“6 tei nda ea wotkee Nr tihenpe gt £neltaluama ation Pre teek ot isan tom mies atint tans, Gori Fvthewul Dusttye “el ANN thaRtasinge oon aries rt a a «gn Fee Tne oar een te pea rn ne ERA ort Cetra os itinerant : Seine ete pm ah wey ; iapane . Path. \otincsmamct fan omg eaten ne, mn olen as mrs vyn nat Seer cn erence ne Soot w. ” — —abipo tee aio” FE eg = EP itncner ae On ~ ere a eat athena on Fi eed jam : Mie moni ow RS i ne oe N\A “i Chie \) ; tf yy y Kru } y Grouers y \ M fe y +. ot f THE rrulf Grower's Guide BY B. F. HURST, Ww District Fruit Inspector for District No. 5. i, F e Hurst, Boise, Ada Co, Idak COPYRIGHT APPLIED FOR. / sy, 26 3809 ~ © i 7 TOONTIGRE 22CY »~ Nev us is 7 Contents. - An? ¥ 3.9. LT nf i PAGE fa Dh = er ee Tee eee ns Heart and Sap Wood .... . ae 8 Its Parts and Their Activities......... ......... oo. ae Leaf Buds and Fruit Buds............... ee dle See er AEDES AESGELL th, coe, Se Pee. A DON Coen ce fee Peat «TE eres: i THe LOWE cera ees Trees > bars 5 ee ae LZ The Trunk or Stem a cite Tree. ..... i by fee 7 The Sap and Its Movements ............ . eee 9 Dieibiteot the Tree (oia4 vs Sout Gee of ai di 9 eS IRGOGS hoe Me 8 fase ii dng FE > WATS. 62a Ee eek noe 6 LI Bivins Ot Draes? ss ters ak oea este ee if heeg 7 eas RST ERE eA UG LETC, Come a tie) Mata te Bret ease are Pelt sceat guaala ys 22 Gover Crop Culinre.) sia cceieen coer ees 1 dieses Torino thewklGles sc. i245 yea. Ses byes see ones eT PSEHNe Itt HecUree ys a tea) we ues Lee natch ee eee Making of Orchard....... par Jen Raone ee eee ‘ah 20 Method of Blasting Where the Tree is to Set .. . ... 38 exe EPO Fh Olin AA TICY bara s eo meee ays ae pea See f4 22 Scale of Varieties of Fruits, Giving Size, CGualitys Color, Moris Flavor: 3. 2e.u. 2 een ee? ye seer 32-33 Season Use and Origin..... .... ......s0..5. oo at Berne MULWNe PGE. cp he iainwecss pexde ee . 34 Fie eros Cha CULES realy aya} ois ioe sree eas 29-30-31 When to Set Them Out......... Eta a Ueno )5 one 36 It. RPG scien = quietest sat ial 2s) cen «es Peach ...... . en eae es eee Teter. ... 44 POUT puts 2) More ecnWere 2c ei oss earls ten 1 en The Pirst Veareise.e. pucerh 100s ss. ee 41 The Second, Year... cg. tegies Sete eree sees oi 2 oe TPE LHe Third Vea oxic ceae es eibiwc teers Gene 42 Thinning the Prnit.. .ccceiseaeee ana eee poser a eee 44 IV. ‘ Gathering the Fruit................ fo. ees? 46 a EKKO Ch ST oy Gathering the Apple... ..2-. 224. ee er ee 46 Gathering the Pear......... ee ree a eee iy, Catherine the Peach. .i¢.¢e:c2ns2es =. 4 2: i oa sako Emunemin Sebi Prine meee estuaries eats r aut nate 49 Rm OsPACiMPCATSS oy.gak saat tes «90a a dewmeet s AO V. Irrigating the Orchard .......2......45:+- eee SO SIMUGSE, Meads gente cess | fo 4.2 ise Msn yada aha 51 VI PTY GGL erent res cscs a cee SS Geerg ered a8 tate g 59 Budding inthe Orchard 2. cic ste. con in 22es tse 62 Budding the Mary Ann Plum... ....52...+;¢. nas 3.24 (08 CVS Grattity 22) sees. 22 vole =) as tian ele ee 56 Grafting and buddies, Soe pe anes eee re Susake 52 MmheC@ostiof Clett Grafting. 2... sies denne eaes wes 59 he Bud. 42.) 324. See as ee | eee eee 60 eA Stal eee. BER tke ees kat hs 2M season ae 60 MPSS OMCTALION ecto, eedatdmns tae ot Ae aro cis Se cunde £e caresses ou VII. A pplensca be. mens 42.4 JO ee ee 97 Appearance of San jase Seale. ae: a ee Le eee 78 PMUMBUIATIES IOC S. 269 Qeete neces sca ce gh yw se ep eres 143 Mmpedravceiof Blignts: go22 cesasAde.s 22ec5 ae.. DLO Banding. .._....... Cr ee ye ee kz a2. OF Benefits of Spraying..................... Se oe ae 64 Bitter Rot of Apple...... ee ee hee ee 100 Cottommeushioni Scale: 22 2.00.5 242228 5544 etaes fe ns 85 Curtis Scale. 0 .eds22:- Pe ee rat ease ees SOA: Codline. Moth or Apple Worth ie. 32 occ ck ote 2. od oi 86 uml leat Omthe Peach, 4.45.25 ae Se ed aoe LOO Currants and“Gooseberry Borer... .-..9294326) oa- I4I TRUE VEO BIO LIU 4 ereictensye a 2,26 2.3% sieve arse sveshera.s: dsigtelestare 109 Mlatenended Shomer... 6. .u). 2 Seah ees & cite te cree e 92 TMA ETO Uy geass “steleiea 2 52 Pe ag ein ie ad ans ae 72 COZENS EMO tee ee borders > arn eines ea Goo eee ..-- 108 PESeite comb tH) oe weye sey speach ayer ale: 82 en teeter bate eS, Se ede 114 CEC RU Ol ara ayer eeak eee wei tate) Maes mie vaca ys see 107 TAO W? LOND PLAY <2 2d hG cs odie es deeds Sie elke. See bereig oad 67 How to Apply the Spray: Formula No. I.. ...... an eae ae oe Forminla ONG. bis oa yeg asin Gare nce Pormpia Oo. TITS keene reve eee Porm lasing. WV aes ay aha coms waked FLOW yb. y PLAY ne 32s. 2 ee see ee eee pee History and Origin of San Jose Scale. .... Habits of San Jose Scale.. sae ot a. ca, 2 How to Treat San ‘ats Scale. Dates ake 38 2 eee ELON even lie BeCtlGcw on Wee wii.) 41.0 lldaainta ally inne PUEIOICAl LS, beatae eye aiix t wwlnruceut sae sae you How to Take Care of It.......-. ip ee Ta Means of Dissemination ................ Maldewic89827,025 :2<; D rayaily ris decy..5: 6 ere are Oyster Shell, Bark Scale. ... 00.00.00. er AQUGE FRI PAs: «yy + 5-0 Bee x5 24 ee ee eee 12t \ Penis Pee HOEh as os ss faa he eakt Sayed Meee reas a (98 POAC sl Witt DOPE. 4s piers, 5 iene bie eee ee 94 Pear and Cherry Slug . sane 2 CSG SGU Sally ee Powdery Mildew of the ‘Grape x ijtn #@o See ea ae 99 Phyllaxera Vastarix.......... » 4 ogee SPOS ae 103, Ff PALUA ATED ESCH LE insite Wi ae ey atari, See | ee 83 BIPple Gupiiiee soa... cee 2a ee leer ka ea 130 Rese "Bestiow tae: ses es cina sce welds aa. 6 ee 107 Red Ruston Blackbérry.<::--,.- .s,.49se.Geee ee 107 Boseand Berry Stalei ss c1de. «ss 1.22 see Lee 86 Prec SPIE: tee nla ve ae eee as oP tii > ty > 95 BEMIGHG6 yoke es aire ae ds Cae Pra ota Soe 112 Remedies i. +: yh ih FO 34a ee eee Spraying Pump and Fixtures............. 0... 71 Scions to Save Girdled Trees..............0.0-0008 5 74 Ret JOBS Dial Gis rites neki (pa em we eee yd oy 4 oe 75 spraying for Codling’ Moth: .., a¢ies.ccssises iamae @2 Sigaw Derry ROGE BONY ss5.c caen oie 2-5 «yey 5 ee 141 DYIPHIOS 6a ericies eesye ee me ee Whe Diseased TSG... ease: ves M ree nck PL sh 4G ra: The Spraying of Trees and Shrubbery. 2) ao 64 Treatment of Codling Moth..?.......:... . + Jo eee The Canker Stage of Bitter Rot............... ..... 102 The Box: Mier (Bip is oomeves eel: 2 i262). oy 2h aOR 109 The Forest Tree Tent Caterpillars, .........60.4y eee 110 The Aphis or Plant Louse =... -a.c.1-.-... +: om oe 122 Jreatment OMATHIS. ites meccutisats oi... are 131 Phe Coccivelidae sc. iciesuesedesc sa: i... >>... ame The Heméropiignbscis sock cuca s io Ley HR ASS. 2. <2 aise eon eay eye 5. 142 When to Spray..... ea eee 66 Woolly Aphis,.......... 3 = See SE SOS; bas 1.5) s ee FOREWORD. The time has come when the successful orchardist is one of the most important fac- tors in the up-building of our State. The fruit industry of Idaho (only a few years ago, entirely undeveloped and unsystematic) has reached a rank second to none. In the past decade it has more than doubled, and every year shows a tremendous increase in the number of trees set out and in the profits real- ized from the enlarged shipments. From three acres of Anjou Pears, last year, Mr. H. C. Myers of Boise received thirty-two hundred dollars. The Idaho Horticultural exhibit at Chicago in 1893 won fifty gold, silver, and bronze medals. At the irrigation congress at Ogden, where all irrigation states were invited to compete, Idaho won first prize, a five- hundred dollar loving-cup, for the best and cleanest fruit, freest from all insect pests. At -the World’s Fair in St. Louis, Idaho received gold medals on a collection of fruit, and fifty-six gold, silver, and bronze medals. The climate is suited to the culivation and 2 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE improvement of the best species of fruit. The soil is unsurpassed. ‘he state laws protect the fruit growers, as well as the buvers, from the incalculable evils of diseased fruits or trees. ‘The throwing open of new lands, the development of irrigation projects (includ- ing the building of the great reservoirs,) the favorable market, all these influences are attracting capital into the planting of com- mercial orchards. Nature, the government, aud the market have formed a _ powerful triumvirate to secure for Idaho a leading and honorable place among the fruit-produc- ing states. Now, while there is certain profit for every investor in orchards, it is absolutely necessary that the man who intends to go into the fruit business should inform himself fully concern- ing the best methods of carrying it on. What would be thought of any one’s estab- lishing a firm to handle farm implements if he did not know a plow from amower? What chances for success would a person be likely to have who tried to mine without knowing how to tell valuable ore from non-mineral quartz? It 1s no more.reasonable to buy or plant an orchard in ignorance of local condi- tions concerning climate, soil, best and most profitable varieties, and allied subjects. It is THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE 3 to be regretted, however, that many such ventures are made. Unfortunately, their certain failures harm the community as well as the individual. When money is wasted in badly chosen stock, when the orchards are planted contrary to every sound principle of horticulture, when the trees are not properly pruned, sprayed, or watered, under these conditions the losses work serious injury to the orchardists and to his state. It is with the intention of doing away with at least a part of these injudicious investments and practices that I have prepared this pamphlet. For a number of years I have devoted my entire time to the study of the orehardist’s problems, and while I have not yet, by any means, solved them all, yet I believe that I am ina position to offer some useful suggestions and cautions deduced from my own and others’ experience. It is the “purpose of this pamphlet to discuss the prob- lem of what kinds of trees to buy, their proper setting out, and how to care for them both in the healthy and in the diseased states. It seems to me that there should bea place for such a guide, and if itis of some use to any orchardist, it will have served its purpose. Throughout the book acknowledgment has been made of the various sources used in 4 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE the preparation of certain parts, but I wish to make special mention here of my indebtedness to A. F. Hitt, State Inspector and Pure Food Commissioner of Idaho, for his helpful interest; to Alexander McPherson, former State Fruit Inspector and Pure Food Commissioner of Idaho, for his invaluable suggestions and critical reading of the manuscript; and to L. F. Henderson, Professor of Botany in the University of Idaho, for his generous permis- sion to reproduce here parts of articles pub- lished heretofore by him. B. EF. AU RS Boise, Idaho, Sept. 5, 1905. The Life of the Tree. Although it belongs more especially to the province of Botany to discuss the various parts of a tree and their functions, yet ina book which is meant to be a guide for the orchardist, it is certainly not out of place to give those points regarding which every man who is interested in trees should be informed. In compilation of these facts, I have relied almost entirely on articles previously pub- lished; and by the kind permission of their authors, I am here able to reproduce those articles in an adapted form. The works chiefly consulted are as follows: ‘‘American Horticultural Manual’’ by J. L. Budd and N. E. Hansen; ‘‘Something of Plant Physiology, Theoretic and Applied’’ by Professor lL. F. Henderson, published in the proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Convention of the North- west Fruit Growers’ Association. A Tree. iS EARLS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES. The parts of a tree are the root, the stem, the leaves and the flower. 6 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE ROOTS. The roots serve the purpose of holding the toperect and of supplying the water with its dissolved elements for sustaining growth. The deep roots (tap roots) mainly take up the water, and the surface rootscliefly take up nitrates and the other essentials of growth. The tap roots extend toa depth of twenty or thirty feet where soil is favorable, the depth depending on the nature of the sub-soil and the location of the water level. The branch, or surface roots, reach farther than is ordinarily suspected; asarule, they extend underground over an area as great as that occupied in the air by the spreading of the branches above. If you examine the delicate end of a young root, inspecting it through even an ordinary magnifying glass, you will observe at its extremity a small brown cap fitting closely over the growing end and protecting it from abrasion as it pushes its way through the soil. A little back of this cap, tiny finger-like, single-celled root-hairs begin to appear, and farther back these root-hairs are seen to be of continually greater length until their full erowth is reached, when they wither and drop off, Through these little hairs covering a single THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE 7 ‘zone near the tip of each rootlet, which can hardly be observed by the naked eye, takes place practically the whole of the enormous absorption of water and salt from the earth. The three most essential elements of the growth of a fruit tree are carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. Carbon is provided through the leaves of the tree which are its breathing pores. Oxygen is furnished in the water. But nitrogen, although abundant in the air like the carbon, can not be assimilated by the plant except by means of the roots. THE TRUNK OR STEM OF THE TREE. The stem or trunk isthe axis of the tree, the part which bears all the other organs. The particular characteristic of the stem is leaf-bearing. The place where the leaf or leaves are borne is called a node, and the naked place between two nodes is called an inter-node. ‘The inter-node usually reaches its maximum length at the end of the first season. After this it increases in diameter but DOES NOT elongate. This point is often misunderstood. The stem growth is divided into two classes according to the age which the stems obtain. Herbaceous stems live only one year. ‘ite 8 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE woody stems live more than one year, some even more than a hundred years. As to cell growth, our cultivated plants are divided into two main classes; the ‘‘exogens’’ or outside growers, and the ‘‘endogens’’ or inside growers. Corn, asparagus, palin, fern, and all tropical fruits are inside growers. Trees are outside growers. In the first division (Eudogens) the new cell growth is mingled with the older tissue, and growth of the stem is accomplished bya distension, or by pressing outward from the inside. This class of stem does not show the bark-wood and pith of the outside growers. The exogenous division includes all fruit and forest trees. HEART WOOD AND SAP WOOD. In a one-year-old seedling, the stem is composed wholly of live or sap wood; but with increased age, the older layers, or rings of growth, are buried by the newer ones. The newer layers, with light color bark on the out- side are called sap wood, or alburnum. As the tree gets older, the inner wood becomes drier, darker and more solid. This interior dark wood is not alive. If kept from the air by the sap wood and perfect bark it may remain sound for a century or THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE 9 more, but if the air is admitted by cutting or by accident, it will soon make a rotten spot in the stem. The heart wood is not alive, as most people suppose, and, if it were, it could not carry any substance whatever to the tree. Only the roots can do this. Consequently, the boring of holes in the body of the tree, and the inserting of sulphur to destroy disease is entirely useless. The heart of the tree may be perfectly sound, but is dead to all life-giving purpose. The life, or sap wood, is not more than one- half inch thick, and carries the sap from the roots. Anything taken into the tree must be placed at the end of the hair-roots and must be of the nature of the tree-food. Mineral is not a food substance; conse- quently it will not be carried by the roots. Any break of the sap-passage would only be Imgrtiad tote tree. THE SAP AND ITS MOVEMENT. The crude sap, which is gathered up by the root hairs at the end of the roots, is taken up by the larger roots to the trunk by way of the stem of the tree. It then ascends the tree rising through the sap-wood to all parts of the tree. The sap hasa tendency to move 16 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE upward; and so all limbs that grow straight grow much longer than those that bend down because they receive more sap. This sap starts the growth of the bud, which develops the leaf and the new growth. When the sap has reached the top of the tree it reverses its course, and on the way down carries food to all lower parts, especially to the young roots. Asthe sapdescends, it flows along the inner bark, going mainly through the sieve-cells. ‘These lie just outside of the Cambium layer, or that layer which yearly adds to the growth of wood on one side and bark on the other. As the sap flows downward, all parts of the tree increase in size. If a label-wire is left on the stem of a young tree, we find that it is soon sunk-into the bark and wood; and the part above enlarges, while the stem below reiains the same size. ‘This would surely show that cell-forming material descends near the Cambium layer. In the same way, if we remove a ring of bark in June from the stem of an apple tree, we soon check the down- ward movement under the bark. Presently we observe a process of healing over the wound by cell-formation in the cut surface above the ring. As the season advances, we notice the ripening and matured condition THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE Tel of the wood above has changed leaf-buds into fruit-buds. ‘This device is one often resorted to in order to force a tree into bearing. LEAF-BUDS AND FRUIT-BUDS. Buds that appear in the axil of the leaf are in some respects like seeds. The grape, and some fruits and shrubs grow from planted buds in the ground, with a little wood attached, and it may be said that nearly all buds of woody plants will grow when inserted under the bark of the variety Gr thersdime Species, The greatest difference between the buds aud the seeds is that the leaf-buds produce the individual parent without change, while the seeds re-produce usually the species, but not the variety. The fruit-bud of the peach and of the apri- cots grows on each side of the bud. In the apple and the pear, the fruit-buds are formed on spurs. 3uds are usually formed in the nodes of the stem and in the axil of the leaves; but some species develop buds under certain conditions at any point along the stem or root. These are called adventitious buds. Some of these are cherries, and plums. Blackberries and to THE FRUIT.«GROWER’S GUIDE raspberries may develop such buds when cut back or wounded. On the end of the spur by the stem of the fruit, if there is any fruit on the spur, a leaf- bud always starts. If the tree is not too heavily laden with fruit, this leaf-bud will change to a fruit-bud. If the tree has not vitality enough to mature the fruit on the tree and change this leaf-bud to a fruit-bud, this leaf-bud will remain a leaf-bud, and the spur will not bear any fruit the next year. The fruit-buds are formed on apple trees through July and August. Any fruit-grower with experience can tell if the tree will bear fruit the following year. The Leaf. (Written by Prof. L. F. Henderson, University of Idaho. ) The leaf is a part of the plant beautifully adapted to certain ends. In most cases it is a horizontally expanded organ, with one side turned towards the sunlight, in order to enable it to catch as much of this as possible. ‘To the naked eye it consists of a delicate frame work, holding out to light and air the green parenchyma or pulp that fills the intervals. The purpose of the frame work is a double one, to hold out in a horizontal direction the THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE 1g) pulp, and to conduct rapidly water with its contents, called crude sap, to all parts of the pulp. If now we make a microscopical sec- tion of the leaf, and view it with a moderate power, we see a more wonderful mechanism for digestion and breathing than the human lungs and stomach, on account of its sim- plicity. We see first an impervious skin or epidermas covering both sides of the leaf, save ” leave where little mouths, or ‘‘stomata, ways open to the underlying tissues. These stomata are beautifully constructed so as to shut up when the leaf is lacking in moisture, and to open when there is an abundance. This controls transpiration, or loss of moisture, with exactness. At thesame time they allow when open full egress to the air with its car- bonic acid gas—a most important thing. Right under each stomataisa small air chaim- ber, into which the aircan passreadily. Then the cells of the green pulp, called the ‘‘meso- phyll,’’ are arranged very closely about these air chambers, and thus enable the air, when admitted through the stomata, to circulate freely amongst these cells of the pulp. Ifwe look more carefully at one of these pulp cells, we find it irregular in shape, but with a uni- formity as to work and contents. Each has askin, each living protoplasm, each green color 14 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE bodies, or chloroplasts, and each a nucleus. These minute color bodies are wonderful things and fill a wonderful position in the ‘world’s workers,’’ for upon their action the plant depends for its own existence; upon its elaborated materials depend all parasitic plants, such as mildews, rust, scab and a host of others; upon it depend all saprophytic plants, such as mushrooms; finally upon it directly depend all animals, whether herbi- vorous or carnivorous, and man himself. — It is no idle statement to say that were these little bodies to be suddenly and universally des- troyed or cease for some reason their activities, all life upon the globe would cease as a con- sequence. These plastids, or green color bodies, are composed of protoplasm, and are colored green by the fluid called cholorphyll DoD which permeates them. Their office is to accomplish, what no chemist has ever been able to do or ever will do, namely, under the influence of sunlight, change the inorganic materials in crude sap into organized carbo- hydrates, such as starch, sugar, cellulose, and many others. ‘The crude elements needed, as before stated, are simply the carbon in the atmosphere, and the water in the soil when taken up by the root-hairs. But protoplasm cannot exist without a fourth element, namely, THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE 15 nitrogen, nor could it do its work in building up the carbohydrates; nay, none of the pro- teids, such as exist in graham flour, beans, lean meat and a host of others, could be formed at all. ‘The starch formed in this laboratory in the day, is carried away at all times while the leaves are on the trees, and nourishes not only the leaf, but flowers, stem and root. ‘Truly we may say, therefore, that plant growth is more downward and outward, than upward and outward. ‘The wood which always forms above a cut, not below it, on a tree is further evidence of this. Hurriedly and imperfectly I have attempted to explain to you this wonderful change of the raw materials all about us into the higher elaborated material needed for plant growth, and now to a few practical details. It is now evident, why, when we cut off most of the roots of a plant, we should also cut down its top proportionally. Remember that no tree can absorb practically any crude sap except through its root-hairs, which are ou the ends of the most delicate rootlets. As nearly all of these have been removed when the tree is taken from the soil, very little sap can ascend the trunk till more roots have been formed. If therefore all of the branches, and as a consequence all of the 16 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE leaves, are left on that weakened tree, they will tend to do too much work for the poor root system, and the plant will either die or be injured for many years. On the other hand how are you going to urge the plant to put out plenty of adventitious, or unusual roots, along the cut stubs left when the tree is planted? They can only be formed by having elaborated material sent down to them from above. Just as idle to expect them to form and do their work without this assistance as it would be to keep alive and at work a lot of coal miners underground with- out any provisions sent to them from with- out. The only true sources of supply for these forming roots are, first, from the re- serve starch laid aside in stem, branch, and root fragments and turned into digestible sugar under the warming influences of the spring sun; second, new material elaborated by the leaves. Of course, before any leaves appear 1 spring, the roots must depend up- ou the first source of supply, but this will soon be exhausted and then there must be abundant leaves to furnish this material. So the proper balance is to make the head of the tree just large enough to do this work and no larger. If the plant to be removed and replanted THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE 17 be already in leaf, and especially if it bea large tree, as sometimes becomes necessary, the greatest care should be taken to leave a few strong leaders with their leaves, to cut back all the rest, and to cover their cut ends with tar, wax, or paint, so as to prevent the waste of sap and natural evaporation through the myriad open vessels which have been cut and have not yet healed over. The Flower. A knowledge of the parts of the flower is essential in detecting the varieties that ripen in the pistil before the pollen of the flower is ready for pollination. Flowers are for the production of seed. Stems and branches which for a time put COR. Figuret. Divided Cherry flower. (After Goff.) ‘‘c,” Calyx; “‘co7v.,” Corolla; °‘,” Pistil; “ss,” Stigma, 18 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE forth leaves for vegetation may at length put forth flowers for reproduction. The circle of green leaves around a flower is called the calyx or flower-cup. Each separate part of the calyx is called a sepal. The colored circle of leaves within the calyx is called the corolla, and each separate leaf in this group iscalleda petal. Within these two circles stand the organs of the flower. One of these (there may be a large group of them in a single flower) is called the stamen. It consists of two parts; the long slender thread-like stem is called the filament. ‘The knob at the top is the anther. Anthers are filled with pollen, a powdery substance made up of minute grains. The second organ in the flower is called the pistil. It also is composed of two parts. ‘The slender thread is called the style, and the little knob at the top is called the stigma. Atthe base of the style is the ovary. The pollen shed from the anthers, when they open, fallson or isconveyed to the stigma. These are afterwards fertilized by theovary. Flowers of the orchard fruits are divided in two classes, Inferior and Superior. In the Inferior flowers, the fruit is formed below the calyx as in the apples, the pears, and most seeded fruits. In the Superior flowers, the fruit is formed above the calyx. This is THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE 19 fie’ class to‘ which belong the-cherry, the plum, and the peach. In the apple and the pear, the pistil and calyx grow together, and the fruit is prac- tically the enlargement of the whole flower. In this class of fruit, the calyx is shown at fhe eye of the fruit; while in the cherry; it is shown at the lower end of the stem. The Superior fruits, such as strawberries, rasp- berries, peaches, plums, apricots, and grapes, are more exposed when in flower to the frost, and dry air, and other weather changes. And the ovary of the fruit-bud is more lhkely to be injured in winter, than that of the inferior, since the latter are protected by the base of the calyx. It is also true, as a rule, that the fruit that forms above the calyx is not as well fed as those below, as the connec- tion with the leaves is not direct. When the stamens and pistils are formed in the same flower it is called perfect or hermaphrodite, as in most of our orchards fruits, and garden plants. But when only one sex of these essential organs is found in the same flower, it is called imperfect. Even when the flower seems perfect in all respects, it often, in the cultivated fruits, seems incap- able of self-pollination. This is not confined to the individual flower or to the flower of 20 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE -a single tree, or to a large block of trees. As a rule, large blocks of a single variety of an orchard-fruit have not proved productive. We know that the most profitable orchards are those of many varieties, one variety sometimes refusing to fertilize itself. The consensus of opinion at this time among experienced persons is that it is best to mingle varieties in a commercial orchard. Varieties of our fruit differ materially in their blossoming habits. Some _ varieties expand all their flowers in a brief period, others seem to have two sets of flowers. if the first blossoms are destroyed by frost, the the later ones are numerous enough for a full crop. The Making of an Orchard. SELECTION OF LAND. In the previous chapter, we have discussed the parts of a tree, their several functions, and the way in which the tree grows. Hav- ing reached now some understanding (how- ever elementary) of a tree, the orchardist is better fitted to go about the making of his orchard. In this undertaking, the first step, natur- ally, is the selection of land. Except in the arid belt, sloping ground is preferable, as the THE FRUIT GROWER S GUIDE 21 drainage will be good. ‘Trees should not have too much water, because it cuts off the supply of air from the roots, tending to suffo- cate them, and they, as well as the leaves, are breathing organs. (It may be remarked here, in passing, that pitted fruits do not re- quire as much water as seeded fruits, and the planter should take these facts into con- sideration when setting out his trees. ) An orchard on a slope has the advantage of air-drainage and is not so apt to be affected by frosts. This 1s explained by the fact that cold air being heavier than warm air, it always seeks the lower levels, and, hence, tends to slide off the hill-sides and settle in the lower places where frosts are found iot only to be heavier, but to occur later in the spring. Due to this circumstance, it may often be observed that the orchard on the side of the hill will escape frost entirely, while that in the hollows below is fatally affected. In regard to the sol, it may be said that a gravelly or porous soil, several feet underlaid, is excellent, for it doubly assures good drainage. A rich, loamy soil is ofcourse the most desirable. In the irrigated section, ease and thoroughness of irrigation are of as much importance as drainage; but it should be remembered that water should 22 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE never be allowed to stand around the trees. Any land that grows tall, thrifty sage-brush may be counted on as highly desirable land for fruit-culture. THE PREPARING OF THE LAND. In the selection of land for an orchard, it is much wiser not to use virgin soil but to take, instead, soil that has been in clover and plowed under for a year or two, because the decomposed vegetation enriches the ground forming the much-needed humus. Perhaps a few useful suggestions may be made here as to the proper treatment of the land previous to its conversion into orchard and during the time the trees are bearing. This cultivation may be one of two kinds technically known as, (1) clean-culture, (2) cover-culture. CLEAN-CULTURE. By clean-culture is meant the plowing up and pulverizing of the land without using it for crops of any sort. In all districts where the rain-fall is not sufficient for natural growth, or where there is a scarcity of irrigation water, it is abso- lutely necessary to cultivate the soil of an orchard. Otherwise, it will never be suff- ciently damp. The force of capillary attrac- THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE 23 tion in all firm soil is constantly sending the moisture upward to the surface. As fast as the top layer becomes dry, the moisture arises from below, and it also in turn is evap- orated, During a long dry summer, this process will continue to a depth of several feet, the top layer of dirt becoming as hard and dry asa brick. Now, if the surface soil is broken up by cultivation, this difficulty will be avoided, because the force of capillary attraction will be destroyed as soon as the layers of soil are disturbed. The particles become so separated that the mutual connec- tion of the small inter-spaces no longer exists. To reach the most perfect results, the soil should not only be broken up in rough clods (though this treatment is better than none at all) but should be thoroughly pulverized. When this latter process has been well done, free access of air is not permitted to the lower strata at all. Fine loose earth acts as a blanket to retain the moisture, as only the surface which comes into immediate contact with the air dries out. The moisture which is preserved below is then kept for the exclu- sive use of the tree or plant. As fast as the supply is exhausted, it is replenished from the soil below; or, if evaporation ceases, the 24 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE roots will extend through the moist, loose soil and get all their needed nourishment. This theory may be easily tested. Re- move the top dirt from a considerable space ina well-cultivated garden or orchard, and you will find moisture two or three inches from the surface; while the same quality of land on an adjacent spot left uncultivated will prove to be dry to the depth of several feet. It will be nothing but hard earth, dry asa bone. In sucha hard baked earth, the sun heat is also conducted downward very rapidly on a hot day, in many cases, of course, doing serious injury to the roots. A well-cultivated surface acts as a mulch, pre- venting rapid evaporation and the conveying downward of too great heat. The depth of cultivation or the thickness of the mulch must be sufficient to prevent the access of dry air to the firm soil below. The drier the soil, the thicker the mulch or pulverization should be. ‘Two or three inches over a hard pan-layer formed in some soils by cultivation, will not hold moisture well. Generally the cultivation should go twice that depth. Of course the capillarity in a heavy soil is much greater than in a light soil, and the pulverization of the sur- face is, therefore, much more difficult. THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE 25 When pulverization is not thoroughly done, the soil should be broken up to a greater depth in proportion. km} Wis Yellow Transparent. | 6-7] 5-6) wy] rc} ale} km] Rus PEARS. | ty | ha | = me | wa )<] 3 ea |elal Sie] 2S a2 ce) So) Rl al} | @ me n | Oy} oO eS Pe |e jo | 2 | © PATOL Kacasjershers wiatete wears 7-8 8-9| gre| obtp| m) vp, m| idm Fr WUChESSHancescsk se. .../9-10| 5-9) gyr} obov| blov m) /dm Fr Bamtl@tt tone tans ettacw eas 7-8) 6-8) yrur ob| bt jap, Im dm! 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(Persica vulgaris.) NECTARINES. (P. Vulgaris var. Levis.) [Kry.—SI1ZE, scale 1 to 10: 1, very small; 10, very large. Form: c, compressed; o, oblate; ov, oval; r, round. COLOR: c, creamy; g, green; r, red; w. white; v, yellow. ADHESION: c, cling; f, free; s, semicling. QUALITY, scale 1 to 10: 1, very poor; 10, best. SEASON: e, early; m, medium; |, late; v, very. Use: d, dessert; k, kitchen; m, market. Abbreviations of names of places of origin: Am., Amer- ica Belg., Belgium; Eng., England; Eur., Enrope; Fr., France. ] | | Coror| 2 Pall ec a . PEACHES. eee : |} @]< z rea) = faa] a eal — ;N | P| elHx lal} o} ai!) 2] - In|A;n|Rl/al/ailnje] o Early Crawford............ 8-9| 8-9 yr, y| f/rov) midm| NJ SM Grhesrcte sets a cues H15 or 8-9] 7-8] yr] y f| rc} ml} m| Ga CHAMPION .cew. oer ves ace 7-8| 7-8] cr} w {|r| em| dm Ill (HOGER aca P eee ase s:| 8-9| 7-8, yr) y) f rov; m| m Ra MIOSUCT aaa cei ora gers eee 9-10 9-10. yr| yl f rm) dm| Mass Wheatland...............- 9-10) 6- “| yr} sy f, r| m/dm| NY Susquehanna.............. 9-10 9- 10) yr) y; f; xr) m| dk Pa lean Glin Gece an csvas< anise | 8-9 9- 10) wr} wj) c|rov) vilkm| Md Late Crawford ........... | $9 8-9! yr} yl! f r I!dm| Am Lenion ‘Cling... 2... we eee. | 8-9} 8-9 yrysy c 1ov! mldm| SC Lemon Free.............. 8-9} 8-9] “y| y| fl obl dm} Ohio SUUMD Deena leaf ares acct: 8-967) wr ow f/rov, ml} m| NY Sneed..... ‘eee ren err | 6-7| 4-5| gw] w) cj ov| ve] m| Tenn PATE ANI Orig slats ats /rs's.00 5-6) 5-6} wr} cw) s| r, ve} dm Ill POSH Y sia seas Here ts | 6-7| 7-8| yri y fi ri! m] m!| Mass 34 THE FRUIT GROWER’S GUIDE CHERRIES. (Cerasus.) HEARTS AND BIGARREAUS. (C. Avium.) [KEY.—SIZE, scale 1 to 10: 1, very small; 10, very large. Form: c, compressed; h, heart shaped; o, oblate; r, round. CoLor: a, amber: b, black; p, purple; r, red; y, vellow. QuALITY, scale 1 to 10: 1, very poor: 10, best. SEASON: e, early; m, medium; 1, late; v, very. USE: d, dessert; k, kitchen; m, market. Abbreviations of names of places of origin: Am., America; Eng., England; Eur., Europe; Fr., France; Ger., Germany; Ont., Ontario; Rus., Russia. ] le] | Ps /e2le/8 z =| 2 | 9 ele#isié ;w — O ~ op) ~ 13h); eee eee re er ee eee | 7-8 8-9} bj.... 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