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THH

FRUIT GARDEN;

A TREATISE

INTENDED TO EXPLAIN AND ILLUSTRATE THE PHYSIOLOGY OF FRUIT
TREES, THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ALL OPERATIONS

CONNECTED WITH THE

PROPAGATION, TRANSPLANTING, PRUNING AND TRAINING OP
ORCHARD AND GARDEN TREES, AS STANDARDS, DWARFS,
PYRAMIDS, ESPALIERS, ETC.,

ORCHARDS AND GARDENS,

THE SELECTION OF SUITABLE VARIETIES FOR DIFFERENT’ PURPOSES AMD
LOCALITIES, GATHERING AND PRESERVING FRUITS, TREATMENT OF

DISEASES, DESTRUCTION OF INSECTS, DESCRIPTIONS AND
USES OF IMPLEMENTS, ETC.

ILLUSTRATED WITH UPWARDS OF 150 FIGURES,

REPRESENTING DIFFERENT PARTS OF TREES, ALL PRACTICAL OPERATIONS,
FORMS OF TREES, DESIGNS FOR PLANTATIONS, IMPLEMENTS, ETC.

, -
| a

BY PX BARRY,

OF THE MOUNT HOPE NURSERIES, ROCHESTER, NEW YORK.

NEW YORK:
CHARLES SCRIBNER.
1852.

es

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by
CHARLES SCRIBNER,

In the Cierk’s Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern
District of New York.

INTRODUCTION.

Tue subject of this treatise is one in which almpst all classes
of the community are more or less practically engaged and inter-
ested. Agriculture is pursued by one class, and commerce by
another ; the mechanic arts, fine arts, and learned professions by
others ; but fruit culture, to a greater or less extent, by all.

It is the desire of every man, whatever may be his pursuit or
cvndition in life, whether he live in town or country, to enjoy fine
fruits, to provide them for his family, and, if possible, to cultivate
the trees in his own garden with his own hands. The agricul-
turist, whatever be the extent or condition of his grounds, con-
siders an orchard, at least, indispensable. The merchant or pro-
fessional man who has, by half a lifetime of drudgery in town,
secured a fortune or a competency that enables him to retire to a
country or suburban villa, looks forward to his fruit garden as one
of the chief_sources of those rural comforts and pleasures he so
long and so earnestly labored and hoped for. The artizan who
has laid wp enough from his earnings to purchase a homestead,
considers the planting of his fruit trees as one of the first and
most important steps towards improvement. He anticipates the
pleasure of tending them in his spare hours, of watching their
growth and progress to maturity, and of gathering their ripe and

delicious fruits, and placing them before his family and friends as

*

iv - INTRODUCTION.

the valued products of his own garden, and of his own skill and
labor. Fortunately, in the United States, land is so easily ob-
tained as to be within the reach of every industrious man ; and
the climate and soil being so favorable to the production of fruit,
Americans, if they be not already, must become truly “ a nation
of fruit growers.”

Fruit culture, therefore, whether considered as a branch of
profitable industry, or as exercising a most beneficial influence
upon the health, habits, and tastes of the people, becomes a great
national interest, and whatever may assist in making it better un-
derstood, and more interesting, and better adapted to the various
wants, tastes, and circumstances of the community, cannot fail to
subserve the public good.

Within a few years past it has received an unusual degree of
attention. Plantations of all sorts, orchards, gardens, and nur-
series, have increased in numbers and extent to a degree quite un-
precedented ; not in one section or locality, but from the extreme
north to the southern limits of the fruit-growing region. Foreign
supplies of trees have been required to mect the suddenly and
greatly increased demand. Treatises and periodicals devoted to the
subject have increased rapidly and circulated widely. Horticul-
tural societies have been organized in all parts; while exhibitions,
and national, state, and local conventions of fruit growers, have
been held to discuss the merits of fruits and other kindred topics.

To those unacquainted with the previous condition of fruit cul-
ture in the interior of the country, this new planting spirit has
appeared as a sort of speculative mania, and the idea has sug-
gested itself to them that the country will soon be overstocked
with fruits. This is a greatly mistaken apprehension. After all
that has been done, let us look at the actual condition of fruit

culture at the present time. In the best fruit-growing counties

INTRODUCTION. Vv

in the State of New York, the entire fruit plantations of more
than three fourths of the agricultural population consist of very
ordinary orchards of apples. Not a dish of fine pears, plums,
cherries, apricots, grapes, or raspberries, has ever appeared on
their tables, and not a step has yet been taken to produce them.
People are but beginning to learn the uses of fruits, and to
appreciate their importance.

At one time apples were grown chiefly for cider ; now they are:
considered indispensable articles of food. The finer fruits, that
were formerly considered as luxuries only for the tables of the
wealthy, are beginning to take their place among the ordinary
supplies of every man’s table; and this taste must grow from
year to year, with an increased supply. Those who consume a
bushel of fruit this year, will require double or treble that quantity
next. The rapid increase of population alone, creates a demand
to an extent that few people are aware of. The city of Roches-
ter has added 20,000 to her numbers in ten years. Let such an
increase as this in all our cities, towns, and villages, be estimated,
and see what an aggregate annual amount of new consumers it
presents.

New markets are continually presenting themselves and de-
manding large supplies. New and more perfect modes of pack-
ing and shipping fruits, and of drying, preserving, and preparing
them for various purposes to which they have not hitherto been
appropriated, are beginning to enlist attention and inquiry.

Immense amounts of money are annually expended in import-
ing grapes, wines, figs, nuts, prunes, raisins, currants, almonds,
&e., many of which might be produced perfectly well on our own
soil. Pears have actually been imported from France by the
New York confectioners, this present season, (1851.) These
are facts that should be well understood by proprietors of lands,

vi INTRODUCTION.

and especially by those who have allowed themselves to imagine
that fruit will soon be so plenty as not to be worth the growing.

It is too soon by a century to apprehend an over supply of
fruits in the United States, except of some very perishable sort,
in a season of unusual abundance, in some particular locality
where one branch of culture is mainly carried on.

Tt is because fruit culture has been almost entirely neglected
until within a few years, that the present activity appears so ex-
traordinary. A vast majority of the people were quite unaware
of the treasures within their reach; and that in regard to soil and
climate they possessed advantages for fruit growing superior to
any other nation We had no popular works or periodicals to
diffuse information or awaken interest on the subject. For four-
teen or fifteen years Hovey’s Magazine of Horticulture was the
only journal exclusively devoted to gardening subjects, and it
only found its way into the hands of the more advanced culti- —
vators. We had some treatises on fruits, but none of them cir-
culated sufficiently to effect much good. Previous to 1845, Ken-
rick’s American Orchardist, and Manning’s Book of Fruits, were
the principal treatises that had any circulation worth naming.
Coxe’s work, Floy’s, Prince’s, and some others, were confined
almost wholly to nursery-men, or persons already engaged and
interested in fruit culture in the older parts of the country.

Mr. Downing’s “ Fruit and Fruit Trees of America,” that ap-
peared in 1845, was the first treatise of the kind that really ob-
tained a wide and general circulation.

It made its appearance at a favorable moment, just as the
planting spirit referred to was beginning to manifest itself, and
when, more than at any previous period, such a work was needed.
Mr. Downing enjoyed great advantages over any previous Ameri-
can writer. During the ten years that had elapsed since the

INTRODUCTION. Vil

publication of Kenrick’s and Prince’s treatises, a great fund of
materials had been accumulating. Messrs. Manning, Kenrick,
Prince, Wilder, and many others, had been industriously collect-
ing fruits both at home and abroad. The Massachusetts Horti-
cultural Society was actively engaged in its labors. The London
Horticultural Society had made great advancement in its exami-
nation and trial of fruits, and had corrected a multitude of long
standing errors in nomenclature.

Mr. Downing’s work had the benefit of all this ; and possessing
the instructive feature of outline figures of fruits, and being writ-
ten in a very agreeable and attractive style, it possessed the ele-
ments of popularity and usefulness in an eminent degree. Hence
it became at once the text-book of every man who sought for
pomological information, or felt interested in fruits or fruit trees. ;
and to itis justly attributable much of the taste and spirit on the
subject, and the increased attention to nomenclature, that so dis-
tinguishes the present time. Mr. Thomas’s recent treatise, ‘‘ The
American Fruit Culturist,” on the same plan as Mr. Downing’s,
is also a popular work, and will be the means of diffusing both
taste and information. Mr Thomas is a close and accurate
observer, and his descriptions are peculiarly concise, methodical
and minute. ‘‘ Cole’s Fruit Book’? is also a recent treatise, and
on account of its cheapness and the vast accumulation of facts
and information it contains is highly popular and useful. Be-
sides these, periodicals devoted more or less to the subject, have
increased in number and greatly extended their circulation, so
that information is now accessible to all who desire it.

The light which has been shed upon fruit-growing by these
works, and the taste they have created, have not only improved
old systems of cultivation, but introduced new ones. Until within

a few years nothing was said or known among the great body of

vili INTRODUCTION.

cultivators, or even nursery-men, of dwarfing trees, of the uses of
certain stocks, or of modes of propagation and pruning by which
trees are made to bear early, and are adapted to different circum-.
stances. The entire routine of the propagation and management
of trees was conducted generally in the simplest and rudest manner.
Whether for the garden or the orchard they were propagated in
the same manner, on the same stocks, and in the same form
taken from the nursery, planted out and left there to assume such
forms as nature or accident might impose, and produce fruit at
such a time as natural circumstances would admit.

The art of planting fifty trees on a quarter of an acre of
ground, and bringing them into a fruitful state in four or five
years at most, was entirely unknown. Small gardens were en-
cumbered with tall, unshapely, and unfruitful trees, that afforded
no pleasure to the cultivator ; and thousands of persons, who are
now the most enthusiastic cultivators, were entirely discouraged
from the attempt

Fruit gardening, properly speaking, may be said only to have
commenced. It is no longer a matter of mere utility, but of
taste also; and, therefore, adaptation, variety, and beauty, are
sought for in garden trees and modes of culture and management.
Nothing so distinguishes the taste of modern planting as the
partiality for dwarf trees, and the desire to obtain information in
regard to their propagation and treatment.

This has not been anticipated by any of our authors. The
standard or orchard system alone is fully treated of, as being the
only one practised ; and this requires so little skill in the art of
culture, that only the simplest instructions have been given.
The very elements of the science haye been unexplained and
unstudied, and cultivators in the main find themselves both desti-
tute of knowledge in regard to the management of trees in the

INTRODUCTION. 1X

more refined and artificial forms, and the sources from which to
obtain it. But a very small proportion of those engaged or en-
gaging in tree culture have studied the physiology of trees in any
degree. Very few have the slightest knowledge of the modes of
growth and bearing of the different species of fruits, or even of the
difference between wood or leaf buds, and fruit buds. Very few
understand the functions of the different parts of trees, and the
relation in which they stand one to another ; the principles that
govern and regulate the growth and maturity, the formation of
wood and the production of fruit. Practice is no better under-
stood than principle. Persons engaged largely in tree growing
will frequently ask the most absurd questions on the subject of
propagation, of stocks, of pruning, &c., matters that should be
understood by every man who has a single tree to manage, but
especially indispensable to those who wish to succeed in conduct-
ing garden trees under certain modified forms, more or less
opposed to the natural. The preparation of ground, laying out
small gardens, the selection of suitable trees, and a multitude of
minor but nevertheless important matters, are very imperfectly
understood. Neither our state nor national governments have
ever manifested a disposition to favor the rural arts with any-
thing like a liberal patronizing policy. Advanced, wealthy and
powerful as we are, not a single step has been taken, in earnest,
to establish model farms or model gardens, in which experiments
might be made and examples given that would enlighten cultiva-
tors, and elevate and honor their profession, Whatever adyance
has been made is due wholly to individual taste, energy, and enter-
prise; and to these alone are we permitted to look for future
progress.

Having for many years devoted much attention to this particu-
lar branch of culture, and feeling deeply interested in its success,

1*

x INTRODUCTION.

and having, bya business intercourse with cultivators in all parts
of the country, an ample opportunity of understanding the nature
and extent of the information desired, I have prepared the fol-
lowing pages to supply it at least in part.

I am well convinced that the work is neither perfect nor com-
plete. It has been prepared, during a few weeks of the winter, in
the midst of other engagements that rendered it impossible to be-
stow upon it the necessary care and labor. My original intention
was to give a few brief directions for the management of garden
trees, but it was suggested by friends that it would prove more
generally useful by adding a sketch of the entire routine of opera-
tions, from the propagation in the nursery to the management in
the orchard and garden. This has involved much more labor
than it was intended to bestow on it, or than I could really spare
from business. It has, therefore, been performed hastily, and,
of course, in many respects imperfectly, but yet it is hoped it
contains such an exposition of principles and practices as cannot
fail to diffuse amongst the inexperienced much needed informa-
tion. All doubtful theories, and whatever had not a direct prac-
tical bearing on the subjects treated, have been excluded, both
for the sake of brevity, and to avoid anything calculated to
mislead. The principles and practices set forth are not new,
visionary, or doubtful, but such as are taught and practised by the
most accomplished cultivators of the day, and have been success-
fully carried out in the daily operations of our own establishment.

In the pruning and management of garden trees, the French
arboriculturists surpass all others. Their trees are models that
have no equals, and that all the world admire. The English,
notwithstanding their great gardening skill, and their refined
and elegant modes of culture, are far behind the French in the
management of fruit trees. French systems of pruning and

INTRODUCTION. xl

training are at this moment advocated and held up as. models by
such men as Mr. Robert Thompson, head of the fruit department
in the London Horticultural Society’s Garden ; by Mr. Rivers,
well known on this side of the Atlantic as one of the most ener-
getic and accomplished nurserymen in Great Britain; and by
many others whose skill and judgment command attention. Their
introduction to English gardens is going on rapidly, and bids fair
to revolutionize their whole practice of fruit tree culture.

D’Albrét’s great work on pruning is conceded to be the best
extant on that subject. He was the pupil and successor of M.
Thouin, the world-renowned vegetable physiologist and founder
of the great national gardens at Paris. His practice is founded
upon the true principles of vegetable physiology, and strengthened
by long years of the most minute and successful experiment.

M. Dubrieul, late conductor of the fruit department in the
Garden of Rouen, has also published an excellent treatise on
arboriculture ; and there are many other French works on the
subject, all showing how thoroughly the science is there under-
stood, and how minutely and skilfully its principles are dealt with.
all, These as well as the best-managed gardens and the most
perfect and beautiful trees in France and Belgium, have been
carefully studied.

The knowledge thus acquired, added to the experience of many
years’ actual and extensive practice, constitutes the basis of the
course recommended.

The same minute detail that characterizes European works has
not been attempted, yet much detail is absolutely necessary in
order to prevent misapprehension on the part of those wholly
inexperienced.

Writers are apt to treat simple matters too much in the general,
presuming them to be well understood. Detail is always tedious

xil INTRODUCTION.

to those familiar with the subject, but nothing less can be satisfac
tory to the student.

For the sake of convenient reference, the different branches of
the subject have been separated into four parts, The first
treats of general principles, a knowledge of the structure,
character, and functions of the different parts of trees, modes of
growth, bearing, &c., &c.; soils, manures, modes of propagation,
&e. This must be the ground-work of the study of tree culture.
The second treats of the nursery. The third of plantations,
orchards of different kinds, gardens, &c.; their laying out and
management, and of the pruning and training of trees in different
forms. The fourth contains abridged descriptions of the best
fruits, a chapter.on gathering and preserving fruits, another on

diseases and insects, and another on the implements in com-
mon use.

Illustrations haye been introduced wherever the nature of the
subject seemed to require them, and it was possible to get them
prepared. It is believed that these will prove of great value in
imparting a correct knowledge of the various subjects. Upwards
of one hundred of the more important figures have been drawn
from nature by Prof. Sintzenich of Rochester.

P. B.

/

Mount Hope Garden and Nurseries,
Rocuester, N. Y.

CONTENTS.

PART L.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

CHAPTER I.

PAGS
Names, Descriptions, AND OFFICES OF THE DIFFERENT PaRTs OF

Fruit TREEs, : : : ; - ° : I

CHAPTER II.
Sots, ° . ° ° ° ° ° e ° 48

CHAPTER III.

Manvres, : ‘ : : x . ° ‘ 54

GHAPTER LV.

Tue Dirrrrent Mopes or Propacatina Fruit Trees, . ° 60

CHAPTER V.

Prunine—Irs Princrptes anp PractTIcE, . A ‘ ' 83

XIV CONTENTS.

PART i

THE NURSERY . ‘ . ° . ° ° 105

PART THE.

PLANTATIONS, ORCHARDS, ETC.
CHAPTER I. :

Permanent Puantations oF Fruit TREES, : : ° 157

CHAP TE Fi i,

PRUNING APPLIED TO THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF Fruit TREES

UNDER DIFFERENT Forms, : : ; 2 ie 203

PAIL iy.
SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

CHAPTER I.

ABRIDGED DrscripTIONs OF SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS, ; |
’

CHAPTER 11.

GaTHERING, PackInc, TRANSPORTATION AND PRESERVATION OF Fruits, 354

CHAPTER III.

DisEases AND InsEcTs, : F : : : 361

CHAPTER - IV.

Nursery, Orcuarp anv Fruir Garpen ImpLeMENTs, . ‘ 377

PART. ¥.

— SO

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

CEA PUP Ricks

NAMES, DESCRIPTIONS, AND OFFICES OF THE DIF-
FERENT PARTS OF FRUIT TREES.

General Remarks —AA. Tree is a living body composed
of many parts, such as roots, branches, leaves, buds, blos-

Fig.1,atree. A, the collar. B,
the main root. OC, lateral root.
D, fibres. E, stem or trunk. F,
main branches. G, secondary
branches. 4H, shoots, one year’s
growth.

1

soms, fruit, &c. All these have
different offices to fulfil, assume
different forms and characters, and
are known and designated from
one another by different names
when subjected to the practical
operation of culture. Without
some knowledge of the names and
structure of these diiferent parts,
of the principles that guide their
development, their relative connec-
tion with, and influence upon one
another, tree culture cannot be,
to any man, really pleasant, in-
tellectual, or successful; but a
misty, uncertain, unintelligible
routine of manual labor. |

The industry of our times is pe-
culiarly distinguished by the ap-
plication of science—the union of
theory with practice in every de-
partment; and surely the votaries
of the garden, whose labors, of

2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

all others, should be intelligent, will not allow themselves
to fall behind and perform their labors in the dark.

Fully sensible of the importance of this preliminary
study, and conftdent that the minute and practical details
of culture cannot be well understood without it, I propose
here, before entering upon the-main subject, to describe,
in as few and as plain words as possible, the structure,
character, connection, and respective offices of the various
parts of fruit trees, and the names by —_ each is
known in practice.

Srction 1.—Tue Root.

Tue Roor is composed of several parts.

1st. The collar (A, fig. 1), which is the centre of growth,
or point of union between the root and stem, usually at
or just below the surface of the ground. In root gratft-
ing seedlings, this is the point where the graft is set.

2d. The body or main root (B, fig. 1), which usually
penetrates the earth in a vertical direction, and decreases
in size as it proceeds downwards from the collar. It is
also called the tap root. A seedling that has not been
transplanted has usually but one descending or tap root,
furnished in all its length with minute hairy fibres.

3d. The lateral roots (C, fig. 1) are principal divisions or
branches of the main root, and take more or less of a
spreading or horizontal direction. When seedlings are
transplanted, having a portion of the tap root cut off,
these lateral or side roots are immediately formed.

Ath. The jibres or rootlets (D, fig. 1) are the minute hair.
like roots which we see most abundant off#trees that have
been frequently transplanted. Different species of trees
vary much in their natural tendency to produce fibres.
Thus the pear and the apple require frequent transplant-
ing, and often root pruning, to produce that fibrous condi-

tion which is necessary to great fruitfulness; whilst the

THE ROOT. 3

_ paradise apple, used as a stock for dwarf trees, and the
quince, are always quite fibrous, the former never, and
the latter seldom requiring root pruning.

5th. Zhe spongioles are the extremities of the fibres,
porous and spongy, through which the food of trees de-
rived from the soil is mainly absorbed ; these points are
composed of soft, newly-formed, delicate tissue, and are
exceedingly susceptible of injury. The slightest bruise or
exposure to a dry or cold air is fatal to them; and this
is the reason why transplanted trees receive generally
such a severe check and so frequently die. If trees could
be taken up in such a way that these spongioles could all,
or mostly, be preserved, trees would receive no check
whatever; hence large trees are removed in midsummer
without a leaf flagging.

6th. Growth of Loots—The most popular theory at this
time is—that the growth of roots is produced. by the pro-
longment of the woody vessels of the stem, which descend
in successive layers to the extremities af the roots, and
thus promote their extension.

When these descending layers are Se in their
course by some natural or accidental cause, or by art, as
when we cut off the ends of roots, they pierce the bark
and form new roots or new divisions of the root in the
same manner that branches are produced on the stem.
Thus the roots furnish food to the stem and branches for
their support and enlargement, and inreturn, the stem and
branches send down layers of young wood to increase and
solidify the root; the one depending entirely upon the other
for its growth and existence. Practical cultivators are
familiar with many facts that illustrate the intimate rela-
tions and mutual dependency of the roots and stems.
For instance, where one portion of the head or branches
is much larger or more vigorous than the other, if the
roots he examined, it will be found that those immediately

4. GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

under, or in direct connection with the largest branches,
will have acorresponding size and vigor. In cases where
one side of the top of a large tree is cut off, as in top
grafting, a large number of new shoots are produced on
the cut branch, and, if the roots be examined under or
in connection with this branch, a corresponding new
growth will be found there. It is quite obvious from
these and similar facts, that whatever affects the roots or
stems of trees favorably or unfavorably, affects the whole
tree. If the foliage of a tree be entirely removed in the
growing season, the absorbent action of the roots is sus-
pended ; and if the spongioles or absorbing points of the
roots be cut off, the growth of the top instantly ceases.
Those who have leisure should pursue the study of these
highly interesting and important points still further.

Srction 2.—Tnr Srem.

The Stem is that part of a tree which starts from the
collar and grows upwards. It sustains all the branches,
and forms the channel of communication between the
different parts of the tree from one extremity to the other.

Plants like the grape, with twining or climbing stems,
are called vines, and such as have no main stem, but have
branches diverging from the collar, as the gooseberry, cur-
rant, &c., are called shrubs or bushes. Where the stem is
destitute of branches to some distance from the ground,
it is usually called the trunk.

Different Parts of the Stem.—A. stem or branch of a
tree is composed of the following parts, which are dis-
tinctly observable when we cut it across. Fig. 2 repre-
sents the half of a cross section of the stem of a young
tree five years old.

1. The Lind or Outer Bark (A) on shoots or young parts
of trees; this is thin, smooth, and delicate, like tissue

THE STEM. 5

paper, pau is ensly separated from the parts beneath it.
QI ny co In some species, as the
A iy Ahi
i SATA

en grape vine, for example,
; EE this rind is shed and re-
A | / iN newed annually, whilst
E | AT TH | in others, as the apple,
SL} pear, &c., it unites with
Fic, 2 F: / the layer of tissue be-
Fig. 2, half of the hori- neath it, and forms a
zontal section ofa five year
old stem. .4, outer bark hard, scaly, or corky
or rind. B, inner bark or substance, usually eall-
liber. C.sap-wood or last Fig. 2. . ; .
eee: d cortical layers, which
formed layer. D, perfect wood. E, pith. F, e us
vertical section of a five year old stem, showing separate from the tree
the five lay f i 7 ° °
pray ayers of perpendicular woody tubes or at different periods, ac-
cording to the age of the

subject and other circumstances.

It is these cortical layers that give rise to the expres-
sions smooth and rough back.

2. The Inner Bark or Liber (B.)\—This is the interior
portion of the bark in immediate contact with the wood.
It is composed of perpendicular layers of soft, flexible
fibres, filled up with tissue. It is this part of the bark of
the Basswood that is used for budding ties, &c., the tissue
being separated from the woody fibre by maceration.

3. The Sap-wood (C.)\—This is the youngest or last-
formed layer of wood, immediately below the inner bark.
It is distinguished in all trees by being softer and lighter
colored than the older parts.

4. The Heart or Perfect-wood (D.)\—This is the central
or interior portion of the stem or branch, grown firm and
mature by age. It is generally a shade darker in color
than the newly-formed part or sap-wood.

5. The Pith (#.)\—This is the soft, spongy substance
in the centre of the stem and branches. In soft-wooded
species, like the grape vine, it is large ; in hard-wooded

6- GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

species, as the apple, pear, quince, &c., small. In young
shoots it is soft, green, and succulent, and fills an impor-
tant part in their development. In the old part it is dry,
shrivelled, and seems incapable of taking any part in the
process of vegetation, and this appears evident from the
fact that trees often continue to flourish after the centre,
containing the pith, has begun to decay.

Structure of the Stem—The stem is composed of
woody fibre and cellular tissue, a substance similar to the
pith. The woody fibre is arranged in perpendicular layers,
and the cellular tissue in horizontal layers, rmmning from
the pith to the bark and connecting them. The mingling
of these two systems gives to the surface of the cross sec-
tion of a stem the beautifyl veined or netted appearance
observable in fig. 2. The perpendicular layers of woody
fibre are most clearly observable when we cut a stem ver-
tically ; they are then easily separated from one another.
The layers or plates of tissue radiating from the centre
to the stem are usually called the medullary rays.

The inner bark or liber, as has been stated, is, like the
wood, composed of thin layers of delicate perpendicular
fibres mixed with tissue.

Growth of the Stem.—The stem of a tree is originally
the extension of the cellulartissue of the seed. As soon as
leaves are formed they organize new matter, which de-
scends and forms woody fibres: the layers sent down from
the first leaves are covered with those sent down from the
next, and so on, one layer after another is produced until
the end of the season, when the leaves fall and growth
ceases. A yearling tree has, therefore, a greater number
of layers of woody fibre at the collar than at the top, and
is, consequently, thicker; the second year the buds on
the first year’s growth produce shoots, and these organize
new layers of woody fibre, that descend and cover those
of the previous year, and thus growth proceeds from

BRANCHES. 7

year to year. Between each year’s growth there is gene-
rally a line, in some cases more conspicuous than in
others, that marks off the formation of each year, so
that we are able to reckon the ages of trees with great
accuracy by these rings. When it happens that a tree,
from certain circumstances, makes more growth one season
than another, we find the ring of that season larger. The
new wood is always formed between the inner bark and
the last layer of wood, so that one layer is laid upon, and
outside of another, and the bark is continually pressed
outwards.

The new layers of bark are also formed at the same
place, or within the previous one. From this mode of
growth, it results that each layer of wood is more deeply
imbedded as others are formed on the top of it; and
each layer of bark is pressed outwards as others are
formed within it. In some cases, as in the cherry, for
example, the bark is so tough as not always to yield to
the general expansion of the tree, and slitting is resorted
to for the purpose of preventing an unnatural rupture,
which would eventually take place by the continued
pressure of growth from within.

Section 3.—BRANCHES.

Branches are the divisions of the stem, and have an
organization precisely similar: they are designated as,

Ist. Main Branches (Ff, fig. 1); those that are directly
connected with the stem or trunk. In pyramidal trees,
they are called lateral branches. The branches of different
species and varieties of fruit trees, differ much in their
habits of growth; and it is highly important to the planter to
consider these peculiarities, because certain habits of growth
are better adapted to particular circumstances than others.
Thus we have erect branches (fig. 3), which produce trees

°
8 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
of an upright and compact form. Curved erect branches

‘fig. 4), proceeding almost horizontally from the stem for
short distance, and then becoming erect; these, also,

HUG.ros Fie. 4. HrG./5.

Figs. 3,4, 5, different habits of growth of trees. 3, erect ; 4, curved erect; 5,
spreading or horizontal.

form upright symmetrical heads, but much more open than
the preceding. Also, horizontal or spreading branches
(fig. 5), that form wide-spreading heads with irregular
outline. And, lastly, drooping branches, when they fall
below the horizontal line. The branches of most varie-
ties of apples and pears become pendulous when they
have borne some time; and even in young trees of par-
ticular varieties, some of the branches assume a drooping
and irregular habit.

2d. Secondary Branches (G, fig. 1), are the divisions
of the main branches: occasionally those near the stem:-
take such a prominent part in forming the outline of the
tree, as to assume all the character of main branches, ex
cepting in position.

3d. Shoots (H, fig. 1). This is the name by which

BRANCHES. 9

young parts are designated from the time they emerge
from the bud until they have completed their first
season’s growth. These have also important peculiarities
that serve to distinguish certain varieties. They are vari-
ously designated as stout or slender, stiff or flexible, erect
or spreading, short jointed if the buds be close together,
and long jointed when the contrary. The colors of their
bark are also strikingly different, and form very obvious
distinctions amongst varieties. The Snow Peach, for in-
stance, has pale greenish shoots, by which it is at once
distinguished. The Jurgonelle, Rostiezer, and many other
varieties of the pear, have dark purplish shoots, while
the Dix and St. Germain are quite yellowish, the Glout

ee N=
Ss = ee as

SS ae

Fia, 6. Fie. 7. Fie. 8.

Fig. 6, wood branch of the apple. 7, fruit branch; 4, B, C, young spurs on two
year-old wood. §, fruit branch of the pear; .4, B, C, young spurs on two-year-os

wood.
“

10 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Morceau, grey or drab, and the Bartlett and Buffam
quite reddish. The shoots of certain varieties of apples
and pears, and especially plums, are distinguished by
being downy, furnished to a greater or less extent with a
soft and hairy covering—in some cases barely obsery-
able.

4th. Wood Branches (fig. 6) are those bearing only
wood buds.

5th. Mruit Branches are those bearing fruit buds ex-
clusively. They are presented to us under different forms
and circumstances, all of which it is of the highest im-
portance to understand.

In kernel fruits, such as the apple and pear, the most
ordinary form of the fruit branch is that generally called
the fruit spur (A, B, C, figs. 7, 8,9). It appears first as
a prominent bud, as in fig. 7, on wood at least two years
old; and for two or three seasons it produces but a rosette

of leaves, and con-

tinues to increase

in length, as in fig.
9. After it has

produced fruit, it

generally branches,
and, if properly managed, will
bear fruit for many years. Ap-
ple and pear trees of bearing
age, and in a fruitful condition,
will be found covered with
these spurs on all parts of the
head except the young shoots.
In addition to the fruct spur,
there are on the kernel fruits
slender fruit branches, about as
large as a goose quill, and from
six to eight inches in length (fig. 10); the buds are long,

Fie. 9.

Fig. 9, fruit branch of the pear.
A, B, and C, older spurs.

BRANCHES. Bt |

narrow, and prominent, and the first year or two after
their appearance, produce but rosettes of leaves, yielding
fruit generally about the third year. On trees well fur-
nished with fruit spurs, these slender branches are of
little account, but they are useful
on young trees not fully in a bear-
ing state. They are generally pro-
duced on the lower or older parts
of the branches or stem, and, in
the first place, are slender shoots
with wood buds only ; but owing to
their unfavorable position and fee-
ble structure, they receive only a
smali portion of the ascending sap,
and the consequence is, they be-
come stunted, and _ transformed
into fruit branches. In pruning
young trees, slender shoots are fre-
quently bent over, or fastened in a
crooked position to transform them
into fruit branches of this kind;
but this will be treated of in its

Tie, 10.

Fie. 11

proper place.
Certain varieties of apples have
a natural habit of bearing the fruit

Fig. 10, slender fruit branch
of the apple—all the buds are
fruit buds. Fig. 11, a branch
of the apple showing the ten-

dency of some varieties to
bear on the points of the
branches. A, the point where
a fruit was borne last season ;
B, a shoot of last year; C, its
terminal fruit bud.

on the points of the lateral shoots;
and frequently these terminal fruit
buds are formed during the first
season’s growth of the shoot. Fig.
11 is an example; A is the point
where a fruit was borne last season; 2B, a shoot of last
season; and C’ its terminal bud, which is a fruit bud.
The fruit branches of the peach, apricot, and nectarine,
are productions of one season’s growth; the fruit buds
form one season and blossom the next; but as on the

19 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

apple and pear, there
are different forms
of the fruit branch.
In the first place
the fruit spur (A,
fig. 12), a group of
buds like a bouquet;
these are little stunt-
ed branches on the
steak Gis older wood that have
wis whedon assumed ) this. torm.
. The most important

fruit branches of these trees are the vigorous
shoots of the last season’s growth, containufg
both fruit and wood buds (fig. 18), and the
slender fruit branches, bearing all single
fruit buds, except a wood bud or two at the
base. Fig. 14 represents such a branch of
the peach, A and B being wood buds. The
fruit branches of the plwm and cherry, and
the gooseberry and currant, are similarly pro-
duced. A yearling shoot, for instance, the
second season, will produce a shoot from its
terminal bud, and probably shoots from two or
three other buds immediately below the ter-
minal, whilst those lower down will be trans-
formed into fruit buds, and produce fruit
the third season. Fig.15 is a branch of the
cherry. A is the two-year-old wood; 3B,
one year; Cand J), fruit spurs on the two-
year-old wood, with a wood bud usually at
the point. Fig. 16 is a fruit spur from the
older wood; A, the wood bud at its point.

DSS
Se Ses

=

SS se

Fie: 13)

Fig. 13, mixed wood and fruit branches of the peach ; C, D, EZ, fruit buds; F, G,
H, leaf buds; JF, double buds; C,triple buds, the two side buds being fruit buds,
and the centre one a leaf bud.

BRANCHES. ts

Fig. 17 is a branch of the plum; A, the two-year-old
wood; B, one year old; Cand J, spurs. Fig. 18 is a

Fig. 14, a slender fruit branch of
the peach; all the buds except 4

and B, and the terminal one, are
fruit buds.

fruit spur from older wood.
The wood bud in the cen-
tre of these groups of
buds on the spur enables
them to increase in length
every season. New buds
are produced to replace
those that bear, and so
the spurs continue fruit-
ful for several years, ac-
cording to the vigor of

Fia. 16. Fie. 15.

Fig. 15, branch of the cherry ; 24, two-
year-old wood; B, one year; C and D,
fruit spurs. Fig. 16, fruit spur of the cherry ;
the bud .4, in the centre of the soup, is 3
wood bud.

the tree, and the manner in which it is treated.

14 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

The fruit branches of the guince and the
medlar are slender twigs on the sides of
lateral branches, and the fruit is borne on
their points.

Szotion 4.—Bops.

Ist. Lhe Nature
and Functions of
Buds.—In a prac-
tical point of view,
buds are certainly
the most important
organs of trees, be-
cause it is through
them we are en-
abled completely to
direct and control
ee Fre. . their formas

oS branch of the plum; .4, two-year-old their productiveness.
wood ; B,one year old; C and D, spurs. Fig. i8,
fruit spur of the plum on the old wood. ~ Whoever, therefore,
wishes to become a
skilful and successful tree culturist, must not fail to
make himself familiar with all their forms, modifications,
modes of development, and the purposes they are adapted
to fulfil in the formation of the tree and its products. The
immediate causes of the production of buds on the growing
shoots of trees, and the sources from which they spring or
in which they originate, are alike thus far mysterious,
notwithstanding they have been the subject of a vast deal
of research and speculation among botanists and vegetable
physiologists for many ages. We are able, however, to
trace clearly and satisfactorily the objects they are

BUDS. iH

intended to fulfil in the development of the tree, their
connection with, and dependency upon other parts, and
the circumstances under which they can be made to ac-
complish specific purposes.

Every bud contains the rudiments of, and is capable,
under favorable circumstances, of producing a new indi-
vidual similar to that on which it is borne.

This fact is clearly demonstrated in the propagation of
trees by budding, where a single eye is removed from one
shoot and placed in the wood of another, to which it
unites and forms a new individual similar to its parent.
So in propagation by eyes, as in the grape vine, where a
single bud with a small portion of wood attached, becomes
» perfect plant.

Every perfect bud we find on a young yearling tree or
shoot is capable of being developed into a branch. Na-
turally, they do not; but we know that by the application
of art they can be readily forced to do so.

For instance, the buds of a yearling tree, if left to take
their natural course, will only in part produce branches,
and these will generally be nearer to the extremities,
where they are the most excitable, being in closer con-
nection with the centre of vegetation: but we cause the
lower ones to develope branches, by cutting off those
above them to the extent that the particular character of
the species or variety, or of the buds themselves in respect
to vigor and vitality, may require. Hence it is that the
forms of trees are so completely under our control-when
we possess the requisite knowledge of the character and
modes of vegetation of buds.

2d. Different Names and Characters of Buds.—Al\\ buds
are either, Ist, terminal, as when on the points of shoots
(C, fig. 19); 2d, aaedlary, when accompanied by a leaf
situated in the angle made by the projection of the leaf
from the shoot or branch (A B, fig. 19); 8d, adventi-

16 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

tious or accidental, when originating accidentally as it
were, or without any regularity, on the older parts of trees,

Fig, 19.—LaTEeRAL BRANCH.

Fig. 19. 4, asuperior bud. B, inferior. C,terminal. 4 and B, axillary.

and unaccompanied by a leaf. They are often produced
by the breaking or cutting off a branch, or by a wound
or incision made in the bark. In the management of
trained trees special means are taken to produce these
buds on spaces of the trunk that it is desirable to fill up.
We sometimes see instances of such buds on the stumps
of old trees.

The terminal and axillary buds produced on young
shoots, seem to have a different origin from these acci-
dental buds—the former are connected with the pith of
the shoot, as we may see by dissecting them. On cutting
into a young shoot below a bud we find a cylinder of pith
entering into the bud from the pith of the shoot, but
we do not find this connection existing in the case of the
adverititious buds.

Practically considered, buds are classified as follows :—
1. Lateral—Those on the sides or circumference of

shoots, being the aadllary buds of the botanist (A, B,
19).
2. Lerminalt.—tThose on the points of shoots (C, fig. 19).
3. Superior.—Those on the upper sides of horizontal
branches (A, fig. 19).

BUDS. Ui

4. Inferior—Those on the lower side of horizontal
branches (JB, fig. 19). '

5. Stipular.—The small, barely visible buds found at the
base of ordinary buds.

6. Dormant or Latent—These are scarcely apparent buds,
generally towards the base of branches: They may
remain dormant for several years, and then, in some
species, be excited into growth by pruning close to
them.

Buds are again classed as leaf buds and fruit buds.

7. Leaf Buds (Lf, G, H, fig. 18) produce either leaves or
branches; they differ in form from fruit buds in
being in most cases longer and more pointed in the
same species.

These are again designated as—

Single, when only one is produced at the same point (ZZ,
fig. 13). ‘

Double, when two are together (JZ, fig. 13).

Triple, when in threes (Cand J, fig. 18).

These double and triple buds are almost peculiar to the
stone fruits, and especially the peach, apricot, and
nectarine.

The size, form, and prominence of leaf buds vary in a
striking degree in different varieties of the same species,
and these peculiarities are found to be of considerable
service in identifying and describing sorts.. Thus, the
buds of one variety will be long, pointed and compressed,
or lying close to the shoot. Others will be large, oval
and prominent, or standing boldly out from the shoot.
Others will be small, full, and round. Thus, for instance,
the wood buds of the Glout Morceau are short and conical,
broad at the base, and taper suddenly to a very sharp
point inclined towards the shoot; they have also very pro-
minent shoulders, that is, their base forms a prominent
projection on the shoot. The scales are also dark, with

18 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

light gray edges. In the Josephine de Maline pear the
buds are quite remarkable for their roundness, bluntness
and prominence. If shoots of the artlett and Seckel
pears, two well known varieties, be compared, although
they present no decidedly obvious peculiarities, yet they
will be found very different. Those of the Seckel are
much broader at the base, more pointed, and lighter
colored, being a dark drab, whilst those of the Bartlett
are reddish. These miscellaneous instances are chosen
simply to draw attention to these points, and to show the
ordinary modes of comparison. When we speak of leaf
buds, we have reference only to the simple bud and not
to the large, pointed, spur-like productions frequently pro-
duced towards the middle or lower part of young shoots
that have made a second growth, that is where growth
has ceased for a while and the terminal bud has been
formed, and afterwards, in the same season, commenced
anew, and made a second growth.

8. Fruit Buds.—tIn the early stages of their formation
and growth all buds are but leaf buds. Thus, on a young
shoot of the cherry and the plum, for example, of one sea-
son’s growth, the buds are all leaf buds. The next spring
a part of these produce new shoots, and others are
transformed into fruit buds that will bear fruit the follow-
ing season. The transformation is accomplished during
the second year of their existence, and it usually happens
that they are the smallest and least fully developed
that are so transformed: the more vigorous pushing into
branches. In the peach, the apricot, &c., on which the
fruit buds are produced in one year, the change from a
leaf to a fruit bud occurs towards the latter part of the sea-
son. The primary cause of the transformation of leaf into
fruit buds is not satisfactorily known, although many theo-
ries exist on the subject. Observation, however, has taught
us many things in relation to it. It seems that all trees

BUDS. 19

must acquire a certain maturity, either natural or forced,
in order to produce blossoms or fruit. A tree that is fur-
nished with a rich, humid soil, containing an abundance of
watery nutriment, and left in all respects unrestrained in
its upward growth, may attain the age of ten or fifteen
years before it commences to form fruit buds; whilst in a
soil of a different quality, dry and less favorable to rapid
growth, or if constrained in its growth by being grafted on
some particular stock, or by some particular mode of train-
ing, it may produce fruit in two or three years.

An apple tree on a common stock, planted out in ordi-
nary orchard soil, does not usually bear until it is in most
cases seven years old from the bud, often more ; whilst the
same variety grafted or budded on a paradise apple stock
will produce in two or three at most. We frequently see
one branch of a tree that has been accidentally placed in
a more horizontal position than the other parts, or that has
been tightly compressed with a bandage or something of
that sort, bear fruit abundantly ; whilst the erect, uncon-
strained portion of the tree gives no sign of fruitfulness
whatever. As a general thing, we find that where there
is an abundant and constant supply of sap or nutriment
furnished to the roots of trees and conveyed by them
through the unrestrained channels which the large cells
and porous character of young wood afford, the whole
forces of the tree will be spent in the production of new
shoots ; but that as trees grow old, the cells become small-
er, and the tree being also more branched the free course
of the sap is obstructed, and becomes in consequence bet-
ter elaborated, or in other words more mature, and com
mences the production of fruit. Circumstances similar in
all respects to these and answering exactly the same pur-
pose, can be produced by art at an early age of the tree;
and this is one of the leading points in the culture and
management of garden trees, where smallness of size and

90 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

early fruitfulness are so highly desirable. This will come
under consideration in another place.

Fruit buds in most cases are distinguishable from wood
buds by their rounder and fuller form ; the scales that cover
them are broader and less numerous, and in the spring they
begin to swell and show signs of opening at an earlier pe
riod. Like the wood buds they are single, double, or triple,
according to the number found together. They are single
in pears, apples, and other trees of that class. Stngle,
double, and triple, variously, on the stone fruits, gooseber-
ries, and currants.

Fruit buds are also simple and compound. Simple, as
in the peach, apricot, and almond, each bud of which pro-
duces but, one
flower. Com-
pound, as in the
plum, cherry, ap-
ple, pear, &e.,
each, bud» of
which produces
two or more flow-
ers. Those of the
plum produce
two or three,
hence we find
plums usually

kre. 20. 5 :
Fig. 20, flower of the cherry, showing the product of borne in pals 5

a compound bud. those of the cher-

ry four or five (fig. 20), and of the apple and pear six to
eight ; and hence we often find these fruits borne in clus-
ters. They are also lateral or terminal, as they occupy the
sides or ends of the branches or spurs on which they are
produced. The ordinary position of the fruit buds of dif-
ferent classes of trees will be understood from the preced-
ing descriptions of fruit branches.

LEAVES. 21

Section 5.—LEAvEs.

Ist. Structure and Functions of Leaves.—The leaves of
all hardy fruit trees cultivated in our climate are decidu-
ous, that is—they decay and fall in the autumn and are
succeeded by others on the return of spring. The oftices
they perform during the growing season are of the high-
est importance to the life and health of the tree, and
deserve the most attentive consideration.

A leaf (fig. 21) is
composed of two prin-
cipal parts, the leaf
stalk or petiole (A),
which connects it with
the tree or branch on
which it is borne, and
the expanded part (4,
B, D), called the blade.
The dase is the ‘end (C)
attached to the stalk,
and the apex or point
(DP) the opposite one.
The length is the dis-
tance from the base to
the point (C to J), and
the width, a tine cut-
ting the length at rie} t
angles, and extending
from margin to margin

Fig. 21.
Fig. 21, a leaf of th A, th 1 ea:
tg. 21, a leaf of the pear. . the petiole or 1
leaf stalk. 4, B, D, the blade. C, the base. The leaf stalk and
D, the point. Line Al, B, the width. its branches, forming

the nerves or veins of
the blade, are composed of woody vessels in the form of

92 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

a tube, similar to the woody parts of the tree or branch
that bears it, inside of which is a pith, similar to the pith
of the tree; the leaf is thus connected with the pith and
wood of the shoot, and consequently the ascending sap,
as we may readily see, by making a vertical cut through
the leaf stalk and shoot. The veins of the leaf are filled
up with a cellular substance similar to the pith, called
parenchyma, and the whole is covered with a thin skin
(epidermis). This cellular substance is connected with
the inner bark, and consequently the descending sap or
cambium, that forms the new layers of wood. Both sur
faces of the leaf are furnished with small pores, through
which exhalation and absorption are carried on. Absorp-
tion is performed principally by the pores of the under
surface, and they are the largest; exhalation principally
by those of the upper surface.

This property of the leaves to receive and give out air
and moisture through the pores on their surface, has
caused them to be likened to the lungs of animals, and
this comparison is to some extent correct; for we know
that without leaves, or organs performing their offices,
trees do not grow. And in proportion to their natural
and healthy action, do we find the vigor and growth of
the tree.

To prove that leaves have the power, in a greater or
less degree, to absorb fluids, we have but to apply water
to the drooping foliage of a plant suffering from drought,
and see how quickly it becomes refreshed. Dews of a
single night, we know, too, will revive plants that the heat
and drought of the previous day had prostrated; and
even if we put a flagging plant in a damp atmosphere, it
recovers. Even the leaves of a boquet can be kept fresh
for a long time by sprinkling them with water.

That plants echale moisture and gases cannot be doubt-
ed. It is this very exhaling process that causes plants

LEAVES. 2é
to wilt under a hot sun or ina dry atmosphere. Plants
that are transplanted with their foliage on, as annuals are
in the spring or summer, will wilt and even die if ex
posed to the air and sun; but if transplanted in a moist
day, or covered, so that evaporation cannot take place,
the plant does not appear to feel the removal. So with
cuttings of many plants thus propagated; if placed in
the earth with a certain amount of foliage on, and left
uncovered, they will immediately die; but when we place
a bell glass or a hand glass over them to prevent evapo-
ration, they remain as fresh as though they had roots
supplying them with moisture from the soil. It is on this
account that transplanted trees so often die when the
branches and shoots are not in proportion to the roots.
Jn transplanting, a portion of the roots are destroyed,
and all are more or less deranged, so that their functions
are feebly performed for some time after planting. If all
the branches and shoots are left on, they will, as usual,
produce leaves, but the absorption at the roots being so
much less than the exhalation of the leaves, the juices
contained in the tree, previously laid up, soon become ex-
hausted, the leaves droop and wither, and the whole fabric
perishes. In budding, too, if the whole leaf were left
attached, the evaporation would be so great as to kill the
bud; hence we remove all but a portion of the stalk.

A tree can neither mature its wood nor its fruit without
the full and healthy exercise of the leaves. If in the grow-
ing season, a tree is deprived of its* foliage by blight,
insects, &c., we see that growth is entirely suspended for
a time, until new leaves are developed; and if the leaves
be removed from a tree bearing fruit, we see the fruit
shrivel and dry up, or ripen prematurely and become
worthless. These facts, and many others that might be
cited, show the intimate connection existing between the
leaves and the other organs of trees, and the influence

9A GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

they have on their growth and productiveness. It is be-
lieved that the opening of the leaf buds in spring induces
the formation of new roots; this is doubtful, as new roots
may be seen forming at times when there are no leaves
on the tree and apparently no growth whatever going on
in the buds. But if the roots are not roused into action
by the leaves, it is well known they will not continue and
grow long if leaves do not make their appearance. We
observe in the case of trees the tops of which have been so
much injured by drying and exposure that scarcely a sound
bud is left to grow, in this case the roots, although in
perfect order, remain nearly dormant until new shoots and
leaves are produced, and in proportion as the leaves in-
crease so do the roots. The fact of the absorption and
exhalation by leaves of certain fiuids, has, to a very con-
siderable extent, established the theory that the sap of trees
is taken up from the roots through the cells or sap vessels
of the wood of the trunk and branches in a erude state,
and passes into the leaves; that in their tissue spread out
under the sun’s rays, it receives certain modifications.
Carbonic acid, which has been taken in a state of solution
from the soil and by the leaves from the atmosphere, is
decomposed, its oxygen is given off into the air, carbon
becomes fixed, and thus the component parts of the tree,
starch, sugar, gum, &c., are formed. After passing
through this purifying or concentrating process, the sap
acquires a more solid consistence, and is called cambium ;
so prepared it returns downwards through the nerves or
vessels of the leaf to the base of the leaf stalk, and then
between the wood and bark of the stem, forming new
layers on its passage. Such is, at present, the most popu

lar theory of the functions of the leaves and the ascent,
assimilation, and descent of the sap. Some distinguished
writers on the subject reject this theory, alleging that—
“there is no*such thing as crude sap, that as soon as it

LEAVES. 95

enters the roots it becomes assimilated and fit for the pro-
duction of new cells, and that it passes upwards, forming
new wood or cells by achemical process.”* Observation,
however, has clearly established that in the leaves of
healthy trees chemical processes depending on light and
heat, and absolutely essential to the well-being of the tree,
are continually going on, for trees shut out from the light
always make a feeble growth and havea blanched and
sickly hue, compared with the same species in the free
air and exposed to the rays of the sun. If one side or
portion of a ‘tree is shaded or deprived of its full share of
light, it ceases to grow in its natural way, and the shoots
are lean, slender, aad imperfect.
2d. Different For ms and Characters of Leaves. —The
different sizes and forms of the leaves of fruit trees, the
divisions of their edges, the absence or presence of ae
the smoothness or roughness of their surfaces, are all
more or less serviceable in describing and identifying
varieties.

The terms designating forms are seldom mathema-
tically correct, but merely made by comparison, for in-
atance—

Oval (fig. 22), when about twice as long as broad, and
nearly of equal width at both ends.

Oblong (fig. 23), three times or more, as long as broad,
and differing but little in width in any part.

Lance Shaped (fig. 24), lanceolate, when three or more
times as long as broad, and tapering gradually to a
sharp point.

Ovate (fig. 25), when twice as long as broad, tapering to
the apex, and widest towards the base.

Obovate (fig. 26), the inverse of ovate, the greatest dia-
meter being in the upper part.

* Schleiden’s Principles of Botany
2

>

26 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Round, roundish, as they approach a circular form like
fig. 21. The point is often a distinguishing feature,
some terminating suddenly in a sharp point, others
drawn out to a long, sharp point, peaked, whilst
others are nearly round. They differ much, too, in
the form of the base, some are rounded, some sharp,
and some heart-shaped.

iN

aaa
| rs
PS Peg | {
22. | |

Figs. 22 to 26, forms of leaves. 22, oval. 23, oblong. 24, lanceolate, 25, ovate: 26,
obovate.

The divisions of the edges are serrated or toothed, when
the edges are cut into sharp teeth, directed towards the
point of the leaf; jinely (fig. 27) or coarsely (fig. 28) ser-
rate, as these teeth are fine or coarse; doubly serrate,
when the principal division or tooth is subdivided.
Crenate (fig. 29), when the divisions are rounded, instead

of being sharp like teeth.

LEAVES. 27

Lobed, when deeply cut, and the penetrating angle
large, as in the currant, gooseberry, grape, «&c.
(Fig. 30).

Fig. 27, a leaf, folded, reflexed, and finely serrated or toothed. Fig. 28, coarsely
serrated. Fig. 29, crenate.

Flat, when the sur-
face is even
(fig. 21).

Folded, when the
edges are turn- °
ed inward (fig.
27).

Reflexed, when the
apex or point
turns _back- ©
wards, giving
the leaf more
or less the form
of a ring (27).

Fra. 30. Waved, wrinkled,

Fig. 30, a leaf of the currant, lobed. smooth, rough,

28 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

etc., are all terms used, but well enough under-
stood.

The leaf stalk has often striking peculiarities in certain
varieties, such as unusually long, stout, short, or slender.
There are also glands on the leaf-stalk, close to the base,
and in certain cases on the leaf itself, that are chiefly taken
notice of in identifying varieties of the peach and necta-

rine; these differ in
shape too, being globw-

. 4 JY lar (as in fig. 81), reni-
4 form or kidney-shaped
(fig. 32); these little

AQ|/ & glands are supposed to

be, and no doubt are, or-
ina, 3k. gans of secretion. Fia. 32.
Fig.31,aleaf of the Lhese are all interest- Fig. 32, the same;
ei with globular ing items in the study of Wainer Se
the beautiful and almost
endless variety of forms which the different classes of
fruit trees, and even different varieties of the same class,
exhibit in their foliage.

Section 6.—FLowErs.

Ist. Different Parts of Flowers.——Flowers are the
principal reproductive organs of trees, and consist of floral
envelopes, the calyw and corolla ; and of sexual organs,
stamens and pistils.

The Calyx (A, fig. 35) is the outer covering, and is
usually green like the leaves. The corolla (A, fig. 88) is
within the calyx, and is the colored, showy part of the
flower ; its divisions are called petals.

Stamens (fig. 34) are the male organs of plants. They
are delicate, thread-like productions (A, fig. 34) in the cen-
tre of the flower, supporting on their extremities the anthers

FLOWERS. 99

(B, fig. 34). The pastil (C, D, fig. 35) is the female organ
and stands in the centre of the stamens. It consists of
the ovary
at its base
(B, fig. 35),
which con-
tains the
seeds. The
style (C, fig.
35) is the
erect por-
tion, and
the stigma
(D, fig. 35)
is the small Figs. 33 to 35—Different parts of a flower. Fig. 33, A, the

glandulous petals. 34,astamen, .4, filament or stalk. B, anther. C, pollen.
35, the calyx, ovary, pistil united. B, ovary. C, style. D, stigma.

body on its
summit that receives the fertilizing powder (pollen) (C, fig.
34) from the anthers.

Flowers may be deficient in any of these organs except
the ovary, anthers, and stigma. These are indispensable
to fructification, and must be present in some form or other
or the flowers will be barren.

2d. Sexual Distinctions —The fact that the two sexes
or sexual organs, the stamens and pistils, are in certain
species united on the same flower, and in others on dif
ferent flowers, and even on different trees, has created
the necessity for the following distinctions :

Trees or plants are called hermaphrodite (as in fig. 33)
when both stamens and pistils are present on the same
flower. Nearly all our cultivated fruits are of this class.
Monecious, when the male and female flowers are borne
on the same tree, as in the filbert flower (fig. 36, A, the
male, and B, the female flowers). Dzectous, wnen the
male flowers (fig. 37) are on one plant, and the female

30 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

(fig.38) on another. The most familiar instance among
plants cultivated for their fruits, is the strawberry. In
many varieties we
find the stamens or
male organs so in-
completely devel-
oped (fig. 38) that
they are of no ser-
vice in fructifying

the flowers, and J, leo
hence we plant near _ the strawberry.
them varieties with an abundance
of these organs strongly exhibited.

Hic. Bic

3d. Impregnation.—

Fig. 26, flower of the i. 0€ ‘process of im-
bert. pregnation is effected y
in this way: When the flowers first open, io oe
the pollen granules or powder in the anthers, —_Fvg- 38, female
° ° or pistillate flow
is covered over by a delicate membrane. gy.
Tn a short time this membrane bursts in a manner similar
to an explosion that scatters the pollen by its force, so
that it reaches the stigma of the pistil; this is composed of
glutinous or sticky secretions to which the pollen adheres ;
there it forms new cells that expand into tubes; these
tubes penetrate through the style of the pistil to the ovary,
where the impregnation takes place, and new cells are
immediately formed into an embryo plant.

This impregnation is sometimes, from certain causes,
only partially effected in the cases of fruit where the ova-
ry or seed vessel is composed of several cells, as in the
apple, pear, &c., and hence the fruit takes an imperfect,
one-sided development from the beginning.

The difficulty that appears to arise in the way of the
impregnation of the stigma of one flower by the pollen of

Fie. 36.

FLOWERS. 81

another, distantly situated, either on the same plant as in
moncecious trees, or on a different plant as in dicecious, is
wonderfully obviated by the provision that nature has
made for its transmission, not only by the atmosphere,
but by insects, that pass from one flower to another feed-
ing on their honied secretions; the pollen adheres to them
and they carry it from one to another.

All natural flowers of the same species present the
same number of petals in their flowers, but occasionally
the stamens are converted into petals, and thus what are
called double flowers are produced. Among fruit trees we
have double flowering apples, plums, peaches, and cherries.
These seldom produce fruit; when perfectly double never.
All our double flowers, roses, paeonies, dahlias, &c., have
been obtained by this transformation of the stamens into
petals. It is supposed to be caused by an excessively
high cultivation given to the plants that produce the
seeds from which these double varieties spring.

4. Period of Blossoming.—In treating of fruit buds
allusion has been made to the causes which, according to
observation and experience, promote fruitfulness. These
are chiefly a slow or moderate growth, and a branching
or spreading, constrained form, instead of an upright one.
Some species of trees bloom at a much earlier age than
others. Thus the peach, the apricot, and the cherry will
bloom in nearly one-fourth less time from the bud, all
things being equal, than the pear. Some species bloom
at an earlier period of the season than others ; the apricot
and the peach bloom very early, and this is the chief rea-
son why the crop is so often destroyed in localities subject
to late spring frosts. Among fruits even of the same spe-
cies there is much difference in the period of blooming:
one variety of apple being nearly two weeks later than
another. ‘This, in some sections, is an important quality,
where every day the blossom is retarded renders the crop

32 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

surer, being more likely to escape frost. These differences
are caused by various circumstances.

Ist. Zhe Cliomate.—The period of blossoming of the same
species varies much in different localities. Rochester is
at least a week earlier than Buffalo, although the distance
is less than one hundred miles; and it is nearly two
weeks earlier than Toronto, which is still nearer. The
large bodies of ice in the lakes, at both Buffalo and Toron-
to, have no doubt a considerable effect in retarding the
blossoming period. |

2d. Lhe Season and Position—In the same locality,
one season is frequently a week earlier than others, and
trees on the south side of a wall or building will expand
their blossoms several days before the same variety in the
open ground only a few rods distant, and ten days to a
fortnight before those on a north wall. |

3d. Zhe Soil—On warm and light soils, the roots of
trees are excited into activity much sooner than in cold,
damp, and heavy soils, and the blossoming period is ear-
lier in consequence.

The Different Character of Llowers.—F¥ lowers vary in
size, form, color, and other qualities, even in the same spe-
cies. In the peach those distinctions are so obvious, that
one of the principal classifications of pomologists is found-
ed on them. Thus there are varieties with large, showy
jlowers (fig. 39), as the serrate
early York, and small (fig. 40)
as large early York, Craw-
ford Early, etc. The color
also presents variations, some

poo being deep, others pale rose,
Eee Meee and some almost white ; two
Fig. 39, large flower of the peach. or three varieties of the
Fig. 40, small flower of the peach. peach I wholly
white, as the snow, for instance. In all the other fruits,

FLOWERS. ° Go

as in apples, pears, plums, cherries, &c., the flowers vary _
but slightly in form and color, and the differences are only
taken note of in very full and minute scientific descrip-
tions. A few cases, however, are well marked, as the
Jargonelle pear, the flowers of which are nearly twice as
large as most others.

In connection with the flowers it may be proper to ex
plain the important process of

Hybridization —This is performed by fertilizing the
pistil of one species or variety with pollen from the
stamens of another. The seeds produced by the flower so
impregnated will produce a cross or hybrid between the
two parents. This process is now well understood, and is
carried on to a wonderful extent, especially in the pro-
duction of new flowers. Comparatively few of our popu-
lar fruits have been produced in this way. <A few good
sorts have been produced by the late Mr. Knight, a dis-
tinguished English experimentalist, who effected much in
his time towards establishing many difficult and disputed
points in vegetable physiology. Nearly all the native
fruits of this country are accidental hybrids. A vast deal
may be done to improve, in this way, all our fruits.
The size, hardiness, and productiveness of one variety
may be combined with the delicacy of texture and flavor
of another, and endless variations and improvements may
be effected. To obtain a true hybrid certain precautions
are necessary. The two subjects selected must flower at
the same time. The stamens must be carefully removeé
from the one intended for the mother, without injury to
the stigma. It must also be guarded from accidental im-
pregnation by other varieties, and the pollen from the
selected male be applied at the proper moment, that is,
when it bursts from the anther. Hybridization is only
possible between species closely related, for although there -
is a relation between the apple and the pear, and between

2%

34 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

the gooseberry and the currant, they will not hybridize ;
but different varieties of the apple will hybridize with
each other, and so with all the rest.

Blossoming in Alternate Years—Many varieties of
apple, pears, &c., fruits that take the whole season to
mature, produce flowers in alternate years only, with
great regularity. The reason is supposed to be this:
The fruit during the bearing year, attracts a large quantity
of the ascending sap of the tree in the same way as the
leaves do; but instead of returning it to the tree, they
consume it themselves. ‘The consequence is, the buds
that would have blossomed the following year if they had
received their due share of nutriment, fail in attaining
the proper condition, and produce only rosettes of leaves.
During the unfruitful season, immense quantities of fruit-
buds are again brought forward, and the year following,
the tree is overloaded; so it proceeds in regular succes-
sion.

This is never experienced in trees regularly pruned, and
may be remedied by thinning out the crop in bearing
years, leaving on but a reasonable amount that will not
exhaust the tree. The bearing years have been completely
reversed by removing the blossom-buds or fruits on the
bearing year.

Section 7.—Tue Frorr.

Ist. Character of the Fruit.—As soon as the ovary is
impregnated it begins to swell; the petals, stamens, and
other parts of the flower fall off, and we then say the fruit
is “set.” Asa fruit bud is but a transformed leaf-bud, a
fruit occupies the same relative connection with the tree
as a branch; it attracts food from the stem and the
atmosphere in the same manner, and performs all the
same functions, except that it does not, like the leaf,

THE FRUIT. oD

return anything to the tree, but appropriates all to its own
use; and this is the reason, as we have before remarked,
that trees having borne a heavy crop of fruit one season
are unfruitful the next—this is the case only with fruits,
as the apple and pear, that require nearly the whole sea-
son to mature them. Cherries, and other fruits that
mature in a shorter period, and that draw more lightly on
the juices of the tree, do not produce this exhaustion, and
consequently bear year after year uninterruptedly.

2d. Classification—In some fruits, as the apple for in-
stance, the fruit is formed below or at the base of the
calyx, the segments of which are still visible in the
mature fruit; and often serves to some extent by its size
and other peculiarities, as being spread out, or closed to-
gether in a point, to identify varieties. In other species,
as the plum and cherry, the fruit is formed within the
calyx, or on the top of it. Fruits of the former character
forming below the calyx and including it in their struc-
ture are classed as inferior—the apple, pear, quince,
gooseberry, and currant are all inferior, having the calyx
adhering.

Those formed within the calyx, having the pistil alone
connected with the ovary, are called superior ; such are the
peach, plum, apricot, nectarine, cherry, raspberry, straw-
berry, and grape.

‘The more natural, popular, and useful classification of
fruits, is that by which they are divided into

Pomes or Kernel Fruits, as the apple, pear, quince, med-

lar, ete. In speaking of these we call the pericarp
- the flesh, and the dry, bony seed capsules the core.

Drupes or Stone Fruits—Those haying a soft, pulpy
pericarp, and the seed enclosed in a shell like a nut,
as the peach, plum, apricot, cherry, etc. The peri-
carp of these is called the jlesh, and the seed, the pit
or stone

36 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Berries —These have soft, pulpy flesh, containing seeds
without capsules, as the gooseberry, currant, raspberry,
strawberry, and grape.

Nuts, or capsule fruit, as the jilbert, chestnut, etc., the
fruits of which are nuts contained in husks or cups,
that when ripe, open and let the fruit drop.

The outlines or forms of fruits’ and their colors exhibit
great variations, even in the same species. Every portion
of the fruit, the skin, flesh (C, fig. 41), core (D, fig. 41),
seeds (I) or stones,
stems (A), and in ker-
nel fruits the cz/ya
(B), have all, in some
cases, marked peculi-
arities, and in others
more minute and
scarcely perceptible ;
but yet in a strictly
scientific study of po-

_ mology, of more or

ws diferent paris, 2 the base. B, the ese, 1288 service. It would
C, the flesh. D,thecore. E, the seed. A,stem. he foreign to the pur-
ps 3 poses of this work to
notice these points in detail ; all that is deemed necessary,
useful, or appropriate, is to point out well-defined and
practical distinctions, and the terms ordinarily made use
of in popular descriptions.

3d. Different Parts of the Fruit:

The Base (A) is the end in which the stem is inserted.

The Eye (B) is the opposite end, in the apple, pear, etc.,
that have an adhering calyx.

The Neck, in pears, the contracted part near the stalk, as
seen in fig. 49.

The Point is the end opposite the stem in stone fruits ;

THE FRUIT. 34

berries, etc., that have no calyx, and consequently no

eye.
The Length is the distance from stem to point or eye,
A to B, fig. 41.

The Width, the line D A—cutting the fruit across, or at
right angles with the length.

The Basin, the depression around the eye or calyx in
kernel fruit, B, fig. 41.

The Cavity, the depression around the stem.

The Suture, in stone fruits the furrow-like depression run-
ning from the base to the point.

Ath. Different Properties of ruits :

Besides the principal divisions which have been alluded
to, fruits are considered in regard to their size, color,
Sorm, texture, flavor, and season of ripening.

1st. The Size—Besides the natural difference in size
that exists among different varieties of the same species,
as, for instance, between the Bartlett and Seckel Pears, or
the Fall Pippin and Lady Apples, there are great dif-
ferences between the same varieties owing chiefly to the
following circumstances: Sodd—We find that in new
and fresh soils, the nutritive properties of which have not
been impaired by cultivation, as in the virgin soils of the
West, fruit of the same variety attains nearly double the
size that it does in older parts of the country, where the
soil has long been under cultivation; and that in the same
orchard, the tree growing in a deep, alluvial soil, will give
fruit much larger than the one on a hard gravelly knoll.
Culture—This has animportant influence on the size of
fruits. If an orchard has been for several years neglected,
and the ground about the trees become covered with grass
and weeds, the fruit is small; and if the same orchard be
ploughed up, some manure turned in around the roots,
and the ground be kept loose and clean by tillage, the
fruit will double in size in a single season. Seasons—In

388 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

a dry season, when the supply of moisture at the roots
and in the atmosphere is very limited, fruits are invari-
ably smaller than in seasons of an opposite character.
Number of fruits on the tree—This affects the size of the
fruit to a great extent in all seasons, soils, and climates,
and under all grades of culture.

It is perfectly-obvious, that the greater the number of
fruits a tree bears, the smaller they will be, for as they
derive their sustenance from the tree, a large number
cannot be so well supplied as a smaller number. We
cannot go into an orchard where there are many varieties
without seeing an illustration of this. Here is a prolific
variety loaded in every part; the fruits are small, cer-
tainly not over medium size. There is a moderate bearer ;
its fruits are thinly and evenly distributed over the tree ;
its fruits are consequently darge. So in the case of fruits
that have been thinned; that is, a certain portion removed
while young, either by accidental circumstances or by
design, every specimen is twice as large, as if the whole
crop had been allowed to mature. The English goose-
berry growers, in preparing their prize specimens, leave
but a few on each bush—not over a twentieth, or perhaps
a fiftieth part of the entire crop. So in peaches, grapes,
etc., grown carefully in houses. Where the size and
beauty of the fruit, and the health and vigor of the trees
are kept in view, a large portion of the crops, from one
half to two thirds, is thinned out before maturity. Age
of the trees—This influences the size of fruits to a great
extent; we see fruit so large on young trees as to be
entirely out of character: As trees grow older, the vigor
decreases, and the number of fruits increase, and they are
consequently diminished in size. Zhe hind of stock has a
tendency to modify the size; thus we find many pears
much larger on the Quince stock than on the pear, and
many apples larger on the Paradise than on the common

THE FRUIT. 39

apple stock. The reason of this is, no doubt, that on the
quince and paradise the juices of the tree are better pre-
pared, richer, and better suited to the growth of the fruit.
In the common pear and apple stocks the sap is taken up
in greater quantities, is watery, and better adapted to form
wood than fruit.

CLASSIFICATION OF SIZE.

The terms qualifying the sizes of fruits are always given
comparatively, in regard to the two extremes, the largest
and the smallest of the species; for instance—in apples,
we may consider the Gloria Mundi and Twenty Ounce
as extremely large, and the Lady apple as extremely small.
The terms used, therefore, are such as to represent the
various grades between the two extremes. These are

Very large, as the Gloria Mundi Apple, Duchesse @An-
gouleme Pear, Crawford’s Early Peach, Yellow Egq
Plum, and Wapoleon Bigarreau Cherry.

Large, as the Baldwin Apple, Bartlett Pear, Red Check
Melocoton Peach, Washington Plum, and Black Eagle
Cherry.

Medium, as the Leambo Apple, White Doyenne Pear,
Imperial Gage Plum, and the American Amber
Cherry.

Small, as the Karly Strawberry Apple, Dearborn’s Seed-
ling Pear, Green Gage Plum, and Bauwman’s May
Cherry.

Very Small, as the Amire Johannet Pear, Lady Apple,
Winter Damson Plum, and the Indulle(Early May)
Cherry. ,

The distance between some of these grades, as be-
tween medium and large, &c., is so short that they are
frequently confounded; still they give a notion of com-
parative size that answers all practical purposes. It

40 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

would, perhaps, have been more accurate, and, at the
same time, more satisfactory to persons entirely un-
acquainted with fruits to have given the comparative
ineasurement of these different grades in inches and parts;
but the varieties quoted as examples are common, and
very generally known.

2d. Horm.—lt is exceedingly difficult, even impossible,
to find any single term that will give a mathematically
accurate notion of the forms of fruits; for although we
call an apple round or conical, it may not be, strictly
speaking, either; perhaps partakes to some extent of
both forms. But that is no reason why we should desig-
nate it conical round : we simply call it rownd, or roundish,
if nearer round than any other form; and if it inclines
slightly to the conical, we cannot so well convey the
knowledge of that fact any other way as by simply say-
ing so.

In the apple the vownd form prevails, and in the pear
the pyramidal; hence, it is necessary to apply a different
class of descriptive terms to each.

FORMS OF APPLES.

Round or Roundish (fig. 42)—When the outline is
round, or nearly so, the length being about equal
to the breadth. |

Fiat (fig. 45)—When the ends are compressed, and the
width considerably greater than the length.

Conical (fig. 43)—In the form of a cone, tapering from
the base to the eye.

Ovate, or egg-shaped (fig. 44).

Oblong (fig. 46).— When the length is considerably greater
than the width, and the width about equal at both
ends, not tapering as in the conical.

THE FRUIT. ; 41

In addition to these forms and their various modifi-
cations, some varieties are

45, —
Figs. 42 to 47, forms of apples. 42, round. 48, conical. 44, ovate. 45, flat
46, oblong. 47, ribbed.

Angular, having projecting angles on the sides.

One-sided, having one side larger than the other.

Leibbed (47), when the surface presents a series of ridges
and furrows running from eye to stem.

FORMS OF PEARS.

It has been remarked that the pyramidal form prevails
in pears; but they taper from the eye to the stem, which
is just the reverse of the tapering form in apples. Their
forms are designated thus—

Pyriform.—W hen tapering from the eye to the base, and
the sides more or less hollowed (concave) (fig. 48).

Long Pyriform.—W hen long and narrow, and tapering to
a point at the stem (fig. 49).

Obtuse Pyriform.—W hen the small end is somewhat flat-
tened (fig. 50).

Obovate or egg-shaped—Nearly in form of an egg, the
small end being nearest the stem (fig. 51).

49 GENERAL ‘PRINCIPLES.

Turbinate or top-shaped.—The sides somewhat rounded,
and tapering to a point at the stem (fig. 52).

Figs. 48 to 54, forms of pears, 48, pyriform. 49, long pyriform. 50, obtuse
pyriform. 51, obovate. 52, turbinate. 53,oval. 64, round.
Oval.—Largest in the middle, tapering more or less to
each end (fig. 53).
Ltound.—W hen the outline is nearly round (fig. 54).

FORMS OF PEACHES.

There is too much uniformity in the forms of peaches
to render the adoption of any set of terms descriptive of
them very serviceable. They are mostly round, occasion-
ally approaching to oblong and oval; two sides are fre-
quently compressed, flattened, exhibiting a suture or fur-
row running from the point to. the base: the width,
depth, &c., of this suture are, in many cases, peculiar, or
at least worthy of note.

FORMS OF PLUMS.

Plums are round, oval, or oblong, as the peach,
and marked, in some cases, by a similar flattening of the
sides, and by the suture.

‘THE FRUIT. 43

FORMS OF CHERRIES.

Cherries are round or heart-shaped ; obtuse heart-shaped,
when too round to be fully heart-shaped ; and poznted,
when the point is more than ordinarily sharp or peaked.
The suture is also taken note of as in plums and peaches.

Gooseberries and Grapes are always round or oval. Cur-
rants always round. Strawberries round, conical, or oval,
sometimes with a neck; that is, the base is drawn out at
the stem in the form of a narrow neck. J?aspberries are
conical, roundish, or long.

3d. Color—tThe color of fruits depends much on their
exposure to the sun’s rays. We find that in orchard trees,
where the heads are dense, and a large portion of the
fruit shaded and shut out from the sun, there is a great
difference in the color; indeed, so great, frequently, as to
make their identity from appearance quite doubtful.
Varieties that are naturally—when properly exposed to
the sun—of a bright red ora glowing crimson, remain
green in the shade. The climate, too, seems to have con-
siderable effect on the color. As a general thing, we
observe that northern apples are clearer and brighter
colored than those of the south.

Dry soils and elevated situations produce more highly-
colored fruit than damp and low valleys. The terms
used in describing colors, are all simple and well under-
stood.

4th. Flavor, in table fruits, is one of the most impor-
tant of qualities; for however large or fair a fruit may
be, if insipid or astringent to an unpleasant degree, or if
it possesses some other disagreeable quality, it is unfit for
the table. There are various kinds of flavor even among
varieties of the same species: in pears, particularly, it is
almost endless, the shades and degrees of sweet and acid,

44. GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

and the various perfumes that mingle with these, are
almost infinite.

The same circumstances mentioned as favorable to high
and brilliant coloring, are also favorable to the production
of fine flavor. Light, heat, a dry sow, and moderate
growth, seem to be all essential to fine flavor. On trees
somewhat advanced in age, fruits are apt to be higher
flavored than on young trees that have just commenced
bearing, and in a dry than a wet season. The philosophy
of all this is, that in a damp soil or season, or in a shaded
situation, when trees are young and growing rapidly, the
fruit receives more sap from the tree than can be pro-
perly elaborated by the action of the sun and atmosphere
on its surface, and, consequently, the sugary principle is
produced in small quantities—the juice is watery, sour,
or insipid, as the case may be.

The various terms by which flavor is designated, such’
as sweet, acid, sub-acid, sprightly, Parnes musky,
spicy, &c., are all well understood.

Section 8.—Tnur SEED.

The perfect seed contains the rudiments ofa plant of
the same nature as that which produced it. This rudi-
ment of the new plant is called the embryo. It con-
sists of three parts—the cotyledons (c ¢, fig. 55), which are
the rudiments of the first pair of leaves; these are the
parts that first make their appearance. The bases of
these cotyledons are united, and send down the radicle
(0), or root, and between them is a bud (a), which sends
up the stem, and is usually called the plumule. As soon
as the seed is excited into germination by the heat and
moisture of the earth, this radzcle or root begins to pene-
trate the soil, and the plumule ascends in an opposite di-
rection ; and thus the growth of the tree goes forward

THE SEED. 45

in the manner already described under the heading,
Root, Stem, &e.

It has been remarked that seed con-
tains the rudiment of a plant similar to
that on which it is produced ; but this
needs some explanation. In distinct
species, this will be true ; but the seeds
of varieties that have been produced
by culture and hybridizing, seldom or
never reproduce exactly their like,
hence the necessity for the various
artificial methods of multiplication,
such as grafting, budding, layering,
&e. It is to these operations that we
are indebted for the preservation of
varieties that were originated hun-
dreds of years ago. a

Germination—Heat and moisture, Fig. 55, germinating
air, and the exclusion of light, are all “¢" %. per Ta
necessary to the healthy and _ perfect
germination of seeds. It may be well to consider, briefly,
the part which each of these has to perform.

1st. MJorsture—When seeds are sown in a time when
the ground is parched, they will show no signs of germi-
nation until it is, in some way or other, moistened. The
quantity of moisture necessary to a seed depends on the
nature of its covering and its size. A small seed, with a
thin covering, will vegetate much sooner and with less
moisture than a large seed, with a hard, bony covering.
The moisture must, in the first place, soften the covering,
penetrate to the mealy part of the seed, and prepare it
for the chemical changes necessary to convert it into food
for the embryo plant. IZfapple or pear seeds be kept in
a dry,.warm room all winter, they will not be likely to
vegetate the following spring, but if sown will probably

46 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

lie in the ground all summer, and possibly germinate: the
spring following. If cherry seeds are kept dry for any
length of time, say two or three months, they will not
germinate the season following ; and peaches and plums
have actually to be in the ground all winter, under the
action of frost, to insure their germination the spring fol-
lowing. Seeds will germinate much quicker when freshly
gathered than after they have dried, because heat, mois-
ture, and air have easier access to them, and act more
quickly on them. These facts, of which all are well
aware, show the necessity for moisture and the nature of
its influence.

2d. Heat is the next most important element. Seeds dd
not grow in winter. We sow our apple, pear, peach, and
plum seeds in November; but they show no signs of ger-
mination until a change of season. When the warmth of
spring penetrates the soil, it reaches the seed, and, in con-
nection with the moisture already imbibed, induces what
we usually call fermentation. This chemical process ex-
cites the vital energies of the germ, decomposes the
mealy part of the seed, and prepares it for the temporary
nutrition of the young plant.

3d. Aw.—Although seeds may have heat and moisture
in the requisite proportions, still it has been proved by
many experiments, that without ar, germination cannot
take place.

Practical cultivators are aware that seeds planted too
deeply do not grow; many kinds will lie buried in the
ground for years without growing, and when turned up
near the surface will germinate immediately. It is the
oxygen of the air that constitutes its importance; it pro-
duces, by forming new combinations with the gases con-
tained in the seed, that chemical process which converts
the starch into sugar and gum, as we observe in ordinary
cases of fermentation.

THE SEED. 47

4th. Exclusion of Jnght—The manner in which self-
sown seeds in the forest are covered with fallen and
decaying foliage, plainly indicates that nature never
intended the light to strike germinating seeds. A seed
entirely exposed would be at one time saturated with
moisture, and at another parched with drought; chemical
changes would be alternately promoted and checked,
until the vital principle would be destroyed, or so weaken-
ed as to produce a feeble and worthless plant. The depth
of the covering should always be regulated by the size of
the seeds. Small and delicate seeds may be sown almost
on the surface, whilst large ones may be imbedded to the
depth of four or five inches. The small seed requires
little moisture, and has but a feeble force to penetrate an
earthy covering ; but the large requires much moisture,
and has force enough to push its way up.

Gia P Td Te
SOILS.
Section 1.—Dimrrerent Kinps or Sol.

Soms are usually designated by terms expressive of the
predominant material in their composition, thus we hear
of sandy, loamy, gravelly, clayey, calcareous or chalky,
and alluvial soils.

A sandy soil is that in which sand is the principal in-
gredient. Such soil is usually quite defective. It is so
porous that it parts almost instantaneously with moisture,
and plants in it suffer from drought. All the soluble
parts of manures are also quickly washed out of it, and
hence it requires continual additions to produce even a
scanty growth. The great point in improving it, is to
render it more retentive by the addition of clay, ashes, .
&e.

A clayey soil is that in which clay predominates. It
may be considered the opposite of sandy, inasmuch as its
defects are, that it retains moisture too long, is too adhe-
sive, in dry weather it becomes as hard as a burnt brick,
impervious to dews or light showers, and when thoroughly
saturated with wet it is tough, and requires a long time
to dry. No fruit tree succeeds well in such a soil; but it
is capable of being improved and fitted for many species,
and especially the plum and the pear. The obvious way to
improve it is, by incorporating with it lighter porous soils,
as sand, muck, or leaf mould.

SOILS. 49

A gravelly soul is one made up in greater part of small
stones, pebbles, decomposed rock, &c.; such soils, as a
general thing, are unfit for fruit trees, unless great labor
is incurred in trenching, deepening, and mixing with
clay, muck, &c., of opposite characters.

A loamy soil is one we hear a great deal about, and may
be understood in various ways. It may be considered a
mixture of equal parts of sandy, clayey, and vegetable soil.
It is neither so light as the sandy, on the one hand, nor
so tenacious as clay on the other; and, as a general thing,
contains such elements, and is of such a texture, as to ren-
der it eligible for all ordinary purposes of cultivation,
and especially so for fruit trees. Loamy soils are spoken
of as sandy loams, when sand forms a large ingredient,
say one half of their composition ; gravelly, when pretty
largely mixed with small stones ; calcareous, when lime
is found in them.

Caleareous or chalky soils have a large amount of lime
mixed with the other ingredients of which they are com-
posed. All the lands in limestone districts are of this
character, and, as a general thing, are well adapted to
fruit culture.

Peaty soul consists chiefly of vegetable mould from de-
eayed marsh plants, in low, wet places. It is unfit, in
itself, for fruit trees, but is valuable for improving both
light and heavy soils.

Allwvial soils are composed of decomposed vegeta-
ble substances, the sediment of rivers, and materials
washed down from neighboring hills; the valleys of all
our rivers and streams are composed of this, and it is the
richest of all soils. Fruit trees in such soils make a rank,
vigorous growth, but they are not so hardy nor so fruit-
ful, nor is the fruit so high flavored as on soils with more
sand, clay, or gravel, and less vegetable mould.

3

50 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

In treating of the different classes of fruits, we shall
refer to the particular soils best adapted to them.

Section 2.—Dirrerent Mopsrs or Ivprovine Sorts.

In regard to depth, soils vary materially, some being
not over eight or ten inches in depth of surface, others a
foot, while in deep alluvial valleys they are often two feet.
For orchard and garden purposes, a deep soil is quite
essential to enable the roots to penetrate freely in search
of. food, and to enable them to withstand the demanas of
protracted droughts. Few soils in their ordinary condition
of farm culture are, in this respect, suitable for trees.
Even where naturally deep and loamy, if the upper part
only (say to the depth of six inches, which is as deep as
most people plough) be in a friable condition, it cannot
be considered as in a proper state for the reception of
trees, for their roots cannot be confined to six inches of the
surface. Some means of loosening and deepening must
be resorted to, and what are they ?

1. SUBSOIL PLOUGHING.

This is the cheapest and best method, where a large
quantity of ground is to be prepared for extensive plant-
ing. The common plough goes first, and takes as deep a
furrow, as practicable. The subsoiler follows in the same
furrow and loosens, without turning up, the lower part
of the surface and a part of the subsoil. Except in cases
where the subsoil is a very stiff clay or a hard gravel
and near the surface, the two ploughs can go to the depth
of eighteen or twenty inches. This is our mode of pre-
paring nursery grounds. If a single ploughing in this
way does not accomplish the desired end, a second may
be given, going down still deeper.

SOILS. 51

We had a piece of soil the surface of which was about
a foot deep of black vegetable mould, with a shght admix-
ture of sand, resting on a stiff clay subsoil, which pre-
vented the water from passing off. In this condition we
found it entirely unfit for trees; we subsoil ploughed it
six or eight inches deep, turning up the clay subsoil and
mixing it with the surface ; we also drained it, and spread
over the surface the clay that came out of the drains, and
in this condition we find it producing the finest trees,
especially apples, pears, and plums. The soil is more
substantial, and the surface water passes off freely.

2. TRENCHING.

In gardens too limited in extent to admit of ploughs, or
where it is desired to make the soil thorough and perma-
nently deep, trenching is the means.

The spade is the implement used in this operation. A
trench two feet wide is opened on one side of the ground,
and the earth taken out of it is carried to the opposite
side. Another trench is opened, the surface spadeful be-
ing thrown in the bottom, and the next lower on the top
of that, and so on till it is opened the required depth,
which, for a good fruit garden, should be about two feet.
If the subsoil be poor and gravelly, it is better to loosen
it up thoroughly with a pick, and let it remain, than to
throw it out on the surface. When the whole plot is
trenched over in this way, the earth taken out of the first
trench will fill up the last one, and the work is done. If
the soil be poor, a layer of well-decomposed manure may
be added alternately with the layers of earth; and if the
soil be too light and sandy, clay, ashes, etc., can be added;
and if too heavy, sand, lime, muck, peat, scrapings of dead
leaves from the woods, or any other material calculated to
render it porous and friable. Ifa garden is thus trenched

52 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

in the fall or winter, and then turned over once in the
spring to effect a thorough mixture of all the materials, it
will be in suitable order for planting. This is something
like the way to prepare soil for a garden; and let no one
say it is too troublesome or too expensive, for in two
years the extra pleasure and profit it will yield, will pay
for all. Nothing is so expensive or so troublesome as an
ill-prepared soil.

3. DRAINING.

There is a false notion very prevalent among people,
that where water does not lodge on the surface of a soil,
it is “dry enough.” However this may be in regard to
meadows or annual crops, it is quite erroneous when ap-
plied to orchards or fruit gardens. Stagnant moisture
either in the surface or subsoil is highly injurious—ruin-
ous to fruit trees. In such situations we invariably find
them unthrifty and unfruitful, the bark mossy, and the
fruit imperfect and insipid. All the soils, then, not per-
fectly free from stagnant moisture, both above and below,
should be drained. In draining, it is, of course, neces-
sary to have a fall or outlet for the water. Having se-
lected this, the next point is to open the drains. We
usually make them three feet deep, and wide enough to
give sufficient room to work—say three feet wide at top,
narrowing gradually to six inches at the bottom, which
should be even and sloping enough to the outlet of the
water to enable it to run. <A laborer who understands
draining, will make two rods of these in a day; and
good pipe-tile, two inches wide, can be had at the rate of
about one cent per foot. Draining, therefore, is not
so costly an operation as many suppose.

Where draining tiles are not to be had conveniently,
small stones may be used. The bottom of the drain

SOILS. 53

should be filled with them to the depth of eight or ten
inches. In using these, the drains require to be at least
six inches deeper than for tiles, in order that a sufficient
quantity of stones can be used without coming too near
the surface. Some brush, or turf, with the grassy side
downwards, should be laid on the stones before filling in
the earth, to keep it from filling up the crevices.

OF APT ERakia:
MANURES.
Section 1.—Ivrortance or MANuREs.

No soil, whatever may be its original fertility, can sus-
tain a heavy and continued vegetation for many years
without becoming, to some extent, exhausted. Indeed,
there are few people so fortunate, except those who settle
upon new, uncultivated lands, as to procure a soil that does
not need manuring to fit it for the first planting with
trees. It is, then, a matter of importance for every man
who has more or less land to cultivate, to inform himself
well on the subject of saving, preparing, and applying
manures. In this country, the only class of men, gene-
rally speaking, who can be properly said to collect and
manage manures with system and care, are nurserymen
and market gardeners near our large towns. It is very
seldom that people generally give the matter a thought
until garden-making time comes. around in the spring ;
and then, anything in the form of manure is carried into
the garden, and applied whether fit or unfit. This is not
the proper course.

Every garden should have its manure heap, that, in the
fall or spring, when it comes to be applied, will cut like
paste. In that state only is it safe to apply it. All parts
of it are then: decomposed thoroughly; all seeds of
noxious plants are dead, and it is in a condition capable
of yielding at once, to the roots of growing plants,

MANURES. 55

healthy nutrition, that will produce a wgorous, firm,
sound, and fruitful growth; and this is precisely what is
wanted: far betterto have a tree starved and stunted,
than forced into a rank, plethoric growth, with crude, ill-
prepared manures.

Section 2?.—PREPARATION oF MAnurzs. +

The best gardeners pursue a system something like
this: A trench is prepared two or three feet deep, and
large enough to hold what manure may be-wanted. In
the bottom of this trench, a layer of muck, grassy turf,
ashes, anything and everything capable of being decom-
posed, is laid down, say a foot deep. On the top of this,
a thick layer of stable or barnyard manure, two or three
feet deep, then another layer of muck, gypsum, ete. In
this way it remains till more manure has accumulated
around the stables; it is then carried and deposited in
another layer, with a layer of the other materials on the
top. The manure should always be saturated with mois-
ture, and trodden down firmly to hasten its decay, and if
an occasional load of night soil could be mixed in with it all
the better. The layer of muck and other substances
being always placed on the top of the last layer of
manure absorbs the evaporations of the heap, and hastens
the decay of all. When stable manure is thrown down
and left uncovered, a dense steam will be seen to rise
from it; and this is the very essence of it escaping to be
lost, and if it be thrown down in a heap dry it will im-
mediately burn—that is, dry rot. Its enriching ingre-
dients all pass off by evaporation, and there is nothing
left but its ashes, so to speak.

When the heap has accumulated for four or five
months as described, the whole should be turned over,
completely mixed, and piled up in a compact, firmly-

56 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

trodden mass, when it will undergo farther decomposition,
and, in a short time, become like paste. Adjoining every
manure heap, there should be an excavation to receive its
liquid drainage, in order that it may be saved, and either
applied in the growing season, in a liquid state, diluted
with water, or be thrown over the heap.

“Special manures” have been much talked of lately.
By the word “ special,” is meant a particular quantity,
of a particular mixture, for certain species, and even for
certain varieties of fruits. Nearly all the suggestions on
the subject are speculative and unreliable. The subject
is an important one, but we want direct and careful ex-
periments. It is only when we know to a certainty what
material certain trees need most of, and in what degree it
abounds or is wanting in our soil, that we can apply it
safely. The experience of farmers and gardeners, grain
and fruit growers, all over the world, affords undoubted
evidence of the enriching qualities of stable manure. On
all soils, and for all sorts of crops, it is an unfailing and
powerful fertilizer; and we make it the base of all our
manure and compost heaps. By mixing with it the in-
gredients we have mentioned, we hasten its decay, save
its parts from waste, and, at the same time, combine with
it other substances that will not only enrich but improve
the texture. of soils, and increase the supply of the mine-
ral substances required by plants. Dr. Daubney, a dis-
tinguished writer on the character and improvement of
soils, etc., says, “ Fortunately we are provided in the
dung of animals with a species of manure of which the
land can never be said to tire, for this simple reason, that
it contains within itself not one alone, but add the ingre-
dients which plants require for their nutrition, and that,
too, existing in the precise condition in which they are
most readily taken in and assimilated.” But a good sub-
stitute for this article, where it cannot be obtained, is an

MANURES. 5

important point. Some time ago, we noticed in the re-
port of a discussion on manures in Boston, that the Hon.
M. P. Wilder, one of the most distinguished horticulturists
in America, stated that he had found the following com-
post equal to stable manure for gardening purposes gene-
rally, and for truit trees.

“ One cord of meadow muck, having been exposed to
the action of the air and frost at least one year; twelve
bushels leached ashes; six bushels crushed bones. This
mixture cost him at the rate of $4 50 cents per cord.
Latterly he added to this his stable manure, and about
an eighth of the whole bulk of fine refuse charcoal from
the depot of venders, which was delivered to him at $5
per cord; and in this way he found it the best, as a
general manure, he had ever used. On fruit trees its
effect was remarkable.

“In the spring of 1847, he planted a square in the nur
sery with imported trees from England, this compost
having been spread and ploughed in. These trees were
from four to five feet in height, and although it is not
usual for trees to make a large growth the first year, they
acquired branches of three to four feet, and were so hand-
some as to command $1 25 each, for a row of fifty trees,
without any selection.

“Jn June last, which is very late to set out trees, he
prepared another square on rather poor land, and planted
trees just received from England upon it. The soil had
been thrown’ up to the frost the previous winter, and the
compost here was applied in the trenches near the roots.
Mr. Wilder exhibited two shoots which had grown from
those trees since they were set in June. The shoots were
four feet in length, and the wood hard and well ripened.’

In addition to all these sources for manure, it may be
added that fallen leaves, scrapings of streets, weeds,
wood chips, sawdust, the ashes of all prunings of trees_

9
“ *

58 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

and brush, soot, blood, animal flesh, soap suds, and slops
from the kitchen, and, in fact, everything decomposable
may be used, to increase the bulk of the manure heap,
taking care that everything likely to waste by evapora-
tion be covered at once with muck, charcoal, or some
material calculated to absorb the gases evolved by de-
composition. We very frequently see people, in the
spring of the year, when their garden is undergoing a
purifying and fitting up process, carry to the highway all
the brush, dry stems of plants, and all the wreck of the
previous season’s work, there to make a bonfire to get it
out of the way, while at the same moment they complain
sadly of the lack of manure.

There was no such thing as a manure heap on the pre-
mises.

Suction 3.—Moprs or Apptyinc MANURE.

Where an acre or several acres of ground are to be
prepared for trees, the better way is to spread the manure
over the surface and turn it in with the plough. When it
is scarce and economy necessary, it may be applied
around the roots, by mixing with the earth at planting
time.

Quantity to be Applied —This, of course, depends on
two things, the necessities of the soil and the quality of
the manure. If the land be poor, an even covering of
two or three inches should be given; if in tolerable good
condition, one inch will be sufficient. One inch of well
decomposed animal manure will be equal to three inches
of a partially decayed compost.

Section 4.—Liquip MANURE.

Manure in a liquid state has these advantages to recom-

MANURES. 59

mend it. It can be applied to trees and plants in a grow-
ing state without in the least disturbing the surface of the
soil, and it supplies, at the same time, both nutriment and
moisture. It can be applied to bearing trees, strawber-
ries, etc., a fruct, if defective in vigor, or suffering from
drought, and yield an immediate sustenance that will
enable them to produce much larger and finer fruit than
they could have done without it.

It may either be collected in a tank, kept on purpose
near the barns, or it may be made when wanted by dis-
solving manure in water. It may be much stronger for
trees, the roots of which are a considerable distance from
the surface, than for such plants as have their roots near’
the surface. It is the only prompt and effectual stimu-
lant for trees on a poor soil, to enable them to perfect
their crop. We have frequently witnessed its astonishing
effects. It should be applied in the evening, and in such
quantity as to penetrate to the roots; half a dozen water-
ings will be sufficient in most cases, but it is better to
apply it well diluted and often, than a smaller quantity
too strong. A dozen shovelfuls of animal manure will
make a barrel of liquid powerful enough for most pur-
poses ; and if pure liquid soakage of the manure heap or
urine of animals is used, at least one half rain water
should be added. Soap suds form an excellent liquid
manure for all trees. The grape vine is especially be-
nefited by liberal and frequent application,

CHAPTER IV.

THE DIFFERENT MODES OF PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES.

General Remarks.—The propagation of fruit trees may
be classed under two principal heads—the JVatural,
‘which is by seeds; and the Artificial, by the division of
the plants, as in cuttings, layers, suckers, buds, and

grafts.

PROPAGATION BY SEEDS.

Seedling fruit trees are propagated, either to obtain
new varieties, or stocks for budding or grafting. It is
only where the very rudest system of fruit culture is
practised, as for instance in newly-settled countries, that
seedlings are planted out to bear, for the reason that,
unless in very rare instances, varieties worthy of cultiva-
tion do not reproduce themselves from seed. The im-
portant differences that exist between the seeds of dif
ferent classes of fruit trees, render it necessary to treat of
each separately ; their management will therefore be given
in detail, in connection with the propagation of stocks.

There are some points, however, of general application
that may be considered here with propriety. It scarcely
admits of a doubt, but that the greater part of the difficul-
ties met with in fruit tree culture, as maladies of various
sorts, untruitfulness, etc., are induced by a careless and

PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. 61

_ undiscriminating system of propagation. The stock has
a most important influence on the health, longevity, fruit-
fulness, and symmetry of trees, and it does not seem pos-
sible that our indiscriminate mode of saving seeds for
stocks is at all consistent with rational, intelligent cul-
ture.

What is the ordinary course? To raise apple seedlings,
a quantity of pomace is procured at the cider mill, with-
out the least regard to the quality or maturity of the fruits
from which it was produced, or of the health, vigor, and
hardiness of the trees that bore the fruit—these points are
never thought of. So it is in the case of pear seeds.
During the last few years, these seeds have been nearly
as valuable as gold dust; the price being seldom less
than $5 per quart. The present season, a neighboring
nurseryman has paid at the rate of $4 per qvrart for a
bushel. How is this seed procured? Is it selected trom
healthy, vigorous trees, with sound constitutions, and
from perfect, well-matured fruits? By chance it may be;
but seed collectors are usually glad to find fruits of any
kind, and from any sort of tree, if they have only seeds
apparently good. We do not, by any means, intend to
charge upon any man a fraudulent intent in this matter.
The seed collector is no more to blame than the nursery-
man, for the nurseryman seldom asks any particulars about
the origin of the seeds. How is it with peach trees? The
peach is a short-lived tree, highly susceptible of deteriora-
tion from bad treatment; and it is obviously impossible
for an unhealthy, feeble tree, to produce sound and healthy
plants from theirseeds. In some districts of the country, a
sound, vigorous peach tree is a rarity; and yet, how are
peach seeds saved and procured? The seeds are brought
in to the seedsman, he buys them without asking any ques-
tions about either the health or sickness of the trees that
produced them. ‘They are peach stones, and that is all ne-

62 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

cessary to be known. The nurseryman buys of the seeds-

man just as he received them ; this is the way that the coun- |
try has been filled with miserable, diseased, and unsightly
trees, and who isin the fault? “ Why,” most people would
say, the “ nurserymen, of course. They ought to be more
eareful in selecting their seeds, so that they might be cer-
tain of having sound and healthy stocks. They ought to
select the fruits, from which to obtain their seeds, while on
the tree, and see that the trees are not in an incipient, or,
perhaps, an advanced state of decay, but in full health and
vigor, possessing such characters, as to habit, growth, and
hardiness, as are desirable in the best quality of nursery
stock.” Very true, itmust beadmitted. This is precisely
the course that nurserymen ought to pursue. It is the
course followed in the great orchard districts of France, and
that ought to be adopted everywhere. But we must have
cheap, easy, and labor-saving modes of doing things now-
a-days; as well the raising of trees as everything else.
Suppose a nurseryman could be found who would go about
the culture of trees after some such system as we have indi-
‘ cated, it must be very clear that he could not sell his trees
as cheap as another, who followed the present almost uni-
versal hap-hazard course, and if he could not do this, the
probability is he would be compelled to keep them; for
purchasers of trees, as a general thing, make no such discri-
minations. It happened one season that more than the
usual quantities of seedling, unworked, peach trees were
brought into the streets of Rochester for sale; they were
as miserable, in all respects, as trees could be; yet they
were sold by the thousand, at from 4 to 8 cents apiece,
and scarcely one of them ever grew, for they were killed
by exposure, fortunately. At that very time there were
large stocks in the nurseries, about town, of good worked
trees of the best varieties, offered at one shilling each.
This instance is quoted simply to show who are to blame

PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. 63

-or the defective and vicious systems of propagation usually
practised. That there will be a reform soon is not to be
doubted. A discriminating spirit is already becoming ap-
parent among the best classes of cultivators, and their
example will soon be felt. The selection of seeds for stocks
is a point of more than ordinary importance, and merits
the special attention of every man engaged, to whatever
extent, in the propagation of fruit trees.

Production of New Varieties —New varieties are pro-
duced from seeds that have been properly hybridized, as
described in the article on hybridization, or from seeds of
the best specimens of the best varieties.

Where it is desired to obtain seedlings of a particular
variety, free from any crossing with others, the flowers
should be protected while in blossom, to guard them
against foreign impregnation ; seeds should be saved only
from large, perfect, fine flavored specimens, and the seeds
themselves should be plump and mature. Sometimes a
good variety is obtained by selecting from beds of seed-
lings, such as possess marked evidences of improvement,
vigorous, luxuriant growth, large heavy foliage, pro-
minent buds, and smooth, thornless wood. These charac-
ters indicate superiority, but do not always ensure superior
fruit. The stock is supposed to exert considerable influ-
ence on the seed; and if this be the case, it would be well
to get such varieties as we wish seeds from, on their own
roots, by layering, or grafting on roots in the ground, so
that the graft will itself strike root. Mr. Knight’s mode
of obtaining seedlings, of the best varieties, was to prepare
stocks from some good sort that would strike from cuttings.
These stocks he planted in rich warm soil, and grafted
with the kind he wanted the seeds from. The first season
after grafting he took them up, reduced the roots, and
planted again. In this way he had them bear fruit in two

64 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

years. He allowed only a couple of specimens to remain
on each tree, and these, consequently, were very large,
mature, and every way fine, and from these the seeds were
taken. Seedlings may be tested quickly, by budding or
grafting them on bearing trees. We may fruit apples and
pears in this way, in four or five years, whilst ten or fif
teen would be necessary on their own roots. Experimenters
on this subject have found the seeds of new varieties are
more certain to produce good fruit than the seed of old
ones.

2. By Division of the Plants—It has been remarked
in the article on buds, that every bud is capable, under
favorable circumstances, of producing a new individual,
similar to that from which it is taken.

Hence it is, that out of the young annual wood of an ap-
ple, pear, peach, or any other fruit tree, we frequently
make several hundreds. Every good, well-formed bud,
properly separated, and inserted under the bark of the in-
dividuals of the same, or a closely allied, species, will, in
one year from its insertion, or with one season’s growth,
have become a new tree. Itis by these means we are
enabled to disseminate new varieties with such wonderful
rapidity. Ifa young tree of a new variety will make half
a dozen shoots the first season, each bearing half a dozen
buds, we can, if we have stocks to bud on, be in possession
of thirty trees of that variety in two years from the time
we obtained one tree, and in another year we may have
four times that number. The production of a tree from a
hud, a graft, a layer, or acutting, is but the same thing
effected by different means. In all the cases, a part of the
parent plant, with one or more buds attached, is separated
from it. The cutting, sometimes composed of one bud or
joint, and sometimes of several, we put directly in the
eround, where it forms roots. The graft is a cutting in-

PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 65

serted, not in the ground, but in the wood of another plant
to which it unites. The bud inserted under the bark of
another tree, and the one buried in the ground, differ only
in this, that one draws its support directly from the soil,
and the other indirectly, through the tree to which it
unites.

Section 1.—Propacation spy Curries.

A cutting is a shoot, or part of a shoot, generally of one
season’s growth. The length of the cutting varies from
a single eye or joint, to a foot, according to the nature of
the species, or the circumstances under which they are to
be grown. The wood should be as stout and mature as pos-
sible, and should be cut close and smooth to a bud at both
ends (fig. 56). In all cases, cuttings taken off closely to
the old wood, with the base attached, as in fig. 57, are

Figs. 56 to 59 cuttings. 56, a cutting, allof young wood. 57, acutting, with a
heel of old wood. 48, a cutting, with 2 or 3 eyes of old wood. 59, a cutting, of 2
single eye of the grape vine. 60, along cutting of the grape, line .4, B, surface of the
ground.

66 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

more successful than when cut at several joints above;
and in many cases, as in the quince for example, an inch
or two of the old wood left attached to the base of the cut-
ting, as in fig. 58, renders it still more certain of success.
The more buds we can get around the base of a cutting,
the better, other things being equal; for these buds, as soon
as they become active, send down new matter, from.which
the roots are emitted.

Cuttings of the grape are sometimes made of a single
eye (fig. 59), with an inch or so of wood above and be-
low it.

The time to make cuttings is in the fall, as soon as the
wood is ripe, and through the early winter months. It
should not be deferred later than January. The sod for
cuttings is of the greatest importance to their success, for
if, on the one hand, it be cold, damp, and compact, they
will decay, and if too loose and sandy, they will dry up
for the want of sufficient moisture. A soil so mellow that
it cannot bake, and yet so compact as to retain humidity
enough to support the cuttings, until new roots are formed,
seems to be absolutely necessary—such a soil as we may
suppose a good garden border to be composed of. Rooted
plants can endure extremes, but cuttings require the most
favorable circumstances.

Time to Plant—The fall would be the better season to
plant all cuttings, if we could cover them so as to prevent
the frost from heaving them out. It is on account of this
difficulty that we plant, from necessity, in the spring; but
spring planting must be done very early, that vegetation
may proceed gradually. If late planted, warm weather
comes on them at once, before they have formed roots
sufficient to support the demands of the young leaves.
Where only a few are grown, shading might, at certain
times, be given, and some light snbstance, like saw dust,

PROPAGATION BY LAYERING. 67

be spread about them, to preserve an even temperature
and humidity, or they might be put in a cold frame, where
they could receive any required attention. Where acres of
cuttings are grown, these things are not practicable.

Depth to plant.—As a general thing, cuttings should be
inserted so deep, that only two buds will be above the
surface of the ground, and in the vine only one. If cut-
tings are long, they need not be set perpendicular, but
sloping, so as to be within reach of heat and air, A
cutting of a single eye of the vine with a piece of wood
attached, must be entirely covered, say half an inch
deep; see figures 56 to 60, ground line, A, B. But such
cuttings are seldom planted, except in pots, in houses, or
in hotbeds.

Preserving Cuttings—If cuttings are not planted in the
autumn, they should at least be prepared quite early in
the winter, and be buried in the earth out of doors, in a
pit. A mound of earth should be drawn up over the pit
to throw off water. At the very first favorable moment in
the spring they should be planted. Trenches are opened
as deep as necessary with a spade, and the cuttings set in
it at the proper distance, from three inches to a foot, ac-
cording to circumstances. When the cuttings are in the
trench, the earth is partly filled in, and trod firmly down
with the foot, then the balance is filled in and levelled
up.

Cuttings require particular attention, in the way of weed-
ing and hoeing; if weeds grow up thickly, and appropri-
ate the moisture of the ground, or if the surface be allowed
to crack, as it may after rains, if not quite sandy, they will
either make a feeble growth, or fail entirely. The ground
wants repeated stirring, to keep it friable and perfectly
free from weeds.

68 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Section 2.—PRopacGaTION BY LAYERING.

A layer is similar to a cutting, except that it is allowed
fo remain in partial connection with the parent plant
until it has emitted roots. On this account, layers are
much more certain than cuttings. It is the best method
of propagating the grape and the gooseberry, and also
the guince, paradise, and Doucain, for stocks. It may be
performed in the spring with shoots of the previous
year’s growth, before vegetation has commenced, or in
July and August on wood of the same season’s growth.
The ordinary mode of doing it is, first, to spade over and
prepare the ground in which the branch is to be laid, in
order to make it light and friable. The branch is then
brought down to the ground (fig. 61), an incision is made
at the base of bud A, through the bark, and
partly through the wood; the knife is drawn
upward, splitting the shoot an inch or two in
length, and the branch is laid in the earth with
the cut open, and kept down
by means of a crooked or hooked
wooden peg, 4. The earth is then
drawn in smoothly around, coy-
ering it two or three inches
deep; and the end of the
shoot that is above ground, is
tied up to a stick (C), if it re-
quires support. In the grape,.

Fig. 61,8 common layer. A, the
gooseberry, or currant, a simple incision. B, hooked peg. ©,

; cs stake. -
notch below a bud is sufficient,

and they will root if simply pegged down; but roots are
formed more rapidly when the shoot is cut one third
through, and slit as described.

A. long shoot of the vine may be layered at several
points, and thus produce several rooted plants in the

PROPAGATION BY LAYERING. 69

course of one season. This is called serpentine layering
(fig. 62). “The Quince, Paradise, and Doucain stocks,
where raised in large quantities, are propagated
in a different way from that described. The pro-
cess requires much less labor; and where plants
root so freely
as they do, it
answers ‘every
purpose.
We will take
a plant of the
quince, for ex-
ample, and, in
the spring, before growth commences, we cut it down
nearly to the ground, leaving four or five buds at its base
(A, fig. 63). During that season, a number of vigorous
shoots will be made. The following autumn or spring the
earth is drawn up around the base of the plant, so that
. the crown where it
‘ was cut will be
covered, and, con-
| sequently, the base
of all the shoots
for several inches
in height. Dur-
ing the next sum-
mer’s growth every
branch is sufii-
ciently rooted to
be separated and

placed in nursery

Fig. 63, Mound layering or banking up. .4, the point ice
at which the mother plant was cut back. DOW'S the following

Fic. 62.
Fig. 62, Serpentine layer.

spring. This is the
way to obtain strong stocks; for the cutting back of the
mother plant produces very vigorous shoots the first

70 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

season, and when another season’s growth is added they.
are as strong as can be desired. We succeed in rooting
these shoots the first season of their growth by earthing
them up about midsummer ; but they are not quite strong
enough, or sufficiently rooted, for transplanting and bud-
ding the following season.

SrcTion 3.—PROPAGATION BY SUCKERS.

Suckers are shoots sent up from the roots. We ob-
serve them most frequently around trees that have had
their roots wounded by the spade or plough. The wounds
induce the formation of buds, and these buds send up
shoots. They are occasionally used from necessity for
stocks, but should not be employed where seedlings can
be obtained. Occasionally we find certain varieties of
plum throw up fine vigorous suckers, that would make
excellent stocks if taken off with good roots; but their
tendency to produce suckers renders them exceedingly
annoying in gardens, and on this account objectionable.
The roots of the raspberry are full of buds, and, con- -
sequently, throw up great quantities of suckers; and the
smallest cuttings of the roots will grow. Suckers of any
plants that can easily be propagated by cuttings or layers,
should never be used.

Srorion 4.—PROPAGATION By BuppIne.

This operation is performed during the growing season,
and usually on young trees from one to five years old,
with a smooth soft bark. It consists in separating a bud
with a portion of bark attached, from a shoot of the cur-
rent season’s growth of one tree, and inserting it below
the bark of another. When this bud begins to grow, all
that part of the stock above it is cut away, the bud grows
on, and eventually forms a tree of the same variety as

PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. (ii

that from which it was taken. Buds may be inserted in
June, and make considerable growth the same season,
but as a general thing this is not desirable in the propa-
gation of fruit trees. The ordinary season in the Northern
States is from the middle of July till the middle of Sep-
tember, and the earliness or lateness at which a species
is budded depends, other things being equal, on the con-
dition of its growth.

Those accomplishing their growth early in the season
are budded early, and those that grow until the autumn
are budded late—thus the season extends over a period
exceeding two months. In all cases, the following condi-
tions are necessary :

Ist. The buds must be perfectly developed in the aails
of the leaves on the young shoots intended to bud from.
This is seldom the case until the shoot has temporarily
ceased to lengthen, as indicated by the perfect formation
of its terminal bud.

If buds are wanted before this condition naturally ar-
rives, their maturity may be hastened very much by
pinching the tips of the shoots. In ten or twelve days
after the pinching of a very soft shoot, its buds are fit for
working.

2d. The bark must rise freely from the stocks to be bud-
ded. 'This only happens when the stocks are in a thrifty
and growing state. Where only a few stocks are to be
worked, they can be easily watered, if necessary, a week
or so before it is desirable to bud them. Trees that ac-
complish most of their growth early in the season, must
‘be watched and budded before they cease to grow; those
that grow very late, must not be budded early, or the
formation of new wood will surround and cover the buds;
in gardener’s language, they will be “drowned by the

sap.”
The implements needed are a pruning knife to dress

72 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

the stocks, by removing any branches that may be in the
way of inserting the bud; and a budding knife to take
off the buds and make the incisions in the stock. The
latter should have a very thin, smooth, and keen edge.

Strings for tying in the buds are either taken from bass
mats, or they are prepared from the bark of the bass-
wood. We always prepare our own; we send to the woods
and strip the bark off the trees in June; we then put it
in water from two to three weeks, according to the age
of the bark, until its tissue is decomposed, and the fibrous,
paper-like inner bark is easily separated from the outer,
when it is torn into strips, dried, and put away for use.
Before using, it should always be moistened to make it
tough and pliable.

Cutting and Preparing the Buds—Young shoots in
the condition described, are cut below the lowest plump
bud; an inch or two of the base of every shoot, where the
buds are very close together, and quite small, should be
left. The leaves are then stripped off, leaving half of
each leaf stalk to handle the bud by, as in fig. 63.

Preserving the Buds—When a considerable quantity
is cut at once, they should be wrapped in a damp cloth
as soon as cut and stripped of the leaves, and they may
be preserved in good order for ten days, by keeping them
in a cool cellar among damp saw-dust, or closely envelop
ed in damp cloths, matting, or moss. We often send buds
a week’s journey, packed in moss slightly moistened ; the
leaves being off, the evaporation is trifling, none in fact
when packed up, consequently very little moisture is
needed.

Having the stocks, buds, and implements in the condi-
tion described, the operation is performed in this way :

The shoot to bud from is taken in one hand, and the
budding knife in the other, the lower part of the edge
of the knife is placed on the shoot half an inch above the

PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. %3

bud to be removed (A, fig. 64), the thumb of the knife-

V
pl 64,
Fiaes. 64 to 70, Buppine.

Fig. 64, a shoot of buds with the leaves taken
off. .4, the point above the bud where the knife
was inserted. B, the point below where it comes
out. Fig.65, is a bud badly taken off, with a
hollow in the centre. Fig. 66,a good bud. A,
root of the bud. B, root of the leaf.

eecccc

——

68, * Ee.

hand rests on the shoot
below the bud (B), a
drawing cut is then
made, parallel with the
shoot, removing the
bud and the bark to
which it is attached,
half an inch above,
and three quarters be-
low it.. This is ‘the
usual length, but it
may in many cases be
shorter. The cut is
made just deep enough
to be below the bark,
a small portion of the
wood is always taken

70.

Fig. 67, a stock with the bark slit vertically and across. Hig. 68, the same
with the bark raised as far as the dotted line. Fig. 69, the same with the

bud inserted. Fig. 70, the same tied up.

off with it, and if this adheres firmly it should be allowed

4

74. GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

to remain; if it parts freely, it should be taken out, but in’
doing so the voot of the bud must be carefully preserved,
for if it comes out with the wood, the budis useless. The
root of the bud, as it is termed, is a small portion of wood
in the hollow part of the inside of the bud. Fig. 64 isa
good bud, A, root of bud, , root of leaf. Fig. 65 is im-
perfect, the roots of leaf and bud both out. A smooth
place on the stock, clear of branches, is then chosen.

where two incisions are made to the depth of the bark, one
across the end of the other, so as to form a T, fie. 67; the
bark on the two edges of die perpendicular cuit is eal
(fig. 68) with the smooth ivory handle of the budding
knife, and the bud is inserted between them (fig. 69); the
upper end of the bark attached to the bud is cut square,
to fit to the horizontal cut on the stock, the bass string is
then wound around tightly, commencing at the bottom,
and covering every part of the incision, leaving the bud
‘tself, and the leaf-stalk, uncovered (fig. 70), the string is
fastened above the horizontal cut, and the work is done.
The success of the operation, as far as its execution is con-
cerned, depends, in a great measure, on smooth cuts, an
exact fit of the bud to the incision made for rt, secure,
close tying, that will completely exclude air and rain wa-
ter, and the quick performance of the whole. The inser-
tion of a bud should not, in any case, occupy more than @
minute; ordinary practised budders will set two in that
time, and often two hundred in an hour with a person to
tie. Where the stocks and buds work well, two thousand
is not an uncommon day’s work in our nurseries, especially
of cherries, peaches, and apples.

Where only a few buds are to be set, a cool, moist day
or evening should be selected, as they will be more cer-
tain of success than if inserted during the middle of a hot,
dry day.

The chief difficulty experienced by beginners in bud-

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. Q5

ding, is the proper removal of the bud. When it happens
that the knife passes exactly between the bark and wood,
the bud cannot fail to be good; but this rarely happens—~
more or less wood is attached, and the removal of this is
the nice point. Where the buds are flat, the ditliculty is
less than when they have large prominent shoulders, as
the plum and pear have, in many cases. When all the
wood is taken out of these, a cavity remains, which does
not come in contact with the wood on which the bud is
placed, and therefore, although the bark unites well, the
bud will not grow. Sometimes, such as these are sepa-
rated by making an incision through the -bark; lift the
edge of the bark attached to the bud with the knife, and
push it off with the fingers. A safer way still is to cut
around the bud, and draw a strong silk thread between
the bark and wood, thus removing the bud in perfection.

SrcTIon 5.—PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING.

Grafting is the insertion of a scion of one species or
variety on the stem or branch of another, which is called
the stock. Its principal object is to increase certain varie-
ties that cannot be reproduced from seed with certainty ;
but it is frequently performed with other objects in view.
For instance—

To Fruit a New Variety—A scion inserted in a
branch of a bearing tree, will bear fruit perhaps the
second year from the graft; but if the same scion had
been put on a young seedling, it would not have borne in
ten years.

One species is frequently grafted with success upon
another, by which certain important modifications are
wrought upon both the size and fruitfulness of trees, and
the quality of the fruits. Thus, we can graft,in many
cases, with highly beneficial results, the peach and apri-

76 | GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

cot on the plum; the pear on the quince; strong grow-
ing species and varieties on weaker ones, and wece versa.
But experience has established the fact, that there must _
be between the stock and graft a close alliance. We
cannot graft an apple on a peach, nor a cherry on a pear ;
but the pear, the apple, quince, medlar, thorn, and moun-
tain ash—a naturally allied group—may, with more or
less success, be worked upon one another.

The French horticulturists, who are the most skilful
and curious in all matters pertaining to the propagation
of plants, describe in their works upwards of one hun-
dred different modes of grafting, practised in different
ages and countries, and for the attainment of particular
objects ; but, however interesting the study of all these
may be to the student and experimentalist, the great
bulk of them are of little practical utility, and are never
applied in the multiplication of fruit trees. It is, there-
fore, unnecessary to fill up the pages of such a treatise as
this, with either a historical account or description of
them. The methods described below are those univer-
sally adopted, with slight modifications, by the best prac-
tical propagators everywhere at the present day.

Stocks are of all ages from a yearling seedling to a
tree forty or fifty years old; but of whatever age, they
should be sound and healthy. Nursery stocks will be
more particularly spoken of in the proper place.

Scions are generally shoots of the previous year’s
growth. MJarely those bearing fruit buds are used for the
purpose of experiment, but in such cases only. They
should be cut in the autumn after the fall of the leaf, or
in the winter, and be preserved carefully in earth till
wanted for use. If intended for root-grafting early in the
spring in the house, it will be sufficient to bury their
lower ends in earth, in a cool, dry cellar; but if wanted
for out-door grafting, they should be buried in dry sandy

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. i?

soil, in a pit, on the north side of a wall or fence, and
deeply covered with earth drawn up in a mound to throw
off the water. They are thus kept perfectly dormant
until used, and not so dry as to shrivel the bark. They
should always be taken from healthy, vigorous trees ea-
clusively, and be of firm, well-ripened wood. A mode-
rate-sized shoot or scion, if well matured and sound, is
much better than one as thick as a man’s finger, pithy
and unripe. People are by no means so careful and dis-
criminating in this respect as they ought to be. Half of
the maladies of trees originate in negligent and vicious
systems of propagation. The implements used in graft-
ing are the grafting-knife, saw, and chisel (see imple-
ments). In whip-grafting or splice-grafting, the stocks
being small require the knife only, or not more than
the knife and chisel. It is always better to have two
knives—one to prune and do the rough work, and the
other to prepare the scion. Grafting composition is pre-
pared in various ways. rosin, beeswax, and tallow, in
about equal parts, answer very well. Lately, however,
we have found it better to use more rosin and less bees-
wax and tallow; thus, to two pounds of rosin we add
one and one fourth pounds of beeswax, and three fourths
of a pound of tallow. For whip-grafting on the root,
and small trees in the nursery, we use cloth saturated with
this composition, instead of the composition itself, and
find it more convenient and expeditious. If we have no
old calico, we buy a very thin article, at about four cents
per yard. This we tear into narrow strips, roll into balls,
and then soak in the liquid composition until every pore
of the cloth is filled with it. The person who applies it
to the grafts takes it from these balls, tears it in pieces
the length and breadth required by the size of the stock, ©
and two or three turns of it around the graft secure it
completely. This thin cloth soon decays, and yields to

18 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

the enlargement of the parts it encloses: We have tried
tow, paper, and other materials, but find this the best.
Having the scions, implements, and composition in readi-
ness, the work is performed as follows:

Whip-Grafting on the Root—¥or this purpose, seed-
ling stocks are generally used, one or two years old, vary-
ing from one fourth to three eighths of an inch in diameter.
The graft is always made at the collar, and, therefore, the
stems of the plants are cut off at that point; the small
tap-roots and any cumbrous fibres are removed, leaving
them about four inches in length (fig. 71); they are then
washed clean, and are ready for the operation. The
grafter then makes a smooth, even, sloping cut, an inch
long, upwards on the collar of the root, ¢
A ; and in the centre of this cut, he makes :
a slit or tongue, B, downwards. The scion,
which should be three or four inches long
(fig. 72), is cut on
the lower end with
a sloping cut down-
wards, and similar
in all respects to
that made on the
stock; a slit, or
~ tongue, is made in
it upwards, LB, cor-
responding, also,
with that on the
stock; and they
are then neatly 71,
fitted together, the Fis. 71 to 73, Roor GRarrinc.

tongue of the one Fig. 71. the root. 44, the sloping cut. B, the tongue.
within the other Fig. 72, the scion. .4, the sloping cut. B, tongue. C

bud attop. Fig. 73, the union of scion and stock.
(A, fig. 73), and the
inner barks of both placed in close and perfect contact, at

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 79

least on one side. The fit should be so complete as to sit
close and firm in all parts. The person who applies the
wax, takes a narrow strip of the cloth described, and
wraps it firmly around, covering the parts united. A man
and boy can graft of these twelve to fifteen hundred per
day, and by a special effort two thousand. When the
grafting is thus” performed, the grafted plants are put
away as closely as they can be packed in small boxes,
with sandy earth among the roots, and deposited either
in a cold cellar or in a dry place out of doors, where
frost cannot penetrate to the roots, until planting time in
spring.

Whip Grafting on small trees, standing in the open
ground, is performed in precisely the same manner, the
oblique or sloping cut and tongue, corresponding in stock
and graft, fitting into each other with precision, and the
inner bark of both, at least on one side, placed in close
contact. Stocks an inch in diameter can be grafted in this
way. ither the cloth or the liquid composition may be
applied, the latter put on with a brush. For all moderate
sized stocks the cloth is preferable. In cold weather, a
small furnace can be kept at hand to keep the composi-
tion in working order.

Cleft Grafting is practised on trees or branches too
large for whip grafting, say from an inch in diameter up-
wards. In this case, the scion is cut precisely in the form of
a wedge (fig. 74). The part cut for insertion in the stock,
should be about an inch or an inch and a half long, with
a bud (A) at the shoulder, where it is to rest on the stock;
this bud hastens the union of the parts, in the same way
as a bud at the base of a’cutting, set in the earth, hastens
and facilitates the emission of roots: the outer edge should
also be somewhat thicker than the inner. <A sloping cut
(A, fig 75) is then made on the stock, an inch and a half

80 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

long, another cut (2) is made across this cut,
about half way down, as at point B, the stock
is split on one side of the pith, by laying the
chisel on the horizontal surface, and striking
lightly with a mallet; the split is kept open
with the knife or bee till the scion is inserted
with the thick side
out MA tie 3 14).
Grafts of this kind
heal much more ra-
pidly than when cut
at once horizontally.
Very large branches
are sawed horizon-
tally off at the point
to be grafted (A, fig.
77); the surface is

then pared smooth oe ye
= e SS = ~ SSS SSS

with the knife, a Serres ee ae

Fics. 74 to 76, CLerr GraFTINa.

split is made with
: . Fig. 74, the scion prepared with a sloping cut on
the chisel, nearly IN each side like a wedge. A,a bud at the shoulder.

the centre, and two Fig-75, the stock cut and split. .4, the sloping cut.

< ; : B, the horizontal cut. Fig. 76, the scion inserted in
wedge-like scions in- the stock.

serted (A, B, fig. 78) ;

if both grow, and they are afterwards too close, one can be
cutaway. Another mode of grafting such large stocks, or
branches, is to cut them off horizontally, as above, and pare
them smooth with the knife; then cut the scion on one side,
about an inch and a half long, making a shoulder at the
top, then raise the bark from the stock with the handle of
a budding knife, and insert the scion between the bark
and wood, and apply the composition the same as in the
others, all over the cut part. ‘Two or three scions may be
put in each. The principal objection to this mode is, that

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 81

the grafts, if they grow rapidly, are apt to be blown off
before they have united strongly to the stock.

The great points to observe always are,
to have sharp instruments that will make
smooth clean cuts, to have placed in per-
fect contact the inner barks of scion and
stock, and the whole cut surface, and
every portion of the split
perfectly covered with the
composition, to exclude
air and water. The scion
should always be cut
close to a bud at the
point (c, fig. 71), and have
a bud at the shoulder, or
point of union with the
stock (A, fig. 73).

In grafting the heads
of large trees, it is not 7
convenient to use the 77 and 78, cleft grafting, large trees or
composition in a melted Semshen, 7, the suck cut hors
state, to be put on with
the brush, and the large cut surfaces cannot well be covered
with the cloth; it is therefore better to use the composi-
tion in such a state that it can be put on with the hands.
A very small quantity of brick dust may be advantage-
ously mixed with it, when intended for this purpose, to
prevent its being melted by the sun.

Double Working—When we graft or bud a tree al-
ready budded or grafted, we call it “ double worked.”
Certain very important advantages are gained by it. Some
varieties are of such feeble growth, that it is impossible to
make good trees of them in the ordinary way of working
on common stocks. In such cases, we use worked trees of
strong growing pare as stocks for them.

4

82 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Many varieties of the pear do not unite well with the
quince stock; we therefore bud other varieties of strong
growth that do succeed, and use them for stocks to work
the others on. By this means we are enabled to possess
dwarf trees of many varieties, that we could not otherwise
have in that form. We have fruited the Dix in two years
by double working on the quince, when otherwise it would
have taken not less than seven. A great many improve-
ments may be effected, not only in the form and growth
of trees, but in the quality of the fruit, by double working.
Very few experiments have yet been made on the subject
in this country, except from necessity ; but the general in-
terest now felt on all matters pertaining to fruit tree cul-
ture, cannot fail to direct attention to this and similar
matters that have heretofore, in a great measure, been
overlooked.

CHAPTER’.

PRUNING—ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.

Tuts is one of the most important operations connected
with the management of trees. From the removal of the
seedling plant from the seed bed, through all its succes-
sive stages of growth and maturity, pruning, to some
extent, and for some purpose, is necessary. It may,
therefore, be reasonably presumed, that no one is capable
of managing trees successfully, and especially those con-
ducted under certain forms, more or less opposed to
nature, without knowing well how to prune, what to prune,
and when to prune. This knowledge can only be acquired
by a careful study of the structure of trees, because the
pruning applied to a tree must (aside from the general
principles on which all pruning depends) be adapted to
its particular habits of growth and mode of bearing its
fruit. It is in view of this fact that the chapter on the
structure and mode of formation of the different parts of
fruit trees has been given in the first part of this treatise,
that it may form the basis of this branch of culture.

The idea that our bright American sun and clear
atmosphere render pruning an almost unnecessary ope-
ration, has not only been inculcated by horticultural
writers, but has been acted upon in practice to such an
extent that more than three fourths of all the bearing
fruit trees in the country, at this moment, are either lean,
misshaped skeletons, or the heads are perfect masses of

84 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

wood, unable to yield more than one bushel of fruit in
ten, well matured, colored, and ripened.

This is actually the case even in what may be called,
in comparison, well managed orchards. Look at the dif.
ference between the fruits produced on young and old trees.
The former are open, the fruits are exposed to the sun, and,
therefore, they are not only large and perfect, but their
skins are smooth and brilliant, as though they were painted .
and polished. This ought to teach us something about
pruning; but this is only one point. We prune one por-
tion of a tree to reduce its vigor, and to favor the growth
of another and weaker part. We prune astem, a branch,
or a shoot to produce ramifications of these parts, and
thus change or modify the form of the whole tree. We
prune to induce fruitfulness, and to diminish it. We
prune in the growing as well as in the dormant seasop ;
and, finally, we prune both roots and branches. Thus we
see that pruning is applied to all parts of the tree, at all
seasons, and to produce the most opposite results.

It appears necessary to treat of pruning under each of
these circumstances separately.

Ist. Pruning to Direct the Growth from one Part of
a Tree to another—the first period in the existence and
growth of a tree in which this becomes necessary, is in
the nursery. Those who have had any experience in tree
culture, have observed that young trees in nursery rows
have a tendency to increase in height without acquiring a
well-proportioned increase in diameter. In certain cases,
this want of proportion becomes so great, that the tree
bends under its own weight; and hence, it is necessary:
to resort to some method of propping it up. This con-
dition is attributable to several causes. First, the absence
of a sufficient amount of air and light around the stem, to
enable the leaves on it to fulfil their functions properly.
It has been shown that the formation of new wood de-

PRUNING. 85

pends upon the elaborating process carried on in the
leaves, and that this process can be maintained only in a
free exposure to the sun and air. This being the case, it
is obvious that any part of the tree excluded from the
action of these agents, cannot keep pace in growth with
other parts to which they have full access. In nursery
rows, as trees are usually planted, the stems, after the
first year’s growth, are, to a great extent, excluded from
the light, consequently the buds and leaves on them can-
not perform their parts in the creation of new wood. The
top of the tree, however, is fully exposed, and, conse-
quently, it makes a rapid growth towards the free-air and
light. When this is continued for two or three years in
succession, the tree becomes top-heavy; the quantity
of woody fibre at the top is as great as,and it may be
greater than, at the bottom; and hence it bends under its
own weight.

2d. The Tendency of the Sap to the Growing Points at
the Top of the Tree-—Growth is always the most active
andvigorous, when trees are in a natural condition, at the
newly-formed parts. The young buds are the most excit-
able, and the more direct their communication with the
roots, the more rapid will be their growth. Hence it is
that a yearling tree furnished with fifteen to twenty buds
or more, from its base to its top, frequently produces a
shoot from its terminal bud only, and seldom more than
three or four shoots from the whole number of buds, and
these at the top. This natural tendency, and the exclusion
of light from the stems of nursery trees, by their closeness
to one another, are the chief causes of weak and crooked
trees, to counteract which we resort to pruning.

In “ heading down” a young tree, we cut away one
third or one half of the length of the stem, and this removes
the actively growing parts; the sap must then find new
channels. Its whole force is directed to the buds that were

S56 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

before dormant, they are excited into growth, and produce
new wood and leaves; these send down new layers of
woody fibre on the old stem, and it increases rapidly in
diameter, so that by the time it has attained its former
height, the base is two or three times as thick as the
top, and possesses sufficient strength to maintain an erect
position. |

Maintaining an equal growth among the branches of a
tree is conducted on the same principle. Branches that
are more favorably placed than others, appropriate more
than their due proportion of the sap, and grow too vigor-
ously, are checked, by removing more or less of their grow-
ing points; this lessens the flow of sap to that point, and
it naturally takes its course to the growing parts of the
weaker branches that were left entire, and thus a balance
is restored.

Pruning to renew the Growth of Stunted Trees.—lt
frequently happens that trees, from certain causes, become
stunted, and almost cease to grow; the sap vessels be-
come contracted, and every part assumes a comparatively
dormant condition. In such cases they are cut back, the
number of their buds and leaves is reduced, the whole
force of the sap.is made to act upon the small number re-
maining, and enables them to produce vigorous young
shoots; these send down new woody matter to the stem,
new roots are also formed, and thus the whole tree is re-
newed and invigorated.

Pruning to induce Fruitfulness.—This is conducted on
the principle that whatever is favorable to rapid, vigorous
growth, is unfavorable to the immediate production of
fruit. Hence the object in view must be to check growth
and impede the circulation of the sap, just the opposite of
pruning to renew growth. The only period at which this
pruning can be performed, is after vegetation has com-
menced. If a tree is severely pruned immediately after

PRUNING. 87

it has put forth its leaves, it receives such a check as to be
unable to produce a vigorous growth the same season ;
the sap is impeded in its circulation, and the result is that
a large number of the young shoots that would have made
vigorous wood branches, had they not been checked, as-
sume the character of fruit spurs and branches. Panch-
ing is the principal mode of pruning to promote fruitful-
ness, and will be explained hereafter. It depends upon
the above principle, of impeding the circulation of the sap
and checking growth.

Pruning to diminish fruitfulness, is conducted on the
same principle as that to renew growth, for this, in fact,
is the object.

Pruning the Roots-——This is practised as well to pro-
mote fruitfulness, as to lessen the dimensions of trees.
The roots, as has been shown, are the organs that absorb
from the ground the principal food of the tree, and in pro-
portion to their number, size, and activity, other things
being equal, are the vigor and growth of the stem and
branches. Hence when a tree is deprived of a certain
portion of its roots, its supply of food from the soil is les-
sened, growth is checked, the sap moves slowly in its
channels, is better elaborated in the leaves, and the young
branches and buds begin to assume a fruitful character.

Roots are also pruned to prevent them from penetrat-
ng too deeply into the earth, and induce the formation of
lateral roots near the surface, similar to the cutting back
of a stem to produce lateral branches; the principle is the
same.

Pruning at the time of Transplanting—tThis is per-
formed, not only to remove bruised and broken roots and
branches, but to restore the tree to a proper balance. As
trees are ordinarily taken from the ground, the roots are
bruised, broken, or mutilated, to a greater or less extent.
This obviously destroys the natural balance or proportion

88 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

that existed between the roots and stem, and in such a
condition the tree is unable to grow. The demand upon
the roots must therefore be lessened, by reducing the stem
and branches in length or number, or both; and the more
the roots have suffered, the greater must be the reduction
of the stem and branches, to bring them to a correspond-
ing condition.

PRUNING MECHANICALLY CONSIDERED.

Having now treated of the principles on which prun-
ing depends, it remains to speak of its mechanical execution ;
for it is not only necessary to know what and why, but
how to prune. Theory is only useful as it serves to guide
in practice.

ist. Pruning Stems or Branches—The great point to
be observed in making incisions on the stems and branches
of trees, is to provide for the speedy and perfect healing
of the wounds or cut surfaces. In removing a portion of
a branch or stem, if we cut between two joints, and thus
leave a portion of wood above the bud intended to be
cnt to, as in fig. 79, this wood dies, and we have the
trouble of another pruning to remove it. If we cut too
close to the bud, and thus remove a portion of the wood
with which it is connected, as in fig. 80, the bud will
either die or disappoint us by producing a very feeble
erowth. The proper way is to take the branch to be
operated on in the left hand, place the edge of the knife
on it, opposite the lower part of the bud to be cut to,
and then-make a firm, quick, smooth draw-cut, slop-
ing upwards, so that the knife will come out on a level
with the point of the bud, as in fig. 81. In soft-
wooded, pithy trees, like the grape vine, for example,
half an inch of wood ought to be left above the bud.
The cut should also be made as much as possible on the

PRUNING. 89

lower side of the branch to prevent rain from lodging in
the centre. The position of the bud cut to, is also worthy
of consideration in pruning, to produce or modify certain

El,
Fies. 79 to 2, PRUNING.

Fig. 79, cutting too far above the bud. Fig. 80, cutting too close. Fig. 81,
the cut as it should be. Fig. 82, removal of a branch, the cross line indicat-
ing the proper place for the cut.

forms. When we wish the new shoot of a lateral branch
to take, as much as possible, an wpright direction, we
prune to a bud on the zszde ; and if we wish it to spread,
. we choose one on the ouvtsede. In the annual suppression,
or cutting back young trees, to form a stem or side
branches, the bud selected to form the leader is chosen on
opposite sides every successive year, in order to maintain
the growth in a straight line. If cut’every year to a bud
on the same side, it would, in two or three seasons, show
an inclination to that side injurious to the symmetry of
the tree.

The Removal of Large Branches, where they are to be
entirely separated from the tree, is often very clumsily
performed. In orchards, it is not at all uncommon to see
them chopped off with a common axe; and even in gar-
dens there seem to be few persons who either know how,
or take the proper care in this matter. They are either
cut so that a portion of the base of the branch remains,
and sends out vigorous shoots, defeating the objects of the

90 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

pruning, or they are cut so close that a portion of the
wood of the-main branch or stem is taken with them,
and a wound made that years are required to heal up.
Both these extremes ought to be avoided.

The surface of the cut made by the removal of a branch
should in no case be larger than the base of the branch.
Where a branch is united to another, or to the main stem,
we notice both above and below the point of union, a
small projection or shoulder, as at the cross line in fig. 82.
The knife must enter just below that shoulder, and, by
being drawn upwards in a straight line, the base is so
completely removed that no shoots can be produced there ;
‘and yet the cut surface on the stem is no larger than the
base of the branch. When the saw is used, the surface
of the cut should be pared smooth with the knife, to pre-
vent water lodging on it, and facilitate the healing of the
wound.

2d. Pruning the Loots.—This is performed by opening
a trench around the tree, just at the extremities of the
roots: the distance from the tree will, therefore, depend on
its size, and the spreading characters of the roots. The
trench should be the width of a common garden spade,
and deep enough to admit of an inspection of all the
roots of the tree. If the lateral roots are to be shortened,
this is done first. The knife should be placed on the
lower side of the root, and the part separated with a
clean draw-cut, such as would be performed on a branch.
If the tree has vertical, or tap roots, they are most
easily operated on with a sharp spade, prepared and kept
for the purpose. A smart stroke with such a spade, in as
nearly a horizontal direction as possible, will separate a
pretty strong root. The extent to which root pruning
may be performed, depends on the character of the
species, the condition of the tree as regards growth, and
the object aimed at. Those practising it for the first time,

PRUNING. : Of

should go to work with great caution. It will be better
to operate too lightly than too severely. As regards the
season, it may be performed either at the end of the first
growth, in July or August, or in the autumn or winter,
when vegetation is quite suspended. We have operated
on cherry trees with complete success in August, in a dry
time, when little growth was going on. At this season, a
copious watering should be given after the pruning is per-
formed.

Implements of pruning, and the mode of using them,
will be treated of in the chapter on implements, to be
given hereafter. |

The Season for Pruning—We are nat permitted to be
very definite on this point. The climate, the nature of
the species, etc., control the period of pruning to a great
extent. In the south, what we term the winter pruning—
that performed during the dormant season—may be done
very soon after the fall of the leaf. In the north, it is
deferred to February, March, and even April. In western
New York, we prune apples, pears, and other hardy fruits,
as soon as.our severe frosts are over—say the latter end
of February and beginning of March. If pruned sooner,
the ends of the shoots are liable to be injured, and the
terminal bud so weakened as not to fulfil its purposes.
Besides, the wounds do not heal well.

The peach we prune just as the buds begin to swell.
The fruit and leaf buds are then easily distinguished
from one another, and the objects of the pruning are ac-
complished with more precision.

Grapes may be pruned any time in the winter, as a
portion of wood is always left above the bud. Goose-
berries and currants also, any time in winter. The
stone fruits should always be lghtly pruned, because
severe amputations almost invariably produce the gum.
Where it is absolutely necessary in the spring, the wound

92 . GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

should be coated with grafting composition, or with that
recommended by Mr. Downing: “ Alcohol, with sufficient
gum shellac dissolved in it, to make a liquid of the con-
sistence of paint, to be put on with a brush.”

This excludes air, and is not affected by changes of
weather.

Pinching is a sort of anticipated pruning, practised
upon the young growing shoots, intended to promote a uni-
form circulation of the sap, and thus regulate the growth,
and also to induce fruitfulness.

Ist. Zo Regulate the Growth—In the management of
trees, this is an operation of great importance, as it obvi- —
ates the necessity of heavy amputations being made at the
winter or spring pruning. Instead of allowing certain
superfluous or misplaced shoots to acquire their full, deve-
lopment at the expense of other parts, we pinch them
early, and give to the necessary parts, or branches of the
tree, the nutriment which they would have appropriated,
if allowed to remain. In this way, we are able to obtain
results in one season, that two or more would be required
for, if we depended wholly on the winter pruning. We
will suppose, for an example, the case of a young nursery
tree in the second year, intended for a standard. In ordi-
nary cases, the terminal bud, either the natural one or that
pruned to, is developed into the leading shoot or stem,
and a greater or less number of buds below it produce
branches; and it frequently happens that some of these, if
not pinched, acquire so much vigor as to injure the leader
and produce a consequent deformity in the tree. Fig 83
(A) represents a case of this kind, whichis very common,
and too often neglected. The shoots, a, a, ought to have
been pinched the moment they began to exhibit a dispo-
sition to outgrow the leader. There are other cases still
worse than this, familiar to all tree growers; for instance,
where a strong shoot is produced on the middle or lower

PRUNING. 93

part of the stem, attracting an undue proportion of the
sap, thus contracting the growth of all other parts, and
giving the young tree a deformed character. All such

Fie. 83 (A). Fia. 83 (B).

Fig. 83, A, head of a young tree ; B, the leader; a, a, vigorous shoots below
it, that ought to have been pinched. Fig. 83, B, a branch of the pear, twice cut
back with the lateral shoots pinched; a, a, the first section; c, c, ¢, the second;
b, and d,d, shoots pinched close to favor the leader, and those below them.

shoots as these should be nipped early, the moment their
character is apparent, and thus a year’s growth nearly
will be saved to the tree, and its proper form and propor-
tions be preserved. In conducting young trees for pyra-
mids, the constant and careful application of pinching is

a GENERAL PRINCIPLES. y

absolutely necessary, for in them we must have the lower
branches always the strongest and longest, and it is only
by operating on the shoots, in their earliest stages of
growth, that we can fully attain this end; for the strong-
est shoots do not always grow at the desired point, but by
timely attention they are perfectly within our control.
The various accidents and circumstances to which young
trees are subject, give rise, in a multitude of cases, to an
unequal distribution of the sap in their different parts,
and this produces, to a greater or less extent, deformity of
erowth. This, at once, shows the necessity for pinching
to check the strong and favor the weak.

Pinching to promote Hruitfulness—Those who have
never practised this, or observed its results, may have
seen, if experienced in tree growing, that a shoot of which
the point was broken, bruised, or otherwise injured, dur-
ing the growing season, frequently becomes a fruit branch,
either during the same or the following season; and this,
especially if situated in the interior of the tree, or on the
older and lower parts of the branches. The check given
to the extension of the shoot concentrates the sap in the
part remaining; and, unless the check has been given
very early in the season, or the growth very vigorous in
the tree, so that the buds will break and form shoots,
they are certain to prepare for the production of fruit. It
is on this principle of checking the growth, and concen-
trating the sap in the pinched shoot, that pinching to in-
duce fruitfulness is performed; and its efficiency may be
estimated from the fact, that trees on which it has been
practised, have borne fruit four or five, and perhaps seven
years, sooner than they would have done without it.

It is a most useful operation in the case of vigorous
erowing and tardy bearing sorts. The best illustration, on
a large scale in this country, is the specimen plantation of
pear trees of Messrs. Hovey & Co., of Boston. A large

PRUNING. 95

number of these are pyramidal in form, and on pear stocks,
very beautiful trees, indeed the best specimens of the kind
in any American nursery, and though, now in 1850, only
7 years old (the oldest), yet they have as a general thing
produced fruit, and many of them for 2 or 38 years past.
This result has been obtained by pinching, which has been
recularly, but not to the fullest extent, practised upon
them everyseason. The mode of performing tt, is to pinch
off the end of the shoot with the finger and thumb; if a
small portion of the remaining part be bruised, no matter,
it offers a greater check than if a clean cut were made,
as in pruning to a bud; and in the general winter or
spring pruning which follows, the bruised parts can
be cleanly separated. The time to perform it depends
wholly on circumstances. If the object be to regulate
growth, then the time to do it is, when the tendency to
undue or ill-proportioned growth is first observable, and
this will be from the time the young shoots are two to
three inches long and upwards. The particular season of
the year or day of the month will, of course, depend upon
the earliness or lateness of the season, and on the soil and
situation as well as on the habits of growth of the species
or variety to be operated on. The true way is to bealways
on the watch. Ifthe object be to induce fruitfulness, the ~
jength which the shoots should attain before being pinched,
depends upon the nature or mode of growth and bearing
of the species, and will be more definitely treated under
the head of “ The Pruning of Trees,” hereafter, the object
now being merely to indicate general principles and modes °
of operating. To illustrate this, let us suppose the lateral
branch of a pear tree, (fig. 83, 2). This was cut back the
first time to 6, and below that point five shoots were pro-
duced, none of which were needed for branches. We,
therefore, pinched them in June, when about three inches
long or thereabouts, and the result is, they are now fruit

96 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

branches. The same branch was cut back the second
time to d, d, and on that section seven shoots were pro-
duced that were not needed in the form of the tree, and
were consequently pinched, and will become fruit branches.
At the points 0, and d, d, are small spurs, the base of shoots
that have been pinched close to favor the growth of the
leader, as well as the development of the shoots below.
Without pinching it would have been impossible to obtain
such results in this branch in the same time.

M.. Dubreuil, formerly Professor of Arboriculture in the
Garden of Plants at Rouen, in France,sums up the general
principles of pruning as follows. (I may remark here, that
in 1849, I visited the Rouen garden, and found M. Du-
breuil’s theory and practice beautifully illustrated on
the trees in his charge. My visit was made at the time
of his practical lectures, and I was able to examine the
whole with the most satisfactory minuteness. The trees
there, under all forms, and embracing all the hardy spe-
cies of fruits, were the best that I anywhere found, not
even excepting the much admired and famous pyramidal
pear trees of M. Cappe, at Paris. They were not only per-
fect in form, but as regards vigor and fruitfulness, in the

most admirable condition.) He says:

““ The theory of the pruning of fruit trees rests on the follow-
ing six general principles:

“1. The vigor of a tree, subjected to pruning, depends, in a great
measure, on the equal distribution of sap in all tts branches.

‘in fruit trees abandoned to themselves, the sap is equally dis-
tributed in the different parts without any other aid than nature,
because the tree assumes the form most in harmony with the
natural tendency of the sap.*

* This is not in all cases true. Peach trees, we know, left to themselves,
exhibit a very striking example of the unequal distribution of the sap. The
ends of the branches attract nearly the whole, leaving the lateral shoots and

PRUNING. 97

*¢ But in those submitted to pruning, it is different; the forms
imposed on them, such as espalier, pyramid, vase, &c., change
more or less the normal direction of the sap, and prevent it from
taking the form proper to its species. Thus nearly all the forms
given to trees require the development of ramifications more or
less numerous, and of greater or less dimensions at the base of the
stem. And, as the sap tends by preference towards the summit
of the tree, it happens that, unless great care be taken, the
branches at the base become feeble, and finally dry up, and the
form intended to be obtained disappears, to be replaced by the
natural form, that is a stem or a trunk with a branching head.
It is then indispensable, if we wish to preserve the form we im-
pose upon trees, to employ certain means, by the aid of which
the natural direction of the sap can be changed and directed
towards the points where we wish to obtain the most vigorous
_growth. To do this we must arrest vegetation in the parts to
which the sap is carried in too great abundance, and on the con-
trary favor the parts that do not receive enough. To accomplish
this the following means must be successively employed.

“1. Prune the branches of the most vigorous parts very short,
and those of the weak parts long. We know that the sap is at-
tracted by the leaves. The removal of a large number of wood-
buds from the vigorous parts, deprives these parts of the leaves
which these buds would have produced; consequently the sap is
attracted there in less quantities, and the growth thereby dimi-
nished. The feeble parts being pruned long, present a great num-
ber of buds, which produce a large surface of leaves, and these
attract the sap and acquire a vigorous growth. This principle
holds good in all trees, under whatever form they may be con-
ducted.

“2. Leave a large quantity of fruit on the strong part, and
remove the whole, or greater part, from the feeble. We know
already that the fruit has the property of attracting to it the sap
from the roots, and of employing it entirely to its own growth.

lower parts to die out. In other species, similar instances might be quoted,
and as a general thing, the proposition is unsound, except in a comparative
sense.

5

98 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

The necessary result of this is, what we are about to point out,
viz., that all the sap which arrives in the strong parts, will be ab-
sorbed by the fruits, and the wood there, in consequence, will
make but little growth, while on the feeble part, deprived of
fruits, the sap will all be appropriated by the growing parts, and
they will increase in size and strength.

‘© 3. Bend the strong parts and keep the weak erect. The more
erect the branches and stem are, the greater will be the flow of
sap to the growing parts; hence, the feeble parts being ereet,
attract much more sap than the strong parts inclined, and, con-
sequently, make a more vigorous growth, and soon recover their
balance. This remedy is more especially applied to espalier
trees.

“4, Remove from the vigorous parts the superfluous shoots as
early in the season as possible, and from the feeble parts as late as
possible. The fewer the number of young shoots there are on a
branch, the fewer there are of leaves, and consequently the less is
the sap attracted there. Hence, in leaving the young shoots on
the feeble part, their leaves attract the sap there, and induce a
vigorous growth.

5, Pinch early the soft extremities of the shoots on the vigorous
parts, and as late as possible on the feeble parts, excepting always
any shoots which may be too vigorous for their position. By thus
pinching early the strong part, the flow of sap to that point is
checked, and naturally turns to the growing parts that have not
been pinched ; this remedy is applicable to trees in all forms.

«6. Lay in the strong shoots on the trellis early, and leave the
feeble parts loose as long as possible. Laying in the strong parts
obstructs the circulation of the sap in them, and consequently
favors the weak parts that are loose. This is only applicable to
espaliers. |

“7. In espaler trees, giving the feeble parts the benefit of the
light, and confinng the strong parts more in the shade, restores a
balance, for light is the agent which enables leaves to perform
their functions and their action on the roots, and the parts receiv-
ing the greatest proportion of it acquire the most vigorous de-
velopment.

PRUNING. 99

2. “ The sap acts with greater force and produces more vigorous
growth on a branch or shoot pruned short, than on one pruned long.
This is easily explained. The sap acting on two buds must
evidently produce a greater development of wood on them, than
if it were divided between fifteen or twenty buds.

‘Tt follows from this, that if we wish to obtain wood branches,
we prune short, for vigorous shoots produce few fruit buds. On
the contrary, if we wish to obtain fruit branches, we prune long,
because the most slender or feeble shoots are the most disposed
to fruit.

‘*¢ Another application of this principle is to prune short for a
_ year or two, such trees or parts as have become enfeebled by
overbearing. (This principle deserves especial attention, as its
application is of great importance.)

3. “* The sap tending always to the extremities of the shoots causes
the terminal bud to push with greater vigor than the laterals. Ac-
cording to this principle, when we wish a prolongment of a stem
or branch, we should prune to a vigorous wood bud, and leave no
production that can interfere with the action of the sap on it.

4. “* The more the sap is obstructed in its circulation, the more
likely rt will be to produce fruit buds. This principle is founded
on a fact to which we have already had occasion to refer, viz.—
that the sap circulating slowly is subjected to a more complete
elaboration in the tissues of the tree, and becomes better adapted
to the formation of fruit buds.

‘‘ This principle can be applied to produce the following result:
When we wish to produce fruit buds on a branch, we prevent a free
circulation of the sap by bending the branches, or by making annu-
lar or circular incisions on it; and on the contrary, when we
wish to change a fruit branch into a wood branch, we give it a
vertical position, or prune it to two or three buds, on which we
concentrate the action of the sap and thus induce their vigorous
development.

5. “ The leaves serve to prepare the sap absorbed by the roots for
the nowrishment of the tree, and aid the formation of buds on the
shoots. All trees, therefore, deprived of their leaves are liable to
perish. This principle shows how dangerous it is to remove a

_

100 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

large quantity of leaves from trees, under the pretext of aiding
the growth or ripening of fruits, for the eaves are the nourishing
organs, and the trees deprived of them cannot continue to grow,
neither can the fruit ; and the branches so stripped will have feeble,
ill-formed buds, which will, the following year, produce a weak
and sickly growth.

6. “ Where the buds of any shoot or branch do not develope
before the ageof two years, they can only be forced into activity
by a very close pruning, and in some cases, as the peach, this even
will often fail. This last principle shows the importance of prun-
ing the main branches of espaliers particularly, so as to ensure
the development of the buds of their successive sections, and to
preserve well the side shoots thus produced, for without this, the
interior of the tree will become naked and unproductive, and
a remedy will be very difficult.”

If these principles and practices of pruning be carefully
studied in connection with the habits of growth and bear-
ing of the different fruit trees, pruning will be compara-
tively an easy matter. The mode of obtaining any par-
ticular form or character cannot fail to be perfectly plain
and simple; yet no one need hope to accomplish, in all
things, the precise results aimed at, for even the most
skilful operator is sometimes disappointed: but those who
give constant attention to their trees, will always discover
a failure in time to apply a remedy.

J insist upon it, because I have been taught it by most
abundant experience, that the most unremitting watch-
fulness is necessary in conducting trees in_ particular
forms. It is not, by any means, dabor that is required;
but attention that the most delicate hand can perform,
fifteen or twenty minutes at a time, say three times a
week during active growth, will be sufficient to examine
every shoot on a moderate collection of garden trees; for
the eye very soon becomes trained so well to the work,
that a glance at a tree will detect the parts that are either
too strong or too weak, or that in any way require atten-

PRUNING. 101

tion. This is one of the most interesting features in the
management of garden trees. We are never allowed to
forget them. From day to day they require some atten-
tion, and offer some new point of interest that attracts us
to them, and augments our solicitude for their prosperity,
until it actually grows into enthusiasm.

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FA? oli:

THE NURSERY.

PH E- NO hes Bo, Y

——

CHAP LER, iD.
Section 1.—Sorm, Srirvation, Ero.

Ir is not a part of the design of this treatise to give
anything like a full exposition of nursery operations ; for
this would, in itself, be a subject sufficiently extensive to
form a volume; but as all fruit growers should possess at
least some knowledge of nursery management, it seems
quite necessary that the more important points should be
noticed.

Ist. The Soil, as to Dryness —F¥or a fruit tree nursery
the soil must be perfectly dry, both above and below. In
damp, springy soils, or where the subsoil is so compact as
not to admit of the surface water passing off immediately,
trees do not thrive, the roots are destitute of fibres, the
wood is watery and delicate, and where frosts are severe
the trees are cast out of the ground by the expansion of
the water with which the soil is filled. We have known
of a single instance in which several thousand dollars
were lost by planting a pear nursery on a soil imperfectly
drained. The plants grew finely the first season, were
budded, the buds had taken, and in the autumn all looked
prosperous; but the autumn rains filled the soil with
water, the situation was low and level, and the subsoil
compact, so that the water could not possibly get away.
The consequence was, the roots decayed, the plants were
cast out of the ground, and the injury was so great and

5*

106 THE NURSERY.

so general that the whole plantation had to be taken up.
This ground was then thoroughly drained, and is now as
good a pear soil as can be found—a stock of beautiful
trees standing on it at the present time. ‘This single in-
stance illustrates the importance of a dry soil, as well as
twenty would. We frequently find that in the same row
of trees, if there happens to be a low, damp spot, the
trees in it have no fibrous roots, and are altogether inferior
to those on the adjacent dry ground.

2d. Depth—As a general thing, the soil of a nursery
should be a foot to eighteen inches deep; but all trees do
not require the same depth. Those (such as the pear)
whose roots descend more than they spread, require the
deepest soil. The best quality of nursery trees are grown
on common farming land, twice ploughed with the com-
mon and subsoil ploughs, one following the other, as de-
scribed in the chapter on soils. This gives depth enough
for all ordinary purposes.

3d. Teaxture—aA. soil of medium texture between the
heavy and the light, is, on the whole, the most advan-
tageous, as being the best adapted to general purposes.
A good friable loam, with a gravelly subsoil, or a mixture
of sand, gravel, and clay, that will allow water to pass
off freely, and yet not too fast, will be found suitable for
almost any species; and one great advantage of such a
soil is, that it admits of rotation in crops.

th. Quality—For the growth of young fruit trees, a soil

should be in such a condition as to furnish a sufficient sup-
ply of nutriment to ensure a vigorous and robust growth ;
but it may be too rich, and produce rank wood that a
not mature properly, and be unable to withstand the
change of climate or soil consequent upon transplanting.
Where manures are used, they should be well decom-
posed; fresh warm manures excite trees into a very rapid
growth, but the wood is watery and feeble. A dry soil of

SOIL. 107

moderate richness produces hardy trees, their wood is firm,
the buds plump and close together, and the parts well pro-
portioned.

5. Laying out.—Where the nursery is of considerable
extent, the ground should be laid out and arranged in
square or rectangular plots of convenient size, and be
intersected with walks. One portion should be set apart
for the propagation of stocks from layers, another for cut-
tings, another for seeds, &c. In setting apart ground for
the different kinds of trees, if there be a choice, the pear
should have the deepest and best, the plum the most com-
pact or clayey, the peach, apricot, cherry, &c., the lightest
and dryest.

6. Hxposure—Nursery ground for fruit trees should be
well elevated, but not fully exposed to the prevailing high
winds, as the young trees are apt to be broken off during
the first year’s growth if not kept well tied up to stakes.
In our section we find it very advantageous to have some
protection from the west winds especially, though we
sometimes have a south wind quite destructive in exposed
places to the young buds. Situations where snow is liable
to drift into, should be avoided, in sections where heavy
snow storms prevail, for sometimes vast quantities of trees
are broken down in corners of fences and sheltered situa-
tions where the snow accumulates in heavy drifts.

7. Rotation or Succession of Crops —This is quite as
important in the management of the nursery as of the farm.
Not more than one crop of one species should be planted
on the same ground; and those of the most opposite
character should follow one another. Where one species
is grown on the same ground for eight or ten years, it is
found by experience that even the most liberal manuring
fails to produce such fine, sound, healthy, and vigorous
trees as new ground without manure. Where land is
scarce, and it is necessary to use the same ground for the

108 THE NURSERY.

same kind of trees, it should at least be allowed one season’s
rest, and be well supplied with such material as the trees
to be grown in it require in the largest quantities, or in
which the soil is found to be most deficient.

Srcrion 2.—DeEscrIPTION AND PROPAGATION OF STOCKs.

This branch of the subject is of such importance, and
involves so many considerations, that it seems to be more
methodical to treat it separate from subsequent operations.

Ist. Stocks for the Apple—trThe principal stocks in use
for the apple are the common seedling, or free stock, the’
Doucain, and the Paradise.

Seedlings, or free stocks, are ordinarily produced from
seeds taken promiscuously from the cider mill in the
autumn.

Preparing the Seed—The cakes of pressed pomace
are broken up, and the coarser materials, straw, &c., sepa-
rated from it by means of a coarse sieve, the sifted pomace
is then put into large tubs, and subjected to repeated
washings until clean. The clean plump seed falls to the
bottom, and the pomace and light poor seed are carried
off in the washings. When fruits have been selected for
the seeds, they are placed in heaps until fermentation and
_ decay have reduced the flesh to a soft pulpy state, when
they are washed in tubs, in the same manner as pomace.

Saving the Seed—When the seed is washed out as
above, it must be spread thinly on boards, and repeatedly
turned over until: perfectly dry, when it is put away in
boxes, mixed with sand, containing a slight degree of
moisture. The boxes should be well secured against ver-
min, and be kept in a dry, cool place, till the time of
planting.

Season and Mode of Planting—TIf the ground be in
readiness, and perfectly dry and friable, the best time is

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 109

the fall, as soon as the seeds are cleaned. At this season
the pomace, seeds and all, as it comes from the press, may
be planted without any washing. It should be broken
up fine, so that it may be evenly distributed in the seed
bed. The difficulty of doing this, is a serious objection to
this mode. By taking some pains in the sowing, we raise
as good stocks in this as in any other way; the decayed
pulp contributes considerable nutriment to the young
plants in their earliest stage of growth.

When deferred till spring, it should be done at the
earliest moment that the condition of the ground will ad-
mit. When the ground is ready, a line is stretched along
one side of the plot, and a drill opened with a hoe about
eight or ten inches wide and three deep; the seeds are
then dropped, and the fine earth drawn over them with
the hoe as regular as possible, covering them about three
inches deep. If some leaf mould from the woods or old
decomposed manure in a fit state for spreading could be
had, and a covering of an inch deep of it spread on the
top of the drills, it would prevent the surface from baking
or cracking, and allow the plants to come up with greater
strength and regularity. Whatever depth of such a cover-
ing be used, should be deducted from the covering of
common earth.

Distance to Plant—When large quantities are raised,
the drills should be three feet apart to admit of the culti-
vator passing between them; for the ground should be
kept pertectly clean and mellow around seedlings the
whole season.

After Management.—lIt is of great importance that they
be not in any way stunted, either in first coming through
the soil by a hard surface, or afterwards by weeds and
lack of culture; seedlings stunted during the early stages
of their growth never make vigorous, healthy stocks, and
indeed should never be planted. When they appear

110 THE NURSERY.

4

above the surface and are too close together, they should
as soon as possible be thinned out to regular distances;
for when grown up in dense masses, they are generally
feeble and worthless. One hundred good vigorous stocks
are worth five hundred poor ones. It is very common to
see seedlings of one year larger than those of two years,
under different management, and in such a case the year-
lings are worth twice as much as the others. A very good
plan is to thin out all the weakest plants when about four
or five inches high, leaving those only of vigorous habit
and large foliage.

The Doucain is a distinct species of apple; the tree is
of medium size, bears small sweet fruit, and reproduces
itself from seed. It is used for stocks for apple trees of
medium size, pyramids, or dwarf standards for gardens.
It is propagated almost exclusively from layers; see fig.
63. The plants to be propagated from are planted in a
rich deep friable soil, and cut back to within four to six
inches of the collar; the buds, or the part below the cut,
will, during the next season, produce strong shoots; the
following spring the earth is drawn up around each plant
in the form of a mound, so that the whole of the stem and
the base of all the shoots will be covered at least three
inches deep; during that season all the shoots will pro-
duce roots, and should be separated from the mother plant
or stool, as such plants are termed, in the fall. If left on
till spring the frost would be likely to injure them. The
stools are then dressed, the soil around them is spaded up
and enriched with well decayed manure, and the follow-
ing season another crop of shoots is produced, much
more numerous than the first, to be treated in the same
way. Every year these stool plants increase in size and
in the quantity of their productions, if well treated.
Another course, but not so good, is frequently pursued
when stocks are scarce. The shoots are layered, by bend-

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 111

ing down as described in layering, the first season of their
sieeerits in July, and may be eutieicatle rooted in the fall
to be transferred to nursery rows in the spring following;
a year is thus saved, but the stocks are, of course, much
inferior. If earthed up in midsummer, they will be par-
tially rooted in the autumn too, but not so well as if bent
down, for the bending has a tendency to stop the sap at
the point fastened to the ground, and hastens the forma-
tion of roots.

The Paradise——tThis also is a distinct species of apple.
The tree is of very small size, never attaining over three
to four feet in height. It is used for stocks for dwarf
trees or bushes that occupy but a small space in the gar-
den. It is propagated in precisely the same manner as
that described for the Doucain.

2d. Stocks for the Pear—The pear seedling and the
quince are the only two stocks on which the pear can be
advantageously worked to any considerable extent. The
mountain ash and the thorn are occasionally used for
special purposes only.

Pear Seedlings—TVhe seeds are aiaiebe by collecting
such fruits as can be had, containing perfect seeds. Great
care should be taken to gather the fruits of hardy,
healthy, vigorous trees only, and the seeds should be full
and plump. The seeds are separated and washed, as de-
scribed for apples. They are also saved and planted in a
manner similar in all respects; but in this country it is a
much more difficult matter to succeed with pear seedlings
than with the apple. This difficulty is owing chiefly to a
species of rust or blight that attacks the leaves of the
young ag very étcen before they have completed their
first season’s growth. To obviate the difficulty which this
malady presents, a vigorous growth should be obtained
early in the season. New soil, or that in which trees
have not been grown in before, should be selected. The

112 THE NURSERY.

autumn before planting, it should be trenched or subsoil
ploughed to the depth of two feet, for the pear has long
tap roots, and liberally enriched with a compost of stable
manure, leaf mould or muck, and wood ashes, in about
equal parts: four inches deep of this spread over the sur-
face before ploughing, will be sufficient for any ordinary
soil. Lime should also be given liberally, unless the soil
be naturally and strongly calcareous. A soil prepared
thus in the fall, will require another ploughing or spading
in the spring, to mix all the materials properly with the
soil, and fit it for the seeds. Where large quantities are
grown, the drills may be the same distance apart as that
recommended for apples, three feet; but if only a few,
twelve to eighteen inches will be sufficient, as the clean-
ing can be done with the hoe. The seeds should be scat-
tered thinly, that every plant may have sufficient space
without any thinning. From time to time we find re-
gular recipes given for raising pear seedlings, with the
same precision that pudding recipes are given in the
cook books. Bone dust, blacksmiths’ cinders, muck, lume,
wood ashes, and half a dozen other things, are recom-
mended to be compounded in pecks and half pecks, all
with a view to remedy the rust or leaf blight that no
man can say originates in any defect of the soil. The
cause may be in the atmosphere, or it may be an insect,
or it may be something else, for aught anybody yet
knows to the contrary. The end to aim at, as before re-
marked, is to get good growth, say eighteen to twenty
inches in height, and stout in proportion, before the first
of August. This can be done in any deeply-trenched, —
fresh soil, well prepared and manured as described above.
During the past season, a lot of very fine seedling pears
were raised in fresh, new soil, in Ontario county; their
foliage was quite fresh when the frosts came, and they
had received no special manuring either. Pear seedlings

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 113

should always be taken up in the fall, after the first
season’s growth, the largest selected for transplanting
into the nursery, and the smaller to be put into beds, to
remain another season.

Quince Stocks are propagated with considerable success
by cuttings. These should be strong shoots, six inches to
a foot long, taken off close to the old wood, and, if pos-
sible, with a small portion attached, prepared as directed
in article on cuttings, early in the winter, and kept in pits
two or three feet below the surface of the soil, in a dry
place, till planting time in spring. They should be
planted in a light, friable, deep soil, in rows eighteen
inches to two feet apart, four to six inches apart in the
row, and so deep that but a couple of buds remain above
the surface. The ground should be kept clean and mel-
low amongst them all summer, and if the cuttings were
stout and long, they will in the autumn be fit for taking
up and preparing for planting into nursery rows the fol-
lowing spring. The best and surest method of propagat-
ing the quince stock, however, is by layers, as the best
variety for that purpose does not strike so freely from cut-
tings as the common sorts. The manner of layering is
that recommended for the Doucain and paradise, by
earthing up. The stool plants should be set out in a fine,
rich, deep border of warm, friable soil, and be about six
feet apart, when designed to be permanent. As each stool,
by the system recommended, can only yield a crop of
plants every two years, there should be two sets, so that
an annual supply may be obtained.

By the ordinary system of bending down the shoots,
and slitting, or even without the slitting, a crop may be
obtained every year, that is, the shoots of the current sea-
son’s growth may be layered in July or August, but no
such stockscan be obtained as by the earthing up and

114 THE NURSERY.

taking a crop every two years. This is the system recom-
mended to those who want first rate quince stocks.

The very general lack of information in this country on
the subject of quince stocks for pears has given rise to a
great many misapprehensions and erroneous statements in
regard to them, both by horticultural writers and others.
At first it was said that the stock used by the French and
imported by nurserymen here were the Portugal. Again,
it was discovered they were nothing more than the com-
mon apple quince ; consequently a multitude of the apple
quinces have been worked, and sent out as “ dwarf pears.”
The slow and feeble growth of this variety unfits it entirely
for a stock for the pear, and only a very few varieties will
form a union with it that will last over three or four years.
Such trees cannot fail to give general dissatisfaction, and
among people who know no better, create a prejudice
against quince stocks in gereral. Indeed this is the cause
why so much has been said about the pears on quince
being so short-lived. _

The truth is, that the varieties used in France are nei-
ther the Apple nor the Portugal Quince, but vigorous
hybrids that have been criginated there, and found to
answer this purpose particularly well. The great requisite
of a quince stock for the pear is a-free,vzgorous and rapid
growth. A variety originated at the town of Angers in
France, and extensively used, propagated and sold there,
as the Angers Quince, is probably the best yet known for
a pear stock generally. It is a very rapid, vigorous grower,
making strong shoots three feet long inoneseason. It has
large foliage resembling the Portugal. In some parts of
France, as in Normandy, it is known as the broad-leaved.
There is another variety with smaller leaves, but of free,
vigorous growth too, almost exclusively cultivated in some
districts. Several extensive nurserymen at Orleans, Paris,
and elsewhere, consider it superior to the broad-leaved,

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 115

and especially for very vigorous growing sorts. It is
known as the small-leaved.

We have tried both extensively, and find but very little
difference thus far in the results obtained. We are now
engaged in experiments testing the fitness of another
variety quite distinct in its character, habits of growth,
&c., from all the others. It is remarkably erect, with a
bushy, branching head, and roots composed almost entirely
of fine fibres. Every cutting grows when other sorts area
complete failure; and a cutting made of a stout shoot set
in the ground in April may be budded in September. The
largest plants we have are but three years old; and judg-
ing from these, it will not attain so large a size as the
Angers, but the pear seems to unite well with it, and we
believe it will make an excellent stock, for free growing
kinds particularly. It is yet too soon, however, to decide
upon its merits in any respect, except that of being easily
propagated.

The Mountain Ash, it is said, makes a good stock for
certain varieties in very light, sandy soils, when neither
the pear nor quince succeeds well. It is propagated from
seed, and requires to be two years old before being worked.

The Thorn.—Seedlings of our vigorous native thorns
make good stocks when about three years old; the seeds
require to be in the rot heap one year before sowing. ‘The
only cases in which it can be recommended, are those in
which a soil may be so wet and cold as to be unfit for the
pear or quince; but itis better to improve such soils by
draining, subsoil ploughing, and by the addition of suitable
composts, for even the thorn will fail in giving satisfac-
tion on a stiff, cold soil.

3d. Stocks for the Cherry. _The principal stocks used
for the cherry are the mazzard for standard orchard trees,
and the mahaleb for garden pyramids and dwarfs.

Mazzard Seedlings—The mazzard cherry is a lofty,

116 THE NURSERY.

rapid-growing, pyramidal-headed tree. Its fruit is small,
dark brown, or black, with a sprightly flavor and slight
bitterness. It is the original type of all the heart varie-
ties.

Preparing and saving the Seeds—tThe fruit is allowed
to remain on the tree until thoroughly ripe. It is then
shaken or picked off, and put into tubs, where the pulp is
washed off until the stones are perfectly clean. They
are then spread out on boards, and turned over occasion-
ally until dry, when they are put away in boxes, mixed
with sand very slightly moist. A layer of sand is spread
in the bottom of the box, then a thin layer of the stones,
next a layer of sand, and so on till the box is full. The
boxes are secured against vermin, and put away in a cool,
dry place, until needed for planting. If not planted in the
fall, they may be wintered in a cellar, or out of doors,
protected from rain by boards or other covering.

When to Plant.—If circumstances were favorable, all
seeds would be better planted in the fall, or immediately
after their maturity. Nature, in her course, indicates this
to be a general law; but in cultivation this must depend
on circumstances. The ground may not be in readiness.
It may be so wet and heavy, that seeds would be so satu-
rated with moisture during the winter as to lose their
vitality; or the ground might become so beaten down
and compact with fall, winter, and early spring rains, as
to make it almost impossible for the young plants to make
their way through it. All these things are to be con-
sidered in deciding the proper time to sow seeds. If the
soil be very light and porous, cherry seeds may be sown
as soon as gathered; if the contrary, it should be
deferred till spring: but they germinate early and at a
low temperature, so that it is necessary to keep them
pretty dry and cool, and get them into the ground at the
earliest practicable moment. We find it quite difficult to

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. Biz

keep them properly, and yet prevent them from germinat-
ing before the ground is dry enough to receive them.

How to Plant.—¥ or cherry seeds the ground should be
light, in a good fertile state, but not strongly manured.
The seeds are sown in drills as recommended for apple
and pear seeds, and so thin as to give each plant space to
grow in without being crowded by others. In this way,
and with clean summer culture, the stocks will all be
large enough at the end of the first season’s growth, to be
taken up and prepared for planting in nursery rows the
following spring.

The Jlahaleb (Cerasus mahaleb) is a small tree with
glossy, deep green foliage. The fruit is black, about the
size of a marrow-fat pea, and quite bitter. It blossoms and
bears fruit when about three years old. It is considerably
cultivated in many parts of Europe, as an ornamental
lawn tree. There are very few bearing trees in this
country yet; consequently nearly all the stocks used are
imported, or grown from imported seeds.

The seeds are prepared, saved, sown, and managed in
all respects similar to the mazzards, and are fit for trans-
ferring to the nursery rows at the end of the first season’s
growth.

The common red pie cherry and the small morello make
very good stocks for dwarf trees of the duke and morello
classes; but the hearts and Bigarreaus do not take on
them. These are raised from seed in the same way as the
mazzards and mahalebs. It may be added, however, as a
warning, that buds are more liable to fail on them than
on the mahaleb.

Ath. Stocks for the Peach—As a general thing the
peach is worked on its own stocks in this country. The
stones should be placed in a state of stratification during
the winter, placed in boxes with alternate layers of sand
or light earth, and be kept fm a situation exposed to the

118 THE NURSERY.

frost; unless this is done they will not germinate the fol-
lowing spring; they require more moisture and exposure
to open their hard shells, and induce germination, than any
other fruit seeds. They should be examined a week or
two before planting time, and if they exhibit no signs of ve-
getation more moisture should be given them; if they have
been kept dry for a month or two before being stratified,
they may require to be cracked. This is done by placing
the edge of the stone on a wooden block and striking with
a mallet; when cracked they may be mixed with moist
earth and germinated in a warm place. The growth of
every one so germinated can be depended on, and the
rows will be regular. As the seeds are planted where
the trees remain until transferred to the garden or orchard,
it is a very good plan to nip off the point of the young root
protruded from the seed; this makes it ramify, so that
when taken up the trees have fine branched and fibrous
roots instead of long tap roots, as is very generally the
case.

Planting.—The seeds should be put into the ground as
soon in the spring as it is in a fit state to be worked. A
line is stretched, and holes made with a dibble to receive
the seed; it should be put in with the root downwards,
and be covered not over one fourth of an inch deep.

Plum Stocks are used for the peach in soils of a stiff, »
adhesive character, in which the peach does not succeed.
In England the peach is worked almost exclusively on the
plum, as it suits their moist climate and soil better. In
France the hard shell almond is used almost exclusively
on dry, and the plum on damp soils. Almond stocks are
raised in the same way as the peach.

Dwarf Peach Trees are produced by working on the
same stocks reconimended for dwarfing the plum. Some
time ago a French journal gave a very interesting account
of experiments made in dwarfing the peach and plum, by

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 119

a Dr. Bretonneau of Tours, France. He had succeeded
in producing very pretty dwarf plums and peach trees on
a dwarf plum indigenous to this country (Prunus pumila.)
He exhibited beautiful prolific dwarf trees of the green
gage plum on the sloe, and was making farther experi-
ments with the dwarf almond as a stock for peaches.
These subjects are all worthy of attention; we have many
experiments of this kind under way, but it is yet too soon
to communicate the results. The art of growing a large
collection of fruits on a small spot of ground is of great.
importance to curious and tasteful people living in towns
and villages.

Stocks for the Apricot and Nectarine—Kvery thing
that has been said of peach stocks, applies with equal
force and propriety to these two trees.

5. Stocks for the Plum.—It is not a little difficult in
this country to get good plum stocks. If seeds be taken
promiscuously from any variety that is to be had, as is
done with most other trees, the probability is, that of the
seedlings not one in 500 will be suitable fora stock. I
have seen bushels of seeds planted that were said to have
been collected from strong growing trees, but out of the
tens of thousands of seedlings produced from them, not
100 were ever worked, or fit to be. It is not only neces-
sary to obtain seeds from vigorous growing trees, but from
a species or variety that reproduces itself from seed. This
is the point.

The Horse Plum, an oval, purple, free-stone sort, with
vigorous downy shoots, reproduces itself from seed, and
makes good stocks. On a suitable, well-prepared soil, its
seedlings often attain two feet or more in height in one
season, and are then fit for the nursery rows. They require
a rich, substantial soit, prepared as recommended for pear
seeds. Other vigorous sorts have been recommended in
various parts of the country, but on trial they have been

120 THE NURSERY.

found quite inferior to the horse plum, and as a general
thing worthless.

The Canada or Wild Plum, which abounds in Ohio,
Michigan, and other western States, are distinct species,
and reproduce themselves from seed. The seedlings of
some grow extremely rapid, making fine stocks in’ one
year on any good soil. They continue in a thrifty, growing
state until late in the autumn 3; - but they should not be
worked above the ground inthe usual way, as their growth
does not keep pace with the species to which most of our
cultivated sorts belong. The best way to manage them is
to take the yearling seedlings, whip-graft them on the
collar, and set them out at once in the nursery rows ; they
will make good trees for planting out in three years.
The stock is all below the surface of the ground, and in
time the graft sends out roots and becomes in a great mea-
sure independent of the stock. Where the seedlings are
not large enough for grafting the first season, they may be
set out in the nursery and allowed to grow one season, and
then the earth can be removed from the collar until the
gratt be inserted, and then drawn up. To procure strong
stocks for standard trees of weak growing sorts, like the
Green Gage, such thrifty varieties as the Zmperial Gage
and Smith’s Orleans may be grafted on this native species,
and in two or three years they will make stocks strong
enough for any purpose. The French use several natural
species that are produced from seed—the St. Julien,
large and small (Brussels of the English), and the Damas
noir, large and small. The first is generally used for stocks
for apricots and peaches as well as plums. We find none
of these superior in vigor to the horse plum, but they are
worked more successfully. In England, the Brussels,
Brompton, and Muscle stocks are “used, propagated from
both seeds and layers. For small sized garden trees,
either dwarf standards or pyramids, the cherry plum

¢

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 13¢

makes a very good stock. Itis probably the same as used
by the French under the names of “ Cericette” and “ Myro-
balan.” Several of our authors and even some English
writers say that the A/irabelle is the stock used for dwart-
ing the plum, peach and apricot, but it seems probable that
they are mistaken. In France the cericette or cherry
plum is used, and stocks sent us from England as Mira-
belle, are but the cherry.

How the mistake could be made is difficult to say, for
the two trees are as different in habit, foliage, wood and
fruit, as they can be. The cherry plum is a very low tree
with bushy, erect branches, very straight, slender, willow-
like, reddish shoots, exceedingly small leaves and buds,
and smooth bark. The J/trabelle is also a low tree, but
much more spreading than the other; the shoots are
stouter, of a gray color and downy, with rather prominent
buds for so small shoots. It ripens in September, and the
cherry a month sooner.

The cherry plum is a natural species, and can there-
fore be produced true from seed. It maintains a vigorous
growth all summer, and may be worked in July, August,
or September. It may also be propagated from layers.

The Sloe is also used to some extent where very small
trees are wanted, and we have no doubt some native spe-
cies, as for instance the Beach and Chicasaw plums, small
trees, will make good dwarf stocks. I am inclined to
think, however, that very nice garden trees may be raised
on the smaller species of the Canada Plum. The first
year’s growth and even the second are quite vigorous on
them, but after that the vigor diminishes, and the trees
become quite prolific. This and the cherry plum will
probably become our principal stocks for dwarfing.

Plums for seeds should ripen well on the tree; they are
then gathered, the pulp washed off, and the seeds dried
and put away in boxes of sand in alternate layers, as

6

193 THE NURSERY

recommended for cherries. They may be saved in fall or
spring as circumstances already mentioned will admit.

Nearly all plums used for stocks may be propagated by
layers. Mother plants or stools are planted out and cut
back as recommended for paradise, &c.; the shoots of the
previous season’s growth are pegged down in the spring
flat, and two inches of earth drawn over them. Every
bud on these layers will produce a shoot that, generally,
will be well enough rooted in the fall to be separated from
the stool and planted out into nursery rows the following
spring. These layered shoots are cut off close to ‘the old
plant, and the upright shoots produced during the previ-
ous season may be again pegged down.

The stools or mother plants managed in this way require
the best treatment to maintain their vigor, that a supply
of strong shoots may be produced every season fit to lay
down in the spring. Weak, slender shoots, unfit to layer,
should be cut out early in the season to aid the growth of
those intended for use. This usually goes by the name of
Chinese Layering.

Section 3.—TRANSPLANTING STOCKS.

This comprehends three separate operations, taking up,
dressing or pruning, and replanting; but before touching
on the detail of these operations, it may be well to con-
sider

Ist. The age at which Stocks should be transplanted —
On this point there seems to be a diversity of opinion, not
only among book writers but practical cultivators. The
very general opinion, and one that is most acted upon, is,
that they should remain where they have been propagated
until they are large enough to be worked; a great many
plans are therefore suggested for wintering seedlings, and
especially the pear. The experience of the best culti-

-

TRANSPLANTING STOCKS. 133

vators every where is that seedling stocks especially, of
all sorts, should be transplanted when one year old. It
may be urged against this, that some seedlings are so
small when one year old, as not to be worth transplanting ;
so feeble, that more care and culture would be required
before they could be worked than they are worth. In re-
ply, it can only be said that such feeble productions are
only fit to be thrown away, because the seeds must have
been defective, or the soil and culture bad; and stocks
raised from poor seeds, or stunted by bad soil and culture,
will never make sound, healthy, vigorous, or long lived
trees.

When seedlings remain longer than one year in the seed
bed, they grow up slender and weak; one more vigorous
than its neighbors will ruin all around it; then the roots
do not ramity, but continue to lengthen without forming
laterals or fibres, and when removed and reduced to the
necessary dimensions they receive a severe check; but at
one year the check is very light, they at once form lateral
roots, and instead of being drawn up tall and slender, they
become stout and well proportioned. The best pear grow-
ers in Europe, and even in this country, would scarcely
take as a gift two year seedling pears from the seed bed,
unless in case of absolute necessity.

The proper plan is to take up all seedling stocks, and all
layers, sufficiently rooted to bear separation from the stool,
and all cuttings that stand close, at one year old,* and sort
and arrange in separate classes, in this way: in one class
put the strongest, those fit for immediate use, either to be
grafted on the root, or budded the summer following; in
another class, put such as may require to stand one year
in the nursery rows to be fit for working; and in the third
class, such as are too weak to be put in the nursery rows,

* The sloe (Prunus spinosa), or any such very slow growing thing
excepted.

194 THE NURSERY.

but will require to be “ bedded out,” that is, set closely
in beds by themselves, where they can remain for one or
two years, until they are large and strong enough for root
grafting, or for the nursery rows. Unless in the case of
stocks scarce and difficult to procure, this third class had
better be thrown away at once, as it will cost as much to
nurse them as to raise fine stocks from the seed.

2d. Time to take up.—There is but one proper time to
take up all seedlings and rooted layers for stocks, and that
is the fall, and this for several reasons. The first is, they
are all liable to injury by the frosts of winter; seedlings
have no side roots to hold them in the ground, and layers
are near the surface, so that the freezing and thawing
draws them up; the roots are thus exposed and seriously
injured. The second is, they can be dressed during the
winter in the cellar, and be ready for planting in spring.
When taken up they can be laid closely in by the roots
in the soil in a dry place, and covered over so as to
exclude frost. When out-door work is over, they can be
uncovered, taken into the cellar and dressed, and laid in
again by the roots carefully in the same place, which
should be protected from frost, of course, in the mean
time. The third reason is, that when seedlings are taken
up in the fall, the ground can be prepared for another
crop; and this is of considerable importance. In the
case of layers, the stools or mother plants can be manured,
dressed, and put in order for another season’s growth;
and this, also, is important. Such are some of the advan-
tages, or, in fact, the necessities of taking up stocks in the
fall.

3d. How to take wp—Seedlings are very easily taken
up, without in the least mutilating the roots, in two
ways. If one person do the work, he should begin at
one end of the row, and with a common spade, or, which
is better, one with three strong prongs, a foot long and

TRANSPLANTING STOCKS. 125

an inch and a half wide; dig under the plants without
cutting the roots, and as fast as they are loosened below,
pull them out, and in this way proceed. Another and
quicker way is, for two men to loosen the plants, each on
opposite sides of the row, inserting a forked spade as
deep as the roots go, while another follows, and pulls out
the plants. When the ground is quite soft, this way
answers very well; but if dry or hard, the first is better.
Layers require more care and caution. A trench must
be opened all around the layered branches deep enough
to go quite below the roots, and in an oblique manner, so
as to undermine them. Where the branches are pegged
down, the pegs must be taken out, and the layer is then
separated between the rooted part and the stool, and
gently taken from the earth. Especial care must be taken
not to split those that have been layered by incision;
their removal must be done slowly and cautiously.
Mound Layers are easier separated ; the earth is simply
removed from the base of the rooted branches, and they
are then separated within an inch or so of the stem.
Layered Branches or Chinese Layers.—W hen the young
‘rooted plants are produced from the eyes of a buried
shoot or branch, the pegs are removed, the whole branch
dug under, completely loosened and separated from the
stool; the young plants are then taken off one by one
close to their base.
4th. Pruning or Dressing Stocks—The objects in view
always in performing this operation are, to remove in-
jured or broken roots, to reduce the tap root that it may
produce laterals, to reduce the stems to a proper propor-
tion with the roots, and put them in a condition that will
ensure a vigorous growth.
Seedlings taken from the seed bed, have always a long
tap root, with few or no laterals; and as trees with such
roots are unfit for safe transplantation, it is necessary to

126 THE NURSERY.

take measures to change their character. We, therefore,
remove the small tapering portion of the root, as at fig.
84, A; and this ensures the production of lateral or
spreading roots near the surface of the ground. The

\
Lv,

N

@)
Wi
)

4 Y\ Paes 4 Ve

Fie, 84. Fic. 85.

~

J

A
4,

Fig. 84, a seedling stock, one year’s growth, as it
comes from the seed bed. The line at .4, shows the
shortening of the tap root. Thatat B, the shortening
of the stem before replanting. F¥g. 85, a quince cutting ;
the cross lines on the stem and roots indicate the prun-
ing before replanting.

vious, destroys the natural balance or

pear roots espe-
cially are inclined
more to descend in
a straight line than
to spread ; and un-
less they are well
cut back when
young, they are
always difficult to
transplant safely
afterwards. Roots
that descend like
the prongs of a
fork, are usually
destitute of fibres;
whilst those that
spread out hori-
zontally, or near
the surface, are
well furnished with
fibres, that not
only make trees
easily transplant-
ed, but inclined to
early fruitfulness.
This operation on
the roots, it is ob-
proportion that ex-

isted between them and the tops. Hence the necessity
for shortening the stem in a corresponding manner. But
even if the roots were not shortened, the stems should be,

TRANSPLANTING STOCKS. 127

14 order to obtain a vigorous growth. The very removal
of the plant lessens the power of the roots to absorb and
convey nutriment; and on this account, if no other, the
stem should be reduced by way of regulating the supply
and demand. We sometimes see young stocks planted
out without any shortening of the stem; and the result
is, they scarcely make any growth the first season—the
roots are barely able to absorb enough to keep them alive.
If one half the stem had been cut away, the remaining
buds would have received such a supply of food as would
have produced a vigorous growth. It is a pretty good
rule, therefore, to reduce the stems of seedlings one third
to one half, as at B C, fig. 84; but there are exceptions
to this. For instance, a stock with a very large and
strong root, and a short, stout, close-jointed stem, well
matured and furnished with plump, prominent buds,
requires very little, if any shortening of the stem; and
again, others are just the reverse, tall, slender, and
feeble, having been suffocated in the seed bed. Such as
these require to be shortened more than half, perhaps
two thirds.

Layers or Cuttings (fig. 85) are in a different situation
from seedlings, and require, therefore, different treatment.
They have no tap roots, but masses of fibres; and these
fibres, if they are preserved fresh and sound till replanted,
need no shortening; but if destroyed by exposure, they
should be cut off, to eee way for new ones. The short-
ening of the stems depends entirely on the size and con-
dition of the roots. If well rooted, and the roots be in
good condition, they may be left a foot long; if poorly
rooted they should be cut back to six or eight inches.
This applies equally to the layers of the guince, paradise,
Doucain, plums, ete.

5th. Planting stocks in the nursery rows where they

_are te be budded.—tThe first consideration which this

128 THE NURSERY.

operation suggests, is the condition of the sow. Under
the head of soils, sufficient has been said respecting the
modes of deepening, draining, and enriching ; and it is
only necessary to say here, that where stocks are planted,
the soil should be at once deep, dry, and rich; for no
such thing as sound vigorous fruit trees can be raised on
a poor, shallow, or wet soil. The various means of im-
provement have been already pointed out and explained.
It may, however, be well to remark that ground may be
too rich, and induce a rank, watery growth, that would
either result in death at the final transplanting into the
garden or orchard, or in a very feeble and sickly growth
after it. We see frequent illustrations of this in the case
of trees raised in old, worn out nurseries, where rapid
growth has been forced by powerfully-stimulating ma-
nures. These rank, pithy, soft productions, are very
attractive to the eye; but they suffer so much by removal,
no matter how well treated, that they seldom fail to dis
appoint the planter. This thing should, therefore, be
guarded against. Manures used should be well decom-
posed, and incorporated with the soil, if possible the
autumn before planting. A tree is not like a cabbage or
a lettuce. The tenderness and succulency of these con-
stitute their great merit; but the wood of a tree must be
jirm, shortjointed, and mature, and these requisites are
always attained by a moderate and natural, not a forced
erowth.

Planting each species in the soi best adapted to tt—
Where there are different characters of soils in a nursery,
to be planted with a general assortment of stocks, it is im-
portant to give to each that which is best adapted to its
nature; thus the pear, apple, and plum should have the
richer, deeper, and more compact, or that with most clay.
The plum in particular succeeds well ona pretty stiff clay.
The cherry and peach should have the lightest and warmest.

TRANSPLANTING STOCKS. 129

The gwince, the paradise, and Doucain, do not require
such a deep soil as the pear and the common apple seed-
lings, because their roots are fibrous and always remain
near the surface; but it must not be inferred from this
that a shallow soil suits these best.

6th. When to Plant—In parts of the country where
the winter is long and severe, or where freezing and thaw-
ing are frequent, fall planting cannot be successful, as the
plants, having no hold of the ground, are drawn out and
injured; and besides, if the ground is somewhat clayey
and tenacious, the heavy rains that occur early in the
spring will make it so compact that air will not penetrate
it, and the young roots will form slowly and feebly.
When neither of these difficulties is to be feared, fall
planting is decidedly preferable. Spring planting should
be done at the earliest moment the condition of the ground
will admit, which is, when dry enough to crumble into
fine particles when turned over with the spade.

7th. Distance to Plant——W eare all in the habit of plant-
ing quite too closely in the nursery ; the consequence is that
the trees are not well proportioned. As a general thing,
the standards are in many cases as large six feet from
the ground as at the collar, weak and top heavy, so that
sticks have to be used to support them, even when four
years old. Not long ago I observed in a nursery which
has the reputation of being one of the best managed in
this country, whole squares, some thousands of four year
old apple trees, of all kinds, tied up to sticks; they were
not able to support their own weight. One reason, and the
principal one, was, they were planted too close, the other
will be spoken of presently. Pyramidal trees are out of
the question where such close planting is practised, the
growth is always forced to the top. Nature gives us
numerous and striking illustrations of the effect of close
planting. We see in a natural group or thicket trees

6*

130 THE NURSERY.

running up forty or fifty feet of an equal diameter, and
without a branch; and if one such tree were left exposed,
by the removal of those around it, the first high wind
would blow it down. On the outskirts of this group or
thicket, or perhaps completely isolated,in the centre of a
field, we see another tree of the same species, branched
almost from the ground, and with a diameter at the base
twice as great as at half its height, and tapering upward
with beautiful regularity, and capable of resisting a hur-
ricane. To raise stout, well-proportioned trees, we must
give them plenty of room, that they may have the advan-
tage of air all around, and not only at the top.

There is scarcely a nursery to be found in which
the trees are not grown too close—three or four on the
space that one should occupy. There is to be sure great
economy in close planting, for five hundred trees can be
grown on the space that one should occupy, and with
nearly as little labor; but it would really be better for
people to pay twice or three times as much for their trees
if grown so far apart that the air and light would have
free access to them in all parts, and give them stout, well-
proportioned forms. A reform in this respect is much
needed, but it cannot be expected until purchasers become
discriminating and intelligent on the subject.

The distance at which stocks should be planted in the
nursery rows is governed entirely by circumstances. If
it be intended to use a cultivator between the rows, they
should not be less than three and a half feet apart. If
spade and hoe culture be intended, two and a half to
three feet will be sufficient. Where the trees are to be
removed at the age of one year, one foot apart in the rows
is sufficient; but if they are to remain until two, three or
four years they should be eighteen inches to two feet. If
removed at two years, eighteen inches is enough; but
where standards remain three or four years, until they

TRANSPLANTING STOCKS. 131

have heads formed, and pyramids remain*until they have
formed two or three tiers of lateral branches, two feet or
two and a half is little enough. Indeed, when pyramids
remain for three years, there should be a clear space
three feet on all sides. ;

Dwarf standards require less space than full stand-
ards, and dwarf bushes still Jess. The stocks intended for
these different classes of trees should be planted sepa-
rately. In sorting the stocks at the time of dressing, the
largest should be used for full standards and the smaller
for low or dwarf standards.

8. Mode of Planting—The square or plot of ground
for each class of stocks being ready, a line is stretched
along one side and a trench opened with the spade, deep
and wide enough to hold the roots; the plant is then held
against the side of the trench next the line, by one man,
whilst the earth is filled in by another; when about half
the earth is in, it istrodden down pretty firmly by the
foot, and the remainder filled in. As buds are usually
inserted on the north side of the stocks they should incline
slightly to the south. Good pulverized surface soil should
always be put upon the roots, to induce the immediate for-
mation of young fibres. During the planting, the roots
must be carefully guarded from exposure. A few only
should be taken out of the ground at a time.
When there are but few fibrous roots, puddling
in thin mud is useful, otherwise not.

_ Planting Root Grafts—The quickest mode
of planting small root grafts is to stretch a line
along the ground to be planted, and with a
dibble make the holes and press the earth
in around the plants. This dibble should

Fic. 86
be twelve to eighteen inches long, about — rormorpib-

two inches in diameter, pointed and shod Pe ued in
planting root

with iron—fig. 86 represents one made of gratts,

132 THE NURSERY.

the handle of a spade. One person will plant as many
in this way as four could by opening trenches with
spades. But, where the plants are dibbled in, the ground
mnst be in the best condition, perfectly dry and finely
pulverized.

Treatment of Stocks after Planting—The principal
care which stocks require between the time they are
planted and the time they are budded, is to keep the
ground about them clean of weeds, and in a friable,
porous condition on the surface by frequent stirring. ‘The
success of budding depends in a great measure on the
condition of the stocks. They must be in a thrifty, grow-
ing state, and this can only be obtained with good treat-
ment. Having now considered, in as much detail as
seems necessary, the propagation and transplanting of
stocks into the nursery rows, we proceed with

Section 4.—Tue Bupprne, Grarrine, AND MANAGEMENT OF
TREES IN THE NURSERY.

The simplest and clearest method of treating this part
of the subject seems to be, that of considering separately
each year’s operations in succession,

Tue Firsr Yrar.—Strong yearling seedlings of the
apple, pear, cherry, and plum, say one fourth of an inch and
upwards in diameter, and well rooted layers of the guence,
paradise, and Doucain, of the same size, planted in the
spring in a good soil, and kept under good clean culture
will, as a general thing, be in a fit state for budding in
July, August, or September following. The budding may
therefore be considered as the first season’s work. The
details of this operation may be divided for consideration,
as follows :

1. Time for Budding.—2. Preparation of the Stocks.

BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC. 133

—3. Preparing the Buds.—4. Insertion of the Buds.—5.
Untying.

1st. The time for budding each species or class of fruits
depends upon its habits of growth. Such as cease to
grow early in the season, must be budded early, because
it can only be done while the stocks are in a free, growing
state, full of sap. Such as grow until late in the autumn,
must be budded late, otherwise the new layers of wood
formed after the insertion of the bud, would grow over
and destroy it, or the bud would be forced into a prema-
ture growth towards autumn, which in fruit trees should
always be avoided. The common sorts of plum terminate
their growth early in the season, and are therefore budded
early, whether with plums, peaches, or apricots, at Ro-
chester usually about the last of July, or beginning of
August. The native or Canada plum, and the cherry or
myrobalan, grow freely till late in the fall, and may be
budded in the latter end of August, or beginning of Sep-
tember. Pears on pear stocks are usually budded here in
July, in anticipation of the leaf blight which stops their
growth when it attacks them. Where no such thing as
this is apprehended, they should not be budded before the
middle of August, as the buds are not generally mature
till that time. Apples on free stocks, and on the paradise
and Doucain, may be budded as soon as the buds are ma-
ture, which is usually, here, about the first to the middle
of August. Cherries on free mazzard stocks—as soon as
buds are ripe here, about the first of August. Pears on
- guince, and cherries on mahaleb, not before the first of
September, and from that to the middle of the month,
as the quince and mahaleb grow late, and especially the
latter. Peach stocks should always be budded the same
season the seeds are planted, and, as they grow rapidly
until very late, are not usually budded till about the mid-
dle of September. The budding period varies in different

134 THE NURSERY. -

seasons. In a dry, warm season, the young wood matures
earlier, and. stocks cease to grow sooner, and are, there-
fore, budded earlier than in a cool, moist season, that pro-
longs the growth of the stocks, and retards the maturity
of the buds. Stocks growing feebly require to be budded
earlier than those growing freely. It is necessary to keep
an eye to all these points.

The destruction of insects must be promptly attended
to. An army of slugs may devour the foliage of the pear
and cherry, and even the plum, in a day or two, and pre-
vent their being worked that season. The apis, too, fre-
quently appears in such multitudes as to check the growth.
Dry lime or ashes thrown on the slugs will kill them, and
strong soap suds, or tobacco water, so.strong as to assume
the color of strong beer, will kill the aphis.

2d. Preparation of the Stocks ——This consists in remov-
ing such lateral shoots from the stock as may be likely to
obstruct the insertion of the bud. Our practice is to do
this at the moment.of budding, one person doing the
work in advance of the budders. If done a few days pre-
vious, and several shoots are removed, it checks the
growth of the stocks, and they do not work so well. It
might answer very well to do it two or three weeks pre-
vious, so that they might recover from the check before
being budded.

3d. Insertion of the Bud.—aving treated so fully of
the manner of preparing and inserting the buds in the
article on budding, nothing farther need be said on these
points here.

In free stocks the bud should be inserted within three
er four inches of the ground.

In some parts of the west, Wisconsin, Illinois, and some
other places, certain rapid, late-growing, and rather tender
varieties are liable to be winter-killed if budded close to
the ground, probably by the sudden thawing of that part

BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC. 135

caused by the refraction of heat from the ground. In view
of such a difficulty, it may be well enough to bud high up,
but, as a general thing, low budding makes the best trees.
All dwarf stocksshould be budded as close to the surface
of the ground as it is possible, and even some of the earth
may be removed and put back when the budding is done.
The necessity for this lies in the fact that all dwarf stocks
should be wholly below the ground when finally planted
out in the garden or orchard. |

4th. Untying the Buds—In ten days or a fortnight
after the buds are inserted, they should be examined, and
such as have failed may be budded again if the stocks
continue to grow. In some cases it may be necessary, and
particularly with cherries, to loosen the buds and tie them
over again, as rapid growth will cause the string to cut
the bark before the bud has completely united, or is fit to
be untied. This seldom occurs, however; as a general
thing, the strings may be removed in three weeks toa
month after the budding; and they should never be left
on over the winter, as moisture lodges around them to the
detriment of the bud. As soon as the budding is done,
the ground should be worked over with the cultivator or
forked spade. The first season’s management of stocks too
small for budding consists simply in keeping the soil clean
and mellow, and in guarding against the attacks of
insects.

The treatment of root grafts the first season consists in
cleaning and loosening the ground, the removal of suckers
from the roots as fast as they appear, and pinching early
any strong side shoots likely to weaken the leader.

Seconp Yrar.— Where the buds failed the previous sea-
son, the stocks should now be whip-grafted near the sur-
face of the ground. They will be little behind the buds,
and will make nearly as good trees, if neatly done. Plums
and cherries must be done before, or as soon as the buds

136 THE NURSERY.

begin to swell (say in March here); pears and apples
may be done later. The second sized stocks, planted last
season, and intended to be budded this, should, if in a
feebly growing or stunted condition, be cut back to within
two or three inches of the surface of the ground. This
will give the roots new vigor, and thrifty shoots will be
made by budding time that will work more easily and
successfully than the old stock. In a month or so after
being cut down, all the shoots but the strongest one should
be removed. The stocks budded last season are headed
down to within three or four inches of the bud, just as the
leaves are beginning to appear, and all buds starting into
growth on the stock, either below or above them, rubbed
off.
Treatment of the growing bud consists in keeping all
shoots that appear on the stock rubbed off.
If side shoots appear early, and are likely
to contract the growth of the leader, they
should be pinched off. Any that assume a
reclining or crooked habit should be tied up
to the stock, or to a support, which may be
a wooden pole four feet long, sunk a foot in
the ground at the root of the stock; both
the stock and growing shoot should be fast-
ened to it (fig. 87), but not so close as to
impede the growth. This is only necessary *
with certain weak, irregular growing sorts.
In August the portion of the stock left
above the bud at the heading down in the
ck Young Puce’ spring should be removed with a sloping
son’s growth, sup- cut, close and smooth, as at A (fig. 87), at the
abe at OE: highest point of union between the bud and
dicates the cutting stock. The new layers of wood made after
away of the stock : e
close tothe bud, this time coversthe wound before growth
ceases in the fall. Side shoots, when they appear, must —

BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC. 137

be checked, if too vigorous, by pinching off their ends,
but not entirely removed, as they assist in giving size and
strength to the lower part of the body of the young tree.
The peach almost invariably produces numerous side
branches the first season, and it is avery common but very
erroneous practice to prune these all off in mid-summer.
The proper course is to maintain an uniform vigor amongst
them by pinching, and to prevent any from encroaching on
the leading shoot; in this way we get stout, well-propor-
tioned trees. This brings us to the end of the second year,
and gives us young trees of one year’s growth. Peach
trees should always be planted out at this age, and all trees
intended for training in particular forms; but as this part
of the subject will be considered under the head of “ Selec-
tions of Trees,” we will proceed to the course of manage-
ment for the

Tuirp Yrar.—We commence this year with trees of
one year’s growth; and the first point is to determine what
form is to be given them, whether tall or dwarf’ stand-
ards, pyramids, bushes, or espaliers. Waving settled these
matters, we have but to follow up the proper course to
accomplish the desired ends. It may be well to take each
of these forms in succession, and point out the necessary
management under various circumstances.

Ist. Standards.—Until very lately, trees of all sorts,
and for every situation, were grown as tall standards, with
naked trunks six and even eight feet high. Indeed, it
appeared as though an impression existed amongst people
that a tree was not in reality a tree, nor worthy of a place
on their grounds, if it had not this particular form. Lat-
terly, however, since fruit tree culture has become more
practised, and somewhat better understood, this impres-
sion has been gradually losing ground, and in all parts
of the country low trees are finding advocates.

Experience is beginning to teach people that whilst tall

138 / THE NURSERY.

standards in an orchard possess the single advantage of
admitting the operations of the plough under the branches,
low standards are much more secure against the numerous
fatal diseases that attack the trunks—are much more
accessible for the performance of all the necessary details
of management, and for the gathering of the fruit.

These are all very important advantages certainly ; but
the most important one is the safety of the tree against
diseases of the trunk. In all parts of this country, we
have a powerful sun in summer, and in winter and spring
sudden and violent changes from one extreme to another;
and experience has shown, that the trunk and large
branches, being fully exposed to all external influences,
are generally the parts first attacked with disease. COul-
tivators are, of course, at liberty to choose for themselves;
but, except to meet the wants of some particular circum-
stances, no standard tree should have a branchless stem
above jive feet in height: four is preferable for all, ex-
cept orchards of common apples for cider or stock. Trees
with heads only four feet from the ground, are always easy
of access, and the natural spread of the branches affords
a great protection to the trunk at all seasons. Nursery-
men should by all means encourage by precept and ex- ~
ample the cultivation of low-headed trees.

Starting with the yearling trees for standards, we
examine the habit of the variety, whether stout or slen-
der, whether branched, as many varieties are the first
season, or without branches. Before proceeding to the
operation of cutting down to increase the size of the
trunk, the reader is referred to the principles and prac-
tices-of pruning in the first part of the work. No prun-
ing should be attempted for the attainment of any special
purpose without having first carefully studied these.

If slender and without side branches, as in fig. 88,
they should be cut back twelve to twenty inches, as at A.

BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC. 139

This removes the buds that would push first, and retains

f the sap in the lower parts, which
! will give a stout body. The taller
and more slender the tree, and
the smaller the buds, the farther
it becomes necessary to cut back.
In fact, some very feeble growing
sorts must be cut back till within
a foot or less of the base. Dur-
ing the summer, trees cut back in
this way may produce lateral
shoots on the greater part of their
length. These must not be pruned
off, but kept in an uniform size
and vigor, by pinching any that
threaten to exceed their proper
bounds. The shoots immediately
below the leader, must be watch-
ed, as they are always inclined to

Hig. 88, ay *aling tree; fromthe A tree thus cut back, and the
bud A, indice 5 the cutting back to ‘ ? ‘
make a ston: stom for a standard. B Side branches regulated by pinch-
and C, the cutimg back for pyra- ; : =
mids or low surdards. D, the cut- ms; will, in the fall, have a stout
ting back for ¢warfs or espaliers. body, and present the appearance
Fig. 89,a yourg tree once cut back saarls
to form trunk fer a standard. of fig. 89. Where the yearlings

are short and stout, and are fur-
nished with a few lateral shoots, cutting back may be
unnecessary. The largest of the side shoots may be
pruned off wholly, and the small ones left to retain the
sap in the lower part of the stem, at least till midsummer,
when new ones will have been produced. There are cer-
tain stout-growing, branching varieties of all the fruits
that require no shortening and very little pruning of any
kind, to form stout trunks, and especially when not

planted too close.

140 THE NURSERY.

Dwarf Standards.—The management of yearly buds
to produce these, is similar to that described for standards,
varying it always to suit the particular habit of the spe-
cies or variety; tall slender growing sorts require cutting
back, and the suppression of branches at the top; but
many varieties of cherries and plums, some very stout
growing pears and apples, and all apricots and peaches,
may commence the formation of heads this season. The
stem is cut at the point desired, two to three feet from the
ground, to form the head on, and three or four of the
stoutest shoots, growing in opposite directions, are pre-
served, whilst all others close to them are pinched off,
when two or three inches long; side branches are allowed
to remain that season on the stem to strengthen it, but
they are kept short and regular by pinching. In the fall
these trees will be fit forthe final planting out, whilst
those of weaker habit will require another season, if they
be wanted with heads.

Pyramids.—Y earling trees intended for pyramids are
cut back so far as to ensure the production of vigorous
side branches within six or eight inches of the stock. The
habits of growth of the species and variety must be care-
fully taken into account. Some are disposed, from the
beginning, to form lateral branches, and others require
vigorous measures to force them to do so. As examples,
the Bloodgood pear is very much inclined to branch the
first year, whilst the Louise Bonne de Jersey and Duchess
d’Angouleme seldom do so, unless in some way the growing
point be checked. So it is in cherries; most of the Dukes
and Morellos are inclined to produce laterals the first
season, but the free growing sorts, Hearts and Ligarreaus,
rarely do so, unless the point is checked early in the sea-
son. So itis in all the fruits, and therefore no general
rule can be given, but the appearance of the tree indicates
the treatment required. Where we see side branches

BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETO. 141

naturally produced the first season, we at once conclude
that the buds are well disposed to break, and the cutting
back may be comparatively light. Where no side
branches are produced, we must be governed by the
appearance of the buds on the lower part of the tree,
where it is desired to produce the lower branches; if they
be small and flat, it will take close cutting to arouse them,
but if plump and prominent, less vigorous measures will
be necessary. In the case of short, stout, and branched
yearlings, a few of the best placed, lowest, and strongest
branches are reserved, whilst the others are entirely re-
moved. We then shorten the reserved branches accord-
ing to their position, leaving the lowest the longest. The
leading shoot is shortened, so that all the buds left will be
sure to push and form shoots. When these have attained
the length of two or three inches, the strongest and best
placed are selected for permanent branches, and the others
are pinched off.

Yearlings that have no side branches, figure 88, we
generally cut back one half as to 6, and in many cases
two thirds to C, in order to obtain strong branches near
the ground. Every bud below the one we cut to, should
push, and when shoots of two inches or so are made, we
select two, three, or such number as may be wanted, of
the strongest and best situated to be reserved, and pinch
the others. It very generally happens that two or three
buds next below the one we cut to, push with such vigor
as to injure both the leading shoot above and the side
shoots below them. They must be watched and pinched
as soon as this disposition becomes obvious. Yearling
trees managed in this way will present in the fall the
appearance of fig. 90.

Purchasers are very apt to favor tall trees, even at the
expense of their forms; and nurserymen, even those who
know better, with a view to suiting the tastes of their cus-

142 THE NURSERY.

tomers, rarely cut their trees back sufficiently to make
pyramids. The first branches are seldom less than two
feet from the ground, and it is quite dif-
ficult to make nice pyramids of such
trees afterwards; at all events, it incurs
a great loss of time, for the whole of
the branches and half of the stem must
be cut away to produce the required
form.

Dwarf Bushes.—The apple on para-
dise is generally grown in this form,
with six to twelve inches of a stem and
spreading heads. The Morello cherry
and the cherry and Mirabelle plums,
and many kinds of pears, may be
grown as dwarf bushes, if desirable.
The stocks must all be of a dwarf cha-
racter. Plants from which the strongest
have been selected for dwarf standards

Hie ee: and pyramids, will make very good
pe Mentone nas bushes. The branches being so near
intend for a pyramid. the root renders a less amount of vigor
Hensel ein cue necessary. Very strong yearling plants

may be allowed to form heads the
second year, but such as are very slender will require cut-
ting back and another season’s growth, before the head is
allowed to form; and they will require a similar course of
treatment, as has been recommended for standards, and
dwarf standards. No matter what the character of the
tree is, a stout stem is necessary, and although the mea-
sures taken to obtain this seem to require in some cases a
loss of time, still there is a gain in the end; for trees
allowed to form heads before the stems are amply sufi-
cient to support them, require a great deal of extra care
after planting out, and a course of shortening back, that

BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC. 143

offsets the temporary advantage of forming the head a year
sooner. This holds good in all cases. The mode of form-
ing the heads of dwarf bushes is similar to that described
for standards.

Lispalier Trees—These have a few advantages peculiar
to themselves, which will be explained under the head of
“ the selection of trees for the garden.”

To form espaliers, yearling trees are usually chosen,
planted in the place where they are to remain and cut
back to within four or five buds of the stocks, as at D,
fig. 88; these buds break and produce shoots from which
the strongest are chosen to form the arms, and the others
are rubbed off.

The peach grows so vigorously that, if the growing
bud be checked when a foot high, it will produce side
shoots, from which two may be selected from the main
branches of the espalier, and thus a year will be saved.
Another way is to insert two buds, one on each side of
the steck. Very nice espalier trees may be grown in
the form of a pyramid with a main stem and lateral
branches, the lowest being the longest. Trees for this
form require the same management as pyramids, except
that the branches should be placed opposite on éwo sides.
This brings us to the end of the third year, and the trees
are now two years old from the bud. At this age we
take it for granted that all trees on dwarf stocks for pyra-
mids, dwarfs, and espaliers, and all standards even, of
the peach, apricot, and nectarine, and in most cases the
cherry and plum, will be finally planted out. Standard
pears and apples are almost the only trees that require to
be left longer in the nursery, and their management
during the third and fourth years of their growth, if
allowed to remain so long, will be similar to that de-
scribed for the second. In the spring, February or
March, the leading shoot is cut back in order to increase

144 THE NURSERY.

the stoutness of the stem as it advances in height; and
during the summer, the side shoots are kept of uniform
length and vigor by pinching. The lower side branches
are removed gradually every season as the tree becomes
strong enough to dispense with them. As it has been be-
fore remarked, the cutting back depends always on the
natural character of the subject—stout, short-jointed, mod-
erate growing sorts, that naturally increase in height and
diameter of stem in proper proportions, will require no
cutting back. Very few, however, have this habit. In
nearly all cases more or less shortening in, every spring,
is necessary until the stem has arrived at the requisite
height, and is well proportioned, decreasing gradually in
diameter from the base to the top.

The Treatment of the Sotl—During the whole period
the trees remain in the nursery, the ground about them
must be kept clean and finely pulverized on the surface
by repeated and continual stirring. Every spring, as soon
as the heavy rains are over, and the ground settled and
dry, the space between the rows should be ploughed, if
they are far enough apart to admit of it. A small one-
horse plough, such as is used for ploughing cornfields (see
implements), is suitable, but it should not be allowed to go
nearer the tree than six inches, nor so deep as to come in
contact with the roots. After ploughing, the cultivator
may be run through once each way between the rows,
every week or two, and this will leave very little hoeing to
be done. If the rows are so close as not to admit the
plough and cultivator, the forked spade must be used in
the spring to give the ground a thorough stirring, and the
hoe afterwards. If the ground be naturally adhesive, a
second or even a third ploughing or spading may be
necessary in the course of the summer; for it must at all
times be kept in a loose, porous condition, or the roots will
be deprived of the benefits of the air and moisture. Stir-

THE GRAPE VINE. 145

ring the ground so often that weeds barely make their
appearance, is not only the best, but most economical cul-
ture.

It need scarcely be added that in using the plough
or cultivator among trees, a very short whiflletree should
be used, the horse should be gentle and steady, and the
ploughman both careful and skilful; and laborers who
use the spade or hoe, should be duly cautioned against
cutting or bruising the trees with their implements.

Section 5.—PRoPAGATION AND Nursery COvLrureE oF
SEVERAL Fruir Trees AND SHRUBS NOT USUALLY
GRAFTED OR BuDDED.

Ist. The Grape Vine—This is one of the easiest sub-
jects to propagate among all our fruit trees.

In all stages of its growth it should have a dry and
rich sow, dryness first and most of all. The surest
method of propagation for unpractised hands, is layering.
A branch or shoot of the current season’s growth, laid
down in June, in the manner described in the first part
of this book (figs. 61 and 62), will be well enough rocted
to bear transplanting in the fall or spring following. The
reader is referred to the instructions on layering.

The next mode is by long cuttings. At the winter
pruning, the strongest, roundest, and firmest shoots of the
previous season’s growth are selected, and cut into pieces
twelve to eighteen inches long, with two or three eyes, as
in fig. 60. They are cut close to an eye at the lower end,
‘or a piece of the old wood may be attached, like fig. 58.
These cuttings are buried in dry, sandy earth, till the
ground is fit to receive them in the spring.

In planting, the whole cutting is buried but one eye,
and some cover that even as much as an inch deep. The
long cutting must be laid in the trench obliquely, as in

146 THE NURSERY.

fig. 60, so that the lower part will not be out of reach of
air and heat, without which new roots will not be formed.

During the summer, the earth must be kept clean and
friable around them; and, in dry seasons, a thick mulch-
ing will be very beneficial in preserving a uniformity of
heat and moisture. In the fall, the plants will be fit for
final transplanting ; but if they remain another season,
they should be pruned back in winter to two or three
buds at the base, and during the following summer only
one or two shoots be allowed to grow, all others being
rubbed off early.

Layers, when taken from the mother plant, and set in
nursery rows, should be cut back in the same manner, in
order to obtain one or two vigorous shoots when the
plant is to be finally set out.

Short Cuttings—These consist of only one eye, from
the stoutest and firmest shoots of the previous year’s
wood (fig. 59), with not more than an inch of wood on
each side of it. These cuttings, however, seldom succeed
so well in the open ground as others. They require a
little artificial bottom heat.

The simplest way to treat them is to make a sort of
hotbed, with two to three feet of halfdecayed stable
manure, well mixed, and six or eight inches of light
sandy soil. The cuttings are planted in this a quarter to
half an inch deep, and covered with a glazed sash. If
carefully and regularly watered, and well ventilated, they
will make fine plants by the autumn. A better way than
this is, especially in propagating the foreign varieties, to
put them into pots, and put the pots in the hotbed.

A single cutting may be put into a small three inch
pot, covered a fourth of an inch deep; or several cuttings
may be inserted in a larger pot. In this case they should
be placed around the sides. When they have made a
growth of about six inches, they may be shifted into

THE CURRANT. 147

larger pots, with good, rich compost. In one season they
will make good, strong plants. Plenty of air should
always be given them, as soonas they are rooted, to
prevent their being drawn up into weak, watery shoots.
When the native hardy sorts are raised from eyes in the
hotbed as described, the yearling plants should be pruned
to a couple of eyes, and transplanted into nursery rows,
where one season’s growth will fit them for final setting.

Single eyes, in all cases, make the best plants.

2d. The Currant.—Every one knows how ‘to propagate
this. A yearling shoot, six inches to a foot long, taken
off close to the old wood, and planted half or two thirds
its length in the ground, in the spring, will make a
strong, well-rooted plant in the autumn. To prevent
shoots from springing up below the surface of the ground,
the eyes on that part are cut out, or they may be left the
first season, and cut out when the plants are rooted.

The buds aid in the formation of roots. When a
variety is rare and scarce, the young shoots may all be
layered in July, and they will make well-rooted plants in
the fall.

3d. Gooseberries are propagated in the same way, and
with almost equal facility, as currants, though, as a gene-
ral thing, they do not grow with such rapidity. Layers
are the surest, but they require to be one year in the
nursery rows after being separated from the mother plant
to make them strong enough for the final planting. An
inch or two of swamp moss laid over the surface of the
ground in which layers are made, assists in retaining the
moisture. This is applicable to all kinds of layers.

Ath. Strawberries are propagated by the runners, which
spread on the surface of the ground in all directions from
the plant as soon as it begins to grow in the spring.
Where a variety is scarce, and it is desirable to multiply
it carefully, these runners should be sunk slightly in the

148 THE NURSERY.

ground, and pegged down with small hooked sticks, as
they will root and form plants fit for removal much
quicker than if left to root in their own way. With
good management, a single plant may produce twenty-
five to fifty, and even one hundred in one season. Plants
to be propagated from, should have abundance of space,
and a deep, rich soil. An application of liquid. manure
will stimulate their vigor, and increase the number and
strength of the runners.

5th. Raspberries are propagated from-suckers, or shoots
produced from the collar, or spreading roots of the plant.
They are renewed every season. The canes bearing but
once, they may be propagated by layering the young
canes in midsummer, and by cuttings of the roots. The
latter mode is advantageously applied in the case of new
or rare sorts.

6th. Berberries are propagated by seeds, suckers, and
layers, in the simplest manner. Rare sorts are also grafted
successfully on the common ones early in the spring, in
the cleft mode.

Tth. Mulberries—tThe large black mulberry is the only
one worthy of culture for the fruit. It is easily propa-
gated both by cuttings and layers. The latter mode is
the surest. ;

Sth. Chestnuts—The common American chestnut may
be propagated from seeds either planted in the fall or
kept in sand all winter, and planted early in the spring.
In one season they are fit to transplant into nursery rows,
and in two years more at most may be finally planted
out.

The Spanish chestnut is propagated either from seeds
or by grafting on the common chestnut. Its fruit is three
times as large as the common.

9th. Filberts are propagated either from suckers or by
grafting. If seedlings are used for stocks, the grafted

LABELS FOR NURSERY TREES. 149

plants are the best, as they are not only more prolific, but
they do not throw up suckers. They may be grown
either as low standards, with stems three feet high, or as
pyramids or dwarf bushes.

10th. Walnuts are propagated from seeds or by graft-
ing, in the same way as filberts. There is a dwarf pro-
lific variety, that bears quite young, and makes handsome
pyramidal garden trees.

Srction 6.—LABELS FoR Nursery TREES.

It is highly important that a correct system for preserv
ing the names of varieties be adopted. Our practice is, to
make labels of cedar, eighteen inches long, three inches
wide, and about an inch thick. These are pointed on one

end, to be sunk in the ground eight or ten inches,
and the face is painted white. When a variety
is to be budded or grafted, the name, or anumber
ivferring to a regular record is written on it,
and itis put in the ground in front of the first tree
of the variety. Besides this, we invariably record
in the nursery book each row, with the kind or
kinds worked on it, in the order they stand in
the square. In case of the accidental loss of the
labels, the record preserves the names. Figure
91 represents this kind of label, and though there
are many others in use, we believe this is one of
the simplest and best.

At the time of budding or grafting, we usually
oe write the name on with pencil, and after the
Fig. 91, la square has been all worked, the numbers are
bel for mur made with a brush and black paint.

sery rows.

150 THE NURSERY.

Section 7.—Taxine up TREES FRoM THE NuRSERY.

This is an operation that should be well understood,
and performed with the greatest care. The importance of
the fibrous roots has been already explained. It has been
shown that they are the principal absorbing parts of the
roots, and when they are destroyed the tree receives a
great shock, from which it requires good treatment and a
long time to recover. There is a great difference in the
character of roots, some penetrating the ground to a great
depth, and requiring much labor in the removal, others
quite fibrous near the surface, and consequently very
easily taken up. This difference is not owing alone to
the difference in the species, but to whether the subjects
have or have not been frequently transplanted. The way
to take up a tree properly, is to dig a trench on each side
at the extremities of the lateral or spreading roots, taking
care that the edge, and not the face of the spade, be kept
next the tree, so that the roots will not be cut off. When
this trench is so deep as to be below all the lateral roots,
a slight pull, and a pry on each side with the spade, will
generally bring out the trees. If there be strong tap
roots, running down to a great depth, they may be cut
with a stroke of the spade. Laborers who have not been
accustomed to the work, invariably perform it badly, and
it is difficult to get it properly done even by experienced
hands. It is a work requiring care and leisure, though it
is usually performed slovenly and in great haste.

Labelling. —W hen a tree, or a number of trees, of any
variety are taken up, a label, with the name written on it,
should at once be attached. The kind of label used in
the nurseries here, is a piece of pine about three andahalf
inches long, three fourths of an inch wide, and one eighth

TAKING UP TREES FROM THE NURSERY. he

of an inch thick. A neck is made on one end by cutting

mto each edge about an eighth of an inch; a piece of No.

32 copper wire, about seven or eight inches long, is then

fastened in the middle, on the neck of

the label, with two or three twists.

The two ends of the wire are then

placed around the stem, or a branch of

the tree, and are fastened with a twist or

two. This kind of wire and label we

find by experience to be not only safe,

but more expeditiously attached than

any other. Ifa little paint is rnbbed on

just before being used, the writing will lds.

be more legible and permanent, but it Wire tabel for trees.

should be so light as to be barely perceptible, else it will

clog the pencil. These labels are made very quickly, as

follows: take a common inch board planed, cut into

pieces the length of the label, make a groove with a knife

or saw along both sides, at one end for the neck, and then

set the piece on its end, and split off the labels with a

knife; this can be done nearly as fast as one person can

pick them up. The wire costs three shillings per pound,

and is cut into lengths with a pair of common shears.
Packing—Persons who are ignorant of the structure

of trees, never appreciate the importance of packing; and

that is the reason why so many trees are every year

destroyed by exposure. It is not uncommon, in this part

of the country, to see apple trees loaded on hayracks,

like so much brush, without a particle of covering on any

part of them, to travel a journey of three or four weeks

in this condition. Of course it is utterly impossible that

such trees can live or thrive; and yet the persons who

thus conduct their nursery operations, are doing the most

profitable business. Such practices are not only dishonest,

- 153 THE NURSERY.

but highly injurious and disreputable to the trade; and
it is by no means fair to class such people amongst re-
spectable and honorable nurserymen.

Purchasers are often at fault in this matter. Nursery-
men have to buy and pay for the material used in pack-
ing. Mats cost one to two shillings apiece; straw, three
cents per small bundle; yarn, one to two shillings per
pound; moss, three to four dollars per load, in many
cases ; and besides, the labor of packing, when well done,
is very great. It is, therefore, not unreasonable that a
charge be made; but some people, rather than pay
twenty-five or fifty cents for packing fifty trees, would
expose themselves to the risk of losing all. Purchasers
should invariably charge the nurseryman to whom they
send their orders, to pack in the best manner. Better pay
one or even two cents per tree for packing, than lose it or
injure it so much as to make it almost worthless.

The mode of packing pursued here is this: Where the
trees are packed in bundles, a number of ties are first
laid down, then a layer of long rye straw, three or four
inches deep; the trees are then laid compactly together,
straw being placed among the tops to prevent their being
chafed when drawn together, and: damp moss from the
swamp is shaken among the roots. When the bundle is
built, long straw is placed on the top as below, and it is
then bound up as tightly as it can be drawn. Straw is
then placed around the roots sufficiently thick to exclude
the air, and then a bass mat is sewed on over the straw.
If the bundle is only to go a short distance, the straw
can be so secured around the roots that the mats may be
dispensed with ; but if it has a long journey to perform,
it should be matted from bottom to top, and sewed with
strong tarred spun yarn, about as thick as a goose quill.
Loxes are rather more secure for very, long journeys ;
they should be made of white wood, or some light timber

TAKING UP TREES FROM THE NURSERY. 153

that holds nails well. If the trees are composed of seve-
ral varieties, they should be tied in small parcels of four
to six each, according to the size. The sides and ends
of the box should be well lined with straw, and the
roots bedded in moss and the tops in straw, to prevent
chafing.

If the box be large, two rows of cleats are necessary—
one in the middle and one in the top, to hold the trees in
their place and to keep the box from spreading. When
the box is nailed up, it should be banded at both ends
with iron hoops, fastened with wrought nails. Packed
in this way, trees may go any distance with safety. The
season of the year modifies the mode of packing. The
roots should always for a long journey be immersed in a
thin mud before being packed, as this excludes the air;
but in the fall, this mud should be dry before the package
is made up, and the moss should contain very little mois-
ture. In a frosty time the less moisture there is about
the rootsethe better; but an abundance of straw should
be used to exclude the air and frost.

feeling in.—W hen trees are taken up, and cannot be
either packed or planted at once, they are laid in by the
roots in trenches; the longer they have to remain in this
situation the better it should be performed. Trees are
often wintered in this way, and if the trenches are dug
deep, and the roots well spread out and deeply covered,
they are perfectly safe. It should be done in such cases
with almost as much care as the final planting of a tree.
When great bundles of the roots are huddled in together,
and only three or four inches of earth thrown over them,
both air and frost act upon them, and they sustain serious
injury. Tender trees likely to suffer from the freezing of
the shoots, should be laid in an inclined, almost horizon-
tal position, and be covered with brush, evergreen boughs,
or something that will break off the violence of the wind

W%

154 THE NURSERY.

and frost. Straw should not be used, as it attracts vermin.
Some rough litter or manure should also be thrown around
the roots, and in this way the most tender of all our fruit
trees may be wintered with safety.

PART =LEE.

THE LAYING OUT, ARRANGEMENT AND GENERAL MAN.
AGEMENT OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF PERMANENT PLAN-
TATIONS OF FRUIT TREES, SELECTION OF TREES, AND
VARIETIES. AND PRUNING AND CONDUCTING TREES
UNDER VARIOUS FORMS.

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CHAPTER’ T.

PERMANENT PLANTATIONS OF FRUIT TREES,
Sxotion 1.—Tue Diurrerent Kinps or Puantations.

Turse are of several kinds, and may be classed as fol-
lows—isr. The Family Orchard, which is a portion of
the farm set apart for the production of the more hardy
and common fruit, principally apples, for the use of the
farm stock and the family. 2d. The Market or Commer-
cial Orchard, is a large plantation of the various species
of fruit trees for the production of fruit as an article of
commerce. 3d. The Fruit Garden, with the Farmer is
a plot of ground near the dwelling, in which the finer
fruits, as pears, peaches, plums, cherries, apricots, Wc.,
and all the small fruits are cultivated. In many cases,
and even in most cases, it is a portion of the kitchen gar-
den, where the table or culinary vegetables are grown.
With the profe: sional man, the merchant, the mechanic,
and others who reside in cities, villages, and their suburbs,
possessing but sinall tracts of land, at most but a few
acres, the fruit garden is the only source for the supply
of fruits for their families, and is usually planted with
the more rare, perishable, and valuable sorts that cannot
so easily be procured in market.

The pleasure and profit derived from fruit plantations,

158 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

under any or all of these circumstances, depend upon
the judicious selection of soil, situation, trees, and va-
rieties, and their proper arrangement and management.
These are the essential points, and every man who con
templates planting to a greater or less extent, should
avail himself of all the light which experience has shed
upon these various branches of the subject, before making
the first movement towards the execution of his project.

Section 2.—TnHe OrcHARD.

The orchard is distinguished from the fruit garden in
this, that the trees planted in it are generally of the larg-
est size to which the species attain; they are grown in
the natural, or, as it is called, standard form, without any
particular training, and the varieties are generally the
most hardy and productive of the species.

1. The situation of an orchard with regard to exposure
or aspect, requires very little consideration in some parts
of the country. Where, as in Western New York for in-
stance, the winters dre uniform, or comparatively so, in
temperature, and late spring frosts do not prevail, the
main difficulties to guard against are the prevailing high
winds from the west and ‘north that injure the blossoms
and blow off the fruit before it is mature. If possible,
a situation should be chosen where some natural obstacle,
as a hill or a belt of woods, would break the force and
influence of these destructive winds. Where no such
obstacle naturally exists, a belt or border of rapid grow-
ing trees, such as soft maples, white pines, and Abeles,
should be planted simultaneously with the planting of
the orchard, that they may grow up and form a protec-
tion by the time the trees have come into bearing.

In other sections, as in some of the central and south-
ern counties of New York, and in some parts of Ohio,

THE ORCHARD. 159

Illinois, Wisconsin, and others of the western as well as
in the southern States, where late and fatal spring frosts
prevail, the selection of a situation is a most important
point. In such localities an eastern and southern expo-
sure, and low grounds, are to be avoided.

John J. Thomas, in his Fruit Culturist, states that, ‘* In
the valley of the Conhocton, which is flanked by hills five
hundred feet high, peach trees have been completely
killed to the ground, but on one of the neighboring hills,
five hundred feet above, and probably twelve hundred
feet above the level of the sea, an orchard planted in good
soil yields regular crops. In the town of Spencer, Tioga
County, near the head of Cayuga inlet, peaches have with-
stood the climate and done well at an elevation of seven
hundred feet above Cayuga Lake.” Lawrence Young,
Esq., Chairman of the Kentucky Fruit Committee, reported
to the Pomological Convention at Cincinnati, in 1850, the
case of an orchard in that State, lying within the peach
district, occupying the slopes of hills of no great height,
inclining gently toward a river distant only a few hundred
yards. Its success was that common to a fickle-western
climate—a fruit year and a failure, or perhaps two years
of productiveness and three of disappointment in every
five.

Within five miles of this orchard, however, is located
a hill six hundred feet high, upon which the peach crop
has not failed since he first knew it. Numerous other
instances are quoted and the particulars given with great
accuracy, showing the effects of even very slight eleva-
tions. :

Among others is an instance of the heath-peach bearing
a full crop in one part of an orchard, whilst in another
part thirty feet lower, the same variety bore not a single
fruit. Multitudes of such cases might be collected in all
parts of the country where the climate is variable, because

160 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

in such situations vegetation is earlier excited than in those
more elevated and colder, and frosts always fall more
heavily on low than on high grounds. Every one who
has paid the slightest attention to the action of frost on
vegetation is aware, that even an elevation of two or three
feet of one portion of the same field or garden above the
other frequently proves a protection from an untimely frost.
Ina dry and firm soil, vegetation is more exempt from inju-
ries by frost than in a damp, soft, and spongy soil on the
same level, not only because trees on such soils are more
mature and hardier in their parts, but because the soil and
the atmosphere above it are less charged with watery par-
ticles that attract the frost. Bodies of water that do not
freeze in winter, such as some of our inland lakes, exert a
favorable influence for a considerable distance from their
margins in protecting vegetation from late spring and
early autumn frosts.

In some parts of the West, as in Wisconsin and
Illinois, the winters are so variable—during the day as
mild as spring, and in the night the mercury falling
many degrees Belay zero—that even apple and pear trees
in soft, dare and rich soils, are frequently killed to the
ground.

In such localities, experience has taught cultivators

that elevated, dry, firm, and moderately rich soil, that
will produce a firm, well-matured growth, is the only
safeguard against the destruction of plantations in the
winter. In all localities where fruit culture has made
any considerable progress, there is generally experience
enough to be found, if carefully sought for and collected,
to guide beginners in fixing upon sites for orchards; and
no man should venture to plant without giving due
attention to the subject, and availing himself of all the
experience of his neighbors; for experience, after all, is
the only truly reliable guide.

THE ORCHARD. 161

2d. The Soil—Having treated already of the different
characters and modes of amelioration of soils, it is only
necessary here to point out what particular qualities or
kinds are best adapted to the different classes of fruit
trees, as far as experience will warrant inso doing. There
are soils of a certain texture and quality, in which, by
proper management, all our hardy fruits may be grown
to perfection. For instance, the soil of our specimen
orchard, which is that usually termed a sanily loam, with
a sandy clay subsoil, so dry that it can be worked imme-
diately after a rain of twenty-four hours. On this we
have apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, and,
indeed, all the fruits planted promiscuously, side by side,
not by choice but necessity, and all these yield bountiful
crops of the finest fruit every season, and that, so far,
without any special attention in the way of manures or
composts. Our country abounds in such soils, and others
somewhat different in character, but equally eligible for
all fruit trees when well managed. On the other hand,
there are soils wholly unfit for fruit trees of any kind—
such are peaty or mucky, and damp, cold, and spongy soils.
For an orchard of apples or pears, a dry, deep, substantial
soil, between sandy and a clayey loam, and possessing
among its inorganic parts a considerable portion of lime,
is, according to all experience, the best.* On such soils
we tind the greatest and most enduring vigor and fertility,
the healthiest and hardiest trees, and the fairest and best-
flavored fruits. Trees both of apples and pears, planted
on such soils in western New York, upwards of fifty

* The ashes of the bark of apple trees disclose the fact, that in one
hundred parts upwards of fifty arelime. In the sapwood eighteen of lime,
seventeen of phosphate of lime (similar to bone earth), and sixteen of
potash. In the heart or perfect wood, thirty-seven of lime. In the ashes
of the sapwood of the pear of one hundred parts, twelve of lime, twenty-
seven phosphate of lime, and twenty-two of potash. In the ash of the
bark, thirty of lime.

162 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

years ago, are, at this day, in the very height of their
vigor and productiveness, without having received more
than the most ordinary culture. In some of these soils,
where the pear and apple flourish so well, and endure so
long, the peach does not succeed at all. The reason is, it
is too stiff and compact.

The plum succeeds best, as a general thing, on a clayey
loam, rather stiff. The eR or native plum, however,
eas well on very light soils. The. cherry, the peach,
apricot, nectarine, and almond, require a light, dry, and .
warm soil, and will not succeed on any other. The best
and most enduring peach orchards are on dry, sandy
loams ; but good orchards are raised with proper manage-
ment on loose, light sands, though on such the trees are
shorter lived, and require constant care in the way of
dressings of manure and compost. There are two points
to be observed in regard to soils under all circumstances.
They must possess the inorganic substances, such as lime,
potash, etc., that constitute a large portion of the ashes
of the wood and bark when burned, and a sufficient
amount of organic matter, vegetable mould, which dis-
solves and furnishes material for the formation and
growth of new parts. When large and permanent plan-
tations are to be made, it will well repay the trouble and
expense of procuring the analysis of the soil, in order to
ascertain somewhat correctly its merits and defects.
People who have been long engaged in the culture of the
soil, can judge pretty correctly of its quality by its
appearance, texture, subsoil, and the character of the
rocks and stones that underlie and prevail in it; but the
inexperienced do not understand such indications, and
will do well to have recourse to a careful analysis by
some competent person.

3d. Preparation of Soil for an Orchard—The season
before planting, the soil should be at least twzce ploughed

THE ORCHARD. 163

with a common and subsoil plough, enriched with suitable
composts, and drained, if necessary. It should be eighteen
inches to two feet deep, and quite dry.

4th. Encloswres.—Before a tree is planted, it is neces-
sary that the ground be enclosed with a fence, sutticient
to protect it against the invasion of animals. It is no un-
common thing to hear people regret that the cattle broke
into the orchard and destroyed many trees. Indeed it fre.
quently happens that more damage is done in this way
than, if duly estimated, would have fenced the whole
orchard. There is much inquiry now-a-days on the subject
of fences, and various plans and materials are suggested
and tried. Live hedges are unquestionably the most orna-
mental and appropriate enclosures for extensive planta-
tions of fruit trees, and in time will no doubt be generally
adopted. Hitherto the failure of many plants tried, and
the cost and difficulty of obtaining others, have retarded
their introduction. Experience, however, has at length
pretty fairly decided that the Osage orange is the best for
the west and south west, and the buckthorn for the north
and east. The seeds of both these plants are now easily
procured, and plants of them may be obtained in nurseries
at $5 or $6 per 1000, and about-2000 will fence an acre of
ground, setting the plants twelve inches apart in two rows
six inches apart, which is the strongest way. A single
row at six inches apart will make a good fence with pro-
per shearing to thicken them at the bottom; either way
they will make a beautiful and efficient hedge in five or
six years. The honey locust is also a strong, hardy, rapid
growing plant, and makes a hedge in three or four years
that animals will be afraid to look at. It is sometimes
objected to hedges that they harbor birds, but it is to be
remembered that birds are the natural foes of insects, and
never failto accomplish a vast amount of labor for the
good of the fruit grower, for which they ought to be fully

164 | PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

entitled to a participation in his enjoyments. As the fea-
thered race are persecuted and driven away from our gar-
dens, insects become more numerous and destructive ; at
least this is the experience of most people, and should
lessen, if not entirely prevent, the cruel hostility that is
continually waged against them.

5th.—Selection of Varieties of Fruits for an Orchard.—
This is a most important point; the selection of varieties
must in all cases be made with reference to the uses to which
they are to be appropriated. The family orchard of the far-
mer, we will suppose to contain apple trees alone, as all the
other fruits are, or ought to be, grown in the fruit garden.
His selection of varieties must be adapted to his wants
and circumstances. In the first place, the number of his
family must regulate the proportion of kitchen and table
varieties. In the second place, he must consider how
many he will want for sauce, how many for baking and
drying, how many for cider, and how many for the dessert,
and what proportion of sweet and of acid. These are all
considerations that depend upon the habits, taste, and
mode of living of families, and for which no man can
provide, or suggest, but the planter himself. Then, again,
he must consider to what extent it may be advantageous
to feed apples to his stock, and provide for it accordingly.

Without considering well all these points, a man may
sit down and select what are called “the best varie-
ties,” and yet find himself badly suited when they come
to bear; for so it happens that a variety that may be
best for the dessert will be exceedingly unprofitable for
other purposes. A hardy, vigorous, and productive variety
of medium quality, quite unfit for the table, may be infi-
nitely more advantageous for feeding stock, than a feeble
growing, shy bearing variety, quite indispensable for the
lessert; and an apple may be excellent for sauce, for bak-

THE ORCHARD. 165

ing, or drying, and unfit for the dessert; these points
should all be duly considered.

The Market or Commercial Orchardist must exercise
the same discrimination in the selection of his varieties,
adapting them to the mode of culture he intends to pur-
sue and the market he intends to supply. In the imme-
diate vicinity of large cities and towns, where the or-
chardist may carry his fruit to market in a few hours,
the most profitable culture will, generally speaking, be
summer and early autumn fruits, or such as require to be
consumed immediately after maturity, and are unfit for
distant transportation. arly apples and pears only will
be profitable for him, because the autumn and winter va-
rieties can be sent so easily from the most distant portions
of the interior with such facilities as our present system
of railroads, plank roads, canals, and steamboats afford.
In addition to early apples and pears, his position gives
him great advantages for the profitable culture of all the
stone fruits, gooseberries, currants, raspberries, grapes,
and such soft fruits, when intended to be disposed of in a
raw state.

~The Market grower of the interior will find his most
profitable culture to be principally, autwmn and winter
apples and pears, to which he may add qguinces; because
all these can be packed and transported toa great dis-
tance with safety, and the comparative cheapness of his
lands enables him to compete advantageously with those
more favorably situated in regard to market. Ile can
only cultivate the summer fruits with a view to drying
or preserving, or for the supply of a local demand. All
orchard fruits, intended for profitable orchard culture,
should be jirst, in regard to the trees, hardy, vigorous,
and productive. The fruits should be of good size, fair
appearance, good keepers, and of good quality. It should

166 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

be borne in mind that many of the very best fruits are
very unprofitable for general market culture. Under cer-
tain circumstances this may not be the case, as for exam-
ple, in the neighborhood of such a city as London, or
‘aris, or even Vew York or Boston. <A class of people
re to be found in such places, who will pay almost any
rice for extra jine fruits. Where apples can be sold for
$2 per bushel, pears at $1 per dozen, grapes at $1 per
pound, and other fine fruits in proportion, growers are
warranted ,in cultivating very choice sorts, even if they
be difficult to manage and comparatively unproductive.
As a general thing, however, taking the markets as they
are, the great bulk of consumers preferring fruit of toler-
able good quality and moderate prices, to the very best
at twice or three times the ordinary price, the most
profitable varieties will be those that can be produced at
the least expense, provided always that they be good ; for
fruits of a decidedly inferior quality, whatever may be
their other merits, are wholly unworthy of cultivation for
the market. Another thing is the selection of varieties
that succeed best in the locality where they are to be cul-
tivated. A variety that succeeds remarkably well in any
particular locality should, other things being nearly equal,
be cultivated largely. The WVewtown pyppim apple, for
instance, is a profitable orchard fruit on Long Island and
on the Hudson, but in Western New York, no system of
management would make it yield one-fourth as much net
profit as the Worthern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, or
Roxbury Lusset. Large plantations, for profit, should
always be made up of well proved varieties, that have
been tested in the locality, or one similar in regard to
soil and situation. A list of select varieties will be given
in a succeeding and separate part of the work.
6th. Selection of Trees—For the farmer’s orchard,
where the ground among the trees is to be cultivated

THE ORCHARD. 16%

mainly with the plough, and occasionally cropped, stand-
ard trees, with stems four or five feet in height, will be
the most eligible, and ought to be at time of planting
three or four years old from the bud or graft, well grown,
with stout, straight, well proportioned trunks. Low, stout
trees are always preferable to tall, slender ones. Inexpe-
rienced planters are generally more particular about the
height than the diameter of the trunk, but it should be
just the other way. If trees are stout, and have good roots,
a foot in height is comparatively unimportant, unless to
one who wishes to turn cattle into his orchard and have
the heads of his trees at once out of their way. Few peo-
ple, however, follow such a practice. In very elevated
and exposed situations low trees are to be preferred, as the
wind does not strike them with such force as it does the
tall ones.

7th. Arrangement of the Trees—The distance between
the trees in an apple orchard should be thirty feet from
tree to tree in all directions. In a very strong and deep
soil, where the trees attain the largest size, forty feet is
not too much, especially after the first fifteen or twenty
years. There is a great difference between the size that
different varieties attain, and in their habits of growth.
One will attain nearly double the size of another within
ten years. Some are erect in their habits (as fig. 3); oth-
ers spreading (as fig. 5); and it will add greatly to the
symmetry of the plantation, if the trees of the same size
and habit of growth be planted together. Varieties that
ripen about the same time should also be planted together,
as the maturity can be more easily watched and the fruit
gathered with much less inconvenience. The largest
fruits being most liable to be blown off, should be placed
in the least exposed quarter.

The ordinary arrangement of orchard trees, is the
square or regular form, in rows the same distance apart,

168 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

and an equal distance between each tree. Thus, in plant-
ing a square of one hundred feet, for example, the trees
to be twenty-five feet apart, we commence on one side,
laying a line the whole length. On this line we measure
off the distances for the trees, and place a stake indicat-
ing the point for the tree. Thus, in fig. 98, we have
five rows of five trees each, making twenty-five in all,
and all twenty-five feet apart. This is the simplest, and
probably the best for very small orchards. The better
plan for large orchards is what is called gwincune (fig.
94), in which the trees of one row are opposite the spaces

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Fig. $3, square planting. Fig. 94, quincunx planting.

in the next. In this way, although the trees are at equal
distances, there is a larger clear area around each tree.
In fig. 94, the square form, every tree stands in the corner
of a square in the centre of, and equally distant frow
four others. In the quincunx, every tree stands in the
angle of a triangle of equal sides, and in the centre of,
and equally distant from s¢# others. Thus, in the latter,

THE ORCHARD. 169

there is a greater space left for the admission of light and
air, and trees so planted may be at less distances than in
the other. The operation of planting is more compli-
eated than that of the square, the rows not being the
same distance apart as the trees are in the row. The
first thing to be done is to find the two measures. Sup-
pose, for instance, we propose to plant a plot of ground
one hundred feet square, and to have the trees twenty-
five feet apart every way, we make a triangle of wood,
A, B,D, each side of which is twenty-five feet; we then
measure the distance from the angle & to the centre of
the opposite side at C, and this gives us the distance be-
tween the rows, which will be about twenty-one feet.
This will be called the smal/ measure; and with this we
measure off on two sides the distances for the rows, and
put down a stake at each. We then commence on the
first row, and with the long (twenty-five feet) measure
mark off the places for the trees, and put down a stake to
each. The measurements must be made with exactness,
in order to have the plantation present a regular appear-
ance, as in fig. 94.

8th. Selection of Trees for the Market or Commercial
Orchard—The remarks made in reference to the selec-
tion of standard trees for the family orchard, may be
applied with equal propriety to these; but the orchardist
must be supposed to have invested a considerable amount
of capital, and probably devotes his entire attention to
his trees, and depends upon them for his support. It is,
therefore, a great object with him to have early returns
in the form of products. An orchard of standard apples
will not produce any considerable quantity of fruit before
the eighth or tenth year, nor pears before the twelfth or
fifteenth year. In the mean time, it is highly desirable
to occupy the ground amongst the trees in some way that
will at least bear the expenses of cultivation. If this

8

170 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

can be done, it is as much as can be expected in the -
usual practice of cultivating root crops. The most pro-
fitable manner of turning to account the spaces between
the standard trees for the first ten or twelve years at
least, is to plant them with dwarf and pyramidal trees, or
dwarf standards, that will commence bearing the third or
fourth year after planting. This is the course pursued by
the orchardists of France and Belgium, where land is
valuable, and the cultivators are compelled to turn every
inch of it to the best account. Attention has been
slightly called to’ this mode of management in this
country, and a few persons have already carried it into
practice. As soon as it comes to be considered, it cannot
fail to recommend itself to those who are embarking
extensively in the orchard culture of fruits for the
market, on high-priced lands. It is only surprising that
it should have been so long overlooked by shrewd and
enterprising orchardists. An acre of land, for example,
planted with standard apple trees, at thirty feet apart,
contains forty-five to fifty; and if we fill wp the spaces
with dwarfs on paradise, at six feet apart, leaving ten
feet clear around each standard, we get in about five
hundred dwarf trees. These will bear the third year,
and during the next five years the average value of their
products will be at least twenty to fifty cents each. We
would plant them in such a way that the plough and
cultivator could be used among them, two dwarfs be-
tween each standard, and two full rows between each
row of standards, as in fig. 95.

In very rich and deep soil, when it may be necessary
to give the standards thirty-five or forty feet, there may
be two pyramidal, or low standards, on the Doucain
stock between two standards, and one row of pyramids
and two rows of dwarfs between two rows of standards

THE ORCHARD. 17t

In seven or eight years the dwarfs might be taken out,
and the pyramids remain till the twelfth year.

Orchards of standard pears may, in the same manner,
be filled up with dwarf and pyramidal trees on the quince.
Standard pears do not require so much space as apples,
their branches generally are more erect. In this country

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Fig. 95, orchard of standard and dwarf apple trees. Fig 96,orchard of
standard and dwarf or pyramidal pears.

standard pears should not have naked trunks over four
feet high at most, and twenty-five feet apart is quite suf-
ficient; at this distance an acre will contain about seventy
trees. These, as a general thing, will not begin to bear
until the tenth year, unless artificial means be resorted to.
By putting one pyramid, or low standard, between each
in the same row, and a row ten feet apart between each
row of standards, as in fig. 96, we can plant 250 dwarfs,
or pyramids, that will commence bearing the third year,
and will be in full bearing the fifth; yielding not less
on an average than $1 to $2 per tree.

172 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

To give trees a perfectly pyramidal form requires con-
siderable care and skill in their management. This will be
spoken of presently in treating of the fruit garden; but
very beautiful and prolific low standards may be made on
the quince, with stems about two feet high, and the heads
above that point left to branch in their natural way.
Trees of this form bear full as soon as the pyramids, be-
cause they are pruned less; they may always be relied
upon for a crop the second or third year after planting.
We have gathered upwards of fifty large and perfect spe-
cimens from trees four years old, and many had been
thinned off. Trees of the white Doyenne have produced
upwards of twenty very large specimens the third year,
fromthebud. Fig. 97 is a portrait of a four-year-old Louise
Bonne de Jersey, on quince, never pruned.

In selecting pears on the
quince for profitable orchard
culture among standards, va-
rieties should be chosen that
succeed particularly well on

the quince, such as Lowise
bonne de Jersey, Duchess
@ Angouleme, Beurre, Drel,
Bartlett, White Doyenne, Ve-
car of Winkfield, Glout Mor-
ceau, Easter Beurre, &e., &e. an ne)
All these, and many others
that will be named hereafter,
grow vigorously, bear early, 2
and produce larger, and in aaa
all respects finer fruit on the elias
quince than on the pear. . Half standard ose bee on quince.
B. Parsons, Esq., of Flushing,

Long Island, of the well known nursery firm of Parsons &
Co., has planted an orchard of four acres with 440 stand-

THE ORCHARD. 173

ard pears at twenty feet apart, and among these he planted
pears on quince ten feet apart, aii gives him 1320,

making the whole number 1760 on the four acres. The
ground he selected was an old pasture with a light loamy
soil, but not inclining to sand, and a subsoil of hard pan.
This he planted with corn until the ground was well mel-
lowed, and then put in two sloop loads, or 8000 bushels
of stable manure, worth on the ground $175. The first
year after planting he cropped the orchard with corn, but
found it injurious to the trees; since that he has cropped
it with potatoes and sugar beets alternately, and with good
management these can be made to pay for the manure,
and sometimes the labor. All those on their own root,
except one row, are the Lawrence, a native Long Island
variety, and those on the quince the Glout MMorceau,
Vicar of Winkfield, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Winter Ne-
lis, Lawrence, and Beurre @ Arremberg. He adds, that
at the time of writing, December 10, 1850, some of
the Vicar of Winkfield trees planted in 1849, had fifty to
seventy-five fruit buds each, and expects them to produce
the fifth year from planting, one dollar per tree. Within
the past two years, ee extensive plantations, wholly
of pears on the quince, have been made, and considering
the quick return they yield, their teuiee nature, and the
number of trees that can be planted on a small space of
ground, they cannot fail, under good management, to
prove highly profitable. Peach trees should be thrifty
yearlings that have not been pruned up during the sum-
mer, the side branches having been shortened only, and
regulated by pinching. At the time of planting they may
be pruned up, so as to leave three feet of a clean stem.
They may be set at the distance of fifteen feet, and even
twelve will be found quite sufficient, if the heads are
annually pruned, as will be directed hereafter. The,
peach grows so rapidly, and commences to bear so soon,

174 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

it would not be advisable to plant any fruit trees in the
spaces, unless currants or gooseberries; a row or two of
which might be put between two rows of the peaches for
the first four or five years after planting. Standard cher-
ries on mazzard stocks should not be over two years old
from the bud, with stems five feet high. In the west and
south, where the trees are subject to the bursting of the
bark on the trunk, it is advisable to have the trees
branched as near the ground as possible; and in such
cases the Mahaleb stock is better than the mazzard, as
it makes lower, more compact, and fertile trees. Or-
chards of pyramidal, or low dwarfs, on the Mahaleb may
be planted at twelve feet apart, or the ground may be
more compactly filled by planting standards and dwarts
alternately, as in the case of the pears.

Apricots on peach stocks may be planted in the same
soil, and should be of the same age and character as the
peaches. On plum stocks they are better adapted to
heavy soils. Plum trees for orchard standards should be
about two years old from the bud or graft, with stems
about three feet high. The stone fruits in particular
should have low stems, as they are more subject to the
gum on the trunk if pruned up high. They may be planted
at fifteen feet apart, the same as peaches and apricots.
Quinces should be two years old at least, and may be
three from the layer, cutting, or bud, with a stem two feet
high, clear of branches: they may be planted twelve feet
apart, which gives about 300 to the acre.

9th. Pruning and Preparing the Trees for Planting —
When a tree is taken up from the nursery, it unavoidably
loses some of its roots, and others are more or less muti-
lated; the roots frequently suffer, too, by long carriage or
exposure, and in this state it is unable to support the
entire head as it came from the nursery. This has been
previously explained. In order that a tree may grow, it

THE ORCHARD. 175

is necessary that a balance should exist between the stem
or branches and the root; consequently, when a tree is
transplanted, its branches should be reduced by shorten-
ing se as to correspond with the roots. A standard tree
that has four or five branches forming a head, should be
pruned at the time of planting to within three or four
buds of the base of each of the branches. These remain-
ing buds, receiving all the nourishment, will push vigor-
ously ; whilst if the branches had been allowed to remain
entire, they would have required a greater supply of food
than the roots could have furnished, and the tree would
either have died or made a very feeble growth. Every
bud we leave on the top of a tree, will produce either
leaves or shoots, and these are so many new individuals
requiring sustenance. If we leave on one hundred, it is
plain the demand will be much greater than if we leave
only twenty. The roots must be dressed by cutting back
all bruised points to the sound wood, with a smooth cut
on the under side of the root. Trees thus prepared are
ready for planting. |

10th. Planting Orchards—When the soil has been
thoroughly prepared by subsoil ploughing, or trenching
and manuring the season previous, the planting is a sim-
ple matter, but ifthis has not been done, planting properly
requires considerable labor ; for large holes three or four
feet wide and two feet deep must be dug for the trees,
and the requisite composts procured to be mixed with the
earth in which the roots are to be placed. Whatever ma-
nures be applied at this time should be perfectly decom.
posed ; as, if fresh and warm, they will burn the roots. Trees
are often killed in this way. The planting offers an excel-
lent opportunity for supplying any defects in the soil ; for
instance, if too compact, sand, leaf mould, muck, &c., may
be added to render it more porous ; and if too light, clay,
stiff loam, ashes, &c., may be added to make it more

i oa PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

retentive. The proper way to furnish these materials is
to dig large holes and put a good bed, twelve to eighteen
inches deep, of the compost in the bottom under the trees.
Lime should form a part of all composts, and especially
for the apple and pear; half a peck may be mixed with
the bed of each tree in soil not naturally calcareous. In
digging the holes, the good surface soil should be laid on
one side, so that it can be used to fill in among the roots,
and for this purpose it should be as finely pulverized as
possible.

When the compost has been laid in the bottom of the
hole, and a layer of fine surface soil spread over it, so as
to be highest in the centre, the tree is set on it, so that
when the planting is finished, the collar will be about two
inches below the surface. In the case of trees on dwarf
stocks, such as pears on quince, al the stock must be under
the ground. The roots must be carefully adjusted so that
each one is spread out in its natural position; the fine
earth is then filled in amongst them so that no vacancies
will be left; the upper roots should be held back by the
person who holds the tree until the lower ones are covered.
When the filling in is half done, it may be gently trodden
down with the foot, so as to give the tree a firmer hold of
the ground. In advanced spring planting, a pail of water
might be given to each tree when the earth is filled partly
in; at other times it is unnecessary, if not injurious.

11th. Staking.—W here the trees are large, or the situa-
tion is exposed, either one or two stakes should be planted
with each tree, to which it must be kept fastened for the
first season, until the roots have fixed themselves in the
vround. A proper provision must be made to preventthe
tree from rubbing or chafing against the stake. When
two stakes are used it may be fastened to each in such a
way as not to rub against either.

12th. Mulching. This should be looked upon as an

THE ORCHARD. Te

indispensable operation in all cases. It consists in laying
on the surface of the ground, around the trees, to the dis-
tance of three feet or so, a covering of half decomposed
manure, saw dust, spent tan-bark, &c., two or three inches
deep. This prevents the moisture of the soil from evapo-
rating, and maintains a uniformity of heat and moisture
which is highly favorable to the formation of new roots.
It also prevents the growth of weeds around the tree, and
obviates the necessity of hoeing, dressing, or watering,
during the season. We frequently practise it among nur-
sery rows of late spring-planted trees with great advan-
tage. A deep mulching should always be given to fall-
planted trees to prevent the frost from penetrating to the
roots or drawing up the tree.

13th. After-management of Orchard Trees—This con-
sists in the cultivation of the soil among the trees, and
pruning them to regulate their growth. For the first five
or six years aiter planting, the ground among orchard
trees may be advantageously cropped with potatoes, ruta-
bagas, or sugar beets. The manuring and culture that
these roots require, keep the soil in good condition, and
will assist in defraying the expenses of the orchard.
Grain crops should never be planted among trees, as they
deprive them of air to a very injurious extent. If no
root crops are cultivated, the ground should be kept clean
and mellow with the one horse plough and cultivator, the
same as recommended for nursery culture. Every third
or fourth year, the trees should receive a dressing of well-
decomposed manure or compost adapted to the wants of
the soil and the tree, worked in around the roots with the
forked spade. This should always be done in the fall.
Dwarf apples and pears require more frequent and libe-
ral manuring than standards, because their roots occupy a
limited space; their heads are large compared with the
roots, and they bear exhausting crops. Whoever has a

R*

178 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

large plantation of these trees, should be well provided
with heaps of compost a year old, and give each tree a
peck to half a bushel before the setting in of winter
every year. This will maintain their vigor, and ensure
large and regular crops of fine fruit. Directions for
pruning and forming the heads of standard trees, will be
_ treated of under the general head of pruning.

Section 3.—Tne Frvuir GARDEN.

The fruit garden is a plantation of fruit trees intended
to supply the family with fruit. In some cases, where a
large supply of fruit is wanted, and the proprietor has
land and means to warrant it, a certain portion of ground
is wholly devoted to it; and in others, it forms a separate
compartment of the kitchen garden, or is mixed with it—
the fruit trees occupying the borders or outsides of the
compartments, and the culinary vegetables the interior.
The latter is most general, in this country, at the present
time. In a country like ours, so well adapted to fruit
culture, where almost every citizen of every rank and
calling not only occupies but owns a garden, and, as a
general thing, possesses sufficient means to enable him to
devote it to the culture of the higher and Letter class of
garden productions, the fruit garden is destined to be,
if it is not already, an object of great importance. In
the old countries of Europe, the rich alone, or those com-
paratively so, are permitted to enjoy such luxury; for
land is so dear that working people are unable to pur-
chase it, and if they are, they are either unable to stock
it with trees, or their necessities compel them to devote it
to the production of the coarsest articles of vegetable
food that can be produced in the greatest bulk. It is not
so in America. Here every industrious man, at the age
of five-and-twenty, whatever may be his pursuits, may,

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 179

if he choose, be the proprietor of a garden of some ex-
tent, and possess sufficient means to stock it with the
finest fruits of the land.

The present actual state of the population gives abun-
dant evidence of this happy and prosperous condition.
Let us look at our cities and villages. In Rochester,
excepting a narrow circle in its very centre, every house
has its garden, varying in extent from twenty-five by one
hundred feet to an acre of ground; and not one of these
but is nearly filled with fruit trees; and so itis, but on a
larger scale, in all the villages of western New York—a
section of country in which the first white man’s settle-
ment can scarcely date back over fifty years. Aside
from the beneficial results to individual and public health
and prosperity from this general union of the fruit garden
and the dwelling, it cannot fail to exercise a softening
and refining influence on the tastes, habits, and manners
of the people, and greatly strengthen their love of home
and country.

The great thing wanting at this moment, is a knowledge
of the correct method of planting and managing fruit
gardens. We cannot pass along the streets a rod, where
there is a garden, without seeing and feeling that three
. fourths of the profit and pleasure which gardens might
afford, are sacrificed to bad management, arising, in the
main, from ignorance of the proper modes of culture
adapted to such limited grounds ; and it is hoped that the
suggestions and plans offered in the following detail of
fruit garden management, may afford at least a portion
of the information wanted.

The formation of a fruit garden requires a consideration
of the soi, situation, enclosures, laying out, selection of
trees, selection of varieties, and planting.

Ist. Zhe Situation —This is generally governed by the
particular circumstances of the proprietor, those only

180 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

who build with reference to the location of the garden, or
who have a large domain at their disposal, having an
opportunity of selection to any considerable extent. Per-
sons who live in cities and villages, have to make the
best of their situation. As it is, if it be exposed, they can
only give it protection by lofty enclosures, that will break
the force of the winds. The aspect they cannot alter, and
must adapt other circumstances to it. Those who can
should select a situation convenient enough to the dwell-
ing, to render it at all times easy of access, in order to
save time and labor in going to and from it. It should
also be sheltered from the north and west winds. The
former are destructive to the blossoms in spring, and the
latter frequently blow off the fruit before its maturity. —
In sections of the country subject to late spring frosts, an
elevated situation is to be preferred, as in the case of
orchards. A full eastern or southern aspect should be
avoided, because in them the sun’s rays strike the trees
while the frost is upon them, and produce injuries that
would be avoided in other aspects. Where artificial
shelter is required, a belt of rapid-growing trees, com-
posed of evergreens and deciduous trees mixed, should be
planted on the exposed side, but at such a distance as to
obviate any difficulty that might arise from the injurious
effects of shade, or from the roots entering the garden.
Such a belt of trees might, at the same time, be drags to
impart a pleasing and hight ornamental appearance to
the grounds.

2d. The Soil is a most important consideration. As in
a garden a general collection of all the fruits is to be
grown, and that in the highest state of perfection, the soil
should be of that character in its texture, depth, and
quality, best adapted to general purposes. It should not
only be suitable for the apple and the pear, but for the
peach, the cherry, and the plum—a good, deep, friable

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 181

loam, with a gravelly clay subsoil, and entirely free from
stagnant moisture. In this country, our warm summers,
and frequent, protracted droughts, render a deep soil for a
garden absolutely necessary. Z'wo feet is little enough,
and three would be still better. The means for deepening,
drying, improving, and changing the character of soils
have been already pointed out under the general head of
soils, and need not be repeated here. Suffice it to say,
that it will always be found true economy to be liberal in
the first preparation of the soil; for after a garden is laid
out and permanently planted, improvements are always
made with greater difficulty and expense.
Enclosures.—The cheapest and most ordinary kind of
enclosure for gardens in this country, is the tight board
fence, and the picket or paling fence. The former should _
be made of stout cedar posts, set at six feet apart, and
three or four feet in the ground, the ends being previously
charred to increase their durability, connected in the mid-
dle and on the top with cross-bars or rails which may be
two by four inches. The boards should be well seasoned,
matched, and securely nailed to the cross-bars. Where the
fence is required to be higher than the posts, the boards
can extend above the top rail two, three, or even four
feet, if necessary. The picket or paling fence is made in
the same way, as far as the framework, posts, and cross-
bars go; but, instead of matched boards, pickets, from
three to six inches wide, and pointed on the top, are used,
and a space of two inches left between each. Where the
proprietor can afford the expense of a brick or stone wall,
it will prove the most permanent, and, in the end, the
cheapest enclosure. The height of the fence or wall
depends somewhat on the extent of the garden. In ordi-
nary cases, eight or ten feet is the proper height, but when
the garden is very small, five or six feet is enough; and

182 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS,

the open paling will be preferable except on the north
side, to the tight board fence, as it offers less obstruction
to the air and light. A high fence around a very small
garden, besides being injurious to vegetation in it, looks
quite out of character, giving to it the appearance of a
huge box. Live hedges, as recommended for orchards,
might be employed around country gardens of considera-
ble extent, say an acre or upwards, but they require to be
kept in the neatest possible condition.

Trellises—In England, and other parts of Europe,
where the summer temperature is not so high as it is here,
espalier trees are trained directly on the garden walls or
fence ; but our hot sun renders this unsafe, except in the
case of the grape, or on the north sides of the walls. The
sun strikes the south side of a fence with such force that
the foliage in contact with it is burned. It is therefore
necessary, where the walls or fences are to be occupied
with espaliers, to erect suitable trellises at the distance of
six to twelve inches from them, on which to train the trees ;
the form of these differs according to the nature of the sub-
ject to be trained. They are generally made of upright
and cross bars, of inch boards three inches wide, placed
within six to twelve inches of each other, according to the
growth of the species; the larger the foliage and the
longer the shoots, the greater may be the distances; thus,
the grape twelve inches, and the peach eight. Sometimes
‘they are constructed of wooden bars and wire rods alter-
nately; these answer a good purpose for the grape, as it
fixes itself to the wires by the tendrils. The trellis is fast-
ened to the wall by iron hooks, and should stand a little
farther from it at the bottom than at the top, for the pur-
pose of giving the tree a better exposure to the sun, rain,
&c. Fruits are grown so successfully in this country in
the open ground that walls or trellises are seldom used,

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 183

except to economize space. In the north, however, where
the more tender fruits do not succeed in ee open ground,
walls may be advantageously employed, as the trees
trained on them are easily protected both from winter and
spring frosts.

Laying out the Fruit Garden—This is the arrange-
ment or distribution of the ground into suitable plots or
compartments, necessary walks, etc. The mode of doing
this depends on the size of the garden, and the manner in
which it is to be planted. Fruit gardens, properly speak-
ing, are such as are wholly devoted to fruits; but a very
common form, as has been already observed, is the mixed
garden, where a portion only is devoted to fruits, and
the remainder to culinary vegetables. We will first con-
sider

The Fruit Garden proper—tin all fruit gardens the
number of walks should be no greater than is absolutely
necessary for convenience. In small places the better
plan appears to be, to carry the principal walk around
the outside, leaving as much as possible of the interior,
where air and light are enjoyed to the greatest extent, for
the trees. A border should be left between the fence and
the walk, of sufficient width for the trees to be trained on
the fence trellis. If appearances were to be strictly ob-
served, this border should be as wide as the fence is high,
but as a general thing five to six feet will be sufficient;
and where ground is limited, appearance must in many
cases be sacrificed to economy. Where the work is all
performed by manual labor, the walks need not be more
than five to six feet wide, as that admits of the passage of
a wheelbarrow ; and this is all that is required.

Fig. 98 is a design for a very small garden fifty feet by
one hundred. A is the entrance gate, four feet wide;
B, B, a walk five feet wide; C, C, fence border, six feet

184 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

w de. The r rows of trees are eight feet apart. The py-

Fre. 89.

ramidal pears
and cherries,
Nos. i, 2, 3,
and 4, at seven
feet apart in
the row. Nos. 5
and 6, dwarf ap-
ples, at four feet
apart. No. 7,
pyramidal or
dwarf standard
plums, at seven
feet. Nos. 8,
9, and 10, low
standard peach-
es, at ten feet
apart, the out-
side ones four
feet from the
walk. Nos. 11,
12, 13, and 14,
low _ standard
quinces, _ etc.
Nos. 15, Dea
18, 19, and 20,
espaliers, apri-
cots, grapes,ete.
One border is

filled with gooseberries and currants, the other can be
occupied with raspberries and strawberries. This ar-
rangement gives in this little garden twenty pyramidal
trees, thirteen standards, twelve dwarfs, six espaliers,
besides space enough for two dozen currants, two dozen
gooseberries, two dozen raspberries, etc. For several years

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 185

afew strawberries and low vegetables, such as lettuce,
radishes, beets, carrots, turnips, or even dwarf peas, may
be grown in the spaces among the trees, but in no case to
be permitted nearer than within three feet of the tree.

A walk through the centre would be necessary, and
this should be ten feet wide, and there should be a turn-
ing place left at the end opposite the entrance.

The mixed, or fruit and kitchen garden, is laid out in a
similar manner ; the trees are planted in rows on a bor-
der six to ten feet wide, according to the size of the trees,
along the walks, leaving the interior of the compartments
for vegetables. This arrangement is a very common one,
and generally.answers a very good purpose; but where
it is practicable, it is much better to devote a separate por-
tion exclusively to fruit, in order that the one may not in
any way interfere with the other. In such a garden, the
number of the walks, and consequently fruit borders,
will depend upon the proportion of the ground intended
to be allotted to fruit, and this again will be regulated by
the means, tastes, and demands of the family.

Fig. 99 (see frontispiece) is the plan of a mixed fruit
and kitchen garden, one hundred and fifty feet wide by
two hundred long, being one hundred an@ten square rods,
somewhat less than three quarters of an acre. The de-
sien is to have two tree borders exclusive of the outside
or fence border. The centre main walk from A to C, is
ten feet wide. That crossing it in the centre six feet
wide. The small walk next the fence border four feet
wide, and that between the two tree borders five feet. The
fence border is six feet wide, and may be planted with
espalier trees, vines, etc., besides currants, raspberries,
strawberries, or anything of low growth, not requiring the
fullest exposure. The tree borders are all eight feet wide,
except the dwarf apple border, which is only six. The
outside border is planted or. the two sides with low stand-

186 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

ard peaches, apricots, plums, quinces, etc., at twelve feet
apart, and the two ends with pyramids at eight feet.

The inside borders are planted with pyramids and
dwarfs, the former at eight, and the latter at six feet
apart. A,is the entrance; 6, well or cistern; C,aspace
to turn a horse and cart upon. This arrangement gives
thirty standard trees, eighty-three pyramids, and forty
dwarfs, leaving clear the outside border over six hundred
and sixty feet long and six wide, and the four interior
compartments each about thirty by sixty feet. In crop-
ping the latter with vegetables, they may be divided as
in the design into narrow beds three or four feet wide,
separated by paths eighteen inches wide.

Walks in the Fruit Garden —The number of these, as _
has been remarked, should be simply sufficient for con-
ducting the operations of gardening with convenience ;
this being provided for, the fewer the better. Where
horse labor is employed, the main walk, either through
the centre or around the sides, should be nine or ten feet
wide. Where manual labor alone is employed, as in
small gardens, five or six feet will be sufficient, and even
four feet, as that admits of the passage of a wheel-barrow.
Between each compartment, or line of trees, there should
also be a path two or three feet wide, as a passage for the
gardener or workmen, and others who may ~desire to
inspect the trees. Where the expense can be afforded,
the mains walk should be gravelled so as to be dry and
comfortable at all seasons and in every state of the wea-
ther; for it is presumed that every man who has a fruit
garden, worthy of the name, will wish to visit it almost
daily, and so will the members of his family and his
friends whovisit him. The labor and expense of making
a walk depends upon the nature of the soil. If dry,
with a porous subsoil, absorbing water rapidly, six
inches of good pit gravel, slightly rounded on the tup,

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 187

wil! be sufficient. If the soil be damp, and the -subsoil
compact, it will be necessary to remove the earth to the
depth of a foot in the centre, and rising towards the sides,
so that the excavation will resemble a semicircle ; this is
filled with small stones and a few inches of good pit gravel
on the top. This makes a walk dry at all times. We
often see very comfortable and neat. looking walks, made
of spent bark from the tannery; six inches deep of this
will last two or three years, and no excavation is neces-
sary in any kind of soil. It is not to be supposed that so
great expense will be incurred, in any case, in the forma-
tion of the walks of a fruit or kitchen garden, as those of
a pleasure ground or flower garden, and, therefore, it is
unnecessary to suggest either costly modes or materials.
The chief point is to secure dry, comfortable walking,
without introducing any material that will produce a
decidedly unpleasant contrast with vegetation. This can
all be accomplished by th® cheap and simple means
referred to, and others that may suggest themselves.

The main walks alone should be gravelled; the smaller
alleys or paths between the different lines of trees or com-
partments of the garden are principally for the use of the
workmen. In very small gardens, where it is important
to economize the ground, the spaces devoted to the walks
may be of plank raised up on pillars or blocks a foot from
the ground; the roots of trees can then penetrate the ground
below the walk as well as the border, and scarce any
ground will be lost.

Water—A supply of water in the garden is a most
important consideration in our warm, dry, sunny climate.
Good crops of culinary vegetables cannot be secured in
many seasons without a liberal application of water, and
fruit trees are greatly benefited by frequent showering,
especially in dry weather. It refreshes them and drives
away insects. A good well or cistern should therefore

*~

188 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

be provided in every garden, and be situated as near the
centre as possible, to be convenient to all parts.

SELECTION OF TREES.

1st. Their Form.—We start upon the principle that, in
all cases, tall standard trees, such as are usually planted
in orchards, are totally unfit for the garden. This is the
one great and universal defect in American fruit garden-
ing. The trees for a fruit garden should be all either
dwarf standards, with trunks two to three feet high,
pyramids, branched from, the ground, or bushes with
stems six to twelve inches high. Trees in these forms
are, in the first place, in keeping with the limited extent
of the garden, and convey at first sight the idea of fitness.
In the second place, they give a great variety on a small
space, for three or four such trees will not occupy more
space than one standard. Im the third place, they are in
a convenient form for management, they are easily pruned
or protected, and the fruit is easily gathered and less
likely to be blown off than on tall trees. In the fourth
place, they bear several years sooner than standards,
especially pears and apples.

Among the forms mentioned, the pyramid is certainly
the most beautiful; and in the best fruit gardening
regions of Europe, where almost every conceivable form
of tree has been tried, it-is to-day the most popular,
because it has proved the most advantageous and success-
ful. The apple for pyramids should be on the Doucain
stock. Certain varieties, such as the Hawthorndean, Kes-
wick Codlin, Summer Rose, Duchess of Oldenburg, and
many other moderate growers and early bearers, will
make good pyramids on free stocks, but they will require
more summer pruning and careful management to keep
their vigor under check than they would on the Doucain.

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 189

But apples for the fruit garden, even on the Doucain,
should be such as naturally make small trees and are
inclined to early bearing. In these respects it is very
well known there is a wide difference between varieties.
Those mentioned above, and others similar in character,
frequently bear, on free stocks in the nursery rows, at the
age of three or four years from the bud, whilst others do
not bear until eight or ten years old. This is a point that
should always be looked into in selecting garden trees, for
it is the natural and proper desire of every one who
plants a tree in the garden to obtain fruit from it as early
as possible. )

The Apple for Dwarfs—The apple, worked on the
paradise, makes a beautiful little dwarf bush. We know
of nothing more interesting in the fruit garden than a row,
or a little square, of these miniature apple trees (fig. 100),
either in blossom or in
fruit. Those who have
not seen them, may
imagine an apple tree,
four feet high, and the
same in width, of
branches covered with
blossoms in the spring, .
or loaded with magni-
ficent golden and crim-
son fruit in the autumn.
They begin to bear the
third year from the bud,
and the same variety is Fie. 109.
always larger and finer Dwart-seple. ee.
on them than on standards. We had Red Astracans on
paradise the past season, that measured eleven inches in
circumference. The French plant a square or compart-
ment of these in the kitchen or fruit garden, as they do

190 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

gooseberries and currants, six feet apart, and call it the
‘ Normandie; they also alternate them with pyramida)
pear trees in rows; and in some of the best mixed kitchen
and fruit gardens, two dwarf apples are planted between
two pyramidal pears, thus giving double the number of
them as of the pears in a border or row. In small gar
dens the apple should not be admitted under any other
form, and even to a limited extent in that, for it is the
great fruit of the orchard, and in nearly all parts of this
country they are extensively grown, and can be purchased

at very moderate rates.

The Pear, as a Pyramid (fig. 101).—The pear is emi-

LSS —— SS

Fie, 101.

Pyramidal pear tree, 7 feet high—4 feet wide at the
base.

nently the tree for
the pyramidal form,
either on the free
stock,. or on the
quince ; on the latter,
however, the trees
bear much earlier,
are more prolific,
more manageable,
and consequently
preferable for small
gardens. On the pear
stock they require
constant summer
pruning and pinch-
ing, and in some
cases, root pruning,
to subdue the natu-
ral vigor, and induce
early __ fruitfulness.
Certain varieties,
however, do not suc-
ceed on the quince,

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 191

but the majority of melting varieties do, and produce larger
and finer fruit on it than on the free stock. The tardiness
of bearing of the pear tree, when grown in the ordinary
standard form on pear stock, has, more than any other
cause, retarded its general cultivation. No better proof
of this can be adduced than the general partiality now
shown for trees on quince stocks, that bear at the age of
three or four years. The introduction of these trees, a
few years ago, was really the first thing that gave a general
impulse to pear tree planting. With most people, it is a
very important thing to obtain fruit in two or three years,
instead of waiting eight or ten. The best management of
trees on free stocks, cannot bring them into a bearing state
short of six or seven years, unless it be some remarkably
precocious variety. People, therefore, who wish pear
trees for pyramids that are easily managed, and will bear
early, will select them on quince stocks, in case the va-
rieties they wish to cultivate have been proved to succeed
well on it. /

The Pear in the dwarf standard form, as in the
pyramidal, is much easier managed, and bears much
earlier on the quince than on the pear; indeed, these trees
are as easily managed as a standard apple tree. There
are some dwarf standards on the quince in our grounds
here, and in gardens in this city, that are now eight years
old, and about seven to eight feet high, with trunks from
two to three feet, heads four to five feet high, and three
or four feet in width, that have borne regular and heavy
crops for the last four or five years, without any other care
than thinning out superfluous wood. Zhe Cherry is as
easily managed in the pyramidal form as the pear, not
‘only the free-growing sorts, Hearts and Bigurreaus, but
the Dukes and Morellos; the latter, however, are less
vigorous, and more easily managed. All should be
worked on the mahaleb stock; this has the same effect on

192 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

the cherry, to a certain extent, as the quince has on the
pear. After the second or third year’s growth, it subdues
their vigor, and induces fruitfulness. We have a collee-
tion of upwards of thirty varieties, of four to five years.
old, that are now fine pyramids, from five to eight feet
high, and they have all borne since the third year, and we
find them quite as easily managed as the pear. The
Dukes and Morellos should be chosen, where very small
trees are desir-
able, as they can
be grown in
bushes like the
apple on the pa-
radise stock, at
five feet apart.

Fig. 102 is
the portrait of a
dwarf Florence
cherry tree,
given by Mr.
Rivers, in his
Miniature Fruit
Garden, only
two years old,
bearing fruit.
Our dwarfs fre-
quently bear the
third year.

The Plum as a Pyramid.—tvThe plum has rarely been
cultivated as a pyramid, but recent experiments prove
that it is quite susceptible of that form under proper
management. It should be worked on a stock calculated -
to subdue its natural vigor. The native or Canada plum
answers a good purpose, the mirobalalan or cherry plum,

Fie. 102.

Dwarf cherry, two years from bud, bearing.

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 193

and the sloe (prunus spinosa) dwarf it, to a still greater
extent. Summer pruning and pinching, as well as occa-
sional root pruning, are all necessary to check the vigor
of most kinds, and keep them in suitable dimensions for
small gardens where it is necessary to plant them close.

The Plum as a Dwarf Standard.—Besides the pyra-
mid, this is the only form in which the plum should be
admitted in the garden. The dwarf standard, with a
trunk two or three feet in height, and a symmetrical
round head, is a very pretty and appropriate form, and
requires less skill and care in the management than the
pyramid, and by proper management the trees require
but little if any more space.

The Peach—The best garden form for the peach is
that of the dwarf standard, with a trunk eighteen inches
to two feet. With proper management, which will here-
after be described, this form is easily conducted, even
when the trees are on peach stocks. The plum stock, and
especially the sorts recommended for dwarf plums, gives
trees that are less vigorous and more easily kept in a
small space. In nearly all parts of our country the
fruit ripens perfectly in the open ground, so that espalier
training, as has been remarked, is seldom practised,
unless to save ground; or in northern localities, where
protection of the buds during winter, or of the blossoms
in the spring, is necessary. In such cases alone are
espaliers to be recommended, as they require much greater
care in pruning and training than in any other form.
Espalier trees are of various forms, but the fan, as it is
termed, is the best adapted to the peach. It consists of
two main branches or divisions of the stem, spread out in
the form of a V; each of these bears a certain number,
as many as may be necessary to fill the trellis, of second-
ary branches, and these furnish the bearing wood. The

9

194 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

production and management of this and other espalier
forms, will be treated fully under the head of pruning
and training.

The Apricot and Nectarine-—The remarks applied to
the peach apply with equal force to both these trees ; they
succeed equally well as low standards, or as espaliers.
The apricot is more generally grown in this form than
any other tree, because its early blossoms are so easily
protected, and the curculio does not appear to be so
troublesome to it as in the standard form.

The Quince, in the garden, should either be a dwarf
bush, with a stem twelve to eighteen inches high, and a
compact, symmetrical head, ora pyramid. In the latter
form it is quite easily conducted, but requires more care,
of course, than as a bush, as the upper part of the tree
must be always kept subordinate to the lower, and this
requires a regular and constant attention.

The £uilbert—The remarks on the quince may be
applied with equal propriety to the filbert, as regards
form. The dusk branched from the ground, and the low
standards with two feet stems, are the ordinary forms;
but in some of the French gardens it is conducted with
great success as a pyramid.

These are the principal trees of which it is necessary
to speak in regard to form. Other species will be referred
to under the head of pruning. Having now pointed out
the most eligible forms for garden trees, and their respec-
tive advantages, planters will be able to make a choice
adapted to their tastes and circumstances. Those who do
not employ a professional gardener, and who have but a
small portion of spare time to devote to their garden,
should by all means adopt such forms for their trees as
require the least skill and labor, provided always that it
be appropriate to the size of the garden, and consistent
with good management.

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 195

The next point to be considered is,

The Age of the Trees.—This will depend very much on cir-
cumstances. For pyramidal trees it is yet difficult, almost
impossible, to obtain in the nurseries specimens of more
than one year’s growth that are suitable. The yearlings
are never sufficiently cut back, nor the branches of the
second and third year so managed as to have the.requisite
proportion of length and vigor to fit them for being mould-
ed, with any ordinary treatment, into a perfectly pyramidal
form. If suitable trees cannot be found of two or three
years from the bud or graft, vigorous yearlings, worked
at the ground, should be chosen, as they are in a condition
to take easily any required form; and though fruit may
not be so soon obtained from them, yet they will in the
end be much more satisfactory ; for, unless a right begin-
ning be made in the training of a tree in any form more
or less artificial, no art can afterwards completely correct
the errors. If we take a two or three year old tree, man-
aged in the nursery, as usual, with a naked trunk two to
two and a half feet from the ground, and a branching
head, or what is nearly as bad, a few weak side branches
below, overrun with strong ones above, the most severe
process will be necessary, in order to produce lateral
branches in the proper place; and thus, as much time
will be lost as would bring forward a yearling, and the
tree will not be so perfectly formed, so healthy, nor in any
respect so satisfactory. The general impatience that exists
in regard to the growth and bearing of trees is the great
cause of this defective character when taken from the nur-
sery. The nurseryman is averse to cutting back his trees,
as they lose a year in height, and planters or purchasers
are not generally discriminating enough to be willing to
pay him a proportionate price. He finds tall trees more
attractive. When planters do get these trees, they cannot
be persuaded to cut them down; they wish to obtain

196 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

fruit as soon as possible, and therefore the tree is allowed
to proceed in the defective form it assumed at the nur-
sery.

For Dwarfs and Dwarf Standards, it is less difficult to
obtain the right sort of trees, for this is the form that nur-
sery trees that have not been cut back, ordinarily assume.
Those, therefore, who prefer such trees can always be sup-
plied with them well advanced, even in a bearing state if
so desired. As in the pyramid, however, persons who
intend to make models of their trees, will do well to pro
cure yearlings worked at the surface of the ground, for on
them heads or lateral branches can be formed without any
difficulty at any desired point between the collar and ter-
minal bud. Another consideration is worthy of note on
this point. There is a much greater risk in removing
three or four year old trees than yearlings, and they are
more difficult and expensive to pack and transport. The
yearling is easily removed and easily transported, and its
growth is comparatively unaffected by the change. The
gardeners most famous for their handsome, well managed
fruit trees, invariably select yearling trees, that is, trees
that have made one year’s growth from the bud or graft.

Selection of Varieties—The selection of varieties of
fruits for a fruit garden should be made in view of all the
circumstances that can affect their usefulness. They
should be adapted to the soil, and more particularly to the
climate. It is well known that in every section of the
country, certain varieties seem to succeed remarkably
well, whilst others, of the greatest excellence elsewhere,
entirely fail. Our country is so extensive and embraces
such a variety of climate that it is impossible that the
same varieties should succeed equally well in all parts;
and planters should consider this well. Those who have
had no experience in cultivation, nor a proper opportunity
for acquiring knowledge on this point, should consult oth-

:

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 197

ers. Any intelligent nurseryman*who has a correspond-
ence with all parts of the country, and is thoroughly alive
to all the branches of his profession, and the results of
experience, can aid planters greatly in making appropriate
selections. It is true that the amount of knowledge col-
lected on this head is yet comparatively srnall, and quite
insufficient for a general guide, but it is every day accu-
mulating, and what there may be, is well worthy of atten-
tion. ‘The experience of fruit growers, as elicited at recent
pomological conventions, has brought to light a multitude
of highly important facts, bearing on this very point.
These will be more particularly noted when we come to
the description of fruits.

Varieties should be adapted in their growth to the form
they are to be grown in, and to the extent of the Garden —
For pyramidal trees, varieties should be chosen whose
habits of growth are regular or slightly spreading, the
branches assuming more of the horizontal than the
upright, and those disposed to branch low down should be
preferred to those of an opposite habit. Where the gar-
den is small, moderate or slow growers should be pre-
ferred to rapid and vigorous growers. They should also be
well adapted to the stock on which they areworked. This
is a very important point, but one on which only a few
persons in this country have yet acquired any considera-
ble amount of actual experience. Still, many important
facts have been gathered, and it becomes every planter to
avail himself of them. If he plants pears on quince stocks,
for instance, it is important to know that certain varieties
are much better on that stock than they are on the pear;
and that others fail, and are worthless on it.

The varieties should be adapted to the wants and wishes

-of the planter—Those who plant fruit gardens have not
all the same objects in view. One man plants his garden
for profit, to supply his family with good fruits. This 1s

198 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

his main purpose. He should, therefore, select the very
best varieties, considering not the quality alone, but their
productiveness and other useful properties. Such a per-
son has no desire for a large collection, but looks merely
for an assortment that will yield a succession of ripe fruits
during the season. Another who regards the mere value
of the fruit cess than amusement, recreation, and experi-
ment, will make his collection as varied as possible.
Where any particular class of fruits can be had very
cheap in market, it should be planted sparingly in the
garden, so that such as may be scarce or dear. can be
grown in larger quantities. It is only by taking all these
into account, that planters can hope to make their fruit
garden answer their particular views and purposes.

The planting of a fruit garden should be considered as
of equal importance, as far as the doing of it well is con-
cerned, with the building of a dwelling. This is constructed
with a view to the convenience of the family, and is,
therefore, in all its parts, supposed to be adapted to their
wants and mode of living. The fruit garden is intended,
also, to promote the comfort and convenience of the
family, and should, like the dwelling, in all respects be
as nearly as possible adapted to their wants and circum-
stances. Having now treated of the soil, enclosures,
trellises, walks, arrangement, selection of trees and varie-
ties, we proceed to the taking up of the trees and plant-
ing.

Taking up the Trees—This has already been de-
scribed under the head of nursery operations, to which the
reader is referred.

Planting has been described under the head of plant
ing the orchard ; and “the operation being the same in
both cases, it need not be repeated.

The arrangement of the trees, however, is different,
and this point requires a special notice.

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 199

Ist. Tn regard to position.—Each class of trees, such as
pears, apples, cherries, etc., should be planted together in
the same rows or division, and if any difference exist on
the soil, each should be planted in that best adapted to it.
Thus, plums should have that most inclined to clay ; pears
and apples, the deepest and richest; cherries, peaches,
apricots, etc., the dryest and lightest.

Where the garden is large, the pyramids should be in
one compartment, the dwarf standards in another, and
the dwarf bushes in another; but where it is necessary
to economize and fill the ground to the best advantage,
the dwarf bushes may alternate advantageously with the
pyramids or dwarf standards, and this especially along
the walk borders. Varieties, too, of the same, or similar
habits of growth, should, if possible, be together. The
espalier trees should be placed so that the earliest blos-
soming kinds, such as the apricots, will be most secure
from the influence of spring frosts where these prevail.
The trellis facing the north will be the best for this pur-
pose; but where it is intended to protect them, the aspect
is of little account. In the north aspect, fruits are very
much retarded in their ripening; and this circumstance
may be turned to a good account to prolong the season
of some late cherries, currants, etc. We have seen fine
Morellos in perfection on a north wall here, in the month
of September.

The distance at which trees should be planted in the
garden.—This will not be the same in all cases; for in a
large garden it is not necessary to plant so close as in a
very small one, and in a very rich and deep soil, a
greater distance will be required than in a dry and light
soil. There is also a great difference in the growth of
varieties. Some might be planted at six feet apart, and
have as much space in proportion as others would at
eight. This shows that no rule, as regards distance, can

200 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

be observed in all cases, and this particularly in small gar-
dens, where advantage should be taken of every circum- —
stance. In large gardens an uniform distance may be
adopted, even if some space be sacrificed. The following
distances may serve as a general guide, and may be in-
creased or diminished according to circumstances :

‘DISTANCES IN THE OPEN GROUND.

Apples—Pyramids on free stock, ten feet apart; do., on
Doucain, eight feet apart; do., dwarf standards on
Doucain, eight feet apart; do., dwarf bushes on
paradise, five to six feet apart:

Pears.—Pyramids on free stocks, ten to twelve feet apart;
do., on quince, six feet apart; do., dwarf standards on
quince, six to eight feet apart.

Plums.—Dwarf standards, eight to ten feet apart; do.,
pyramids, eight to ten feet apart.

Cherries.—Pyramids, hearts, and bigarreaus, eight to ten
feet apart; do., dukes and morellos, six to eight feet
apart; do., dwarf bushes of morellos, five to six feet
apart.

Apricots—Dwarf standard on plum, eight to ten feet
apart; do., pyramids, six to eight feet apart.

Peaches.—Low “standards on peach, ten to twelve feet
apart; do., on plum, eight to ten feet.

Nectarines.—Same as peaches.

(uinces.—Pyramids or bushes, six to eight feet apart.

Filberts, do., six to eight feet apart.

Gooseberries and Currants, four to five feet apart.

Leaspberries, two to three feet apart.

Mr. Rivers gives the following distances in his “ Minia-
ture Fruit Garden.”

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 201

Pyramidal Pear Trees, on quince stocks, root pruned for
small gardens, four feet apart. The same, in larger
gardens, not root pruned, six feet apart.

Pyramidal Pear Trees, on the pear stock, root pruned,
six feet apart. The same roots, not pruned, eight to
ten feet—the latter if the soil be very rich.

Horizontal Espalier Pear Trees, on the quince stock for
rails or walls, fifteen feet apart.

Upright Exspaliers, on the quince stock for rails or walls,
four to six feet apart.

Forizontal Espaliers, on the pear stock for rails or walls,
twenty to twenty-four feet apart.

Pyramidal Plum Trees, six feet apart.

Espalier Plum Trees, twenty feet apart.

Pyramidal Apple Trees, on the paradise stock, root-
pruned for small gardens, four feet apart. The same
roots not pruned, six feet apart.

Lispalier Apple Trees, on the paradise stock, fifteen feet
apart. The same, on the crab stock, twenty to
twenty-four feet apart.

Peaches and Nectarines for walls, twenty feet apart.

Apricots for walls, twenty-four feet apart.

Cherries, as bushes on the mahaleb stock, roots pruned for
small gardens, four feet apart. The same, roots not
pruned, six feet apart.

Espalier Cherry Trees, on the mahaleb, for rails or walls,
twelve to fifteen feet apart.

DISTANCE FOR ESPALIER TREES ON WALLS OR TRELLISES.

The distances between espalier trees must be regulated
not only by the growth of the species and variety, but by
the height of the wall or trellis. If these be low, a
greater length, of course, will be necessary than if high;
for every tree must have a certain extent of surface to be
spread upon. Hence, if a trellis be only eight feet high,

Q*

902 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

nearly double the length, and,.consequently, double the
distance between the trees will be required that would be
on a trellis fifteen or sixteen feet high. As a general
thing, peaches, apricots, or nectarines, on walls or trellises
eight or ten feet high, should be fifteen to twenty feet
apart, if on free stocks, and twelve to fifteen if dwarfed
on the plum. Cherries, ten to twelve feet. Our native
grapes, Isabella, Catawba, etc., at least thirty feet apart,
on an eight feet high trellis, as their rapid growth covers
a great space in a short time. Foreign varieties will not
require half this; indeed, the bettef way is, to keep
these trained to simple stakes, and planted in the border,
where their out-door culture is attempted. In this way
they are easily laid down and protected.

OHAPLTE RTI;

PRUNING APPLIED TO THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF
FRUIT TREES UNDER DIFFERENT FORMS.

Section 1.—Prouning THE APPLE AND THE Pxar.

Turse two trees belong to the same natural order, po-
macee, and to the same genus pyrus; their habits of
growth and bearing are similar, and they may therefore
be treated as regards their pruning, under the same
head.

If we take for example a shoot of last season (fig. 6), we
find it in the spring, before vegetation commences, fur-
nished on all its length with wood buds; when growth
commences, the terminal bud, and probably two or three
of the others nearest to it, produce shoots, the others to-
wards the middle produce small shoots that are in subse-
quent years transformed into fruit branches (like fig. 10).
Some do not push at all, but are converted into fruit
buds (as in figs. 7 and 8), whilst those at the base gene-
rally remain dormant, until excited into growth by close
pruning. All the buds on these trees have small incon-
spicuous buds at their base, which are capable of produc-
ing shoots when the principal bud is destroyed or injured,
and these buds render the fruit spurs so enduring. In
young trees the fruit buds are many years in process of
formation, and in bearing trees three to four years, accord-

204 PRUNING.

ing to circumstances. When the trees are not subjected
to pruning, the result of the mode of growth described is,
that the terminal buds grow and form one section upon
another, leaving the lower parts mainly destitute of bear-
ing wood, unless it be an occasional spur, the sap always
tending to the points.

1st. Standards.—The management of this form of trees
has been fully treated of in all our works on fruit culture,
and in all the agricultural and horticultural journals, so
that now it is pretty well understood, and especially by
those who give considerable attention to the subject of
fruit trees; it will not be necessary therefore to enter upon
much detail in regard to it.

A standard apple or pear tree for the orchard, when
taken from the nursery to be finally planted out, we will
suppose to have a straight, stout trunk, four to six feet
in height, as the case may be, and a head composed of a
certain number of shoots or branches, but generally shoots
of one year’s growth. At the time of planting, three or
four of these shoots should be selected to form the main
branches, or frame-work, on which to build the whole
head, and the remainder cut clean out; those reserved
should be cut back full one-half, and from the shoots pro-
duced on these at and below the cut, two of the strongest
are selected each on opposite sides, and the others are
rubbed off while they are soft. In selecting these shoots,
care must be taken to have them equally distant from one
another, and pointing in such directions as not to cross or
interfere.

During the first season these young shoots must be
watched and kept in a regular state of vigor. If any
threaten to become too vigorous, they must be pinched
and checked at once, so that perfect uniformity be pre-
served. This is the time to secure a well formed and
nicely balanced head. A very slight circumstance some-

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 205

times throws the growth into one side or one branch of a
young tree, and produces a deformity from which it never
recovers. The trunk must be kept clear of all shoots, by
rubbing off such as appear at the earliest possible moment,
when it can be done without the use of a knife. Suppos-
ing we commenced the head with three branches at time
of planting, there will be at the end of the first season, six.

The attention required after this will be to maintain an
uniform growth among these six branches, and their mem-
bers and divisions, and to prevent the growth of shoots in
the centre. The leading defect in all our orchard trees is
too much wood, the heads are kept so dense with small
shoots that the sun and air are in a great measure ex- —
cluded, and the fruit on the outside of the tree only is
marketable or fit for use. The head should be kept open,
rather in the form of a vase, so that the wood, leaves, .
blossoms and fruit may all, on every part, enjoy the full
benefit of the sun and air, without which they cannot per-
form their functions, or maintain maturity and perfection.

Too many people imagine that trees
can take care of themselves, as trees in
the forest, on the ground that nature
preserves a balance in all her works; but . |
it should be borne in mind that a fruit?“
tree is not exactly a natural production. )
It is far removed from the natural state
by culture, and the farther it is removed,
that is, the more its nature is refined
and improved, the more care it requires.
Fig. 103 represents a young standard
pear tree, stem four feet high, andthe — ;
head twice cut back, as at the letters a uae

A young standard pear
and b. tree, trunk 4 feet high,

Pinching—lf this be properly at- heed formed on three main
branches, twice pruned as

tended to, very little knife pruning will at aanas

206 PRUNING.

be necessary, except to shorten the leading shoots, because
as soon as a superfluous or misplaced shoot appears, it is
rubbed off, and when one becomes too vigorous, it is
pinched and checked; the great advantage of pinching is,
that Ist., It economizes the sap of the tree. That which
would be expended on superfluous shoots is turned to the
benefit of the parts reserved, and thus the growth is greatly
promoted.

2d. All wounds necessarily inflicted, where knife prun-
ing is depended on, are completely avoided. These facts
should be remembered. Standard apples and pears are
not generally pruned with a view to hastening their bear-
ing, but are allowed to arrive at that state in their natu-
ral way. In the case of tardy bearing sorts, however, it
may be desirable to apply artificial means, and these wil:
be pointed out in treating of dwarfs and pyramids
hereafter.

Dwarf Standards.—These are similar to standards,
except that the trunks are low, not over two or three feet
in height, and the head is retained in a smaller space.
Their management is always much easier when the stocks
are such as to dwarf or restrain the growth. Thus,
apples on the paradise or Doucain, and pears on the
guince. The main branches or frame-work of the head,
are produced by cutting back the three or four branches
that form the head of the tree as it comes from the
nursery, in the same manner as recommended for stand-
ards.

The jirst season, all superfluous productions are rubbed
off, and a balance maintained among the shoots by pinch-
ing.

The second year, in the winter or spring, the shoots of
last eeason are shortened, say one half, as a general thing.
This tduces the development of the buds on their whole
parts. The cut is made at a good, plump bud, capable

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 207%

of producing a vigorous shoot; and this is selected to
prolong the branch. If one or = secondary branches
are needed to fill up a space, those next the leader, if
properly situated to fill the space, are chosen, and all be-
low them are pinched when about two or three inches
long, in order to check the production of wood where it
is not wanted, and to convert them into fruit branches or
spurs. The growth of all the main and secondary
branches is regulated and balanced by pinching; and if
the pinched shoots intended for fruit spurs start again
into growth, they must be again pinched.

The third season the shoots of the previous year are cut
back as before, say to four, five, or six eyes, according to
their strength. One shoot is chosen to continue the pro-
longment of the branch, and the others are pinched in
season to convert them into fruit spurs. Thus the tree is
conducted from year to year, until it has attained the full
size required. In this way the trees commence bearing
quite young, and every branch is furnished in all its
length with fruit spurs.

Pyramids—Under the head of “the selection of
trees,” it has been recommended to obtain thrifty year-
ling trees in preference to older ones not properly man-
aged. We will, therefore, begin with the yearling tree,
and although the management of this the first year after
cutting back has been given in the nursery, it may be
well to repeat it here, to save the reader the trouble of
referring back.

Objects of cutting back.—The object in doing this is to
produce branches near the stock that will form the base
of the future pyramid. If left entire, the tendency of
the sap to the extremities would produce shoots there
only, leaving a naked space entirely inconsistent with the
form in view. We, therefore, reduce the stem to such an
extent, that but a small number of buds is left on it,

208 PRUNING. .

and the sap acting on these with great force causes their
development. .

How far to cut back.—It is obvious that this must de-
pend on the character of the subject. In yearling plants,
both of the pear and apple, there is presented a great
difference in different varieties. Some invariably pro-
duce lateral branches the first season. The buds are so
perfectly developed, that when the second growth takes
place in midsummer, they break and form branches, in
some cases as much as a foot long, and in others only a
few inches. Then among the varieties which do not thus
produce side branches in the second growth, there is a
great difference in the plumpness and prominence of the
buds. In some they are larger, and stand out boldly
from the wood on the whole length of the stem, appa-
rently ready to push under the least excitement. In
others they are small, lie flat to the wood, and have
every appearance of being difficult to excite into growth,
and especially those towards the base. It should always
be borne in mind that it is better to cut too low than not
low enough. The difficulty of cutting too low is, that the
shoots produced are nearly all of equal length, and a
certain number of them require to be checked to give
each one its proper dimensions. The difficulty of not
cutting low enough is, that where we should have
branches at the base we have none, or, if any, they are
smaller, instead of larger, than those above them. The
remedy in this case is more difficult than the other. The
vigorous shoots at the summit must be checked, and
even the leading shoot, in order to throw back the sap
into the lower parts to act upon the buds there. The
error which produces. such a difficulty, is very common,
as we know by experience, amongst persons not familiar
with the growth of young trees or the development of
the buds on their stems. It must be laid down as a

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 909

general rule, that the more feeble the plant, and the
smaller and the more imperfectly developed the buds, the
lower it is necessary to cut.

The condition of the roots, too, must be taken into
account ; for where the roots are weak, broken, or injured,
and consequently unfit to yield to the stem any considera-
ble amount of nutriment, the buds will break with less
force, and a more severe retrenchment will be necessary.
All these circumstances must be considered.
For example, we will take a young pear tree
of one year’s growth from the bud, without
branches (fig. 104), which we will suppose to
be four feet, which is the ordinary average
height of yearlings. Ifthe buds are full and
prominent on it, we cut to a good bud at
twenty inches from the stock ; but if the buds
are less prominent, cut to fifteen or eighteen
inches, and if wery feeble, with small buds, x
cut to within twelve inches, or five or six =a
buds of the stock. If the roots have been gig. 104.
injured much, and the stem somewhat dried eee
or shrivelled, it should be cut to within three ches. The cross-
or four buds of the base. These different le pia a ae
cases are mentioned because it frequently cutting back.
happens that persons who live at a great distance from
nurseries, find their trees frequently, on their arrival, in
the condition described, and it is necessary that a course
of treatment for them should be indicated. The bud cut
to, should, if possible, be one of the best on the stem, and
be on the side of the tree opposite that in which the bud
was inserted, so as to continue the stem in a straight line.

It is a great advantage to have a tree well established
in the ground, before cutting it back to produce the first
branches to form the pyramid ; because, in that condition,
it is capable of producing vigorous shoots the first season.

210 PRUNING.

It is on this account that a young tree, cut back in the nur-
sery, presents a much more perfect form at the end of the
second year, than those that have been transplanted.
Some of the French cultivators advise to defer the cutting
back for the formation of the permanent branches, till the
plant has stood one year after transplanting; but the course
is attended with many difficulties, and on the whole it is
better to cut back when the tree is planted, even if we
obtain but a moderate growth, for the older the buds are
on the lower parts of the tree, the more obstinate and
unmanageable they are.

Pruning the Branched Yearling—Among trees of this
kind, some have branches a foot or more in length, while
in others they resemble short, stiff spurs, two to four inches
long. These two characters require different modes of
treatment. Where there are branches of sufficient force
and properly situated to form the first series of main
branches, they must be treated in the same manner as
though the tree were two years old. The
strongest and best situated are selected and
pruned to within four to six inches of their
base, according to their vigor and position ;
the lowest should be not more than six inches
from the stock. The small, feeble, superfluous
ones are entirely removed ; the leading shoot,
which, in such cases, is short and provided
with plump buds, does not require a heavy
shortening ; in most cases one half will be
quite sufficient. Fig. 105 represents a tree
of this kind ; the cross-lines indicate the cuts.

Fig. 105.
Yearling pear tree Where the lateral branches are short and

with branches, the spur-like, they will require very careful treat-
pruning indi

pythe space. ment; the strongest and best placed are
reserved. If the lower ones have good terminal buds,

they are left entire; those above them are shortened, the

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 911

lower to three, the next above to two, and the uppermost,
next the leading shoot, to one bud. This will give their
productions a proper relative degree of vigor. The leader
is cut back further than in the well branched subject,
because it is presumed the buds are less excitable. As a
general thing, within four to six buds of the highest lateral,
or one half of its length.

There is another class of trees necessary to be noticed
here, because they are very common—two year old nur-
sery trees that have not been properly treated.
Fig. 106 represents a tree of this kind. A
few inches only of the top were taken off at
the commencement of the second year’s
growth, and after that it was left to itself.
Branches, therefore, were produced only at
the top, leaving a vacant space of two feet,
the very part that should have produced the
first set of main branches. The best disposi-
tion to make of such a tree would be to con-
duct it in the form of a dwarf standard, which
it really is at present; but it happens that in
some cases it is desired to convert them into
pyramids, and therefore it is essential that the - ;
proper means be pointed out. Two yearold Fig. 106.
trees, like yearlings, differ materially in the ,.3, tree, sot om
character of the buds on the lower part of the back far enough
stem. On some, these are quite prominent, 80 the second pram

the second prun-
much so as to appear to have made some ad- pi ae
vance towards development, while in others jnaicatea by the
they are quite flat and dormant. It is obvious °rss line.

that trees in the first condition will not require that severe
retrenchment on the head to produce branches below, as
the last. In this case it will generally be sufficient, and
especially if the space between the stock and first branches

does not exceed two feet, to cut back the leader to three

919 PRUNING.

buds, and the lateral branches below it to one bud; but
when the buds are small and backward, or when the
branchless space is over two feet in length, the two year
old wood must be cut back to within eighteen inches to
two feet of the base. We find that in the case of imported
trees, or those carried a great distance, and more or less
injured, nothing short of this severe cutting can ensure
branches low enough to form a pyramidal tree. It seems
a great pity to cut back a tree in this manner, and lose a
year or two of its growth and bearing, but it is absolutely
necessary when the pyramidal form is wanted. There is
still another class of trees that we sometimes see sent out
from the nurseries. These are two or three years old;
have been cut back, and are pretty well furnished, in all
their length, with lateral branches ; but from the want of
proper care, those on the upper parts have acquired greater
vigor than those below, presenting the tree in a situation
just the reverse, in this respect, of what it ought to be.
In pruning this subject at the time of planting, the lower
branches must either be shortened very slightly in order
to get a strong bud for a leader, or they must be left
entire, while those above will be cut close; where we want
the longest and strongest branches, there we leave the
most wood.

The most important pruning performed upon a tree is
the jirst one, for it is this which makes all future manage-
ment easy and successful, or difficult and unsatisfactory.
This is the reason why it has appeared necessary to treat
of it so minutely. Having encountered all the difficulties
that others are likely to encounter, and having described
them and pointed out the means by which they are to be
overcome, it is believed that the matter has been made so
plain, that any man of ordinary intelligence, and possess-
ing the slightest knowledge of tree culture, can take his
knife and prepare his trees in such a manner as to give

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. “Ot3

him a most reasonable hope of attaining his ends. We
now proceed to the

Summer management of trees thus cut back—We will
first consider the case of the yearling without branches.
If it has been cut low enough, as directed, all the buds
-below the cut will push. As a space of six inches should
be kept clear between the ground and the first or lowest
tier of branches, such shoots as may appear on that
part will be rubbed off at once. Of the remaining ones,
a certain number, three to six, according to the length of
the stem, will be reserved. These must be the strongest,
and properly situated on.the stem, within eight to ten
inches of space between each branch, and that immedi-
ately above it, and regularly placed on all sides of the
stem. Some recommend leaving on all the shoots that
are produced the first season; but in certain cases this
would be bad practice, for if the buds be very close, the
shoots would be so numerous that the strength of them
all would be impaired, and much pruning would be
required the next season. The better way is to select
such as are wanted, and rub off the others ; the sap which
they would have appropriated will be turned to the
account of the permanent branches, and increase their
vigor. The leading shoot must be directed in a straight
line ; in some cases a support may be necessary. If the
branches immediately below it are so vigorous as to inter-
fere with its growth, they must be checked by pinching.
In some cases it may be necessary to do this when they
are an inch or two in length. It sometimes occurs that
the bud cut to is injured by the weather, close cutting,
or some other cause, and pushes so feebly that the laterals
below it having more vigor take the lead. This must be
prevented in time. A proper relative degree of vigor
must be maintained among all the branches, by checking
when necessary the most vigorous.

914 PRUNING.

The first summer’s treatment of the branched yearling
(fig. 105.) will consist in maintaining a uniform growth
among the lateral branches, and in the case of the leading
shoot, as already described. Some lateral shoots will be
produced on the branches, and these must all be pinched
at an inch or two, as it is yet too soon to allow of the for-
mation of secondary branches. The summer treatment
of fig. 106, the two year old tree, will be conducted on
the same principles. The encouragement of the leading
shoot will require special attention to secure it in an up
right position, as, in many cases, where two year old wood
is cut back, the leading shoots assume a horizontal or
curved direction.

The second pruning.—We have now a tree composed of
two sections: the first is the two-year-old part, furnished
with lateral branches ; and the second, the leading shoot
produced last season. (Fig. 107.) In pruning it, our object
will be to establish a new section of

branches on the leader, to continue the j
y

2

prolongment of the lower branches, and to
induce the formation of fruit spurs towards
their base. To accomplish these ends, we
shorten the leader or stem, on the same
principle in relation to its character, as
already directed for the yearling trees,
from one-half to two-thirds its length, and
sometimes more. Every bud between the
one we cut to and the base of the shoot,
should push; and the bud to produce the
leader should be large, perfectly formed,
and opposite the cut of the previous year. :
The lateral branches on the first section Fig. 107.
are shortened according to their vigor, A two year old pene
“ ree, having made one
always remembering that the lowest must. year’s growth after the
be the longest, to carry out the pyramidal ®t Prening.

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 915

form. They should also be cut back sufficiently to insure
the growth of all the buds on them. This point requires
considerable care, for if not cut back enough, the interior
of the trees becomes naked, instead of being supplied with
shoots:for bearing spurs; and if cut back too far, the
shoots will be too vigorous and difficult to control. The
appearance of the buds, and the habits of the variety,
will be a sufficient guide if properly studied.

Treatment of the growing shoots.—W hen the buds have
all started and made a growth of an inch or two, their
force and forwardness will indicate the uses to be made
of them. Each of the main branches of the first section
may be considered as a stem; its leader will require the
same treatment to favor its extension. At this time a
secondary branch may be required to fill up the space
which widens as the branches extend. If so, a shoot is
selected for this purpose, and all the others on the same
branch are checked at two inches, and converted into
fruit branches. All the laterals are treated in this way.
The second section, now in process of formation, must be
managed as directed for the first section. During the
first season, the requisite number of shoots is preserved,
and the superfluous ones removed early. The leader is
maintained erect; and the laterals immediately below it,
being always inclined to vigorous growth, must be checked
to keep them in a proper condition relative to the leader
and the branches below them. The leading shoot must
always maintain its pre-eminence. It often happens that
the lateral shoots of the main branches that have been
pinched will start and grow again. In such cases an-
other pinching must be performed within an inch of the
previous one. As a general thing, this will be sufficient ;
but if not, a ¢herd must be given in the same way ; for if
they be allowed to extend into wood branches they will
require knife pruning, and create confusion among all

216 PRUNING.

parts of the tree. A very general error in conducting
trees of this kind, and indeed all others, is to allow the
branches to be too close to each other, so that when they
come to bear, the wood, foliage, and fruit, on the interior,
are so excluded from the air and light that they all
suffer. The fruit is imperfect, and the spurs become
feeble and gradually perish. The tree has now two
branched sections, each from twelve inches to two feet, as
the case may be, and with four to six branches on each;
the leading shoot is from one to three feet in length.

The average height
of three year old trees,
on the quince in our
grounds, transplanted at
one year old, and twice
pruned, is five to six

feet. A few very vigo-

rous growing varieties, oe ¢ ee

that throw up a leader ri i WV
three to f Y NY

every season three to four \ \) yo ig

feet in length, are seven WI ZA

to eight feet; but these
are comparatively few in
number.

Third pruning.—This
is done on _ precisely
the same principles laid
down for the second.
The leader of the stems
is cut back in proportion
to its vigor, the lateral
branches are also short- pruned, having three branch sections, a, 6, ¢,

ened in the Same Man- seven feet high, and furnished in the lower
ner. It must always be parts with fruit spurs. The cross lines indicate

; i the fourth pruning.
kept in mind that the

Fie. 108.

A pear tree four years old, three times -

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. OTT

lowest branches must be longest, and when it happens
that they do not take their due proportion of vigor, as
compared with those above them, and if pinching has
not been duly attended to the past summer, to maintain
regularity, the weaker must now be favored with a long
pruning.

Fig. 108 represents a four-year old pear tree of the white
Doyenne, three times pruned, a, 4, e.

It has been remarked, that the habits of growth and
bearing of the pear and apple are similar, but it should
be noted, that in treating them as pyramids, the apple
tree is more liable to lose its vigor at the top, and there-
fore it is necessary to keep an eye to this point in their
management. From what has been said with reference
to an equal distribution of the sap, the remedy for this
difficulty will be obvious, viz., to reduce the vigor of the
lower parts by pinching, shortening, and heavy crops,
and to favor the upper part by long pruning and thin-
ning, or wholly removing the fruits.

Management of the fruit branches—About the sixth
to the eighth year, from the first pruning of the tree, it
will have attained nearly as great dimensions as in many
eases will be desirable, and be well furnished with fruit
branches.

After this period, the object of the pruning will be to
prevent the extension of the tree, and maintain the fruit
bearing parts ina healthy and productive state. Without
proper care they will be liable to suffer from bearing too
much, or from the growth of young wood on the extremi-
ties of young branches.

To diminish the growth, and favor the fruit branches,
the young shoots must be pruned shorter than before, in
order to turn the sap more to the benefit: of the fruits, and
when the fruit spurs become too numerous, so as to be too
near one another, and produce more fruit than the tree

10

918 PRUNING.

can sustain with safety, a portion of them must be pruned
off. The lower parts always experience this difficulty
first, the sap circulating more slowly there than in the
summit. Fruit spurs of the pear and apple, if well
managed, continue in a vigorous bearing state for a great
many years. ‘To renew and prolong their vigor, the older
parts must, from time to time, be cut away, and new pro-
ductions created at their base to take their place.

Pruning and management of the Apple as a dwarf
on the paradise stock.

Nothing is more simple than the treatment of these
little bushes.

They should have short stems, six to eight inches from
the ground, and the head should not be allowed to exceed
three to three and a half feet in height, because the roots
are very small, and do not take such a firm hold of the
ground as to admit of a head that would offer much ob-
stacle to the wind. The branches should be evenly dis-
tributed around the head, open in the centre, in the form
of a vase, and be furnished in all their parts with bearing
spurs.

These are the points to aim at in commencing the
formation of these trees. The proceedings are as follows:

1st. Pruning—We will suppose that the subject is a
yearling bud or graft, a single shoot eighteen to twenty
inches in height. In this case, the stem is cut back to the
point where it is intended to form the head, six to ten
inches, as the case may be, from the stock. Below this,
most of the buds will start and form shoots, from which
we select three or four of the strongest and best situated,
equally distant, if possible, around the stem, and rub or
pinch off all the others. The growth of the branches
thus selected for a head, is encouraged during the first
season, by keeping down all other productions that may
appear.

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 919

2d. Pruning—tThe tree has now three or four branches
destined to be the basis of the frame-work of the
head. These branches are cut back full one half
their length, according as the buds in the variety are
easily excited or not, the object being to induce all
the buds below the cut to push. After growth has
commenced, and an inch or two of new wood been made,
the shoot from the bud cut to, will be chosen as a
leader to continue the extension of the branch; and if,
secondary branches be wanted, they will be chosen from
those best situated, to fill up the existing vacancies. All
the other shoots are pinched when two or three inches
long, to convert them into fruit spurs, and to prevent
their interfering with the growth of the wood branches.
If one pinching is not sufficient, another must be given
in the same way as recommended for pyramidal trees.
Indeed, the whole process, as far as it goes, is the same;
but the same efforts are not
necessary to maintain an equal
distribution of the sap, for the
tree is so low, and the form so
natural, that no branch is more
favorably situated than another ;
and hence they are easily kept in
an uniform state of vigor. The
branches of irregular-growing
sorts will require to be secured
by stakes in their proper places
for a year or two at first, until
they have assumed a permanent

Fie. 109.

a i. Dwarf ajple tree, four years
position. old, stem ten inches high, head

The third, and all subsequent composed of four main branches

¢ 3 and several secondary branches ;

prunings, will be conducted on pruned three times as at a, 5, now
the same principles as the first '™*>earing state.

and second, already described, until the tree has attained

220 PRUNING.

its full size. Fig. 109 represents a dwarf apple tree, four
years old, three times pruned—the two last prunings are
indicated by the letters a and 0.

Management of the Bearing Tree-—In most cases the
apple on the paradise is disposed to excessive fruitfulness,
and unless the fruit branches be occasionally thinned and
shortened, in order to reduce the number of bearing
buds, and to produce new wood, the trees become enfee-
bled. Bad management of this kind has promulgated
the belief that the apple on the paradise is exceed-
ingly short-lived ; but the fact that plantations exists in the
most perfect vigor at the end of twelve to fifteen years
after planting, shows that by proper treatment their exist-
ence is not so fleeting. The spurs must be managed in a
manner similar to that described in treating of pyramids,
to renew them, and the slender fruit branches must be short-
ened. This, in addition to the manuring to be hereafter
described, constitutes the substance of their management.

The Pruning and Management of the Apple and Pear
as espaliers.—In the cool, moist climate of England, this
is a popular and advantageous method of training apples
and pears. The specimens of this kind in public and
private gardens there, are admirable in their way, and
illustrate the skill and handiwork of the English gardener
very favorably. But our climate is not suitable as a gen-
eral thing for espaliers; the branches are so exposed’ to
the rays of our powerful sun, that the sap is impeded in
its circulation, and the fruits fall. It is, therefore, un-
necessary to enter into any detail respecting this mode of
training; but there may be situations where such a sys-
tem may succeed, and especially in the north. The best
espalier form for the apple and pear, is that of the hor
zontal, that is, an upright central stem, with horizontal
arms or branches at equal distances on both sides (fig.
110). The production of this tree depends in the main

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 921

on the same principles as the pyramid, and does not re-
quire illustration. The young tree is cut back to within
six inches of the ground. From the shoots produced be-

Fie. 110.
Pear tree trained horizontally.

low that point, three are selected, the upper one to form
the upright leader or stem, and two lateral or side
ones to form the two first arms. The first season these
shoots are allowed to grow upright and are kept in equal
vigor. At the commencement of the second season, they
are all cut back far enough, say one third to one half their
length, or even more in some cases, to ensure the growth
of all the buds. |

The upper shoot on each is selected for a leader, and
the others are pinched at two inches or less. After the
pruning, the arms are brought down half way to a hori-
zontal position, and towards the latter end of the season,
wholly. An uniformity of growth among all the parts is
maintained according to the means and principles already
laid down, and year after year the tree is thus treated
until the requisite height and number of horizontal arms
or branches be obtained. In the case of very vigorous
growing sorts the leader may be stopped in June, and
thus a second pair of arms be produced in one year. The
upright leader and the branches are treated in a similar
manner—a difference in vigor always requiring a corres-
ponding difference in treatment. For espaliers, the apple
should be on the paradise or Doucain, and the pear on

299, PRUNING.

the quince, because these stocks all diminish the vigor of
wood growth, which is often the chief difficulty in man-
aging trained trees.

The aspect for these trees should never be due south.
A railing to train such trees on, is made of upright posts
sunk in the ground, and connected with cross bars, at
eight to twelve inches apart, upon which the arms of the
espalier are fastened with willow or bass matting. Mr.
Rivers, in his “ Miniature Fruit Garden,” exhibits a sys-
tem of growing pears in espalier, in the form of pyramids,
as adopted by himself. I saw these trees when in Eng-
land, in 1849, and although it appeared a very ingenious
and economical arrangement, admitting a great number
of varieties in a small space, and besides very well
adapted to an English climate, yet it did not appear to offer
any advantages that would warrant its recommendation
in this country, unless under rare circumstances in the
most northern sections. Whoever will study attentively
the means described for conducting a pyramid, can suc-
ceed fully in training the espaliers or wall pyramid.

Section 2.—Prunine AND TRAINING THE QUINCE.

As ordinarily grown, the quince is the most neglected,
and consequently, the most unsightly, deformed tree to be
found in the orchard or garden, and yet, when well treated,
it is really, both when in blossom and in fruit, one of the
most beautiful of all our fruit trees. Its fruit is more
esteemed, and more generally used in this than in any
other country. It is naturally a crooked or spreading
bush, and without some attention to pruning and training
when young, it assumes an irregular form, branching near
the ground, and quite destitute of bearing wood on all its
lower and interior parts. It is in this neglected form we
most generally find it. To make a regular and handsome

THE QUINCE. 923

little tree, we have only, in the first place, to rear a
straight and stout trunk about two or three feet high.

If the plants be weak or crooked when planted, they
should be cut low down to obtain a stout and straight
stem. The young shoot should be kept tied up to a stake
to prevent it from straggling.

The second year, if the growth has been vigorous, and
low trees are desired, the head may be commenced. But
if,a stem three or four feet high be desired, it should be
at least one inch in diameter, and another year’s growth
may be necessary.

- The head is formed in the same manner as described for
standard and dwarf apples and pears. It should be
* round, symmetrical, and open, and well furnished on all
parts with bearing wood.

The bearing branches or spurs of the quince are small
twiggy shoots (B, fig.
111), produced on wood
at least two years old. ff
These bear two, three, {
or more fruit buds.
These produce shoots
two or three inches
long (C, fig. 111), on
the point of which the
fruit is borne singly.
These spurs have al-
ways wood buds as well
as fruit buds, and there-
fore they should be Be kiy
shortened back as to a
A, fig. 111, the spring Fig. 11.
after they have home, ,2futbrnshot ine ance 0 ie soc Pre
in order to produce new should be cut back after bearing.
spurs at the same point.

Q24 PRUNING.

The French conduct it in beautiful pyramids, on pre-
cisely the same principle as the pear and apple; but the
leading shoot must be kept fastened to an upright sup-
port—a small rod attached to the base—on account of its
reclining habit. The medlar is but little cultivated. Its
treatment may be exactly similar to that described for the
quince, its habits of growth and bearing being similaz.

Section 3.—PruniInG THE CHERRY. -

The cherry is conducted in any desirable form witk as
much facility as any of all our hardy fruit trees. The
heart and bigarreau classes are very rapid growers, often
attaining the height of six feet the first season from the
bud or graft, and in two years forming fine standard trees
six to seven feet high, with a few top shoots. They have
also large, drooping leaves,and, with few exceptions, stiff,
erect, or slightly curved branches.

The duke class does not grow so rapidly. The branches
are stiff and erect, the leaves smaller as a general thing
than the preceding classes, more erect, thicker, and of a
deeper, darker green color.

The morellos are of a bushy habit, with smaller leaves
than any of the preceding classes, and the branches are
more slender and closer together. The bark of all is very
tough, being composed of several layers of powerful
fibres and tissue. It does not yield readily, like that of
most other fruit trees, to the expansion or growth of the
wood, and this occasions the bursting and exuding of gum
in certain localities, especially in the more rapid growing
classes. The mode of bearing has already been deseribed
under the head of fruit branches, in the beginning of the
work. The fruit is produced on wood three years old
thus: The shoot of last year’s growth, which is furnished
now with leaf buds in all its length, will produce at the

THE CHERRY. 225

point, if not shortened, one or more shoots, and all the
buds remaining are, during the season, transformed into
clusters of fruit buds, and produce fruit the year follow-
ing. In the centre of these clusters of fruit buds there is
always a wood bud, and this grows a little and produces
new clusters of fruit buds to replace those that have
borne. Some of the morellos produce fruit on two-year-
old wood, like the peach, the leaf buds being transformed
into fruit buds. During the second growth of the first
season of their formation, the fruit bud is very easily
distinguished from the leaf bud by its roundness and
plumpness.

Pruning the Cherry as a Standard —In Western New
York the cherry succeeds so well, and is so totally exempt
from the bursting of the bark, that trees can be grown
safely with trunks five or six feet high; but in the West,
when this malady prevails, the less there be of a naked
trunk the better; for it is the trunk and large branches
that are generally so affected. As a standard, the cherry
requires very little pruning. |

To form around open head—We wil take for exam-
ple a young tree two years old, having three or four top
branches. These at the time of planting should be cut
back to within four or five buds of their base, and when
growth has commenced, the requisite number of shoots,
say four or five, to form the framework of the head are
selected, evenly distributed on all sides, and all the others
pinched or rubbed off.

The following season these shoots may again be short-
ened to produce secondary branches to fill up spaces, and
those arising in the centre should be pinched out, for the
head must be kept open and accessible to the sun and
light. In about three years of such treatment, the head
of the tree assumes a permanent form, and thereafter, may
be left to itself, except to remove occasionally branches

4°"

226 PRUNING.

that may cross or interfere with one another. Our stand-
ard trees here are in the best possible condition, and have
not had a knife on them, except to cut scions for budding
or grafting, in seven years.

Pyramidal Headed Standards.—Certain varieties, for
instance, Sparhawk’s Honey, Downer’s, China Bigarreau,
Black Tartarian, Black Heart, and some others, make |
fine pyramidal shaped heads without pruning, more than
to give the leader its due superiority at the beginning, and
to remove afterwards crossing and superfiuous branches.

Such varieties as the Yellow Spanish, Black Eagle,
Knight’s Ey. Black, Elton, and all the spreading sorts,
should have round open heads built upon three or four
main branches as described.

Pruning the Cherry as a Pyramid.—tThe same process
recommended for the pyramidal training of the pear and
apple, may be applied with complete success to the cherry.
We have now in our specimen grounds a collection of all
the classes trained, according to the method described,
and their condition is in every respect satisfactory ; they
have all given fruit the third year.

In most cases the trees were taken from the nursery
rows at the end of their first season’s growth from the bud.
Some had no side branches, and others had. It is very
common for cherries and especially the Dukes and Morel-
los to form a number of lateral branches the first season.
Growth becomes slightly suspended, or at least goes on
very slowly in July; during this time the buds on the
lower part acquire a sort of maturity, and when a new
growth commences they push and form shoots. Cherry
trees of this kind are in a good condition for pyramids.
We select from these the strongest and best situated to
form the lower tier of permanent branches ; the lower ones
are shortened to four or five buds, and the upper ones to
two or three. The leader or stem is cut back to within

THE CHERRY. 927

six, eight, or ten buds of the branches. Those having no
branches are cut back to within six or eight buds of the
stock. And this is the first pruning.

Treatment during the first Summer after Pruning. —
When the young shoots have grown a couple of inches in
length, such as are intended for permanent branches are
chosen, and the others are pinched in the same manner as
recommended for pears and apples. Such as acquire
more vigor than is consistent with their position, must be
checked. It frequently happens that unless the leader
has been cut back close, only three or four shoots will be
produced at the extremity, leaving a vacant space below.
This can be remedied in most cases by pinching the shoots
around the leader when they have grown about an inch.
In some cases it may be necessary even to check the
leader to force the lower buds into growth. This is a point
of considerable importance in conducting a pyramid, and
should never be lost sight of.

The Cherry as an Espalier—Except it be the training
of the morello, or some other late varieties, on a north
wall to prolong their season of maturity, the cherry is sel-
dom grown as an espalier tree in this country, nor is it to
be recommended except in some rare instances. The
simplest and probably the best form is that suggested for
pears and apples, an upright stem with horizontal branches.
To produce this the same means are employed as have
been previously described. If the tree has no side
branches proper for the first arms, it must be cut back to
within six inches of the ground, and from the shoots pro-
duced below that, one is selected for the leader, and one
on each side for the first horizontal branches; the other
shoots are pinched off. At the next pruning, the Jeader
is again shortened to produce another pair of side branches
eight or ten inches from the first ; the leader is continued
in an upright direction, and the side branches are brought

228 PRUNING.

half way down in midsummer, and at the following spring
pruning they are placed in the horizontal position. The
leading shoot of rapid growing sorts may be stopped about
the end of June, and this will produce side shoots from
which another pair of arms may be taken, and thus gain
a year in the formation of the tree, or covering the wall
or trellis.

For weak growing sorts, the fan form or some modi-
fication of it would, perhaps, be more suitable than the
horizontal, as it offers less restraint to the circulation of
the sap in the branches.

The Cherry asa Dwarf or Bush—The slow growing
sorts, such as the dukes and morellos, when worked on the
mahaleb stock, make very pretty and very easily man-
aged prolific bushes, and by occasional root pruning they
may be confined to as small a space as a dwarf apple
tree. To produce this form, the young tree is cut back
to within five or six buds of its base; and from the shoots
produced below that, four or five evenly distributed
around the tree are selected for the permanent branches
or frame-work of the tree. The others are rubbed off.
At the next pruning the branches thus produced are
shortened to produce secondary branches; and thus it is
treated from year to year until the tree is formed and full
grown.

The branches must be kept far enough apart to admit
the sun and air freely amongst them. When the tree is
five or six years old, if it grows too vigorously, requiring
more space than can be given it, the larger roots may be
shortened in July or August, or in the winter. This and
the pyramid, and the dwarf standard, with stems two feet
high, are the most eligible garden forms for the cherry.*

* Mr. Rivers states in his “ Miniature Fruit Garden,’ that he has a
plant of the late duke cherry ten years old, that never was root-pruned, and
yet is a smal] prolific tree, five feet in height, and the branches the same in

THE PEACH. 929

The dwarf standard is treated precisely as the dwarf,
and differs from it only in having two feet instead of six
or eight inches of stem. In pruning and training the
cherry, it should always be borne in mind that when
large branches are removed, it is lable to suffer from the
gum, and, therefore, the regulation of the shoots should
be carefully attended to in summer, that amputations of
woody parts may be avoided as far as possible. When it
is necessary, however, the cut surface heals more rapidly
and surely when made in the summer, during the growing
season.

Section 4.—Prouninc AND MANAGEMENT OF THE PEACH.

The peach is universally regarded as the most delicious
fruit of our climate, and ranks in importance for orchard
culture next to the apple and the pear. Nowhere in the
world is it produced in such quantities, and with so little
labor, as in America. An English or -French gardener
will expend more labor on a single tree, than the majority
of our orchardists do upon one hundred. Our favorable
climate obviates a multitude of difficulties that have to
be contended with in other countries, and renders unneces-
sary the minute and laborious systems of management
which they find it absolutely necessary to pursue.

But this very excellence of our climate has given rise
to a most negligent and defective system of cultivation,
as is everywhere illustrated in the condition of orchards.
The peach, of all other trees, is one that, from its mode
of growth and bearing, requires constant pruning to
maintain it in a shapely, thrifty, and productive state.
The sap tends powerfully to the extremities of the shoots,

diameter. We have in our specimen grounds trees of several dukes and
morellos, six years old, on mahaleb stocks, not over four or five feet high,
and pictures of fruitfulness.

230 PRUNING.

more so than in any other fruit tree. The buds that do
not push and form shoots the first season after their for-
mation, are lost; they cannot, as in most other trees, be
excited into growth; and hence it is that the lower parts
become so rapidly denuded of young wood, and that
trees left to themselves for six or seven years are in a
measure worn out and worthless.

The fruit is borne only on wood of the preceding year
(see fruit branches), and every part destitute of such
wood must be worthless; consequently one of the great
objects of pruning is to keep all parts of the tree fur-
nished with a regular and constant succession of annual
bearing shoots.

This fact must never be lost sight of.

The case of a single shoot will illustrate the influence
of pruning and its necessity. By referring to the fruit
branch, it will be seen that it is furnished with a certain
number of wood buds and fruit buds. At the base there
are always one or two wood buds at least.

Now, if that shoot were not pruned, all the fruit buds
on it would probably produce fruit—one, two, or three
of the wood buds at the top would make new shoots ;
these would necessarily be very weak in consequence of
the number of fruit below them. At the end of the
season there would be a long, vacant space, entirely des-
titute of a young shoot or a living bud. This is the way
that the interior and lower parts of trees become so soon
degarnished.

But when that shoot is shortened, we will say one half,
the sap is retained in its lower parts, one half of the
fruit buds are removed, and the consequence is that large
and fine fruits are obtained from those remaining ; young
vigorous shoots are produced from the lower buds to bear
next year, and take the place of those which have
already borne. In this way regular uniform crops of

THE PEACH. 231

large and fine fruit are obtained, and a constant succession
of young shoots is kept up.

To form the head of a standard Poaed Tree—We
will suppose it the intention to form a standard tree, with
a trunk two feet in height, and a round, open, and sym-
metrical head like fig. 112. We take a yearling tree and
cut it back to within two feet and a half of the ground in
the spring. Below this cut a certain number of shoots
will be produced, from which
three will be selected to form the
main branches or frame-work of
the head. All the others are rub-
bed off when two or three inches
long or sooner. At the end of the
season we have a tree with three
branches. Fie 112.

The second year these three Form of a low standard peacn
branches are cut back full one ty Vina open ti eg
half their length, and from each
we take a shoot to continue the branch, and one to form
a secondary branch. The other shoots produced below
these are pinched or checked to prevent them from inter-
fering with the growth of the leading branches. In the
fall of the year we have a tree with six leading branches,
and some bearing shoots below on the older wood.

The third year each of these six branches is short
ened one half, in order to obtain more secondary branches,
and some fruit branches on the lower parts. All young
shoots on the old wood, whether fruit branches or not,
should be cut back one half, or as far as may be necessary,
to cause the wood buds at their base to push, and make
shoots to bear next year.

The formation of the head goes on as described for two
or three years more, when it is complete; for peach trees,

232 PRUNING.

properly pruned, do not assume such wide-spreading
forms as they do naturally.

The main branches and secondary branches should be
at equal distances throughout, and far enough apart to
give the bearing wood on their sides the full benefit of
the sun and air.

An equality of vigor should also be preserved amongst
them by summer pinching. It is not uncommon to see a
very vigorous shoot start up in a peach tree, and appro-
priate so much of the sap as to injure a whole branch ;
these should be checked the moment their character is
observed, unless they may be wanted to fill a vacancy.
Every part of the branches should be furnished with
bearing shoots, and these should, every spring, be short-
ened in one half or more, to produce others at their base,
whilst those that have borne are cut out.

Some people imagine that when they have taken a pair
of hedge shears, or some such instrument, and shorn off
the ends of the shoots on the outside of the tree indis-
criminately, they are “shortening in,” and so they are,
as they would a hedge! Some of the shoots are cut
away entirely, fruit buds and all, whilst ‘others remain
untouched, and the tree becomes like a brush on the out-
side and naked within. This is almost as bad as the let-
alone system. Every shoot should be cut separately.
The most expeditious instrument for doing this, is a pair
of light hand-pruning shears, such as the French secateur
(see instruments). A person accustomed to its use can
prune every shoot on a full-grown tree in an almost in-
credibly short space of time, as compared with that re-
quired with the knife. Extensive orchardists may be
deterred from such a labor, looking to the cost; but if
they will engage quick, active, intelligent persons to do
the work, and estimate the increased value of the fruit,

THE PEACH. 233

and longevity and beauty of their trees, there can be no
doubt but it will be found a paying investment.

Loot Pruning.—In gardens where the soil is rich, and
trees very full of vigor, disposed to grow too much and
bear too little, root pruning should be practised once in
two or three years—the first lightly, removing only the
ends of the large feeding roots. The safest time to do it
is between the fall of the leaf and the opening of spring.
Vegetation in the peach seldom becomes sufficiently
inactive during the growing season, to enable the roots to
be pruned with safety.

The Peach im the form of a vase-—Among all the
forms in which trees are conducted, this is, when well
done, one of the most graceful.

It consists of a short stem two to five feet, according to
fancy, with a head composed of three or four main
branches, and two or three times that number of second-
ary branches, all trained by means of light stakes at first,
and afterwards wire or wooden hoops in the form of a
vase or goblet. The branches are arranged in a circle,
with bearing shoots filling up the spaces. No shoots are
permitted either in the interior or in front that is project-
ing from the exterior surface of the goblet.

The most beautiful trees of this form are to be seen in
the gardens of the Luxembourg, at Paris, and elsewhere
in France.

Mr. Louis Gaudry, who has a very pretty little plan-
tation in Paris, and who has published a small work on
pruning and training trees, gives the annexed cut as a
representation of one of his vase peach trees of eight
years’ growth (fig. 113). The following is the substance
of his mode of conducting them.

First Pruning—tvhe stem of the yearling tree is cut
back to the point at which it is desired to commence the
head to three buds, forming a triangle and as nearly as

934 PRUNING.

possible of the same height. Three shoots are obtained
from these three buds to form the first or main branches

Fie. 118.

Peach tree 1n the form of a vase, with four main branches, each having several
secondary branches. The stem in the figure is five feet, but should not exceed two.

.

THE PEACH. 935

or frame-work of the vase. To favor the growth of these,
all the shoots produced below them are rubbed off.

In order to give them the proper inclination, three
small stakes are inserted in the ground, to which the
three branches are fastened; it is supposed that if these
stakes be sunk as far from the base of the tree as the roots
extend, and in an upright position, there will be a
sufficient opening or space in the centre. The branches
should be thus brought out about August, so that the for-
mation of new layers of wood subsequent to that time
may fix them in their places. The side shoots, which are
produced on the young branches, towards the latter part
of the season, designated by the French bowrgeons anticipés,
are pinched to one or two leaves.

2d. Pruning.—tThe spring following, the branches are
loosed from the stakes, and shortened to six or eight
inches of their base, to a leaf bud on the outside or front
of the branch, and with a bud below it, either on the right
or left side. The front bud continues the main branch,
and the side bud forms a secondary branch. The three
branches are pruned in this way, taking care that the
secondary branch on each is on the same side, so that two
of them cannot come in contact. To favor the growth of
these new shoots, all those situated below them that acquire
too much vigor, must be pinched at three or four leaves.

A wooden hoop may now be placed in the centre, to
which the branches are attached to keep them in their
places. In this way the tree progresses; every year one or
more secondary branches are produced, the main branches
increase in length, and fruit shoots are produced on all
the intervals of the branches, on their two sides.

All shoots that push either inside or in front of the vase
aye pinched off, and pinching is practised at all times to
maintain equal growth between the different parts, and to
check any too great tendency of the sap to the extremities.

236 PRUNING.

Thard pruning.—The fruit branches are pruned to three
or four buds, to induce the lower wood buds to push and
form new wood for the next season.

The main branches are cut back to ten or twelve inches
above the previous pruning, to a bud on the front to con-
tinue the branch; the buds selected to produce another
series of secondary branches, must all be on the side oppo-
site the previous ones. If the position of the buds renders
this impossible, then they may all be chosen on the same
side as the first.

The hoops this year will require to be larger in dia-
meter than the preceding, in order to give increased width
to the vase as it proceeds upwards. All the other opera-
tions are conducted in the same manner. The hoops in-
side are placed within six to eight inches of one another,
and the circular branches within twelve to fifteen inches.
As the tree advances in age, the growth may become too
vigorous at the top; and in this case, the main branches,
always the most vigorous, must be pruned short, and even
pinched during summer, to turn the sap to the benefit of
the weaker parts. .

These are the main points in the management of these
vases. It may be added, that the apple, pear, cherry,
and indeed all other trees may be grown in this form, and
by the same means, varying it only to suit different modes
of growth and bearing, and degrees of vigor.

The Peach as an Espalier—Espalier training will never
be practised in this country to any very great extent, and
therefore it may be considered, in comparison with open
ground systems, unimportant. Yet there are some dis-
tricts not so favorabiy situated as to be able to produce
peaches, apricots, and nectarines, in the open ground.
For these a proper system of espalier training is impor-
tant, because in this form trees are easily protected from

THE PEACH. _ 937

winter or spring frosts, and they ripen their fruits per-
fectly, where open ground or standard trees would not.

The Peach as an Expalier trained on a wall or trellis —
There are a multitude of forms for espalier trees where
training on walls or trellises is necessarily and extensively
practised, as in England and France. The great requi-
sites in a wall tree are, jirst, to have all the wall covered;
and, second, to have the different parts of the tree alike
favorably placed, with reference to its growth. Next to
these are simplicity and naturalness.

The most popular form in England is that called the

Fig. 114.
Fan-shaped Espalier.

Jan (fig. 114). In it the branches are spread out so as to
resemble a fan; the lower ones are nearly or quite hori-
zontal; the next- more oblique; and so they proceed
until the centre ones are quite upright, and this appears
to be the defect of this form; for the horizontal branches
cannot maintain such a vigor as those more erect above
them. The square espalier, invented by M. Fretrx Mato,
of France, and now extensively practised by some of the
best peach growers of the celebrated town of Montreuil,
seems to possess more advantages, all in all, than any
other. The “ Bon Jardinier,” from which the following
description of the method of conducting these trees is

238 PRUNING.

taken, says: “This generally approved form begins to
find imitators, and it is probable that one day it will be
adopted by all intelligent gardeners.”

Lrst year.—We will begin with a peach tree one year
from the bud, and cut it down to within six or eight
inches, or three or four buds of the stock. From the buds
produced below the cut, two of the strongest are chosen,
one on each side, to form the two main branches—branches
mere; all the other shoots are destroyed, and these two
are allowed to grow upright, and in the fall they will be
three to four feet high.

Second year (fig. 115).—In the spring, when hard frosts
are no longer apprehend- a f
ed, the branches are ex- ‘ FS
amined to see if they be ;
sound and healthy, free
from bruises, insects, ete., Fig. 116. Fig. 116.
end they are tat tae oo Second year. Third year.
twelve or fifteen inches of their base, according to their
strength; a weak branch ought always to be cut back in
such a case as this further than a strong one.

The bud cut to, should, if possible, be on the cnszde,
and the next bud below it on the outsede, the first to
continue the main branch, and the other to form the first
exterior secondary branch. All shoots starting on the
front or rear of the main branch should be rubbed off,
and those on the sides laid in early to prevent their
acquiring too much vigor. The main branches are left
till July, when they are brought down to the form of a V,
and attached to the wall or trellis in this position. The
exterior secondary branch is placed more oblique, and the
fruit branches are kept in a uniform and moderate growth
by pinching and laying in. The most vigorous should
always be laid in first to check them, and favor the others.

Third year (fig. 116).—After loosening the tree from

THE PEACH. 239

the trellis, the two main branches are cut back to
sixteen or eighteen inches of the previous pruning, and
the two lower or secondary branches to twelve or sixteen
inches.

The fruit branches are shortened to within two or three
buds of their base, and all are again fastened back in their
places. When the young shoots have reached the length
of three, four, or five inches, such as are badly placed
on the front or rear of the branches, or in any place inju-
rious to the symmetry of the tree, are removed. During
the summer the different branches must be laid in from
time to time, the most vigorous first. This year two more
secondary branches must be obtained on each side, in the
same manner as in the previous year. Their growth is
also promoted by the same means.

The fruit branches on the sides of the main branches
may give a few fruit this year, and those on the second-
ary branches may bear next year.

The fruit branches that have borne are to be cut away
each year and replaced by others, therefore we must com-
mence to provide for these branches of replacement.
They are produced as follows :

First, it may be observed that fruit branches have gen-
erally one or more wood buds at their base. Sometimes
these will push and form branches of replacement with-
out any assistance, more than cutting back. In sucha
case there is no difficulty. When the fruit is ripe, or at
the next pruning, the fruit branch that has borne is cut
away, and the new one takes its place. But nature does
not always act thus. It is generally necessary to force
the development of these branches of replacement, withou
which the branches in all their lower parts would becom:
entirely denuded.

Hence, then, when a branch of replacement fails tu
appear by the ordinary method of shortening, we have

/

9AD ~ PRUNING.

two modes of forcing it: one is to make, after the fruit is
set, an incision through the bark two inches above one of
the wood buds, and pinch close all the shoots on the fruit
branch, leaving only rosettes of leaves necessary to the
perfection of the fruit; pinching must be repeated all
thetime that the shoots on the fruit branch continue to
grow.

Fourth Year (fig. 117).—After having examined if the
tree is equally vigorous in all its parts, and having de-
cided upon the means of restoring the balance if it has
been lost, the tree is detached from the wall or trellis, and
pruned, commencing with the fruit branches that have
borne. These, it must be remembered, are to be cut back
each year to the new branch of replacement produced at
its base. The young shoot then becomes the fruit branch,
and is pruned within four to fourteen inches, according to
their vigor and the situation of the fruit buds.

The two main branches are cut back to within about
twenty inches of the previous pruning; the first shoot on
the inside is
chosen to conti-
nue the branch,
and the next
! one below it

Fig. 117, Fig. 118. on the lower

Fourth year. Fifth year. and outer sid @,

to produce the third exterior secondary branch. The two

secondary branches already formed are cut back to about

twelve to fifteen inches of the previous pruning, in order

to make all the lateral buds on them push. The terminal

bud produces a leader to continue them; all the others are
fruit branches.

In attaching the tree again to the wall, the angle that
exists between the two main branches is gradually
widened, the branches a litt!e more spread at every pruning.

THE PEACH. 941

Fifth year (fig. 118)—The tree is now composed of
two main branches, both of which have three secondary
branches on their exterior lower sides, and fruit branches
on all their length on the interior and upper side; and all
that is wanted to complete it, is to transform three of the
bearing shoots on the upper sides into three secondary
branches, corresponding and alternating with the three
lower ones. To do this; we select the fruit branch on
each, nearest the fork or base of the main branches. The
growth of this is favored by training it in an upright posi-
tion, and by pinching any vigorous shoots near it. The
tree is managed thus, as in preceding years, in regard to
laying in the shoots according to their vigor, and pinching
to maintain regularity, &c.

The sixth year (fig. 119)—The pruning is conducted
on the same principles precisely, and another interior
secondary branch is produced in the same way as last
year.

The seventh year (fig. 120)—Another is produced on

X a a
& a Me ges
aN ae 7. : ~~ \ \ J : Ss :
ISK x yf JF Fen { / 2s ZL). + =
¢ . Ny r fr a a | \ =o %
ee (Zor me f Late
P PASS ‘ Lj —s s a q ae
SS RAY \ se mati Z Go. = SS/= fobs
rts 2
Fria. 119. Fie. 129.
Sixth year. Seventh year.

each, and then the tree

with its two main ae ht / Lb Loe
branches, and _ twelve mae ia 3

secondary branches, all =~ SOP jest
trained in the form of ’

a parallelogram is com- Fic. 121

plete (fig. 121). Eighth year.

11

242 PRUNING.

Fig. 122 represents the tree complete, bearing shoots
and all.

The main
branches should
be permanently

. fixed at an an-
gle of 45°. The
lowest exte-
rior secondary
branches at 15°.
Some cultiva-
tors recommend
that the inte-
rior secondary
branches con
verge to the cen-
tre at an angle
of 45°.- Tim
gives them an
oblique direc:
tion, and places
them upon a
more equal foot-
ing with the
other parts.

In _ training
such trees, an
imaginary cir-
cular line is
produced on the
wall or trellis,
and this is di-
vided off into
parts, corresponding to the degrees of a circle, commenc-
ing at the centre above, and numbering both ways to the

ey {l
Le
<i)
b +48
b
Mig [34
ay
a
a
4

Fie. 122,
Square espalier training complete, the small black lines indicate the points fastened to the trellis

THE PEACH. 948

base: this enables the persons who conduct the tree, to lay
in the branches on both sides at an equal angle with pre-
cision, which is quite requisite to maintain uniformity of
growth and vigor.

It has been considered necessary to treat this subject
somewhat minutely, for the purpose of giving to persons
wholly unacquainted with training, some knowledge of the
principles on which it depends, and the mode of its
execution.

The form described above is one of the simplest of all
espaliers, except the horizontal, described in treating of
the apple and the pear; but whoever can train a tree in
this manner well, can do it in all others, for the principles
of growth are the same always; and he who understands
these, can mould his trees at pleasure, provided he can
bestow the necessary labor. The peach may be grown in
any or all the espalier forms.

Laying in, and fastening the trees to walls and trel-
lises——When trees are trained to a wall or fence, the
branches are fastened in the desired position by means of
shreds of cloth or list, half an inch wide, and from two to
three inches long, according to the size of the branch to
be laid in. Very small nails are necessary to train on
boards, but larger ones on a brick and stone wall. Ona
trellis, strings of bass matting are used instead of nails and
cloth; and in fastening to simple rails, small willows may
be used. The principle to be observed, in laying in and
fastening the branches and shoots of espalier trees, is that
strong shoots must be laid in sooner than weak ones, and
also more inclined from the vertical direction. A great
deal may be done towards maintaining uniformity of
growth in the different parts of a trained tree, by laying in
the branches in a judicious and discriminating manner.

244 PRUNING.

Section 5.—Pruninc AND MANAGEMENT OF THE PLUM.

The pium bears its fruit on spurs produced on wood
two years old and upwards, like the cherry (see fruit
branches). On young trees these spurs are several years
in the process of formation; but when they commence to
bear they endure, if well managed, for many years.
They are generally furnished with wood buds on their
lower parts; and when they begin to grow feeble, they
ought to be renewed by cutting back. The plum is almost
universally grown as a standard, and the head may be
conducted in the same manner as described for the cherry.
The branches should be mainly regulated by summer
pinching, to obviate the necessity of knife pruning, that
frequently gives rise to the gum. Some varieties of very
rapid growth produce shoots three or four feet long in one
season; and if not shortened back at the spring pruning,
the tree presents long naked branches in a short time.

The chief difficulty in the way of conducting it as a
pyramid, is its great vigor; but this can in a great mea-
sure be overcome by the use of dwarfing stocks, by pinch-
ung and by root pruning.

The latter will be found a most efficient mode of keeping
the trees small and fruitful. We have had no experience
with the plum as a pyramid; but Mr. Rivers says, that by
root pruning annually in October and November, he has
succeeded in making handsome pyramidal trees. Stand-
ards and dwarf standards may also be root pruned to
advantage in small gardens, and where it is desirable to
get them into early bearing.

The plum may be trained in any of the espalier forms
already described, and in the same manner.

THE APRICOT. 9AD5

Section 6.—Prounminc AND MANAGEMENT OF THE APRICOT.

The apricot, like the peach, has fruit and wood buds
mixed on the shoots of one year’s growth. It has also
little fruit branches or spurs like the plum, which are
capable of being renewed by shortening. .

The mode of pruning must therefore have in view the
production of young wood, and maintaining the spurs in
a vigorous and fruitful state. When neglected, it be-
comes, like the peach, denuded of young bearing wood in
the interior, and enfeebled by over-fruitfulness. The
shoots should therefore be shortened every season accord-
ing to their length, as recommended for the peach, to
reduce the number of blossom buds, and favor the pro-
duction of new bearing wood.

It is very lable to the gum, and severe “pruning with
the knife should be obviated as far as possible by pinch-
ing. It may be conducted as astandard, pyramid, dwarf,
or espalier, on the same principle as other trees. When
trees become enfeebled by neglect or age, they can be
renewed by heading down close to the stem. New and
vigorous shoots are immediately produced that form a new
tree. This heading down should be done very early in
the spring, and the wounds be carefully covered with
grafting wax. ;

It is one of the first of our fruit trees to blossom in the
spring, and therefore in some localities the flowers are
killed by the frost. Where this is apprehended, it may
be well to plant on the north side of a wall, or something
that will rather retard the period of blooming, and subject
it less to freezing and thawing. We have apricots trained
here on a south aspect, yet in seven years the blossoms
have not been killed, though in one or two instances they

246 PRUNING.

have been slightly injured. The espalier trees offer great
facility for protection; and therefore, where spring frosts
prevail, the apricot should be so trained. Mats or straw
hurdles can be placed against them, both in spring and
winter if necessary, with the same ease that a common
frame is covered.

Section 7.—Pruntng THE NEcTARINE.

The nectarine is but a smooth skinned peach. The
trees are so similar in their mode of growth, buds, etc.,
that they cannot be distinguished from one another, and,
therefore, whatever has been said respecting the pruning
and treatment of one, applies with equal force to the
other. This fruit is so infested with the curculio, that it
is almost impossible to obtain a crop that will pay for
culture in any part of the country inthe open ground. Un-
less some more effective remedy be discovered than any
yet known, it will soon have to retire from the garden,
and take up its residence with the foreign grape in glass
houses.

It produces excellent crops trained in espaliers, on a
back wall, or a centre trellis of one of those cold graperies
now becoming so popular.

Srction 8.—Cutrurr, Prunine, anp Trammne Harpy
GraPre VINES.

The management of our native grapes is exceedingly
simple. Immense crops of Catawba and Isabella, and
especially the latter, are raised throughout the country
in the entire absence of any systematic mode of training
or pruning. A single vine in a neighbor’s garden, carried
to the flat roof of an outbuilding, and allowed to ram-
ble there at pleasure, without any care but a very imper-

THE GRAPE VINE. 247

fect pruning every spring, produces annually many
bushels of fruit. But the quality is, of course, greatly
inferior to that produced on well-pruned, trained, and
dressed vines. A grape vine neatly trained on a trellis,
with its luxuriant ample foliage, and rich pendulous
clusters of fruit, is really one of the most interesting
objects in a fruit garden, and, at the same time, one of
the most profitable; for the shade and ornament alone
that it produces, are a sufficient recompense for its culture.

In planting a grape vine the first point is to prepare a
border for the roots.

This must, in the first place, be perfectly dry. If the
soil or situation be wet or damp, it must be drained
thoroughly, so that no stagnant moisture can exist in it.
In the next place it must be deep—three feet is a good
depth ; and it must not be less than two where abundant
and fine crops are expected. The mode of preparation
is, to dig ottt the natural soil to the required depth, and
the length and width necessary. For a single vine, the
border should be eight or ten feet long and four wide.

When the excavation is made, if the soil be stiff or
damp, a few inches, or a foot deep, of small stones, brick,
rubbish, etc., may be laid on the bottom as a sort. of
drainage. On the top of this deposit the compost for the
border. This may consist of two parts of good, fresh,
friable loam, one of old, well-rotted manure, and one of
ashes, shells, broken bones, etc., all completely mixed
with one another. The top of the border, when finished,
should be at least a foot higher than the surface of the
ground, so that it may still remain higher after settling.
Having the border thus prepared, the next point is the
trellis. The form of this will depend on the situation it
is to occupy, and the mode of training to be adopted.
Fig. 123 represents one intended for a wall. The prin-

948 PRUNING.

cipal bars or trame-work are inch and a half boards, three
inches wide, nailed together at the angles.

AE

TEAL

Fie. 123.

Trellis for a grape vine.

It is intended for one vine, and may be the height of
the wall that it is intended to occupy. The vertical or
upright bars are three feet apart and the cross ones six
feet; between them are rods of stout wire. The first .or
lowest cross bar may be two feet from the ground. It is
fastened to the wall by iron hooks or brackets. The best
and simplest mode of training a vine on such a trellis as
this, is to produce two main branches or arms to be
trained in a horizontal manner on the first cross bar.
From these two arms, permanent, upright canes are
trained, one to each of the upright bars of the trellis.
These upright canes produce on their sides a succession
of bearing shoots from year to year, being pruned after
what is called the “ spur” system.

Planting the Vine-——As in planting any other tree, the
roots should be carefully spread out, and the fine earth

THE GRAPE VINE. 249

worked well in amongst them. Its position should be
exactly in the centre of the trellis it is to be trained on.
Pruning—It must first be observed that the grape
vine bears its fruit on shoots of the current year, pro-
duced from eyes on the previous year’s wood. Fig. 124
represent the old wood, with its bearing shoot. It is im-

Fre. 124.

Fruit branch of the grape. The cross line towards the points shows where
it ought to be stopped.

portant to understand this, because it shows the necessity
of keeping up a supply of young wood wherever we
desire fruit to be produced.

To illustrate the pruning, we will suppose the plant to
be one or two years old, as ordinarily sent out from the
nursery. It may have only one shoot, or it may have
several. However this may be, all are pruned off but
the strongest, and it is cut back to within two eyes of its
base. These two eyes will produce shoots, and when
they have made a growth of two or three inches, the
weaker one is rubbed off and the strong one trained up.
It is allowed to grow on till September, when the bud is
pinched to mature and strengthen it. Any side shoots
that appear during the summer, should be pinched off, as
well as any suckers that may appear about the roots.

Second Year.—If the shoot of last year made a strong
growth of ten or twelve feet, it may be now cut back to
three eyes, and two canes be trained up; but if it made
only a weak growth, it should again be cut back to two

11*

250 PRUNING.

eyes, and one shoot only trained up. Side shoots and
suckers are pinched off during the summer; and in Sep-
tember these canes are stopped as before, and no fruit is
allowed.

Third Year—We have now two strong canes with
which we commence the frame-work of the vine ach
of these is cut back at the winter pruning to vithin two
or three feet of its base, and laid in, as in fig. 125, and
fastened to the lower horizontal bar of the trellis. The

Grape vine at the beginning of the second year. The arms shortened atc,
a, b, etc., are buds.

bud on the end of each at ¢, will produce a shoot to con-
tinue the prolongment in a horizontal direction, and a
~ bud (@) on the upper side of each will preduce a shoot to
be trained to one of the upright bars—the first one on its
division, or half of its trellis; all others are rubbed off, o1
the buds cut out. Thus each of these arms produces two
shoots—an upright and a horizontal one. During the
summer, these shoots are carefully tied im as required,
and side shoots and suckers pinched off when they ap-
pear. They are also topped in September, as before.
Fourth year—Each of last year’s shoots is cut back
to within three feet of its base. It may be necessary
to cut the horizontal ones closer than the upright ones, to
obtain another strong upright shoot. The two upright
canes already established, will produce a shoot from their
tops, to continue their extension upwards, and the hori-
zontal ones, as before, produce a shoot at the point to be
carried outwards, and one on the top to be trained up to
one of the upright bars. This year, several fruit shoots

‘

THE GRAPE VINE. 951

will be produced, on each of which, one or two bunches
of grapes may be ripened. In this way the vine goes on
adding every season two new upright canes, and two or
three feet in length to the previous ones, until the whole
trellis is covered; when the management will consist in
pruning the spurs every winter to about three eyes. Each
fruit branch should only be allowed to produce two

bunches of fruit, and the top should be pinched at the
By such a system
the foliage are all a : : | :
[- ) _t
ent parts, and the T7ited with horizontal arms, 4, B, supporting
Fo the management of a grape vine, as in the manage-
the serious detriment of the bearing shoots for the follow-

second eye, or jot above the fruit (see cross line, fig.
as this the trellis is |
exposed fully to the i x 7
vertical permanent canes, spur pruned.
appearance is beau-
ment of other trees, summer pruning is of great conse-
ing year. Every two weeks the growing vine neue re

!

124), in order to arrest the production of useless wood,
and turn the sap to the benefit of the fruit. Fig. 126
represents the appearance of a vine trained in this way.
covered in every

part with bearing

wood, the fruit and

sun, anuniformity of 7 == ea

Vigor is maintained san Mice.

between the differ- ais

tiful. A trellis may be covered with a. vine by other
modes requiring less labor perhaps, and less time, but none
will be found more beneficial or satisfactory in the end.
quence. Ifa vine is left to itself all summer, or from one
winter pruning to another, it will be found that a vast
quantity of useless wood has been produced, and that to

“59 PRUNING.

visited, shoots tied in, strong ones checked, superfluous
mes rubbed off, and every part kept in its proper place,
and in a proper degree of vigor. In certain cases, where
the mode of training above gene ibed cannot be conveni-
ently adopted, two or three poles, twelve to fifteen feet
higb, may be sunk in the ground, with a space of three or
four feet between them at the bottom, and fastened toge-
ther at the top, forming a cone, around which the perma-
nent canes may be trained in a spiral manner.

This produces a very beautiful effect, and occupies com-
paratively little space, but the grapes will not all ripen so
well, nor will the training be so easy as on the flat surface
of a trellis.

Very tasteful arbors may also be made over some of the
walks, by training the vine over the woodwork, in the
same manner as on a trellis.

This is a very common practice and offers many advan-
tages. Ingenious persons who care well for their garden,
as well in its appearance as its productions, will conceive
other plans still better adapted to their particular wants
and taste than any of these; but the main point must
always be kept in view, that is, to provide for the foliage
and the fruit, a free open exposure to the sun. Any sys-
tem that does not secure this, will fail to a greater or less
extent.

The Isabella grape succeeds well even as far north as
Maine, by laying it down in winter ‘and covering it with
mats, straw, boughs of evergreens, &c. :

Vineyard culture.—V ineyards are located on dry sunny
hill sides; the land is deeply trenched with the spade o1
subsoil plough (generally the former, as it is more tho-
rough), and liberally manured. The vines are planted in
rows, six to eight feet apart, and four to six feet apart in
the rows, and are trained to oak or cedar posts, six to eight
feet high. ‘The young vines are cut back close for the

THE GRAPE VINE. 953

first year or two, until they have become well rooted and
strong, and only one shoot is allowed to grow. About
the third year, one shoot, six feet long or so, is left to
fruit, and a new shoot is carried up that season to bear
the next. At the following pruning the cane that bore is
cut away, and thus a continual succession is kept up.
During the summer suckers and superfluous shoots are
kept down, and the ground is kept in good clean condition
with a horse cultivator principally. As the vines grow
old, two and sometimes three bearing canes are taken
from each stool.

The vineyards of Cincinnati cover several hundred acres,
and from the Catawba grape they make a “ sparkling
champagne,” as good as the French. This is destined to
be an important branch of culture.

Culture of foreign Grapes in cold vineries—Repeated
experiments made during many years in all parts of the
country, have convinced people generally that the deli-
cious varieties of the foreign grape cannot be produced
with any considerable degree of success in the open air.
A large number of the hardiest French and German sorts
have been tested in our ground, but not one of them has
borne satisfactorily. A few good bunches have been
obtained the first season or two under very favorable
circumstances; but after that the failure is complete.
This has rendered glass, heat, and shelter necessary.

The building—These are constructed of all sizes and
at various degrees of expense, from $50 to $500. Some
have single lean-to roofs; others have double or span
roots. The walls of some are built of brick or stone;
others are of wood, wholly. The cheapest and simplest
structure of this kind is the lean-to. The back may be
nine or ten feet high, composed of strong cedar posts six
feet apart, and boarded up on both sides. The ends are
made in the same manner. The front may be two feet

Q54 PRUNING.

high, or three, made of posts, and boards or planks, same
as the back. Sills or plates are put on the front and back
walls, and then rafters at three and a half to four feet
apart. The sashes slip in between the rafters, and rest
on a strip of wood on their sides. Unless the grapery be
very small, the sash should be in two parts, the lower one
twice as long as the upper, and fixed. The upper to slide
down over the under one on pulleys, to ventilate the house ;
doors are in each end at the back, and means are provided
for admitting air in front by the opening of boards like
shutters.

The border is made for the vines outside the front wall,
or part outside and part in, twelve to sixteen feet wide,
also two or three deep. This is done by digging a trench
or pit the length and width; draining it thoroughly, that
not a drop of water can lodge about it. Then lay a few
inches of small stones, broken bricks, shells, etc., in the
bottom for drainage; and fill up the remainder six inches
above the level of the ground, and sloping outwards, with
a good compost, of one-half surface loam (turf from an old
pasture), and the other of well rotted stable manure,
shells, street scrapings, a small portion of night soil, offal,
ete. All these must be prepared by frequent turning and
mixing a few months beforehand.

The vines ray be one or two years old, and are prefer-
able in pots raised from single eyes. They should be
planted in the spring. A plant is placed under each
rafter outside, and carried through under the wall into the
house. The stem is cut back to two or three eyes, and when
these break the strongest shoot is selected, and the others
pinched off. This shoot is trained, as it grows, to a light
trellis of iron, or thick wire rods attached to the rafter,
and eight or ten inches from the glass. If all goes well,
it reaches the top of the house that season. In September
the top may be pinched to check the flow of sap to the

THE GRAPE VINE. 955

point, and throw it more into the lateral buds to increase
their strength. During the summer no other shoot is
allowed to grow but this.

Pruning.—In November or December it is taken down,
pruned, if according to the spur system, which is the sim-
plest, to within three or four feet of its base, laid on the
ground, and covered with leaves, evergreen boughs, or
mats. There it remains till the buds begin to swell in
the spring, when it is again fastened to the trellis. The
shoot from the terminal bud continues the cane, and no
fruit is allowed on it. Those below it produce lateral
shoots, from each of which a bunch of grapes may be
taken, and each of these must be stopped at two eyes
above the bunch; and this is repeated as often as neces-
sary, to give the fruit the whole benefit of the sap. The
leading shoot is again stopped in September by pinching
off its point, to increase the vigor of its lateral buds. In
the fall, when the leaves have dropped, the vine is again
taken down. The leader is pruned back to within three
to four feet of the old wood. The laterals that have borne
are pruned to three eyes, and it is then covered up. This
is the routine of spur training. In dong cane pruning, the
young shoot, after the first season’s growth, is cut back
to three eyes, and the next season two shoots are trained
up. The next season the strongest is selected for fruit, and
pruned to about three feet; each of the eyes left will
produce a fruit shoot, from which one bunch only will be
taken. The weaker cane is cut back to one eye, and this
produces a shoot for next year’s bearing, and so this goes
on. When the vine becomes strong, several bearing canes
may be provided for every season. This renewal or long
cane is very simple, and requires much less cutting than
the spur. It also produces a superior quality of fruit, but
in general not so large a quantity.

Thinning the Fruit—When the fruit attains the size

256 PRUNING.

of a garden pea, one third of the smaller ones should be
cut out carefully with pointed scissors (see implements)
that are prepared for this purpose. The object of this is,
to allow the fruits to swell out to their full size. Varie-
ties that produce very compact bunches require more
severe thinning than those of a loose, open bunch.

Cleaning the Vine-—At the time the vines are taken
from their winter quarters and trellised, they should be
well washed with a solution of soft soap and tobacco
water, to kill all eggs of insects, and remove all loose
bark and filth that may have accumulated on them dur-
ing the season previous. The house, too, should be
cleaned and renovated at the same time.

Syringing the Vines and the Fruit.—Kvery one who
has a grapery must be provided with a good hand syringe,
for this is necessary during the whole season. As soon
as they begin to grow, they should be occasionally
syringed in the morning, except while they are in bloom.
After the fruit has set, they should be syringed every
evening, and the house kept closed till the next forenoon
when the sun is out warm.

Regulating the temperature—When the temperature
exceeds ninety to one hundred degrees, air should be ad-
mitted at the top, and, if necessary, at the bottom.

To prevent mildew—This may be looked for in July.
Syringing freely night and morning, and the admission
of air during the warmest hours of the day, are the best
preventives of this disease. Mr. Allen recommends
dusting sulphtir on the floor, at the rate of one pound for
every twenty square feet ; and if it continues to increase,
to syringe the vines in the evening, and dust the foliage
with it.

Mr. Buist recommends a solution of five pounds of flour
of sulphur in four gallons of water, and after it has set-

THE FILBERT. O57

tled to add one fourth of it to the water used in syring-
ing.

This is but an imperfect outline of the management of
a cold grapery. Those who wish full information on all
points of the subject, should consult Allen’s excellent
work, which treats of all kinds of graperies and their
management in complete detail. .

Section 9.—Prunina AND TRAINING THE FILBERT.

The filbert in this country is a neglected fruit. It is
seldom found in the garden, and more rarely still ina
prolific, well-grown condition. Of all other trees, it re-
quires regular and proper pruning to maintain its fruitful-
ness. The blossoms are monecious—that is, the male
organs which are in long catkins (fig. 86), are produced
from one bud, and the female flowers from another.

The blossom or fruit buds are produced on shoots of one
year’s growth, and bear fruit the next. The fruit is borne
in a cluster on the end of a small twig produced from the
bud bearing the female organs.

It is said that in the neighborhood of Maidstone, county
of Kent, England, the filbert orchards occupy several
hundred acres, and from these the principal supply of the
London market is obtained. One acre has been known to
produce £50 sterling, or $250 worth, in one season. The
pruning of these Kent growers is supposed to be most
perfect of its kind, especially for their soil and climate.
It is described as follows in the “ Transactions of the Lon-
don Horticultural Society :”

‘“¢ The suckers are taken from the parent plant generally in the
autumn, and planted in nursery beds (being first shortened to ten
or twelve inches), where they remain three or four years. They
are slightly pruned every year, in order to form strong lateral
shoots, the number of which varies from four to six. But though

258 PRUNING.

it is the usual practice to plant the suckers in nursery beds, I
would advise every one to plant them where they are to remain,
whether they are intended for a garden or a larger plantation ;
and after being suffered to grow without restraint for three or four
years, to cut them down within a few inches of the ground.
From the remaining part, if the trees are well rooted in the soil,
five or six strong shoots will be produced. Whichever method is
practised, the subsequent treatment of the trees will be exactly —
the same.

‘“In the second year after cutting down, these shoots are
shortened ; generally one-third is taken off. If very weak, I
would advise that the trees be quite cut down a second time, as in
the previous spring ; but it would be much better not to cut them
down till the trees give evident tokens of their being able to pro-
duce shoots of sufficient strength. When they are thus shortened,
that they may appear regular, let a small hoop be placed within
the branches, to which the shoots are to be fastened at equal dis-
tances. By this practice two considerable advantages will be
gained—the trees will grow more regular, and the middle will be
kept hollow, so as to admit the influence of the sun and air,

‘‘ In the third year a shoot will spring from each bud; these
must be suffered to grow till the following autumn, or fourth year,
when they are to be cut off nearly close to the original stem, and
the leading shoot of the last year shortened two-thirds.

‘Tn the fifth year several small shoots will arise from the bases
of the side branches which were cut off the preceding year; these
are produced from small buds, and would not have been emitted
had not the branch on which they are situated been shortened,
the whole nourishment being carried to the upper part of the
branch. It is from these shoots that fruit is to be expected.
These productive shoots will in a few years become very numerous,
and many of them must be taken off, particularly the strongest,
in order to encourage the production of the smaller ones ; for
those of the former year become so exhausted that they generally
decay ; but whether decayed or not, they are always cut out by
the pruner, and a fresh supply must therefore be provided to pro-
duce the fruit in the succeeding year. The leading shoot is every

THE FILBERT. 259

year to be shortened two-thirds, or more should the tree be weak,
and the whole height of the branches must not exceed six feet.

“The method of pruning above detailed might, in a few words,
be called a method of spurring, by which bearing shoots are pro-
duced, which otherwise would have had no existence. Old trees
are easily induced to bear in this manner, by selecting a sufficient
number of the main branches, and then cutting the side shoots
off nearly close, excepting any should be so situated as not to
interfere with the others, and there should be no main branch di-
rected to that particular part. It will, however, be two or three
years before the full effect will be produced. By the above
method of pruning, thirty hundred per acre have been grown in
particular grounds and in particular years, yet twenty hundred is
considered a large crop, and rather more than half that quantity
may be called a more usual one; and even then the crop totally
fails three years out of five ; so that the annual average quantity
cannot be reckoned at more than five hundred per acre.

‘** When I reflected upon the reason of failure happening so
often as three years out of five, it occurred to me that possibly
it might arise from the excessive productiveness of the other two.
In order to ensure fruit every year, I have usually left a large pro-
portion of those shoots which, from their strength, I suspected
_ would not be so productive of blossom-buds as the shorter ones ;
leaving them more ind state of nature than is usually done, not
pruning them so closely as to weaken the trees by excessive bear-
ing, nor leaving them so entirely to their natural growth, as to
cause their annual productiveness to be destroyed by a superfluity
of wood. These shoots, in the spring of the year, I have usually
shortened to a blossom-bud.”’

Such is the management of these celebrated filbert
growers, their principal object being to keep the trees
small, open in the centre, and covered in every part with
fruit spurs. A similar system, but less severe in the cut-
ting back, may be pursued here; some such course of
treatment as recommended for the head of the quince as
to form and fruitfulness.

260 PRUNING.

Instead of relying on the spring pruning to subdue
vigor and. induce fruitfulness, pinching should be prac-
tised during the summer; for this not only checks the
production of wood, but of roots. Root pruning, too, may
be safely practised in August, when pruning and pinch-
ing of the branches prove insufficient.

In all cases, suckers must be completely eradicated
every season, or as soon as they make their appearance.
The want of pruning, and the growth of suckers, make
the filbert in nearly all our gardens completely barren; a
rank production of wood only is obtained year after year.

We find that grafting the finer kinds on stocks of the
common filbert raised from seed, renders the trees much
more prolific naturally, and also smaller in size. We
have trees here now bearing only three years from the
graft ; the stems are eighteen inches to two feet high, and
they are very pretty. Their natural vigor is greatly sub-
dued by the graft. The French conduct them in pyramids
with great success} on the same principle as other trees.

Sxction 10.—Cutture, Prunine, AND TRAINING OF THE Fig.

In the Northern States the fig is cultivated with very
little success in the open ground, but fine crops are pro-
duced in the vineries recommended for foreign grapes ;
and it is in these only that its culture can yield any con-
siderable degree of satisfaction, north of Maryland at
least. ;

Propagation.—The surest and best mode is by layers.
A large branch may be layered in the spring, and will be
sufficiently rooted in the fall to be planted out. Cuttings
also strike freely, and make good plants in one season.
All the modes of propagation recommended for the
quince, may be applied to the fig. Cuttings are generallr
preferred in the South.

THE FIG. 261

Soiw.—It succeeds in any good rich, warm garden soil,
suitable for other fruit trees. In very light or dry soils
the fruits fall before maturity, as they require at that
season in particular a large amount of moisture; but it is
better that it be too dry than too moist, for in the latter
case nothing but soft unripe and unfruitful shoots is
obtained, whilst in the former moisture can be supplied at
the time when it may be required. The wood should be
short-jointed, the buds not more than one-fourth of an
inch apart. In England dry chalky soils produce the
finest crops.

Pruning.—tThe fig is somewhat peculiar in its mode of
bearing. No blossoms appear, but the figs are produced
on the stem, appearing at first like buds. The young
shoots of last season bear fruit the next; and the shoots
produced during first growth produce fruit the same
season, and this is called the “second crop.” These never
ripen, and should never be encouraged where the plants
require protection. In warm climates, as in some of our
Southern States, these two crops ripen perfectly, though
the first from the previous season’s wood is larger and
better.

This mode of bearing shows that little pruning is neces-
sary, beyond the cutting away of old or worn out branches,
and thinning and regulating others. Unfruitful trees, in
a moist and rich ground, should be pinched in summer to
check their growth, and concentrate the sap more in the
lateral buds. Loot Pruning, too, may be applied as on
other trees. Mr. Downing recommends this in his Fruit
and Fruit Trees.

Traming.—Wherever the trees are hardy enough to
withstand the winter without protection, they may be
grown in the form of low standards, as recommended for
the peach; but when protecticn is required, where the
branches have to be laid down and covered during winter,

962 PRUNING.

they must be grown in stools or bushes, with a dozen or
more stems rising from the socket. These are easily laid
down and covered, and easily brought up to their places
again, in the way that raspberry canes are managed. To
produce this form, the young tree is planted in the bottom
of a trench about a third deeper than in ordinary cases, and
a basin is left around it. At the end of the first season’s
growth, it is cut back to a few inches of the base; there a
number of shoots are produced. As these grow up the
earth is drawn in around them, to favor the production
of other shoots at their base; and in this way it is
managed until the requisite number of branches is ob-
tained.

Protection —Trained in this way, a trench is opened for
each branch, or three or four may be put in one trench,
if convenient; they are fastened down with hooked pegs
as in layering, and covered with a foot of earth, which
should be drawn up in the mound form, to throw off the
water.

Ripening the fruit—In fig growing countries, and to
some extent here, there is a practice of applying a drop of
olive oil to the eye of the fruit, to hasten its maturity.
This is usually done by means of a straw.

Training in Graperies.—The back wall of a lean-to cold
vinery is an excellent place for the fig. It may be
trained on a trellis in the fan or horizontal manner, but
severe pruning must not be practised to produce regu-
larity.

Section 11.—Prunina THE GoOOSEBERRY.

The gooseberry produces fruit buds and spurs on wood
two years old and upwards. Fig. 127 represents the two-
year-old wood, A, with fruit buds C, C, and BL, the one-

THE GOOSEBERRY. 263

year old wood with wood buds, D, D. Of
these wood buds, the upper one next season
would produce a shoot, and the lower ones
would probably be transformed into fruit
buds. At the base of one of the fruit buds,
C,may be seen asmall wood bud d; this
during next season will produce a small
shoot orspur. The great point to aim at in
this country, must always be to maintain a
vigorous condition; the moment the plant
becomes feeble or stinted, the fruit is so at-
tacked with mildew or rust as to be utterly
worthless. Hence it is that young plants
usually bear excellent crops for the first or
second year, while after that the mildew is
in some varieties and situations unconquer-
able.

The bush should have a stem of three or
four inches in height, and a head composed
of five or six main branches, placed atequal. 0 “Fine
distances and inclined outwards, to prevent gooseberry, 4, two
denseness and confusion in the centre. 7°" irene
These main branches should be furnished fruit buds, D, D:
with bearing wood in all their length. The ai Piss: a tale
production of such a bush may be accom- the base of fruit
plished by the following means: pee

Supposing the young plant as it comes from the nursery
to be either a two-year old cutting, or a one-year bedded
layer, in either case it will have a stem of two or three
inches at least, and a few branches at the top. Before
planting, all the buds on the part of the stem to be below
the ground are cut out, to prevent them from producing
suckers. Among the branches, three of those most favor-
ably situated, are selected for the formation of the head,

264 PRUNING.

and the others are cut out entirely. The reserved branches
are then cut back to two or three buds; from these one
shoot is taken on each branch, and the others are pinched
to favor this. By this method we shall have three stout
shoots in the fall. If the plant had been well rooted, in-
stead of being newly transplanted, we might have taken
two shoots instead of one from each shortened branch.
These three branches are cut back at the next pruning to
three or four buds, and from each two new shoots are
taken, giving at the end of that season six stout young
shoots, situated at equal distances. At the next or third
pruning these branches are cut back about one-half, in
order to produce lateral branches and fruit spurs. At the
fourth pruning, the leading shoot is shortened one-third
to one-half. ae lateral branches not required to fill up
spaces, or such as are improperly placed, are cut back to
three or four buds, so as to convert them into fruit
branches. 7

In this way the pruning is conducted from year to year.
When the plants become feeble from overbearing, the
fruit branches may be headed down and replaced by new
vigorous shoots. The better way, however, to provide
for this difficulty, is to raise young plants from layers or
cuttings, to be at once substituted for such as fall a victim
to the mildew. A northern aspect, a cool, damp, substan-
tial soil, and, abundance of manure, are all necessary, in
connection with the pruning described, to produce fine
gooseberries.

The famous growers of Lancashire, England, outdo all
the world besides in the production of large gooseberries.
The Encyclopedia of Gardening says—“ To effect this
increased size, every stimulant is applied that their inge-
nuity can suggest; they not only annually manure the soil
richly, but a aa the plants with trenches of ma-
nure for the extremities of the roots to strike into, and

THE CURRANT. 265

form round the stem of each plant a basin, to be mulched,
or manured, or watered, as may become necessary. When
a root has extended too far from the stem it is uncovered,
and all the strongest leaders are shortened back nearly
one-half of their length, ‘and covered with fresh marly loam,
well manured. The effect of this pruning is to increase
the number of fibres and spongioles, which form rapidly
on the shortened roots, and strike out in all directions
among the fresh, newly stirred loam, in search of nutri-
ment.

They also practise what they term suckling their prize
fruit. By preparing a very rich soil, and by watering,
and the use of liquid manure, shading and thinning, the
large fruit of the prize cultivator is produced. Not con-
tent with watering at root, and over the top, the Lanca-
shire connoisseur, when he is growing for exhibition,
places a small saucer of water immediately under each
gooseberry, only three or four of which he leaves on a
tree; this he technically calls suckling. He also pinches
off a great part of the young wood, so as to throw all the
strength he can into the fruit.

Section 12.—Pruntmnc AND MANAGEMENT OF THE
CURRANT.

The red and white currants bear like the gooseberry on
wood not less than two years old, and, therefore, the same
system of pruning may be applied to them. The most
convenient and easily-managed form in which they can
be grown, is that of a bush or small tree, with a stem of
three to six inches high, and a head composed of a cer-
tain number, say six or eight principal branches, situated
at equal distances, and not nearer to one another at the
_ extremities than six or eight inches.

These ‘branches are produced by cutting back the
12

266 PRUNING.

young shoots found on the nursery plant, as recominended
for the gooseberry. They are afterwards annually short-
ened to produce lateral branches, when wanted, and
fruit spurs. Care must be taken not to prune too close, as
this causes the buds on the lower parts to make wood
instead of fruit spurs: one third, and in many cases one
fourth, will be quite sufficient.

The Currant asa Pyranid.—tvThe currant is very easily
formed into pretty pyramids. The mode of conducting
them will be similar to that recommended for other
trees.

A good strong shoot must first be obtained to com-
mence upon; this is cut back, and laterals produced as
though it were a yearling cherry tree. Summer pruning
and pinching must be duly put in practice, under any
form, to keep up an equality of growth among the shoots,
and to check misplaced and superfluous ones. This will
obviate a great deal of cutting at the winter or spring
pruning. Mr. Rivers, in his “ Miniature Fruit Garden,”
says: “ A near neighbor of mine, an ingenious gardener,
attaches much value, and with reason, to his pyramidal
currant trees; for his table is supplied abundantly with
their fruit till late in autumn. The leading shoots of his
trees are fastened to iron rods; they form nice pyramids
about five feet high; and by the clever contrivance of
slipping a bag made of coarse muslin over them as soon
as the fruit is ripe, fastening it securely at the bottom,
wasps, birds, flies, and all the ills that beset ripe currants
are excluded.”

The Currant as an Espalier.—It is sometimes desirable,
both to economize space and to retard the period of ripen-
ing, to train currants on a north wall or trellis; and this
is very easily done with success. We have seen the north
side of a neighbor’s garden fence completely covered
with currants without any system whatever being pur-

THE RASPBERRY. 267

sued in laying in the branches. The plants were about
five feet apart, and the branches were fastened to the
wall in a sort of fan form. The proper way to treat the
currant as an espalier is, to produce two strong branches
on a stem six to twelve inches high. These branches are
trained out in a horizontal manner like two arms—one on
each side; and from the shoots which they will produce,
as many as are to be had at the distance of six inches
from one another are trained in an upright position, as in
the grape vine (fig. 121).

These upright shoots are managed in the same way as
the branches of a bush; they are annually shortened back
a little to ensure a good supply of fruit buds.

The black currant produces its best fruit on the wood
of the preceding year, therein differing from the others.
In pruning it, the young wood must be preserved, and
branches that have borne must be eut back to produce a
succession of new bearing wood, as in the filbert.

Manuring—No other fruit tree is so patient under bad
treatment as the currant, and yet none yields a more
prompt or abundant reward for kindness. In addition to
the annual pruning described, the bushes should receive
a dressing of old, well-prepared manure, two or three
inches deep, spread all around as far as the roots go,
and forked lightly in. It is a great feeder, and, with-
out these annual dressings, the soil becomes so poor that
the fruit is really not worth gathering.

PLANTING, PRUNING, AND TRAINING THE RASPBERRY.

Planting—The raspberry succeeds well in all good
garden soils. The most advantageous and economical
position for a raspberry bed in the garden, is generally in
the wall border, facing north. In this situation the fruit
ripens sufficiently, and the canes are not so liable to suffer

268 PRUNING.

from alternate freezing and thawing in the winter. The
young canes or suckers are shortened full one half, and
planted at the distance of two or three feet. Any flowers
that make their appearance on them the first season
should be removed, in order to turn all the sap to the
benefit of the leaves and new roots,-and the production
af a young cane for the next season.

Pruning—The stem is biennial—that is, the canes
are produced one season and bear fruit the next, and then
die. For example, in fig. 128, A is the old cane that has
borne, and is of no further use. £ is |
the young cane produced at its base |

1b

last season. The fruit buds produce
small shoots, a, a, a, that bear the a\ /?
fruit. The pruning is very simple; |

it consists merely in cutting away as a iF E
early in the spring the old cane that. \<

has borne. Some people do this as \ 5
soon as the fruit is gathered, on the _ secu) age,
ground that the young cane is ~ Lijjy

strengthened by so doing ; but this is
questionable. It may be, on the ,,, Raipbercy.< an
whole, safer to leave it to finish its old cane that has borne
natural course, and cut it away at the 7° pa eer.
spring or winter pruning. season, to be shortened at

The young cane is shortened to {°° faapscs —
three feet, or three and a half or four, next season. :
if it be quite stont and vigorous. When the plants have
been a year or two in their place, several canes will be
produced from one stool in the same season; but thfee
or four only are reserved, and these the strongest. Each
one is pruned or shortened as above, in order to concen-
trate the sap on the bearing buds on the centre and lower
parts. This not only increases the size, but improves the
quality of the fruit. When the suckers become very

Fic. 128.

THE RASPBERRY. 269

numerous, they enfeeble the plant, and it soon becomes
worthless. The new ever-bearing variety throws up a
great profusion. All the weaker superfluous ones should
be carefully removed with a trowel early in the season,
say when they have attained five or six inches of growth.
In selecting such as are to be reserved, preference should
be given to those being nearest in the regular row of
plants. Some of the French authors recommend leaving
a hole ten or twelve inches deep around each plant at the
time of planting, to be filled up gradually, three or four
inches a year, with fresh earth, to promote the formation
of vigorous radical buds, at the collar of the root, as re-
commended for the fig.

Manuring—A. liberal dressing of well-decomposed
manure should be given them every fall, worked care-
fully in among the roots with the digging fork. With
this treatment a bed will continue productive for seven
years at least.

Training—Mr. Dubriel describes a very pretty and
simple method of training practised in France, and I had
the pleasure of seeing it carried into practice in the
Rouen Garden (fig. 129).

Fie, 129.

French mode of training the raspberry to stakes and ropes.

The railing B, is a narrow strip of board, or a small
pole, supported on upright stakes; it is eighteen inches
from the row of plants, and three feet from the ground.
When the young bearing canes are pruned in the spring,

270 PRUNING.

they are bent over and fastened to this rail; and thus the
young suckers grow up without mixing with the fruit
branches ; consequently the fruit ripens better and is
more easily gathered. During the summer, when the
young suckers destined to bear the year following, have
reached the height of two feet, they are fastened to a
similar rail on the other side of the row, and the same
distance from the line of the ground.

The following is an English mode of training described
in the “ London Gardeners’ Chronicle.” In - 130, the

4
~
a

A\/AINN W) WZ |

a

Fie. 130.
English mode of training the raspberry.

uprights between every two or three plants are iron, and
the horizontal lines to which the canes are attached, are
tarred rope.

In fig. 181, the plants are supposed to be placed in
rows four feet apart, and about the same distance from
one another in the row. The number of shoots on each

LX
——s

LICL] eye +

Ys
EyZ

Ny

Fie. 131.
English mode of training the raspberry to stakes.

is regulated during the growing season, no more being

RENOVATING APPLE AND PEAR TREES. O71

allowed to remain than the plant is capable of support-
ing. In most cases six or eight shoots will be sufficient.
Where this method is practised, a row of raspberries in
autumn will have something of the appearance repre- |
sented in fig. 131; the arched portion, tied to the stake
in the centre, being the canes which bore fruit last year,
and which must be cut down to the bottom, and be re-
placed by the upright shoots of last summer.

In this last arrangement, five or six fruit-bearing canes
are tied together to one stake, and it is impossible that
the fruit can either ripen well or be gathered easily. The
two first are good and simple plans.

Renovating pyramidal trees of Apples and Pears that
have become enfeebled or unproductive by age, bad soil,
bearing, or bad pruning —There are two methods of doing
this successfully ; one is, to cut back all parts of the tree—
the stem may be cut back half its length, the lateral
branches at the base to within twelve or fifteen inches of
the stem, and shorter as they advance upwards, so that
those at the top will be cut to four or six inches. This
will preserve the pyramidal form.

It may appear unnecessary to cut back the stem, but
we find when this is not done it is almost impossible to
secure an equal growth between the upper and lower
parts, because the wood at the top is young, and attracts
the sap much more than the wood at the base of the old
branches below. For afew years after this renewal the
young wood at the top must be kept very closely pruned,
to prevent it from absorbing more than its due pro-
portion of the sap. When growth commences on trees
thus cut back, a large number of shoots will be produced.
Amongst those on the stem, a strong and well placed one
must be selected for a leader, and its growth favored by
checking those around it. Leaders for each of the lateral
branches must be selected and encouraged in the same

272 . PRUNING.

way. The future management will be similar to that
described for the formation of young trees. We have
succeeded well with a large number of trees thus treated.
Where the soil is defective, it must be improved and
renewed with fresh soil and composts, so that abundant
nutriment shall be given to the new growth.

The second method of renewal referred to is, that of
cutting back as already described, and grafting each
branch.

The process of regrafting old orchards of standard
apple trees, it is well known, renews their vigor, and
replaces old worn out and deformed branches with young
and vigorous ones, giving to the entire head a healthy and
youthful appearance. In many cases this grafting will
be much more successful than simply cutting back, for
the scions being furnished with young and active buds,
that develope leaves at once, attract the sap from the
roots, place it in contact with the atmosphere, and carry
on the formative process in all parts of the tree with less
interruption and greater activity than where reliance is
placed upon the production of new shoots on the old wood ;
for this must be effected by awakening dormant buds,,
which in many cases takes place slowly, and with-more
or less difficulty.

SUNDRY OPERATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE CULTURE OF FRUIT
TREES.

Ist. The annual cultivation of the soit—The soil around
fruit trees should, especially in the garden, be kept in a
clean friable condition by the frequent use of the hoe and
the spade; but in all these operations the roots must not
be injured. The forked spade (see implements) is the best
for operating about the roots.

2d. ee vege cli very common practice in cal

WATERING, ETC. 273

to the use of manure, is to apply none for several years,
until the trees have begun to show signs of feebleness and
exhaustion, when large quantities are applied, thus in-
ducing a rank plethoric growth, that can scarcely fail to
be seized with diseases. The proper way is to apply a
small dressing of well-decomposed material, like some of
the composts recommended, every autumn. This should
be forked in around the extremities of the roots. There
may be rich soils where this will be unnecessary; but
most ordinary garden soils require it.

3d. Mulching—This should be a universal practice in
our dry and warm summer climate, not only with newly-
planted trees, but all, and especially dwarfs in the garden
whose roots are near the surface. ‘Three or four inches
deep of half decayed stable manure or litter makes a
good mulching. It should be applied in May, and remain
allsummer. -After the fall dressing a mulching for the
winter will protect the roots and base of the tree from
injury; it should be so well decayed as not to attract
vermin. :

4th. Watering.—In dry times, and especially in light,
dry soils, fruit trees will derive vast benefits from a liberal
syringing over head in the evening, with a hand or garden
syringe (see implements). A reservoir in the garden is
therefore desirable, and at a point, too, easy of access from
all the quarters of the garden. This watering refreshes
the trees, drives away insects, mildew, etc., and washes
off dust and filth that may accumulate on the foliage and
fill up the pores. It is more necessary in city and village,
than in country gardens.

Protecting trees against extremes of temperature.-
Where the trunk or large branches are liable to injury
from sudden changes of temperature in the winter, or
from a powerful sun in summer, they may be covered
thinly with long rye straw, fastened on with willows,

12%

274 CULTURE OF FRUIT TREES.

The trunk alone is more easily protected by means of twe
boards nailed together, forming an angle for the tree.
This is placed on the south side, the injury being induced
chiefly by the sun at both seasons.

Newly-transplanted trees, especially if they have tall
trunks, and are somewhat injured before planting, may
be saved by wrapping them lightly with straw ;—a straw
rope rolled around answers the purpose. A little damp
moss is still better; an occasional watering will keep it
cool and moist, and enable the sap to flow under the Lark.

PART LY.

SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS—GATHERING AND PRE-
SERVING FRUITS—DISEASES—INSECTS—IMPLEMENTS IN
COMMON USE.

CEATrIE.G. 1.

ABRIDGED DESCRIPTIONS OF SELECT VARIETIES OF
FRUITS.

THe accumulation of varieties of fruits within the last
ten years has been so great, that anything like a complete
description, or account of them all, would in itself exceed
the bounds of a moderate sized volume. Taken alto-
gether, there are perhaps at this moment no fewer than one
thousand different varieties under cultivation. To trace
out the history, the peculiar characters and merits of
these, must be the work of the pomologist, and forms no
part in the design of this treatise. In making the follow-
ing selections, and in describing them, pomological system
and minuteness have not been deemed necessary, nor wowd
they be practicable within the necessary limits.

The main object aimed at is, to bring to the notice of
cultivators the best varieties, those which ample experi-
ence has proved to be really valuable, or which upon a
partial trial give strong indications of becoming’ so.
Nothing is more embarrassing to the inexperienced culti-
vator than long lists; and many will no doubt be inclined
to think that a large number of the following varieties
might very well be dispensed with. But it must be
remembered that our country, even the great fruit grow-
ing regions of it, possesses different climates, that there
are various qualities of soils, various tastes and circum-
stances of individuals to be provided for. A dozen or

278 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

twenty sorts of apples or pears may be as many as one
person may require; but it does not follow that these vari-
eties only are to be cultivated, for it is very probable that
another individual, residing even in the same State, would
make a selection entirely different. New York, Massa-
chusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, and
other States, have all varieties of their own, and by the
time each has made a selection, our one hundred and fifty
varieties will be appropriated, and a deficiency still exist
in all probability. We are not of those who ery out
against new varieties. On the contrary, we look upon
every one of real excellence as an additional blessing to
the fruit growers and to society, for which they should be
duly thankful. The only thing to be observed in regard
to them is, that before entering into general cultivation
they should be fairly and carefully tested under various
circumstances. Some well meaning persons make a great
cry out against nurserymen and others, whose business it
is to experiment, for extending their lists, or noticing new
varieties. If such a spirit had prevailed, how would our
fruits have been to-day ? . |

“+ is by no means presumed that the following lists are
perfect, even as far as they go. No individual possesses
such a thorough knowledge of the various soils and cli-
mates of our country, or of the varieties of fruits best
adapted to them, as to enable him to recommend with in-
fallible correctness special lists for all localities.

In attempting this, reliance must be placed upon the
experience and reports of others, and these are always
liable to be biased by tastes or prejudices. These things
have been kept in view, and wherever recommendations
are made beyond our own knowledge and experience,
they are based upon the most reliable authority, and it is
hoped will not be found wholly unserviceable to those
especially who have neither had experience nor access to

APPLES. 279

sources of extensive and minute information. Those who
are not satisfied with the abridged descriptions, are
referred to works more strictly pomological; such as
“Downing s Fruit and Fruit Trees,’ “ Thomas's Amer-
ican Fruit Culturist,’ “ Hovey’s Fruits of America ;”
besides, Hovey’s Monthly Magazine, The Horticulturist,
Genesee Farmer, and other periodicals, where all new and
rare fruits are noticed and described.

FIRST DIVISION.—KERNEL FRUIT—APPLES, PEARS AND
QUINCES.

Section 1.—Sruect APPLeEs.
CLASS I.—SUMMER APPLES.

1. American Summer Pearmain.—Medium size, oblong,
skin smooth, red and yellow; tender, juicy and rich.
Tree a slow, but erect and handsome grower; bears early
and abundantly; one of the best in nearly all parts of the
country.—September.

2. Astrachan, Red.—Large, roundish, cael covered
with deep crimson, and a thick bloom iis a plum; juicy,
rich, acid; one of the most beautiful apples. Thetreeis a
vigorous grower with large foliage, and a good bearer.—
Russian.— August.

3. Benont.—Medium size, round, red; flesh tender,
juicy and rich; a good bearer and strong upright grower.
—From Massachusetts.— August.

4, Bough, Large Sweet (Large yellow bough of Down-
ing).—Large, pale yellow, sweet, rich flavored. Tree a
moderate, compact grower, and abundant bearer.—Aug.

5. Bevan’s Favorite-——A. new Jersey apple, where it is
esteemed as one of the best of its season. Medium size,
roundish striped, sub-acid and good.—August.

6. Bohanan.—A very delicious high-flayord apple

280 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

of Kentucky. Roundish, or inclining to oval, deep yellow.
Very tender, sprightly and fine-—August to October.

7. Oaroline Red June.—A very early and good apple,
cultivated considerably in Michigan, Wisconsin, &e.
About as large as the Summer Queen. Have seen good
specimens from Kalamazoo.

8. Karly Harvest.—Medium to large size, round, pale
yellow, rich sub-acid. Tree a moderate grower, but erect
and handsome, and a good bearer.—Last of July to Aug.

9. Karly Strawberry—Medium size, smooth and fair,
mostly covered with deep red; tender, almost melting,
with a mild, fine flavor. Tree a moderate, erect grower,
and a good bearer; a beautiful and excellent variety for
both orchard and garden.—Middle to end of August.

10. Early Joe—A beautiful and delicious, small sized,
deep red apple. Tree rather a slow, but upright grower,
and a most profuse bearer; originated in Ontario County,
N. Y.—Last of August.

11. Early Chandler.—Medium size, roundish, striped,
good quality. Oxiginated in Connecticut, but is exten-
sively cultivated in some parts of Ohio, where it succeeds
well. The tree is vigorous and erect—August and Sept.

12. Karly Pennock.—This variety is quite popular in
some districts of Ohio, and very little known elsewhere.
It is described as a magnificent, large, conical, yellow and
red apple, ripening there the middle of August.

13. Garretson’s Early—Medium size, greenish yellow
tender, juicy and pleasant. Tree vigorous, very produc-
tive, and bears young. Noticed firstin Hovey’s Magazine,
September, 1848. Supposed to have originated in New
Jersey; not much disseminated.—July and August.

14. Golden Sweeting—Large, roundish, pale yellow, a
very fair, fine, sweet apple. ~ Tree a strong grower, spread-
ing and irregular; a good bearer.—August.

15. Keswick Codlin—Large, oblong, pale yellow, acid.

APPLES. 281

Tree erect and very vigorous; bears when quite young and
abundantly; excellent for cooking from July to October.

16. Lyman’s Large Summer.—tLarge, roundish, pale
yellow, rich and excellent. The tree requires shortening
like the peach, to keep up a proper supply of young shoots,
as they bear only on the ends.—August.

17. Manomet (Horseblock Apple).—This is an excellent
late summer, sweet apple, originated near Plymouth, Mas-
sachusetts, and named by Mr. John Washburn of that
town. It is described in Hovey’s Magazine, September,
1848, as ‘“ one of the finest early sweet apples,” ‘ having
a deep yellow skin, and a bright vermillion cheek.” The
tree is vigorous and a good bearer.—August and Sept.

18. Oslin (Oslin Pippin, Arbroath Pippin).—A famous
Scotch apple, succeeds well in Upper Canada. Medium
size, roundish, yellow; flesh juicy, rich and fine. Tree
productive-—August and September.

19. Ornes Early.—tLarge, yellow, with a dull, red
cheek, tender, juicy and fine. Imported from France to
Massachusetts without a name, and afterwards described
in Hovey’s Magazine under this title. The tree is astrong
grower.

20. Summer Belle-flewr.—This is a very fine, late sum-
mer apple, raised by John R. Comstock, of Duchess
County, from a seed of the Esopus Spitzenburgh ; it resem-
bles the yellow belle-fleur, in form and color, and is de-
scribed by Mr. Downing, Horticulturist, vol. 3, as “ decid-
edly superior to Porter, William’s favorite, or any summer
apple of its season.” Tree strong and upright.

21. Summer Sweet Paradise—A large fine, sweet
apple, from Pennsylvania; round, greenish yellow, juicy,
sweet and richAugust and September. _

22. Sine-qua-non.—Medium size, greenish yellow; flesh
tender and fine flavored. Tree a slender, slow grower,

282 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

but bears well. Originated on Long Island by tne late
William Prince.—August.

23. Summer Lose (Woolman’s Early)—Medium size,
roundish, pale yellow, with a red cheek, tender and deli-
cious; has a most beautiful waxen appearance. Tree
rather a slow grower, but a good bearer.—Middle to end
of August.

24, Summer Queen.—Large, conical, striped and clouded
with red; rich and fine flavored. Tree grows rather irre-
gular, with a large spreading head.—August.

25. Sops of Wine.—Medium size, conical, dark crim-
son flesh stained with red, tender and delicious. The tree
is a fine grower and bearer, and the fruit remains a long
time in use; known as the “ Pie Apple” about Oswego.
—August and September.

26. Summer Scarlet Pearmain (Bell’s Scarlet) English.
—Medium to large, conical, mostly covered with crimson ;
flesh stained with red; tender and good. Trees grow
freely, and bear young and abundantly.—Aug. and Sept.

27. Williams’ Favorite—Large, oblong, red, rich and
excellent, a moderate grower and good bearer; highly
esteemed in Massachusetts, where it originated.—August.

CLASS II.—AUTUMN APPLES.

28. Alexander (Emperor Alexander)—A very large
and beautiful deep red apple, with a light bloom. Tree
spreading, vigorous, and productive. Russian—October
and November.

29. Autumn Strawberry (Late Strawberry).—Medium
size, streaked light and dark red ; tender, crisp, juicy and
fine. Tree vigorous, rather spreading, productive; one
of the best of its season.—September and October. Cul-
tivated most in Western New York; origin unknown.

30. Autumn Swaar.—aA large, roundish, flattened, yel-

APPLES. 283

low apple, generally known as “Sweet Swaar” in the
orchards of Western New York. The flesh is yellow,
juicy, sweet and rich; tree stout and spreading; very
good. |

31. Beauty of Kent.—A magnificent English apple,
rivalling the Alexander in size and beauty, skin striped
with dark red; flesh tender but coarse, and indifferent
in flavor ; excellent for cooking; tree very vigorous and
productive.

32. Bailey Spice-—A medium-sized, roundish, yellow
apple, with a sub-acid, brisk spzcy flavor, introduced by
Jno. W. Bailey, of Plattsburg, N. Y., where it originated ;
tree of moderate growth, a great bearer,— fruit always
fair; little known yet.—September and October.

33. Cooper—A very large, beautiful, and excellent
Ohio apple, roundish,—skin yellow streaked with light
red; flesh tender, juicy, and agreeable. (Barrels of them
were exhibited at the Ohio State Fair in 1850, and noth-
ing in season equalled them. It is said to have been
brought originally from New England.)—October to
December.

34. Clyde Beauty.—Large, conical, pale yellow, striped
and marbled with light red; sub-acid, good; introduced
to us by Mr. Matthew Mackie, of Clyde, N. Y., where it
originated.—October to December.

35. Duchess of Oldenburg—aA large beautiful Russian
apple, roundish, streaked red and yellow; tender, juicy,
and pleasant; tree a vigorous fine grower, and a young
and abundant bearer.—September.

36. Drap @ Or, or Cloth of Gold—Large, golden yel-
low ; flavor mild and agreeable ; tree spreading.—October.

37. Dyer—See Pomme Royal.

38. Fall Pippin.—Very large, roundish oblong, yel-
low; flesh tender, rich, and delicious; tree vigorous,

984 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

spreading, and a fine bearer; esteemed everywhere —
October to December.

39. Fall Harvey—A large, handsome yellow apple,
resembling the Fall Pippin, but not so good. Essex
county, Mass.—October and November.

40. Lleiner—Medium size, oblong, pale yellow, with
a red cheek ; tender and pleasant; has a beautiful, smooth,
waxy appearance; tree erect, and a great bearer; Ger-
man.—September and October.

41. Gravenstein —A_ beautiful, large, striped, ‘Gunde
apple of the first quality ; tree romeo vigorous and
erect in growth, and very productive. German.—Septem-
ber and October.

42. Garden Loyal.—Small, yellow, striped with red,
sub-acid, rich, spicy, and delicious; tree of moderate or
slow growth; Massachusetts September. First noticed
by Manning in Hovey’s Magazine. Not adapted for the
orchard either in tree or fruit.

43. Haskell Sweet (Sassafras Sweet Cole).—Large, flat,
greenish yellow, tender, sweet, and rich; tree vigorous
and productive. Massachusetts.—September and October.

44, [Hawthornden.—A beautiful Scotch apple, medium
to large size, pale yellow and red; trees have strong
shoots, with low spreading heads; constant and abundant
bearer ; excellent for cooking.—September and October.

45. Hawley (Dowse).—A magnificent, large pale yel-
low apple, mild acid, tender, rich, and fine; tree is a fair
grower, and bears well; originated in Columbia county,
N. Y.; has black spots in some seasons.—September and
October.

46. Jewett?s Fine Red—An excellent New England
apple, medium size, tender and fine flavored; a good
grower and bearer, said to be well adapted to the North.
—October and November.

47. Jersey Sweet—Medium size, striped red and green,

APPLES. ; 285

tender, juicy, and sweet; a strong fine grower and good
bearer; succeeds well, and is highly esteemed in almost
all parts of the country, both for table and cooking.—
September and October.

48. Kane (Cain)—A very beautiful, stfiooth crimson
apple, of Delaware, resembling the Fameuse; medium
size, roundish, and good quality.—October.

49. Lowell, Orange, Tallow Pippin (Queen Anne in
Ohio).—Large, oblong, pale yellow, skin oily, quality
excellent; tree a good grower and bearer.—September
and October.

50. Lyman’s Pumpkin Sweet (Pound Sweet).—A large,
round, green apple, fine for baking; tree very vigorous,
upright, and productive; much grown in Western New
York.—October to December.

51. Maiden’s Blush—Medium size, flat, pale yellow,
with a red cheek, beautiful, tender and pleasant, but not
high flavored ; tree an erect and fine grower, and good
‘bearer.—September and October.

52. Munson Sweet—Medium to large, roundish flat-
tened, pale yellow, with a blush on the sunny side; ten-
der, sweet, and good; becomes rather dry as it matures ;
very fine for baking, and very beautiful; introduced to us
by Mr. Jesse Storrs, of Marathon, N. Y. It is said to be
a native of Massachusetts; tree a good, upright grower,
and good bearer.—October to December.

53. Northern Sweet—A very beautiful and excellent
sweet apple, introduced to us by Mr. Jonathan Batty, of
Keeseville, N. Y., who presented it at the Pomological
Convention at New York, in 1849. It is so much like
the Munson that we once thought them identical. It is
supposed to have originated in Chittenden county, Vt.
The tree is a moderate grower, with drooping branches,
and a great bearer.

54. Porter—Medium size to large, oblong, yellow

=

986 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

flesh, fine, tender, and of excellent flavor; tree a mode-
rate grower; very popular in Massachusetts——September.

55. Pomme Royal, or Dyer.—Large, roundish, yellow-
ish white, with a brown tinge next the sun, crisp, juicy,
and high fl@vored; tree a fair grower and abundant
bearer.—September and October.

56. Pumpkin Sweet, Pumpkin Russet.—A very large,
round, yellowish russet apple, very sweet and rich; tree
a strong, rapid grower, with a spreading head ; valuable.
—October and November.

57. President.—Large and beautiful, yellow, with a red
cheek, roundish, flattened, of good quality, bears most abun-
dantly. We obtained it from Columbus, Ohio.—October.

58. Republican Pippin.—Large, roundish, striped, sub-
acid ; described by Dr. Brinkle, in the Horticulturist, as
having a peculiar walnut flavor; “ quality No.1.” The
tree is a vigorous grower and regular bearer, “ but does
not bear so well on a limestone soil.” September to Octo-
ber, and fit for cooking in July. Originated in ete:
county, Pa.

59. St. Lawrence-—Large, round, streaked red and
greenish yellow ; a very beautiful, predating: and popu-
be market apple. Originated in Montreal, Canada.—
October.

60. Spice Sweet.—Large, pale yellow, with a blush on
the sunny side, quite waxen and beautiful, tender, sweet,
and fine; a great bearer—September.

61. Smoke-House.—This is a fine apple, originated in
Lancaster county, Pa. Rather large, flat, striped ; tree is
a rapid grower, with spreading branches; flesh crisp,
juicy, and fine flavored. October. Not much dissemi-

nated yet.

62. Sawyer Sweet—Medium size, conical, greenish,
with a blush on the exposed side; tender, sweet, and
good; the tree is a free upright grower, and a good

APPLES. 287
bearer. October and November. Described by Kenrick,
from whom we obtained it.

63. Superb Sweet——Large, roundish, yellow and red;
flesh tender, juicy, rich flavored; tree is a good grower
and bearer; native of Massachusetts, and succeeds well
in Maine. Described by Cole, who sent it to us.—Sep-
tember and October.

64. Summer Sweet Paradise-—Large, roundish, flat-
tened, pale green, marked with gray dots; flesh tender,
sweet, and rich; the tree is very productive, and bears
young. Originated at Columbia, Pa.; one of the best
dessert varieties of its season.—September and October.

65. Tompkins —A. large and beautiful apple, from
Tompkins county, N. Y., where it is supposed to have
originated: Itis of a golden yellow color at maturity ;
flesh sub-acid, tender, and rich; tree productive. October
and November. Described in the Horticulturist in 1847.

66. Zowne.—Large, flat, striped; flesh tender, juicy,
mild, and pleasant; ripens with the Gravenstein, and is
nearly as good with us; obtained from Kenrick.

CLASS IV.—APPLES FOR ORNAMENT OR PRESERVING.

67. Red Siberian Crab—Small, about an inch in diam-
eter, yellow, with scarlet cheek; beautiful; tree is vigor-
ous and erect; bears when two or three years old.—Sep-
tember and October.

68. Large Red Siberian Crab—Nearly twice as large
as the above, but similar in appearance and quality ; trees
grow large.—September and October.

69. Yellow Siberian Crab—Nearly as large as the last,
and of a beautiful golden yellow.

70. Large Yellow Crab—Larger than any of the pre-
ceding, pale yellow, with tint of red in the sun; tree a
- vigorous and rapid grower.

988 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

71. Double Flowering Chinese-—A beautiful orna-
mental tree, producing large clusters of semi-double rose
colored blossoms.

CLASS UI.—WINTER APPLES.

72. Baldwin (Steele’s Red Winter, in Western New
York).—A_ large, fair, bright, red apple, roundish, in-
clining to oblong; flesh crisp, juicy, and pleasant; not
very fine grained. ‘Tree is a vigorous, rapid grower, with
curved erect branches, and forms a regular open head in
the orchard ; bears abundantly ; originated in Massachu-
setts, where it is one of the most popular and _ profitable
winter fruits for market. It also succeeds well through-
out New York, and especially in the Genesee Valley ;
variable in the south and west.

73. Baily Sweet (Patterson Sweet)—A magnificent
sweet apple of the largest size, originated in Wyoming
county, New York; brought to our notice a few years
ago, by E. A. McKay, Esq., of Naples, New York; color
deep reddish crimson; flesh tender, sweet, juicy, and
rich; tree vigorous, erect, and productive-—October to
January.

74. Bourrassa.—Large, conical, reddish russet, rich
and high-flavored, but rather dry; supposed to have.
originated in Lower Canada; a very valuable apple for
the high northern latitudes; succeeds well in western
New York.—October to March.

75. Blue Pearmain.—vVery large, roundish, purplish
red, clouded, covered with bloom; flesh sub-acid, juicy,
and good; tree is a vigorous grower, with large foliage,
and a spreading head; bears moderately ; very popular
in the markets on account of its size and beauty.—Octo-
ber to January.

76. Bellflower, Yellow—Mr. Downing follows Thomp-

APPLES. 289

son in calling this Belle-flewr, which is, no doubt, correct,
this being the French term for handsome flower, while
our word means bell-shaped flower; but having been de-
scribed as bell-flower by the older authors, and universally
known and called so in this country, it cannot be changed.
The fruit is large, oblong, slightly conical, yellow, with a
blush on the sunny side; flesh crisp, juicy, pretty-acid,
and rich; tree is a rapid grower, with spreading and
drooping branches, very productive; originated in New
Jersey ; succeeds well throughout a large portion of the
country.—November to April.

77. Belmont (Gate)—A_ beautiful and excellent apple
of Ohio; large, roundish, inclining to conical; yellow,
with a tinge of'red on one side; sub-acid, juicy, and fine;
succeeds well in New York and northern Ohio, but is
variable at Cincinnati and further south.—October to
February. Described by Mr. Downing as “ Waxen,” he
supposing it to be identical with that of Coxe. This is
yet in doubt.

78. Belle et Bonne.—This is a native of Connecticut ; a
tree at East Hartford, forty years old, measures one hun-
dred and twenty feet in circumference, and bears forty to
fifty bushels a year. Mr. Downing describes.it as “ a very
large, showy, yellow apple, of the fall pippin class ;” the
tree forms a beautiful symmetrical head, and bears abun-
dantly.—October to January. Keep all winter. There
is an apple by this name cultivated about Rochester,
large, showy, striped, of fair quality, ripens in September.

79. Broadwell——A fine, new, sweet apple, from Ohio ;
large, greenish yellow, tender, sweet, and excellent;
keeps till spring.

80. Carthouse (Gilpin, Red Romanite).—Medium size,
round, striped, sub-acid, and agreeable ; cultivated rather
extensively in some parts of the south, where it is es-

13

990 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

teemed for its productiveness and good keeping qualities
It is also grown much for cider.—February to May.

81. Danvers’ Winter Sweet—Medium size, roundish,
slightly conical; greenish yellow, with a brown tinge on
the sunny side; flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, and rich;
tree very productive, spreading; one of the best sweet
apples; origin, Danvers, Massachusetts; keeps till April.

82. Dominie-—Medium size, flat, greenish yellow,
streaked with red, sub-acid, juicy, and high flavored.—
November to April. Cultivated rather extensively in the
orchards on the Hudson; resembles the Rambo, and like
it succeeds well in the west and south.

83. Dutch Mignonne.—A very large, beautiful, and ex
cellent apple; a native of Holland; orange, marked with
russet and faint streaks of red; fine flavored; tree erect,
and good bearer.—November to March.

84. Hameuse.—Medium size, deep crimson, flesh snowy
white, tender, and delicious; tree vigorous, with dark
wood ; a beautiful and fine early winter fruit; succeeds
particularly well in the north—November, December,
January; September, and October, in Ohio and farther
south. Native of Canada.

85. Hallawater—From Columbia, Pennsylvania; me-
dium size, slightly conical, greenish yellow, with a dull
blush on the sunny side; flesh juicy, sub-acid, and good;
productive.

86. Hort Miami.—A new variety from Ohio. Said to
be a rich, high-flavored, good keeper.

87. Green Sweeting.—Medium size, greenish, tender,
sweet, and spicy; one of the very best long-keeping *
sweet apples; tree a moderate grower—November to
May.

88. Hubbardson Nonsuch—Large, striped yellow and
red, tender, juicy, and fine, strong grower and great
bearer ; native of Massachusetts—November to January.

APPLES. 291

89. Hooker—A large fine apple, introduced to Ro-
chester by Judge E. B. Strong, from Connecticut; color
greenish yellow, striped, and covered with dark red in the
sun ; flesh tender, juicy, and fine-flavored; tree very pro-
ductive-—November to January.

90. Hartford Sweeting (Spencer Sweeting).—A native
of Hartford, Connecticut ; medium size, flat, striped; flesh
juicy, tender, and rich; keeps till late in spring; tree
very productive ; a valuable orchard variety.

91. Jonathan—Medium size, striped red and yellow ;
flesh tender, juicy, and rich, with much of the Spitzen-
burg character ; shoots light-colored, slender, and spread-
ing; very productive; a native of Kingston, New York.
—November to April.

92. King—A large handsome fruit, striped red and
yellow, of fair but not first-rate quality ; tree remarkably
vigorous and fruitful. October to January.

93. Lady Apple, Pomme @Api—A beautiful little
dessert fruit, flat, pale yellow, with a brilliant red cheek ;
~ flesh crisp, juicy, and pleasant; the tree forms a dense,
erect head, and bears large crops of fruit in clusters; the
fruit sells for the highest price in New York, London, and
Paris——November to May. There are four or five varie-
ties of these described by authors, but this is the best.

94. Ladies’ Sweet—Large, roundish, green, and red,
nearly quite red in the sun; sweet, sprightly, and per-
fumed ; shoots slender but erect; a good bearer; origin-
ated near Newburg, New York; one of the best winter
sweet apples—November to May.

95. Limber Twig (James River)—A large, dull, red
apple; second rate in quality, but keeps till June or July,
on account of which chiefly it is cultivated at the south
~ and west; the tree has weak, pendulous branches, but is
exceedingly hardy, and bears immense crops.

96. Mother.—Large, red; flesh very tender, rich, and

292 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

aromatic; tree a good bearer; succeeds well in the north;
supposed to have originated in Worcester county, Massa-
chusetts.—November to January.

97. Melon (Norton’s).—Large, pale, whitish yellow and
vermillion red; flesh tender, juicy, almost melting, and
spicy ; a most beautiful and delicious fruit; originated in
East Bloomfield, New York; the tree is rather a slow
grower, but a good bearer; retains its freshness from
October to April.

98. McLellan (Martin)—Large, roundish, yellow, strip-
ed with red; flesh fine grained, mild, tender, and plea-
sant; tree productive ; originated in Woodstock, Connec-
ticut, where it is highly esteemed. Mr. Downing con-
siders it “ worthy of a place in every small collection, and
valuable for the orchard.”

99. Minister—A large, showy, oblong, striped apple,
fine-grained and eee sub-acid. Mr. Manning con-
sidered it one of the finest apples Maasaekae ar pro-
duced ; with us it is about second-rate; trees exceedingly
productive.—October to January.

100. Monmouth Pippin (Red Cheeked Pippin).—A
large, showy, good apple, of New Jersey, somewhat cul-
tivated, and succeeds well in western New York, round-
ish, oblong, greenish yellow, with a deep red cheek;
flesh rather compact, sub-acid, and agreeable; keeps well —
till March or April; tree upright, vigorous, and pro-
ductive.

101. Northern Spy.—tLarge, striped, and quite covered
on the sunny side with dark crimson, and delicately
coated with bloom; flesh juicy, rich, highly aromatic, re-
taining its freshness of flavor and appearance till July;
the tree is aremarkably rapid, fine, erect grower, and a
great bearer; like all trees of the same habit, it requires
eood culture, and an occasional thinning out of the
branches, to admit the sun and air fully to the fruit. It

APPLES. 293

is one of the largest, most beautiful, and excellent long-
keeping apples yet known ; originated in Ontario county,
New York, and introduced a few years ago. Mr. Cole
says it is found to be very hardy as far north as Maine.

102. Newtown Pippin.—One of the most celebrated
of American apples, on account of its long-keeping and
excellent qualities, and the high price it commands
abroad ; but its success is confined to certain districts and
soils. It attains its greatest perfection on Long Island,
and on the Hudson. In western New York and New
England, it rarely succeeds well. It requires rich and
high culture, and it is said a large supply of lime; tree a
slow, feeble grower, with rough bark.—November to
June.

103. Ortley (Detroit, White Bellflower, Warren Pippin,
etc., of the West, Woolman’s Long, etc., etc.).—Large,
roundish, slightly oblong, pale yellow; flesh sub-acid,
sprightly and fine; succeeds well in New Jersey, and in
the west ; origin, New Jersey.

104. Peck’s Pleasant.—Large, pale yellow, with a
brown cheek, very smooth and fair; flesh firm and rich,
approaching the flavor of a Newtown pippin; tree erect
and a fine bearer.—November to April.

105. Pomme Grise-—Small, greyish russet, very rich,
and high-flavored ; tree a moderate grower, but a good
bearer; very valuable in the north ; is frequently shipped
from Canada to England.—November to April.

106. Pickman (Pickman Pippin).—Medium to large,
roundish, slightly flattened, of a beautiful clear straw
color; sub-acid and rich; fine for cooking.—November to
February. Supposed to be a native of Massachusetts.

107. Pryor’s Red.—A very popular and excellent fruit
in Ohio and Kentucky ; somewhat similar to the Bourassa
in color and fiavor; reddish or brownish russet; rather
dry, but rich and high-flavored; rather late and shy

994 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

bearer.—December to February. Cultivated extensively
for the New Orleans market.

108. Phillip’s Sweeting—A new Ohio apple, large,
conical, yellow and red; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, and
good. arly winter.

109. Lambo (Romanite, Seek-No-Farther)—Good and
popular over a greater extent of country than any other
variety ; medium size, round, greenish, yellow, striped
with red; flesh exceedingly tender, juicy, and pleasant ;
tree vigorous, erect, and very productive; ripens in the
autumn at the south and west, but keeps here till Feb-
ruary.

110. Lome Beauty—A large and very beautiful new
apple of Ohio; we saw it at Cincinnati in 1850; it is
roundish or very slightly conical, pale. yellow, mostly
covered with bright red; flesh not very fine, but tender,
juicy, and good; early winter. It will undoubtedly be
valuable for the orchard.

111. Lawle’s Jannet (Rawle’s Janneting, Never-fail,
Rockremain, &c.)—The most popular and valuable
orchard fruit of Kentucky. An experienced orchardist of
that State, Mr. Sanders, of Carrol county, who has known
it for fifty years, says that “ 30 to 40 per cent. of every
orchard in Kentucky should be planted with it.” It blos-
soms two weeks later than most other varieties, and there-
fore always escapes spring frosts. It is medium to small,
round, greenish streaked, and clouded with dull red; flesh
compact, crisp, Juicy and vinous.—Keeps till June or
July.

112. Leinette, Canada.—vVery large, flattened, ribbed,
dull yellow, flesh firm, juicy and rich; tree a strong
grower and good bearer. In France it is considered the
largest and best apple, and proves excellent here ; it keeps
better for being picked early —November to March.

113. Led Canada (Old None-such of Massachusetts).—

APPLES. 295

Medium size, red, with white dots, flesh fine, rich, sub-acid
and delicious; tree a slender grower; one of the best of
apples.—November to May. .

114. Phode Island Greening—Every where well known
and popular; tree spreading and vigorous, always more
or less crooked in the nursery; a great and constant bearer
‘in nearly all soils and situations; fruit rather acid, but
excellent for dessert or cooking; towards the south it ripens
in the fall, but in the north keeps well till March or April.

115. Russet Golden.—Medium size, dull russet, with a
tinge of red on the exposed side; flesh greenish, crisp,
juicy and high flavored; tree a fine grower, spreading
with light colored speckled shoots, by which it is easily
known; bears well; popular and extensively grown in
Western New York.—November to April.

116. Russet Golden American (Bullock’s Pippin,
Sheep’s Nose).—Medium size to small, conical, slightly
russeted; flesh remarkably tender, juicy and rich; of the
finest quality; origin, New Jersey, and succeeds well in
the west and south. Tree an upright, compact, but not
rapid grower.

117. Russet English (Poughkeepsie Russet)—Medium
size, slightly conical, greenish yellow, mostly covered
with russet. Tree is remarkably stout and erect, bears
large crops, and the fruit will keep a year; quality good;
very profitable.

118. Russet, Roxbury or Boston—Medium size to large,
surface rough, greenish, covered with russet, flavor indif-
ferent; tree vigorous, spreading, and a great bearer; keeps
till June. Its great popularity is owing to its productive-
ness and long-keeping.

119. Swaar.—Large, pale lemon yellow, with dark dots,
flesh. tender, rich and spicy; tree a moderate grower,
with dark shoots and large grey buds; with good culture
it is one of the very best of apples——November to May.

296 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

120. Seek-no-further (Westfield)—Medium to large,
striped with dull red, and slightly russeted; flesh tender,
rich and excellent; tree a good grower and bearer, and
fruit always fair—November to February.

121. Spitzenburgh Esopus—tLarge, deep red, with grey
spots, and delicately coated with bloom, flesh yellow,
crisp, rich and excellent; tree rather a feeble, slow, spread-
ing grower, and moderate bearer; esteemed in this State
as one of the very best—November to April.

Spitzenburgh Newtown. —F rom the little village of New-
town, Long Island; a handsome, round, dark red apple,
marked with brown dots; flesh yellow, firm, mild and
pleasant—November to February. This was exhibited
as “ Vandervere” in nearly all the western collections at
the Cincinnati Convention.

123. Tallman Sweeting—Medium size, pale whitish
yellow, slightly tinged with red; flesh firm, rich and very
sweet; excellent for cooking; tree vigorous, upright and
very productive.—November to April.

124. Twenty Ounce (Cayuga Red Streak)—A very
large, showy, striped apple, of fair quality ; tree an upright,
compact grower, and fine bearer; excellent for baking,
and of pleasant flavor, though not rich; one of the best
very large apples, and popular in the markets.—October
to January.

125. Tewksbury Winter Blush—Small, yellow, with a
red cheek, flesh firm, juicy, and fine flavored; a remark-
ably long keeper; tree a rapid, erect grower; suits the
south best, as it requires a long season to manure it; origin,
New Jersey.— January to July.

126. Vandevere-—Medium size, yellow, striped with
red, and becoming deep crimson next the sun, flesh yel-
low, rich and fine; tree a fair grower and good bearer;
succeeds best on light, warm, dry soils.—October to March.

127. Wagener.—Medium to large size, deep red in the

APPLES. 297

sun ; flesh firm, sub-acid and excellent; tree very produc-
tive. A new and excellent variety, recently introduced
from Penn Yan, Yates County, New York— December
to May.

128. Winter Pearmain.—Medium size, dull red stripes,
on a yellowish ground, flesh tender, pleasant and aro-
matic; a moderate grower and bearer, best on warm soil.
—November and March.

129. Willow Twig—A western variety, particularly
valuable for its productiveness and long keeping; shoots
very slender, hence its name.

130. Wells’ Sweeting.—A fine early winter sweet apple,
from Newburgh, New York. Medium size, roundish,
green, flesh tender, sprightly and rich. Tree a stout, up-
right grower and good bearer.—November to January.

131. Wine Sap—Medium size, roundish, slightly coni-
eal, deep red; flesh very firm and crisp, with a sub-acid
flavor. Tree very productive; fine for cider, for which it
has been extensively grown.—November to April.

132. Wine Apple (Hay’s Winter).—Large, roundish,
slightly flattened, yellow striped, and clouded with bright
red; flesh yellow, juicy, crisp and pleasant. A native of
Delaware; succeeds well in many parts of the country.

133. White Winter Calville—This is a celebrated
French apple, and is one of the finest dessert varieties to
be found in their markets at the present day. It is large,
flat, ribbed, pale yellow, with a bright red cheek; flavor
pleasant but not rich. Succeeds well in Canada.—No-
vember to March.

SMALL SELECT LISTS OF APPLES.

For Western New York the following are “ unimpeach-
able :” ; 3
Nos. 1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 23, 29, 38, 41, 44, -45, 47,

298 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

55, 72, 73,76, 81, 83, 84, 87, 98, 97, 101, 105, 109, 113,
Ce ee Talay:

Twenty Choice Garden Varieties —2, 9, 10, 15, 23, 29,
88, 41, 47, 50, 55, 84, 93, 97, 101, 105, 113, 119, 121, 127.

Twenty very large and beautiful sorts for Dwarfs.—2,
4, 28, 31, 35, 388, 27, 28, 41, 44, 45, 51, 59, 72, 73, 83, 101,
US, 127/188.

Varieties that succeed well in the south and west.—
1, 2, 4,°5,°6,-7, 8, 11,12, 15, 28, 33,°38, 45,7) ore
76, 79, ‘80, 82, 84, 86,95, 102, 103, 107, 108, L0Op110,
P11, 114, 116, 118,126; 199, -132: .

The “ Western Horticultural Review” suggests the fol-
lowing for an orchard of one thousand trees at St. Louis.

Two hundred Rawle’s Jannet ; two hundred Pryor’s Red ;
two hundred Newtown pippin; fifty golden russet (Ame-
rican, no doubt) ; thirty-five Newton Spitzénburgh ; fifteen
fall pippin; twenty-five each, yellow and white bell-
flower, early strawberry, early harvest, Benomi, Williams’
favorite, Bohanan, and Gravenstein, Cooper, Rome Beauty,
Rambo, Belmont, and Fameuse; one hundred Carthouse
‘or Gilpin, Michael rue and Smith’s Cider; fifty “any
others not rejected.”

Samuel Walker, Esq., President of the Massichenail
Horticultural Baie one of the most experienced and
critical judges of fruits in America, gives, in ‘“ Hovey’s
Magazine, vol. xv., 1849, the following list as being the
best-suited to the meridian of New England, ranked ac-
cording to merit thus: Nos. 114, 41, 72, 8 or 9, 113, 54,
99, 123, 4, 118, 81, 55, 88, 38, 84, 1, 3, 2, 39, 27, 94, 91,
104, 121.

PEARS. 299

Section 2.—Srenect PEArRs.

CLASS I.—SUMMER PEARS.

1. Amire Joannet (St. John’s).—Retained only on ac-
count of its earliness, and not recofamended for small
collections ; the tree is a fine grower on both pear and
quince, and a profuse bearer; fruit small, pale yellow,
and sweet, soon mealy.—Twentieth to last of July. For-
eign.

2. Beau Present d@ Artois—A good, juicy, half melt-
ing pear, medium size; tree very vigorous and productive
on the quince.—September. ‘foreign.

8. Bloodgood —An American pear of the first quality ;
medium size, buttery, melting, and rich; tree is a fair
grower ; succeeds well, and makes a fine pyramid on the
quince.—August.

4. Bartlett (William’s Bonchretien)—One of the most
popular pears; large, buttery, and melting, with a rich
musky flavor; tree a fair, erect grower; bears young and
abundantly, both on pear and quince; the fruit ripens
perfectly in the house, if gathered even two or three
weeks before its time of ripening; this prolongs its sea-
son.—Last of September.

5. Canandargua.—So named by the Congress Fruit
Growers, in 1849; previously called “ Catharine.” It is,
in appearance, very similar to the Bartlett, nearly as
large and as good; meking and fine flavored ; tree is an
upright, vigorous grower on both pear and quince, and
very productive. In season middle of September.

6. Dearborn’s Seedling—Rather below medium size,
pale yellow, melting and- delicious; tree a rapid, fine
grower, both on pear and quince, and bears young and
profusely ; one of the very best early summer pears, ripe

300 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

immediately. after the Bloodgood.—About the last of
August.

7. Doyenne @Hté (Summer Doyenne).—A beautiful
little melting sweet pear; tree a fine grower and bearer,
and succeeds well on the quince.—August.

8. Hdward’s Henrietta—A medium-sized, greenish
pear, melting, juicy, and sprightly ; tree very productive;
originated at New Haven, Conn.—September. Not much
disseminated.

9. Jargonelle, English—A good old variety, large
size, flesh rather coarse, but juicy and pleasant; should
be ripened in the house. The tree is a very strong
grower, with purplish spreading shoots, and large foliage
and flowers. It makes a fine prolific pyramid on the
quince, but is not recommended for small collections.—
Beginning of August.

10. Leech’s Kingsessing—A. new pear recently intro-
duced by Dr. Brinkle, of Philadelphia. It is described
as being large, of a “ sea-green” color, and “ rich, buttery,
and delicately flavored;” ripe last of August. It proves
with us a strong grower, and will make a handsome pyra-
mid on the quince.

11. Madeleine—This is the earliest good pear we have ;
size medium, flesh melting, sweet and delicate; treea fair
grower, and good, early bearer on both pear and quince.

12. Striped Madeleine—is a variety, with wood and
fruit striped with green, yellow and red, of same’quality
and season as the preceding.

13. dALuscadine. Medlin sizesmelting, ani flavored
und good. The tree has vigorous dark shoots, similar to
Jargonelle; does not appear to succeed well on the
quince. Sal ae in September.

14. Moyamensing (Smith’s). —Originated in Philadel-
phia; large size, buttery, melting, and fine flavored;
decays very soon after ripening ; tree is a fair grower on

PEARS. 301

both pear and quince; ripens at Philadelphia from the
middle of July till August; north proportionably later.

15. Muscat Robert—A small, pale yellow, halfmelting
fruit, very juicy and sweet; tree hardy, productive, and
vigorous, leaves large and flat, shoots quite yellowish ;
bears abundant crops on the quince; not so good as
Madeleine or Bloodgood.

16. Ott’s Seedling—A small, yellow, delicious, high
flavored pear; originated near Philadelphia, and brought
to notice by Dr. Brinkle, who considers it nearly as good
as the Seckel— August and September.

17. Osband’s Summer—A medium sized, excellent
fruit, half-melting, mild, and pleasant flavored; tree a
fair, erect grower, on both pear and quince, and very pro-
ductive; ripens here early part of Angust ; origin, Wayne
county, N. Y.; recently introduced.

18. Rousselet Stutigart—Medium size or rather small,
greenish brown, half-melting, juicy, and fine flavored ;
tree a fine grower, and very productive on both pear and
quince. German.—August and September.

19. Rostiezer—Medium size, yellowish green, with a
brown cheek ; flesh juicy, sweet, and high flavored; the
tree is vigorous,with dark-colored shoots; succeeds well
on the quince; of German origin, and not long introduced
here, but so far has proved first-rate in its season.—First
of September.

20. Summer Frane Real.—Medium size, juicy, melting,
and rich; tree very hardy, and a stout, fine grower and
good bearer on both pear and quince; makes a beautiful
pyramid; foliage and young shoots look mealy, being
covered with a light down; fruit should always be ripened
in the house——End of August and beginning of Sep-
tember.

21. Skinless (Sanspeau of the French).—Rather small
pyriform, pale yellow, with a tinge of red on the sunny

302 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

side; melting, juicy, and sweet; tree a rapid, erect
grower, and very productive—Anugust.

22. Tyson.—Rather above medium size, melting, juicy,
sweet, and fine flavored; tree very vigorous and rapid
grower, both on quince and pear ; one of the finest summer
varieties ; origin, Jenkintown, Pa.—September.

CLASS II.—AUTUMN PEARS.

23. Andrews (Amory or Gibson).—Rather above me-
dium size, pyramidal, yellow, with a dull red cheek ; juicy,
melting, and good; tree a fair grower, and a good bearer;
very popular in Boston. September and October. Native
of Dorchester, Mass.

24. Bleeker’s Meadow.—Medium size, round, half-melt-
ing; second rate; but the tree is exceeding hardy and
vigorous, and bears enormous crops; fine for stewing, etc.
—October.

25. Buffum.—Very similar to the White Doyenne, and
nearly as good; buttery, sweet, and fine flavored ; tree a
remarkably vigorous, upright grower, with light reddish
brown shoots ; succeeds well on the quince.—Last of Sep-
tember.

26. Beurre, Brown.—<A: very fine old fruit; not well
spoken of in New England, but does well in fis State ;
fruit medium size to large, melting, very juicy, with a
sprightly vinous flavor. It is rather a tardy bearer and
poor grower on the pear, but on the quince it grows well
and makes a fine prolific pyramid. It is inclined to over-
bear, and should be pruned close, to maintain its vigor.

27. Beurre, Bosc.—A large and beautiful pear, melting
or nearly so, high flavored and delicious ; a good grower
on pear, but does not succeed on the ee except double
worked.—September and October.

28. Beurre d@ Amalis Panache.—In quality similar to

PEARS. 3038

Number 37, but the wood and fruit curiously striped
with red and yellow, like the striped Madeleine and
Doyenne.

29. Beurre. d Anjou.—A large fine pear, buttery and
melting, with sprightly vinous flavor; tree a fine grower
on both pear and quince.—October and November. For-
eign; first imported by Col. Wilder.

30. Beurre Capiaumont.—Medium size, yellow, with a
red cheek; melting, sweet, and rich, but somewhat vari-
able; a good grower and abundant bearer; makes a
beautiful productive pyramid on the quince.—October.

31. Beurre Diel—One of the largest pears, buttery,
rich, and fine; sometimes gritty at the core on pear stock ;
invariably first-rate on the quince; growth very strong
and rapid, with large roundish leaves.—October and No-
vember; and if picked early and ripened gradually in the
house, may be kept to December.

32. Beurre, Golden of Bilboa.—aA large and beautiful
pear of. the first quality, buttery and melting, with a rich
sprightly flavor; a strong, upright, handsome grower ;
succeeds particularly well on the quince—September and
October.

33. Bergamotte Cadette (Beurre Beauchamps).—A me-
dium size, oval, melting rich pear; tree a fine grower, and
very prolific both on pear and quince; makes a fine pyra-
mid.——Ripe in November, and keeps well till December.

34. Bergamot Gansels—Medium to large size, round-
ish, skin rough, brown; flesh melting, juicy, rich, and
high flavored ; rather a poor grower, with slender spread-
ing branches and gray leaves; a tardy bearer, does not
succeed on the quince.—October.

35. Bezi de Montigny—A very fair, medium-sized
fruit, melting and sweet, with a pleasant, musky flavor;
very vigorous and productive; makes a fine fruitful pyra-

304 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

mid on the quince, nearly as good as White Doyenne.—-
October. )

36. Belle Lucrative (Fondante d’Automne).—Medium
size, melting and delicious; a fair, upright grower; makes
a beautiful pyramid on the quince, and bears early and
abundantly ; first quality in all respects——September and
October.

387. Beurre ad Amalis—A. large, melting, fine pear,
resembling the Brown Beurre, and with the same high
vinous flavor; a strong grower, and most abundant bearer
on the quince.—September and October.

38. Comte de Lamy.——A medium-sized, melting, fine
flavored fruit; a good grower; makes a fine pyramid on
the quince.—October.

39. Cushing—Medium size, oblong, pale green, brown-
ish next the sun; juicy, melting, and delicious; tree very.
productive ; one of the very best Massachusetts varieties.
—September. |

40. Dunmore (Knight’s)—A large, fine pear, with a
sprightly sub-acid flavor like the Brown Beurre; rather
variable; sometimes first-rate—September.

41. Dix—A large, fine pear, melting, juicy, and rich;
a fair grower; slender, yellowish shoots; succeeds on the
quince double worked, but not otherwise.—October. Ori-
~ gin, Boston.

42 Duchesse ad Angouleme—tThe largest of all our
good pears; it attains its highest perfection on the quince,
and is a beautiful, vigorous tree ; profitable for market.—
October and November. ,

43. Duchesse @ Orleans——A new, large, and delicious
pear, “‘ with the flavor of Gansell’s Bergamot ;” succeeds
well on the quince, and bears quite young; has proved
fine at Boston, but not so good with us.—October.

44, Doyenne Boussoch.—A. new, large, delicious pear,

PEARS. 3805

like a very large White Doyenne ; tree a strong, rapid
grower ; acces well on the quince.—October.

45. Doyenne White—A well known and universally
esteemed variety of the highest excellence ; growing and
bearing equally well on both pear and quince; young
trees on.the quince are inclined to bear too much, on this
account the fruit requires thinning, and the tree pretty
close pruning, to keep up a vigorous growth.—October and
November.

46. Doyenne Gray.—Similar in quality to the preced:
ing; fruit of a reddish russet color; tree not quite so
strong a grower.

47. Doyenne Panache (Striped Doyenne).—Similar in
character to the White; wood and fruit are curiously
striped.

48. Excellentissima.—A very beautiful and excellent
new Belgian variety, as large as the Bartlett; oblong,
pyriform, yellow, with a tinge of red in the sun; buttery,
melting, and rich.—October. It must become a most
popular variety.

49, Forelle or Trout Pear—A beautiful Guinad pear,
finely speckled, buttery, melting and rich; succeeds well
on the quince; bears early and profusely — November.

50. Flemish Beauty—aA large, beautiful, melting, rich
pear; tree vigorous and fruitful: has not succeeded well
on the quince with us yet.—September and October.

51. Lrederick of Wurtemberg—A large and beautiful
pear, sometimes first-rate, and often insipid; a vigorous
grower both on pear and quince, and an early good bearer.
—September.

52. Hulton—A native pear, round and russety, melt-
ing, rich and excellent, hardy and vigorous; succeeds
well in the north where many others are tender.—October
and November.

53. Henry IV. (We have sent out some trees of this

306 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

variety, imported as “‘ Ananas’’).—A medium sized, melt-
ing, delicious pear, of a dull greenish color; a free stout
grower, and a most profuse bearer; succeeds well on the
quince; should be ripened in the house.—September.

54. Heathcote——A. buttery, melting, fine-flavored pear,
about the size of White Doyenne, hardy and productive.
—September. Originated in the vicinity of Boston.

55. Howell—aA. very good and very handsome variety,
originated at New Haven, Conn. Large or medium, obo-
vate, inclining to pyramidal, lemon yellow tinged, with
red in the sun; melting, juicy and vinous, rather coarse.
Tree vigorous, branches rather spreading and drooping.—
September and October.

56. Hanners (Hannas).—A native of Boston or vicinity ;
of medium size, resembling the Cushing, with somewhat
the flavor of White Doyenne.—September.

57. Henkel—Medium size, roundish obovate, yellow,
slightly russeted; buttery, melting and fine. One of the
very best Belgian varieties—November and December.

58. Hacon’s Incomparable—A. very large round pear,
buttery, melting and rich. Trees spreading and very pro-
ductive. One of the finest English varieties, but a little
variable in this country.—October.

59. Harvard.—A. very popular and profitable market
fruit around Boston; large, oblong, russety, melting and
juicy; should be house ripened. The tree is vigorous and
upright; a tardy but very abundant bearer.—September.

60. Johonnot.—Medium size, roundish obovate, green-
ish yellow, slightly russeted, rather coarse but melting,
rich and musky. The tree is a good grower, succeeds
well on the quince. Originated in Salem, Mass.

61. Anight’s Seedling—Originated in Rhode Island.
Large, melting, sweet and good ; should be gathered before
ripe; tree a good grower.—September to October.

62. Louise Bonne de Jersey—One of the finest of all

PEARS. 307

pears, large, beautiful and delicious; it succeeds well both
on pear and quince, but on the latter, especially, it isall
that can be desired.—September and October. Foreign.

63. Long Green (Verte Longue).—Really long and
green, juicy, sweet and good; a fine strong grower and
good bearer on the quince.—October. Foreign.

64. Long Green, Striped (Verte Longue Panache)—A
variety of the preceding, with striped wood and fruit, but
aferior in quality.

65. Las Canas.—A fine Belgian variety, first fruited by
Mr. Manning. Medium size, pyriform, yellow and slightly
russeted, juicy, melting and fine.—October.

66. Lodge—Medium size, brownish, russety, juicy,
melting, rich; native of Philadelphia; usually first-rate.
—September and October.

67. Marie Lowise.—A large melting pear of the first
quality; the tree is a straggling, crooked grower, but
hardy, and bears young and abundantly; does not succeed
on the quince. ;

68. Wapoleon.—A large, juicy, melting, fine fruit; tree
vigorous, hardy and productive, makes a fine pyramid on
the quince; bears young, ripens in November, and may
be kept till December. Should be ripened in a warm
room. °

69. Onondaga.—See Swan’s Orange.

70. Oswego Beurre—An excellent new pear, from Os-
wego, New York, medium size, melting, with a rich vinous
flavor. Tree very hardy and productive; makes a beauti-
ful pyramid on the quince; a most valuable pear; ripens
in October to December.

71. Paradise d’ Automne.—A. large, fine melting pear,
of the first quality; resembles Beurre Bosc in shape and
color.—October.

72. Pratt—A native of Rhode Island, medium size,

808 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

melting, buttery, rich and good; nearly first rate—Sep-
tember and October.

73. Petre—Native of Pennsylvania; medium size,
obovate, pale yellow, slightly russeted, buttery, melting
and rich; generally first rate-——September.

74. Pennsylvania.—Medium to large size, half melting;
highly esteemed at Philadelphia, where it originated;
does not prove so good in other places. Tree a good
grower, both on pear and quince.—September. i

75. Surpass Virgoulouse (or Virgalieu). A very fine
fruit, nearly equal in all respects to the White Doyenne,
introduced by the late Mr. Parmentier, of Brooklyn.—
October.

76. Seckel—The highest flavored. pear known; consi-
dered as the standard of excellence; a stout, erect grower,
not rapid, a good bearer; grows well on the quince with
us.—September and October.

77. St. Ghislain.—A medium sized, fine melting pear;
tree a rapid and beautiful grower and good bearer ; should
be ripened in the house.—September.

78. Stevens’ Genesee-—A large, roundish, buttery, fine-
flavored pear, vigorous and highly productive; sueceeds
well on both pear and quince; a native of Monroe county,
New York.—September and October.

79. Swan’s Orange (Onondaga).—A very large, melting,
high-flavored pear, vigorous and extremely productive,
one of the best pears of its size and season; succeeds well
on the quince.—October and November.

80. Urbaniste (Beurre Picquery of the French)—A
large, melting, buttery pear, a tardy bearer on the pear,
but succeeds well on the quince.—October and November.

81. Van Mons Leon Leclerc.—A very large pear, four
and a half inches in length, and three in diameter, of an
orange color at maturity. Tree vigorous and productive,
ucceeds well on the quince, and bears quite young;

PEARS. 309

cracks a little in some seasons, and should have a rich,
warm soil.—October and November.

82. Washington — A medium sized, beautiful pear, sweet
and delicious; a fine grower’on the pear, but does not
succeed on the quince.—Middle of September.

83. Walkinson.—A very hardy and productive Rhode
Island variety of second quality, medium size, obovate,
yellow, melting, sweet and rich. Tree upright and vigo-
rous.—October to November.

84. Wlbur—Medium, obovate, greenish and russety;
rather coarse, melting, juicy and good. Native.

CLASS III.—WINTER PEARS.

85. Beurre d’ Aremberg—One of the finest winter
pears, large, melting, rich, vinous flavored, ripens well
without any extra care; tree vigorous and productive ;
. succeeds well on the quince.—December to January.

86. Beurre, Easter—A. very large, fine melting pear ;
_ better on the quince than on the pear; keeps till spring.

87. Beurre Gris @Hiver Nouveau.—A. large, new,
melting, buttery pear, of the highest quality, flavor rich
and vinous, like the brown Beurre, but milder; tree suc-
ceeds well on the quince, bearing quite young.—Novem-
ber and December, and may be kept till January.

88. Beurre Rance—A fine, melting, rich pear, keep-
ing till spring ; tree a poor grower.

89. Chaumontel (English)—A large, fine, buttery,
melting, rich pear; should have a warm soil and situa-
tion ; succeeds well on the quince.—December.

90. Cglumbia—A large, handsome, native pear, melt-
ing, buttery and rich; tree vigorous and remarkably pro-
ductive ; grows well on the quince with us.—November
and January.

91. Doyenne d’Hiver Nouveau or ad’ Alengon.—A large

310 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

and very fine late-keeping variety received from France ;
golden yellow, with a brown tinge in the sun, melting,
buttery and rich ; tree upright and vigorous, and very pro-
ductive on the quince; have had it very fine on the Ist
of March, ripened in the cellar; will prove very valu-
able.

92. Glout Morceau.—A large, melting, buttery, sweet
pear; tree vigorous and productive; like the Duchesse
@Angouleme, Louise Bonne, and some others, it is de-
cidedly superior on the quince, and makes & beautiful
pyramid.—December.

93. Josephine de Malines—A new Flemish winter pear,
pronounced both in France and England to be the finest
winter variety; medium in size, melting and rich; the
tree is a moderate grower, with quite small leaves ; it
appears to succeed well on the quince; keeps till spring.

94. Lawrence—A fine, large, melting, rich flavored
pear, a native of Long Island; tree a fair grower on both |
pear and quince; a regular and abundant bearer.—No-
vember to February. Ripens well in the cellar.

95. Passe Colmar.—tLarge, buttery, and rich; tree a
fine, free grower on both pear and quince; so aie a to
over-fruitfulness that thinning is quite necessary to obtain
fine fruit—December.

96. Sieulle (Doyenne Sieulle).—A large, sess melt-
ing pear, that keeps till January; tree vigorous ne up-
right; succeeds remarkably well on the quince.

97. St. Germain, Prince’s—A medium sized, juicy,
fine flavored fruit; ripens in the cellar, like an apple
through the winter ; a moderate grower and good bearer.
—March. ‘

98. St. Germain—An old variety, large, melting, and
sweet ; succeeds well on the quince; bears young and
abundantly.__December to January.

99. Vicar of Winkfield or Monsieur Le Curé—A

PEARS. SLE

large, long pear, fair and handsome, of good, but not first-
rate quality; tree a most vigorous grower on both pear
and quince, and on the latter makes a beautiful and pro-
ductive pyramid; one of the most valuable of all late
pears.—November to January. MRipens well in the cellar.

100. Winter Nelis (Bonne de Maline and Beurre de
Maline, of some French catalogues)——One of the best of
early winter pears, medium size, melting and buttery,
- with a rich, sprightly flavor; tree is rather slender, strag-
gling growth.—November and January.

CLASS IV.—SELECT BAKING AND STEWING PEARS.

101. Bonchretien (Flemish)—Medium to large size ;
tree vigorous, spreading, and irregular, and bears great
crops; keeps through winter.

102. Bonchretien (Spanish).—Medium to large, pyri
form, tapering to the stalk, yellow with a red cheek;
cooks well.—December and January.

103. Cattillac—V ery large, roundish, bears quite young
and abundantly on the quince; keeps all winter.

104. Chaptal—Very large, somewhat resembling
Duchesse d’Angouleme ; keeps till spring; cooks finely,
and is sometimes tolerable for eating; tree vigorous ;
bears very young on the quince.

105. Easter Bergamot—Medium size, rotet greenish ;
keeps well, and cooks finely ; trees en aukalie vigorous,
erect, and fe eit ; bears quite young on the quince.

106. Pound (Angora, Uvedale’s St. Germain).—Mon-
strous size; often weighs two pounds; stews well; tender,
and of a rich crimson color; trees vigorous, and very pro-
ductive ; liable to be blown off standard trees; succeeds
well on the quince, and bears young; keeps all winter.

312 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

SELECT ASSCRTMENTS OF PEARS.

Profitable varieties for market orchards.—Nos. 4, 81,
42, 45, 46, 50, 62, 78, 85, 86, 94, 99, 106.

aa very ne a pein sorts. ates _ 24, 25, 52, 59,
70, 94, 97, 99, 106.

The great meee pear of Western New York, is the
White Doyenne or Virgalieu. No better can be desired.
of the season; for summer the Bartlett. The Windsor
or Summer Belle, and the Summer Bonchretien, are both
very profitable pears, at present brought into our markets
in large quantities. Neither of them is described, be-
cause it is not desirable to extend their cultivation whilst
we have the Bartlett.

Twentyjive jine varieties for the garden, on quince
stocks. —Nos. 3, 4, 6,19, 22, 31, 32, 38, 36, 37, 42, 45, 46,
53, 62, 68, 76, 78, 79, 85, 86, 87, 92, 99, 106.

Any or all of these may be chosen without running
any risk of a failure.

first-rate sorts for pear stocks, or to be double worked
on the quince.—Nos. 27, 34, 41, 50, 67, 71.

NEW AND RARE PEARS, RECENTLY INTRODUCED, THAT GIVE
PROMISE OF EXCELLENCE.

THOSE THAT HAVE BEEN PROVED TO SUCCEED ON THE QUINCE ARE
DESIGNATED BY A (q).

107. Adele de St. Denis—New Belgian, medium size,
very handsome, russety, melting, vinous, and perfumed.—
October.

108. Arch Duc Charles.—Medium size, melting ; tree a
vigorous, fine grower, both on pear and quince.—October.

109. Alpha (New Belgian).—Medium size, greenish
yellow, buttery and fine; highly recommended by Mr,
Manning.—October.

PEARS. 313

110. Arbre Courbe or Amiral (Van Mons).—Medium
to large, melting and delicious; branches irregular and
crooked.—September.

111. Belle et Bonne des Zees or Bonne des Zees—A new,
large, and fine Belgian variety, ripening immediately
after the Bartlett; obovate, yellow, red next the sun;
melting and perfumed.

112. Brandywine.—Recently introduced by Dr. Brin-
kle, of Philadelphia ; originated in that vicinity ; ripens
same season as the Bartlett ; obovate, yellow, and slightly
russeted ; melting, sweet,-and perfumed.—September.

113. Beurre Benmst—Large, obovate, yellow with a
red cheek; melting, juicy, and sweet.—October. From
France recently ; found in a hedge.

114. Beurre Bretonneau (Esperin, Belgium).—Medium
to large, oval, slightly pyramidal; half melting; tree
vigorous and productive ; keeps till April or May.

115. Beurre Clairgeau.—A new French variety, de-
scribed to us as being as large as Duchesse d’Angouleme,
and of excellent quality—October and November.

116. LBezi Sans Pareil—A new winter variety from
France ; large, greenish, half melting —February.

117. Beurre Curtet (Bouvier)—Medium size, melting,
and fine (q).—October. French.

118. Beurre Davis.—Large, melting, productive (q).—
October. French.

119. Beurre Duval—tLarge, melting; tree vigorous
and productive (q).—October and November. French.

120. Beurre Giffard or Giffart—Medium size, melt-
ing; tree has erect, slender branches; productive; one
of the best new, early varieties (q)—August. French.

121. Beurre Goubault—Medium size, roundish, half
melting; tree vigorous and very prolific; bears quite
young (q); new.—September. Angers, France.

122. Beurre Moire —Medium size, melting ; tree vigo-
14

314 . SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

rous and productive (q).—September and October.
French: +"

123. Beurre Superfine—Medium size, melting, very
productive ; new (q).—October. French.

124. Beurre St. Nicholas—tULarge, green, and russet,
melting, a little coarse, juicy, and high flavored.—Sep-
tember and October. French.

125. Beurre Hardy.—A new variety introduced by
Jamin, of Paris ; large, melting, and good; tree a vigorous
and beautiful grower on the quince.—October.

126. Beurre de Waterloo—Medium, obovate pyriform,
greenish yellow, with a blush next the sun; flesh buttery,
melting, and high flavored ; received from France in 1848;
was the best pear we tasted in 1850; ripe latter end of
October.

127. Beurre Langelier.—A. splendid new variety, intro-
duced by Mr. Langelier of the isle of Jersey. Mr. Hovey,
who has had it bear, gives it the highest character, and thinks
it will prove one of the finest winter varieties from abroad.
Large, greenish, with a shade of red in the sun; melting,
juicy, and vinous; tree a beautiful grower, with large,
shining foliage; succeeds finely on the quince.—Decem-
ber and January.

128. Brandes St. Germain (Van Mons).—Medium,
pyriform, oblong, green and russet, melting, sugary, and
rich; tree vigorous, shoots slender and s prending 210m
cember to Meee Will prove a valuable winter variety ;
first introduced by Mr. Manning.

129. Broompark (Knight’s) English. —Medium, round-
ish, of a beautiful cinnamon russet, melting and juicy,
. ee oe of the flavor of a mele and de -apple.”—
January.

180. Burlinghame. —A seedling raised in - Marietta,
Ohio; medium size, very productive, melting, and sean
—J aly and August.

PEARS. 315

131. Colmar Musqué.—Medium size, turbinate, golden
yellow, texture and flavor of Bartlett; ripe in October ;
a most delicious variety; bears young and abundantly ;
received from France in 1848.

132. Cabot (Massachusetts)—Medium size, buttery and
sweet, very productive.—September and October.

133. Catinka (Esperin).—Large, melting, and excel-
lent ; new; said to be in eating for five or six weeks (q).

134. Colmar Bonnet (Van Mons).—Medium size, melt-
ing and sugary (q).—September and October.

135. Colmar d@ Aremberg.—Very large, of second qua-
lity ; tree very vigorous and productive (q).—October and
November.

136. Commodore——Medium size, buttery, and sweet.—
October.

137. Chapman (Penn.).—Large, half melting.—Sep-
tember and October.

138. Chancellor (Penn.).—Large, melting, and rich;
new.—September and October.

139. Delices de Jodoigne (Bouvier).—Large, melting ;
tree vigorous and productive ; new (q).—November.

140. De Bavay.—Large, melting, said to be first quality
(q).—September.

141. Duc de Bordeaux (Epine Dumas).—Medium size, -
half melting, vigorous, and productive (q).—November.

142. De Lepine—Medium size, half melting, produc-
tive (q).—September.

148. Delices @ Hardempont.—Medium size to large,
melting, productive (q).—November and December.

144. Dillen or “ Doyenne Dillen.”—Medium size, melt-
ing and good (q).—December.

145. Doyenne Goubault—Medium size, melting and
yood, very productive (q).— Winter.

146. Doyenne Lobin—A new variety from Angers,

316 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

France, said to be very large, beautiful, and excellent;
ripens in October.

147. Doyenne Lose-—One of the most beautiful of all
pears, resembling the White Doyenne in size and form,
but not so good ; Same season.

148. Duchesse de Mars.—Medium, roundish, obovate,
pale yellow, fair and smooth, juicy, melting, and very
highly perfumed.—October. Received from France in
1848 ; succeeds on the quince; tree rather delicate.

149. Hyewood (Knight, Eng.).—Medium size, melting
and rich, high flavored.—November.

150. Ferdinand de Meester, or Rousselet de Meester
(Van Mons).—Medium size, melting and good.—_Septem-
ber and October.

151. leur de Niege.—Medium size, melting and pro-
ductive (q).—October.

152. Fortunee.—Rather small, melting, high flavored ;
succeeds well on the quince ; Webas till spring. Episegs
pal has proved synonymous with this.

153. Fredrika Bremer.—A variety recently brought
to notice by Mr. John C. Hastings, of Clinton, N. Y. It
is large, obovate inclining to pyriform; green, changing
to yellow as it matures; melting, buttery, and sprightly;
may prove to be a fine variety. October and November...
The tree is said to be very productive, and some speci-
mens to attain the weight of sixteen ounces.

154. Hondante de Maline—A new Belgian winter
variety, melting and good; very productive; succeeds
well on the quince. Keeps till February.

155. Figue—A very distinct, greenish pear; medium
size, pyriform, stem fleshy; melting, juicy, and good.
November. Tree vigorous, and exceedingly productive
on the quince.

156. Gratioli of Jersey—Medium size, melting ; very
sweet and good ; succeeds well on the quince.—October.

PEARS. 317

157. Hull (Mass.).—Medium size, melting, fair and
good.—September and October.

158. Lnconnue Van Mons.—Medium size, melting, and
fine.—January to February.

159. Salousie de Fontenay Vendee—Medium size,
melting and rich; new.—September. Has proved excel-
lent so far.

160. Jones’s Seedling (Phila.)—New, and said to be
excellent ; grows well on the quince.

161. Anight’s March Bergamot.——One of Knight’s best
seedlings, described as resembling the Autumn Bergamot;
buttery and rich; valuable for its long keeping.—March.
Very hardy and productive.

162. Kirtland—A seckel seedling, raised in Ohio by
H. P. Kirtland, Esq., and introduced by Prof. Kirtland,
of Cleveland, who describes it as medium size, globular
ovate, crimson russet, varying to a dull green; melting,
juicy, rich, and in the highest degree delicious ; tree has
the thrifty hale of White Doyenne. La ett nes

168. Lowse de Boulogne.—Large, breaking, keeps
through winter; succeeds on the quince.

164. Louise Orme (Van Mons).—Medium size,
oblong, brownish green ; melting and sugary.—November.

165. Moccas (Knight’s, Eng.).—Medium size, obovate,
brown; melting, juicy, and high flavored; tree very.
hardy and productive-—December.

166. Monarch (Knight’s).—Spurious varieties have been
disseminated. The true one is large, roundish obovate,
brownish, buttery, and slightly musky; tree hardy and
productive, but a tardy bearer; succeeds double worked
on the quince.—January.

167. Muskingum.—A native of Ohio; rather large,
roundish, greenish yellow, russeted, melting, juicy, sweet.
and high flavored. September. It is said to be’ hardy,
productive, and a fine grower; may prove valuable.

318 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

168. McLaughlin —A. native of Maine; medium size,
obovate, brownish yellow; a little coarse, but juicy and
rich; very hardy and productive; may be valuable for
the North.—November and December.

169. Mouveau Poiteau (Van Mons).—A large, fine, melt.
ing pear; has fruited at Boston, and is pronounced excel-
lent.—October and November. ‘Tree vigorous and pro-
ductive.

170. Osborne.-—Medium to small, bright yellow, melt-
ing, juicy, and sweet; tree vigorous; originated in
Indiana, proves good at Cincinnati; may prove a valu-
able early variety for the West— August at Cincinnati.

171. Passe Tardwe.—Large, breaking, productive ; for
cooking all through winter.

172. Queen of the Low Countries—Medium to large,
half-melting.—October and November.

173. Reme ad Hwer—Medium, half-melting; produc-
tive.—December to January.

174. Secgneur d’ Esperin.—Medium size, melting ; «first
quality.—October.

175. St. Andre.—Medium size, half-melting, very pro-
ductive.—October and November.

176. Sageret—Medium size, melting, sweet and sugary.
—December to March.

177. St. Michael Archangel.—Large, melting, very
productive.—October.

178. Suzette de Bavay.—Medium, melting, first quality,
remarkably productive ; is said to keep all winter ; best in
March and April.

179. St. Dorothée.—Large to medium, greenish yellow,
russeted; melting, sprightly, and fine. October. This
. has borne with Mr. Hovey, who gives it a very high
character.

180. Triomphe de Jodoigne (Bouvier).—Very large,

QUINCES. _ 319

melting ; tree very vigorous and productive. November
and December. Has proved good at Boston.

181. Zarguin.—-Large, coarse; for cooking only; tree
very vigorous and productive ; is said to keep two years.

182. Viscomte Spoelberg.— Medium size to small, yellow
tinged with red next the sun ; buttery and melting ; first-
rate under good culture; succeeds well on the quince.—
November.

SEcTION 3.—QUINCEs.

1. Apple-Shaped or Orange.—Large, roundish, with a
short neck; of a bright golden yellow color; tree has
rather slender shoots and oval leaves; very productive.
This is the variety most extensively cultivated for the
fruit.—Ripe in October.

2. Pear-Shaped.—This has generally more of a pyri-
form shape than the preceding the fruit is larger and
finer, the tree stronger.

3. Portugal—trhe fruit of this 3 is more oblong than the
preceding, of a lighter color and better quality, but not
so good a bearer; the shoots are stouter, and the leaves
thicker and broader; usually propagated by budding or
grafting on the Apple Quince. A week or two later than
the Apple.

4. Angers.—A variety of the Portugal, the strongest
erower of all the quinces, and the best for pear stocks.
The fruit is also said to be larger and rather better than
any of the others. We have not seen it yet, but expect
our trees to bear this season, 1851. ’

5. Upright—A. variety with slender erect branches;
grows more freely from cuttings than any other. We
have not fruited it, nor found it anywhere described, but
have trees now showing fruit buds. Received among
stocks from France.

~*?> .
=

x.

320 SELECT. VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

6. Chinese-—Usually cultivated for ornament. Quite
different in appearance from the others. The leaves are
glossy, sharply and beautifully toothed ; the fruit is large,
oblong, bright yellow, and keeps till spring; little used.
The flowers are large and showy, with the fragrance of
the violet; worked on the other sorts; rather tender,
requiring a sheltered situation. A very tardy bearer.

7. Japan.—this is very distinct from all the others 5
very bushy, thorny, and hardy. There are two varieties.
The common one has beautiful bright red blossoms, and
the other blush; the most beautiful of all our hardy
spring flowering shrubs. Fruit about as large as a
chicken’s egg ; green, and quite unfit for use.

SECOND DIVISION.—STONE FRUITS—APRICOTS, CHERRIES,
PEACHES, NECTARINES AND PLUMS.

*
Srotion 4.----SrLEect APRICOTS.

1. Breda—Small, round, dull orange, marked with red
in the sun, flesh orange colored, juicy, rich and vinous;
parts from the stone, kernel sweet, tree hardy, robust and
prolifie—End of July and beginning of August.

9. Karly Golden (Dubois).—Small, pale orange, flesh
orange, juicy and sweet; kernel sweet; tree very hardy
and productive. The original tree at Fishkill is said to”
_ have yielded $90 worth of fruit in one season.—Beginning
of July.

3. Large Early.—tLarge, orange, with a red cheek, flesh
sweet, rich and excellent, parts from the stone; tree vigo-
rous and productive.—Beginning of August.

4. Moorpark.—One of the largest and finest apricots,
yellow, with a red cheek, flesh orange, sweet, juicy and
rich, parts from the stone; growth rather slow, but stout
and short jointed ; very productive.

CHERRIES. 321

5. Orange.—Medium size, orange, with a ruddy cheek,
flesh rather dry, requires ripening in the house; adheres
slightly to the stone—End of July.

6. Peach—A very large, handsome and excellent va-
riety, quite similar to the Moorpark ; the shoots are not so
short jointed, and the fruit a degree larger.

7.—Purple or Black Apricot—tThis is quite distinct in
all respects from others, very much like a plum, small,
pale red, purple in the sun, flesh yellow, juicy and plea-
sant. The tree has slender dark shoots, and small, oval,
glossy foliage. It is as hardy as a plum, and therefore
worthy of attention where the finer sorts are too tender.
—August.

Nos. 1 and 2 are the surest and most abundant bearers,
but 3,4 and 6 are the largest and finest. No. 7 is only
recommended by its hardiness, for localities where the
others do not succeed.

Srction 5.—Srtect CHERRIES.

CLASS I.—HEART CHERRIES.

Fruit heart shaped, with tender sweet flesh. Trees of
rapid growth, with large, soft drooping leaves.

1. American Amber.—Medium size, amber, shaded and
mottled with bright red; tender, juicy, sweet and deli-
cious; hangs very long on the tree without rotting; re-
markably vigorous and productive-—End of June till mid.

dle of July.

2. Bauman’s May.—Small, dark red; tender, juicy
and sweet. Tree a vigorous grower, anda most abundant
bearer. Ripens very early ; middle of June here. French.

3. Black Heart—An excellent old variety ; rather large,
black, tender, juicy and rich. Tree grows large, and is
very prolific.—Beginning of July. French.

14*

822 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

4. Black Hagle—tLarge, black, tender, juicy, rich and
high flavored. Tree a rapid, stout grower and productive.
Ripe beginning of July to the 15th. English.

5. Black Tartarvan.—V ery large, purplish black, half
tender; flavor mild and pleasant. Tree a remarkably
vigorous, erect and beautiful grower, and an Immense
bearer—RKipe last of June and beginning of July. One —
of the most popular varieties in all parts of the country.
Russian. :

6. Burr's Seedling.—Large, pointed; flesh color in the
shade, pale red in the sun; tender, sweet and delicious.
In luxuriant foliage and stateliness of growth it surpasses
even the Black Tartarian— Beginning of July. New;
origin, Perrinton, Monroe county. New York.

7. Coes Transparent.—Medium size, pale amber, red
and mottled next the sun; tender, sweet and fine-—End
of June here. Tree vigorous and erect. Origin, Middle-
town, Conn.

8. Davenport's EHarly—yVery similar in all respects to
Black Heart, but a few days earlier. American.

9. Downer’s Late Red—Rather large, light red, tender
and juicy; slightly bitter until fully ripe, when it is
most delicious. Tree is a vigorous erect grower, and pro-
ductive.—Tenth to twentieth of July. American, and one
of the best of all.

10. Karly White Heart—Medium size, yellowish white,
red in the sun; tender and sweet, growth moderately
vigorous and erect.—Middle and last of June.

11. Karly Purple Guigne.—Small to medium size, pur-
ple, tender, juicy and sweet. Growth slender and spread-
ing.—Ripe at same time as Bauman’s May. French.

12. Hlton—Large, pointed; pale yellow, nearly covered
with light red; half tender, juicy, rich and delicious.
Tree vigorous, spreading and irregular—tLEnd of June.
English.

CHERRIES. 323

13. Knight's Karly Black—Large, black, tender, juicy,
rich and excellent. Tree vigorous and very productive;
branches spreading.—Ripe a few days before Black Tar-
tarian. English.

14. Manning's Mottled —Rather large, amber shaded
and mottled distinctly with red; tender, sweet and deli-
cious. Tree erect, vigorous and productive-—End of June.
Massachusetts.

15. Sweet Montmorency.—Small, light red, tender and
sweet. Tree vigorous, erect and productive-—Ripens
about the same time as Sparhawk’s Honey, or a few days
later. American.

16. White French Guigne (probably the “ Merisier a
gros fruit blanc,” of the French).—A distinct and beauti-
ful cherry, rather large, creamy white, flesh tender and
melting; juice colorless, sweet, with a scarcely percepti-
ble degree of bitterness; not attacked by the birds, like
red and black cherries. Tree is vigorous and very pro-
ductive.—Middle of July. French.

17. Wilkinson.—Medium size, black, tender, juicy and
rich. Tree vigorous, erect and productive.—Ripens late,
succeeds Downer’s. Massachusetts.

18. Sparhawk’s Honey. Medium size, roundish, light
red, sweet and delicious; stone large. Tree a vigorous,
pyramidal grower and very productive-—Ripens with
Downer’s late, and hangs long on the tree; a great favo-
rite with most people. Massachusetts.

CLASS II.----BIGARREAU CHERRIES.

These are chiefly distinguished from the preceding
class by their firmer flesh. Their growth is vigorous,
branches spreading, and foliage luxuriant, soft and droop-
ing.

19. Bigarreau, or Yellow Spanish—Large, pale yel-

324 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

low, with a bright red cheek in the sun; flesh firm, juicy
and delicious; one of the best, most beautiful, and popular
of all ight colored cherries. Tree vigorous and produc
tive—End of June. Turkish.

20. Butiner’s Yellow.—Medium size, yellow, flesh crisp,
juicy and sweet. Tree vigorous and productive. Its pe-
culiar and beautiful color makes this sort desirable—End
of July.

21. China Bigarreau.—Medium size, oval, red, beauti-
fully speckled; firm, sweet and rich, with a scarcely per-
ceptible bitterness. ‘Tree vigorous, erect, and a most pro
fuse bearer; a very distinct and pretty variety.—Begin-
ning of July. Hangs long on the tree.

22. Flesh-Colored Bigarreau (Bigarrean couleur de
chair)—A_ large and beautiful cherry, resembling the
Elton, and ripening about the same time. French.

23. Florence.—A. beautiful cherry, resembling the Bi-
garreau; but firmer, and a week later. From Florence.

24. Gridley or Apple Cherry-—Medium size, dark
brown, nearly black; flesh very firm, sprightly sub-acid,
high flavored. Tree grows rapidly and erect, and bears
immense crops. Its firmness and lateness make it very
valuable for market.—Middle to last of July. Mass.

25. Hildesheim Bigarreau.—Medium size, yellow, red
in the sun; flesh firm, sweet and agreeable. Tree is a
good grower, but the ends of the young shoots are apt to
get winter killed here—Beginning of August. German.

26. Holland Bigarreau.—A very large and beautiful
cherry; pale yellow, covered with bright red in the sun;
flesh firm, juicy, sweet and fine flavored. Tree vigorous,
with spreading, irregular branches.—End of June and be:
ginning of July. Dutch.

27. Large Heart-shaped Bigarreau (Gros Couret),—
Large, dark, shining brown; firm, rich and excellent,

CHERRIES. O25

Tree vigorous, branches spreading.—Middle of July.
French.

28. Madison Bigarreau—Medium size, amber, co-
vered with red in the sun; flesh half tender, sweet and
fine flavored—End of June and beginning of July.
American.

29. Merveille de Sept—A. new French cherry, remark-
able only for its lateness—Ripens with us the last of
August. Tree a vigorous grower and-good bearer. Fruit
small, firm, rather dry and sweet.

30. Wapoleon Bigarreau.—A magnificent, large cherry,
surpassing in size and beauty all the others; pale yellow,
with a bright red cheek; flesh very firm until fully ripe,
when it becomes tender, juicy and sweet. Tree is a
vigorous grower, and — enormous crops.—DBeginning
of July. French.

31. Liockport Bigarreauw (Dr. Kirkland). ye: pale
amber in the shade, ight red in the sun; half tender,
sweet and good. Tree vigorous and eres same
time as Black Tartarian. Ohio. 2

32. Tradescant’s Black Heart (Elkhorn).—Very large,
black, firm, juicy and good. ‘Tree vigorous and upright,
with peculiar gray bark. A great bearer, and so late as
to be very valuable.—Middle and last of July. England.

33. Tardwe Wd Argental—tLarge, long, dark, shining,
red, nearly black; tender, when ripe; juicy, with a pecu-
liar flavor, something like raspberry. ‘Tree is an upright,
vigorous grower, with peculiar small, light, wavy leaves.
—Middle of July.

CLASS III.—DUKE AND MORELLO CHERRIES.

These two classes of cherries are very distinct from the
preceding. The trees are of smaller size and grow
slowly ; the leaves are thicker and more erect, and of a

326 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

deeper green. The fruit is grenerally round, and in color
varying from light red, like Belle de Choisy, to dark
brown, like Mayduke or Morello.

The Dukes have stout, erect branches usually, and some
of them, like Belle de Choisy and feine Hortense, quite
sweet, whilst the J/orellos have slender, spreading
branches, and acid fruit invariably. These two classes
are peculiarly appropriate for dwarfs and pyramids, on
the mahaleb stock, and their hardiness renders them well
worthy of attention in localities where the Hearts and
Bigarreaus are too tender.

34. Belle de Choisy—Medium size, amber shaded and
mottled with red; tender, melting, sweet and rich; rather
a shy bearer; tree makes a pretty pyramid.—End of
June. French.

35. Belle Magnifique-—A. magnificent, large, red, late
cherry ; excellent for cooking, and fine for table when
fully ripe, rather acid, tender, juicy, rich; tree is a slow
grower, but a most profuse bearer; makes a fine dwarf
or a pyramid on the mahaleb.—Last of July. French.

36. Carnation.—Large, light, red mottled with orange;
tender, juicy, a little acid, rich, and excellent; tree is a
good grower and a profuse bearer; makes a fine dwarf.—
Middle and last of July.

37. Donna Maria.—Medium size, dark red, tender,
juicy, acid, rich, fine for cooking; tree small, very pro-
lifie—Middle of July. French. |

38. Du Nord Nowvelle—A new French morello, ripens
all through August; medium size, bright red, tender,
acid; useful on account of its lateness; makes a beau-
tiful dwarf or pyramid.

39. Early Richmond, Kentish or Montmorency—An
early, red, acid cherry, very valuable for cooking early in
the season.—Ripens through June. -

40. Flemish Montmorency.—A remarkably short-stem-

CHERRIES. 327

med, flattened cherry ; medium size, red, tender, juicy,
acid, good for cooking ; rather a poor bearer, but curious.

41. Sidalia Nain Precoce-—tThe earliest of all cher-
ries, ripening about the last of May or first of June ; it is
dwarf in habit, and makes a pretty bush on the mahaleb
stock; the foliage is small, dark, and glossy, and it is
quite prolific. French.

42. Jeffries Duke.—Medium size, red, tender, sub-acid ;
branches erect and stiff; makes a bance pyramid —
Middle of June:

43. Late Duke—LUarge, light red, late and excellent ;
tree makes a nice dwarf or pyramid.—End of July.

44, May Duke.—An old, well known, excellent variety,
large, dark red, juicy, sub-acid, rich + tree hardy, vigo-
rous, and fruitful; ripens a long time in succession ; fine
for dwarfs and pyramids.—Middle of June, for several
weeks.

45. Morello (English).—Large, dark red, nearly black,
tender, juicy, sub-acid, rich; tree small and slender;
makes a fine bush on the mahaleb; tf trained on a north
wall, it may be in use through all the month of August.

46. Plumstone Morello—tLarge, dark red, rich and
fine; the best of all the morellos; tree a slender, slow
grower; makes a nice bush on the mahaleb.—July and
August.

47. Reine Hortense, NMonstreuse de Bawvay—A new
French cherry of great excellence; large, bright red,
tender, juicy, nearly sweet, and eee ; tree ei
and bears well; makes a beautiful pyramid.

NEW AND RARE CHERRIES RECENTLY BROUGHT TO NOTICE.

48. Bigarreau Monstreuse de Mezel —A very large,
fine variety, recently introduced from France, but not
fully equal to the character given it in the French jour-

328 SELECT. VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

nals. It is quite as large as Tradescant’s Black, and
somewhat similar in form; of a dark red, approaching a
mahogany color when ripe ; very firm; tree of a vigorous
habit, similar to the Elton.

49. Belle @ Orleans—A. beautiful medium sized pale
cherry, ripening immediately after Bauman’s May and
Early Purple; from France.

50. Champagne.—A. new variety, raised by Mr. Charles
Downing, of Newburgh ; described in “ Hort.,” vol. v., as
being very hardy, a great bearer, fruit medium size, brick
red, “ with a lively rich flavor, a mingling of sugar and
acid ;” ripe twentieth of June, and hangs long on the
tree.

51. Downing’s* Red Cheek—This is also described in
the “ Hort.,” as “far handsomer, as well as more tender
and sweet, than the Bigarreau or Graffion, which it some
what resembles,” and precedes a few days in ripening.

52. Great Bigarreau.—This name has been given by
Mr. Downing “temporarily, until its real name be
found,” to a very large, fine cherry, recently brought into
notice by Mr. L. M. Ferris, of Orange county, New York,
who found it among imported fruit trees growing upon
an estate of which he has recently come into possession.
It is described as larger than the Black Tartarian, and
fully equal in quality, and ripening a few days later;
described in “ Hort.,” in January, 1851.

53. New Large Black Bigarreau.—Described in “ Ho-
vey’s Magazine,” December, 1850, as brought from the
south of France fifteen or twenty years ago, by a gentle- ~
man of Charlestown, Mass. No doubt, identical with
“the Great Bigarreau” of Mr. Downing; and as it has
been known for many years by this name, it will, of
course, take the preference if they prove identical.

54. Roberts’ Red Heart—A heart variety, raised in

CHERRIES. 329

Salem, Mass., medium size, pale amber, mottled with red,
juicy, and sweet; a great bearer; ripe last of June.

55. Vail’s August Duke—tThis is described as being
one third larger than the May Duke, and ripening at
Troy about the eighth or tenth of August; of a bright red
color and flavor like the May Duke ; originated by Henry
Vail, Esq., of Troy; described in “ Hort.,” vol. iv.

SMALL SELECT LISTS.

For the Garden —Nos. 11, 13, 4, 44, 12, 9, 34, 35, and
45. )
For the Market Orchard —Nos. 5, 19, 80, 24, 32, 4,
and 13.

Lor Small Hardy Trees—Nos. 34, 35, 36, 41, 45, 46,
47, and 39.

Section 6.—Srtect NEcTARINES.

The nectarine tree differs in nothing from a peach, and
the fruit only in being smooth skinned. It is peculiarly
liable to be destroyed by the curculio, so that it is not
advisable to plant it in small gardens.

1. Boston—Large, bright yellow, with a red cheek;
flesh yellow, sweet and pleasant flavor, freestone.—First
of September.

2. Downton —Large, greenish white, with a dark red
cheek ; flesh greenish white, rich and high flavored ; one
of the best. Free.

3. Early Violet, Violette Hatwe.—Medium size, yel-
lowish green, with a purple cheek ; flesh pale green, melt-
ing, rich and high flavored. Free.—Last of August.

4. Elruge—Medium size, greenish yellow, with a dark
red cheek; flesh greenish white, juicy, and high flavored ;
excellent.—Beginning of September. Free.

330 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

5. Early Newington.—Large, pale green, red in the
sun; flesh pale, red at the stone, juicy, and rich ; adheres
to the stone. Cling. |

6. Hunt’s Tawny—Medium size; yellow, with a red
cheek ; flesh yellow, rich, and juicy—Beginning of Au-
oust. Free.

7. Hardwick Seedling.—Large, pale green, with a vio-
let red cheek; flesh pale green, juicy, melting, and rich.
—End of August. Free.

Nos. 2, 8, and 4, were recommended for general culti-
vation by the Pomological Congress at New York in
1849.

The Great Stanwick Nectarine, of which so much has
been said in England, will soon be introduced here, and
will be well worthy the attention of those who can give
it a wall or a place under glass.

Section 7.—SrEtEcT PEACHES.
CLASS I.—FREESTONES.

Fl. s. DENOTES SMALL FLOWERS; gl. GLANDS ; glob. GLOBOSE ; aND
ren. RENIFORM.

1. Alberge Yellow (Barnard’s, Yellow Rare-Ripe, ete.).
—Large, deep yellow, with a dull red cheek, flesh yellow,
juicy, and rich; tree vigorous, hardy, and productive.—
Beginning of September. Fils. small, globose glands.

2. Bergen’s Yellow—Very large, orange, red in the
sun; flesh yellow, juicy and fine flavored; tree produc-
tive. This is considered one of the best of yellow peaches.
—Middle of September. Glands ren. fl. small.

3. Brevoort, or Brevoorts Morris.—Large, dull white,
with a red cheek; flesh pale, sweet, and fine flavored; a
good and regular bearer.——Beginning of September. F's.
small, glands ren.

PEACHES. . 331

4. Coles Karly Led—Medium size, mostly clouded
and mottled with red; flesh pale, juicy, rich, and deli-
cious; tree vigorous, and an abundant bearer.—Middle
of August. Glands globose, flowers small.

5. Cooledge’s Favorite.—A. most beautiful and excellent
peach ; skin white, delicately mottled with red; flesh
pale, juicy, and rich; tree vigorous and productive.—
Middle toend of August. Flowers small, globose glands.

6. Crawford’s Early—A magnificent, large, yellow
peach, of good quality; tree exceedingly vigorous and
prolific ; its size, beauty, and productiveness, make it one
of the most popular orchard varieties——Beginning of
September. Glands globose, flowers small.

7. Crawford’s Late Melocoton (Crawford’s Superb).—
Really a superb yellow peach, very large, productive and
good, ripening about the close of the peach season.—Last
of September. Glands globose, fl. small.

8. Druid Hill —Large, roundish, greenish white, cloud-
ed with red next the sun; flesh greenish white, juicy, and
rich ; very productive—Middle of September. Origin-
ated at Baltimore. Fl. s. gl. glob.

9. Karly Newington Free.—Large, whitish, with a red
cheek; flesh pale, red at the stone, rich and vinous flavor.
—End of August. Fl. s. gl. ren.

10. Harly Anne (Green Nutmeg).—Small, greenish
white, with a red cheek; flesh pale, sweet, and good.—
End of July. Flowers large, no glands, unthrifty, and
liable to mildew ; only recommended for its earliness.

11. Harly York (Early Purple, Serrate Early York,
etc.).— Medium size; on young thrifty trees large, green-
ish white, covered in the sun with dull purplish red ; flesh
juicy, rich and excellent; tree-a fair grower and very
prolific ; one of the best early orchard varieties— Middle
of August. Leaves serrate, flowers large.

12. Karly Tillotson—An excellent variety, ripening

332 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

with the preceding, about the same size, and of excellent
flavor; the tree is sometimes oainidesably affected with
stiehd Wy. and in particular cases the fruit also; it should
have warm, light soil, and open exposure. Serrate, fis.
small.

13. George the Fourth—Large, white, with a red
cheek; flesh pale, juicy, and rich; tree vigorous, and
bears rieonkie crops, of the bistros! quality. —End of
August. Gl. glob., fils. small. ;

14. Grosse Mignonne.—Large, dull white, with a red
cheek ; flesh pale, juicy, with a rich, vinous flavor ; a free
grower and good bearer. In England it is called “ the best
peach in cultivation.”—End of August. Flowers large,
globose glands.

15. Haine’s Karly.—arge, white, with a red cheek ;
flesh pale, juicy, and deieiead tree hardy and very pro-
ductive; one of the best vailicths —Middle of magia
F's. ceil! glob. gl.

16. Sacques’ RaeneRipdek superb yellow peach, full
as large and as good as Crawford’s early, and ripening a
week or ten days later; origin, Massachusetts. Glands
ren. fl. s. |

17. Large Early York.—A large and beautiful variety,
white, with a red cheek; flesh juicy and delicious; tree
very vigorous and productive; one of the very best.—
End of August. Gl. glob. fl. s.

18. Late Red Rare-Ripe.—Large, roundish oval, grey-
ish white, marbled with red in the sun; flesh pale, rich
and fine.—Beginning of September. FI. s. gl. glob.

19. Late Admirable.—Large, roundish, oval, yellowish
green, with a red cheek; flesh pale, fine flavored.—End
of September. F'l. s. gl. glob.

20. La Grange—Large, greenish white, slightly red-
dened in the sun, flesh pale, juicy, sweet, and rich. Its
lateness and color make it a desirable variety for pre-

PEACHES. 333

serving. It should have the warmest soil and situation
north of New York, or it will not ripen well.—Last of Sep-
tember or beginning of October; fl. small, glands ren.

21. Morris’ White—Medium size, dull creamy white,
tinged with red in the sun, flesh white to the stone, juicy
and delicious; tree a good bearer; highly prized for
preserving on account of the entire absence of red in the
flesh.— Middle of September ; gl. ren., fl. small.

22. Morris’ Red Rare Lipe—tLarge, roundish, green-
ish white, with a red cheek, flesh pale, light red at the
stone, juicy and rich; trees very productive; fl. small,
glands glob. ; similar to George LV.

23. Old Mixon Freestone—Large, greenish white and
red, flesh pale, juicy, and rich; tree hardy and exceed-
ingly productive; @ standard orchard variety.—Middle
of September for the north.

24. Red Rare Pipe (Ey. Red Rare Ripe).—A fine old
sort, whitish, with a dark red cheek; flesh pale, rich, and
high flavored.—End of August. Slightly subject to mil-
dew; fl. small; frequently comfounded with the follow-
ing:

25. Royal Kensington —Very similar to, if not iden-
tical with the Grosse Mignonne; several varieties of white
fleshed peaches are cultivated about Rochester as the
“ Kensington.”

26. Leoyal George.—Medium to large size, white, with
a deep red cheek, flesh white, deep red at the stone, juicy,
melting and rich; tree productive—End of August; ff.
small.

27. Red Cheek Melocoton.—A famous, old, well known,
and popular variety; large, oval, yellow, with a red
cheek; flesh yellow, juicy, rich and vinous; tree very
hardy and prolific ; valuable for the orchard.—Middle to
end of September. Glands glob., fl. small.

28. Snow Peach.—A beautiful fruit, medium size, skin

304 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

and flesh clear, creamy white throughout; tree hardy and
productive, and shoots greenish, very distinct, and one of
the most desirable of white peaches for preserving.—
Beginning to middle of September ; fl. small, white.

29. Scott’s Nonpareil.—A new, very large and fine yel-
low peach, from New Jersey, highly esteemed as a valu-
able market variety——Middle to end of September; fl.
small, glands glob.

380. Van Zandt’s Superb—A. beautiful smooth fruit,
large size, whitish, with a red cheek; flesh pale, juicy,
sweet, and good.—First of September; fl. small, glands
glob. ; origin, Long Island.

31. Ward’s Late Hree.—Large, yellowish white, with a
red cheek ; flesh pale, juicy, and good; a standard pro-
fitable late sort among the Delaware orchardists; will .
probably not ripen north of New York.

32. Weld’s Freestone.—A very large, roundish oval, tae
peach; greenish white, streaked and marbled ite red
next the sun; flesh pale, pale, juicy, and good; never
fails to give an abundant crop at Rochester. Beginning
to middle of October; fi. small, glands ren.; succeeds
well in Massachusetts.

33. White Imperial.—Medium to large size, pale, yel-
lowish white, faintly marked with red; flesh pale, juicy,
sweet, and good; tree vigorous ; fl. small, gl. glob.

CLASS II.—CLINGSTONES.

34. Heath Cling—A magnificent late peach, cream
colored, with a light blush next the sun; flesh greenish
white, tender, juicy, and of the highest flavor; fl. small,
glands ren.; tree very productive.—Ripe in October; and
has the rare property of keeping well for several weeks
after being gathered ; should be grown on a trellis or wall
north of New York to bring it to perfection.

PLUMS. ooo

85. Large White Cling.—Large, greenish white, lightly
reddened in the sun, juicy, sweet, and rich; tree very
hardy and productive; highly esteemed for proreerne on
account of its light color; fl. small, glands glob.

36. Lemon Cling.—A ae large and beautiful lemon-
shaped variety, light yellow, reddened in the sun; flesh
yellow, rich, and vinous; excellent for preserving; tree
hardy and productive.—End of September. Glands ren.,
fl. small. ;

87. Old Mixon Clingstone.—Large, round, whitish, with
a red cheek; flesh pale, sweet, and rich flavored; fil.
small, glands glob.—Beginning of September.

88. Old Newimgton Cling.—Large, yellowish white, with
a red cheek; flesh pale, red at the stone, rich, juicy, and
good.—Middle of September; fl. large; no glands.

Select lists of Peaches —Our most profitable orchard
varieties in Western New York are, Nos. 1, 4, 6, 11, 15
or 17, 23, 27, and No. 6, the most valuable single variety,
on account of its great size and beauty, and the vigor and
productiveness of the tree.

Select Garden Varieties—Nos. 2, 4, 5, 11, 13, 21, 23,
and 28.

Robert Manning selects for New England, out of seventy
varieties that he has tested, Nos. 11, 18, 22, 6, 2, 19, 37,
7, besides Nivette and Walter’s Early. These ten he con-
siders “unimpeachable,” and No. 6 he considers com-
bines, in the greatest degree, all desirable quality. With
these he recommends Nos. 5, 4, 14, 16, 21, 16, 27, 36, and
32, with several others we have not thought it necessary
to describe. He ranks them in regard to relative merit
as the numbers are placed.

Section 7.—SrtEect Pius.

1. Autumn Gage, or Loe’s Autumn Gage-—Medium

336 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

size, oval, pale yellow, sweet, juicy and good; parts from
the stone; tree a slow grower, but very productive.—
Middle to end of September. ,

2. Bingham.—Large and handsome, oval, deep yellow,
with a few red spots; juicy and rich; parts from the
stone ; tree very productive-—Beginning of September.

3. Bleeker’s Gage-—Above medium size, roundish oval,
yellowish ; flesh yellow, juicy, and rich; parts from
the stone; tree a fair grower and productive——Last of
August.

4. Cherry, or Early Scarlet.—Rather small, round, red,
very pretty, juicy, soft, sub-acid, adheres to the stone.—
Last of July. Makes a very pretty dwarf bush.

5. Coe’s Golden Drop.—Large and handsome, oval, light
yellow, flesh firm, rich and sweet; adheres to the stone;
tree a fair grower and very productive, but does not bear
so young as many others; valuable not only on account
of its large size and fine appearance, but its lateness and
hanging long on the tree.—Last of September.

6. Columbia.—Large and handsome, roundish, purple,
flesh yellow, juicy and rich; parts from the stone; tree
vigorous and very productive-—September.

7. Cruger’s Scarlet—Medium size, roundish, reddish
lilac; juicy, but not rich; an extraordinary bearer;
always requires thinning; particularly valuable in light —
soils; profitable.-—September.

8. Drap d’Or.—A fine golden yellow plum, somewhat
resembling the old green gage; very good; vigorous
shoots, a little downy.-—Early.

9. Drap @Or ad Esperin—A new Belgian variety,
resembling the Washington, and probably no better.
The first trees were sold at Ghent in 1848 at $10 each.

10. Diamond.——One of the largest and most produc-
tive of purple plums, but coarse; only for cooking.—
September.

PLUMS. 337

11. Dennison’s Red. —Large, round oval, light red, flesh
juicy and rich, parts from the stone-—End of August.

12. Dennison’s Superb.—Pretty large, beautiful, round,
yellowish green, with purple dots; flesh juicy, rich, and
parts from the stone; tree vigorous and productive-—End
of August.

13. Duane’s Purple —Very large and handsome, oval,
reddish purple; flesh juicy and sweet, adheres to the
stone; tree a good grower and very productive.—Begin-
ning of September.

14. Emerald Drop—Medium size, oval, yellowish
green ; flesh juicy and good, adheres slightly to the stone ;
a good grower and profuse bearer.

15. Lellenberg.—A. fine late plum, oval, purple; flesh
juicy and delicious, parts from the stone; fine for drying ;
tree very productive.—September.

16. Frost Gage—Rather small, round, purple; an im-
mense bearer; very late ; profitable for market.—October.

17. Green Gage.—Small, but of the highest excellence ;
tree a slow grower.— Middle of August.

18. German Prune (Quetsche).—Large, long oval, dark
purple, blue, free, fine for drying, and good to eat; grows
spontaneously in Germany.—September.

19. Gen. Hand.—One of the largest American varie-
ties, introduced by Messrs. Sinclair & Corse, Balti-
more. It is of a golden yellow color, sweet but not high
flavored.—First of September. Will be valuable for the
market, as it is very productive, besides being so attrac-
tive in size and beauty.

20. Guthrie’s Apricot—Medium size, yellow, has the
flavor of the Apricot; of Scotch origin—End September.

21. Huling’s Superb—tLarge and handsome, round, yel-
lowish green; flesh juicy, rich and fine flavored, parts
freely from the stone; tree grows well and is very produc-
tive.-—Middle of August.

15

308 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

22. Ickworth Imperatrice—An English late variety, pur
ple, flesh juicy, sweet and rich; may be kept into winter.

23. Imperial Gage.—Large, oval, greenish ; flesh juicy,
rich and delicious, parts from the stone; one of the best
growers, most productive, and best of plums; profitable
for market—Middle of August.

24. Lves’ Seedling—Raised by Mr. J. M. Ives, of Salem,
Mass.; large, roundish, oblong, yellow, mottled with red,
melting and rich; freestone.—First of September. ‘Tree
a strong, rapid grower. |

25. Jaune Hatwe—A nice little yellow plum, ripening
last of July; earliness is its chief quality.

26. Sefferson—A new American variety, of the high-
est reputation ; yellow, with a red cheek; flesh crange-
colored, juicy and rich, parts from the stone ; an excellent
variety, but we have never seen it superior to the Impe-
rial Gage——End of August.

27. Kirks (from England).—A large, fine, violet fruit,
rich and sugary; freestone-——September. Shoots stout
and smooth, like those of the red mag. bon.

28. Lucomb’s Nonsuch (English)—A large, roundish,
ereenish plum, nearly as large andas good as the Wash-
ington.

29. Lawrence’s Favorite—Large, roundish, yellowish
green; flesh juicy, melting, and rich, parts from the
stone; tree vigorous and very productive.—Middle and
end of August.

30. Lombard.—Medium size, oval, violet red; flesh
yellow, juicy, and pleasant; a great bearer, and said to
be peculiarly well adapted to light soils.—End of August.
Profitable for market.

31. Long Scarlet, or Scarlet tiga Meat size, ob-
long, bright red ; flesh juicy, sweet when fully ripe,
adheres to the stone; tree a good grower, and a most
abundant bearer.—End of August.

PLUMS. 339

32. Magnum Bonum, Yellow—A very large and
beautiful egg-shaped yellow plum; a little coarse, but
excellent for cooking ; tree vigorous and very productive.
—End of August. Profitable.

33. Magnum Bonum, ed.—Large and beautiful, egg
shaped, violet red; of second quality, valuable for cook-
ing; tree vigorous and productive-—End of August. Pro-
fitable for market.

34. Mamelonne—A curious looking, distinct fruit ;
round, with a neck like a pear, greenish, similar in qua-
lity and season to the green gage; tree vigorous and pro-
ductive ; new irom France.

35. Mirabelle—A small, round, yellow plum, very
prolific and fine for preserving.—August and September.

36. Mirabelle ad Octobre-—A late variety recently re-
ceived from France ; very hardy and prolific.

37. Orange.—One of the largest varieties, oval, yellow,
rather coarse ; tree vigorous and very productive.—First
of October. Profitable for market.

38. Orleans Larly.— Medium size, round, purple ; flesh
sweet and good; tree a great bearer—Middle of August.

39. Orleans Smith’s—A._ very large and excellent va-
riety, oval, reddish purple, with a thick coat of bloom;
flesh yellow, firm, juicy, and rich; tree vigorous and very
productive.—Last of August. Profitable for market.

40. Peach—A very large and beautiful plum, round-
ish, dull red; flesh a little coarse ; tree very productive—
End of August.

41. Prune d’ Agen, or Robe de Sergent—A new French
variety, first quality for drying; tree very prolific;
medium size, purple, sweet, and good.—September. ~

49. Purple Favorite-—Medium size, brownish purple ;
flesh juicy, melting, and sweet; one of the very best of
plums; tree a slow grower.—Beginning of September.

43. Purple Gage (Reine Claude Violette)—Medium

349 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

size, roundish, violet, with a blue bloom, rich, sugary, and
fine; freestone; hangs long on the tree, and shrivels in
ripening : shoots smooth.—September and October.

44. Red Diaper (Diapree Rouge, French).—One of
the finest of all plums, brownish red, dark in the sun,
freestone. End of August. Hangs long on the tree. This
is called Mimms in England, and is different from the
Red Diaper of some.

45. Reine Claude de Bavay (Esperin).—The best new
foreign variety, as large as the Washington, and in flavor
equal to the green gage; roundish, oval, greenish, mark-
ed with red in the sun; tree vigorous and remarkably
productive.—Middle of September. Hangs long on the
tree.

46. Schenectady Catharine—Rather below medium
size, purple; flesh melting, sweet and excellent.—Middle
of August. It is said to reproduce itself from seed with-.
out variation.

AT. St. Martin’s Quetsche (German).—Medium size,
oval, pale yellow, juicy,and rich—September. Hangs
long on the tree; bears the most abundant crops ; fine for
drying ; very profitable.

48. Thomas (of Boston)—Large, roundish, oblong,
amber colored, juicy and good.—September. Shoots
stout, a little downy, a great bearer, and very handsome.

49. Washington—A magnificent, large plum; round-
ish, green, usually marked with red; juicy, sweet and
good ; tree vigorous and exceedingly productive ; one of
the very best.—End of August.

50. Winter or Late Damson.—A small, dark purple
variety, esteemed for preserving.—October.

51. Yellow Gage—tLarge, yellow, oval; flesh yellow,
juicy, and rich; tree remarkably vigorous and produc-
tive; an excellent and profitable variety—Middle of
August. :

CURRANTS. 341

SMALL SELECT LISTS OF PLUMS.

For the Garden.—Nos. 17, 23, 26, 29, 39, 42, 48, 45, 5.
for Market.—Nos. 16, 23, 32, 38, 39, 49.
for Drying.—Nos. 15, 18, 41, 47.

THIRD DIVISION.—BERRIES.

CURRANTS, GOOSEBERRIES, RASPBERRIES STRAWBERRIES, BER-
BERRIES, BLACKBERRIES, MULBERRIES, GRAPES, AND FIGS.

Section 8.—SrLect Currants.

The currant is a most useful fruit, indeed indispen-
sable to every garden, large or small; it fills a space of a
couple of weeks after the strawberries, raspberries, and
cherries, and before the apricots, early apples, and pears ;
and besides this, it possesses such a remarkable combination
of sweet and acid, as fits it for an almost endless variety
of useful and agreeable preparations, both in the green
and ripe state.

The white varieties are mildest flavored, and, therefore,
better for using in araw state when ripe. The red are
preferable for jellies, etc., on account of their beautiful
color.

1. Black English, or common black, well known..

2. Black Naples—The largest and best black currant ;
bears profusely ; valuable for jam and jellies; bunches
short, milder flavored, and later than the preceding.

3. Cherry.—Largest of all currants, exceeding an inch
in circumference, bunches short, color dark red, ripens
same time as Red Dutch, shoots stout, short jointed and
erect, foliage thick, dark green, slightly folded, and
bluntly and coarsely serrated.

o42 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

4, Red Dutch—A well known variety, buriches three
inches long or more ; fine.

5. Led Knight's Sweet—Similar to the preceding, but
of rather a milder acid.

6. Victoria or Houghton Castle—Very large, bright
red, bunches five or six inches long; hangs on the bushes
after others are gone; distinguished at once by its re-
markably long bunches, and bright red color, and by the
foliage, which is quite distinct, dark green, coarsely and
bluntly serrated, quite flat, and frequently reflexed or
turned backwards at the edges; the shoots are not so stout
and erect as those of the cherry.

T. White Dutch.—Y ellowish white, transparent, milder
than the red, and better for using raw; excellent.

8. White Grape.—tLarger every way than the preced-
ing; the largest white currant; growth rather spreading,
foliage thicker, deeper green, and more reflexed.

9. Missourt Yellow Flowering.—Fine yellow, fragrant
flowers, and sweet fruit of a violet blue.

10. Missours Large Fruited.Large, blue, sweet fruit,
very pleasant.

The two last are seldom cultivated for the fruit.

11. Long Bunched fed Dutch (Grosse Rouge de Hol-
land).—This is a variety we received lately from France,
and it promises to be valuable. There are several sorts
under cultivation, more or ,less unworthy of notice, unless
to those who are making large collections.

?

SEecTIoN 9.—GoosEBERRIES. .

The following, from the large English sorts, have all

proved excellent. . ;
1. fed.—Albion, Crownbob, Echo, Houghton’s Bog-
gart, Ironmonger, Lancashire Red, Prince Regent, Roar-

RASPBERRIES. 843

ing Lion, Shakspeare, Sportsman, Top Sawyer, Wine-
berry, Young’s Wonderful.

2. White—Chorister, Fleur de Lis, Leigh’s Toper,
Queen Caroline, Smiling Beauty, Whitesmith, Welling-
ton’s Glory, White Muslin, ete.

3. Green —Berrier’s Greenwood, Chipendale’s Con-
quering Hero, Green Mountain, Green Vale, Green Wil-
low, Green Ocean, Independent, Jolly Cutler, Massey’s
Heart of Oak, Profit.

4, Yellow—Bunker Hill, Capper’s Early Sulphur, Gol-
den Drop, Husbandman, etc.

5. Houghton’s Seedling —Raised in Massachusetts from
the seed of a native variety; it is small and rather indif
ferent in flavor, but is not subject to the mildew, and
bears most abundantly, small, oval, dull brownish red.

The following sorts were recommended by the Pomo-
logical Congress: Houghton’s Seedling, Whitesmith,
Crownbob, Red Champagne, Warrington, Laurel, lron-
monger, Early Sulphur, Green Gage, Green Walnut..

Srcrion 10.—Srtect RASPBERRIES.

1. Antwerp, Red.—This is an excellent variety, and
very popular in market; three quarters of an acre of land
on the Hudson, planted with it, have yielded $330; and
three acres in the same locality, $1,500 in one season.
The berry is large, conical, dark red, rich and juicy; canes
have a few small, purple spines.

2. Antwerp, Yellow or White.—Fruit large, pale yel-
low, sweet and rich; a beautiful and excellent fruit, but
not so firm and so well adapted to marketing as the pre-
ceding; canes thickly covered with greenish spines.

3. Fastolf—Fruit larger and rounder than the Red
Antwerp, but rather softer; of a purplish red, canes more
spiny; very hardy and productive.

344 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

4. Hranconia.—Fruit very large, of a purplish red, ra-
ther darker than the Red Antwerp or Fastolff; canes very
strong, with a few short purple spines, and thicker, firmer
and smoother, or less crimped or wrinkled leaves than
any of the others.

5. Knevett’s Giant.—This is an English variety of the
Red Antwerp, from which it differs only in being some
what hardier.

The “ Col. Walder” and “ Cushing” are two seedling
varieties produced by Dr. Brinkle, of Philadelphia, that
give promise of superiority, the first especially, which is
described as a beautiful “ cream-colored” fruit and very
hardy.

The American Red, White and Black are well known.

6. Large Hruited Monthly (New).—Large red, bears
in favorable weather from August to November; canes
long, rather slender, purplish in the sun, and pretty thickly
covered with dark purple spines; quite different from the
- Ohio Everbearing,” a worthless variety.

We saw fruit on this in January, in Mr. Rivers’ nur-
sery, in 1848. Ifthe autumn be dry, the plant should be
watered occasionally; and to ensure a good autumn crop,
the canes should be pruned in spring to within a fuvot of
the ground.

Section 11.—SrLect STRAWBERRIES.

Those strongly pistillate or deficient in stamens are
marked (p).

1. Alpine, Red Monthly.—Small, high-flavored variety,
and highly valuable in all collections, on account of bear-
ing a long time.

2. Alpine, White Monthly.—As above, except color.

3. Alpine, Feed Bush.—These have no runners, like

STRAWBERRIES. 345

other varieties, and are well adapted to edging walks in
the kitchen garden. They are small, but of delicious
flavor, and continue bearing till autumn.

4, Alpine, White Bush—Same as above, but in color.

5. British Queen (Myatt’s)—The most magnificent in
appearance of all strawberries, often measuring six or
seven inches in circumference ; but it is a shy bearer and
rather tender; plant very luxuriant.

6. Bishop's Orange.—Rather large, light orange scarlet,
productive and fine flavored (p).

7. Boston Pine—tLarge light red, good, hardy and ex-
ceedingly productive; with plenty of room and good cul-
ture the yield is very great.

8. Burr’s Seedling.—A. very prolific medium sized va-
riety ; hardy and of fair quality; from Ohio.

9. Burr's New Pine—Large, light orange, scarlet;
of the highest and most delicious flavor uniformly; plant
hardy and productive; one of the very best sorts (p).
Ohio.

10. Burr’s Rival Hudson.—Medium size, dark red,
rather acid; valuable for marketing and preserving;
hardy and productive (p). Ohio.

11. Burr’s Columbus.—Large, hardy and productive;
flavor medium (p). Ohio.

12. Burr’s Scarlet Melting.—A very pretty light scar-
let fruit, and a most profuse bearer, but very tender; not
fit for marketing.

18. Black Prince—A large and beautiful fruit, of a
dark blackish crimson color; variable in quality ; some
seasons first rate, others insipid; hardy and productive (p).

14. Climax Scarlet—Medium size, conical, slightly
necked, light scarlet, rather acid; bears immense crops (p).

15. Duke of Kent.—Small, with a long neck ; very pro-
lific and valuable for its earliness in a large collection.

16. Genesee.—Large, roundish, dark crimson, good;

15*

346 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

plant very luxuriant; fruit stalks very stout, supporting the
fruit well; most profuse bearer, rather late.

17. Hudson.—Medium size, scarlet, firm, acid; very
productive, and esteemed for marketing; grown much
around Cincinnati (p).

18. Hovey’s Seedling. —A well-known magnificent berry ;
plant hardy and luxuriant; bears large crops in some
places and seasons (p).

19. Jenny's Seedling—Very large, roundish, dark
scarlet, flavor medium, plant vigorous, and a moderate
bearer (p). .

20. Large Early Scarlet—An excellent standard sort,
light scarlet, rather acid; bears uniformly great crops;
early.

21. Monroe Scarlet—Large, roundish, light scarlet,
good; very prolific; over 100 perfect berries have been
gathered at once from a single plant (p).

22. Orange Prolific—lLarge, orange scarlet; rather
acid, but a great bearer and quite late.

23. Princess Alice Maud.—A very large and handsome
English variety ; very productive, but of indifferent flavor.

24. Prolific Hautbois—A large, purplish, conical fruit, —
with a peculiar musky flavor, very productive; plant
grows tall and luxuriant, with peeuliar crimped foliage, and
has very large, showy blossoms; a distinct species; late.

25. Swainstone’s Seedling.—A very large and beautiful
fruit, of the most delicious flavor; color light shining ~
scarlet, ripens gradually ; a poor bearer; English.

26. Scotch Pine Apple, or Crimson Cone.—One of the
most beautiful varieties in appearance; medium size, uni~
form, regularly conical, rich dark crimson; seeds deeply
imbedded, giving the surface a rasp-like appearance;
rather acid but good, and very productive.

Nos. 7, 9,18 and 20 are the best for general cultivation ;
for a larger collection, Nos. 5,17 and 25, besides the

BLACKBERRIES. 347

alpines, may be added; Nos. 14, 16, 21, 22 are new seed-
lings produced here that promise well.

The wood and alpines should be renewed from seed
frequently. :

Srcrion 12.—BERBERRIES.

EPIN.-VINETTE OF THE FRENCH.

Common Led.—This is everywhere well known ; grown
not only for the fruit, which is used for preserves, jellies and
pickles, but for ornament. The bright scarlet oval fruit is
borne in rich clusters, and hang on till late in the autumn.

Sweet-Fruted (Berberis dulcis)—The fruit of this is
much less acid than the common. The plant is not so
vigorous.

Besides these, there are several species and varieties
cultivated chiefly for ornament: The White-fruited, The
Violet-fruited, The Variegated-leaved, foliage marked
with yellow; Zhe Purple-leaved, the most unique and
ornamental of all, with beautiful violet-purple foliage.

They are all easily propagated by layers or suckers, and
the rare sorts by grafting. __

Srction 13.—B.LACKBERRIES.

The Improved High Bush.—This Blackberry is begin-
ning to receive considerable attention. The Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society has offered large premiums to
encourage its culture, and the result already has been
great improvement. Capt. Lovett, of Beverly, has pre-
sent specimens an inch and a half long. It bids fair to
become a valuable and popular fruit. The berry is long,
ego-shaped, shining black, juicy, and rich, the plant erect,

3048 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

blossoms white, ripens at a most timely season, after the
Raspberry.

Section 14.—Mu.LBerRIes.

Black—tThis is a native of Persia, and is really the
only one valuable for its fruit. The berry is an inch and
a half long, and nearly,an inch in diameter, black, suc-
culent, sugary and rich. The tree is highly ornamental,
very erect, with a large spreading head. The leaves
appear late in spring, are large, heart-shaped, sometimes
lobed, deep green, and form a dense shade.

Srction 15.—GRAPEs.

SELECT HARDY GRAPES.

1. Catawba.—This is the best flavored of all native
grapes that ripen as far north as lat. 43 deg., and is con-
sidered the best yet discovered for making wine. Bunches
large; berries large, red, becoming a coppery color when
ripe; juicy, sweet, and musky; hardy, and very pro-
ductive.

2. Clinton.—A very hardy, native variety, resembling
in foliage the common Fox Grape. Bunches small and
very compact; berries rgther small, black, juicy, inferior
in flavor to the preceding. It ripens here two or three
weeks before the Isabella or Catawba, and this is its chief
value; very productive.

8. Diana.—This is a variety that originated near Boston,
similar to the Catawba; not quite so large, but earlier and
better adapted to the north.

4. Jsabella.—This is the most popular variety. It ripens
well in almost every part of the conntry, and bears
immense crops under the most ordinary management.

GRAPES. 3849

Bunches long and large; berries large, oval, black, juicy,
sweet, slightly musky.

SELECT FOREIGN GRAPES.

1. Black Cluster—Small, roundish oval, black, sweet
and good; bunches small, very compact; one of the
hardiest and best for open air culture; early.

2. Black Prince-—Large, oval, black; bunches long,
rather open; sweet and fine; a profuse bearer.

3. Black Frontignan.—Berries medium size, round,
black, bunches long; flavor rich and musky ; prolific.

4. Black Hamburg—A fine grape, and a general
favorite for the vinery; bunches are large, very much
shouldered—that is, branched; berries large, deep black,
sweet and rich.

5. Chasselas de Fontainbleau.—This is esteemed the
finest table grape in France, and succeeds admirably here
in vineries, and oceasionally in the open air. Bunches
large, somewhat shouldered ; berries large, round, greenish
white, becoming slightly colored or reddened in the sun ;
canes stout, of a yellowish color; leaves large and shining;
very productive. The Golden Chasselas is very similar
to, if not identical with this.

6. Grizzly Frontignan.—tThis is one of the most deli-
cious grapes when grown in the vinery, and very beau-
tiful-too. Bunches long, slightly shouldered; berries
medium size, round, colored red and violet-purple in the
sun; rich, musky flavor.

7. White Frontignan (Muscat Blane of the French).—
One of the oldest varieties ; bunches pretty large ; berries
roundish, changing from green to amber as they ripen in
the sun; rich and quite musky; later than the preceding.

8. White Muscat of Alexandria—tThis is a most deli-
cious variety, considered the same as the imported

350 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

“Malaga.” Bunches large, branched and loose; berries
large, oval, white, becoming amber; firm and rich, with
a high musky flavor; growth vigorous; leaves shining
and deeply lobed.

9. White Sweetwater—tThis and the Black Cluster are
the most common foreign varieties in this country.
Bunches of good size, open; berries of medium size,
round, green, becoming slightly colored in the sun; sweet
and watery; occasionally produced in tolerable perfection
in the open air.

The Pomological Congress at New York, in 1849,
recommend for culture under glass, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.

Srction 16.—F es.

Very little is known here from experience of the par-
ticular qualities of the different kinds of figs. Several
varieties have been tested, and are grown successfully in
the Boston graperies. The varieties most desirable for
out-door culture for their hardiness are :.

The Brown Turkey.—Large, oblong, pear-shaped ; skin
dark, brownish purple; flesh red, leaves large.

Black Ischia.—Medium size, roundish, dark violet,
nearly biack ; flesh deep red, sweet and fine. This is one
of the most productive varieties.

Violette de Bordeaue (Figue poire de Bordeaux.—
Large, long, pear-shaped, brownish red; flesh reddish,
medium quality ; extensively cultivated about Paris for
its productiveness and hardiness.

White Marseilles —Small, roundish, nearly white; flesh
white; not quite so hardy as the preceding sorts, but
very productive ; one of the most abundant in the Paris
markets.

Upwards of forty varieties are described in the London

CHESTNUTS. OeL

Horticultural Society’s catalogue ; fifteen are described in
Downing’s Fruit and Fruit Trees.

FOURTH DIVISION.—ALMONDS, CHESTNUTS, FILBERTS, AND
WALNUTS.

Srction 17.—ALMONDs.

‘1. Sweet Hard Shell—This is a hardy and productive
variety, succeeding well in the climate of Western New
York, and still farther north. Nut very large, with a hard
shell and a large sweet kernel; ripe here about the first
of October.

The tree is very vigorous, has smooth glaucous leaves,
and when in bloom in the spring, is more brilliant and
showy than any other fruit tree.

2. Soft Sweet Shell, Ladies’ Thin Shell, etc—This is
the almond of the shops, of which such immense quan-
_ tities are annually imported from abroad. It and all its
sub-varieties, as far as we know, are too tender for our
nortlrern climate, unless carefully grown on a wall or
trellis, and protected. South of Virginia, we believe, it
succeeds well; and so beautiful a tree, and so estimable
a frnit, deserve the attention of all fruit growers.

3. The Bitter Almond. --This is hardy and productive ;
nut similar to No. 1 in appearance, but bitter, and only
useful in confectionery or medicine. Its chief product is
the prussic acid of the druggists.

Srotion 18.—CueEstnuts.

The American or Common Chestnut is well known
as one of our most beautiful forest trees. It is seldom
srown as a fruit tree, although the fruit is highly es-
teeme !.

bo2 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

It should have a place in all large collections of stand-
ard fruit trees. It reproduces itself from seed.

The Dwarf Chestnut or Chinquapin, is a small tree
eight or ten feet, high, and very prolific, but the nuts are
small. It grows spontaneously in Maryland, Virginia,
and southward. |

The Spanish Chestnut or Marron.—tThis is the large,
sweet nut, as large as a horse chestnut, imported from
abroad. There are many varieties cultivated in France
and England, but that designated by the French as
“ Marron de Lyon,” is the best. It is propagated by
grafting on the common sorts. It is not reproduced truly
from seed, but its seedlings produce large and fine fruits.
It bears and ripens well as far north as Rochester. It
bears the second year from the graft and the fourth from
seed.

Srcrion 19.—Fimperts.

1. Cosford.—This is an improved variety of the Eng- .
lish hazel-nut, very prolific, nut large, oblong or oval,
shell thin, and kernel fine flavored.

2. Coburg—tLarge and fine, and a most abundant
bearer.

3. Dwarf Prolific—One of the most prolific bearers,
nut rather small. We have plants two feet high bear-
ing well, kernel good.

4. Frizzled—Remarkable for its curious frizzled husk,
a good bearer, and one of the finest flavored.

5. Red Skinned.—One of the old standard sorts of the
English growers, distinguished by the bright red or crim-
son skin of the kernel, medium size, egg-shaped, shell
thick, flavor good.

6. White-—This is also an old standard sort, the kernel
is a yellowish white. Both this and the preceding have
long husks.

WALNUTS. 3538

Section 20.—W ALNUTS.

The English or Madewra Nut (Juglans Regia).—This is
a native of Persia. A lofty spreading tree with pinnated
leaves like the butternut, and the fruit nearly as large.
Great quantities are annually imported, and soid in the
fruit shops.

The tree is tender while young, the ends of the young
shoots being injured in winter at the north, but as it
grows older it becomes hardier. It is produced from
seed or by grafting. There are many varieties of it cul-
tivated abroad, few of which have yet been introduced
here on account of the little attention given to this class
of fruits.

The Dwarf Prolific Walnut (Juglans Preparturiens),
is a French variety recently introduced, which will pro-
bably become the most desirable for the garden. It bears
at the age of three years from the seed, and often at the
height of two-to three feet. We have now two imported
trees, four feet high, that give promise of an abundant
crop. The kernel is said to be very good.

Our native sorts, the Black Walnut (Juglans Nigra),
the Butternut (Juglans Cinerea), the Hickory Nut (Carya),
and its varieties, are all well known trees that deserve
much more attention than they receive, considering the
value of their timber as well as fruit.

OF API... Hy

GATHERING, PACKING, TRANSPORTATION AND PRE-
SERVATION OF FRUITS.

Tas is a branch of the general subject of fruit culture
and management that requires the most careful attention ;
for it is quite useless to take pains in producing fine fruits,
without taking equal pains in gathering, preserving, and
sending them to the table or the market in a sound,
sightly, and proper condition. Very few fruit growers
seem to appreciate this part of their business. Fruit
dealers at home and abroad complain of the careless and
slovenly manner in which our fruits are gathered, packed,
and presented in the market, and would gladly pay a dou-
ble price for them in a better condition. The first con-
sideration is—

The period of maturity at which fruits should be
gathered.—The stone fruits generally are allowed to reach
perfect maturity, or within four or five days of it, on the
tree.

In moist, cool seasons particularly, they are benefited
by being gathered a few days before maturity, and allow-
ed to ripen in a dry, warm room; they part with the
water contained in their juices, which thus become better
elaborated and more sugary and _ high flavored.

Summer Pears, too, on the same principle, require to
be gathered, as a general thing, from a week to a fort-
night before their maturity. Sweet varieties, and such as

GATHERING FRUITS, ETO. 355

are inclined to become mealy, are entirely worthless when
ripened on the tree, and many very excellent varieties
are condemned on this account. Such as these should be
gathered the moment the skin begins to change color in
least degree.

Sumner Apples, too, and especially those inclined to
mealiness, should be picked early ; as soon as the skin
begins to change color, otherwise they part with their
juices, and become worthless. Ripeness is indicated by
the seeds turning dark colored, and by the stem parting
readily from the tree when it is lifted upwards.

Winter Apples and Pears should be allowed to remain
on the trees as long as vegetation is active, or until frosts
are apprehended.

Grapes, Berries, &c., are allowed to attain perfect
maturity before being gathered.

Chestnuts, Filberts, dc., are not gathered until they
begin to fall from the tree.

Mode of Gathering.—Unless it be a few specimens
wanted for immediate use, which may be taken with some
of the contrivances mentioned under the head of imple-
ments, all fruits should be gathered by the hand. The
branch, to be gathered from should be taken-in one hand,
and the fruits carefully taken off, one by one, with the other,
with their stems attached. (or fruits neither keep so well,
nor look so well, without the stems.) They are then laid
carefully in single layers in broad shallow baskets, the bot-
toms of which should be covered with paper or moss, to
prevent bruises. Peaches and other soft fruits should be
pressed as lightly as possible, for anything like a squeeze
is certainly followed by decay in the form of a brown
spot, and this is the reason why it is so exceedingly diffi-
cult to find a perfectly sound and at the same time ripe
peach in our markets.

When more than one layer of fruit is laid in the same

056 GATHERING FRUITS, ETC.

basket, some soft paper, dry moss, hay, or other material,
ought to separate them, for it is difficult to place one layer
immediately upon another, and especially if the fruits are
approaching maturity, without bruising them more or less.
Fruit should only be gathered in dry weather, and in the
dry time of the day.

Disposition of the Fruits after gathering.— When they
are thus in the baskets, if summer fruits, they are either
carried into the fruit room and arranged on shelves or
tables in thin layers, or they are carefully transferred one
by one into market baskets and carried to market on an
easy spring wagon, if not by steamboat or railroad, by
which jarring or jolting will be avoided. Treated in this
manner, they will be in a marketable condition, and one
basket will sell for as much as four, carelessly picked,
thrown into baskets, and tumbled out of them into a barrel
or wagon-box.

Ripe fruits may be kept in good condition for a consi-
derable period of time, in an ice-house, or in some of the
recently-invented fruit preservers, and even in very cool
dry cellars. The vessels in which they are deposited,
should be perfectly clean, that no unpleasant flavor may
be imparted to them. Peaches have been sent to the East
Indies, by being properly packed in ice; and it may be
that methods of packing and preserving will, before long,
be discovered, that will give us access to the markets of
other countries, even for our perishable summer fruits.
We have seen Seckel pears in a very good state of preser-
vation in January, exhibited in the horticultural society’s
rooms in Boston. The science of ripening and preserving
fruits is but in its infancy, and horticultural societies
that have the means will be doing a great public service
by offering liberal premiums that will incite to experiment
on the subject.

Winter Fruits intended for long keeping are transferred

PACKING FRUITS, ETC. 857

by hand from the baskets in which they are gathered on
the tree, into larger ones in which they can be carried into
a dry cool room, where they are laid in heaps, which may
be three or four deep, where they may remain for a couple
of weeks, during which time they will have parted with
considerable moisture and be quite dry. They will then
be fit for packing.

Clean, new barrels should be procured, and the fruits
should be carefully assorted. For shipping to distant or
foreign markets, the best only should be selected; all
bruised, wormy, knotty specimens being laid aside for
home consumption. They are then placed in the barrels,
by hand, arranged regularly in layers, so that no spaces
will exist, by which the fruits may shift, roll, or knock
against one another. The barrels are then tightly headed
up, so that the head presses firmly on the fruits; some
people recommend placing a layer of clean moss or soft
paper, both on the bottom and top of the barrel; but this
is not necessary where the packing and heading are per-
formed carefully. After packing, the barrels must be
sent to market in such a manner as never to be jolted or
rolled, any more than they would be on men’s shoulders,
or an easy spring wagon or sled, or by a water convey-
ance. . i

On shipboard the barrels should be placed in the coolest
and dryest place. It is perfectly idle to gather, pack or
ship fruits in any other way than this to foreign markets.
American apples are frequently sold in Liverpool at auction
for half what they would have sold for in New York, on
account of their bad condition. J saw this in 1849, when
Newtown pippins were selling at twelve and a half cents
a-piece in the fruit shops.

Winter fruits for home consumption should be care-
fully assorted, keeping the best, the poorest, the sound,
the bruised, and the earlier and later ripening varieties

358 GATHERING FRUITS, ETC.

all separate ; when sound and bruised, early and late, are
all thrown together promiscuously, they cannot fail to
decay speedily and to lose their flavor; for two or three
decaying apples in a heap or barrel will taint the flavor
of all, and hasten the decay of those around them. This
arrangement into grades and classes is, therefore, absolute-
ly necessary even for the fruits needed for family use; and
when they are so arranged, the sound, long keepers are put
into clean, new barrels, carefully by hand, and the barrels
headed up tightly and placed in a cool dry cellar or fruit
room. The bruised ones can be laid in a place by them-
selves for immediate use. Every barrel, when packed,
should be marked.

Winter Pears, as a general thing, require to be brought
into a warm temperature one or two weeks before they
are wanted for table use. All the baking and stewing,
and even many of the table varieties, may be treated
exactly like apples.

Packing Pears for distant markets—The French send
away more pears to foreign markets than any other peo-
ple. Some small importations of their winter sorts have
actually been made by some of the New York fruit
dealers the present winter, 1850-51. They pack them in
small boxes, either round or square, such as a man can
lift and carry easily in his hands.

They cover the bottom and sides with very dry moss
or soft dry paper, well calculated to absorb moisture.
They then wrap each fruit in the dry, soft paper, and lay
them in layers, the largest and least mature in the bottom,
and fill all the interstices with dry moss or paper. I have
seen these boxes opened in London, in the finest con-
dition, after being a month packed. They are so tightly
packed that the slightest movement cannot take place
among them, and yet no one presses upon another. The

PRESERVATION OF FRUITS. 359

dry moss and paper that separate them, absorb any mois-
ture ; and if one decays it does not affect others.

Some of the Paris confectioners and restaurant keepers
preserve fruits very successfully in barrels, packed in lay-
ers, and the interstices filled up with powdered charcoal.
The barrels are kept in a dry, cool place, about forty
degrees, where they are not subjected to changes of tem-
perature. Apples, pears, grapes, almonds, nuts, and pota-
toes, are all preserved in this manner.

Fruit Rooms.—A fruit room is a structure set apart
exclusively for the preservation of fruit. Its great requi-
sites are, perfect security from moisture or dampness, ex-
clusion from light, and a uniform temperature. If these
points are obtained, no matter where, how, or of what
material the fruit room be constructed. It may be built
of stone, brick, clay, or wood, above or below ground, as
circumstances or taste may dictate.

A good, dry, and cool cellar, is as good a place for
keeping fruit in as can be provided; but the great objec-
tion to cellars used for other purposes is, that currents of
air are frequently admitted, and too much light, by which
the temperature is changed, decay promoted, or the fruits
dried and shrivelled. There are, also, other objects that
unavoidably saturate the air more or less with moisture.

Where a fruit room is built on the surface of the ground,
it should be on the ice-house principle of double walls and
doors, to prevent access of either heat or cold from with-
out. A good cellar or cave, built in a dry, sandy, or
gravelly bank, or side hill, will answer every purpose.
The walls may be of stone, brick, or timber; the roof should
be thick, with a slope sufficient to throw off water freely,
and the earth about should also be so graded that water
will flow away as fast as it falls. Provision may be
made for lighting and ventilating in the roof, and the
door or doors should be double.

- 360 PRESERVATION OF FRUITS.

The interior should be fitted up with shelves and binns,
_ with places for barrels or other articles, in which fruits
are packed.

Attention to fruits in the cellar or fruit room.—The
deeay of fruits is caused either by bruises or by a fungus,
or species of mildew, that increases rapidly and attacks
all the sound fruits within its reach. It is, therefore,
necessary to examine fruits frequently, and remove all
that show any symptoms of decay, before they have
either affected others or tainted the atmosphere of the
room.

CHAPTER III.
DISEASES AND INSECTS.

Section 1.—DIsEAsEs.

1. The Fire Blight of the Pear, Apple, and Quince.—
This is one of the most formidable diseases to which fruit
trees are liable. Whether it is caused by the sun, the
atmosphere, or an insect, remains in doubt, some cases
favoring one opinion, some another. It attacks the trees
at different periods.of the growing season, from June to
September, and generally in the young parts first; the
leaves flag, the sap becomes thick and brown, oozing out
in globules through the bark, and emitting a very dis-
agreeable odor, and the diseased branch or part turns
black, as if it were burned by fire. When the pear tree
is attacked it is difficult to save it, the disease spreads so
rapidly. In the apple and quince it is less fatal, rarely
killing more than a portion of the tree even if left to its
own course. The only remedy is, to cut away instantly
the blighted parts, into the sound wood, where there is
not the slightest trace of the disease, and burn them up
immediately.

It is thought by some that young trees growing very
rapidly are more subject to it than older trees growing
slowly ;and that warm sunshine, with a sultry atmosphere
after rain, is apt to be followed by much blight. We
have always regarded the cases favoring such an opinion
as accidental.

51 aie

362 DISEASES AND INSECTS.

2. Pear leaf Blight.—This disease has already been
alluded to in treating of pear seedlings. It is a sort of
rust that appears on the leaves in July or August, first as
small brown spots; these spread rapidly over the leaves
until they are completely dried up and growth stopped.
It appears in a certain spot as a centre, from which it
spreads. Whether it be an insect, a fungus, or some
atmospherical cause that produces this blight, is unknown.
Certain cases favor one or other of these opinions. More
minute investigations are wanted on the subject.

To avoid its evil effects as far as possible, the great
point is, to get a rapid, vigorous growth, before midsum-
mer, when it usually appears. Seedlings grown in new
soils do not appear to be so much affected as in old.
Where stocks are affected very early in the season, they
become almost worthless, on account of the feebleness
produced in both stem and roots by sueh an untimely and
unnatural check. Some special applications, such as coal
cinders, iron filings, copperas, etc., have been suggested,
but no evidence has yet been produced of their efficacy.

3. The Gum in stone fruits—tThe cherry, plum, apricot,
and peach, are all more or less subject to this malady.
The cherry is particularly liable to it in the West. It is
produced by different. causes, such as a wet soil, severe
pruning, pruning at an improper time, violet changes of
temperature, etc. The gumming of the cherry in the
West, is considered by some to be owing in a great mea-
sure to the bark not yielding naturally to the growth of
the wood, and hence they practise longitudinal incisions
on it. The cherry tree has a very powerful bark, and in
some cases it may not yield naturally to the expansion or
growth of the wood. We have seen about a foot of the
trunk of a cherry tree, several inches smaller than the
parts both above and below it. The bark was
as smooth as glass on it, the first rind being unbroken,

*

DISEASES. : 363

whilst on the large parts this was quite rough. This was
a ease arising from the obstinacy of the bark, and could
only be remedied by longitudinal incisions on the small
part.

It is most probable that the extent and severity of this dis-
ease inthe West is owing to violent changes from a hard frost
to a bright sun and rapid thaw, by which the sap becomes
deranged, and accumulates in masses. Trees that are
branched near the ground, will be less likely to suffer
than those with tall bare trunks. Where it has made
some progress in any tree, the only remedy is to pare off
the diseased bark, clean off all the gum, and let the sur-
face dry up; then apply a plaster of grafting compo-
sition, or a solution of gum shellac in alcohol, put on
with a brush, as recommended by Mr. Downing.

When the stone fruits are pruned severely in the spring,
the sap does not find sufficient vent; it accumulates in
masses and bursts the bark. This fact should always be
kept in view in pruning, and a sufficient supply of active
buds be left to absorb the sap.

4, The Yellows in the Peach.—This is supposed to
arise from negligent cultivation. It exhibits itself ina
yellow, sickly foliage, feeble shoots, and small fruits pre-
maturely ripened. It is said to be contagious. Trees
exhibiting these symptoms should instantly be destroyed.
To avoid it, care should be taken to propagate from trees
in perfect health and vigor.

5. Mildew on the Peach—The young shoots, leaves,
and even the fruit of certain varieties, and een the
glandless ones, such as Harly Anne, Early Tillotson, etc.,
are attacked by this. ‘The only remedies are, to give the
trees a dry, good soil, that will keep them in a vigorous
condition, and to syringe freely twice a day when it begins
to appear. The gooseberry suffers seriously from the mil-
dew, owing mainly to the heat of our summers. In

364 DISEASES AND INSECTS.

Northern New York, in Maine, Vermont, and Lower
Canada, the finest large English varieties are brought to
greater perfection than in warmer districts, and with good
culture almost come up to the English standard. Ina
cold, damp-bottomed soil at Toronto, almost on a level
with Lake Ontario, fine crops are produced with compara-
tively little difficulty from mildew or rust. This would
indicate as a remedy, a cool soil and situation, and mulch-
ing the roots to keep them cool. The plants should be
renewed every three or four years, and they should be
kept vigorous by liberal manuring and good culture.

6. The Plum Wart or Black Knot—vThe cause of this
disease is quite uncertain, but the probability is that it
originates in a similar way to the gum, from an imperfect
circulation of the sap, induced by violent changes of tem-
perature.* Cutting out the diseased branch clean to the
sound wood, the moment the knots begin to appear, is an
effectual remedy, and they should all be burnt up. We
have saved trees six inches in diameter, that were affected
on the trunk so seriously, that one third of its thickness
had to be removed to get below the disease. After it was
cut out, we applied a plaster of grafting composition,
covered it with a cloth, and in two years it was all healed
over and sound.

Plum trees are so neglected in the country, that multi-
tudes of them are now standing literally loaded with these
warts—not even an inch of any branch free from them—
the most disgusting objects in the way of fruit trees that
van possibly be imagined.

6. The Curl of the leaf in the Peach.—This disease
causes the leaves to assume a reddish color, to become

* We have observed that cold weather, about the blossoming period, in-
duces the gum in plum trees as well as in the peach, and when it continues
long, as in 1849-50 in Western New York, there is an unusual development
of it.

INSECTS. 3865

thick, curled, and deformed, and finally to perish. It is
supposed by many to be caused by insects;* but it is
really induced by a sudden change of weather.

A number of warm days, that cause the expansion of
the young leaves, followed by a cold rainy day, is almost
sure to produce it to some extent; and the more severe
and protracted the cold, the more extensive and fatal it is.
The peach trees in Western New York suffered more from
this in 1849-50 than in the ten years previous, owing to
a protracted cold time in each season after the young
tender leaves had expanded. In both these seasons the
check was so severe, as not only to produce this disease in
its worst form, but the gum also; for the sap not being
absorbed by the leaves, became stagnant, sour, and cor-
_ roded, and burst the bark. Trees in sheltered gardens
suffer less than those in exposed orchards. There is no
possible way of guarding against this; and the only
remedy known to us is, to pick off the diseased leaves the
moment the weather changes, that new healthy ones may
be produced.

Section 2.—Tue Principat Insects mnsurious To Frurr
TREES.

1. Aphis or Plant-Louse-—There are several kinds of
these. The two most troublesome to fruit trees are the
green and black, small soft insects that appear suddenly
in immense quantities on the young shoots of the trees,
suck their juices, and consequently arrest their growth.
The apple, pear and cherry, are especially infested with
them. They multiply with wonderful rapidity. It is said
that one individual in five generations might be the pro-
genitor of six thousand millions. Were it not that they

* Prof. Harris says in his Treatise on Insects, that it is caused by plant-
lice puncturing the under sides of the leaves.

366 DISEASES AND INSECTS.

are easily destroyed, they would present an obs*acle almost
insuperable in the propagation and culture of trees.

There are many ways of accomplishing their destruc-
tion. Our plan is to prepare a barrel of tobacco juice,
by steeping ‘stems for several days until the juice isa
dark brown, like ‘strong beer; we then mix this witha
solution of ‘soft soap or soap suds. A pail is filled with
this, and the ends ‘of the shoots where the insects are
assembled are brought down and dipped into the liquid.
One dip is enough. Such parts as cannot be dipped are
sprinkled liberally. It is applied to the heads of large
trees by means of a hand or garden syringe. It should
be done in the evening. The liquid may be s0 strong as
to injure the foliage, hence it will be well for persons
using it the first time to test it on one or two subjects _
before applying it extensively. This application must be
repeated as often as any of the aphides make their appear-
ance. The dry weather of midsummer is generally the
time most favorable for their appearance.

2. The Woolly Aphis or American Blight—This is a
small insect, covered with a white woolly substance that
conceals its body. They infest the apple tree in particu-
lar, both roots and branches, living upon the sap of the
bark, and producing small warts or granulations on it by
the punctures. They are more particularly troublesome
on old rough-barked trees, as they lodge in the crevices,
and are difficult to reach. The wind carries them from
one place to another by the light down in which they are —
enveloped, and thus they spread quickly from one end of
a plantation to the other. Not a moment should be lost
in destroying the first one that makes its appearance.
Where the bark is rough it should be scraped smooth, if
the roots be affected the earth ‘should be removed, and
every part washed, and every crevice filled with the fol-
lowing preparation, recommended in Harris’s Treatise’

INSECTS. 3867

“Two parts of soft soap and eight of water, mixed with
lime enough to bring it to the consistency of thick white-
wash, to be put on with a brush.” A solution of two
pounds of potash in seven quarts of water will answer
the same purpose. Fresh earth should be put upon the
roots.

8. The Scaly Aphis or Bark Louse—This is a dark
brown scale insect, that infests the bark of the apple tree.
They are of a dark brown color just like the bark, and
are not easily seen unless looked for. They attach them-
selves closely to the bark, and sometimes are so numerous
as to form a complete coating. They seldom appear on
thrifty growing trees in good soil; but where the soil is
damp and cold, and the trees growing feebly, this insect
may be looked for. June is the time to destroy them,
when they are young. At other times they are hard, and
able to resist any ordinary remedy. ‘The same applica-
tion recommended for the aphis, applied to them with a
hard brush, will effect their destruction. Where they
have been left for a long time undisturbed, and have
pretty well covered the tree, the quickest and best remedy
is to destroy tree and all, unless it possesses some extraor-
dinary claim for indulgence. Prof. Harris mentions
having found a reddish brown bark louse on his grape-
-vine, arranged in rows one behind another in the crevices
of the bark.

4. The Apple Tree Borer is a very troublesome insect
in some sections of the country. In Western New York
we have never met with it but in two or three instances,
in very old, neglected orchards, that had stood for twenty
years in grass. The beetle is striped brown and white,
and is about three-fourths of an inch long. It deposits its
egos in June, in the bark of the trees near the ground.
Here the larva is hatched, becoming a whitish grub,
which saws its way into the tree, perforating it in all

i —_— DISEASES AND INSECTS. *

directions, sometimes completely girdling it. The most
effectual method to destroy them is, to insert the end of a
wire into their burrow, and killing them. The same
means are taken to guard against them as against the
peach tree grub, viz., placing a mound of ashes around
the base of the trunk in the spring, and allowing it to
remain until after the season in which the beetles deposit
their eggs. It prevents them from reaching the soft bark
at the surface of the ground, the place usually selected.
It is stated in Downing’s Fruit and Fruit Trees, that “the
beetles may be destroyed in June by building small fires
of shavings in different parts of the orchard.”

5. The Apple Worm.—The apple moth deposits its
egos in the eye or calyx of the young fruit; the grub is
there hatched, and eats its way into the fruit, leaving be-
hind it a brownish powder. Sometimes the apples drop
before they are half grown, and occasionally remain until
they acquire a premature ripeness. Early apples are more
affected, generally, than late ones, probably because in a
more forward state when the eggs are deposited.

When the fruit falls the grub immediately leaves, pre-
pares itself a place in some crevice of the bark of the tree,
and spins a thin paper-like cocoon, in which it spends the
winter, to come out the following spring and reproduce it-
self. There are but two ways of destroying them; one is,
at pruning time in March, to search carefully for the
cocoons and destroy them, and the other is to pick up
promptly all fallen wormy fruits and destroy them. These
two means, industriously followed, will greatly diminish
the amount of wermy fruit, the increase of which is excit-
ing alarm. )

6. The Canker Worm.—This insect is confined chiefly
to New England; we have never seen it in New, York.

They generally emerge from the ground in March.
According to Professor Harris, some rise during the late

INSECTS. 869

autumn and winter months. The female has no wings,
but crawls up the tree, and lays her eggs on the branches
in May, in clusters of 60 to 100 in each, glued to each
other and to,the bark by a greyish varnish impervious to
water; the little worms fall upon the leaves, and, when
numerous, devour them all, leaving only the mid-ribs.
They leave the trees when about four weeks old, and
descend into the ground. Their effects are most visible in
June, when the trees, divested of their foliage, appear as
if scorched by fire.

As the female cannot fly, the great point is to prevent
her from crawling up; for this purpose various means
have been tried and are recommended. One of the most
effectual is to tie strips of canvas around the tree and cover
it with tar, renewing the tar during their whole season of
rising, or from October till May. Another is, to make a
close fitting collar of boards around the base of the tree,
and keep them covered with tar. Mr. Jonathan Dennis, of
Portsmouth, Rhode Island, obtained a patent for a circular
leaden trough filled with oil, which proves an effectual
preventive.

7. Caterpillars—Of these there are many kinds that are
more or less destructive to the foliage of fruit trees; but
the Caterpillar, described by Professor Harris as the
American Tent Caterpillar, is the one that commits such
general and extensive devastation in our orchards, and
especially in certain seasons. The moth deposits its eggs
‘in July, in large rings, on the branches of the trees;
these remain in that state until the following season, when
they are hatched in the latter end of May or beginning of
June. Each ring produces three or four hundred cater-
pillars, and these weave a sort of web to live in. The ap-
pearance of a tree with three or four of these tents upon
it, and the leaves completely devoured, is really frightful.
There are two ways of destroying them: one is, to examine

fo

870 | DISEASES AND INSECTS.

the trees carefully in February or March, ‘at pruning time,
and destroy the clusters of eggs by cutting off and burn-
ing the branches on which they are found. The next is
to destroy the caterpillars in their tents after they are
hatched. There are various ways of doing this, according
to people’s fancy and ingenuity. The quickest and most
effectual method is to take ‘a ladder, ascend the trees, and
remove every nest with the hands. The early morning
should be‘chosen, when they are in the nests. Some put
a round brush on a pole and ‘put it in the nests, and by
giving it a few turns web and all are removed.

8. The Cherry and Pear Slug.—This is a most destruc-
tive insect. They appear in June and July for the first,
and a second brood afterwards, small, slimy, dark-brown
slugs on the upper surfaces of the leaves of the cherry
and pear. They devour greedily the parenchyma of the
leaves, leaving only the bare net-work of veins. Ina
short time growth is completely stopped.

Stocks for budding require careful watching, for a day
or two of these slugs may prevent them from being worked
that season. We ndletines them by throwing fine earth
taken up with the hand among the trees, and by ashes or
slaked lime, when the earth is not sufficiently dry and
fine. The caustic properties of lime and ashes render
them more certainly destructive to the slug, and they
should always be used in preference to common earth,
where only a few trees are to be gone over.

A liberal syringing with the tobacco and soap liquid
recommended for the aphis, but in a weaker state, is ser-
viceable after the ashes and lime. It must be remembered
that one application will seldom be sufficient. Some es-
cape even to the third or fourth; but in all cases ‘the war-
_ fare should be sustained whilst one remains. Like the
aphis they are generally most troublesome in warm and
dry seasons.

INSECTS. 371

9. The Curculio or Plum Weevil—tThis is a small grey-
ish brown beetle nearly a quarter of an inch long; the
wing covers form two little humps on the back, which give
it a roundish appearance, and it has a long crooked snout,
well adapted to its destructive propensities. They can
fly, but are not active; and by jarring the part on which
they stand, suddenly, they fall to the ground, draw in
their legs and appear dead. It deposits its egg in a
semicircular incision which it makes in the young fruit ;
it there hatches, eats into the fruit, and causes it to fall
while yet green. It is the most troublesome of all insects
injurious to fruits. In some places it destroys the entire
crop of plums, apricots, and nectarines, and attacks even the
cherry and the apple. The peach, even, is not wholly
exempt, notwithstanding its coat of down. Almost every
remedy that ingenuity can devise has been tried. This
‘whole book would not contain what has been written on
the subject in one year alone. Yet no complete, effectual
remedy has been discovered. The strongest liquid appli-
cations of lime, soap, and tobacco—the most powerful
and offensive odors, that repel any other insects, are en-
tirely harmless and inoffensive to the curculio. There
seem to be feally but two means worthy of being re-
sorted to. One is, to pave, or in some other way harden,
the surface of the ground, so that the grubs cannot enter
it to complete their transformations. This is found effi-
cient where no other trees are in the immediate vicinity
not paved. We have seen many instances where good

crops were obtained by this mode. The fact that they are,
as a general thing, less troublesome in stiff clay soils than
in light porous ones, is alone a proof of the efficacy of a
stiff or impenetrable surface soil.

Add to this the picking up of fruit containing the grub

as soon as it drops from the tree, and before ee worm has
a chance to escape.

372 DISEASES AND INSECTS.

To accomplish both these ends, some people have
planted their plums and apricots in a small enclosure by
themselves, adjoining the hog-pen, and as soon as the
fruits begin to drop, these animals are admitted, and
' gather all up, and, at the same time, tread the ground so
firmly that it is almost as good as if it were paved.

This is probably the easiest and best way to ensure a
crop of the fruits attacked by this insect.

Another way is, to jar the tree daily three or four times
a day, from the moment they begin to appear, which is
when the fruit is the size of a pea, until they have disap-
peared, or the fruit begins to ripen, when it is no longer
attacked.

Serious injuries have been inflicted on plum trees, by
thoughtlessly striking the bark of the trunk or a large
branch with a mallet to jar the trees. The safer way is
to strike on the end of a cut branch, or to fix a cushion
of some soft material on the end of a short stick, and
place the cushion on the tree, and strike the other end
with the mallet. The insects are much easier jarred off
in the cool of the morning while they are comparatively
torpid.

Before commencing to jar them down, a white sheet or
cloth, wide enough to cover all the ground under the
branches, should be spread to receive the insects as they
fall, so that they may be destroyed. This was recom-
mended through the “Genesee Farmer,” by David
Thomas, twenty years ago.

From repeated observations, [ am inclined to believe
that it is quite sensitive to cold, for it is well known that
in the cool of the morning it is always in a comparative
state of torpor; and in the cold seasons of 1849-50, when
“our peach trees and fruit were so greatly injured, the
eurculio was driven off, and we had a most abundant
crop of plums. A cold day or two may not affect it ; but

INSECTS. 873

when it continues for two weeks, as in the years referred
to, it seems to be rendered powerless for that season.

10. Ants.—These are not very destructive, yet they
sometimes do considerable injury to beds of seedlings, by
making their hillocks among them, and they also infest
ripe truits.

Boiling water, oil, or spirits of turpentine, pour ed on

their Bilseka. siapanie them; and if wide-mouthed bot- °

tles, half filled with paedeaucd water or syrup, be hung
among the branches of a tree when the fruit is attaining
maturity, ants, wasps, flies, and beetles of all sorts that
prey greedily upon sweets, will be attracted into them.

Mr. Downing, who recommends this as a “ general ex-
tirpator suited to all situations,” says, “that an acquaint-
ance caught in this way, in one season, more than three
bushels of insects of various kinds, and preserved his
garden almost entirely against them.”

A gentleman in Detroit, who was very careful of his
garden, informed me that he had pursued this method
of trapping insects with results that perfectly astonished
him. He had to empty the bottles every few days to
make room for more. A very good way of trapping
and killing ants is, to besmear the inside of flower pots
with molasses, ai turn them on their mouths near the
hillock; the insects will soon assemble inside on the
molasses, when they are easily destroyed by a handful of
burning straw.

11. The Peach Tree Borer—This is a most destructive
insect when allowed to increase for a few years without
molestation. We have seen whole orchards of fine trees
ruined by them. They sometimes attack even young

trees in the nursery, and commit serious depredations on ,

their collar, rendering them in many cases quite unfit for
planting. Their multiplication should be prevented by
all possible means. The eggs are deposited in summer

+

O74 DISEASES AND INSECTS.

on the base of the trunk, near the collar, where the bark
is soft. There they are hatched, and bore their way
under the bark of the tree, either in the stem or root, or
both, producing an effusion of gum. Where trees are
already affected, the proper course is, to remove the earth
from around the collar of the root, clean away the gum,
destroy any cocoons that may be found, trace the grub
through its holes in the tree, and kill it; then fill up
around the tree with fresh earth, and place a shovelful or
two of ashes around the base. One of the best orchards
in the vicinity of Rochester was at one time nearly
ruined by the prevalence of this grub, when it changed
proprietors, and the present one adopted and followed the
plan recommended above, until there is not the trace of
one left. The ashes or slaked lime should be applied
every spring, and at the end of summer may be scattered
about the tree; both ashes and lime form an excellent
dressing for the peach.

12. The Rose Bug.—tThe eggs of this insect are laid in
the earth, where they are hatched, and from which the
bug emerges about the rose season.

In some seasons and in some localities they appear
like grasshoppers in vast multitudes, and commit extensive
ravages, not only on the rose but fruit trees, and all other
green things. There is no other way known to combat
them, but to crush them with the hand—to spread cloths
around the trees, and shake them down on it, and kill
them. They are stupid, sluggish things, and fall as
though they had no lite.

In some cases fruit trees have been protected by cover-
ing them with millinet.

18. Leaf Lollers—In May and June these insects may
be found on the leaves of fruit trees, and especially on the
pear; they form themselves a sort.of ‘cocoon out of the
leaf. The leaves attacked by them should be removed and

ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO ¥RUIT TREES. BID

destroyed, in order to prevent their increase. The eggs
are deposited on the young leaves by some of the multi-
tudes of spring beetles.

Srorion 3.—Anmats Insvrtovs ‘tro Frourrs anp Frorr
| "TREES.

1. Birds—As a general thing, birds are more the
friends than the enemies of the garden. Many of them
subsist in greater part on insects, and thus perform ser-
vices that are by no means appreciated. The early cher-
ries are generally the greatest sufferers by them, and
various devices are practised to frighten them away, the
most cruel of which is shooting. Moving objects resem-
bling the human figure, bits of looking-glass or tin sus-
pended among the branches, etc., are often effectual.
Dwarf trees are easily covered with thin netting support-
ed on poles and fastened at the base of the tree.

2. Feld Mice—The most effectual preventive is
clean culture. Leave no grass, weeds, rubbish, or heaps
of stones around the garden or orchard,and the mice will
seldom be troublesome. Their operations of girdling are
principally carried on beneath thé snow, and when this is
firmly trodden down as soon as jit falls, it obstructs their
way. A correspondent of the “ Horticulturist” states
that he has found tin tubes fixed around the base of the
tree, an effectual remedy; and Mr. Hooker, of Rochester,
has successfully driven them off with poison. He takesa
block of wood six inches long and three or four square,
and bores it lengthwise with an inch and half auger
nearly through, and places in the lower end some corn
meal and arsenic. He places these blocks among the ~
trees, mouth inclined downwards, “to keep the powder
dry.”

376 DISEASES AND INSECTS.

8. Moles—These are easily poisoned and driven off, by
putting pills of flour mixed with arsenic into their holes,
and shutting them up. We have seen them banished by
bits of dried codfish placed in the entrance of their
holes.

4. Cats often commit serious depredations on trees by
scratching the bark. Quite recently we saw a large
number of beautiful fruit trees nearly ruined by them.
A few briers secured around trees in the vicinity of the
house, where they frequent most, will be a sufficient pro-
tection.

5. Hogs—It is not generally supposed that these ani-
mals will attack trees; but we have heard of a western
farmer who turned in a large number of them to consume
the corn that had been grown in his young orchard.
When the corn began to grow scarce they attacked the
trees, and not one out of several hundred but was complete-
ly girdled—the bark gnawed off as far up as the brutes
could reach.

Where it may be desirable to turn hogs into an orchard,
unless the feed be very abundant, the trees should be
protected around the base with thorns, briers, or some
prickly brush.

ook Pee re i

NURSERY, ORCHARD, AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLE-
MENTS.

Tue following are the principal implements used in the
propagation, pruning, and cultivation of fruit trees:

Srction 1.—ImpPLEMENTS OF THE Sol.

The Subsoil Plough is the great reformer of the day in
the preparation of soils of all qualities and textures, for
nursery, orchard, or gardentrees. It follows the ordinary
plough in the same furrow; and the largest size, No. 2,
with a powerful team, can loosen the subsoil to the depth
of eighteen inches. No. 1 will be sufficient in clear land
when the subsoil is not very stiff.

The One-Horse Plough—Similar to the common plough
used by farmers. It is a labor-saving implement for cul-
tivating the ground among nursery trees or orchards
closely planted. The horse should be steady, the man
careful, and the whiffle-tree as short as possible, that the
trees need not be bruised. It should neither run so deep
nor so near the trees as to injure the roots.

The Cultivator.—This with the plough obviates the
necessity of spade-work, and, in a great measure, hoeing.
If the ground be ploughed in the spring, and the culti-
vator passed over it once every week or two during the
summer, all the hoeing necessary will be a narrow strip

378 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

of a few inches on each side of the row. The double-
pointed steel-toothed, with a wheel in front, is the best.

The One-Horse Cart.—This is an indispensable machine
in the nursery, orchard, or large garden. Four-wheeled
wagons are difficult to unload, and require a great deal of
space to turnin. The cart can be turned in a circle of
twelve or fourteen feet, and the load discharged in a mo-
ment, simply by taking out the key that fastens the body
to the shafts, throwing it up and moving the horse forward.
Our carts are about six feet long and three wide in the
body, shafts six feet long, wheels four and a half feet
high, and tire two and a half wide to prevent them from
sinking into the ground. ‘The box is about a foot deep,
and when large loads are to be carried a spreading board
is put on the top with brackets. Cost from $30 to $50.

The Wheelbarrow (fig. 132)—Every man who has a
rod of ground to cul-
tivate should pos-
sess this machine. g
In small gardens it (\QY
is sufficient for the
conveyance of all
manures, soils, pro-
ducts, etc., and in
larger places it is al-
ways needed for use, where a cart cannot go. The handles
or levers should be of ash or some tough wood, and the
sides and bottom of any light wood. The Segoe is soft
wood, shod with iron.

Fig. 132.
Wheelbarrow.

Vig. 133.

. Spade.

The Spade (fig. 183).—The best kinds of these in use

IMPLEMENTS OF THE SOIL. 3879

are Ames’ cast-steel; excellent, strong, light articles.
They work clean and bright as silver. There are several
sizes. For heavy work, trenching, draining, raising trees,
etc., the largest should be used.

Fig. 134.
Shovel.

_ The Shovel (fig. 134).—This is used in mixing, loading,
and spreading composts and short manures. The blade
should be of cast-steel.

Fig. 135.

Digging Fork, or Forked Spade.

The Forked Spade (fig. 185)—This resembles a fork.
It has three stout cast-steel tines, at least an inch wide,
and pointed. It is used instead of a spade to loosen the
earth about the roots of trees, to turn in manures, etc.,
being much less liable to cut and injure them than the
spade.

Fig. 136.

Dung Fork.

The Dung Fork (fig. 136).—There are several kinds.

3880 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

Those of cast-steel, cut out of a solid plate, with three or
four tines, are the best, light and durable. It is the only
implement proper for loading, mixing, or spreading fresh
rough manures with facility and despatch. —

The Pick.—This is a useful, and even indispensable
implement in the deepening or trenching of soils with a
hard subsoil that cannot be operated upon with the spade.
It consists of an ash handle, and a head composed of two
levers of iron pointed with steel, and an
eye in the centre for the handle.

The Garden Line and Reel (fig. 137).—
The line should be a good hemp cord,
from one eighth to one fourth of an inch
in diameter, attached to light iron stakes
about eighteen inches long. On one of
the stakes a reel is attached. This is turned .
by means of a handle, and the line neatly Me, aka
and quickly wound up.

The Hoe.—tThis is a universal instrument in this coun-
try. In some cases, all the gardening operations are per-
formed with it. Its uses in tree culture are to open
trenches for seeds, to cover them, to loosen and clean the
surface of the ground from weeds, &c. There are two
kinds, the draw hoe, figs. 138, 189, 140, and the Dutch,

Fic, 138. Fre. 139.

Square draw hoe. | Triangle draw hoe.

or thrust hoe, fig. 141; this we do not use at all. Of the

IMPLEMENTS OF THE SOIL. 881

different kinds and forms of the draw hoe. The most
generally useful is the square, a cast steel plate, about

Fig. 140.
Semicircular draw hoe. _

Fie. 141.
Dutch hoe.

six inches long and four wide, with a light smooth handle.
The semicircular and triangle hoes may be advantageously

used in certain cases.

Fie. 142.
Garden rake,

The Rake, fig. 142, is used
to level, smooth, pulverize, and
clean the surface of the ground
after it has been spaded or
hoed, or to prepare it for seeds,
&c. They are of different
sizes, with from six to twelve
teeth. The best are those of
which the head and teeth are
drawn out of a solid bar of
steel. Those that are welded
and riveted soon get out of
order.

Section 2.—IMPLEMENTS FOR CouTTING. -

The Pruning Saw—This is used for cutting off

382 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

branches, either too large for the knife, or so situated that
the knife cannot operate. It has various sizes and forms.
Some are jointed, and fold like a pruning knife; others
are like the common carpenter’s handsaw, fig. 143, but
smaller and stouter. ,

Fie. 143,—Pruning saw. Fia. 144.—Bow saw.

The Bow Saw (fig. 144).—This is the most generally
useful form for the gardener, or nurseryman. The blade
is very narrow, and stiffened by an arched back. It is
fastened at both ends by a rivet to the screw on which the
back turns, and by which it is adapted to different pur-
poses. It is indispensable in making horizontal cuts, close
to the ground, as in heading down.

Some are set with a double row of teeth on one side,
and the edge is much thicker than the back; these work
much easier than those toothed in the ordinary way, and
it would be an object to have them where much saw prun-
ing is to be done. Wherever the saw is used, the cut
surfaces should be pared smooth with the knife, to facili-
tate its healing.

Long handled pruning saws are sometimes recom-
mended, but never should be used in pruning fruit trees.
The branch to be operated should be reached by means
of a ladder, if need be, within arm’s length, and cut with
a@ common saw.

IMPLEMENTS FOR CUTTING. 383

Hand Pruning Shears (fig. 145).—There is a kind of
these made now, that 1 a moving centre, as in the

My Ny

= ile A mah

ert 111]

Fie. 145,

figure, make a smooth draw cut almost equal to that of a
knife, and it is a very expeditious instrument in the
hand of a skilful workman. In pruning out small dead
branches, shortening in peach trees, &c., it will perform
four times as much work as a knife.

Pole Pruning Shears.—These resemble the hand shears,
but are worked by a string passing over a pulley, and are
fixed on a pole of any required length. They are used in
cutting scions, diseased shoots, &c., from the heads of
lofty standard trees.

= Grape Scissors.—These
are small sharp pointed
| scissors for thinning

Fic, 146.—Grape scissors. bunches of grapes.
The Pruning Knife—The best for coe purposes

Fra. 147.—The pruning knife. Fic, 148.—The budding knife.

are those of medium size, with a handle about four inches
long, smooth, slightly hollowed in the back; the blade
about three aa a half inches long, three- aeations of an
inch wide, and nearly straight. For very heavy work a
larger size may be necessary. ‘“ Saynor’s” (English)
knives of this kind are unsurpassed in material and finish.

384 WURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

They are to be had in the seed stores at $1 to $1 25
a-piece.

The Budding Knife—This is much smaller than the
pruning knife, with a thin straight blade, the edge some-
times rounded at the point. The handle is of bone or
ivory, and has a thin wedge-shaped end for raising the
bark. Budders have various fancies about shape and
size.

The Grafting Chisel.
—This is used for
splitting large stocks;

Fie. 149.—Grafting Chisel. the blade is about two
inches long, and an inch and a half wide, in the shape of
a wedge; the edge curved so as to cut, and not tear the
bark; the handle eight or ten inches long, at the end of
which is a narrow wedge to keep the split open until the
scion is inserted. The whole is of steel. Some are made
with the blade in the middle, the wedge at one end, and
a hook to hang it by on the other.

Foote’s Stock Splitter —This is an implement invented
by A. Foote, Esq., of Williamstown, Mass., to facilitate

cleft grafting. It consists of asharp blade, ¢, and a groove,

Fre. 150.—Foote’s stock splitter.

a, sheathed with leather; the handles are of wood, and
the whole implement about eighteen inches long. The
stock is placed in the groove, and the blade brought down
upon it by the lever which acts upon a small wheel, 0.

It performs splitting both neatly and quickly.

LADDERS AND FRUIT GATHERERS. 885

Section 3.—LADDERS AND Frurr GATHERERS.

Ladders—Of these there are many kinds. For the

fruit garden, where the trees are low, the self-supporting
adder (fig. 151) is the most convenient and best. It
should be made of light wood, with flat steps, so that a
person can stand upon them and
work. The back, or supperts, con-
sist of one or two light pieces of tim-
ber, fixed at the top with hooks and
straps so as to be contracted or ex-
tended at pleasure. A ladder of this
kind, six or eight feet high, will an-
swer all the demands of a garden.

Orchard Ladders are of various
kinds. For pruning or gathering the
fruit from lofty trees, a great length
of ladder is necessary; it is there-
fore desirable that the material be as
light as possible consistent with the necessary strength.

Sometimes these long ladders are composed of several
smaller ones, that fit into one another, all mounted on a
frame with a small wheel, by which they are easily
moved about.

The Folding Ladder is a very neat and convenient
article for many purposes. The inside of the styles is
hollowed out, and the steps are fastened to them by means
of iron pins, on which they turn as on hinges, so that the
two sides can be brought together, the steps turning into
the grooves or hollows in them, the whole appearing like
a round pole, B. It is more easily carried and placed
where wanted than the ordinary ladder. A represents it
open, and B closed (fig. 152).

There are also self-supporting orchard ladders, com-*

ie

Self-supporting ladder.

886 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

posed of three upright pieces of any required length, and
spread widely at the bottom to give them stability. Two

Fie. 152.
Folding ladder.
of the sides are fixed, and are furnished with steps all
the way up. The third is longer and movable, and can
be extended or contracted at pleasure.

A piece of board wide enough to stand upon can be
extended from one side to the other, resting upon the
steps at whatever height it is desirable to work. On the
movable side a pulley is fixed, by which the baskets of
fruit are let down as they are gathered. Two persons or
more can ascend and work on a :
ladder at the same time. Fig.
153 represents one of these; a,
b, the two fixed sides; C, the
movable one. It is considera-
bly used in France.

The Orchardists’ Hook.—I\s
a light rod, with a hook on one =
end, and a movable piece of 7/ /
wood that slides along it. - A c

The person gathering fruit /4
draws the branch towards him
with the hooked end, and re @ eae
tains it there by means of the
sliding piece which is hooked
to another branch. This is an indispensable instrument

in gathering fruit from large trees.
_ Fruit Gatherers—Of these there are many designs by

French Maes foe orchard
ladder.

MACHINES FOR WATERING. 387

which the fruit may be taken from the tree by a person
standing on the ground. None of them are applicable to
the gathering of fruits that are to be kept long, because
it is impossible to avoid bruising them more or less, and
besides this they operate slowly. They answer very well
for gathering a few ripe specimens for immediate consump-
tion. The ladder, hook, and hand, are the only safe and
expeditious fruit gatherers. Some are made in the form
of a vase of wood or tin placed on the end of a pole. The
edge of the vase is toothed, and when the stem of the
fruit is taken between two of the teeth, and slightly
twisted, it drops. Others are composed of a pair of
shears on the end of a pole, to which a basket is attached
that slides up and down the handle.

The Grape Gatherer resembles a pair of shears com-
bining the property of pincers. They cut a bunch of
grapes, and hold it firmly until it is brought down.
These are very useful for gathering a few bunches of
grapes from the top of a house or trellis (fig. 154).

Fie, 154,

Grape Gatherer.

Section 4.—Macutnes ror WATERING.

The Hand Syringe (fig. 155).—This is a very useful
implement for sprinkling and washing the foliage of trees
in dry weather. There are various kinds eee of tin,
copper, and brass, and sold at various prices. Whatever
sort is used ional have several caps (A) to regulate the

388 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

quantity or shower of water discharged; and they should
also have an inverted or “ gooseneck” one (2B) to throw

Fie. 155.

Hand Syringe.

the stream, if necessary, on the under side of leaves, or
in any oblique direction.

There are, also, hand engines, barrel engines, and bar-
row engmes, all of which are very useful. In every
large garden there should be both the syringe and one of
these engines ; for watering is a most important affair in
gardening under our hot sun and protracted droughts.

Ml

pa 3
umn |
Lo :

l toca Pm

Fie. 156.

Barrow Engine.

Lhe Barrow Engine (fig. 156) is the most useful for
general purposes ; it is easily moved from one place to
another. The improved kinds are easily worked, and the

MACHINES FOR WATERING. 389

water-box being provided with a strainer, excludes any-
thing likely to derange its operations.

The Garden Watering-pot
(fig. 157).—This is a tin or
copper vessel that may hold
from one to four gallons of
water, with a spout six or
eight inches long, by which
the water is discharged.
There should be a rose or
roses, as in cut, to fit on the

Fie. 157.

Garden Watering-pot.

spout, pierced with large or small holes, by which the
_ water can be discharged in a shower. Every pot may
have several roses pierced with holes of various sizes, to
adapt them to different purposes.

ete ay

ay a! re

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tt Ase ufo mi, wae ; iB,

vy ba ; a ie

ee Pon

*

INDEX.

Arr, importance of, to the germination of seeds, 46.

Alluvial soils, nature of, 49.

Almonds, select varieties of, 351.

Anthers, the, 28.

Ants, method of destroying, 373.

Aphis, the, how to destroy, 134, 366; the woolly aphis or American blight,
366; the scaly aphis or bark louse, 367.

Apple, the, principal stocks in use for, 108; time for budding, 133; dwarf
apple tree, 189; pruning the, 203; management of the standard apple
tree, 204; dwarf standards, 206; pyramids, 207; pruning the branched
yearling, 210; treatment of two-year old nursery trees, 211; management
of the fruit branches, 217; pruning and management of, as a dwarf on the
paradise stock, 218; as an espalier, 220; renovation of pyramidal trees,
271; fire blight of, 361; insects infesting the, 367; apple tree borer,
description of, and means of destroying, ib. ; the apple worm, 368.

Apples, forms of, 40 ; abridged descriptions of one hundred and thirty-three
select varieties of summer, autumn, winter, and apples for ornament and
preserving, 279-297; small select lists of, suitable for Western New
York, 297.

Apricot, the, stocks for, 119; as a dwarf standard, 194; pruning and ma-
nagement of, 245.

Apricots, abridged descriptions of seven select varieties of, 320, 321.

Ash, the mountain, as a stock for the pear, 115.

Bark, the outer, 4; the inner, 5.

Barrow engine, the, 388.

Berberries, method of propagating, 148 ; select varieties of, 347.

Birds, manner of protecting fruit against, 375.

Black knot, the, or plum wart, 364.

Blackberries, 347.

Blossoming, period of, infiuenced by various conditions, 31, 32; in alternate
years, 34.

7

392 INDEX.

Branches, the, various subdivisions of,7; pruning, 88; removal of large, 89;
management of fruit, 217.

Budding, method of, 70; conditions necessary to the operation of, 71; imple
ments requisite for, 71,72; cutting, preparing, and preserving the buds,
72; chief difficulty experienced by beginners in, 74, 75; time for, 133;
inse-tion of the bud, 134; untying the buds, 135; treatment of the grow-
ing bud, 136.

Buds, nature and functions of, 14; different names and characters of, 15;
variations in the size, form, and prominence of leaf buds, 17; fruit buds,
18; leaf and fruit buds how distinguished, 20.

Bushes, dwarf, 142.

Calcareous or chalky soils, nature of, 49.

Calyx, the, 28.

Cambium, nature of, 24.

Canada or wild plum, the, 120; time for budding, 133.

Canker worm, the, 368.

Cart, the one-horse, 378.

Caterpillars, methods of destroying, 369.

Cats, method of protecting trees from, 376.

Cherries, forms of, 43; abridged descriptions of fifty-five select varieties of
heart, bigarreau, duke and morello, and new and rare cherries recently
brought to notice, 321-329; small select lists of, 329.

Cherry, the, principal stocks in use for, 115; time for budding, 133; in the
pyramidal form, 191; pruning the, 224; as a standard, 225; to form a
round open head, 225; as a pyramid, 226; as an espalier, 227; as a dwarf
or bush, 228; effects of the disease called gum on, 362.

Chestnuts, method of propagating, 148; select varieties of, 351, 352.

Chinese‘ layering, description of the process so called, 122, 125.

Chisel, the grafting, 384.

Clayey soils, nature of, 48.

Cleft grafting, 79.

Corolla, the, 28.

Cotyledons, the, 44.

Cultivator, the, 377.

Curl of the leaf in the peacn, the, 364.

Currant, the, method of propagating, 147; pruning and management of, 265 ,
as a pyramid and espalier, 266.

Currants, abridged descriptions of eleven select varieties of, 341, 342.

Cutting back, object of, 207 ; process of, 208; summer management of trees
cut back, 213.

Cuttings of fruit trees, how te make, 65; time of making, soil proper for,
and time of planting, 66; method of preserving, 67; treatment of, when
transplanted, 127.

INDEX. . 393

Diseases of fruit trees, description of and remedies for, 361.

Distance at which standards should be planted in the nursery, 129.

Double-working, explanation of, 81.

Doucain, the, method of propagating, 110.

Draining, process of, 52.

Dubreuil, M., his summary of the general principles of pruning, 96.

Dung fork, the, 379.

Dwarf standards, 131; management of, 140, 206; dwarf bushes, 142; dwarf
apple tree, 189; the cherry as adwarf or bush, 228.

Enclosures, various kinds of, for orchards, 163: for fruit gardens, 181.

Espaliers, method of forming, 143; proper distances between, 201; the
apple and pear as, 220; the cherry as, 227; the peach as, 236; method of
laying in, and fastening to walls and trellises, 243; the currant as, 266.

Fences, materials for making, for orchards, 163; for garaens, 181.

Fibres, the, or rootlets, 2.

Fig, the, propagation of, 160; suitable soil for, 261; pruning and training
of, 7b.

Figs, select varieties of, 350, 351.

Filbert, the, method of propagating, 148; as a dwarf and pyramid, 194;
pruning and training, 257; account of the management of filhert orchards
in the county of Kent, England, 7.

Filberts, abridged descriptions of six varieties of, 352.

Fire blight, the, of the pear, apple, and quince, 361.

Flowers, different parts of, 28; sexual distinctions of, 29; method of im-
pregnation of, 30; double, 31; different characters of, 32; hybridization
of, 33. ~_

Foote’s stock splitter, 384.

Fruit rooms, requisites for, 359.

Fruit trees, names, descriptions, and offices of the different parts of, 1; fruit
branches and fruit spurs, 10; fruit buds, 20; propagation of, by seeds, 60;
general carelessness in the selection of the seeds of, 61; production of new
varieties of; 63; propagation of, by cuttings, 65; propagation of, by layer-
ing, 67—by suckers and by budding, 70; propagation of, by grafting, 75;
pruning of, 83; method of regulating the growth of, 92; method of pro-
moting the fruitfulness of, by pinching, 94; budding, grafting, and manage-

‘ment of, in the nursery, i32; taking up, from the nursery, 150; method
of packing, 151; process of heeling in, 153; permanent plantations of,
157; proper soils for different, 162; points to be considered in selecting
varieties of, for an orchard, 164; arrangement of, in an orchard, 167;
pruning and preparing, for planting, 174; how to select, for the fruit gar-
den, 188, 195; age of, for the fruit garden, 195; arrangement of, in the
fruit garden, 199; sundry operations connected with the culture of, 272;
diseases peculiar to, 361; insects injurious to, 365.

394 INDEX.

Fruitfulness, method of promoting, by pinching, 94.

Fruits, nature and classification of, 34, 35; forms and colors of, 36; different
parts of, 7b. ; size of, circumstances influencing the, 37; classification of
the size of, 39; form of, 40; color and flavor of, 43; abridged descriptions
of select varieties of, 277; directions for the gathering, packing, transpor-
tation, and preservation of, 354; the best fruit gatherers, 387.

Fruit Garden, the, general remarks on, 178; situation for, 179; soil of, 180;
enclosures for, 181; manner of laying out, 183; the mixed, or fruit and
kitchen, 185; walks in, 186; a supply of water important for, 187; how
to select trees for, 188,195; age of trees for, 195; arrangement of trees
in, 199; implements usedgin, 377; machines for watering, 387.

Gathering fruits, proper period for, 354 ; mode of, 355; disposition of fruits
after gathering, 356; implements used in, 386.

Germination, process of, 45.

Gooseberries, abridged descriptions of five select varieties of, 342, 343.

Gooseberry, the method of propagating, 147; pruning, 262; method prac-
tised in Lancashire to produce large gooseberries, 264; severely affected
by the mildew, 363.

Grafting, process and objects of, 75; implements used in, and grafting com-
position, 77; whip-grafting on the root, 78; cleft grafting, 79; precau-
tions to be taken in, 81; double-working, 7b. ; implements used in, 384.

Grape vine, the, methods of propagating, 145; general observations on the
management of, 245; planting, 248; pruning, 249.

Grapes, culture of foreign, in cold vineries, 253; abridged descriptions of
four select varieties of hardy grapes and nine varieties of foreign grapes,
348-350; instrument for gathering, 387.

Gravelly soils, nature of 49.

Growth of trees, method of regulating the, 93.

Gum, the, in stone fruits, 362.

Heading down, process of, 85.

Heart or perfect wood, the, 5.

Heat, effect of, on the germination of seeds, 46.

Heeling in, process of, 153.

Hoe, the, two kinds of, 380.

Hogs, method of protecting trees against injuries caused by, 376.
Hook, the orchardist’s, 386.

Horse plum, the, 119.

Hybridization, explanation of the process of, 33.

Implements used in the orchard, nursery, and fruit garden, 377.
Insects, the principal, which infest fruit trees, 365.

Knife, the pruning, 383; the budding, 384.

INDEX. 395

1 sbels for trees in the nursery, 149 ; manner of labelling, 150.

Ladders, orchard, folding, and self-supporting, 385.

Layering, process of, 67, 125; propagation of plums by, 122; treatment of
layers when transplanted, 127.

Leaf rollers, 374

Leaves, structure and functions of, 21; different forms and characters of, 25.

Light, exclusion of, necessary for the germination of seeds, 47.

Line and reel, the, 380.

Loamy soils, nature of, 49.

Mahaleb, the, 117.

Manures, importance of, 54; preparation of, 55; special, 56; modes of apply-
ing, 58; liquid, 7.

Manuring, proper method of, 272.

Mazzard seedlings, 115.

Medlar, the, treatment of, same as that of the quince, 224.

Medullary rays, 7.

Mice, method of protecting fruit trees from the ravages of, 375.

Mildew, the, in the peach, 363.

Moisture, effects of, on the germination of seeds, 45.

Moles, method of guarding against the ravages of, 376.

Mulberries, method of propagating, 148 ; varieties of, 348.

Mulching, operation of, 176, 273.

Nectarine, the, stocks for, 119; as a dwarf standard, 194; pruning the, 246.

Nectarines, abridged descriptions of seven select varieties of, 329, 330.

Nursery, the, soil of, 105; method of laying out, 107; situation of, and
succession of crops in, 7b.; directions for planting stocks in the nursery
rows, 127; budding, grafting, and management of trees in, 132; treatment
of the soil in, 144; labels for trees in, 149; taking up trees from, 150;
implements used in, 377.

Orchard, the, situation of, 158; soil of, 161; how to prepare the soil for,
162; selection of varieties of fruit trees for the family, 164; kind of trees
to be selected for, 166; arrangement of the trees in, 167; selection of
trees for the market, 169; planting the, 175; management of trees in,
177; implements used in, 377, 385.

Ovary, the, 29.

Packing trees, proper method of, 151; method of packing fruits, 357.

Paradise, the, method of propagating, 111.

Parenchyma, nature of, 22.

Parsons, S. B., his orchard of pear trees, 172.

Peach, the, principal stocks for, 117; times for budding, 133; as a dwarf
standard, 193; pruning and management of, 229; to form the head of a

3896 INDEX.

standard peach tree, 231; root pruning, 233; conducted in the form of a
vase, 7b. ; as an espalier, 236; symptoms of the yellows and mildew in,
363; insects infesting, 373.

Peaches, forms of, 42; abridged descriptions of thirty-eight select varieties
of freestone and clingstone, 330-335: select list of, 335.

Pear, the, principal stocks in use for, 111; time for budding, 133; as a pyra-
mid, 190, 207; in the dwarf standard form, 191, 206; management of the
standard pear tree, 204; pruning the branched yearling, 210; treatment
of two-year old nursery trees, 211; management of the fruit branches,
217; as an espalier, 220; renovation of pyramidal trees, 271; fire blight
of, 361; pear leaf blight, 362.

Pears, forms of, 41; varieties of, that succeed well on the quince, 172;
abridged descriptions of one-hundred and eighty-two select varieties, of
summer, autumn, winter, pears for baking and stewing, and new and rare
varieties, 299-319; select assortments of, 312; method of packing for
distant markets, 358.

Peaty soil, nature of, 49.

Petals, the, 28.

Pick, the, 380.

Pinching, nature and objects of, 92.

Pistil, the, 29.

Pith, the, 5.

Plant louse, the, ravages of, and method of destroying, 365, 366.

Plantations of fruit trees, different kinds of, 157.

Plants, exhalation of moisture and gases by, 22; propagation of, 60.

Plough, the subsoil and one-horse, 377.

Ploughing, subsoil, 50.

Plum, the, stocks for, 119: the horse, ib.; the Canada, or wild, 120; the
cherry plum, id. ; the sloe as a stock for, 121; propagated by layers, 122;
time for budding, 133; as a pyramid, 192; as a dwarf standard, 193;
pruning and management of, 244; diseases of, 364.

Plums, forms of, 42; abridged descriptions of fifty-one select varieties of,
335-340; small select lists of, 341.

Plumule, the, 44.

Pruning, importance of the operation of, 83; various objects to be attained

by, 84; to direct the growth from one part to another, 7b. ; heading down, . ~

85; to maintain an equal growth, to renew growth, and to induce fruit-
fulness, 86; pruning the roots and pruning at the time of transplanting,
87; mechanically considereg, 88; season for, 91; general principles of, as
laid down by Dubreuil, 96; directions for the pruning of stocks, 125;
pruning the apple and the pear, 203; the quince, 222; the cherry, 224;
the peach, 229; the plum, 244; the apricot, 245; the nectarine, 246;
grape vines, ib.; the filbert, 257; the fig, 260; the gooseberry, 262; the
currant, 265; the raspberry, 267; implements used in, 381.

INDEX. 397
Pyramids, management of, 140, 207; renovation of, 271.

Quince, the, as a stock for the pear, 113; erroneous ideas concerning, 114;
as a dwarf and pyramid, 194; pruning and training of, 222; fire blight
of, 361.

Quinces, abridged descriptions of seven select varieties of, 319, 320.

Rake, the, 381.

Raspberries, forms of, 43; method of propagating, 148; abridged descriptions
of six select varieties of, 343, 344.

Raspberry, the, planting of, 267; pruning, 268; manuring and training, 269;
French and English modes of training, 269, 270. ,

Root, the, the several parts of, 2; growth of, 3; whip-grafting on, 78;
pruning, 87, 90; method of planting root-grafts, 131.

Rosebug, the, 374.

Sandy soils, nature of, 48.

Sap, the, ascent, assimilation, and descent of, 24; tendency of, to the grow-
ing points at the top of a tree, 85.

Sap- wood, the, 5

Saw, the pruning, 381; the bow, 382.

Scions, selection and treatment of, for grafting, 76.

Scissors, grape, 383.

Seed, the, composition of, 44; germination of, 45; propagation by, 60;
selection of, 61.

Seedling apple, the common or free stock, preparing, saving, and planting
the seed of, 108; after management of, 109; the pear seedling, 111.

Shears, hand pruning and pole pruning, 383.

Shovel, the, 379.

Sloe, the, as a stock for the plum, 121.

Soils, different kinds of, 48; different modes of improving, 50; proper, for
the orchard, 161 ; annual cultivation of the soil, 272.

Spade, the, 378; the forked spade, 379.

Spongioles, the, 3

Staking, process of, 176.

Stamens, the, 28.

Standards, management of, 137; dwarf, management of, 140.

Stem, the, the different parts of, 4; structure and growth of, 6; the branches
divisions of, 7; pruning, 88.

Stigma, the, :29.

Stocks, necessity of a close alliance between, and grafts, 76; description and
propagation of, 108; for the apple, 7. ; for the pear, 111; for the cherry,
115; for the pack, 117; for the card nectarine, and aban: 119; trans-
planting, 122; time and manner of taking up, 124; pruning stocks, 125;

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