many varieties cultivated in France and England, but that designated by the French as " Marron de Lyon^^ is the best. It is propagated by grafting on the common sorts. It is not reproduced truly from seed, but its seedlings produce large and fine fruits. It bears and ri23ens well as far north as Rochester. It bears the second year from the graft and the fourth from seed. Section 19. — Filberts. 1. Cosford. — ^This is an improved variety of the Eng- lish hazel-nut, very prolific, nut large, oblong or oval, shell thin, and kernel fine flavored. 2. Coburg. — Large and fine, and a most abundant bearer. 3. Dwarf Prolific. — One of the most prolific bearers, nut rather small. We have plants two feet high bear- ing well, kernel good. 4. Frizzled.— K^VL\2.T\^}SiQ for its curious frizzled husk, a good bearer, and one of the finest flavored. 5. Red Skinned. — One of the old standard sorts of the English growers, distinguished by the bright red or crim- son skin of the kernel, medium size, egg-sha]3ed, shell thick, flavor good. 6. ^Yhite. — This is also an old standard sort, the kernel is a yellowish white. Both this and the preceding have long husks. WALNUTS. 353 Section 20. — ^Walnuts. The Englisli or Madeira N\it (Jiiglans Regia). — This is a native of Persia. A loftj spreading tree with j)innated leaves like the butternut, and the fruit nearly as large. Great quantities are annually imported, and sold in the fruit shops. The tree is tender while young, the ends of the young shoots being injured in winter at the north, but as it grows older it becomes hardier. It is produced from seed or by grafting. There are many varieties of it cul- tivated abroad, few of which have yet been introduced here on account of the little attention given to this class of fruits. The Dwarf ProlifiG Walnut (Juglans Prseparturiens), is a French variety recently introduced, which will pro- bably become the most desirable for the garden. It bears at the age of three years from the seed, and often at the height of two to three feet. We have now two imported trees, four feet high, that give promise of an abundant crop. The kernel is said to be very good. Our native sorts, the Black Walnut (Juglans ISTigra), the Butternut (Juglans Cinerea), the Hickory JSTut (Carya), and its varieties, are all well known trees that deserve much more attention than they receive, considering the value of their timber as well as fruit. CHAPTEE II. GATHERING, PACKING, TRANSPOETATION AND PEE- SEEVATION OF FRUITS. This is a branch of the general subject of fruit culture and management that requires the most careful attention ; for it is quite useless to take pains in producing fine fruits, without taking equal pains in gathering, preserving, and sending them to the table or the market in a sound, sightly, and proper condition. Yery few fruit growers seem to appreciate this part of their business. Fruit dealers at home and abroad complain of the careless and sloyenlj manner in which our fruits are gathered, packed, and presented in the market, and would gladly pay a dou- ble price for them in a better condition. The first con- sideration is — The 'period of maturity at %oliicTi fruits should he gathered. — ^The stone fruits generally are allowed to reach perfect maturity, or within four or five days of it, on the tree. In moist, cool seasons particularly, they are benefited by being gathered a few days before maturity, and allow- ed to ripen in a dry, warm room ; they part with the water contained in their juices, which thus become better elaborated and more sugary and high flavored. Summer Pears., too, on the same principle, require to be gathered, as a general thing, from a week to a fort- night before their maturity. Sweet varieties, and such as GATHERING FRUITS, ETC. 355 are inclined to become mealy ^ are entirely worthless when ripened on the tree, and many very excellent varieties are condemned on this acconnt. Such as these should be gathered the moment the skin begins to change color in least desiree. Similiter Apples^ too, and especially those inclined to mealiness^ should be picked early ; as soon as the skin begins to change color, otherwise they part with their juices, and become worthless. Ripeness is indicated by the seeds turning dark colored, and by the stem parting readily from the tree when it is lifted upwards. Winter Ajpples and Pears should be allowed to remain on the trees as long as vegetation is active, or until frosts are apprehended. Grapes^ Berries^ &c.^ are allowed to attain perfect maturity before being gathered. Chestnuts^ Filberts^ c&c.^ are not gathered until they begin to fall from the tree. Mode of Gatliering. — Unless it be a few specimens wanted for immediate use, which may be taken with some of the contrivances mentioned imder the head of imple- ments, all fruits should be gathered by the hand. The branch to be gathered from should be taken in one hand, and the fruits carefully taken off, one by one, with the other, with their stems attached. (For fruits neither keep so well, nor look so well, without the stems.) They are then laid carefully in single layers in broad shallow baskets, the bot toms of which should be covered with paper or moss, to prevent bruises. Peaches and other soft fruits should be pressed as lightly as possible, for anything like a squeeze is certainly followed by decay in the form of a brown spot, and this is the reason why it is so exceedingly diflfi- cult to find a perfectly sound and at the same time ripe peach in our markets. When more than one layer of fruit is laid in the same 056 GATIIEHmG FEUITS, ETC. basket, some soft paper, dry moss, hay, or other material, ought to separate them, for it is difficiilt to place one layer immediately upon another, and especially if the fruits are approaching matmity, without bruising them more or less. Fruit should only be gathered in dry weather, and in the dry time of the day. Disposition of the Fruits after gatliering. — When they are thus in the baskets, if summer fruits, they are either carried into the fruit room and arranged on shelves or tables in thin layers, or they are carefully transferred one by one into market baskets and carried to market on an easy spring wagon, if not by steamboat or railroad, by which jarring or jolting will be avoided. Treated in this manner, they wdll be in a marketable condition, and one basket will sell for as much as fom-, carelessly picked, thrown into baskets, and tumbled out of them into a barrel or wao^on-box. Kipe fruits may be kept in good condition for a consi- derable period of time, in an ice-house, or in some of the recently-invented fruit preservers, and even in very cool dry cellars. The vessels in w^hich they are deposited, should be perfectly clean, that no unpleasant flavor may be im23arted to them. Peaches have been sent to the East Indies, by being properly packed in ice ; and it may be that methods of packing and preserving will, before long, be discovered, that will give us access to the markets of other countries, even for our perishable summer fruits. We have seen Seckel pears in a very good state of ]3reser- vation in January, exhibited in the horticultural society's rooms in Boston. The science of ripening and preserving fruits is but in its infancy, and horticultural societies that have the means will be doing a great public service by offering liberal premiums that will incite to experiment on the subject. Winter Fruits intended for long keeping are transferred PACKING FRUITS, ETC. 357 by hand from the baskets in which they are gathered on the tree, into larger ones in which they can be carried into a dry cool room, where they are laid in heaps, which may be three or four deep, where they may remain for a couple of weeks, during w^hich time they will have parted with considerable moisture and be quite dry. They will then be fit for packing. Clean, new barrels should be procured, and the fruits should be carefully assorted. For shipping to distant or foreign markets, the hest only should be selected; all bruised, wormy, knotty specimens being laid aside for home consumption. They are then placed in the barrels, by hand, arranged regularly in layers, so that no spaces w^ill exist, by which the fruits may shift, roll, or knock against one another. The barrels are then tightly headed up, so that the head presses firmly on the fruits ; some people recommend placing a layer of clean moss or soft paj^er, both on the bottom and toj) of the barrel ; but this is not necessary where the packing and heading are per- formed carefully. After packing, the barrels must be sent to market in such a manner as never to be jolted or rolled, any more than they would be on men's shoulders, or an easy spring wagon or sled, or by a water convey- ance. On shipboard the barrels should be placed in the coolest and dryest place. It is perfectly idle to gather, pack or ship fruits in any other way than this to foreign markets. American apples are frequently sold in Liverpool at auction for half what they would have sold for in ]^ew York, on account of their bad condition, I saw this in 1849, when l^ewtown pippins were selling at twelve and a half cents a-piece in the fruit shops. Winter fruits for home consumption should be care- fully assorted, keeping the best, the poorest, the sound, the bruised, and the earlier and later ripening varieties 358 GATHERING FRUITS, ETC. all separate ; when sound and bruised, early and late, are all thrown together promiscuously, they cannot fail to decay speedily and to lose their flavor ; for two or three decaying apples in a heap or barrel will taint the flavor of all, and hasten the decay of those around them. This arrangement into grades and classes is, therefore, absolute- ly necessary even for the fruits needed for family use ; and when they are so arranged, the sound, long keepers are put into clean, new barrels, carefully by hand, and the barrels headed up tightly and placed in a cool dry cellar or fruit room. The bruised ones can be laid in a place by them- selves for immediate use. Every barrel, when packed, should be marked. Winter Pears, as a general thing, require to be brought into a warm temperature one or two weeks before they are wanted for table use. All the baking and stewing, and even many of the table varieties, may be treated exactly like apples. Packing Pears for distant marlcets. — ^The French send away more pears to foreign markets than any other peo- ple. Some small importations of their winter sorts have actually been made by some of the Xew York fruit dealers the present winter, 1850-51. They pack them in small boxes, either round or square, such as a man can lift and carry easily in his hands. They cover the bottom and sides with very dry moss or soft dry paper, well calculated to absorb moisture. They then wrap each fruit in the dry, soft paper, and lay them in layers, the largest and least mature in the bottom, and fill all the interstices with dry moss or paper. I have seen these boxes opened in London, in the finest con- dition, after being a month packed. They are so tightly packed that the slightest movement cannot take place among them, and yet no one pj-csses upon another. The PRESERVATION OF FRUITS. 359 dry moss and paper that separate them, absorb any mois- ture ; and if one decays it does not aifect others. Some of the Paris confectioners and restaurant keepers preserve fruits very successfully in barrels, packed in lay- ers, and the interstices filled up with powdered charcoal. The barrels are kej^t in a dry, cool place, about forty degrees, where they are not subjected to changes of tem- perature. Apples, pears, grapes, almonds, nuts, and pota- toes, are all preserved in this manner. Fniit Rooms. — A fruit room is a structure set apart exclusively for the preservation of fruit. Its great requi- sites are, perfect security from moisture or dampness, ex- clusion from light, and a uniform temperature. If these points are obtained, no matter where, how, or of what material the fruit room be constructed. It may be built of stone, brick, clay, or wood, above or below ground, as circumstances or taste may dictate. A good, dry, and cool cellar, is as good a place for keeping fruit in as can be provided ; but the great objec- tion to cellars used for other purposes is, that currents of air are frequently admitted, and too much light, by which the temperature is changed, decay promoted, or the fruits dried and shrivelled. There are, also, other objects that unavoidably saturate the air more or less w^ith moisture. Where a fruit room is built on the surface of the ground, it should be on the ice-house ^^rinciple of double walls and doors, to prevent access of either heat or cold from with- out. A good cellar or cave, built in a dry, sandy, or gravelly bank, or side hill, will answer every purpose. The walls may be of stone, brick, or timber ; the roof should be thick, with a slope sufficient to throw off water freely, and the earth about should also be so graded that water will flow away as fest as it falls. Provision may be made for lighting and ventilating in the roof, and the door or doors should be double. 360 PEESEEVATION OF FEUITS. The interior should be fitted up with shelves and binns, with places for barrels or other articles, in which fruits are packed. Attention to fruits in the cellar or fruit room. — ^The decay of fruits is caused either by bruises or by a fungus, or species of mildew, that increases rapidly and attacks all the sound fruits within its reach. It is, therefore, necessary to examine fruits frequently, and remove all that show any symptoms of decay, before they have either afi'ected others or tainted the atmosphere of the room. CHAPTER III. DISEASES AND IN^SECTS. Section 1. — Diseases. 1. The Fire Blight of the Pear^ Apjple^ and Quince. — This is one of the most formidable diseases to which fruit trees are liable. Whether it is caused by the sun, the atmosphere, or an insect, remains in doubt, some cases favoring one opinion, some another. It attacks the trees at different periods of the growing season, from June to September, and generally in the young parts first ; the leaves flag, the sap becomes thick and brown, oozing out in globules through the bark, and emitting a very dis- agreeable odor, and the diseased branch or part turns black, as if it were burned by fire. When the pear tree is attacked it is difiicult to save it, the disease spreads so rapidly. In th*e apple and quince it is less fatal, rarely killing more than a portion of the tree even if left to its own course. The only remedy is, to cut away instantly the blighted parts, into the sound wood, where there is not the slightest trace of the disease, and burn them up immediately. It is thought by some that young trees growing very rapidly are more subject to it than older trees growing slowly ; and that warm sunshine, with a sultry atmosphere after rain, is apt to be followed by much blight. We have always regarded the cases favoring such an opinion as accidental. 16 362 DISEASES AND INSECTS. 2. Pear leaf Blight— Thh disease has already been alluded to in treating of pear seedlings. It is a sort of rust that appears on the leaves in July or August, first as small brown spots ; these spread rapidly over the leaves until they are completely dried up and growth stopped. It appears in a certain spot as a centre, from which it spreads. Whether it be an insect, a fungus, or some atmospherical cause that produces this blight, is unknown. Certain cases favor one or other of these opinions. More minute investigations are wanted on the subject. To avoid its evil eifects as far as possible, the great point is, to get a rapid, vigorous growth, before midsum- mer, when it usually appears. Seedlings grown in new soils do not appear to be so much affected as in old. Where stocks are affected very early in the season, they become almost worthless, on account of the feebleness produced in both stem and roots by such an untimely and unnatural check. Some special applications, such as coal cinders, iron filings, copperas, etc., have been suggested, but no evidence has yet been produced of their efficacy. 3. TJie GiLun in stone fruits. — ^The cherry, j^lum, apricot, and peach, are all more or less subject to this malady. The cherry is particularly liable to it in the West. It is produced by different causes, such as a wet soil, severe pruning, pruning at an improper time, violet changes of temperature, etc. The gumming of the cherry in the West, is considered by some to be owing in a great mea- sure to the bark not yielding naturally to the growth of the wood, and hence they practise longitudinal incisions on it. The cherry tree has a very j^owerful bark, and in some cases it may not yield naturally to the expansion or growth of the wood. We have seen about a foot of the trunk of a cherry tree, several inches smaller than the parts both above and below it. The bark was as smooth as glass on it, the first rind being unbroken, DISEASES. 36 whilst on the large parts this was quite rough. This was a case arising from the obstinacy of the bark, and could only be remedied by longitudinal incisions on the small part. It is most j)robable that the extent and severity of this dis- ease in the West is owing to violent changes from a hard frost to a bright sun and rapid thaw, by which the sap becomes deranged, and accumulates in masses. Trees that are branched near the ground, will be less likely to suffer than those with tall bare trunks. Where it has made some progress in any tree, the only remedy is to pare off the diseased bark, clean off all the gum, and let the sur- face dry up ; then apply a plaster of grafting compo- sition, or a solution of gum shellac in alcohol, put on with a brush, as recommended by Mr. Downing. When the stone fruits are pruned severely in the spring, the sap does not find sufficient vent ; it accumulates in in asses and bursts the bark. This fact should always be kept in view in pruning, and a sufficient supply of active buds be left to absorb the sap. 4. Tlie Yellows m the Peach. — This is supposed to arise from negligent cultivation. It exhibits itself in a yellow, sickly foliage, feeble shoots, and small fruits pre- maturely ripened. It is said to be contagious. Trees exhibiting these symptoms should instantly be destroyed. To avoid it, care should be taken to propagate from trees in perfect health and vigor. 5. Mildew on the Peach. — The young shoots, leaves, and even the fruit of certain varieties, and especially the glandless ones, such as Early Anne, Early Tillotson, etc., are attacked by this. The only remedies are, to give the trees a dry, good soil, that will keep them in a vigorous condition, and to syringe freely twice a day when it begins to appear. The gooseberry suffers seriously from the mil- dew, owing mainly to the heat of our summers. In 364: DISEASES AUD INSECTS. N'ortliern E'ew York, in Maine, Yermont, and Lower Canada, tlie finest large English varieties are brought to greater perfection than in warmer districts, and with good culture almost come up to the English standard. In a cold, damp-bottomed soil at Toronto, almost on a level with Lake Ontario, fine crops are produced with compara- tively little difficulty from mildew or rust. This would indicate as a remedy, a cool soil and situation, and mulch- ing the roots to keep them cool. The jDlants should be renewed every three or four years, and they should be kept vigorous by liberal manuring and good culture. 6. The Plum Wart or Black Knot. — ^The cause of this disease is quite uncertain, but the probability is that it originates in a similar way to the gum, from an imperfect circulation of the sap, induced by violent changes of tem- perature.* Cutting out the diseased branch clean to the sound wood, the moment the knots begin to apj)ear, is an efi:ectual remedy, and they should all be burnt up. We have saved trees six inches in diameter, that w^ere affected on the trunk so seriously, that one third of its thickness had to be removed to get below the disease. After it was cut out, we applied a plaster of grafting composition, covered it with a cloth, and in two years it was all healed over and sound. Plum trees are so neglected in the country, that multi- tudes of them are now standing literally loaded with these warts — not even an inch of any branch free from them — the most disgusting objects in the way of fruit trees that can possibly be imagined. 6. The Curl of the leaf in the Peach. — This disease causes the leaves to assume a reddish color, to become * We have observed that cold vi^eather, about the blossoming period, in- duces the guna in plum trees as well as in the peach, and when it continues long, as in 1849-50 in Western New York, there is an unusual development of it. INSECTS. 365 tliick, curled, nnd deformed, and finally to perish. It is supposed by many to be caused by insects ;"^ but it is really induced by a sudden change of weather. A number of warm days, that cause the expansion of the young leaves, followed by a cold rainy day, is almost sure to produce it to some extent ; and the more severe and protracted the cold, the more extensive and fatal it is. The peach trees in "Western New York suffered more from this in 1849-50 than in the ten years previous, owing to a protracted cold time in each season after the young tender leaves had expanded. In both these seasons the check was so severe, as not only to produce this disease in its worst form, but the gum also ; for the sap not being absorbed by the leaves, became stagnant, sour, and cor- roded, and burst the bark. Trees in sheltered gardens suffer less than those in exposed orchards. There is no possible way of guarding against this ; and the only remedy known to us is, to pick off the diseased leaves the moment the weather changes, that new healthy ones may be produced. Section 2. — The Peincipal Insects injurious to Fkuit Tkees. 1. Aphis or Plant-Louse . — There are several kinds of these. The two most troublesome to fruit trees are the green and black, small soft insects that appear suddenly in immense quantities on the young shoots of the trees, suck their juices, and consequently arrest their growth. The apple, pear and cherry, are especially infested with them. They multiply with wonderful rapidity. It is said that one individual in five generations might be the pro- genitor of six thousand millions. Were it not that they * Prof. Harris says in his Treatise on Insects, that it is caused by plant- lice puncturing the under sides of the leaves. 366 DISEASES AND INSECTS. are easily destroyed, they would present an obstacle almost insuperable in the propagation and culture of trees. There are many ways of accomplishing their destruc- tion. Our plan is to j^repare a barrel of tobacco juice, by steeping stems for several days until the juice is a dark brown, like strong beer ; w^e then mix this with a solution of soft soap or soap suds. A pail is filled with this, and the ends of the shoots where the insects are assembled are brought down and dij)ped into the liquid. One dip is enough. Such parts as cannot be dipped are sprinkled liberally. It is applied to the heads of large trees by means of a hand or garden syringe. It should be done in the evening. The liquid may be so strong as to injure the foliage, hence it will be well for persons using it the first time to test it on one or two subjects before applying it extensively. This application must be repeated as often as any of the aphides make their appear- ance. The dry weather of midsummer is generally the time most favorable for their appearance. 2. Tlie Woolly Aphis or American Bliglit. — This is a small insect, covered with a white woolly substance that conceals its body. They infest the aj)ple tree in particu- lar, both roots and branches, living upon the sap of the bark, and producing small warts or granulations on it by the punctures. They are more particularly troublesome on old rough-barked trees, as they lodge in the crevices, and are difficult to reach. The wind carries them from one place to another by the light down in which they are enveloped, and thus they sj)read quickly from one end of a plantation to the other, ^ot a moment should be lost in destroying the first one that makes its appearance. Where the bark is rough it should be scraped smooth, if the roots be afiected the earth should be removed, and every part w^ashed, and every crevice filled with the fol- lowing preparation, recommended in Harris's Treatise : INSECTS. 367" " Two parts of soft soap and eight of water, mixed with lime enough to bring it to the consistency of thick white- wash, to be put on with a brush." A sohition of two pounds of potash in seven quarts of water will answer the same purpose. Fresh earth should be put upon the roots. 3. The Scaly Aphis or Bark Louse. — This is a dark brown scale insect, that infests the bark of the apple tree. They are of a dark brown color just like the bark, and are not easily seen unless looked for. They attach them- selves closely to the bark, and sometimes are so numerous as to form a complete coating. They seldom appear on thrifty growing trees in good soil ; but where the soil is dam J) and cold, and the trees growing feebly, this insect may be looked for. June is the time to destroy them, when they are young. At other times they are hard, and able to resist any ordinary remedy. The same applica- tion recommended for the aphis, applied to them with a hard brush, will effect their destruction. "Where they have been left for a long time undisturbed, and have pretty well covered the tree, the quickest and best remedy is to destroy tree and all., unless it possesses some extraor- dinary claim for indulgence. Prof. Harris mentions having found a reddish brown bark louse on his grape- vine, arranged in rows one behind another in the crevices of the bark. 4. The Ajpple Tree Borer is a very troublesome insect in some sections of the country. In Western E'ew York we have never met with it but in two or three instances, in very old, neglected orchards, that had stood for twenty years in grass. The beetle is striped brown and white, and is about three-fourths of an inch long. It deposits its eggs in June, in the bark of the trees near the ground. Here the larva is hatched, becoming a whitish grub, which saws its way into the tree, perforating it in all 368 DISEASES AIH) INSECTS. directions, sometimes completely girdling it. The most effectual method to destroy them is, to insert the end of a wire into their bm-row, and killing them. The same means are taken to guard against them as against the peach tree grub, viz., placing a momid of ashes around the base of the trunk in the spring, and allowing it to remain until after the season in which the beetles deposit their eggs. It prevents them from reaching the soft bark at the surface of the ground, the place usually selected. It is stated in Downing's Fruit and Fruit Trees, that " the beetles may be destroyed in June by building small fires of shavings in difierent parts of the orchard." 5. The Apple Worm. — The apple moth deposits its eggs in the eye or calyx of the young fruit; the grub is- there hatched, and eats its way into the fruit, leaving be- hind it a brownish powder. Sometimes the apples drop before they are half grown, and occasionally remain until they acquire a premature ripeness. Early apples are more affected, generally, than late ones, probably because in a more forward state when the eggs are deposited. When the fruit falls the grub immediately leaves, pre- pares itself a place in some crevice of the bark of the tree, and sp'ns a thin paper-like cocoon, in which it spends the winter, to come out the following spring and reproduce it- self. There are but two ways of destroying them ; one is, at pruning time in March, to search carefully for the cocoons and destroy them, and the other is to pick up promptly all fallen wormy fruits and destroy them. These two means, industriously followed, will greatly diminish the amount of wormv fruit, the increase of which is excit- ing alarm. 6. The Canine?' TFarm.— This insect is confined chiefly to l^ew England ; we have never seen it in Xew York. They generally emerge from the ground in March. According to Professor Harris, some rise during the late INSECTS. 369 autumn and winter months. The female has no wings, but crawls up the tree, and lays her eggs on the branches in Ma J, in clusters of 60 to 100 in each, glued to each other and to the bark by a greyish varnish impervious to water ; the little worms fall upon the leaves, and, when numerous, devour them all, leaving only the mid-ribs. They leave the trees when about four weeks old, and descend into the ground. Their effects are most visible in June, when the trees, divested of their foliage, appear as if scorched by fire. As the female cannot fly, the great point is to prevent her from crawling up ; for this purpose various means have been tried and are recommended. One of the most effectual is to tie strij)s of canvas around the tree and cover it with tar, renewing the tar during their whole season of rising, or from October till May. Another is, to make a close fitting collar of boards around the base of the tree, and kee'p them covered with tar. Mr. Jonathan Dennis, of Portsmouth, Rhode Island, obtained a patent for a circular leaden trough filled with oil, which proves an effectual preventive. Y. Caterpillars. — Of these there are many kinds that are more or less destructive to the foliage of fruit trees ; but the Caterpillar, described by Professor Harris as the American Tent Caterpillar, is the one that commits such general and extensive devastation in our orchards, and especially in certain seasons. The moth dej^osits its eggs in July, in large rings, on the branches of the trees ; these remain in that state until the following season, when they are hatched in the latter end of May or beginning of June. Each ring produces three or four hundred cater- pillars, and these weave a sort of web to live in. The ap- pearance of a tree with three or four of these tents upon it, and the leaves completely devoured, is really frightful. There are two ways of destroying them : one is, to examine 370 DISEASES AND INSECTS. the trees carefully in Februaiy or Marcli, at pruning time, and destroy the clusters of eggs by cutting off and burn- ing the branches on which they are found. The next is to destroy the caterpillars in their tents after they are hatched. There are various ways of doing this, according to people's fancy and ingenuity. The quickest and most effectual method is to take a ladder, ascend the trees, and remove every nest with the hands. The early morning should be chosen, when they are in the nests. Some put a round brush on a pole and put it in the nests, and by giving it a few turns web and all are removed. 8. The Cherry and Pear Slug. — This is a most destruc- tive insect. They appear in June and July for the first, and a second brood afterwards, small, slimy, dark-brown slugs on the upper surfaces of the leaves of the cherry and pear. They devour greedily the parenchyma of the leaves, leaving only the bare net-work of veins. In a short time growth is completely stopj^ed. Stocks for budding require careful watching, for a day or two of these slugs may prevent them from being worked that season. We destroy them by throwing fine earth taken up with the hand among the trees, and by ashes or slaked lime, when the earth is not sufficiently dry and fine. The caustic properties of lime and ashes render them more certainly destructive to the slug, and they should always be used in preference to common earth, where only a few trees are to be gone over. A liberal syringing with the tobacco and soap liquid recommended for the aphis, but in a weaker state, is ser- viceable after the ashes and lime. It must be remembered that one application will seldom be sufficient. Some es- cape even to the third or fourth ; but in all cases the war- fare should be sustained whilst one remains. Like the aphis they are generally most troublesome in warm and drv seasons. INSECTS. 371 9. The Carculio or Plum Weevil. — This is a small grey- ish brown beetle nearly a quarter of an inch long ; the wing covers form two little hmiips on the back, which give it a roundish appearance, and it has a long crooked snout, well adapted to its destructive propensities. They can fly, but are not active ; and by jarring the part on w^hich they stand, suddenly, they f\ill to the ground, draw in their legs and appear dead. It deposits its egg in a semicircular incision which it makes in the young fruit ; it there hatches, eats into the fruit, and causes it to fall while yet green. It is the most troublesome of all insects injurious to fruits. In some places it destroys the entire crop of plums, apricots, and nectarines, and attacks even the cherry and the apple. The peach, even, is not wholly exempt, notwithstanding its coat of down. Almost every remedy that ingenuity can devise has been tried. This whole book w^ould not contain w4iat has been written on the subject in one year alone. Yet no complete, effectual remedy has been discovered. The strongest liquid appli- cations of lime, soap, and tobacco — the most powerful and offensive odors, that repel any other insects, are en- tirely harmless and inoffensive to the curculio. There seem to be really but two means worthy of being re- sorted to. One is, to pave, or in some other way harden, the surface of the ground, so that the grubs cannot enter it to complete their transformations. This is found effi- cient where no other trees are in the immediate vicinity not paved. We have seen many instances where good crops were obtained by this mode. The fact that they are, as a general thing, less troublesome in stiff clay soils than in light porous ones, is alone a proof of the efficacy of a stiff or impenetrable surface soil. Add to this the picking up of fruit containing the grub as soon as it drops from the tree, and before the worm has a chance to escape. 372 DISEASES A^^D mSECTS. To accompli sli both these ends, some people have planted their plums and apricots in a small enclosure by themselves, adjoining the hog-pen, and as soon as the fruits begin to drop, these animals are admitted, and gather all up, and, at the same time, tread the ground so firmly that it is almost as good as if it were paved. This is probably the easiest and best way to ensure a crop of the fruits attacked by this insect. Another way is, to jar the tree daily three or four times a day, from the moment they begin to appear, which is when the fruit is the size of a pea, until they have disap- peared, or the fruit begins to ripen, w^hen it is no longer attacked. Serious injuries have been inflicted on plum trees, by thoughtlessly striking the bark of the trunk or a large branch with a mallet to jar the trees. The safer way is to strike on the end of a cut branch, or to fix a cushion of some soft material on the end of a short stick, and place the cushion on the tree, and strike the other end with the mallet. The insects are much easier jarred oif in the cool of the morning while they are comparatively torpid. Before commencing to jar them down, a white sheet or cloth, wide enough to cover all the ground under the branches, should be spread to receive the insects as they fall, so that they may be destroyed. This was recom- mended through the " Genesee Farmer," by David Thomas, twenty years ago. From repeated observations, I am inclined to believe that it is quite sensitive to cold, for it is well known that in the cool of the morning it is always in a comparative state of torpor ; and in the cold seasons of 1849-50, when our peach trees and fruit were so greatly injured, the curculio was driven oif, and we had a most abundant crop of plums. A cold day or two may not afiect it ; but INSECTS. 373 when it continues for two weeks, as in the years referred to, it seems to be rendered powerless for that season. 10. Ants. — These are not very destructive, yet they sometimes do considerable injury to beds of seedlings, by making their hillocks among them, and they also infest ripe fruits. Boiling water, oil, or spirits of turpentine, poured on their hillocks, disperses them ; and if wide-mouthed bot- tles, half filled with sweetened water or syrup, be hung among the branches of a tree when the fruit is attaining maturity, ants, wasps, flies, and beetles of all sorts that prey greedily upon sweets, will be attracted into them. Mr. Downing, who recommends this as a " general ex- tirpator suited to all situations," says, " that an acquaint- ance caught in this way, in one season, 97iore than three hushels of insects of various kinds, and preserved his garden almost entirely against them." A gentleman in Detroit, who was very careful of his garden, informed me that he had pursued this method of traj^ping insects with results that perfectly astonished him. He had to empty the bottles every few days to make room for more. A very good way of traj)ping and killing ants is, to besmear the inside of flower pots with molasses, and turn them on their mouths near the hillock ; the insects will soon assemble inside on the molasses, when they are easily destroyed by a handful of burning straw. 11. The Peach Tree Borer. — This is a most destructive - insect when allowed to increase for a few years without molestation. We have seen whole orchards of fine trees ruined by them. They sometimes attack even young trees in the nursery, and commit serious depredations on their collar, rendering them in many cases quite unfit for planting. Their multiplication should be prevented by all possible means. The eggs are deposited in summer 37^1: DISEASES AND INSECTS. on the base of the trunk, near the collar, where the bark is soft. There thej are hatched, and bore their way under the bark of the tree, either in the stem or root, or both, producing an eflusion of gum. Where trees are already affected, the proper course is, to remove the earth from around the collar of the root, clean away the gum, destroy any cocoons that may be found, trace the grub through its holes in the tree, and kill it ; then fill up around the tree with fresh earth, and place a shovelful or two of ashes around the base. One of the best orchards in the vicinity of Kochester was at one time nearly ruined by the prevalence of this grub, when it changed projmetors, and the present one adopted and followed the plan recommended above, until there is not the trace of one left. The ashes or slaked lime should be a]3plied every spring, and at the end of summer may be scattered about the tree ; both ashes and lime form an excellent dressing for the peach. 12. The Bose Bug. — ^The eggs of this insect are laid in the earth, where they are hatched, and from which the bug emerges about the rose season. In some seasons and in some localities' they appear like grasshoppers in vast multitudes, and commit extensive ravages, not only on the rose but fruit trees, and all other green things. Tliere is no other way known to combat them, but to crush them with the hand — to spread cloths around the trees, and shake them down on it, and kill them. They are stupid, sluggish things, and fall as though they had no life. In some cases fruit trees have been protected by cover- ins: them with millinet. 13. Leaf Boilers. — In May and June these insects may be found on the leaves of fruit trees, and especially on the pear ; they form themselves a sort of cocoon out of the leaf. The leaves attacked by them should be removed and ANIMALS mJUEIOrS TO FEUIT TREES. 375 destroyed, in order to prevent their increase. The eggs are deposited on the young leaves by some of the multi- tudes of spring beetles. Section 3. — Animals Injurious to Fruits and Fruit Trees. 1. Birds. — As a general thing, birds are more the friends than the enemies of the garden. Many of them subsist in greater part on insects, and thus perform ser- vices that are by no means appreciated. The early cher- ries are generally the greatest sufferers by them, and various devices are practised to frighten them away, the most cruel of which is shooting. Moving objects resem- bling the human figure, bits of looking-glass or tin sus- pended among the branches, etc., are often efiectual. Dwarf trees are easily covered with thin netting support- ed on poles and fastened at the base of the tree. 2. Field Mice. — The most effectual preventive is clean culture. Leave no grass, weeds, rubbish, or heaps of stones around the garden or orchard, and the mice will seldom be troublesome. Their operations of girdling are principally carried on beneath the snow, and when this is firmly trodden down as soon as it falls, it obstructs their way. A correspondent of the " Horticulturist" states that he has found tin tubes fixed around the base of the tree, an effectual remedy ; and Mr. Hooker, of Rochester, has successfully driven them off with poison. He takes a block of wood six inches long and three or four square, and bores it leuii^thwise with an inch and half aug^er nearly through, and places in the lower end some corn meal and arsenic. He places these blocks among the trees, mouth inclined downwards, " to keep the powder dry." 376 DISEASES AND INSECTS. 3. Moles. — These are easily poisoned and driven off, by putting pills of flour mixed with arsenic into their holes, and shutting them up. We have seen them banished by bits of dried codfish placed in the entrance of their holes. 4. Cats often commit serious depredations on trees by scratching the bark. Quite recently we saw a large number of beautiful fruit trees nearly ruined by them. A few briers secured around ti'ees in the vicinity of the house, where they frequent most, will be a sufficient pro- tection. 5. Hogs. — It is not generally supposed that these ani- mals will attack trees ; but we have heard of a western farmer who turned in a large number of them to consume the corn that had been grown in his young orchard. When the com began to grow scarce they attacked the trees, and not one out of several hundred but was complete- ly girdled — the bark gnawed off as far up as the brutes could reach. Where it may be desirable to turn hogs into an orchard, unless the feed be very abundant, the trees should be protected around the base with thorns, briers, or some prickly brush. CHAPTEK lY. NUESERY, ORCHARD, AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLE- MENTS. The following are the principal implements used in the propagation, pruning, and cultivation of fruit trees : Section 1. — Implements of the Soil. The Subsoil Plough is the great reformer of the day in the preparation of soils of all qualities and textures, for nursery, orchard, or garden trees. It follows the ordinary plough in the same furrow ; and the largest size, IN'o. 2, with a powerful team, can loosen the subsoil to the depth of eighteen inches. I^o. 1 will be sufficient in clear land when the subsoil is not very stiff. The One-Horse Plough. — Similar to the common plough used by farmers. It is a labor-saving implement for cul- tivating the ground among nursery trees or orchards closely J)] anted. The horse should be steady, the man careful, and the whiffle-tree as short as possible, that the trees need not be bruised. It should neither run so deep nor so near the trees as to injure the roots. The Cultivator. — ^This with the plough obviates the necessity of spade-work, and, in a great measure, hoeing. If the groimd be ploughed in the spring, and tlie culti- vator passed over it once every week or two during the summer, all the hoeing necessary will be a narrow strip 378 NURSERY AND FRriT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. of a few inches on each side of the row. The double- pointed steel-toothed, with a wheel in front, is the best. Tlie One-Horse Cart. — This is an indispensable machine in the nursery, orchard, or large garden. Four-wheeled wagons are difficult to unload, and require a great deal of space to turn in. The cart can be turned in a circle of twelve or fourteen feet, and the load discharged in a mo- ment, simply by taking out the key that fastens the body to the shafts, throwing it up and moving the horse forward. Our carts are about six feet long and three wide in the body, shafts six feet long, wheels four and a half feet high, and tire two and a half wide to prevent them from sinking into the ground. The box is about a foot deep, and when large loads are to be carried a spreading board is put on the top with brackets. Cost from $30 to $50. The Wheelbarrow (iig. 132). — Every man who has a rod of ground to cul- tivate should pos- sess this machine. In small gardens it is sufficient for the conveyance of all manures, soils, pro- ducts, etc., and in larger places it is al- ways needed for use, where a cart cannot go. The handles or levers should be of ash or some tough wood, and the sides and bottom of any light wood. The wheel is soft wood, shod with iron. Fig. 132. Wheelbarrow. Fig. 133. Spade. The Sjpade (fig. 133). — ^The best kinds of these in use IMPLEMENTS OF THE SOIL. 379 are Ames' cast-steel ; excellent, strong, light articles. They work clean and bright as silver. There are several sizes. For heavy work, trenching, draining, raising trees, etc., the largest should be used. Fig. 134, Shovel. The Shovel (fig. 134:). — This is used in mixing, loading, and spreading composts and short manures. The blade should be of cast-steel. Fig. 135. Digging Fork, or Forked Spade. The ForTied Spade (fig. 135). — This resembles a fork. It has three stout cast-steel tines, at least an inch wide, and pointed. It is used instead of a spade to loosen the earth about the roots (^f trees, to turn in manures, etc., being much less liable to cut and injure them than the spade. Fig. 136. Dung Fork. The Dung Fork (fig. 136). — ^There are several kinds. 380 NUESEEY AND FEIJIT GAEDEN IMPLEMENTS. Those of cast-steel, cut out of a solid plate, with three or four tines, are the best, light and durable. It is the only implement proper for loading, mixing, or spreading fresh rough manures with facility and despatch. The Pick. — ^This is a useful, and even indispensable implement in the deepening or trenching of soils with a hard subsoil that cannot be operated upon with the spade. It consists of an ash handle, and a head composed of two levers of iron pointed with steel, and an eye in the centre for the handle. The Garden Lme and Reel (fig. 137). — The line should be a good hemp cord, from one eighth to one fourth of an inch in diameter, attached to light iron stakes about eighteen inches long. On one of the stakes a reel is attached. This is tmned by means of a handle, and the line neatly and quickly wound up. The Hoe. — This is a universal instrument in this coun- try. In some cases, all the gardening operations are per- formed with it. Its uses in tree culture are to open trenches for seeds, to cover them, to loosen and clean the surface of the ground from weeds, cfcc. There are two kinds, the draw hoe, figs. 138, 139, 140, and the Dutch, Fig. 137. Garden Line and Reel. Fig. 133 Square draw hoe. Fig. 139. Triangle draw hoe. or thrust hoe, fis?. 141 ; this we do not use at all. Of the IMPLEMENTS OF THE SOIL. 381 different kinds and forms of tlie draw hoe. The most generally useful is the square, a cast steel plate, about Fig. 140. Semicircular draw hoe. Fig, 141. Dutch hoe. six inches long and four wide, with a light smooth handle. The semicircular and triangle hoes may be advantageously used in certain cases. The Rake^ fig. 142, is used to level, smooth, pulverize, and clean the surface of the ground after it has been spaded or hoed, or to prepare it for seeds, &c. They are of different sizes, with from six to twelve teeth. The best are those of which the head and teeth are drawn out of a solid bar of steel. Those that are welded and riveted soon get out of order. Fig. 142. Garden rake. Section 2. — ^Implements for Cutting. The Pruning Saw. — This is used for cutting off 382 NUKSEEY AND FKUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. branches, either too large for the knife, or so situated that the knife cannot operate. It has various sizes and forms. Some are jointed, and fold like a pruning knife ; others are like the common carpenter's handsaw, fig. 143, but smaller and stouter. Fig. 143. — Pruning saw, Fig. 144.— Bow saw. The Boio Saio (fig. 144). — This is the most generally useful form for the gardener, or nurseryman. The blade is very narrow, and stifiiened by an arched back. It is fastened at both ends by a rivet to the screw on which the back turns, and by which it is adapted to different pur- poses. It is indispensable in making horizontal cuts, close to the ground, as in heading down. Some are set with a double row of teeth on one side, and the edge is much thicker than the back ; these work much easier than those toothed in the ordinary way, and it would be an object to have them where much saw prun- ing is to be done. Wherever the saw is used, the cut surfaces should be pared smooth with the knife, to facili- tate its healing. Long handled pruning saws are sometimes recom- mended, but never should be used in pruning fruit trees. The branch to be operated should be reached by means of a ladder, if need be, within arm's length, and cut with a common saw. IMPLEMENTS TOR CUTTIKG. Hand jPrimmg SJiears (fig. 145). — There is a kind of these made now, that having a moving centre, as in the Fig. 145. figure, make a smooth draw cut almost equal to that of a knife, and it is a very expeditions instrument in the hand of a skilful workman. In pruning out small dead branches, shortening in peach trees, &C., it will jDerform four times as much work as a knife. Pole Pruning Shears. — These resemble the hand shears, but are worked by a string passing over a pulley, and are fixed on a pole of any required length. They are used in cutting scions, diseased shoots, &c., from the heads of lofty standard trees. Grajpe Scissors. — These are small sharp pointed scissors for thinning Fir.. 146.-Grape scissors. buUchcS of grapCS. The Pruning Knife. — ^The best for general purposes Fig. 147. — The pruning knife. Fio. 148. — The hudding knife. are those of medium size, with a handle about four inches lona:, smooth, slightly hollowed in the back ; the blade about three and a half inches long, three-quarters of an inch wide, and nearly straight. For very heavy work a larger size may be necessary. " Saynor's" (English) knives of this kind are misurpassed in material and finish. 384 NUESEBY AND FKUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. They are to be had in the seed stores at $1 to $1 25 a-piece. The Budding Knife. — This is much smaller than the pruning knife, with a thin straight blade, the edge some- times rounded at the point. The handle is of bone or ivorj, and has a thin wedge-shaped end for raising the bark. Budders have various fancies about shape and size. The Grafting Chisel, — This is used for splitting large stocks ; Fig. 149.-Grafting Chisel. tllC blade is about tWO inches long, and an inch and a half wide, in the shape of a wedge ; the edge curved so as to cut, and not tear the bark ; the handle eight or ten inches long, at the end of which is a narrow wedge to keep the split open until the scion is inserted. The whole is of steel. Some are made with the blade in the middle, the wedge at one end, and a hook to hang it by on the other. Footers Stock Sjplitter. — This is an implement invented by A. Foote, Esq., of Williamstown, Mass., to facilitate cleft grafting. It consists of a sharp blade, c, and a groove, Fig. 160. — Foote's stock splitter. «, sheathed with leather; the handles are of wood, and the whole implement about eighteen inches long. The stock is placed in the groove, and the blade brought down upon it by the lever which acts upon a small wheel, h. It performs splitting both neatly and quickly. LADDERS AND FRUIT GATHERERS. 385 Section 3. — Ladders and Fruit Gatherers. Ladders. — Of these there are many kinds. For the fruit garden, where the trees are low, the self-supporting ladder (fig. 151) is the most convenient and best. It should be made of light w^ood, with flat steps, so that a pei'son can stand upon them and work. The back, or supports, con- sist of one or two light pieces of tim- ber, fixed at the top with hooks and straps so as to be contracted or ex- tended at pleasure. A ladder of this kind, six or eight feet high, will an- swer all the demands of a garden. Orchard Ladders are of various kinds. For pruning or gathering the fruit from lofty trees, a great length of ladder is necessary ; it is there- fore desirable that the material be as light as possible consistent with the necessary strength. Sometimes these long ladders are composed of several smaller ones, that fit into one another, all mounted on a frame with a small wheel, by which they are easily moved about. The Folding Ladder is a very neat and convenient article for many purposes. The inside of the styles is hollowed out, and the steps are fastened to them by means of iron pins, on which they turn as on hinges, so that the two sides can be brought together^ th-e steps turning into the grooves or hollows in them, the whole appearing like a round pole, B. It is more easily carried and placed w^here wanted than the ordinary ladder. A represents it open, and B closed (fig. 152). There are also sclf-svpjyorting orchard ladders,^ com- 17 Fig. 151. Self-supporting ladder. S8G KUESERY AND KKUIT GAEDEN IMPLEMENTS. posed of three upright pieces of any required length, and spread widely at the bottom to give them stability. Two Fig. 152. Folding ladder. of the sides are fixed, and are furnished with steps all the way up. The third is longer and movable, and can be extended or conti'aeted at pleasm-e. A piece of board wdde enough to stand upon can be extended from one side to the other, resting upon the steps at whatever height it is desirable to work. On the movable side a pulley is fixed, by which the baskets of fruit are let down as they are gathered. Two persons or more can ascend and work on a ladder at the same time. Fig. 153 represents one of these; «, 5, the two fixed sides ; 6^, the movable one. It is considera- bly used in France. The Orchardists^ Hook. — Is a light rod, with a hook on one end, and a movable piece of wood that slides alone: it. The person gathering frr.it draws the branch, towards him with the hooked end, and re- tains it there by means of the sliding piece which is hooked to another branplicable to the gathering of fruits that are to be kej)t long, because it is impossible to avoid bruising them more or less, and besides this they operate slowly. They answer very well for gathering a few ripe specimens for immediate consump- tion. The ladder^ hook^ and hand^ are the only safe and expeditious fruit gatherers. Some are made in the form of a vase of wood or tin placed on the end of a pole. The edge of the vase is toothed, and when the stem of the fruit is taken between two of the teeth, and slightly twisted, it drops. Others are composed of a pair of shears on the end of a pole, to which a basket is attached that slides up and down the handle. The Grajye Gatherer resembles a pair of shears com- bining the property of pincers. They cut a bunch of grapes, and hold it firmly until it is brought down. These are very useful for gathering a few bunches of grapes from the top of a house or trellis (fig. 154). Fig. 164. Grape Gatherer. Section 4. — Machines for Watering. The Rand Syringe (fig. 155).— This is a very useful implement for sprinkling and washing the foliage of trees in dry weather. There are various kinds made of tin, copper, and brass, and sold at various prices. Whatever sort is used should have several caps {A) to regulate the 6^6 KCKSEKY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. quantity or shower of water discharged ; and they should also have an inverted or " gooseneck" one {£) to throw Fig. 155. Hand Syringe. the stream, if necessary, on the under side of leaves, or in any oblique direction. There are, also, hand engines^ harrel engines^ and har- row engines^ all of which are very useful. In every large garden there should be both the syringe and one of these engines ; for w^atering is a most important aifair in gardening under our hot sim and protracted droughts. Fig. 156. Barrow Engine. The Ban^ow Engine (fig. 156) is the most useful for general purposes ; it is easily moved from one place to another. The improved kinds are easily worked, and the MACHINES FOE WATERING. 389 water-box being provided with a strainer, excludes any- thing likely to derange its operations. The Garden Watering^ot (fig. 157).— This is a tin or copper vessel that may hold from one to four gallons of water, with a spout six or eight inches long, by which the water is discharged. There should be a rose or roses, as in cut, to fit on the spout, pierced with large or small holes, by which the water can be discharged in a shower. Every pot may have several roses pierced with holes of various sizes, to adapt them to different purposes. Fig. 157. Garden Watering-pot. INDEX Air, importance of, to the germination ©f seeds, 46. Alluvial soils, nature of, 49. Almonds, select varieties of, 351. Anthers, the, 28. Ants, method of destroying, 373, Aphis, the, how to destroy, 1 34, 366 ; the woolly aphis or American blight, 366 ; the scaly aphis or bark louse, 3-67. Apple, the, principal stocks in use for, 108; time for budding, 133; dwarf apple tree, 189; pruning the, 203; management of the standard apple tree, 204; dwarf standards, 206; pyramids, 207; pruning the branched yearling, 210; treatment of two-year old nursery trees, 211 ; management of the fruit branches, 217 ; pruning and management o^ as a dwarf on the paradise s^tock. 218; as an espalier, 220; renovation of pyramidal trees, 271 ; fire blight of, 361; insects infesting the, 367; apple tree borer, description of, and means of destroying, ib, ; the apple worm, 368. Apples, forms of, 40 ; abridged descriptions of one hundred and thirty-three select varieties of summer, autumn, winter, and apples for ornament and preserving. 279-297 ; small select lists of, suitable for Western New York, 297, Apricot, the, stocks for, 119; as a dwarf standard, 194; pruning and ma- nagement of, 245. Apricots, abridged descriptions of seven select varieties of^ 320, 321. Ash, the mountain, as a stock for the pear, 115. Bark, the outer, 4 ; the inner, 5. Barrow engine, the, 388. Berberries, method of propagating, 148 ; select varieties of, 347. Birds, manner of protecting fruit against, 375. Black knot, the, or plum wart, 364 Blackberries, 347. Blossoming, period of, influenced by various conditions, 31, 32; in alternate years, 34. 392 INDEX. Branches, the, various subdivisions of, 7 ; pruning, 88 ; removal of large, 89 j management of fruit, 217. Budding, method of, 70 ; conditions necessary to the operation of, 71 ; imple- ments requisite for, 71, 72; cutting, preparing, and preserving the buds, 72 ; chief difficulty experienced by beginners in, 74, 75 ; time for^ 133 ; insertion of the bud, 134 ; untying the buds, 135; treatment of the grow- ing bud, 136. Buds, nature and functions of, 14; different names and characters of, 15; variations in the size, form, and prominence of leaf buds, 17 ; fruit buds, 18 ; leaf and fruit buds how distinguished, 20. Bushes, dwarf, 142. Calcareous or chalky soils, nature of^ 49, Calyx, the, 28. Cambium, nature of, 24. Canada or wild plum, the, 120 ^ time for budding, 133L Canker worm, the, 368. Cart, the one-horse, 378. Caterpillars, methods of destroying, 369. Cats, method of protecting trees from^376. Cherries, forms of. 43 ; abridged descriptions of fifty-five select varieties of haart, bigarreau, duke and morello, and new and rare cherries recently brought to notice, 321-329 ; small select lists of, 329. Cherry, the, principal stocks in use for, 115; time for budding. 133; in the pyramidal form, 191 ; pruning the, 224; as a standard, 225; to form a round open head, 225; as a pyramid, 226 ; as an espalier, 227 ; as a dwarf or bush, 228 ; effects of the disease called gum on, 362. Chestnuts, method of propagating, 148 ; select varieties of, 351, 352. Chinese layering, description of the process so called, 122, 125. Chisel, the grafting, 384. Clayey soils, nature of, 48. Cleft grafting, 79. Corolla, the, 28. Cotyledons, the, 44. Cultivator, the, 377. Curl of the leaf in the peach, the, 364. Currant, the, method of propagating, 147 ; pruning and management of, 265 ; as a pyramid and espalier, 266. Currants, abridged descriptions of eleven select varieties of, 341, 342. Cutting back, object of, 207 ; process of, 208 ; summer management of trees cut back, 213. Cuttings of fruit trees, how to make, 65 ; time of making, soil proper for, and time of planting, 66 ; method of preserving, 67 ; treatment of, when transplanted, 127. INDEX. 393 Diseases of fruit trees, description of and remedies for, 361. Distance at which standards should be planted in the nursery, 129. Double-working, explanation of, 81. Doucain, the, method of propagating, 110. Draining, process of, 52. Dubreuil, M., his summary of the general principles of pruning, 96. Dung fork, the, 379. Dwarf standards, 131 ; management of, 140, 206 ; dwarf bushes, 142 ; dwarf apple tree, 189 ; the cherry as a dwarf or bush, 228. Enclosures, various kinds of, for orchards, 163 : for fruit gardens, 181. Espaliers, method of forming, 143 ; proper distances between, 201 ; the apple and pear as, 220 ; the cherry as, 227 ; the peach as, 236 ; method of laying in, and fastening to walls and trellises, 243 ; the currant as, 266. Fences, materials for making, for orchards, 163 ; for garaens, 181. Fibres, the, or rootlets, 2. Fig, the, propagation of, 160; suitable soil for, 261; pruning and training of, ib. Figs, select varieties of, 350, 351. Filbert, the, method of propagating, 148; as a dwarf and pyramid, 194; pruning and training, 257 ; account of the management of filber* orchards in the county of Kent, England, ib. Filberts, abridged descriptions of six varieties of, 352. Fire blight, the, of the pear, apple, and quince, 361. Flowers, different parts of, 28 ; sexual distinctions of, 29 ; method of im- pregnation of, 30 ; double, 3 1 : different characters of, 32 ; hybridization of, 33. Foote's stock splitter, 384. Fruit rooms, requisites for, 359. Fruit trees, names, descriptions, and offices of the different parts of, 1 ; fruit branches and fruit spurs, 10 ; fruit buds, 20; propagation of, by seeds, 60; general carelessness in the selection of the seeds of, 61 ; production of new varieties of, 63 ; propagation of, by cuttings, 65 ; propagation of, by layer- ing, 67 — by suckers and by budding, 70; propagation of, by grafting, 75; pruning of, 83 ; method of regulating the growth of, 92 ; method of pro- moting the fruitfulness of, by pinching, 94 ; budding, grafting, and manage- ment of, in the nursery, 132 ; taking up. from the nursery, 150; method of packing, 151; process of heeling in, 153; permanent plantations of, 157; proper soils for different, 162; points to be considered in selecting varieties of, for an orchard, 164; arrangement of, in an orchard, 167; pruning and preparing, for planting, 174 ; how to select, for the fruit gar- den, 188, 195; age of, for the fruit garden, 195; arrangement of, in the fruit garden, 199; sundry operations connected with the culture of. 272 j diseases peculiar to, 361 ; insects injurious to. 365. * 39i INDEX. Fruitfulness, method of promoting, by pinching, 94. Fruits, nature and classification of, 34, 35 ; forms and colors of, 36 ; different parts of, ib ; size of, circumstances influencing the, 37 ; classification of the size of, 39 ; form of, 40 ; color and flavor of, 43 ; abridged descriptions of select varieties of, 277 ; directions for the gathering, packing, transpor- tation, and preservation of, 354 ; the best fruit gatherers, 387. Fruit Garden, the, general remarks on, 178; situation for, 179; soil of, 180; enclosures for, 181; manner of laying out, 183; the mixed, or fruit and kitchen, 185 ; walks in, 186 ; a supply of vv^ater important for, 187 ; how- to select trees for, 188, 195 ; age of trees for, 195 ; arrangement of trees in, 199 ; implements used in, 377 ; machines for watering, 387. Gathering fruits, proper period for, 354 ; mode of, 355 ; disposition of fruits after gathering, 356 ; implements used in. 386. Germination, process of, 45. Gooseberries, abridged descriptions of five select varieties of, 342, 343. Gooseberry, the method of propagating, 147 ; pruning, 262 : method prac- tised in Lancashire to produce large gooseberries, 264 ; severely affected by the mildew, 363. Grafting, process and objects of, 75 ; implements used in, and grafting com- position, 77 ; whip-grafting on the root, 78 ; cleft grafting, 79 ; precau- tions to be taken in, 81 ; double-working, ib.; implements used in, 384. Grape vine, the, methods of propagating, 145 ; general observations on the management of, 245 ; planting, 248 ; pruning, 249. Grapes, culture of foreign, in cold vineries, 253 ; abridged descriptions of four select varieties of hardy grapes and nine varieties of foreign grapes, 348-350 ; instrument for gathering, 387. Gravelly soils, nature of 49. Growth of trees, method of regulating the, 93. Gum, the, in stone fruits, 362. Heading down, process of, 85. Heart or perfect wood, the, 5. Heat, effect of, on the germination of seeds, 46. Heeling in, process of, ] 53. Hoe, the, two kinds of, 380. Hogs, method of protecting trees against injuries caused by, 376. Hook, the orchardist's, 386. Horse plum, the, 119. Hybridization, explanation of the process of, 33. Implements used in the orchard, nursery, and fruit garden, 377. Insects, the principal, which infest fruit trees, 365. Knife, the pruning, 383 ; the budding, 384. ixDEx. 395 Labels for trees in the nursery, 149 ; manner of labelling, 150. Ladders, orchard, folding, and self-supporting, 385. Layering, process of, G7, 125; propagation of plunris by, 122; treatment of layers when transplanted, 127. Leaf rollers, 374 Leaves, structure and functions of, 21 ; different forms and characters of, 25. Light, exclusion of, necessary for the germination of seeds, 47. Line and reel, the, 380. Loamy soils, nature of, 49. Mahaleb, the, 117. Manures, importance of, 54 ; preparation of, 55; special, 56 ; modes of apply- ing. 58 ; liquid, ib. iSIanuring, proper method of, 272. Mazzard seedlings, 115. Medlar, the, treatment of, same as that of the quince, 224. Medullary rays, 7. Mice, method of protecting fruit trees from the ravages of, 375. Mildew, the, in the peach, 363. Moisture, effects of, on the germination of seeds, 45. Moles, method of guarding against the ravages of, 376. Mulberries, method of propagating, 148 ; varieties of, 348. Mulching, operation of, 176, 273. Nectarine, the, stocks for, 119 ; as a dwarf standard, 194; pruning the, 246. Nectarines, abridged descriptions of seven select varieties of, 329, 330, Nursery, the, soil of, 105; method of laying out, 107; situation of, and succession of crops in, ib. ; directions for planting stocks in the nursery rows, 127 ; budding, grafting, and management of trees in, 132 ; treatment of the soil in, 144; labels for trees in, 149; taking up trees from, 150; implements used in, 377. Orchard, the, situation of, 158; soil of, 161; how to prepare the soil for, 162; selection of varieties of fruit trees for the family, 164; kind of trees to be selected for, 166; arrangement of the trees in, 167; selection of trees for the market, 169; planting the, 175; management of trees in, 177 ; implements used in, 377, 385. Ovary, the, 29. Packing trees, proper method of 151 ; method of packing fruits, 357. Paradise, the, method of propagating, ill. Parenchyma, nature of, 22. Parsons, S. B., his orchard of pear trees, 172. Peach, the, principal stocks for, 117; times for budding, 133; as a dwarf standard, 193; pruning and management of, 229 ; to form the head of a 396 INDEX. standard peach tree, 231 ; root pruning, 233 ; conducted in the form of a vase, ib. ; as an espalier, 236 ; symptoms of the yellows and mildew in, 363 ; insects infesting, 373. Peaches, forms of, 42 ; abridged descriptions of thirty-eight select varieties of freestone and clingstone, 330-335 : select list of, 335. Pear, the, principal stocks in use for. 111 ; time for budding, 133 ; as a pyra- mid, 190, 207 ; in the dwarf standard form, 191, 206; management of the standard pear tree, 204; pruning the branched yearling, 210; treatment of two-year old nursery trees, 211 ; management of the fruit branches, 217; as an espalier, 220; renovation of pyramidal trees, 271 ; fire blight of 361 ; pear leaf blight, 362. Pears, forms of, 41 ; varieties of, that succeed well on the quince, 172 ; abridged descriptions of one hundred and eighty-two select varieties of summer, autumn, winter, pears for baking and stewing, and new and rare varieties, 299-319; select assortments of, 312; method of packing for distant markets, 358. Peaty soil, nature of, 49. Petals, the, 28. Pick, the, 380. Pinching, nature and objects of, 92 Pistil, the, 29. Pith, the, 5. Plant louse, the, ravages of, and method of destroying, 365, 366. Plantations of fruit trees, different kinds of, 157. Plants, exhalation of moisture and g?ses by, 22 ; propagation of, 60. Plough, the subsoil and one-horse, 377. Ploughing, subsoil, 50. Plum, the, stocks for, 119: the horse, ib. ; the Canada, or wild, 120; the cherry plum, ib. ; the sloe as a stock for, 121 ; propagated by layers, 122; time for budding, 133; as a pyramid, 192; as a dwarf standard, 193; pruning and management of, 244 ; diseases of, 364. Plums, forms of, 42 ; abridged descriptions of fifty-one select varieties of, 335-340; small select lists of, 341. Plumule, the, 44. Pruning, importance of the operation of, 83 ; various objects to be attained by, 84 ; to direct the growth from one part to another, ib. ; heading down, 85 ; to maintain an equal growth, to renew growth, and to induce fruit- fulness, 86 ; pruning the roots and pruning at the time of transplanting, 87; mechanically considered, 88; season for, 91 ; general principles of, as laid down by Dubreuil, 96; directions for the pruning of stocks, 125; pruning the apple and the pear, 203 ; the quince, 222 ; the cherry, 224 ; the peach, 229 ; the plum, 244 ; the apricot, 245 ; the nectarine, 246 ; grape vines, ib. ; the filbert, 257 ; the fig, 260 ; the gooseberry. 262 ; the currant, 265; the raspberry, 267; implements used in, 381. INDEX. 397 Pyramids, management of, 140, 207; renovation of, 271. Quince, the, as a stock for the pear, 113; erroneous ideas concerning, 114; as a dwarf and pyramid, 194 ; pruning and training of, 222 ; fire blight of, 361. Quinces, abridged descriptions of seven select varieties of, 319, 320. Rake, the, 381. Raspberries, forms of, 43 ; method of proj)agating, 148 ; abridged descriptions of six select varieties of, 343, 344. Raspberry, the, planting of, 267 ; pruning, 268 ; manuring and training, 269 ; French and English modes of training, 269, 270. Root, the, the several parts of, 2; growth of, 3; whip-grafting on, 78- pruning, 87, 90 ; method of planting root-grafts, 131. Rosebug, the, 374. Sandy soils, nature of, 48. Sap, the, ascent, assimilation, and descent of, 24 ; tendency of, to the grow- ing points at the top of a tree, 85. Sap wood, the, 5. Saw, the pruning, 381 ; the bow, 382. Scions, selection and treatment of, for grafting, 76. Scissors, grape, 383. Seed, the, composition of, 44 ; germination of, 45 ; propagation by, 60 ; selection of, 61. Seedling apple, the common or free stock, preparing, saving, and planting the seed of, 108; after management of, 109 ; the pear seedling. 111. Shears, hand pruning and pole pruning, 383. Shovel, the, 379. Sloe, the, as a stock for the plum, 121. Soils, different kinds of, 48 ; different modes of improving, 50 ; proper, for the orchard, 161 ; annual cultivation of the soil, 272. Spade, the, 378 ; the forked spade, 379. Spongioles, the, 3. Staking, process of, 176. Stamens, the, 28. Standards, management of, 137; dwarf, management of, 140. Stem, the, the different parts of, 4 ; structure and growth of, 6 ; the branches divisions of, 7 ; pruning, 88. Stigma, the, 29. Stocks, necessity of a close alliance between, and grafts, 76 ; description and propagation of, 108; for the apple, ib. ; for the pear. 111 ; for the cherry, 115 ; for the peach, 117 ; for the apricot, nectarine, and plum, 119 ; trans- planting, 122; time ancj manner of taking up, 124; pruning storks, 125; 398 INDEX. planting in the nursery rows, 127 ; treatment of, after planting, 132 ; time for budding, 133 ; preparation of, and insertion of the bud, 134. Strawberries, forms of, 43 ; method of propagating, 147; abridged descrip- tions of twenty-six select varieties of, 344-346. Style, the, 29. Subsoil ploughing, 50 ; the subsoil plough, 377. Suckers, propagation of fruit trees by means of, 70. Syringe, the hand, 387. Temperature, method of protecting trees against extremes of, 273 Thorn, the, as a stock for the pear, 115. Transplanting stocks, directions for, 122. Tree, a, general remarks upon the structure of, 1 ; the root, 2 ; the stem, 4 ; the branches. 7 ; the buds, 14 ; the leaves, 21 : the flowers, 28 ; the fruit, 34 ; the seed, 44. Trellises, form and construction of, 182. Trenching, process of, 51. Varieties of fruits, abridged descriptions of select, 277. Vineyards, culture of, 252. Walks, manner of laying out, in the fruit garden, 186. Walnuts, method of propagating, 149 ; abridged descriptions of varieties of, 353. Water, a supply of, important for a fruit garden, 187. Watering, beneficial effects of, in fruit trees, 273 ; machines for, 387 ; the garden watering-pot, 389. Wheelbarrow, the, 378. Whip-grafting on the root, 78. Wilder. M. P., compost recommended by, for gardening purposes, 57. Yellows, the, in the peach, 363. ADVERTISEMENT. ELLWANGER & BARRY, PEOPEIETOES OF THE ROCHESTER, N. Y., Solicit the attention of Nurserymen, Orchardists and dealers in Trees to their extensive stock. Their Nurseries cover one hundred acres of the finest land in the Genesee Valley — and FRUIT km ORNAMENTAL TRESS OF ALL KiNB^S are so extensively grown that they can be furnished on the most reasonable terms. Especial attention is given to iViiP Fiiif niii fiB iiiiiiia Upwards of Two Hundred Thousand Trees of this kind, of the different fruits will be offered at reduced prices in the Autumn of 1851. The following Catalogues will be sent gratis to all post paid ap- plications. 1. A Generai. Descriptive Catalogue. 2. A Wholesale Catalogue. 3. A Catalogue of Select Green House Plants. 4. Special Catalogues of Dahlias, Bedding Plants, Poses. &c.. &o. iMIl/iYitni fi(.{/,l.M.i(f: /Mrt iHiffiiii mmmmmmf^ Wil/i§ )(.- ' i< ifii;i ; ( I) 1 !( mmfffi Wli: m fiifm 9 11(11! in !M' rJmm^' n t : ; i f 1 1 1 i i 1 ! 1 1 1 i ( 1 ( 1 1 : : : lJ f 1 1 1 ! 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