DaDDnDDDnnDaDDDDnDnnDDDDDDDaDDDD D D D n D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D n D D D a D D D D D D D D D D D D D D Ot *i*Ss^ "CiS-i UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS LIBRARY D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D a D D D a a D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D a a a D n D ° H D D DDDDDnDaDDDaDDDaDDaaaaDDDDDDDDDD FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 1971 TABLE OF CONTENTS Varieties of Apples for Massachusetts Plum Varieties Changes in Insecticide Recommendations for 1971 Glyodin Not Available to Fruit Growers for 1971 and Phenyl Mercury Acetate is a Bit Shaky Jold Injury to Peach Trees Improve Young Orchards with Limb Spreaders Pomological Paragraphs Apple trees tolerant to terbacil Pruning severity as related to scion/rootstock combinations Factors Influencing the Shape of Apples Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. ^° VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR MASSACHUSETTS Department J.F. Anderson of Plant and Soil Sciences Variety Recommended for Harvesting Season J ulyred Q u i n t e Puritan Early Mcintosh Tydeman's Early Paul ared Niagara Mcintosh Macoun Spartan Empi re Cortl and Delicious Golden Delicious Idared Spencer Mu tsu Jerseyred T = Trial C = Commercial Late July to early Aug. Late July to early Aug. Mid-August Mid to late August Late Aug. to early Sept Late Aug. to early Sept Early September Mid-September Late September Late September Late September Early October Early to mid-October Mid-October Mid-October Mid-October Mid-October Mid-October H = Home garden Varieties so marked are not necessarily equally adapted to all parts of the state. T T c & H c & T T T C H c & H c & T H c & H c & H c & H c & H c & T T H Variety Notes Julyred This New Jersey introduction was harvested during the first week of August at Horticultural Research Center. The fruits are of medium size, medium red and have a bright, smooth finish. The eating quality was very good for an apple of this season. The hand- ling and keeping qualities are very good. Julyred appears to be very promising. Q u i n t e This variety has yet to fruit in our orchard. The fruit of this Canadian introduction ripens 7 to 10 days before Melba, has a yellow skin overlaid with an attractive red blush and is equal to Melba in quality. Under good growing conditions, an average of 80% of the skin is red. Quinte will probably require thinning to get good size and spot picking may be necessary. Puritan ATi" attractive, early red apple. Fruit of Mcintosh type, good quality for its season, though somewhat tart. The tree is hardy, and vigorous with a tendency toward biennial bearing, will pollinate Mcintosh . - 2 Early Mcintosh Fruit fairly attractive, good quality, small if not thinned. Tree of medium vigor, biennial and tends to have a poor structure, Tydeman's Early (Tydeman's Red) An English variety from a cross of Mcintosh and Worcester Pearmain. This variety, ripening in late August, is similar to Mcintosh in appearance, but is said to The apples have a green undercolor and red blush. The fruit has good quality early fall trade. Tydeman's Early has to Rome. average larger in size, are overlaid with a medium- and looks promising for the a habit of growth similar Paul ared A recent introduction ripening with Tydeman's. The fruits of Paulared are of medium size, roundish-oblate shape and have a bright smooth finish and good red color. Our limited experience suggests that Paulared is worthy of trial. Niagara This introduction from New York ripens about 10 days before Mcintosh. Niagara is similar to Mcintosh in shape and color, but the fruit from our young trees have tended to be larger in size. The finish has been less than satisfactory the past three seasons. The fruit seems more susceptible to russeting and the dots or len- ticels have tended to be larger and blurred. Reports on Niagara from other sources have been more favorable and our poor response may be due to local conditions. The quality of Niagara is very good and it has been well received by those who have tried it here at the University. Mcintosh Fruit is attractive and has excellent quality but bruises easily. Tree is vigorous, hardy, annual and productive. Rogers Mcintosh or an equally good red strain is preferred. Macoun Fruit is of excellent quality, attractive and a dark red color. The tree has poor structure, is biennial and requires thinning to maintain good fruit size. Spartan Fruit has good color and quality, but has a tendency to small size. Tree is vigorous and of good structure, annual will pollinate Mcintosh . Empi re A very promising introduction from the New York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva. Empire, resulting from a Mcintosh and Delicious cross, was introduced in 1966. The fruit ripens about 2 weeks later than Mcintosh. This very attractive apple has a solid red color, medium size and very good dessert quality. The fruit hangs well on the tree. Empire is said to be annual, produc- tive and a good keeper. We have had only two year's experience with this variety but it appears to be most promising. - 3 CortT and Fruit is attractive, of good quality, and is excellent for salads as the flesh does not discolor, very susceptible to storage scald. Tree is hardy, productive and annual. An excellent pollin- izer for Mcintosh. Del i cious Fruit of excellent quality, but susceptible to watercore and internal breakdown. Tree is of medium vigor, often biennial and may require thinning. A good pollinizer, Richared or an equally good red strain is preferred. Spur-types are now available. Golden Delicious Fruit of excellent quality, yellow, attractive where well grown. Fruit is subject to russeting. Tree is of medium vigor, biennial and requires thinning to obtain satisfactory size, color and quality. "Russet-free" and spur-type strains are now avail- able for trial . Idared An attractive, size. Suitable for and annual . bright red, winter apple of good quality and both dessert and cooking. Tree is productive Spencer Fruit is attractive, bright red and has Suitable for dessert and pie. Tree is hardy very good qual i ty . productive and annual Mutsu A Golden Delicious type that is less susceptible to fruit rus- seting and storage shrivel. Tree is vigorous and productive. Mutsu pollen is triploid and not viable. Fruit size may be too large and susceptibility to Psuedomonas blight has been noted. Jerseyred A 1 ate Rome type apple from the New Jersey Agricultural Exper- iment Station. Fruit is large, wel 1 -col ored, and of better qual- ity than Rome. Jerseyred produces triploid pollen and is not suit- able as a pol 1 i nator . *************** PLUM VARIETIES J . F . Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences An interest in plum varieties has been expressed by an increaS' ing number of growers, especially those operating roadside stands. The following comments are on some of the varieties that have frui- ted at our Amherst and/or Bel chertown orchards. All of these var- - 4 - ieties ripen before the Mcintosh harvest begins. For a more com- plete listing of the plum varieties recommended for Massachusetts, you should refer to Special Circular 212-H, 1967. Burmosa (Japanese) The tree is small in size, medium in vigor and tends toward biennial production. The fruit is yellow with a bright red blush, becoming completely overlaid with red, attractive, medium to large in size, freestone and good in flavor. Burmosa ripens in late July Formosa (Japanese) The tree is large, vigorous and moderately productive. The fruit is large, attractive and the yellow color tends to become completely overlaid with red as the fruit ripens. The flavor is very good and the fruit holds very well in storage. Formosa is picked inearlyAugust. Shi ro (Japanese) The tree is medium in size and vigor. Shiro tends to overset and thinning may be necessary to maintain good fruit size and annu- al production. The fruit has a very attractive, bright yellow color, is of medium-small size and good flavor. Shiro ripens in mi d-Augus t . Santa Rosa (Japanese) The tree is large and vigorous, but has been a poor producer in the Amherst orchard. The trees at the Horticultural Research Center have not yet fruited. The fruit is large, reddish-purple and good in flavor. The fruit keeps and ships well. Santa Rosa ripens in mid-August. Yakima (European) The tree is large, vigorous, upright and moderately produc- tive. The fruits are large, prune-shaped, reddish-purple, free- stone and of good quality. Yakima ripens in late August. Howard Miracle (Japanese) A large, attractive, high quality Japanese plum. The fruit is golden yellow with a light red blush. The firm-fleshed, free- stone was picked in late August. Production was very good this year. The flavor of this variety is not typical of a plum and might be objectionable to some. Ozark Premier (Japanese) A large, attractive plum with a medium-red overcolor and firm, yellow flesh. The quality of the fruit is very good. The tree is vigorous and appears to be productive. The fruit is ready in late August. Mohawk (European) This variety, along with Oneida and Iroquois, was named by the Geneva Experiment Station in 1966. Mohawk is an attractive blue prune, ripening in late August. The size is medium to large and the quality very good. Production has been moderate. Mohawk is said to be self-unfruitful. Iroquoi s (European) An attractive blue prune that ripens in early September about a week before Stanley. The fruit is of medium size, longer than Stanley and of good quality. The tree is productive. There was some splitting of the fruit when the trees first came into bearing Iroquois is said to be self-fruitful. Red Reine Claude (Reine Red) - European A red bud sport of the Reine Claude ing in early September. The fruits have color, are of medium to small size. The and of very high quality. or Green Gage plum, ripen- an attractive red over- flesh is tender, juicy New York 981 (European) A 1 arge reddi sh-bl ue ripens in early September our Amherst orchard. plum of yery high quality. The tree has been a good The fruit producer in *************** CHANGES IN INSECTICIDE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR 1971 Gary Jensen Department of Entomology Although Dieldrin and BHC (so-called "hard" pesticides) were registered for usage on apples and pears in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts during 1970, they were purposely omitted from the Massachusetts Spray Charts published by the University in coopera- tion with the Cooperative Extension Service, County Extension Ser- vices and the United States Department of Agriculture. Lead arsenate, another persistent material, was also omitted from the charts although its usage on apples and pears was perfectly legitimate. These steps were taken in an effort to curtail any possibili- ties of contamination of the environment by persistent pesticides, in advance of any regulations which may or may not restrict their future usage on these commodities. Other less persistent chemicals (and often less effective as well) have been inserted in place of those just mentioned. Growers are continuously encouraged to use proper methods of application and disposal of pesticides to facilitate non-contamin- ation of the environment with these materials. An attempt to recommend narrow spectrum materials, and those which are at least toxic to beneficial species, will be made in future recommendations when feasible. *************** - 6 GLYODIN NOT AVAILABLE TO FRUIT GROWERS FOR 1971 AND PHENYL MERCURY ACETATE IS A BIT SHAKY C.J. G i 1 g u t Department of Plant Pathology Glyodin is a good scab-control fungicide and it controls other apple diseases too. The manufacturer has stopped making it because there is not enough sold to make it pay. Our understanding is that arrangements have been made with another manufacturer to produce enough glyodin to make Glyodex - a combination of glyodin and do- dine - for 1971 Although phenyl mercury acetate is still registered by the USDA and the State Pesticide Board and is allowed for use on apples, as this is being written, the situation may change because mercury has had some bad publicity in the press during the past year or so. For this reason, and because it is considered prudent not to pro- vide instant ecologists and antipesticide crusaders ammunition with which to continue attacks on pesticides, phenyl mercury acetate for apple scab control will not be included in apple pest control programs in Extension program in Massachusetts in 1971. *************** COLD INJURY TO PEACH TREES Wi 1 1 iam J . Braml age Department of Plant and Soil Sciences (Editor's Note: This article was first published in the Janu- ary-February, 1967 issue of Fruit Notes, based on a talk presented in New Jersey by Dr. E.F. Savage . Recently, a paper was published (Jour. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci . 95:286-292) presenting the data on which Dr. Savage's talk was based. This research is quite intrigu- ing and since no new data were presented, we are republishing this article for your information.) Growers in the Coastal Plain area of Georgia have always been plagued by the very short life of their peach orchards the aver- age life of trees there is only 8 years. Many years of investiga- tions showed that nutrition, diseases, and nematodes all may play a part in this problem, but the basic cause was not uncovered. However, recent findings seem to have pin-pointed this basic cause: it appears to be cold injury. This injury usually occurs in early spring when the trees have become physiologically active, not during the winter when the trees are in their rest period. And it does not have to get very cold to produce injury; in 1949, a low temperature of 26° F. killed thousands of trees. The injury occurs primarily in the cambium (dividing) and phloem (food-conducting) tissues, and appears as a discoloration in the cambium extending from the ground level upward to 2-3 inches above the crotch along the scaffold limbs. After a few warm days, a characteristic "sour sap" odor resulting from the fermentation of the injured tissues occurs. Results of studies by Dr. Savage's group at Experiment, Georgia, are rather startling. They have found that tree trunk temperature is higher in winter than in summer. This happens because the winter solar radiation penetrates directly into the bark, and is absorbed by the dark-colored bark. Such large amounts of heat are accumulated that trunk temperature may rise 40°F. or more above ai r temperature . This situation does not occur in the summer be- cause rn the trunk is shaded by leaves and (2) cool water is be- ing drawn through the trunk, from the soil to the leaves. 1 n Of course, these high trunk temperatures persist only during daylight hours. At night, trunk temperatures fall to near air tem- perature. Thus, if a bright, sunny day is followed by a cold night, violent fluctuations of trunk temperature can occur. For example. Savage described a sunny, 66°F. day followed by a 4°F. night in 1963--the tree trunks were exposed to about 100°F. temperature drop in 10 hours. If the tissues are dormant, they may survive such a shock, but if they are physiologically active, severe injury and subsequent death of the tree can be expected. An important factor in this situation is trunk size. The lar- ger the trunk, the more heat will be absorbed and retained during solar irradiation. Seldom does injury occur to 1 ess-than-4-year- old trees, simply because they do not absorb as much heat and therefore experience such violent temperature fluctuations. This also is why most of the injury occurs in the trunk rather than in scaf- f ol d branches . Another important factor is wind. On a bright, sunny day, heat will not accumulate in the trunk if a mild breeze is blowing, so wind can be a protective influence. But at night, a wind will sig- nificantly lower the temperature of the trunk on the windward side, and therefore may be a damaging influence. - 8 It should be clear, then , that cold injury is the result of a combination of environmental and physiological factors. Work is now under way in Georgia to find an economical way to protect the trees from this injury. It has been found that wrapping trunks with aluminum foil backed with fiberglass is effective protection but it is not economical. The type of injury that occurs in Georgia may be quite rare or even unknown in New England. It certainly is not the problem here that it is in Georgia. Nevertheless, the findings of Dr. Savage's group should help us to understand why trees respond to their environment in the way that they do. Do these results obtained in Georgia have any application to us in New England? They do indeed! Eggert reported from New Hamp- shire some years ago (Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci . 45:33-36) that between December, 1943, and March, 1944, peach tree trunks reached 60°F. or higher on 18 different days, and reached 80° or higher on 5 different days. On most of these days, air temperature was at or below 32°F. He found that trunks of apple trees, on the other hand, underwent far less severe temperature fluctuations, and this difference he attributed to differences in smoothness, thickness, color, and texture of bark. How much can be done practically to reduce cold injury to trees is highly debatable. Nevertheless, the findings of Dr. Savage's group should help us to understand why trees respond to their en- vironment in the way that they do, and should help us to evaluate problems that may develop. *************** IMPROVE YOUNG ORCHARDS WITH LIMB SPREADERS Duane W. Greene Department of Plant and Soil Sciences The shape of an apple tree may be improved by favorably posi- tioning limbs around the tree. At the 13th Annual Meeting of the Dwarf Fruit Tree Association, Dr. Don Heintcke of the U.S.D.A, Wenatchee, Washington, demonstrated a tree training system now used extensively in the State of Washington. This system is based on the use of a new commercially produced limb spreader. Briefly, these spreaders are made of lengths of 1 x 1 inch wood ranging be- tween 10 and 20 inches in length. A nail is inserted in each end to securely keep the spreader in the tree. Not only are crotch angles improved but branches can be posi- tioned to distribute vigor and improve light penetration. The im- - 9 portance of light penetration is stressed. Spur-type trees are made to look like standards and spur development is hastened in standard trees. It has been reported that spread trees have more fruit buds, both initiated and set. This may be of particular interest to growers who have a difficult time getting young 'Red Delicious' trees to set fruit. Limb spreading is not a particularly time-consuming process. In a pruning demonstration in 2 and 3-year-old orchards. Dr. Heinicke was able to both spread and prune a tree in 3 or 4 min- utes. The potential benefits gained from limb spreading may make a small investment of time well worth the effort. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS Apple trees tolerant to terbacil: Tree fruits must have sufficient tolerance to herbicides to withstand the chance of excessive appli- cation. Furthermore, the soil types and conditions under which herbicides are applied are extremely variable, making a degree of tolerance essential. Recent work by A.R. Putnam and H.C. Price, Michigan State University (Jour. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci . , Volume 94, No. 6, 1969) showed that 6-year-old apple trees of 3 varieties tol- erated 3 aiccessive annual applications of terbacil at 4 times the rate required for weed control. It would appear, therefore, that the magnitude of tolerance is sufficient for safe use under a wide variety of conditions in our Massachusetts apple orchards. When using terbacil, however, it should be remembered that this herbicide is labeled only for apple and peach orchards which have been established 3 or more years. Pruning severity as related to scion/rootstock combinations: Richard Norton, Fruit Agent in Western New York State, recently reported in the April, 1970, Supplement of the New York State Horti- cultural Society Newsletter that he can prune apple trees of EM VII more severely and keep them fruitful than those on MM 106. Further- more, he found that Idared and Golden Delicious will continue to bear when severely pruned, but 20 Ounce and Red Delicious may stop f rui ti ng . *************** - 10 - / JO FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SHAPE OF APPLES Wil 1 iam J . Lord , Department of Plant and Soil Sciences "^ Shape of apples is an important contribution to attractive- ness. It is known to be influenced by several factors, one of which is distribution of seeds in the fruits. As most growers know, apples with small numbers of seeds are frequently lop-sided with the less fleshy side being the one lacking seeds. Climate also can affect shape. In Massachusetts, J.K. Shaw in 1914 (A study of variation in apples. Massachusetts Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 149). reported on 'rel ationship between shape of Ben Davis and Baldwin apples and the temperature following bloom; the cooler the temperature, the more elongated the apple. He concluded that during the post-bloom period, temperature variations between the 6th and 16th day after full bloom fitted the observed variations in shape more closely than during any other period. In 1963, M.N. Westwood and L.T. Blaney in Oregon (Non-clim- atic factors affecting the shape of apple fruits. Nature 200:802- 803 . )v reported effects of several non-climatic factors on shape of apples. In a study with Red Delicious, rootstocks were found to have a significant effect^with fruit on seedling roots, EM I, or EM XVI being more elongated than those from trees on EM VI, EM VII or EM IX. With Golden Delicious, both crop load and fruit location in the cluster affected the shape of fruits. Those from trees with a light crop (whether the result of heavy thinning or a light bloom) were longer than fruits from trees with a heavy crop. The "l^ing" fruits were longer than side-bloom fruits. A possible genetic effect on fruit shape also was studied by Westwood and Blaney using three strains of Red Delicious. They found that fruit shape differed significantly with strain, common Delicious fruits being flatter than Starking and Starkrimson fruits Recently, M.l^. Williams and E.A. Stahly in Washington (Effect of cytokinins and gibberellins on shape of 'Delicious' apple fruitSy, Jour. Amer . Soc. Hort. Sci . 94 (No. 1):17-19), suggested . o f ^■^ that the influence of temperature, crop size, and, location in the blossom cluster on fruit shape are possibly related to their ef- fects on growth regulators in the developing fruits. They showed that an application after full bloom of two kinds of growth regu- lators, cytokinins and gibberellins, alone and in combination in- creased fruit length. Cy toki ni n-treated fruits were longer than normal with prominent, wel 1 -devel oped calyx lobes, whereas those treated with gibberellin were merely longer.*"' ********* i *************** ^^ M^Mjt^>^ ti _ .:r r....hyj^ a •2-7X. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Postage and Fees Paid United States Department of Agriculture FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE MARCH- APRIL 1971 TABLE OF CONTENTS Use Caution in Storing Nursery Stock Pomological Paragraph Names and Addresses Wanted Mineral Nutrition of Apple Tree Influenced by Herbicide East Mailing 26 Rootstock Research from Other Areas Green Apple Aphid - Its Life History and Control Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service. A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. USE CAUTION IN STORING NURSERY STOCK Wn 1 iam J , Braml age Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Fruit growers sometimes receive trees too early for planting in the field. This is especially true if the trees have been or- dered from southern nurseries. In order to prolong dormancy of the trees, it is convenient (and sometimes recommended) to place the trees in cold storage rooms where apples have been stored, or perhaps still are being stored. There is danger in this practice. One of the gases produced by fruit during storage is ethylene, a very potent plant growth regulator. One of the effects of ethylene is the breaking of dor- mancy in many kinds of plant materials. It is possible that re- sidual ethylene in the storage atmosphere might break dormancy of the nursery stock and cause injury to the trees. A recent article from England reminded us of the reality of this danger. Howard and Banwell (Commercial Grower, 14 Nov, 1969), from the East Mailing Experiment Station, reported losses of apple and pear trees that had been temporarily stored in empty or nearly empty apple storages. When the trees were removed from storage they showed growths of soft, white callus tissue around buds and at the bases and tips of lateral shoots, as well as callus-filled cracks in the stem especially near the tip. When the trees were planted they either died or else parts of them failed to grow, de- pending on the extent of injury. Pear trees were especially sen- sitive to this injury. Subsequent tests proved that the injury was indeed due to ethylene in the atmosphere. Loss of nursery stock that was held temporarily in fruit stor- ages has been observed before. In 1950, peach trees planted in the college orchard in Amherst failed to grow after temporary stor- age in a fruit room. Ethylene was suspected as the cause, and in 1952, a report from Geneva, New York supported this suspicion. obser they land: ti ssu died, which from injur study d u r i n not i of St Curti ved i repor bre e. W Lab resu The t resid y. T . At g the mpai r orage sand njury ted i aks i hen t orato Ited ests ual e emper 1 - firs ed, b wi th Rodn on p n 195 n the he tw ry te i n de in Ge thyl e ature 10 pp t 3 w ut at as 1 ey (19 ear tr 2 , was twigs i g s d r sts pr ath of neva e ne, f 0 of th m ethy eeks a 45°F. ittle 52. P ees h s i 111 i that i ed 0 oved many mphas r as e sto 1 ene, t 35° brea as 1 roc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci 60:104-108) i njury el d in col d storage . The lar to that just reported from Eng- were filled with soft, white callus ut the injured tissue shrunk and that ethylene caused this injury, twigs upon removal from storage, ized the potential danger to trees little as 1 ppm of ethylene caused rage was an important factor in this no breaks developed in the bark F. and subsequent twig growth was ks developed during the first week ppm of ethylene in the atmosphere. At 55° F., the rate of injury was much greater still. Other kinds of nursery stock (apples, plums, and cherries) were compared with pear trees for susceptibility to injury, and none was as suscept- ible as pears. However, most showed some injury from the ethylene storage. We do not know how widespread is the practice of temporarily placing trees in fruit storages, but we suspect that it is done fairly commonly, especially in years when the soil warms slowly. We also suspect that injury has occurred without storage being recognized as the cause. Fruit growers should become aware of this danger and use caution when storing trees. Trees shoul really necessary tions should be 3 4 5 Do not Before so that (As lit Mai ntai m i n i m i z Do not than is Exami ne age. L buds , a for era be fill observe mortal i Do not absol ut tive to d not be put into fruit storages unless storage is If it is necessary, then the following precau- taken . put the trees in a room still containing fruit, using an empty storage room, allow it to air out any accumulation of ethylene can be dissipated, tie as 1 ppm can cause damage.) n a low temperature (near 32°F.) in the storage to e the danger of injury, allow the trees to remain in the storage any longer necessary . the trees at the time they are removed from stor- ook for white, feathery growth protruding around t the base or tip of laterals, or around cuts; or cks in the stem (especially near the tip) that may ed with soft, pasty growth. If these symptoms are d, injury has occurred and poor growth and tree ty can be expected. hold pear trees in a fruit storage unless it is ely essential, for pear trees are extremely sensi- ethylene injury. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Name and Addresses Wanted: County Extension Offices, the Massachu setts Department of Agriculture and the Extension Pomologist at the University of Massachusetts receive frequent inquiries from the public concerning names and addresses of growers that special ize in "Gift Packages" and/or "Pi ck-Your-Own" method fruits. If you sell gift packages or let the public fruit, send us a note so that a list can be prepared future inquiries. of harvesting pick their own to help answer *************** MINERAL NUTRITION OF APPLE TREE INFLUENCED BY HERBICIDE Mack Drake, John H. Baker, W.J. Lord and J.F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences A block of 20-year-old Delicious apple trees is being used in a study of the effects of levels of nitrogen and potassium on fruit yield, color, and storage quality. These trees are surrounded by a vigorous sod cover consisting of orchardgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, Ladino and White clover. In 1967, the leaf 20, and 2.27%, and in 1968, 2.23, 2.29, and for low, medium, and high nitrogen treatments timothy, witchgrass, ni trogen was 2.16, 2 2.40%, respectively, (Table 1). During the winter of 1967-68, dichlobenil (Casoron) was broad- cast under the trees and extending a little beyond the drip line at the recommended rate (100-150 lbs/A 4% granular). During the sum- mer, all grasses and clovers appeared to make their usual vigorous growth. The dichlobenil application was repeated during the winter 1968-69. A growth of grasses and clovers in the treated areas was retarded during the summer of 1969 and some plants were killed. There were no visual signs of leaf injury on the trees. During the winter 1969-70, the dichlobenil application was repeated (the third annual appl i cation ) . By mid-May 1970, both grasses and clovers were severely in- jured or were killed except in the areas beyond the tree line where dichlobenil had not been applied. Foliage was a deeper green and growth was unusually vigorous even on the low nitrogen trees by mid- July 1970. In late July, many of the leaves on terminal growth showed marginal yellowing ("halo") which is the distinguishing symp- tom of dichlobenil injury. Growth continued to be vigorous with dense shoot growth ranging from 15 to 20 inches. Discussion: It appears that in this orchard the dichlobenil application was ineffective in the first year and only partially effective in the second. However, the third application in 1970 produced the undesirable effect of apple leaf injury in addition to killing the grass-clover sod. This injury to apple leaves and killing of the sod may be the result of the accumulative effects of dichlobenil applied 3 consecutive years E sod ar the ap duced di sapp 1 n g of greate kill in m" t r 0 g e s p e c i 2.40'X 2.42 t shoots the n i b i 1 i ty ffect e i nd plica a spr eared gras r tha g not en , b ally N. I 0 2.5 and troge i s u s of d i cated t i 0 n 0 e a d in in 19 ses an n vi su only ut dea as ref n 1970 7% N, in sho n meta nder s i c h 1 0 b e by 1 ea f diffe 1 eaf n 69. We d dove al appe reduced th of p 1 ected , all t and pro ot 1 eng b 0 1 ism tudy , nil f ni rent i tro be! rs i aran gra 1 ant at t rees duce th. of t stuntt trogen rates gen th ieve t n the c e i n d ss-clo s i n c r he 1 ow i ncre d a 1 a Wheth hese t ng or val u of f at CO he am early i cate ver c eased es t n ased rge i er or rees killi es in erti 1 i nti nue ount 0 summe d. Th ompeti the a i troge 1 eaf n ncreas no t d is not ng th Table zer n din f stu r of is 19 tion V a i 1 a n tre i trog e i n i chl 0 know e grass- 1 . By i trogen 1968, bu n t i n g an 1969 was 69 stunt for aval bl e ni tr atment, en from both num b e n i 1 in n . This clover 1967, had pro- t had d kill- much i n g and lable ogen , 2.23 to about bers of f 1 uenced p 0 s s i - TABLE 1 LEAF NITROGEN 1964 1965 1967 1968 1969 1970 Low Ni trogen 1 .88 Medium Nitrogen 2.05 High Nitrogen 2.04 1 .80 2.16 2.23 2.40 2.57 1 .80 2.20 2.29 2.44 2.59 2.19 2.27 2.40 2.42 2.55 Prior to application of treatments. Conclusions: 1. Continued annual applications of dichlobenil or similar herbicides may injure the tree. 2. Use of herbicides that stunt the grass-clover sod will reduce grass-sod mineral nutrient competition with the apple tree roots . 3. Use of herbicides that kill the grass-clover sod will result in a release of mineral nutrients in the year sod is killed. 4. Unless the sod is re-established, loss of mineral nutrients by leaching will require careful re-evaluation of the mineral fer- tilizer program and will probably require an increase in fertilizer appl ication . *************** - 5 EAST MAILING 26 ROOTSTOCK A rootstock in which fruit growers now are showing interest is East Mailing 26. Since we have had no experience with this stock at our Horticultural Research Center in Belchertown, Massa- chusetts, the information from Michigan State presented below should be of interest. The information was prepared by Dr. R.F. Carlson, Michigan State University, and appeared in Compact Fruit Tree, Volume 3, No. 13, October, 1970. EAST MALLING 26 -- PROGRESS AND PERFORMANCE East Mailing 26 (EM 26) is a new rootstock as far as commer- cial production in North America is concerned, \lery little yield data are available on the performance in relation to other root- stocks. The size control capabilities of this rootstock is well known. However, the compatibility with various commercial varie- ties and tested . strains of varieties has not been completely studied and Progress made - A great number of trees have been propagated and planted in both experimental and in commercial orchards using EM 26 Most of these trees are rather young and not many are in production at this time. It will take several years before actual oroduc- tion records will be available at research stations and in commer- c a i 1 trials. Performance - To date, no serious faults have shown up with this rootstock and it is anticipated that it will be a rootstock which will fill an important place in controlling tree size in commercial This rootstock is an improvement over East Mailing IX has somewhat better anchorage, it is slightly more vig- it is precocious. EM 26 has an advantage in being more with 'Red Delicious' and spur types of this variety However, not all of the 'Red Delicious' strains and have been tested in experimental or commercial plantings that there will be a difference in response from orchards . in that it orous, and compati bl e than EM IX spur types It is suspected the different combinations of the 'Red Delicious' gamut. Improvement - EM 26 is better than EM IX with 'Red Delicious', mainly because it grows better and does not show the severe measle condi- tion often found with 'Red Delicious' on EM IX. Due to its added vigor, EM 26 will be an improvement over EM IX expecially for some varieties which do not perform as well on other rootstocks. Both EM IX and EM 26 will be useful in certain sci on/roots tock combina- tions and in different tree spacing systems. Characteri s ti cs - EM IX is not completely strong as far as root sys- tem is concerned, because it has brittle wood structure. EM 26 has similar characteristics of being brittle in wood structure and can break more easily than some of the more vigorous rootstocks. Con- sequently, some trees on EM 26 will need support in the form of staking or trellising. In other words, many of the trees of certain varieties on EM 26 will be free standing and will perhaps not need any support during the life-time of the tree. However, under cer- tain conditions, some trees will lean or even topple over, depend- ing on the variety, the orchard site and the soil type. The root- stock portion of EM 26 trees overgrow the scion similar to that of EM IX. Combi nations - As previously mentioned, all varieties have not been tested on this rootstock. Under certain conditions, 'Golden Deli- cious'/EM 26, for example, will make very small trees with this rootstock but this could be an advantage especially in high density plantings. In our test plantings, 'Red Delicious', 'Mcintosh' and 'Jonathan' are doing well. However, as with other rootstocks there are certain varietal responses that show up in the rootstock and vice versa. Site, Soil - The orchard site and the soil, being variable, will influence rootstock performance. To date, no detrimental effects from soil responses have been observed with EM 26. A heavy soil will cause more trees to lean. Recommendations are, of course, to plant only on well drained soils. Important place - EM 26 will fill an important vaccum in the apple rootstock series, especially in high density plantings. Most trees of most varieties on this rootstock can be spaced \/ery close to- gether. An average of 450 trees per acre could be established with- out any serious crowding of trees at maturity with such varieties as 'Red Delicious', 'Golden Delicious' and 'Jonathan'. This would mean a tree spacing in the vicinity of 6 x 16, or 8 x 12 feet de- pending on many factors--management being prime. Suggestion - Since all possibilities are not known about this root- stock, it is suggested that plantings be limited and that other rootstocks such as MM 106 or EM VII also be used. Tree size is manipulated by rootstock from small to large trees as follows: EM IX, EM 26, EM VII, MM 106 and MM 111. The first two require a good uniform moisture retaining soil and the latter four are adaptable to a wider variation of soil types. None will withstand a poorly drained soil. As the vigor of the variety and the rootstock in- creases, the spacing between trees should increase. Selective - In selecting scion/root combinations, choose the com- that will suit the particular situation of the anticipated and production scheme. All trees should be budded on above ground. This will provide better orchard. Know the vigor potential of the that you select for your particular spac- plantings require more rootstock size b i n a t i 0 n management the stock 12 to 16 inches anchorage of trees in the variety and the rootstock ing system. High density control than do low density orchards *************** 7 - RESEARCH FROM OTHER AREAS Wi 1 1 iam J . Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Influence of Nutrition and Management on Peach Quality: The influ- ence of nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K) , magnesi urn (Mg), lime, pruning, irrigation and tillage upon peach quality were studied by John Reeves and George Cummings, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, and reported in Volume 95 (No. 3), of the Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. The in- formation obtained should be of interest to peach growers in Mass- achusetts . Fruit firmness: Several of the treatments resulted in significant changes in flesh firmness. N at the rate of 0.66 lb. /tree in com- parison to 0.33 lb. /tree decreased firmness of non-irrigated Red- haven peaches . Fruits from trees receiving 0.66 or 1.32 lb. did not differ appreciably, however, while irrigation virtually elim- inated the influence of higher rates of N on firmness. Medium and high rates of K (0.66 lb. or 1.32 lbs. /tree in com- parison to 0.20 lb.) increased flesh fii-mness of Elberta peaches whereas 0.24 lb. or 0.48 lb. Mg/tree in comparison to 0.03 lb. Mg decreased firmness. 2 In the tillage experiment with the Loring variety the treat- ments consisted of (a) soil plowed to normal depth; (b) soil plowed to a depth of 23 inches; (c) normal plowing with 28-inch holes bored to a depth of 4 feet at the planting site; (d) lime (0, 2000 or 4000 lb. of dol omi ti c/acre) ; and (e) P (0, 141, or 282 lbs. /acre) With the exception of P, none of the treatments influenced firmness. The high increment of P increased flesh firmness. Shel f-1 i f e: The data indicated that those treatments that increased f i rmness also increased shelf-life. N decreased the shelf-life of non-irrigated Redhaven peaches, but had no effect on those from irrigated trees. Shelf-life of Elberta peaches was increased by K and decreased by Mg . Fruit color: Severity of pruning (light, medium, or severe) ap- peared to have greater effect on red color than did N with the poorest color on the severely pruned trees. Irrigation also tended to decrease fruit color. The authors postulated that high N, heavy pruning or irrigation could increase the amount of foliage on the trees, and that probably red color development was negatively as- sociated with the amount of shading. Increased red color develop- ment was associated with the medium or high rates of K while medium or high Mg rates decreased red color. 1 The experiment was established in 1953. Data on quality obtained ,in 1966. 'The experiment was established in 1962. Data on quality obtained in 1966. - 8 - The authors concluded on firmness and shelf-life of yields and fruit size, indicated that the highest from the medium K (0.66 lb proper balance of K and Mg high yields but also for good quality that the unfavorable influence of Mg must be considered against the increase Yield data (presented in another paper) ields over a number of years resulted high Mg (0.24 lb.) treatment. A apparently is essential not only for yie' *************** GREEN APPLE APHID - ITS LIFE HISTORY AND CONTROL Gary L. Jensen Department of Entomology Green apple aphids are found more often than any other aphid on apple foliage. Apple cultivars most seriously infested are Baldwin, Red and Golden Delicious, Cortland, Gravenstein, and Green- ing, but Mcintosh also often serves as an important host of migrat- ing aphids. Additional hosts of the apple aphid include pear, haw- thorn, crabapple, quince, and possibly other members of the rose fami ly . Green apple aphids may infest terminals and water sprouts of fruit trees throughout the growing season. Since winged migratory forms of this insect appear in every generation, rei nf estation and buildup to damaging numbers can occur yery rapidly under favorable conditions. Relatively cool weather with an abundance of rainfall, such as occurred in the summer of 1970, favors succulent tree growth and thus provides favorable conditions for heavy infestation of green apple aphids. Injuries to apple trees by these aphids may appear as follows. (l)Terminal leaves are stunted and distorted, and terminal growth may be crooked and shortened. (2)Fruit and leaves may become black and smutted due to the growth of sooty mold on the honeydew secre- ted by the aphids. (3)With severe infestations, aphids may feed on the fruit causing gnarling and dimpling of the fruit. Several natural enemies of aphids, including small parasitic wasps, the larvae of syrphid flies and lace wing flies, and both larvae and adults of lady beetles prey upon them and thus can gov- ern buildup of aphids. However, most modern-day insecticides used in apple orchards severely restrict these natural predators and therefore make chemical control of measures necessary. These meas- ures may be a part of the regular summer schedule, but regardless of the spray program followed earlier in the season, growers need to watch for aphid buildup in early- and mid-summer. An understand- ing of the life-cycle and possible control measures should help in combatting the green apple aphid. - 9 - Life History Wingless, egg-laying females and wingless males are produced during late September and October. After mating, overwintering eggs are deposited by the females. The shiny, oval, black eggs are indistinguishable from those of the rosy and grain aphids. They are most abundant on water sprouts and the vigorous growth termin- als of both old and young trees. Soon after the fruit buds start to show green in the spring, the eggs begin to hatch, which is ear- lier than for the rosy aphid but later than for the grain aphid. Hatching is complete in 7-10 days and the young nymphs begin to suck sap from the new growth of leaves, stems and flower parts. The first generation nymphs develop into stem mothers in 2 to 3 weeks, about pink or slightly earlier. The stem mothers are a uni- form pale green easily distinguished from the darker banded yellow- ish-green grain aphids and the rosy aphids. Shortly before bloom the stem mothers, without mating, begin to produce living young. Walking about and eating simultaneously while giving birth to their young, they are small prolific aphid factories. Production of living young continues for a month or longer at the rate of 1 to 3 (maximum 10) nymphs per day. The majority of these second generation nymphs develop wings and mi- grate to other parts of the tree or new trees and there again pro- duce living young--the beginnings of new colonies. About half of the next generation and some of the later gener- ations may develop wings, and these forms give birth to living young, all of which are females. The wingless forms on the tree continue to produce living female nymphs increase the number of aphids on the original colony are produced only in the fall. which remain which greatly si te . Males In a single season, 10 to 17 generations may develop depending on weather conditions. All generations may occur on apple trees, whereas the apple grain aphid and rosy aphids spend much of their time away from apples on alternate hosts. Control Spri ng Insurance programs carried out in the early part of the grow- ing season will prevent aphid buildup until late June or early July The severity of rei nfes ta ti on will then depend upon the nearness and abundance of untreated host plants in the vicinity, weather conditions, varieties, the presence of succulent water sprouts, natural enemies on nearby host plants and in the orchard, and the spray program. Early spring control of all aphids is strongly rec- ommended . For best aphid control, use Guthion*or ethion with oil or a formulated ethion-oil mixture at hgif.inch green, or Guthion* or demeton up to pink. 10 Summer The summer buildup of apple aphids may become evident in June and may continue through July during favorable seasons. Water sprouts which are difficult to spray well are suscept- ible to early and continuous, heavy infestations. Terminal foliage may be continously infested and reinfested inasmuch as the new fol- iage may be unprotected by sprays much of the time, especially that which has emerged since the latest application. For control in the summer, include one of the following mater- ials in a regular appl i cati on-- two or more treatments may be necess- ary: ( 1 ) Endosul f an (Thiodan*); ( 2 ) Phosphamidon (which will also control codling moth and give some suppression of mites); (3)Demeton (before leaves harden); (4)Diazinon; ( 5) Dimethoate ; (6)Phosolone (Zolone*) (which showed good promise last year on apple aphids and also controls codling moth, curculio, apple maggots and suppresses red mites when used in a seasonal program). Summer control measures should be undertaken prior to exten- sive curling of the leaves. Applications should be repeated soon enough to prevent buildup after rei nf estation . Try to choose mater- ials which give the advantage of added effectiveness against other pests . *Trade name *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials NOTICE. THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING! PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business ^^ Postage and Fees Paid United States Department of Agriculture I '22JS7/ MR. RADIE H. BUNN FN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, RM . 211 STOCKBRIDGE HALL 01002 FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE MAY-JUNE, 1971 TABLE OF CONTENTS Plant Young Apple Trees Right so They Will Live and Grow Some Thoughts on Weed Control in Strawberries Publication Available 1970 Experiences with Av-Alarm Bird-Scaring Device Weed Control Experiment Initiated at Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Highmoor Farm, 1970 Herbicides and Winter Injury Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. PLANT YOUNG APPLE TREES RIGHT SO THEY WILL LIVE AND GROW C.J Professor of Gilgut Plant Pathology There is more to planting young apple trees than just getting the roots into the ground. They need understanding and tender love and care at planting time and afterward. The following two cases i 1 1 ustrate why . Case No . 1 - One year whips on MM- on sloping land near the top of a hill and others were dying on June 8. 106 rootstock were planted in April. Many were dead When the plants were dug up, all the bark on the underground part of the stem, beginning at the soil line, was dead, foul-smell- ing, slimy and sloughed off to the touch. The wood beneath was discolored, black and watersoaked. All the roots were black and dead . The trees were planted in straight-sided holes, made with a tractor-driven post-hole auger in heavy, hard, compacted clay soil. The soil out of the hole was used to fill in around the roots and stem and was hard, lumpy, and wet. The trees were planted deep - at least 8 inches of stem below the soil surface - in an effort to compensate for the poorer root system of dwarf trees. There was a deep depression around the base of the plant that caused water to run into the straight-sided hole and the water stayed in the poorly drained soil to create a waterlogged condition which kept out air which the roots and stem need. (1) if soil i chance if St of an la (2) and out ter and trees or 1 OS the tr son , b 1 ocati around feel s he trees would have had a better chance of living and growing the planting hole had been dug wider and the compacted heavy n the bottom had been broken up so excess water would have a to drain out and not be trapped around the roots and stem. loamy field soil had been brought in to fill around the roots em instead of the hard, lumpy waterlogging clay soil that came the hole. The loamy field soil is more likely to drain bet- d less likely to waterlog. Admittedly, it takes some time bor to bring it in but no more than it does to dig out dead and replant. Besides, one does not have the cost of new trees s of a growing season. (3) a deep well around the base of ee may be alright in a sandy, well-drained soil in a dry sea- ut it is not alright in a poorly drained soil, or in a swampy on, especially in a wet season. It is better to have the soil the base of the tree level or even slightly mounded. If one there should be a well, it should be reasonably shallow. The roots and stem which is under the ground is as much ing part of the tree as that which is above ground. And, as a 1 i V - all - 2 living things, they require air. The roots are not able to stand too much drying. They need a moist environment and also need some available water in the soil to take up and transport to the upper part of the plant. The stem has its own bark to keep it from dry- ing out and does not need water next to it. Case No. 2 in good well- to accomodate dead . One year whips on MM-106 rootstock were planted drained loamy soil about May 1st in holes large enough the root system. By mid-July over 360 trees were When the trees were dug up and examined, it was found that on many, the bark on the stem below ground was dead from the soil line down to the end of the stem. On many, even the roots were dead, but on others the roots, except for the 1/2 to 1 in. next tn thp stem, were alive and healthy. Still other trees had one or more dead patches of bark below ground girdling the stem but the stem and roots below the girdle were alive and healthy. What happened was this. The grower, in an effort to "push" the trees to get maximum growth the first season sent his hired "help" out two weeks after planting, with instructions to apply 2 handfuls (about 1/2 lb.) of ammonium nitrate to each tree. The help were instructed to scatter it around each tree. Some of the "help" threw the fertilizer at the base of the trees and some of the fertilizer landed against the stem or close enough to it so that rains washed it into the soil against the stem. Two weeks later, one more handful of ammonium nitrate was thrown around each tree . Two handfuls (1/2 lb.) of fertilizer applied within one foot of the stem is 7260 lbs/A. One handful is 3640 lbs/A. The total is 10,900 lbs., or over 5 tons per acre . No wonder the trees died! The United States Department of Agriculture fertilizer recom- mendation for newly planted trees is 1/4 to 1/2 lb. per tree but scattered in an ama within 3 feet of the trunk. Over that much area the application is 807 to 1613 lbs/A, which is quite different from 10,900 lbs/A. Growers can avoid killing trees with fertilizer if they do not use too much and apply it right. If the trees are to be fertilized after planting, do not apply it closer than one foot to the stem - the stem does not need it and cannot use it and may be damaged. Scatter it over the area where the edge of the planting hole is. As the new roots grow near the edge of the planting hole and into the soil surrounding the planting hole, the fertilizer will wash down to the roots over a period of time in amounts that will not harm the roots . *************** - 3 - SOME THOUGHTS ON WEED CONTROL IN STRAWBERRIES Dominic A. Marini Regional Fruit & Vegetable Spec, Southeast Region For 1971, the materials suggested for controlling weeds in strawberry beds are Dacthal*, diphenamid, and Tenoran*. None of these materials controls every weed and none is effective for more than 5 to 6 weeks. These materials are most effective when applied to moist soil followed by about one-half inch of moisture within 3 to 4 days. Dacthal* and diphenamid should be applied before emer- gence of weeds, while Tenoran* may be applied either before or soon after emergence, when weeds are less than one-inch tall. Dacthal* may be applied immediately after setting plants. It is effective for up to one month and there is no limit on the num- ber of successive applications except that it may not be applied between bloom and harvest of the fruiting year. It is most effec- tive for control of crabgrass and other annual grasses, purslane, chickweed and lamb's quarters. Galinsoga, smartweed and ragweed are not effectively controlled by Dacthal*. A late summer or early fall application of Dacthal* is helpful for controlling chickweed. Diphenamid controls weeds for up to 6 weeks. In it was as effective as any other material. It should until plants have become established and have started second application should not be made within 6 months not be applied within 60 days of harvest, ported that it may cause a temporary delay 1970 trials, not be appl i ed to grow. A and it should Some persons have re- in rooting of runners, but this should not affect yields. However, it should not be used on Raritan since there are reports of severe injury to this culti- var in New Jersey. ti ve pi i c on e seas trea i nch tall ing cati pi ic sine Jers For as atio stab on a tmen or . I gal i on a atio e th ey. seve a pre ns se 1 i s h e nd no t, Te 1 ess t is nsoga ids i ns in ere a ral y -emer emed d pi a t wi t noran tall ef f ec , whi n con the re re ears gence to do nts w hi n 6 * is and a ti ve 1 e it trol 1 s p r i n ports 1 n ou trea a be i th n 0 day most nnual for c is 1 i ng c g of of s r trial tment , 1 1 e r jo ot more s of ha ef f ecti grasse ontrol 1 ess eff hickwee the bea e V e r e i s , Tenora but in 19 b . Tenor than two rvest. A ve when b s are les ing most e c t i V e on d and oth ring year njury and n* ap 70, p an* s appl sap roadl s tha broad gras er wi are redu peared ost-eme houl d b i c a t i 0 n ost-eme eaf wee n one-h 1 eaf we ses . A nter an not sug c e d y i e more effec- rgence ap- e used only s in any rgence ds are one a 1 f inch eds i ncl ud- f a 1 1 a p p 1 i ■ nual s . Ap- gested , Ids in New There are a number of different ways that growers can use these herbicides in minimize the amount of cultivation and hoeing *Trade name - 4 needed to grow a strawberry bed. Bear in mind, however, that a certain amount of cultivation is necessary to keep the soil loose and open for rooting of runners. 1. Use Dacthal* at planting, then cultivate and treat again as necessary through the season. 2. Use Dacthal* at planting, then cultivate and treat with diphenamid or Tenoran*. Cultivate and treat again with Dacthal* or Tenoran*. 3. Use Dacthal* at planting followed by Tenoran* soon after weed emergence, then cultivate and apply Tenoran*. 4. Plant, cultivate, and then apply Dacthal*, diphenamid, or Tenoran* . 5. Plant, apply Tenoran* soon after weed emergence, then cultivate and use Dacthal* or diphenamid, then Tenoran* for f al 1 weeds . These are a few of the ways of using the herbicides presently registered for use on strawberries. In using them, be sure to read the label and follow directions as to recommended rates, number of applications, interval between applications, and interval between application and harvest. *************** PUBLICATION AVAILABLE Duane W. Greene Department of Plant and Soil Sciences A in the by Dr. perti ne adaptab for eac General sys terns chards . m a i n t a i of c 0 p i (Revise are av D M bookl propa Rober nt to i 1 i ty h of comm , tre Thi ning es of d Feb ail ab r. Ro i c h i g et descri gation an t F. Carl the prob , t r a i n i n the comme ents are e size c o s booklet a prof i ta this boo ruary, 19 le free o bert F. C an State bing d cul son . 1 ems g, su r c i a 1 provi ntrol i s r bl e 0 klet 71), f cha arl so Uni ve recent ture of There growers pport r ly impo ded con and te ecommen rchard entitle Fruit T rge by n. Room rsi ty , exper f rui are m face equi r rtant c e r n i c h n i q ded a of th d Hor rees wrTTT 303, East i m e n t a t tree any to today ements appl e ng ore ues to s a gu e f utu t i c u 1 1 - Dwar ng to ; Depar Lansi n 1 findings and trends s has been published pics discussed that are The characteristics, and varietal responses rootstocks are described hard planning, planting be used for future or- ide for establishing and re. A limited number ural Report Number 1 finq and Propagation tment of Horti cul ture g, Michigan 48823 *************** 5 - 1970 EXPERIENCES WITH AV-ALARM BIRD-SCARING DEVICE Dominic A . M a r i n i Regional Fruit & Vegetable Spec., Southeast Region Av-Alarm is an electronic device that emits sounds. Accord- ing to the manufacturer, these sounds either frighten or confuse or interfere with the audio communications of birds and other ani- mals, such as deer and rabbits, thereby repelling them and prevent- ing crop damage. Av-Alarm is operated by either battery or electric current. An electric eye turns it on at daybreak and shuts it off at dusk. Various controls regulate the volume of sound, sound frequency, and chirp rate. It can be set to operate continuously or intermit- tently. At high volumes, the hearing of persons directly in line with the speaker can be impaired. To introduce Av-Alarm in Massachusetts, a unit was loaned to us for field testing and demonstration. In cooperation with John Lanier of the Fish and Wildlife Service, an experiment was designed for testing in cultivated blueberries. The cooperation of two PlYn^outh County blueberry growers was obtained, whose plantings are less than 10 miles apart and have similar surroundings. One was used as a check, the other for the test. Also assisting in con- ducting the test were Dr. Glenn Kinney, a research psychologist with the Mitre Corporation, Bedford, Massachusetts and Neil Morton, an Extension Technical Assistant. Beginning in early July, just as the first berries were turn- ing blue, a count was made of all birds seen entering, leaving or in each field for one half-hour every morning. Counting began at 6 A.M. in one field and at 7 A.M. in the other. After one week, the Av-Alarm was installed and set according to the manufacturer's instructions and counting continued another two weeks. About 50% of the birds counted were robins, 40% were grackles and starlings, and the rest were bluejays, catbirds, brown thrashers, orioles and others . ther Following the conclusion of the test on blueberries. Dr. Kinney installed the Av-Alarm in ripening sweet corn which was being dam- aged by migrating blackbirds at the Waltham Field Station, Univer- sity of Massachusetts. Various settings were used, but it was im- possible to keep the birds out of the field. During 1970, at least 4 other Av-Alarm units were in commer- cial Massachusetts blueberry fields. In checking with these growers 3 reported that it was not effective in reducing bird damage, while one felt that it helped. As a further check on the effectiveness of Av-Alarm, two west- ern New York Extension Agents were contacted. One reported that he knew of 2 cherry growers who had had good results with it. The other stated that robins are not a serious problem in western New York and that the overall bird problem has not been serious the past two years . In contacts with the dealer and manufacturer, the reasons given for failure of the Av-Alarm to prevent bird damage to blueberries and sweet corn were as follows: the wrong setting was used, the speaker was in the wrong location, the tests were started too late in the season, the setting was changed too often, it is not very effective against robins or migrating birds. On the basis of experience in 1970, it appears that either the manufacturer must provide more specific instructions for its opera- tion, or improvements must be made in the device to increase its effectiveness if it is to be of significant practical value. *************** WEED CONTROL EXPERIMENT INITIATED AT MAINE AGR. EXP. STATION, HI6HM00R FARM. 1970 Herbert E. Wave Extension Fruit Specialist University of Maine It has been amply demonstrated that grass and broadleaf weed control around apple trees increases the growth rate of the trees. It would seem logical to assume that yield also increases in pro- portion to this increased tree growth - but does it? To answer this question, long-term plots have been established in a young orchard planted in 1969, at Highmoor Farm. These plots will be treated annually, with most of the commonly-used herbicides, and growth and yield records taken. Growth and yield of herbicide- treated plots will be compared to nonchemical weed control (mowing) and no weed control (unmowed) plots. In 1970, the herbicide plots were sprayed with a mounted boom and single nozzle which applied a 3-foot dosage rate of 40 gallons per acre, chemical or combination of chemicals for the paraquat treatment which was i nterval s . tractor- band at a A single application of each was applied on May 15, except applied at approximately 5-week ceas grow mari new cant and cant rate trea than ti on grow reco Growth ed. Th th and zed in growth differ check p ly grea , s i m a z tments . pi ots treatm th from r d s w i 1 mea ese trun Tabl than ence 1 ots ter i ne Th trea ents the 1 be suremen measure k diame el. A either s among . The in plot al one o e check ted wit or mow i n i t i a eval ua ts were ments i ter. R 11 chem mowed the ch average s treat r paraq plots h dal ap ing. T tion of ted whe take ncl ud esul t i cal or ch emi ca trun ed wi uat a had s on , S hese the n tre nine ed the soft treatm eck pi 1 trea k diam t h Sin 1 one , i g n i f i i nb ar" resul t herbi c es bee arly Dece average he 1970 t ents had ots . The tments or eter of t bar* at th than in a cantly le at 2 poun s represe idal trea ome of be mber amoun reatm s i g n i re we betw rees e 3 0 ny of ss tr ds , t nt on tment a r i n g afte t of ents f i ca re n een was r 4 the unk he c e ye s . age r growth new are sum- ntly more 0 s i g n i f i ■ the mowed s i g n i f i - pound other growth ombi na- ar ' s Yield Table 1. The influence of herbicides on vegetative growth of newly established apple trees - Orchard 69, Highmoor Farm - 1970 Treatment - (lbs. prod/a) Growth of terminal + 3 longest -, 1 ateral s/tree (in.) Trunk diameter increase (in.) Sinbar 4#* Sinbar 3#* Sinbar 2#* Simazine 4#* Sinbar 1#*+ Karmex 2#* Simazine 2# + Paraquat 1 Paraquat 1 qt. (3 applic Dalapon 10# Mow 3X Mow 2X Check qt ) 112 111 111 111 104 98 98 90 60 58 47 8a 4a 4a Oa 2a 4a 2a 3a 7b 6b 7b 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 T8a 11a 99b 00b 14a 90b 09a 93b 87b 85b 71c 1 Means followed by the same letter are not by Duncan's multiple range test at the 99% *Trade name significantly different level of probability. *************** HERBICIDES AND WINTER INJURY Duane W. Greene Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Re orts from Washington State, ^'ichigan and Ontario, Canada, suggest that there is a relationship between herbicidal weed con- - 8 and subsequent winter injury. The winter injury problem has restricted exclusively to light sandy soils where the cold in- protection given by water is at a minimum. Trees grown in loam and cultured on a grass or a controlled grass sod gener- show no signs of injury. In Washington State, some rootstock tree vigor influences on winter injury were noted. Red Deli- trol been jury clay ally and cious trees on seedling roots were completely killed by low temper- ature injury, while trees on EM VII were unaffected. Excessive in- jury to low vigor Red Delicious trees on seedling roots was reported whereas more vigorous trees were not injured. Stu Carpenter, Extension Specialist from Southwest Michigan, suggested that the winter injury problem on sandy soils may be con- trol 1 ed by : 1. Partial weed with such as control through Paraquat . the use of contact herbicides 2. A program of herbicides plus mulch. 3. Make the band sprayed in the tree row smaller. It may be added that in Massachusetts one spray application made in early May generally allows sufficient regrowth of grass and weeds by late fall to eliminate the possibility of winter injury to the roots . *************** RESEARCH FROM OTHER AREAS Department Wn 1 iam J . Lord of Plant and Soil Sci ences Concentrate Sprays for Thinning Apples: Our circular on chemical thinning of apples suggests that thinning materials be applied alone and in dilute form (IX). We suspect, however, that some growers concentrate their thinning sprays to some extent--2X to 4X--and furthermore, interest in concentrate spraying has increased drasti- cally during the last 2 years. Therefore, the question arises about the feasibility of concentrating thinning sprays. The principal reason why we have been hesitant to suggest con- centrating thinning sprays is the increased potential for error due to errors in mixing of sprays and in calibration of spray equipment. Doublingthe concentration, doubles the size of any error in thin- ning, the margin for error is often small. Nevertheless, there are examples of successful application of hormone sprays in concentrated applications. We know, for example, that preharvest drop-control materials are concentrated when applied by airplane, and results - 9 - have been good. In applying hormone sprays, the important factor is to apply a given number of grams of actual material per acre whether applied as dilute or as a concentrate spray. Thus, success with these materials is dependent on the accuracy of your applica- tions. Limited studies have been made on chemical thinning with con- centrate sprays. In 1966, C.G. Forshey and M.B. Hoffman in New York, stated that practical experience has shown that thinning re- sults are more consistent if the concentration does not exceed 2X (New York State Aqr. Exp. Sta. Res. Circ. No. 4). More recently, BTF! Rogers and A.H. Thompson, in Maryland, i nves tigated the effec- tiveness of concentrated thinning sprays--rangi ng from 3X to 33X-- and reported their findings in Volume 94 (No. 1) of the Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. Their results are summarized below. A four year study with Rome Beauty apple trees (1964-1967) showed that carbaryl (Sevin*) at concentrations of IX to 33X sig- nificantly thinned this variety 3 out of 4 years. In 1966, the year of failure, the fruit set on the check trees was low and no significant thinning occurred when dilute spray was compared with carbaryl sprays delivered at 33X volume. The use of carbaryl at concentrations up to 33X generally produced fairly consistent re- sults. In 1967, however, carbaryl at 33X thinned less than the IX spray. In 1-year experiments, carbaryl at, IX, 3X and 6X significantly thinned Jonathan apple trees in 1964, and NAA at IX, 3X and 6X sig- nificantly thinned Golden Delicious in 1967. The dilute spray of NAA was more effective than the concentrated ones, however. The studies in Maryland, therefore, indicate that apple trees can be thinned at concentrations as high as 33X. However, much more work is needed before broad recommendations can be made. Since thinning results are somewhat unpredictable, it is questionable whether growers should thin more than a small fraction of the more valuable mid- and late-season varieties with highly concentrated thinning sprays until experience has shown satisfactory results. *Trade name *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials - 10 - NOTICE. THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING! PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts 01002 A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business ^Ifrf Postage and Fees Paid United States Department of Agriculture MR. RADIE H. BUNN FN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, RM. -11 STOCKBRIDGE HALL 01002 FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE JULY-AUGUST 1971 TABLE OF CONTENTS Blueberry Maggot Scorching of Pear Tree Foliage A New Book on Apples Now Available Apple Storage Holdings in Massachusetts Since 1933 Late Summer Fertilization of Strawberries Before Harvest is a Good Time to Evaluate One's Cultural Practices Pomological Paragraphs Don't Waste Money The Apple Maggot Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. BLUEBERRY MAGGOT William E. Tomlinson, Jr. Cranberry Experiment Station, East Wareham Increasing problems with maggoty berries have been of much concern to growers of cultivated blueberries recently. Blueberry maggot is primarily a ripe-fruit pest that attacks the crop most heavily at the peak of the picking season and after. Fruit in netted plantings is particularly vulnerable because it is often allowed to remain unpicked longer for full ripening and sizing than berries in un-netted plantings. Blueberry maggot is a true native insect that has fed on wild blueberries for thousands of years, of all kinds and possibly other wild eating this host picture is the fact tical to the blueberry maggot except this size difference is not reliable the larger-fruited blueberry hybrids these maggots were the same species adapted to different hosts. It also attacks huckleberries smal 1 -berried plants. Compli- that the apple maggot is i den- that is is smaller, and even when the maggots develop in It is more than likely that originally but have become i ts h near the m in la p a r i a in th or mo eel 1 e a pi a wheth about betwe i ng m berry it sp and s The bl ost. the so aggot te Jun , feed e ri pe re in nt cha nti ng . er the 3 wee en 1 ay aggot. and d ends t hape 0 ueberry The ins i 1 surf fed upo e or ea for ab and r i the fie nee for Eggs berry ks pi us i ng of When rops to he w i n t f a ker maggo ect sp un At Ju 10 ace n . rly out p e n i n g Id and survi hatch is in or mi the eg the ma the g er . T nel of t i s ends der t abou ly, t days f rui lay val 0 in 2 the s nus a g and ggot round his i whea admi r the w he bl t the he fl to 2 t. I 200-3 fan to 7 un or few the has f and s tan t. ably ac inter a ueberry time b ies beg weeks n d i V i d u 00 eggs 1 nf esta days de shade . days, s finish i n i s h e d constru in col c 1 i m a s a m bush e r r i e i n to and t al fl so t tion p e n d i The 0 tha of fe feed cts i or an ted t aggot whi c s beg emer hen s ies m hat t once ng on magg tat edi ng ing, i ts pu d is 0 sur i n a h hel i n to ge fr tart ay 1 i here es tab temp ot St 0 4 w by t t lea pari a about vi val pupar d the turn om the to 1 ay ve a m i s an 1 i shed eratur age 1 a eeks e he res ves th i n wh the s on i a berry red se pu- eggs onth ex- i n e and sts 1 apse ul t- e i ch i ze The insect is even adapted to crop failures due to frost or whatever else might happen to kill a prospective crop. Up to 25% of the hibernating larvae do not transform to flies until the second to fourth summer after entering the soil, assuring a con- tinuing infestation without a yearly crop. These are known as carry-over flies. Blueberry maggots are typical fly maggots: white and legless like those of the house fly. Their injury is not spectacular until well advanced. The newly hatched maggots feed largely in the cen- - 2 - ter of the berry and softening of the fruit is minor. However, as the maggot grows it feeds throughout the entire berry under the skin, turning the contents into juice and seeds. A little pressure on the berry at this stage and the maggot will pop right out of the skin along with a gob of purple juice. What can you do about it? One of the old admonitions was to pick on a regular schedule and to pick all ripe fruit when you picked. But now with netting to protect from bird damage, you can let them stay on for real ripening and sizing. Pickers may not be too careful to pick clean even under supervision and "pick your- own" pickers certainly will not pick the bushes clean. Clean reg- ular picking then is next to impossible, and even if it were, re- member that those hold-over flies will be here next year and the year after even though you may have been especially careful this year . trol ri es the vore pi i e ual 2 po as c trol prob will turn Timely . To b and mo picking d i n s e c d on th m a 1 a t h i unds ac ontrol s than c 1 em , ca give a red an a p p 1 i c a e timely re than season . t i c i d e s e same d on as a tual car . Malat arbaryl . rbaryl i cceptabl d repeat t i 0 n s . you one a Mai to us ay be spray baryl hi on How s bet e con ever of mus ppli athi e as rri e or as i s p ever ter trol y 7- sprays or t start b cation w i on and ca they are s are pic 1 pound a spray or robably s , where J than malat of maggo 10 days d dust ef ore 11 be rbary non- ked. ctual dus t omewh apane hi on t. S u r i n g s have g maggots necessa 1 ( S e V i n hazardou Up to 3 m a 1 a t h i per acre at bette se beetl for cont tart whe the pic 1 ven are m s an /4 p on a are r fo es a rol n th king pro i n 0 pr re t d ca ound s a rec r ma re a of i e be sea ven con- the ber- otect for he fa- n be ap- s of act- dust or ommended ggot con- 1 so a t and i t rri es son . *Trade name *************** SCORCHING OF PEAR TREE FOLIAGE William J. Lord and Edward Vlach 1 Last year scorch of pear tree foliage was prevalent in many Massachusetts orchards during the late summer. Frequently, the disorder was present on spur and terminals of several or more branches throughout the trees, the leaves being partially or com- pletely brown or black. The cause of the problem was not deter- mined and individuals differed in their diagnosis of the disorder Generally, it was called heat scorch, mite damage, or magnesium def i ciency . We obtained leaf samples from some of these orchards for mag- nesium analysis. Magnesium levels varied from 0.25-0.40%, which is the same range of concentration found in "normal" apple leaves 3 - in mid-summer. Since it has been shown that pear and apple trees require similar levels of magnesium, it was concluded that magnes- ium deficiency was not responsible for the damage to the pear leaves in the orchards sampled. Since the cause of the pear leaf scorch has not been resolved, we would appreciate hearing from growers if the disorder is again prevalent in 1971. Senior Chemist, West Experiment Station, Univ. of Massachusetts *************** A NEW BOOK ON APPLES NOW AVAILABLE George M. Kessler, Editor Fruit Varieties & Horticultural Digest Department of Horticulture Michigan State University A new book entitled "North American Apples: Varieties, Root- stocks, Outlook" which should be of interest to apple growers is now available from the Michigan State University Press, Box 550, East Lansing, Michigan 48823. In this book, a number of outstanding pomologists and a free- lance writer have succeeded, through their joint efforts, in bring- ing together many interesting and pertinent facts about the leading apple varieties of North America, their bud sports, certain of the minor and discarded varieties, and the important rootstocks. In a chapter entitled "Varieties of Yesteryear", A. P. French gives a brief history and description of a number of old American varieties which have fallen by the wayside or are no longer impor- tant. Emery Wilcox provides significant facts and figures, skill- fully tracing apple variety trends in the United States and Canada during the past 27 years. The major portion of the book consists of a series of chapters dealing with the seven leading North American apple varieties: Delicious, Mcintosh, Golden Delicious, Rome Beauty, Jonathan, Wine- sap, and York Imperial; and the minor variety. Northern Spy. Each chapter reflects the careful research of each author, namely, Virginia Maas (the freelance writer), R.P. Larsen, W.H. Upshall, J.B. Mowry, and E.S. Degman. Fascinating episodes connected with the origin of each variety are revealed. Valuable lists of strains 4 - and new varieties bred from the original varieties are presented by most of the authors. It is unfortunate that such tables are not prepared for Delicious and Golden Delicious, as well. The chapter on rootstocks by R.F. Carlson is a \/ery important part of the book, since the performance of a scion variety is strongly affected by the rootstock to which it is grafted. What is more, one can hardly deny that clonal rootstocks are themselves var- ieties in every way. The mechanisms by which rootstocks control size, and cause flowering and fruiting effects in the scion variety are discussed. The important clonal rootstocks are described, and their strengths and weaknesses pointed out. "North American Apples" is concluded very appropriately and effectively with a chapter entitled "Apple Orchards of Tomorrow", by H.A. Rollins. He sees the commercial apple orchard of the future as more deliberately planned for a specific harvesting technique; as largely either on size-controlling rootstocks, or spur-types on seedling rootstocks; more intensely trained trees; and more gener- ally irrigated and protected from frost than they are now. 'k'kic'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k'k-k-k APPLE STORAGE HOLDINGS IN MASSACHUSETTS SINCE 1933 William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences The data in Table 1 for apple storage holdings on November of the years 1933 to 1970 are of interest since they reveal pro- duction fluctuations and storage trends in Massachusetts. The first million bushel cold storage year on record was 1933 From 1933 to 1939, 2 light crops were stored, but according to records of the late J.K. Shaw of the Pomology Department of the University of Massachusetts, crop reduction was not due to frost. Winter injury and cool weather during bloom reduced crop size in 1934, and in 1938 the blossoming period was prolonged and fruit set on Mcintosh was poor in spite of several days of bee activity. During the next decade, storage holdings varied from a low of 250,000 in 1945, to a high of 2,048,000 in 1949. In 1945, the bloom period was the earliest and most prolonged of any in the past 70 or more years and fully 3 weeks ahead of normal. Records show that flower buds on Mcintosh trees in Amherst were in the Pink stage on April 12. Then came cool weather on April 15, and according to J.K. Shaw, trees that had not blossomed were delayed by cool days and did not bloom much earlier than normal. As a re- sult of these unusual conditions, storage holdings of Mcintosh in 1945 were only 97,000 boxes in comparison to a million boxes the previous year. Table 1. Apple-storage holdings (thousands of bushels) in Massa^ chusetts on November 1, of the years 1933 to 1970. Year 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 Mcintosh All Varieties Regul ar s torage CA storage Pet. stored crop in CA Regul ar storage CA storage Pet. stored crop in CA 588 391 663 556 657 440 979 681 1 ,090 705 1 ,054 878 1,111 747 1 ,309 1 ,137 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 729 1 ,009 879 1 ,031 97 559 874 691 1 ,463 1 ,494 1 ,044 1 ,437 1 ,268 1 ,556 250 943 1 ,558 1 ,139 2,048 2,222 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1 ,429 402 1 ,258 584 1 ,430 730 1 ,362 1 ,012 1 ,023 646 1 208 929 661 602 670 412 638 515 454 555 118 181 397 437 473 585 610 655 667 699 552 623 617 570 510 13 11 28 29 42 32 39 49 52 51 57 49 54 55 47 ,037 767 ,754 ,214 ,166 ,232 ,951 ,594 ,630 ,162 1 ,791 1 ,483 1 ,108 1 ,019 1 .128 771 974 843 804 944 118 8, ,7 194 9, .0 442 21 , ,7 471 22, .4 486 29, .5 634 26, .1 698 32, .0 746 40, .2 788 43, .6 793 41 , .3 679 46, .8 747 43, .4 772 47, .8 758 48, .5 687 42, .1 During the 1950's, we saw the advent of CA storage and reports of apple holdings in this type of storage. There were 3 short crops - 1952, 1954 and 1956, and 5 years with storage holdings in excess of 2 million bushels. The excessively short crop in 1952 was primarily due to a lack of bloom and/or to unfavorable weather at blossom time. Failure of many Mcintosh blocks to bloom in 1952 was apparently related to an excessive crop in 1951, coupled with below average sunlight in June and July of that year which was un- favorable for flower bud initiation. Poor weather for pollination reduced crop size in 1954, and frost on May 25 reduced the crop in 1956. Massachusetts had its largest stored Mcintosh and stored crop of all varieties on record in 1961. During 1965, 1968 and 1969, more than 50% of the Mcintosh crop was stored in CA. But, during the 1960's, there were only 2 years that the stored apple crop ex- ceeded 2 million bushels. Storage holdings of apples grown in Massachusetts may never again exceed 2 million bushels. If current trends continue, we will probably experience a gradual decline in apple storage hold- ings because orchard abandonment is not being offset by new plant- ings. *************** LATE SUMMER FERTILIZATION OF STRAWBERRIES William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences In Massachusetts, the June-bearing varieties of strawberries initiate their flower buds in the fall. If conditions are favor- able, many varieties produce several flower buds in each strawberry crown and consequently produce several inflorescences per plant. The extent of flower bud development seems to be influenced by the supply of available nutrients, particularly nitrogen. A number of experiments have indicated an advantage of build' ing up the nitrogen supply in the fall from the standpoint of in- crease in flower bud formation. However, such factors as earli- ness of runner plant rooting, quality of plants, soil moisture, pest and weed control may have more effect on plant productivity than the fertilizer applications. Many strawberry plantings would probably benefit from a mod- erate application of a nitrogen-carrying fertilizer applied be- tween the middle of August and the first of September. Approxi- mately 30 pounds of actual nitrogen per acre should be adequate. - 7 This amount would be supplied by 100 pounds of ammonium nitrate or 200 pounds of sodium nitrate. A broadcast application of fertilizer at this time may damage the foliage unless precautions are taken. Apply on a clear day of low humidity and with a switch made from brush, shake off any fer- tilizer adhering to the leaves or apply during a rain to avoid burning of the foliage. *************** BEFORE HARVEST EVALUATE ONE'S IS A GOOD TIME TO CULTURAL PRACTICES William J . Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Careful observations of the apple trees and fruits before har- vest can tell the grower a great deal about his fertilizer and pruning practices. In addition, the grower can determine what al- terations, if any, should be made in these practices for the com- i ng year . The amount of terminal growth, and the fruit and foliage color are visual guides by which the grower can make future adjustments in his fertilizer program. Only vigorous trees can produce good crops regularly. An apple tree of bearing age should make 8 to 18 inches of terminal growth per year, depending upon variety. Eight to 15 inches is desired with the Mcintosh, while 12 to 18 inches of terminal growth is preferred on Delicious trees. An annual ter- minal growth of 20 to 30 inches should be made by young non-bearing apple trees. When twig growth is meager on bearing trees (less than 6 inches), try to determine the cause. Droughty soil, insuf- ficient rainfall or pruning, low fertility, root injury, girdling or other factors may be the cause of poor vigor. Visible evidence of magnesium deficiency can be seen if the deficiency exists. Necrotic brown blotches between the veins of older leaves on shoots or spurs and gradual loss of these leaves in late summer are common symptoms of magnesium deficiency. Fruit color is an Intosh apples has been gen and potassium levels in the trogen, low potassium trees are than those from medium nitrogen shorter storage life. important consideration. The color of Mc- found to be associated with both the nitrO' foliage. The fruits from high ni' apt to be poor in color, softer high potassium trees and have - 8 Our nutritional work with Mcintosh trees has shown that fruits of high color are produced by trees with medium levels of nitrogen and high levels of potassium. Before fruit color is blamed on nutrition, the grower should first determine if insufficient pruning and tree crowding are af- fecting color. The size, color and quality of fruit are affected considerably by pruning. The number and location of small, poorly colored apples show v/hich branches or parts of branches need atten- tion during the pruning season. The time and effort spent trying to pick those apples on the high branches of tall trees should be a forceful reminder that something should be done. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS Don ' t Was te Money : Laboratory tests show that about six ounces of pesticide remain in a five gallon can after a good effort has been made to empty the can. Up to one quart may remain in a fifty gal- lon drum. Rinse the containers two or three times, emptying the rinse water into the sprayer. If a chemical costs twenty dollars per gallon, six ounces cost almost one dollar. - (From Delaware "Pesticide Briefs" #3) The Appi e Maggot: According to Dr. Merrill L, Cleveland, Assis- tant Chief of USDA's Fruit Insects Branch at Beltsville, Maryland, apple maggots have the potential to cause a 100 percent loss of the apple crop; however, the utilization of insecticides holds the loss to less than 1 per cent. According to the USDA, apple maggots are a problem mostly in the New England states. New York, and the Great Lakes states. They also infest apples to a lesser extent as far south as Georgia and westward to the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas and Oklahoma. Ideally, for satisfactory maggot control, all the hosts (neg- lected or wild apple trees and native hawthorne bushes) should be removed from the area. Apple maggot management problems decrease with the enlargement of such sterile areas. Orchardists should not only attempt to eradicate all alternate hosts and abandoned apple trees but, at the same time, use proper control methods to combat the maggots in their own orchards. - G.L. Jensen, Extension Entomol ogy . *************** - 9 - All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publica- tion . When trade names are used for identification, no product endorse- ment is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar material s . NOTICE. THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING! PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, IVlassachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Postage and Fees Paid United States Department of Agriculture MR. HADIE H. BUNN COLLKGS OF AGHICULT'JRE, STOCKBFilDGE HALL FN RM. 211 01002 FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER. 1971 TABLE OF CONTENTS Some Innovations in the Operation of CA Rooms Cider Notes Pomological Paragraph Jonathan Spot on Idared Apples Soil Treatments for Nematode Control on Strawberries Harvesting and Storing Pears Paint or Whitewash for Peach Tree Trunks Rabbit Control in Blueberries Pomological paragraph The "Mini" Fashion in Skirts and Cars Orchard Mouse Identification Orchard Mouse Control Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and Cotonty Extension Services cooperating. SOME INNOVATIONS IN THE OPERATION OF CA ROOMS R,M. Smock Cornell University Dr. P. Marcellin, a French research worker, has developed two yery ingenious units for maintaining the atmospheres in CA storages. We have tested both of these units to see if they had any application for American conditions. appl e dow" the a the " ygen 1 ungs uni t pi es pal 1 e posed space add a si tua i s no tache cabi n the 0 bags goes with "auto bags tai n en De point al so In ou as we be as The fi s with in it. ppl e c diffus will d e X c h a showed at 1 ea ts is to ta must pples . t i 0 n i t such The se d to a e t wit xygen that w too hi this u mati c. as req a 2% c 1 i c i 0 u ed to woul d r t r i a coul d cheap rst idea heavy p Field rates ar ion wind if fuse t nge oxyg that on St every not prac ke out s be left The sy n the US a probl sea II 1 nvo olyet heat e ow hroug en an e rea few t i c a 1 ome 0 aroun stem A. I em. 1 ved hyl en i s f i led i The h thi d car lly s days. . If f the d the just n Fra coven ng e film w rst remo n this h theory i s membra b 0 n d i 0 X hould an Such f the oxy appl es pal lets didn't s nee , i t an ith ved eavy s th ne 0 i de . alyz requ gen from for eem i s u enti a si from wei at c r wi Ou e th ent goes the mov to b sed re pal 1 icone the p ght po arbon ndow m r test e pal 1 analys too 1 pal 1 e ement e prac in c a V let lo rubbe allet lyethy d i 0 x i d uch 1 i s wi th et 1 oa es of ow , on t load to rem t i c a 1 es whe ad 0 r "w and 1 ene e an ke a thi d of so m e i s . E ove for re s f i n- then wi th d ox- n i m a 1 s ap- any sup- xtra or our pace cond comm h pos drops ere p gh, t nit a " On ui red arbon s and the f mean 1 s we wi th as w idea erci i ti V too revi he s nd 0 e ne . W di 0 cer act that cou wat ater of D al CA e air 1 ow ously ame m ur CO eds t e wer xi de tai n that we c 1 d no er or or d r. Marc room. moveme i n a CA not in ove i s n c 1 u s i 0 0 analy e not c level a other V the uni ould no t get a d ry 1 i ry 1 ime e 1 1 i n Large nt to room , opera made . ns fol ze dai 0 n V i n c s i s r a r i e t i t work t use s exac me scr scrub i nvol "bag and f one t i 0 n . We d 1 ow. ly an ed th equi r es . ed be it fo t con u b b i n b i n g . ved a s" ar rom t opens If id a The d ope at th ed fo Ci rcu st at r "ha trol g. T unit e sus he CA up 0 the c numbe syste n or e uni r Del mstan 37-3 rd ro of th he un that pended room, ne or arbon r of t ms are cl ose t coul i ci ous tial e 8*F. oms" a e atmo i t wou i s at- i n a If more di oxi de ests not the d m a i n - , Gold- vidence This t spheres Id not 32°F An innovation that comes from Holland is the "Oxy-drain" unit This unit is a nitrogen generator that employs ammonia as the gas instead of propane. The ammonia is "cracked" in the machine and the hydrogen produced is burned. As a result one gets nitrogen produced with yery low oxygen levels. This is similar to Tectrol (no longer produced) or Arcat units except that no carbon dioxide results from combustion. As a result no scrubber is needed to - 2 care for the carbon dioxide produced by the unit. G.D. Blanpied, at Cornell, has burnt hydrogen in an Arcat unit as a means of burn- ing out the ethylene in CA rooms. It is not clear that there was any advantage in this, however. The trials on this machine have been made in Holland and we do not have comparative costs for it and Arcat. The costs of removing the carbon dioxide produced by the Arcat unit during the pull down period are not very high if one uses dry lime. *************** I CIDER NOTES Department of K.M, Food Hayes Science and Technology Qual i ty Consumers are becoming more critical of everything they buy-- not only from a price aspect, but from a quality point of view. With living costs continually rising, consumers want value for their money. Quality in food refers to taste, appearance, color, cost per serving, and keeping quality. Cider is not a necessary food item in most budgets. Cider is basically a beverage to be enjoyed, and if the qualitv is low or the keeping quality poor, repeat purchases can easily be eliminated. Have you examined your cider critically as a consumer would? Take a half gallon and subject it to the conditions that the buyer does. Taste a glassful--is it musty? chlorine off-flavor? taste like dirty press cloths? insipid? Do this until the container is empty. Did it start to ferment? Did the last glass look and taste like the first? Or, go out and buy from several other stands, have your wife pour samples including yours in unmarked glasses--now taste and judge. If you pick your own as best, now try to main- tain the year's run that way or even improve. If yours comes out second or third best, what is wrong? Remember, quality is a si- 1 ent sal esman I Sani tati on I The keeping quality of cider is directly related to the sani- tation practices observed during the operating season. Unsanitary practices foster the growth of microorganisms, which cause fermen- tation or produce undesirable flavors in the final product. - 3 - After a day's run, observe the following procedures in clean- ing the cider plant: Dismantle the press for cleaning. Rinse it thoroughly with a hose to remove surface dirt. Scrub all parts of the press thor- oughly, using a sanitizing or detergent-sanitizing solution. Where possible, use hot water, for both the rinsing and the scrub- bing operations. Sanitizing compounds may be of the chlorine or quaternary am- monium types. Dairy-cleaning compounds are usually of these types, and they are easily obtained. Directions given by the manufacturer of the solution for cleaning dairy equipment will be satisfactory for cider plants. Ref ri gerati on Many cider mill operations including all certified operators use refrigeration to preserve cider. Cider should be cooled immed- iately after pressing and stored at a temperature between 32 and 36 F. At these temperatures, cider retains its original flavor for one to two weeks without danger of fermentation. Settling can take place under refrigeration. Refrigeration is especially adaptable where cold storage fac- ilities for fresh fruit are available. If a refrigerated room is not available, the operator can install an insulated tank and cool the cider with a small refrigeration unit. For display purposes at roadside, used upright display cabi- nets with glass doors are excellent. These self-contained units can be often purchased from companies supplying equipment to re- tail stores. Household refrigerators can also be used. The im- portant feature when making and selling cider is to keep it under refrigeration at all times to maintain the quality. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Jonathan spot on Idared apples: Last season, a storage disorder that has been identified as Jonathan spot developed on Idared ap- ples in Massachusetts. This comes as no great surprise, since Jon- athan is one of the parents of Idared. Jonathan spot appears as a discoloration of the skin, ranging Trom bluish-black to brown on the blushed portion of the fruit, and from greenish-brown to brown on the unblushed portion. Spot sizes range from barely visible to half the size of a dime, often on the same fruit. Initially, the spots appear as small, round areas, then increase in diameter and eventually join to form large, irregular, discolored patches. Upon aging, the spots become brown. The cause of by late harvest, the storage period storing the apples Jonathan spot is unknown, but it is accentuated Reasonable control can be obtained by limiting air at 32 F to no more than 60 days, or by °'^ CA storage at 3% O2 and 1% Z^^. ^ n i n 32 *************** SOIL TREATMENTS FOR NEMATODE CONTROL ON STRAWBERRIES Richard A. Rohde Department of Plant Pathology There are probably "^^T)/ few commercial strawberry growers in the state, who are without some experience with soil fumigation. This experience may range from personal use, to observation of a neighbor's fields, to demonstrations by regional specialists or chemical companies. Reactions vary from enthusiastic acceptance to lukewarm skepticism and many feel that it is probably a good idea and "maybe I'll try it next year." If next year is to be that year, now is the time to plan fall soil fumigation in prepa- ration for new beds to be set next spring Should I fumigate? Each field has its own set of conditions, and whether or not disease organisms build up to a point where they cause trouble is largely a matter of crop sequence, tempera- ture, moisture, organic matter, and a host of unknowns. Many of these unknowns will also determine whether or not a chemical treat- ment will work. Poor growth of plants will lead you to suspect a problem, a soil test may confirm that a nematode problem is pres- ent, and a trial application of chemical may lead to better growth What can be used? use bef 0 of t ence wate pera More prec text amou i n p in Ma re pi he so thei r fil tures than isely ure , nt of roper ssac anti i 1 m r ef Is a di any ace moi s che huse ng. ass . feet i r s seas oth ordi ture mica the tts. They The i vene paces e org er gr ng to , and 1 is enti r Chemi cal : (Brands ) Listed below are fumigants registered for All are liquids that are injected into soil become gases that diffuse through all parts re are a number of factors that can influ- ss: organic matter absorbs th"ese fumes; soil and prevents their spread; and at low tem- anisms are very resistant to toxic fumes. oup of pesticides, fumigants must be applied directions. Unless the soil temperature, organic matter are right, and the proper deposited at the right depth and is sealed e treatment may be useless. Remarks ethylene dibromide (Dowfume W-85*) Preplant fumigants used primar- ily for nematode control. dichloropropene - dichloropro- pane mixture (Shell D-D*, Vidden-D*) dichloropropene (Tel one*) dichloropropene mixture plus methyl i sothi ocyanate (Vorlex*) Lowest rates recommended by man- ufacturer give primarily nematode control. Increased dosages give additional soil fungus and weed control . Companies which manufacture soil chemicals can supply detailed information on application equipment. In addition, custom appli- cators are available who will not only apply treatments, but can give advice based on their rather wide experience. The chemicals listed above are those generally in use. In addition, your regional specialist can supply you with the names of others that may be of use under special conditions. One of these is DBCP (Nemagon*, Fumazone*), a fumigant which does not injure strawberries at low rates and can be used on growing plants. ± ^ Trade name A final word should be added about the importance of clean plants. It does no good to fumigate soil if disease organisms are immediately added back to the soil with the roots of new plants. The use of healthy-appearing planting stock from a reliable souce is the best insurance against this. *************** HARVESTING AND STORING PEARS W.J. Bramlage and J.F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Most pears grown in New England are marketed locally by the grower, which means that high quality is necessary for repeat sales at the roadside stand or retail store. Pears can be a quality commodity, but producing this quality requires The fruit must be harvested at the right stage, stored and ripened properly to produce this premium quality. very high special care correctly , In determining pear maturity, the Magness-Tayl or pressure tester is used the same way as on apples, with one very important exception: a 5/16" diameter head must be used instead of the 7/16" head used for apples. Since the green pears are much harder than apples, the smaller head is essential to get a meaningful reading. Using the 5/16" head, the following pressure-test ranges have been established as indices of optimum maturity for major varieties: Bartlett, 20-17 pounds; Bosc, 15-12 pounds; Anjou, 15-13 pounds; Comice, 13-11 pounds; Gorham and Flemish, 14-12 pounds. It is important that pears be harvested at the proper stage of maturity. Fruit picked too early tends to shrivel in storage and to develop poor quality when ripened, while over-maturity re- sults in shortened storage life and the development of breakdown disorders. Susceptibility to certain physiological disorders, es- pecially C0„ injury, is associated with advanced maturity. All varieties of pears can perature at which they will not be stored safely at the lowest freeze, which ranges from 27 to tem-^ 29°F Therefore, in a pears should be at 30 rather storage with stored at than 32-34° will a 30°F good temperature-control system, for maximum storage life. Storage lengthen storage life significantly Since pears are quite prone to shriveling, especially at the narrow stem-end of the fruit, humidity control is particularly im- portant. Maintaining the storage at 90-95% R.H. is considered to be optimum. However, packing the pears in perforated polyethylene bags is an excellent way to control shriveling due to moisture 1 OSS .J>^ The Anjou variety of pear is ^ery susceptible to scald. It has been found that dipping the fruit in 2700 ppm ethoxyquin (Stop- scald*) will provide adequate control of this disorder. A fungi- cide is commonly applied with the Stopscald to reduce decay during storage. Two new fungicides currently being tested show great promise for controlling decay of pears. Benomyl at 300-500 ppm and thiabendazole at 500-700 ppm, both applied as a postharvest dip, have given excellent decay control on pears. However, neither ma- terial has yet received EPA clearance and therefore, neither may yet be used commercially. Pears have been shown to respond well to CA , although the com- mercial adoption of this storage method has been less for pears than for apples. It has been found in the West that the best at- mosphere for Bartlett and Anjou is dependent on the maturity of the fruit. If picked at the recommended firmness, 1% 0^, and 5% CO^ produce a major benefit in preserving quality. However, if the fruit are softer than this at harvest, they possess a sensitivity to CO2 that results in the development of browncore. In California, it is recommended that such fruit, if stored in CA, be held at 1% Op and near 0% CO^- In New York, tests have produced a recommenda- tion of 2.5% Op and less than 2.5% COp for maximum benefits on Bartlett and Bosc, and these recommenaati ons may be considered as best for Eastern-grown pears. This recommendation does not make a distinction for maturity differences, because pears destined for storage should be harvested at the recommended firmness. The New York tests have shown that while pears and apples can generally be stored together without harm, an interaction between Bartlett pears and Delicious apples can occur that results in an increased rate of breakdown of the pears. It would therefore ap- pear wise to store apples and pears separately if possible. Varieties differ in their storage life, and this inherent dif- ference is accentuated by the harvest maturity and the storage con- ditions to which they are subjected. In general, however, Bartletts seldom keep well beyond December-January, Boscs beyond February, or Anjous beyond March. Pears may lose their capacity to ripen prop- erly with too-long storage, and this terminal point of storage is usually shown by light yellowing of the skin of pears in the stor- age room. Trade Name. - 8 - Perh ri peni ng be ripene i ty is to yet only is the cu sumer wit are ripen consumer the satis been gene aps the greatest deterrent to prime quality is improper of pears. Most pears do not ripen in storage, thus must d after storage. All that is needed to achieve peak qual- hold them at 60-65°F until sufficiently soft and yellow, too often they never attain this peak. Proper ripening Imination of all the grower's efforts to provide the con- h a high quality item. If the pears are not ripened or ed at too high or too low a temperature, not only is the being robbed of quality, the grower is being robbed of faction, reputation, and repeat sales that could have rated by that lost quality. *************** PAINT OR WHITEWASH FOR PEACH TREE TRUNKS William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences At a twilight meeting last May, the author mentioned seeing peach trees in New Jersey painted with either latex paint or white- wash to help reflect heat and keep trunks cooler during warm days in mid-winter. On sunny, winter days, large amounts of heat are accumulated by the tree trunk and trunk temperature may rise 4oof or more above air temperature. At night, trunk temperatures fall to near air temperature. If the tissues are not dormant, the ex- treme temperature fluctuations can cause injury to the cambium (dividing) and phloem (food conducting) tissues in the trunk and upward into the lower scaffold limbs. Winter-injured trees are more susceptible to peach cankers which cause extensive damage in Massachusetts . It was suggested at the twilight meeting that some information concerning the recommendations in New Jersey for painting or white- washing peach tree trunks be tion below was obtained from Horticultural News published Society and prepared by E. G Uni versi ty . included in Fruit Notes. The informa- an article in January, 1971, issue of by the New Jersey State Horticultural Christ, Extension Pomologist, Rutgers "Peach trees that are 3 to 5 years of age are most susceptible to cold damage and it has been shown that the southwest side of the tree trunk can reach temperatures as much as 45° or 500 p. higher than the air temperature on a sunny day in January and February. A study in Hammonton during the winter of 1965-66, reported in November, 1966 Horticultural News, showed on one day, February 8, 1966, air temperature was 390F. The whitewashed southwest side of a peach tree reached a maximum of 520F., but the unpainted tree trunk was at 84.50F. The air temperature dropped to 14.50F. at 1:00 a.m. on February 9, This was the greatest drop in temperature - 9 - (70 degrees) in the bark of the tree trunk in a 12-hour period. Some growers have used latex paint and some use whitewash. Whitewash is cheaper, of course, but does not last as long. Les Miller, Agricultural Agent in Camden County, has tried many white- wash mixtures and the best for applying with a spray gun is as f ol 1 ows : For 100 gallons of water, add 300 to 400 pounds of hydrated lime plus 2 to 3 pounds of table salt plus commercial spreader- sticker. This mixture sticks best if drying is slow and after a rain when the trunk is wet or damp." (Editor's Note: For more detailed information on "Cold Injury to Peach Trees", refer to an article by William J. Bramlage in the January-February, 1971, issue of Frui t Notes . ) RABBIT CONTROL IN BLUEBERRIES By: Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 451 Russell Street Hadley, Ma. 01035 Cottontail rabbits are important game animals, and they fur- nish a great deal of hunting recreation. However, in small, local areas rabbits may cause a great deal of damage to blueberry crops, orchards, and nursery stock. It is in situations such as these that control measures are necessary to prevent damage. Rabbits, like most animals, have living area preferences. Any area supporting dense vegetative cover, such as overgrown ditches, brushy fence rows, or brush piles, may harbor these animals. One method of controlling rabbits is to modify or remove the cover they need for protection. A good mowing, brush cutting, or general clean- up and removal of vegetation and brush may be all that is needed to control them. Us damage . desi rab a repel proximi which m A p p 1 i c a d i t i 0 n s rial fr offers . most ef shoul d e of Whe 1 e as 1 ent : ty of ay po ti on , sin om tr Rep fecti be fo taste repellents is another method of reducing rabbit n properly applied, repel 1 ents make treated plants less food. Three factors determine the effectiveness of thoroughness of application; weather conditions; and existing rabbit food and cover. All areas of the plant ssibly experience damage should be covered completely, must be heavy enough to withstand adverse weather con- ce frequent rains and snows erode and dilute the mate- eated plants and reduce the amount of protection it ellents containing thiram or Z-A.C.*have proven to be ve. For best results, the manufacturer's recommendations 1 lowed. *Trade designation - 10 - For winter protection, all bark, stems and twigs to a height that rabbits might reach during the heaviest snow accumulation must receive a complete and heavy application. Treatment should be made in the fall, prior to snowfall. After a series of heavy storms, or by midwinter, the blue- berry bushes should be checked to determine if the repellent is still giving adequate protection. If damage is occurring, retreat- ment should be made on the first warm day. Fencing is a third method that can be used to protect relativ- ely small areas of blueberries. Any fence of 2-inch mesh that is tightly staked to the ground and is high enough to be well above the maximum snow depth, will give protection. Live trapping also can be an effective means of removing individual animals causing damage to blueberry bushes. Although rabbits are active at any time of day or night, the peak of their activity occurs just before sunrise and just after sunset; thus, live traps should be set prior to these peak activity periods. Rabbits usually do not have definite trails going from their cover to their feeding grounds. There may be one or two fixed points where rabbits regularly enter. Those areas showing constant rab- bit activity, or damage, are the logical places for setting live traps. (Note: Rabbits are game animals in most states; therefore. State Game Laws or the Conservation Officer should be consulted before trappi ng . ) In areas having a high rabbit population and a constant history of injury, rabbit damage to crops may be reduced by hunting the animals. During the legal hunting season, local hunters should be encouraged to hunt in these areas. ************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH The "Mini" Fashion in Skirts and Cars the apple o density pla search Stat planted per the first y inhibiting and fruitin ing year by The next ye again contr The cycle i complete au ilizer addi grown more and develop staff at Lo (no. 1 ) , Ja rchard in the form of min nting comes from Dr. J. P ion in England. About 50 acre to produce 100 tons ear of planting, the tree chemical, which encourage g. The apple trees are h "mowing" the trees about ar new shoot growth occur oiled with chemicals when s repeated biennially. T tomation of the operation tion, and climate control efficiently as a row crop ment of this mini-tree cu ng Ashton.-- L. D. Tukey, nuary, 1971. i -trees . Hudso ,000 mi of app s are s s the p arveste 2 inch s , and growth his typ : i r r i g . It a than a Iture a Penn . seems . Thi n of t n i - 1 r e 1 es ev prayed roduct d mech es abo f 1 ower is ab e of c a t i 0 n , 1 so en s an 0 re bei State to ha s i de he Lo es on ery t wi th ion 0 a n i c a ve th bud out 2 ul tur pest abl es rchar ng CO Hort. ve spre a of a ng Asht EM IX wo year Alar, f flowe lly the e draft f ormati feet i e facil contro apples d. Res nti nued Revi ew ad to high on Re- are s. In a growth r buds f ol 1 ow- uni on . on is n height i tates 1, fert- to be earch by the s: 20 PINE VOLE Smal 1 Body Short Tai 1 Sunken Eyes Fine, Brown Fur Burrows Underground 11 ORCHARD MOUSE IDENTIFICATION Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service MEADOW VOLE Large Body Long Tail Prominent Eyes Coarse , Brown Fur Makes Surface Trai 1 s ADULT MALES (3/4 actual size) These are the two mice that cause considerable damage to apple orchards during the winter months. Measurements and weights of the mice in the photograph are: Specie Weight Total Length Tail Hind Foot Pine Vole 21.5 grams 4-3/8 inches 5/8 inches 5/8 inches Meadow Vole 34.3 grams 6-3/8 inches 1-5/8 inches 7/8 inches Presence of either of these .animal s should be suspected if trees - 12 - are losing their vigor, leaves are small and have a yellowish cast, or if suckers or water sprouts have enierged--i ndi cati ng root damage. Both Pine and Meadow Mice may or may not inhabit the same area at the same time. Consequently, it is wise to examine the orchard for both species and utilize the recommended control measures, PINE VOLE. Although not as abundant as the Meadow Vole, this animal is found in many orchards in the State. It may be present throughout the orchard, or its presence may be restricted to an area of only a few trees. Pine Mice are burrowing rodents, with an underground sys- tem of trails that emerge periodically to the surface. In the late fall, these emergent corridors frequently can be identified by the pile of fresh soil pushed out by these animals. The holes and under- ground trails are smaller in diameter (seldom exceed 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 inches) than those made by Meadow Mice. Damage to trees by the Pine Vole is below the ground surface and consists of chewing and girdling the root system. Because the damage is unseen, it must be discovered before severe tree damage occurs. MEADOW VOLE. This animal has a wide distribution and frequently large populations. It is found in almost any area of dense grass cover, where it builds a maze of surface trails. Its presence is easily detected by parting the grass and looking for the trail sys- tem and its associated piles of fresh grass clippings and droppings. Damage caused by the Meadow Vole usually is above the surface of the ground, and on apple trees consists of bark chewing or complete girdling of the stem. Quite often tooth marks up to 1/8-inch will be found on the damaged stem. ************** ORCHARD MOUSE CONTROL Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Do you know that the most numerous mammals on earth are the voles Untold millions of these mouse-like animals inhabit the Northern Hemisphere. Parts of this large group of animals are the pine and meadow mice, found in the orchards of Massachusetts. These two ani- mals, like all voles, are extremely prolific. They have 4-8 young at one time and up to several litters per year. In a "number game" such as this, it is easy to see why fruit growers must do something each fall to protect their orchards from the damage pine and meadow mice may cause during the winter. As in previous years, a permit for bait application must be ob- tained from the Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Game, 100 Cambridge Street, Boston, Ma. 02202, before any control work is started. - 13 - Meadow mice can be controlled adequately with a fall application of Zinc Phosphi de- treated grain. On large acreages, the use of the Trail Builder Machine or broadcast method, at the rate of 6-10 pounds per acre, is most practical. Limit broadcasting to the tree row or block being treated; this is where the most protection is needed. All sections of the orchard having meadow mice should be treated once. Those sections having an overabundance of mice should receive a second treatment. Hand broadcasting or placing of apple cubes treated with Zinc Phosphide Rodenticide is a good followup method for the trouble spots. In hand broadcasting, the following guidelines may be useful: 10 pounds of Zinc Phosphi de- treated Oats = 900 teaspoon-size baits OR enough to treat approximately 225 apple trees. 1 ounce of Zinc Phosphide Rodenticide will prepare 16 quarts of 1/2-inch apple cubes, and will be enough to treat approxima- tely 400 apple trees. The adequate control of pine mice still depends upon placing the baits where the mice can locate them. Since these mice spend most of their time in underground burrow systems, baits that are broadcast will not give consistently good control. To date, trail baiting either with the Trail Builder Machine or by hand placement in the runways has been the only effective method of pine mouse control. The recom- mended materials are the Zinc Phosphide-treated baits that are used for meadow mouse control . To achieve proper mouse control, choose weather conditions care- fully. Three consecutive days of warm, sunny weather will give the best results. Under these conditions, the mice will be most active and most apt to locate and feed on the bait placements. All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Postage and Fees Paid United States Department of Agriculture MR. RADIE H. BUNN FN 'College of agriculture, pm. eii STOCKBRIDGE HALL Hie- ^ ■V 01002 FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE NOVEMBER-DECEMBER. 1971 TABLE OF CONTENTS New England Fruit Meetings and Trade Show Apple Juice or Apple Cider European Apple Sawfly - Its Life History and Control ./Temperature for McJntosti CA Rooms Pomoiogical Paragraptis Registration of amino triazole cancelled Is cross pollination important for strawberries? Ttie Harrow Peach Varieties Publications Available Pomoiogical Paragraphs Golden Delicious Plantings on EM VII Rootstock Plantings on EM IX Rootstock Tree Spacing and Fruit Quality Fruit Notes Index for 1971 Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. NEW ENGLAND FRUIT MEETINGS AND TRADE SHOW The New England Fruit Meetings and Trade Show will be held at the New Hampshire Highway Hotel, Concord, New Hampshire. The meet- ings are scheduled for January 5 and 6, 1972. The hotel is accessible from all major highways. Routes 3 and 93, which lead to Concord, are accessible from anywhere in Massa- chusetts. Persons coming from Western Massachusetts and Southern Vermont may find the most convenient route to be Routes 9 or 10 to Keene, New Hampshire, and then Routes 9, 202, 89 and 93 to the Highway Hotel . This year a buffet meal is planned on the evening of the first day instead of the banquet. The buffet will be followed by a short speaking program and then dancing. For the Woman's Program at 2:00 P.M. on January 5, we are fortunate to have Mr. George Michael as host. George Michael is well-known as the Editor of the monthly magazine, the National Antiques Review, and has authored three books: ANTIQUING WITH GEORGE MICHAEL, THE TREASURY OF NEW ENGLAND ANTIQUES and the forth- coming ANTIQUES OF THE FEDERAL PERIOD. He has served as antiques columnist for the Christian Science Monitor, N.H. Profiles Maga- zine, and still does a weekly column on N.H. Americana for the statewide N.H. Sunday News. Listed below are the tentative topics and speakers as of October for the N.E. Meetings. Increasing Calcium Content in Apples Miklos Faust^ USDA, Beltsville, Md. Incorporation of Family-Held Farm Business John Draytorij C.P.A.j Manchester, N.E. Fruit Growing in Urban Southeastern Pennsylvania Tom Styer, Langhorne, Pennsylvania Integrated Pest Management in Apple Orchards in Pennsylvania Dean Asquith, Pennsylvania State University Air Pollution of Vegetation in the Northeast John Naegele , University of Massachusetts Panel Discussion on - Agricultural Land Use, Value and Assessment Eugene Engel, University of Massachusetts , Moderator (Names of panel participants will appear on the program) Single Applications of Fungicides for Scab Control M.T. Hilborn, University of Maine New Apple Varieties James Cummins, Cornell University Apple Tree Performance on Size-Control Rootstocks James Cummins, Cornell University - 2 Storage Rots of Apples and Their Control R.H. Dairies, Rutgers University Physiology and Effects of Newer Spray Materials on Fruit Finish R.H. Dairies, Rutgers University Interaction of Alar, Ethephon and Preharvest Drop Control Chemicals on Fruit Quality at Harvest Duane W. Greene, University of Massachusetts *************** APPLE JUICE OR APPLE CIDER Department of K.M Food Hayes Science and Technology Many juice and consumers ask , apple cider?" "What is the difference between apple Apple juice is generally understood to be sweet cider that has been treated by some method to prevent spoilage as long as the can, bottle, or other type of container is kept hermetically sealed. Sweet cider is generally thought of as the product sold fresh with- out any permanent preservation treatment. I tend to describe apple juice as being less brown than cider, clear, and having been treated. Sweet cider, on the other hand, has more body (and flavor), is dark brown and is fermentable after a week or 10 days. One could go on and on by describing packaging, sales outlets, geographical distribution area, etc. Another de- scription might be that one seldom finds apple juice being sold at roadside markets. To sum up and give you a legal definition, this is USDA's definition of canned apple juice: Canned apple juice is unfermented liquid prepared from the first pressing juice of properly prepared sound, fresh apples, ex- cluding the liquid obtained from any additional residual apple material. Such apple juice is prepared without any concentration, without dilution, or without the addition of sweetening ingredi- ents; may be processed with or without the addition of antioxidants; and is sufficiently processed by heat to assure preservation of the product in hermetically sealed containers (either metal or glass). Doesn't fresh sweet cider sound better? *************** - 3 EUROPEAN APPLE SAWFLY - ITS LIFE HISTORY AND CONTROL Gary L. Department of Jensen Entomology One of our Regional Fruit Specialists reports that scars from European sawfly larvae feeding are the most prevalent insect in- jury on the Massachusetts apple crop. Life Cycle and Description Adult sawflies are about 1/4 inch long, dark brown or dorsally (on top) and yellow-brown ventrally (underneath), heads and antennae are yellow, while the eyes are black. black Their The sawflies overwinter as full-grown larvae encased in small parchment-like cocoons in the upper 2 or 3 inches of soil under in- fested apple trees. In the spring, the larvae change to pupae and then to adults. Adults emerge from the soil at about the time the early apples bloom. Thus, early apple cultivars are the most ser- iously damaged by this insect. Ad weeks . the bio the egg the sur calyx e They em a new a charact on the core, t soon le eral fr "June d the ski scarred packing more se ul ts are The fern ssom end s hatch face of nd. As erge fro pple and eristic surface he 1 arva ave to e ui ts . A rop" whi n remain by the operati rious da acti al es of n and t the a the 1 m the tunn depos of th e wor nter 11 fr le th on t feedi ons b mage ve 1 n lay 0 ewly he ti pple arvae i r tu el di it of e you k bac other ui ts ose 0 he tr ng , t ut ar that the 0 ne or devel 0 ny 1 ar skins, matur nnel a rectly reddi ng dev k towa appl e that a nly tu ee unt hat at e not resul t rchar two 0 ping vae s ofte e, th nd en towa sh-br el opi rd th s. 0 re tu nnel e il ha tract neces ed ea d for a val , sh appl es . tart to n i n a ey Chan ter the rd the own fra ng appl e surfa ne larv nnel ed d under rvest . attent s a r i 1 y r 1 i e r i pen 0 i ny CO In a tunne spiral ge the si de core . ss is es. A ce of a may to the neath It is ion d u an i nd n the d of one lorless e week to 1 just be starti ng i r feedi n of the ap At this readily n fter reac the fruit thus i n j u core fal the surfa these ap ring grad i c a t i 0 n o season . to two ggs at 10 days, neath at the g habits pi e or stage, a 0 1 i c e d hing the and re sev- 1 during ce of pies, i n g and f the The young sawfly larvae, which are sometimes confused with the larvae of the codling moth, are white with black heads which later become yellow. They are never pinkish in color as are cod- 4 - ling moth larvae, and they have 8 pairs of prolegs on the abdomen, while codling moth larvae have only 5 pairs of prolegs. Addition- ally, the damage caused by sawfly larvae occurs earlier in the spring than codling moth damage. By late June the sawfly larvae are fully grown and leave the fruit to spin their cocoon in the soil where they remain until the following spring when they emerge as adults. Control Measures The European apple sawfly should be controlled at the petal fall stage as soon as three-fourths of the petals have fallen. It is important to get some of the spray material into the calyx cup before it closes, which means an application as soon as the petals fall. Guthion*, Gardona*, parathion and dieldrin are all effective; however, the effectiveness of Imidan* and Zolone* are not fully known . *Trade name *************** TEMPERATURE FOR McINTOSH CA ROOMS life 35-36 (comp qual i ports to be CA op we al Mclnt fruit lots from i n V 0 1 CA oper of appl °F. Th ared to ty of M of occ COp i n erators so have osh in i njury of f r u i 1 oweri n ved . ators s es by r ere is the re cintosh asi onal jury) i have m a few their C may no t i n a g the t houl d educi no ev comme . On mark n som a i n t a peopl A roo t app gi ven emper not ng th i d e n c nded the ed in e CA i ned e i n ms at ear i room ature endeav e temp e that 37-38° other crease rooms temper Massac 35-36 n most . Obv to 35 or to eratur this F) wil hand , s i n f in New atures husett ^. I years iously -36°F improv e of M reduct 1 impr there lesh b York at 35 s who t i s q or on , the do not e the m cintosh ion in ove the have be rowni ng State w -36*F. have be ui te po ly on 0 absence warren arket CA r tempe keep en so (con here Appa en ho s s i b 1 c c a s i of b t the able ooms to rature ing me re- si dered a few rently , 1 di ng e that onal e n e f i t s ri sks F.W. Southwick *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS Registration of amino triazole cancelled: On June 16, 1971, the Environmental Protection Agency issued an order cancelling regis- tration of amino triazole (amitrole) for use on food croplands. This means that the use of Amizine* which is a mixture of amitrole and simazine, for broadleaf weed and grass control in non-bearing - 5 - and bearing orchards is no longer permitted. No other chemical containing amino triazole has been recommended for orchard use in Massachusetts for the last several years. *Trade name *************** Is cross pollination important for strawberries? Research con- ducted at the University of Vermont indicates that it is. Each strawberry blossom contains from 100 to 500 pistils, which must be individually pollinated and fertilized by separate grains of pollen. The more pistils that are fertilized, the lar- ger and better formed will be the fruit; if fertilization is in- complete, the fruit either fails to form or else forms but is mis- shapen. Pollination may occur through the action of gravity, wind, or insects, especially solitary bees. Tests were recently conducted at the University of Vermont to determine which is the most effec- tive means of pollination. Some plants were covered with plastic and blossoms were hand-pollinated; others were covered with screens and blossoms were wind-pollinated; others were covered with plastic and blossoms were not pollinated. Still other plants were left uncovered and allowed to be insect-pollinated. Those plants left uncovered and allowed to be insect-pollin- ated had twice the yield of hand-pollinated plants and several times the yield of wind-pollinated plants, and plants on which blossoms were not pollinated produced no fruit. Berry size was largest where insect pollination had occurred, and presumably cross- pollination had occurred. One of the practical implications from this research is the importance of applying insecticides for control of cutworms and other pests prior to blossoming, so that insect pollinators are not killed by these chemicals. - Dominic A. Marini, Southeast Region *************** THE HARROW PEACH VARIETIES J.F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences There has been much interest expressed in the new Harrow peach varieties by growers in Massachusetts. Since these varieties have not been tested in our college plantings, we have secured per- - 6 mission to reprint descriptions and comments on the Harrow vari- eties as found in the University of Kentucky Miscellaneous Publi- cation 371-B, Peach Variety Performance - 1970. This publication, describing the performance of some 36 varieties is the result of a cooperative variety evaluation program maintained by Frank T. Street, Peach Grower, Henderson, Kentucky, W.D. Armstrong, Exten- sion Horticulturist, University of Kentucky and L.M. Caldwell of the West Kentucky Experiment Substation. Unless otherwise noted, the descriptions of the following Har- row varieties is based on their performance in Mr. Street's or- chards at Henderson. The dates under the variety name is the aver- age of the harvest dates for 1968, 1969, and 1970, the first date indicating the beginning and the second the end of harvest for that variety. Harbel 1 e (Harrow 429) (H) Nonbrowning, a winter-hardy attractive, July 5-10 productive freestone. Medium-sized, firm fruit with snappy red color, rich 5 weeks before Elbevta flesh color, of average quality. Prom- inent tip. Holds well. May be replace- ment for Sunhaven. Overlaps Garnet. Harken (Formerly Harrow Named in 1970 after 3 years of heavy 2066) production at Henderson, Ky., as Harrow July 26-28 2066. An outstanding prospect! '^ery nonbrowning, medium-large, very long 3-4 weeks before Siberia hanging, high quality, attractive red, with bright yellow ground color develop- ing yery early. Firm fleshed. Highly resistant to B. pruni.* Reportedly more bud hardy than Redhaven. Yellow free- stone. Harbri te (Harrow 430) Obtained but not yet fruited in Ken- (Same season as Harken) tucky . Description taken from Canada. Winter hardy, resistant to B. pruni. 3-4 weeks before Elberta Fruits bright with 70% red color. Sizes readily. Flesh is rich yellow. Non- browning. A sister variety to Harken, ripening at the same time. Yellow free- stone . Harmony (Canadian Harmony) Nonbrowning; a large firm peach with 80% (Harrow 1748) bright red over attractive background. July 29-August 6 Stays firm. Reported very winter hardy. Productive, high quality. May become a 1-2 weeks before Elberta substitute for Loring where a hardy peach is required. Had some B. pruni on leaves in 1970, but none on fruit. Yellow freestone. *Bacterial leaf spot *************** - 7 PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE Available from Washington State University, Pullman, Washing- ton is E.M. 3462 entitled 'Bitter Pit' - A Physiological Disorder of Apple Fruit. This publication describes the symptoms of bitter- pit and discusses its occurrence, probable cause and cultural prac- tices influencing its development in fruit. Available from the Cooperative Extension Service, University of New Hampshire, Durham, N.H., are the publications on small fruit culture prepared by Dr. C.A. Langer, Extension Horticulturist, Plant Science Department. Strawberry Culture for New Hampshire - Information Guide #21 Cultural Techniques for Growing Grapes in New Hampshire - Information Guide #20 Raspberry Culture for New Hampshire - Information Guide #22 *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Golden Delicious. Grower interest in Golden Delicious has waned considerably in Massachusetts by those who wholesale this variety. The problem of russet and poor financial returns appear to be the main reasons for the decreased interest in this variety. Plantings on EM VII Rootstock. In some orchards, tree performance on Em VII rootstock is less than satisfactory for one or more of the following reasons: poor soil, poor anchorage, inadequate nu- trition, failure to prune and general lack of care. Our sugges- tions for growing young apple trees appeared in the May-June, 1968, issue of Fruit Notes. Growers should be more selective when choos- ing sites for plantings on size-controlling rootstocks and be more concerned about soil preparation prior to planting and tree care after planting. Being weaker growing, the trees on EM VII root- stock reflect growing conditions and care more sharply than those on seedling rootstocks. Plantings on EM IX Rootstock. Following talks about fruit industry and their highly productive plantings always have a flare-up of interest in this stock. the European on EM IX, we Years ago, our Pomology Department concluded that a full dwarf tree was of no value for commercial orchards in Massachusetts 8 - During the last 10 years, however, there has been a trend to or- chards of small trees planted at high densities with a few plant- ings on EM IX rootstock. None of the growers who have used EM IX are particularly happy with this stock, however, even where the trees have been trellised and vegetation has been controlled by cultivation and/or herbicides. In one of our more recent plantings on EM IX, the trees were budded 15-18 inches in height in hope that staking or t re 11 i sing would not be necessary. Unfortunately, the grower still found it necessary to trellis the trees for stabilization. Tree spacing and fruit quality, failed 20 X 2 County Ohio H to m 0 fee Exte 0 r t i c ai nta t. S nsi on ul tur 1 n pr tatem Agen al So a t i 0 n seedl i cept . d i a g 0 n trees mer Ho The vi t i 0 n t percen of gr n g - m i He p al . at 20 rt To gorou asks tage . owers nded 1 ante Then X 20 ur in s , cr and a has growe d 20 came . Th 1967 owded t the oduct ents t, Ya c i e ty the s rs wh X 20 'Mold e the , emp tree same i V i ty that k i m a , , 196 ame d 0 thi with and me of h a s i z s hav time Fif and folio Wash 9, in if fie nk i n the i Hold' the ed th e com redu ty year fruit q w , by J i n g 1 0 n , di cate ul ty. terms dea of and he North C e faili pi i cate ced his s ago , m u a 1 i ty i ames Bal in Proc any or n bloc 1 ard , e e d i n g chard i sts ks spaced Yakima s of the that the "There a of the s pul 1 i ng is tryi entral W ng of th d the gr extra f prese re sti ingle trees ng to ashing is con ower ' s ancy p nt gener- 1 1 those tree con- on the keep these ton Sum- cept. produc- ack-out The same problems can occur with trees on size-controlling rootstocks because of inadequate spacing. Plantings with close tree Spacings will prove successful only if growers are willing and able to devote the time to the numerous details required for growing high quality fruits in high density plantings. In the may regret their close tree spacings 7 to 12' row for Mcintosh and Delicious on Em VII or MM 106 quality fruit is even more essential than high yields, fruits are not grown on poorly pruned trees with in- future, some apart in the because high High qua! i ty adequate light for maximum tree performance. *************** Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE MR. RADTE H. BUNN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, STOCKBRIDGE HALL FN RM. :-ni 01002 .1', '■■■X-' FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 37 (No. 1) JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 1972 TABLE OF CONTENTS Atlantic City, New Jersey 1972 National Peacti Council Convention Misnamed Trees at Horticultural Research Center, Belchertown Varieties of Peaches for Massachusetts Peach Flower Bud Survival 1970-1971 Early Ripening Apple Varieties — 1971 Important Insect Pests of Massachusetts Cultivated Blueberries Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. ATLANTIC CITY, NEW JERSEY 1972 NATIONAL PEACH COUNCIL CONVENTION FEBRUARY 20-23, 1972 Atlantic City, New Jersey, well known for the "Miss America," summer fun and their eighth wonder of the world - the famous board- walks, will host peach growers February 20-23, 1972, when the National Peach Council Convention convenes. The meeting will be held at the Shelburne Hotel where ample meeting, lodging and dining facilities are available. "Planning for Profit" is the theme for the 31st meeting of the organization. New ideas in production, marketing, promotion, and financing the peach growing operations will highlight the pro- gram . Experts across the nation will discuss promotion on the farm, retailing methods, mechanical harvesting, outlook, farm labor and future marketing methods. A tour through Southern New Jersey is scheduled for Sunday afternoon, February 20. An active ladies program is planned. Visits to historic sites, walking tours in Atlantic City and several meetings are scheduled to coincide with the National Peach Council Meetings during the 3-day program. Anyone interested in the peach industry is invited to attend. Full details and requests can be obtained through Mr. Fred Perkins General Chairman, Rutgers University, Nichol Avenue, New Brunswick New Jersey 08903. Misnamed Trees at Horticultural Research Center, Belchertown One of the major problems encountered in our variety evalua- tion program is that of misnamed trees. The problem is most acute in our peach testing program, where we have had instances where up to 25% of the trees of one variety were not true-to-name and in other instances we have had a complete substitution for the variety This could lead to an inaccurate evaluation of a variety. I am sure that this is also a problem in commercial orchards. *************** 2 - VARIETIES OF PEACHES FOR MASSACHUSETTS J . F . Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Var i ety Recommended for Flesh col or Harvest date* Col 1 i ns Sunrise Erly-Red-Fre Sunhaven Sunshine Jerseyl and Raritan Rose Redhaven Gol dgem Tri ogem Sunhigh Summerqueen Hal ehaven Ri chhaven Redqueen Madi son Cresthaven Elberta T - Trial H - Home Garden C - Commercial Varieties so T Y C Y C + H W C Y T Y C + H Y C + H W C + H Y C Y C + H Y C Y T Y C + H Y C Y T Y T Y T Y C Y Y - Yellow flesh W - White flesh -46 -44 -42 -40 -34 -32 -31 -28 -24 -23 -18 -18 -16 -16 -14 - 7 - 7 0 marked are not *- - Days before Elberta Elberta about 9/15 necessarily equally adapted to all sections of the state. Varietv Notes Collins A firm medium-sized, yellow -fleshed peach. Semi-cling when picked for maximum shipping condition and a freestone when fully mature. The tree is bud-hardy, vigorous and productive. Sunrise An attractive, yel 1 ow-fl eshed peach of good quality for its season. The pit clings unless tree ripe. Sunrise is average in bud hardiness. Erly-Red-Fre An attractive, freestone, white-fleshed peach of medium to large size. The flavor is excellent. The tree is vigorous and above average in bud hardiness. Sunhaven An attractive,, highly colored peach of good quality. The fruit is variable in size, medium to large. The tree is produc- tiveandaboveaverageinbudhardiness. 3 - Sunshine A highly colored, attractive, yellow-fleshed freestone. The tree is vigorous and medium in bud hardiness. Jerseyl and The fruit is large, firm, juicy, freestone and of good flavor. The tree is large, upright and very productive. Bud hardiness is above average. Raritan Rose The fruit is large, round, attractive. The flesh is white, firm and juicy. The tree is large, upright-spreading and produc- tive. The bud hardiness is above average. Redhaven The medium-sized fruit is highly colored, attractive and has firm flesh and fair flavor. The tree is wery productive and re- quires heavy thinning. Gol dgem This large, yellow-fleshed peach has good quality and firmness. The buds are above average in hardiness and the tree has been pro- ducti ve . Tri ogem The fruit is medium to large and wel 1 -col ored . The flesh is smooth, firm and has very good flavor. The tree is medium to large, fairly vigorous and productive. The buds are of average hardiness. Sunhigh The fruit is large, highly colored, freestone and the flesh firm with excellent flavor. The tree is medium in size, produc- tive and susceptible to bacterial spot. Summerqueen A 1 arge, attractive , yellow-fleshed peach of excellent quality. The trees are vigorous, productive and the fruit buds are above average in hardiness. The flowers require cross-pollination. Sum- merqueen is said to be more resistant to bacterial spot than Sun- high. Hal ehaven The fruit is medium to large, attractive and freestone. The flesh is firm and of good flavor. The tree is large, productive and bud hardy. Richhaven A large, attractive, highly colored freestone of very good quality. The tree is large, vigorous and productive. Bud hardi- ness is above average. - 4 Redqueen A large, wel 1 -col ored peach of vigorous and quite productive. Bud age in our trials. good qual i ty . The hardiness has been tree is above aver- Madi son A highly colored, attractive peach with short pubescence. The flesh is yellow, firm, juicy and has a good flavor. This vari ety sets \/ery heavy crops and requires heavy thinning to maintain medium size. Cresthaven This relatively new Michigan variety has our orchards, but is recommended for trial on in other areas. Cresthaven is described as a blushed peach, oblate in shape. The flesh is fibrous in texture, and is bright yellow with The quality is wery good, medium in hardiness. not been tested in basis of performance 1 arge , dark red , f i rm , j ui cy , slightly some red at the pit. The tree is vigorous, productive and Elberta The fruit is large, fairly attractive and a freestone. The flesh is firm, juicy and has fair flavor. The tree is large, vig^ orous and productive. Elberta has wide soil and climatic adapt- ability. *************** PEACH FLOWER BUD SURVIVAL 1970-71 J.F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences As part of our peach variety evaluation program, an estimate of flower bud survival for the various varieties under test at the Horticultural Research Center was made just prior to bloom in May 1971. Results to the nearest 5% are given below. Flower bud Flower bud Variety survival % Variety survival % Rel i ance Dawne Madi son Redqueen Collins Golden Dawn Gol dgem Hal ehaven Redhaven Sunhaven Ri o-Oso-Gem Summerqueen 90 80 75 70 65 65 65 65 65 65 60 55 Fowl er Raritan Rose Redwi n Sunshi ne Redcrest Sunri se Tr i ogem Jefferson Jerseyqueen Washi ngton Blake K i m b 0 50 50 50 45 40 40 40 20 20 15 10 10 *************** 5 - EARLY RIPENING APPLE VARIETIES - 1971 J.F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences This is an apple varieties up-date on under test a previous report on the early-ripening at the Horticultural Research Center. Julyred This New Jersey introduction has been harvested during the first week of August in the last three seasons. The fruits are of medium size, medium red and have a bright, smooth finish. The eat- ing quality was very good for an apple of this season. The handling and keeping qualities are very good. Julyred appears to be very promising. New Jersey #36 This New Jersey introduction ripens in late July and early August. The fruit is wery attractive with a bright, smooth finish and medium red color. This selection has been at least equal to Julyred i n our tri al s . Tydeman's Early (Tydeman's Red) An English variety from a cross of Mcintosh and Worcester Pearmain. This variety, ripening in late August, is similar to Mcintosh in appearance, but is said to The apples have a green undercolor and red blush. The fruit has good quality early fall trade. Tydeman's Early has to Rome. average larger in size, are overlaid with a medium- and looks promising for the a habit of growth similar Paul ared A recent introduction ripening with Tydeman's. The fruits of Paulared are of medium size, roundish-oblate shape and have a bright smooth finish and good red color. Our limited experience, 1970 and 1971 only, suggests that Paulared is worthy of trial. Ni agara This introduction from New York ripens about 10 days before Mcintosh in shape and color, but the fruit from our young trees have tended to be larger in size. The finish has been less than satisfactory in past seasons. The fruit seems more susceptible to russeting and the dots or lenticels have tended to be larger and blurred. Reports on Niagara from other sources have been more fa- vorable and our poor response may be due to local conditions. The quality of Niagara is very good and it has been well received by those who have tried it here at the University. *************** 6 - IMPORTANT INSECT PESTS OF MASSACHUSETTS CULTIVATED BLUEBERRIES William E. Tomlinson, Jr. Cranberry Experiment Station, East Wareham During the pruning operation in late winter and spring, be sure to remove and destroy any i nsect stem galls that are present. This is a pest of certain varieties more than others and can cause serious reduction in fruiting shoots on the Jersey variety and some others. If the removal is reasonably thorough and performed every year, any injury it causes will be ^ery minor. There is no insecticidal control known for this pest. Several species of scale insects infest blueberry. As a rule, old rough-barked canes a>e most seriously attacked and are the source of infestations that spread to the younger parts of the bush. Systematic removal of some of the older canes during prun- ing each year is not only a good pruning procedure, but it will help prevent scale build-up in a planting. If, however, scales do become serious, a dormant or delayed dormant superior oil spray before growth starts in the spring, or malathion sprays when crawl- ers hatch in early June, will control them. Also, during the pruning operation be on the watch for evi- dences of blueberry stem borer attack. Though infested canes should be removed below any signs of boring whenever noticed, be on the watch for their characteristic, elongated, orange-colored excrement pe llets under infested canes when pruning. Locate the cane that is being attacked and remove it. If the borer is farther down in the crown, probe for it with a wire or slender twig to be sure it is killed. After the fruit buds swell but before the blossoms open, check for the presence of cranberry weevil and currant fruit weevil on bushes near the edge of the planting on quiet, warm sunny days. These are both long snouted beetles only about 1/16 inch long. The cranberry weevil is dark reddish-brown with a few scattered white scales on the wing covers, whereas the currant fruit weevil is a uniform light reddish-brown color. The cranberry weevils feed on and lay eggs in the unopened blossoms within which the grub hatches and feeds. The currant fruit weevil feeds on the small fruit and stems of the fruit where the eggs are laid. When the eggs hatch the grubs tunnel into the berry and feed in the devel oping fruit. Currant fruit weevil grubs are frequently still present in small shrivelled fruit in early pickings. In spite of their small size, often do cause serious crop losses one becomes established in a field crease in severity year after year pi i e d . both of these weevils can and Once an infestation of either it is likely to persist and in- until control measures are ap- Two applications of methoxychlor or Guthion, the first when weevils are first found and repeated once before opening of bloom, control s both . As soon as the blossoms begin to drop and berries begin to enlarge, they are subject to attack by cranberry fruitworm, cherry f rui tworm , plum curculio and currant fruit weevils if the~last was not controlled earlier. PI um curcul i o is a rough sculptured snout beetle about a quarter of an inch long, mottled with dark brown, black, yellow and white scales. Though its crescent shaped oviposition scar is occasionally noticed on blueberries in Massachusetts, it is not serious enough here to require spraying for it alone as it some- times is in New Jersey and North Carolina. Cranberry fruitworm and cherry fruitworm often seriously at- tack the green immature blueberry fruit in Massachusetts plantings Their relative importance varies from field to field and from year to year. Usually both are present, but often only one is abundant for a period of years only to be replaced in importance by the other . The feeding of cranberry fruitworm is the more obvious of the two because of the frassy web it makes as it feeds in a cluster of berries. Each cranberry fruitworm destroys half a dozen or more berries before it finishes feeding. The caterpillar is green un- til nearly mature when it becomes tinged with red on the back and sides. When mature, the worm is close to 1/2 inch long. When through feeding, the worm drops to the ground and spins an oval cocoon of sand, plant debris and silk at or close to the soil sur- face. The winter is spent in the larval stage in the cocoon and pupation occurs in the spring. Moths are in flight when the ber- ries are setting and growing. The moths have a wing expanse of about 3/4 of an inch. The forewings are dark gray above with a slight pinkish tinge and with a basal and median white area, the latter one with two black dots. The moths fly in the evening. They lay their eggs in the calyx of the berry. - 8 In about 5 days, the egg hatches and the worm enters a fruit and commences to feed therein until the entire seeds and flesh are consumed and nothing is left but a skin full of worm castings. This procedure is repeated in as many berries as are necessary for completion of larval development which may be most of the berries in a cl us ter . The cherry fruitworm feeds in the berries but makes no obvious webbing so that often premature coloring is the first sign the grower notices of their presence. Each worm feeds in 2 or 3 ber- ries before reaching maturity. They can, however, make up in num- bers for their smaller size and appetites. In yery severe infesta- tions, as many as 75 worms have emerged from a pint of berries and 2 or 3 dozen per pint is not uncommon in heavy infestations. The cherry fruitworm is a bright orange-red color and is about 1/3 inch long when mature. When through feeding, the worm has the habit of boring into old pruning stubs or dried weed stalks near the bush where it hibernates till spring when it pupates and transforms in- to a small black moth with a wing expanse of about 3/8 of an inch. The cherry fruitworm moth's peak flight is during the same period as that of the cranberry fruitworm moth--toward the end of bloom and shortly thereafter, when there is an abundance of small fruit on which to feed. Eggs are laid singly on berries and on leaves near berry clusters. Control of the two fruitworms is obtained by two or three ap- plications of mala th ion, carbaryl or Guthion at 7 to 10 day inter- vals beginning toward the close of bloom. otes habi ts The worms they become bush (it their heads Also troublesome from time to time are D a t a n a feed in colonies of several dozen individuals and large they strip the foliage from a branch or a small seems, overnight). When disturbed, Datana worn.s raise and anal segments in a characteristic alert pose. The full-grown worm is about 2 inches long with a dark head and body, a yellowish "neck" and longitudinal yellowish stripes on the body. Another worm with a colonial habit is the fall webworm. These caterpillars spin a white web as they move about and completely en- close their feeding area. The mature larva is about an inch long, pale yellow with a smoky stripe down the back and a yellowish stripe along the sides. The body is covered with white to reddish hairs. 9 - The easiest way to control both Datena and fall webworms is to remove the colony of worms and destroy it. Don't waste insecti- cides on them. A heavy foot works very well here. Spi ttl ebugs and plant bugs are minor pests that are controlled by fruitworm sprays or other sprays used in a cared for planting. The sharp-nosed leafhopper, which spreads blueberry stunt dis- ease, is important if not controlled in a field where stunt is present, but the fruitworm and maggot applications keep it subdued in fields sprayed for any of these other pests, *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO IJOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAAALAGE Vol. 37 (No. 2) MARCH-APRIL, 1972 TABLE OF CONTENTS Bitter Pit and Similar Fruit Spots Cork Spot of Delicious and Suggestions for Its Possible Reduction Tarnished Plant Bug - Its Life History and Control Pomological Paragraph Central Leader Trees Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. BITTER PIT AND SIMILAR FRUIT SPOTS^ George E. Mattus, Horticulture Dept. VPI and State University, Blacksburg, Va Bitter pit has long been a disorder in the apple growing areas of the world but pitting seems to be more of a problem today in the U.S. on varieties that once had less bitter pit. Cork spot, a problem in Yorks for many years, has in recent years become a problem in Red Delicious and occasionally on other varieties in the Cumberland-Shenandoah apple growing area. Bitter Pit Bitter pit is evident as small, brown, soft, dried pits of collapsed tissue. Most of the pitting is just beneath the apple skin and primarily in the blossom half of the apple. Although some bitter pit develops in the orchard before pick- ing (tree pit), in the Virginia area most of the pit develops af- ter harvest (storage pit). One current view is that low calcium pies results in bitter pit although there relationships. in the peel area of ap- are many complex inter- The question arises as to the causes of the increased inci- dence of bitter pit in recent years. We are no longer coating leaves with calcium as we did with lime used in many spray combinations years ago. Today's red sports can be grown at higher nitrogen and higher vigor levels and still develop good red color. With higher nitrogen and more vigor, there tends to be lower calcium in the fruit and increased bitter pit. Also, present day orchards have more young bearing trees which de- velop more pit than older trees. Bigger and better leaf surface than in the "old days" provides more fruit shading and more leaf competition for available calcium in the tree. Earlier red color of apples with improved red sports and use of scald inhibitors now permits earlier picking for storage which results in an increased amount of bitter pit. A listing of factors that may influence the incidence of bit- ter pit should help in considering the inter-relationships that may relate to this disorder. The simplified general trends of factors are indicated below according to the world-wide results up to 1971 in the view of this author. 1 Excerpts from an article that appeared in Vol. 52 of Horti cul tural News published by the N.J. State Horticultural Society, Sept., 1971 A. THE TREE AND FRUIT Factor 1. Variety 2. Sport 3. Rootstock 4. Root injury 5. Young trees 6. Vigorous trees 7. Light crops 8. Off-year-crop 9. High leaf/fruit ratio 10. Defoliation 11. Injured foliage 12. Larger fruit 13. Russeted fruit 14. Side fruits in cluster Bitter Pit effects severity may be influenced may be influenced i ncreased i ncreased i ncreased increased i ncreased i ncreased decreased decreased i ncreased decreased i ncreased B. THE WEATHER AND ATMOSPHERE Factor 1. Late rainfall 2. Fluctuating moisture 3. Low relative humidity 4. High temperatures 5. Excessive transpiration 6. Ultraviolet rays 7. Air pollution Bitter Pit i ncreased i ncreased? i ncreased? i ncreased? i ncreased ? ? CULTURAL PRACTICES Factor 1. Heavy pruning 2. Summer pruning 3. Fruit thinning 4. Delayed thinning 5 . Ringing 6. Late irrigation 7. Overt re e sprinklers Bitter Pit 1 ncreased decreased i ncreased less increase i ncreased i ncreased may be decreased D. SOIL AND NUTRITION Factor 1. Wet or dry soil 2. Low pH 3. Adequate 1 ime 4. Low calcium (Ca) 5. Excess N 6. High N/Ca 7. High K or K/Ca 8. High Mg or Mg/Ca 9. High P Bitter Pit i ncreased increased may decrease i ncreased i ncreased increased i ncreased i ncreased increased? Factor 10. Excess micro elements 11. Low B 12. Adequate B 13. Excess B 14. Ammonium sulphate 15. Ammonium nitrate 16. Urea 17. Sodium nitrate 18. Calcium nitrate Bitter Pit may be increased may be increased no effect i ncreased may be increased may be increased no direct increase no direct increase may be decreased? E. SPRAYS AND CHEMICALS Factor 1. Calcium nitrate sprays 2. Cal ci um sal ts 3. Nutra-Phos 24 sprays 4. Soluble boron sprays 5. TIBA spray 6 . Alar spray 7. DPA spray 8. Insecticides 9. Fungicides 10. Wetting agents 11. Herbicides 12. Anti -transpi rants 13. Some hormones 14. Calcium chloride dip Bitter Pit decreased decreased some decrease no decrease greatly increased slight decrease slight decrease ? ? ? ? may be decreased? may be decreased may be decreased F. HARVESTING AND HANDLING Factor 1. Early harvesting 2. Del ayed storage 3. Waxing before storage 4. Marketing without storage 5. Slow storage cooling 6. High storage humidity 7. CA storage Bitter Pit greatly increased hastened del ayed decreased hastened del ayed del ayed Fruit blocks with a history of bitter pit need modifications in cultural and handling practices. Reduce use of nitrogen fer- tilization, reduce heavy pruning, reduce fruit thinning, encourage heavier crops, do not harvest early, market immediately without storage or store for 2 to 3 months to be able to sort out bitter pit before packing for shipment. Bitter pit development may to a large measure be most directly due to low calcium in the peel area of apples. It is very diffi- cult to increase the calcium supply to the fruit. In the Virginia area, the current single best method of increasing calcium in the - 4 - peel area of the apple and decreasing bitter pit after harvest is by the use of calcium nitrate sprays before harvest. Bitter pit tests in Virginia over the past 10 years are shown in the following table. Year Check 1961 10.0 1962 31.4 1963 12.4 1965 18.6 1967 11.9 1968 3.0 1969 0.5 1970 17.1 % BITTER PIT Cal ci urn Nitrate Sprayed 0 1, 7, 9, 6, 0, 0, 8, Average 13.1 4.4 % Reducti on of Bitter Pit 96 94 38 50 45 80 60 50 66 Cork Spot To help characterize cork spot, we might look at how cork spot differs from bitter pit in the Virginia area. Cork spot develops during the growing season and is always present at harvest time while bitter pit is initiated during the growing season but pitting usually develops after harvest. Cork spots are small to large brown spots located near the surface or deep in the flesh while bitter pits are small, usually just below the surface and mostly present in the blossom end of the apple . Cork spots are harder than the surrounding flesh while bitter pits are softer than the flesh. Evidence of cork spots start to appear in our area in July but may develop up to harvest. Some severe cork spotted fruits may drop before normal harvest. In addition to cork spot of the York variety, at times called York Spot, cork spot has been a problem in some seasons on Red De- licious and to a lesser extent on Golden Delicious and Stayman in our area . Cork spot may be virus related but bitter pit is probably not. Many of the factors that increase bitter pit also appear to in^ fluence cork spot in a similar manner. *************** CORK SPOT OF DELICIOUS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR ITS POSSIBLE REDUCTION W.J. Lord, Department Mack Drake and J.H. Baker of Plant and Soil Sciences Bitter pit has long been a problem in Massachusetts, particu- larly on Baldwin and Northern Spy. Of the varieties now commer- cially important, Cortland appears to be the only one on which bitter pit is of major concern. However, cork spot is a disorder similar to bitter pit. It was evident this past season that cork spot can be a serious problem on Red Delicious, Because a large number of young Delicious trees are now coming into production and because of the high market value of their fruit, this disorder could take on major economic significance. Chemical analysis of peel of Red Delicious fruit by Drs. Mack Drake and John Baker, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Uni- versity of Massachusetts, this past season, showed that low calcium in the peel was associated with both cork spot and bitter pit. Those of you that were in attendance at the New England Fruit meetings held on January 5 and 6, 1972, heard Drs. Drake and Miklos Faust, U.S.D.A., discuss the problems associated with increasing calcium in the fruit. (These presentations will appear in the Pro- ceedings of the New England Fruit Meetings.) It was evident from these talks that (1) the many factors that increase bitter pit also influence cork spot; and (2) that effective control measures of both disorders are yet to be perfected. The following measures for the reduction of cork on Red Delicious were suggested. 1. Continue to apply 3 tons of limestone per acre e\/ery 2 to 3 years. Where high magnesium lime was used in the last application, the use of a more soluble high calcium lime will act more rapidly and will provide more calcium. 2. Change from ammonium nitrate or urea sources of fertili- zer nitrogen to calcium nitrate. Calcium nitrate ferti- lizer quickly increases the level of soluble soil calci- um, increases the downward movement of calcium, and raises the pH of the soil. - 6 - Apply a dormant spray of zinc sulfate (36%) at a dilute rate of 20 lbs per 100 gallons; do not concentrate this spray above 2X. Do not apply it within 3 or 4 days of another spray, such as oil. If a dormant spray of zinc sulfate is not applied, use a zinc-containing fungicide in 3 or 4 of the cover sprays. Maintain leaf boron levels between 35-50 ppm. This can be accomplished either by soil or foliar applications of boron. Soil applications of boron (B) should be applied to orchards every 3 years. Borax is the common material used. The rates of application per tree vary with age and size. Apply 1/4 lb of fertilizer borate (high-grade - 13.6%) or its equivalent to young trees, 1/2-3/4 lb to medium age and size trees, and 3/4-1 lb to large or mature trees . If the soil application of boron is followed by a wet spring and summer, it may be advisable to apply 2 foliar applications of boron the following year. Many g The us the fi 7 days grit a shoul d Conseq acre i the ad ( d i 1 u t these trees . can be rowers ual pr rs t sp 1 ater nd sho recei uently n each d i t i 0 n e b a s i trees . Repo conce now acti c ray i . Fe ul d n ve 4 , the of t of 1 s) to Use rts f ntrat rely e i s n 1 at rtili ot be pound goal he 2 /2 po the the rom N ed up on annua to add S e bloom zer grad used in s of Sol is to a appl i cat und of S 2 sprays same tim ew York to 8X w 1 fol ol ubo and t es of asp ubor* ppiy ions, ol ubo meet i ngs State ith s lar app r* to 2 he seco borax rayer. per ac about 2 For y r* per s the B recomme i ndi ca ati sfac 1 i c a t i spray nd abo may co Matur re eac pound oung 0 100 ga requi nded f te tha tory r ons of B. s. Apply ut 5 to n t a i n e trees h year, s per rchards , 1 Ions rement of or mature t sprays esul ts . Apply 3 to 5 calcium nitrate sprays at 10 day intervals starting 2 weeks after petal-fall. We suggest using cal- cium nitrate (fertilizer or technical grade) at the rate of 5 lbs per 100 gallons of water. A spreader or wetting agent, such as Triton B, should be used at the rate of 3 fluid ounces per 100 gallons of water. *************** *Trade name TARNISHED PLANT BUG — ITS LIFE HISTORY AND CONTROL G . L . Jensen Extension Entomologist This small brownish flattened bug is perhaps the most diver- sified plant feeder of all our economic pests, feeding on over 50 economic plants besides many weeds and grasses. Several vegetables, cotton, alfalfa and flowering plants are attacked as well as most deciduous and small fruits. Tarni s ted th United buds 0 m i n a 1 feed , va i nt i 0 u s s and de dwarfe of bea apples also h sides from d peach smal 1 . "cat-f fully tal e e by pi a hed p rough Stat f fru shoot they 0 the orts vel op d and ns , s and ave s of th own , had b Thi a c i n g devel V i d e n nt bu 1 ant out t es . it tr s and i n t r 0 pi an of in i ng f pi tt trawb pears unken e fru 1 ooki een p s inj ." A oped ce of gs. bugs he wo They ees , f rui duce t whi j u r i e rui t ed as e r r i e . Pe area it wh ng as artly ury i deep apple earl are di rl d an attack i n j u r i t. As a 1 0 X i ch cau s. Th may be in th s , pea aches s on t i ch ar thoug gouge s also di mpl s i s t ier fe s t r i b u - d the the ng ter- they c s a 1 i - ses var- e buds e case ches , may he e free h the d when called e on ell- e d i n g Fig. 1. The adult tarnished plant bugj Lygus lineolaris . of a general brown color with yellow, reddish brown, and bl the posterior third is a clea triangular, black dot. Tarnished plant bugs over- winter as adults under leaf litter, stones and other sheltered areas. Adult tarnished plant bugs are about 1/4 inch long, less than half as broad, flattened and oval in outline (Figure 1). They are small irregular splotches of white, ack. Along each side of the body at r yellow triangle tipped with a small. Tarnished plant bugs become active early in the spring and seek out the host plants. They are difficult to find because of their shy habits and protective coloration; however, one can find the bleeding buds which are evidence of their feeding. Bleeding buds show a small drop of sap which exudes from the wound caused by the plant bugs piercing mouthparts. The buds of apples and pears are attacked as soon as the green tissues are fully exposed and begin to separate in the cluster. - 8 - Among the numerous host plants, those which are near the flower- ing stage are preferred. Hence a continuous succession of plants are attacked as they reach the favorable stage. These pests rarely breed on fruit trees; their activities on these hosts are apparently restricted primarily to feeding. The life cycle from egg to adult is completed in 3 to 4 weeks. In New England, there are several generations per year and the bugs may become numerous late in the season. Controls are aimed at the early overwintering forms, however, due to the nature of damage which they inflict on the young developing fruit buds. In pear orchards where plant bugs are a problem, use Guthion* or Gardona* in the pre-blossom spray and again in the petal-fall spray. Apple trees should be treated at the late half-inch-green or up-to-pink stage with the same materials. In the 1972 Apple Fruit Spray Guide, tarnished plant bugs were first mentioned under the pink spray; however, they can be a problem earlier if periods of high temperatures occur and treat- ments may be necessary through the petal-fall spray. *Trade name *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Central Leader Trees: The Extension Pomologist is of the opinion that central leader trees being advocated in other areas for high density plantings differ little from the modified central leader trees suggested for our apple orchards in Massachusetts for many years. However, there is greater emphasis on the following as- pects of training young trees for high density plantings. 1. Use of mechanical into a horizontal devices to spread scaffold branches posi tion . Heading scaffold branches (removal year-old wood) to stiffen them and growth . of a portion of one- to promote lateral 3. Heading of the central leader to produce lateral growth if no lateral branching has occurred. Our biggest challenge is maintaining a central leader on trees with size-control rootstocks because (l)being weaker growing than those on seedling roots, the presence of excessive scaffold limbs more readily stunt the growth of the leader above them and (2)early fruiting on the leader reduces its vigor and its dominance. *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE MH. RADTE H. BUNN FN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, RM. 211 STOCKBRIDGE HALL 01002 1972 COLLEGE OF AGRiCuLTURE UNlVEPxSITY OF MASS. FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W, J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 37 (No. 3) MAY- JUNE, 1972 TABLE OF CONTENTS Pollination in High Density Apple Orchards Pomological Paragraph Weed control - apple orchards Don't Gamble on Frost with Straw/berries Pollination of Cultivated Highbush Blueberries Leaf Analysis of Pear Orchards in 1971 Manganese Deficiency Problem Weeds in Apple Orchards and Their Control Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. POLLINATION IN HIGH DENSITY APPLE ORCHARDS^ M.D. Levin Entomology Research Division, Agr. Res. Serv., USDA Beltsville, Maryland "Most of our information concerning the apicultural aspects of apple pollination has been obtained over the years with stan- dard trees and plantings. Therefore, the recent trend to high density plantings requires us to reevaulate recommendations for supplying optimum pollination. I intend to discuss the factors affecting pollination and to point out those that are more criti- cal in high density plantings. However, much of what we now know about pollination is as valid for high density plantings as it is for standard orchards. For example, our basic knowledge about ap- ple trees and our understanding of the concept of compatibility are still pertinent. Our definitions of the various terms are the same: Pol lination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the receptive surface of the stigma. Fruiting is the development of ovarian tissue around the seeds after fertilization. Sel f pol 1 i nation is the transfer of pollen within the same blossom, tree or variety. Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen from one variety to another variety. Sel f-f rui tf ul varieties do not require cross pollination. Cross unfruitful varieties are incompatible and do not set fruit when cross pollinated. Cross fruitful varieties are compatible and do set fruit when cross pollinated. No attempt will be made here to review the floral biology asso- ciated with the pollination of fruit or to discuss how compatibility or cultural, environmental, or genetic factors affect pollination. These subjects are, of course, well known to most of you. Also, you all know that most apple varieties are self-unfruitful so a suitable supply of the right kinds of pollen must be provided for optimum pollination and fruitset. Over the years, a number of ways of meeting this need have evolved, the best being the i nterpl anti ng of suitable varieties. 1 This article appeared in The Maryland Fruit Grower. Vol 41 (No. 1) For i nterpi anti ng in standard plantings, cal ratio is 1:9, that is every third tree in should be a variety that supplies an abundant compatible pollen in synchrony with the bloom This pollenizer variety should also have good have cultural and pruning requirements, chemical sensitivity, and other environmental needs that are in harmony with those of the main variety the optimum practi- every third row volume of viable, of the main variety, marketability and down tern seed much adja dent Howe spac Ther rows the tion four the pi ac make adeq may It is w rows ra in many , and me d i s t a n c cent row ly of th ver, the es betwe efore, t may be hedgerow from th th tree choice 0 ing poll s some 0 uate dis be neces ell do ther t row-p Ions . e betw s , the e row, hedge en row he dis s e r i 0 u s i n s t e p 0 i n in eve f a po eni zer f thes t r i b u t sary. cumented han aero lanted c When tr een thos bees w i which i rows use s much g t r i b u t i 0 sly 1 i m i ead of b t of vie ry row a 11 e n i z e r trees a e factor ion of p that ss row rops s ees ar e in t 1 1 mov s usua d i n h reater n of p ted by etween w of t pol 1 e varie n d m a i s even ol 1 en , foragi n s . We uch as e pi ant he same e betwe lly the i g h den than t ol 1 eni z the mo adjace he a p i c nizer t ty depe n varie more c compro g bees have s alfalf ed so row a en tre case sity p ree sp er pol vement nt row u 1 1 u r i ree . nds on ty tre ri ti ca mi ses tend een th a , saf there s betw es som in s t a 1 anti n aces w 1 en ac of th s. Th st is Howeve many es in 1 . Ne in ore to work is beha f 1 ower , is almo een tho ewhat i ndard p gs make ithin r ross on e bees e optim to make r , as i factors the sam verthel hard ma up and vior pat- onion st as se in ndepen- 1 anti ngs . tree ows . e or more al ong um solu- the ndi cated , , and e row ess, for nagement Other ways exist to provide pollenizer pollen though none are quite as effective as the proper number of optimally located trees: a. In some areas, particularly in the Northwest where aver- age orchards are smaller, purchased pollen is sometimes applied by hand with a brush or duster. b. Large bouquets of a suitable variety can be interspersed along rows of the main variety to provide a temporary supply of pollenizer pollen. c. Trees at intervals within the row can be top-grafted with pollenizer varieties or pulled out and replaced with ap- propriate varieties. - 3 Hive-entrance inserts can be used to furnish poTlenizer pollen for foraging bees to distribute. The complications, limitations, and inconvenience first three alternatives seem obvious. The fourth sug be new to many of you. The hive-entrance insert is a forces outgoing forager bees to walk through a pan or taining live compatible pollen. The pollen is picked body hairs of the bee and carried to the blossoms of t visited by the bees. Several versions of this device used over the years with varying degrees of success, latest modifications have solved some crucial pollinat Therefore, for those of you who are interested in the list some pertinent sources of information at the end per. s of the gestion may device that trough con- up by the he trees have been However, the ion problems detai Is , I of this pa- Once the availability sured, the grower needs to nate the pollen. air, but wind has tion. Therefore, 1 i nations . of a suitable supply of pollen is as- consider the agents that will dissemi- Apple pollen has been found moving through the proved to be a negligible agent in its distribu- insects remain the only important agents of pol- When orchards are relatively small and near much uncultivated land, wild species of bees may still be important pollinators. However, in most commercial plantings, native species cannot be relied upon because their numbers fluctuate widely from year to year. Also, their natural habitats are being reduced as culti- vated acreage increases, which has created a long-term downward trend in population. Commercial orchardists must therefore almost invariably rely on honey bees for adequate pollen dispersal, and they usually do this by renting colonies from beekeepers for the period of bloom. The customary recommendation for orchards of mature standard trees is that at least 1, but preferably 2, colonies per acre be brought into the orchard at the time of 10 to 25% bloom. These colonies should be distributed in groups of 5 to 15 with the intervals be- tween groups about 400 feet, starting about 150 feet from the edges of the orchard. Protection from wind should be provided if possi- ble, and morning sun should reach the colonies to encourage early flight. The same recommendations hold good for high density orchards. Bees tend to forage close to their hives, particularly in cool or windy weather, and interaction between foraging bees from differ- ent groups tends to crowd the bees closer to their hives. There- fore, groups of 5 to 15 colonies should be spaced evenly through- out the orchard to insure better distribution of pollinating for- agers, especially during periods of poor weather. - 4 - A d i V i d u trees popul a area b obtai n the li u 1 a 1 1 0 resul t i n g a r t i 0 n . t i 0 n 0 these where tend t oni es In add ny pro be kep should light 1 so , we al bees or to a t i 0 n s a ecause nectar k e 1 i h 0 0 n s i n c r s in on ea, whi For al f honey reasons the flo 0 imped per acr i t i 0 n , tected t in mi be 0 r i through know tend djace re hi they or p d of ease e or ch ag 1 of bees are wer p e cro e is when sides nd wh ented out t that in to 1 i m i nt sides gh, the have to ol 1 en . cross po the numb both bee a i n i n c r these re should even mor 0 p u 1 a t i 0 ss polli recommen weather of tree en the o to expo he day. standard t their fo of trees, bees incre search har High forag 1 1 i n a t i 0 n , er of bee- s taking a eases the asons, the be s u p p 1 i e e import an ns are hig nation. T ded for ma is m a r g i n a s . I f at rchard is s e both si plantings of large trees, in- raging activity to one or two We know that when foraging ase the size of their working der and visit more flowers to ing populations thus improve and we know that higher pop- to-bee contacts, which often long flight to another work- likelihood of cross pollina- highest practicable popula- d in standard orchards and t with high density orchards her and the planting patterns herefore, a minimum of 2 col- ture high density orchards. 1, bees tend to work the sun- all possible, this fact should planted; if feasible, rows des of the trees to equal sun- Honey bees are biologically inclined to exploit more than one source of nectar or pollen during any given period if it is at all possible. This tendency gives the colony a certain amount of in- surance against the possibility that a single source might fail. However, from the orchardist's viewpoint, it merely means that some of the pollinators for which he is paying are being diverted to other nonproductive activities. The orchardist can reduce the di- version by eliminating competing bloom (primarily dandelion or mus- tard) wherever possible. Waiting until the fruit trees are at least 10% in bloom before bees are brought into the orchard reduces the orientation of forages to competing flowers. Colonies used to supply pollinators should be strong enough to do a good job. Therefore, colonies worth the rental fee should have enough bees to cover at least six frames, and at least four of these frames should be more than half filled with brood (the collective name given to the three immature stages of bees - eggs, larvae and pupae). The other frames should be well furnished with reserves of food, stored pollen and honey. Also, the colony should have an actively laying queen and should have good flight activity at the entrance when weather is favorable - 5 Much of what I have just said applies generally to pollina- tion in standard orchards as well as to pollination in high den- sity orchards. However, two considerations seem much more criti- cal in high density plantings: a. Bee foraging behavior in hedge-type plantings makes it imperative that for optimum results a source of pollen- izer pollen be located in the same row as the main vari- ety. b. High populations of honey bees increase the size of work- ing areas of individual bees, thus increasing the likeli- hood of cross pollination and providing coverage of the largest number of blosson]s in the high density orchards. At least 2 good colonies per acre are therefore needed to supply the population necessary Suggested References Free, J.B. 1960. The pollination of fruit trees. Bee World. 41(6 & 7):141-151; 169-186. Jaycox, E.R. 1969. Evaluating honey bee colonies for pollination Illinois Univ. Agr. Ext. Serv. Fruit Growing 20 (Rev.). 1969. Pollen inserts for apple pollination. Illinois University Agr. Ext. Serv. Fruit Growing 22. 1969 Making and using pollen inserts. Illinois Univ. Agr Ext. Serv. Fruit Growing 23 *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Weed control - apple orchards. Dr. O.C. Zoebisch of the DuPont Company informs us that the products "Sinbar" Terbacil Weed Killer and "Karmex" Diuron Weed Killer are to be used according to the labels at various rates depending on soil type. Neither one of them should be used in apple orchards on soil types classed as sandy, loamy sand or gravelly, nor where the organic matter is less than 1.0%. The use of sand, gravel or quarry chips under the trees for mouse control or weed control creates an environment which, in ac- cordance with the label, disqualifies the orchard for use of these herbi cides . *************** - 6 DON'T GAMBLE ON FROST WITH STRAWBERRIES Dominic A. Marini Regional Fruit & Vegetable Specialist Most growers who are serious about growing strawberries are now equipped with sprinkler irrigation systems for applying water during dry periods. This same system can be used to protect straw- berries from spring frosts. Strawberries have been protected from temperatures as low as 22 F with irrigation. of frost protection with irrigation Iter at 32°F become ice at 32°F. As The underlying principle is that heat is released as wai long as water is continually applied during the time that the air temperature is below freezing, the plant temperature remains at 32 F even though it is coated with ice. Sprinklers should be ^ turned on when the temperature at plant height drops to 33 or 34 F and water should be slowly, but constantly, applied until all of the ice on the plants has melted and the air temperature has risen above freezing. Temperatures should be watched closely when frost is a threat. Thermometers should be placed in the coldest part of the field - usually the lowest part - and the bulb of the thermometer should be at plant level, not above it or below it. Very little water is needed to provide frost protection. As little as 50 gallons per acre per minute or one-tenth inch per hour is enough. This can be applied using number 20 Rainbird heads with a single 1/8 inch nozzle, or number 70 heads with a single 3/16 inch nozzle. Nozzle pressure may vary from 35 to 55 pounds with pump pressure at 45 to 65 pounds. Irrigation lines should be spaced 40 feet apart with nozzles 40 feet apart in a staggered pattern for complete coverage. Spring frost is always a threat, but damage to strawberries from frost can be prevented with sprinkler irrigation. One Massa- chusetts grower used his sprinkler system on 13 different nights in May, 1969, and picked 17,000 quarts of strawberries per acre. *************** 7 - POLLINATION OF CULTIVATED HIGHBUSH BLUEBERRIES William E. Tomlinson, Jr. Cranberry Experiment Station, East Wareham Since the beginnings of highbush blueberry cultivation, there has been considerable discussion and research concerning pollina- tion of this crop. As early as 1910, Coville demonstrated that bees were essential for commercial set of blueberry fruit. Phipps in Maine and Beckwith in New Jersey showed in cage tests that wind is not a factor in blueberry pollination. In tests in Michigan, Merrill proved that blueberries are self-fruitful, that is, they can pollinate themselves and that cross-pollination is not necessary for fruit set. The relative advantages of self-pollination versus cross-pol- lination of blueberries were controversial for many years. The evidence accumulated by several investigators indicated that in general there was a slightly greater set from cross-pollination than from self-pollination. The most important conclusions were that cross-pollination consistently resulted in increased berry size and earlier ripening than did self-pollination. It has been shown by several investigators that one of the factors governing size of the berries is the seed count. Since the seed count is directly related to the amount of pollination, the importance of adequate numbers of bees is apparent. was the ing suit foun buta cert vari Pi on and ti ve comp Unti sel do task in la ed in d tha Die t ai n v eties eer , Conco vari e t i t i 1 the map adequ rge b poll t 1 ow 0 the ariet So Stanl rd. eties on fo bl ueb roblem ately . locks i n a t i 0 produ fact i e s in me of ey. Be This r can b r fora erry . Wi The of on n pro c t i 0 n that a pi the 1 rkel e el uct e ove ge ca acrea Id be i ntr ly a blems of c bees anti n ess a y, Je ance rcome uses ges b es in oduct few V . Fi e r t a i prefe g in ttrac rsey, of ho by p them ecame the ion 0 ariet Imer n var rred prefe ti ve Earl neybe rovi d to be qui t area f new ies h and M i e t i e to wo rence V a r i e i b 1 u e es to ing e less e 1 arge usual ly vari et as more a r u c c i s was d rk the to tho ties we , C 0 V i 1 work 0 nough b cri ti c , poll accom ies an recen in New i recti blosso se of re fou le. We n 1 ess ees so al i nation pi i shed d plant- tly re- Jersey y attri- ms of other nd to be ymouth attrac- that - 8 - to adequate pollination than any other factor. The cool, windy and often rainy weather that frequently occurs during the blue- berry blooming period can seriously curtail bee activity and re- sult in an incomplete set even of the most attractive varieties. Therefore, as an insurance it might be wise to have hives of hon^ eybees available to augment native wild pollinators when periods of favorable pollinating weather do occur. Marrucci in New Jersey has recommended 2 active hives of hon^ eybees per acre for the di f f i cul t-to-pol 1 inate varieties - Earli' blue, Coville, Berkeley, Stanley, Pioneer and Concord; one hive per acre for Weymouth, which is moderately attractive; and one hive per two acres for the attractive varieties Rubel , Rancocas, June, Burlington, Blueray and Bluecrop. *************** LEAF ANALYSIS OF PEAR ORCHARDS IN 1971 William J. Lord and Edward Vlach Scorch of pear tree foliage (Figure 1) was much less severe this past summer than in 1970 and leaf analyses supported data obtained in 1970 which indicated that magnesium deficiency is not the cause of the disorder. Fig. 1. Pear leaves showing scorch.. The light colored areas are normal tissue and the picture shows there is no pattern of scorch development . The leaves fre- quently become completely blackened. (Photo by L.J. Musante) Potassium (K) of pear leaves rang from 0.58 to 1.39% several orchards sa this past summer, limited data sugges pear and apple tree similar levels of K the desirable range this element in app leaves is 1.25-1.60 believe that K is e ly low in some of o orchards . The prim symptom of K defici marginal leaf score pearing first leaves on spur shoots. The m level ed in mpl ed Since t that s have and for le %, we xtreme- ur pear ary ency is h ap- on older s and argi nal Extension Pomologist, respecti vely and Senior Chemist - W. Experiment Station leaf scorch on pear ginal coloration of - 9 is almost black in comparison to ash gray mar- K-deficient apple foliage. We now believe that pear psylla are frequently associated with the scorch of pear foliage because of their presence on tne leaves having the disorder in 1970 and 1971. Honeydew secreted by these insects adheres to the foliage and a sooty fungus grows in it. The foliage with the sooty fungus is injured. *************** MANGANESE DEFICIENCY William J. Lord and John H Department of Plant and Soil Baker Sci ences This past summer we observed, for the first time, what ap- peared to be manganese (Mn) deficiency in several apple orchards and one peach orchard. Leaves had interveinal fading of chloro- phyl 1 , starti ng at the leaf margin and ex- tending towards the mid rib (Fig . 1) . To verify our observations, leaves from Mcintosh apple trees in 3 orchards were anal- yzed and their Mn content was found to range from 9 to 14 ppm. Mn levels of this magnitude are critically low in compar- ison to the desired stan- dard of 50-100 ppm set by other states for apple trees . The peach orchard also was low in Mn. ' Leaves from trees showing the deficiency symp- toms had 13 ppm Mn in comparison to 97 ppm in leaves from trees with no interveinal 1 OSS of chlorophyl 1 . Fig. 1. Mcintosh apple leaf showing Mn deficiency . Note the interveinal fading of chlorophyll with the veins remaining green. (Photo by L.J. Musante) Mn deficiency can be corrected by foliar applications of man- ganese sulfate or of a fungicide containing Mn. For apples, Dr. 10 - Warren Stiles in Maine recommends that manganese sulfate be applied about first cover at a rate of 3 lbs. per 100 gallons. If using a Mn-contai ni ng fungicide, 2 or 3 applications are necessary with timings about petal fall, first and second cover. Research find- ings in other areas indicate that recommendations for correcting Mn deficiency in apple; trees should also be effective for peach trees . *************** PROBLEM WEEDS IN APPLE ORCHARDS AND THEIR CONTROL William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences appl e 1 ions glory ti ced cides made to be the c creas tail , areas one 0 bel ow Al though orchard , poison have be These , but th condi tio come mor ontrol 0 ing prob fall pa in mid- r more o our sug we h s , ce ivy, come weed e che ns mo e ser f per lem w n i c u m and f the gesti ave se rtain mi 1 kw a prob s may mi cal re f av i ous p e n n i a 1 ith so and b 1 ate-s probl ons fo veral peren eed , 1 em w have contr orabl robl e gras me an arnya ummer em we r the good n i a 1 b t r a i 1 i here c been p ol of e for ms . B ses , w nual g rd gra For eds me i r con herbi roadl ng bl hemic resen the m thei r ecaus e al s rasse ss , w thos n t i 0 n trol . ci des eaf w ack b al we t bef ore s grow e of 0 hav s , na hi ch e of ed ab avai 1 abl eeds such erries an ed contro ore the u usceptibl th and al herbi ci de e encount mely, era invade th you conce ove, we h e for use in as dande- d morning 1 is prac- se of herbi- e weeds has lowed them usage for ered an in- bgrass , fox- e weed-free rned with ave prepared Table 1. Problem Weeds in Apple Orchards and Their Control Problem Weed Herbicide to Use Remarks Brambles Perennial Broadleaf Weeds Ammate X* Contrary to some re- ports , we have found that 2 applications of Weedone 638* in the same season failed to control brambl es . Poison ivy Ammate X* Weedone 638*, Dacamine* or Dacamine 4D* would be a second choice Dandelions, Dock Bindweed, Plantain, and Sorrel 2,4-D formulations - Dacamine*, Dacamine 4D* or Weedone 638* Optimum time of appli- cati on will vary wi th weed species . *Trade name - 11 Problem Weed Herbi ci de Animate X* to Use Remarks Mi 1 kweed Terbacil or repeat ap- plication of paraquat or one of the 2,4-D formulations mentioned above may be somewhat ef fecti ve . Barnyard grass , Crabgrass , Yel 1 ow Foxtail and Witch- grass Annual Grassy Weeds Terbaci 1 These weeds often in- vade herbicide-treated areas by August . Fol - lowing the emergence of these weeds , an ap- plication of paraquat may keep the treated areas practically weed- free for the remainder of the season. Lambsquarters Ragweed and Annual Broadleaf Weeds 2,4-D formulations Same as above *Trade name *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amiierst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAAALAGE JULY-AUGUST, 1972 TABLE OF CONTENTS Marketing Agreements and Orders for Apples Pomological Paragraph Raised Beds for Strawberries Integrated Pest Management in Massactiusetts Apple Orchards Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. MARKETING AGREEMENTS AND ORDERS FOR APPLES Norman C. Healey, Chief^ Fruit Branch, Fruit & Vegetable Div. USDA Consumer & Marketing Service Washington, D.C. Today, farmers are taking a good hard look at how to bring about more order in marketing their commodities. This is evidenced by the interest shown in cooperative marketing -- one desk selling --the merging of cooperative organizations both laterally and verti- cal 1y . There is a continuing interest in Bargaining Associations to develop market muscle or power in selling their products to proc- essors. State and Federal Marketing Agreements and Orders are an- other tool in bringing about more orderly marketing. I would like to take a moment and read you a statement made by Dr. William Black, Economist at the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station at the National Agricultural Marketing Conference about a year ago, which, I think, has a lot of meat in it aroun will farm, ment q u a t e barga i z a t i there t r i b u ket t outle p r 0 d u they to St "In t d the be mo Off neede prod i n i n g on . will tor 0 heir t, (3 ce wh pi eas and a he f u i r ma re de the d to ucti 0 orga For f be 0 r foo own p ) dro at th e and part ture , rketi n penden farm, secure n fina n i z a t i armers ne of d proc roduct p out ey pie still from 0 f anne 9 pro t upo the f a "h nci ng on , 0 who three essor s thr of fa ase , make rgani rs wi gram, n wha armer ome" : jo r int do no choi 's ba ough rmi ng when a pr zed m 11 pol The t h a p p will for hi i n a c egrate t belo ces, ( ckward a sand . Pro they p 0 f i t . a r k e t i an ze farmer ens of find t s prod oop ma as pa nq to 1) bee i nteg w 1 c h m ducers 1 ease , Produ ng and their s ' eco f the he mar uct an r k e t i n rt of their ome pa ration arket wi 1 1 where cers w stay f armin nomi c farm t keti ng d to 0 g orga a mark own or rt of compl or oth lose t they ill no i n bus g ope progr han 0 arra b t a i n ni zat eting g a n i z a foo ex, ( er re he ri pi eas t be i ness rations ams n the nge- ade- i on or organ- ation , d dis- 2) mar- tail ght to e , how able In my field particularly, we are seeing more interest on the part of fruit growers in getting together to develop marketing agreement and order programs both at the Federal level covering an area of more than one state, or state marketing orders, for the purpose of developing and expanding the market for their commodi- ties. I would like to give you a "bird's eye" view of Federal mar- keting agreement and order programs. -t- 1. First,! will point to the legislative authority for mar- keting agreement programs. 2. The scope of Federal marketing agreement programs. 3. How to get a Federal marketing order 4. The types of regulation under a program. Presented at the Nashoba Fruit Producers School held at Harvard, Mass., March 6, 1972 - 2 5, And lastly, what a Federal marketing order can what it cannot do for you. do and Legislative authority Federal marketing agreements and orders are authorized under the Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937, as amended. Un- der this act, it is the declared policy of the Congress to estab- lish and maintain such orderly marketing conditions for agricultural commodities as will improve returns to growers and will be in the public interest. Scope of programs Marketing agreements and orders have been used by fruit, vege- table, and nut producers since inception of theact. The number of programs has grown rather steadily over the years. To-day, we have 49 marketing agreements and orders on 33 different fruit and vege- table commodities with a farm value of about one and three quarter billion dollars in areas covering 34 states. The programs are ad- ministered in the Fruit and Vegetable Division in the Consumer and Marketing Service in US DA. There often is some "marketing orders" which Marketing agreements are and the USDA, and are binding only ing orders, however, apply equally will use the term "marketing order ment and the order. confusion over "marketing agreements" and I would like to clear up at this time, contracts between parties signing them on those who sign them. Market- to everyone in the industry. I program" to cover both the agree- Obtaining a Federal marketing order T more o more m there into a s t a n t i to hel shoul d down a meet t t i a 1 s they m he obje rderly oney fo is a 1 0 progra al agre p solve fi rst n d d e s i heir n e upport ay requ ctive of marketing r the pro t of thou m before ement in some of be define gn or dra eds. The of the ma est the S market condi ducer . ght, d it is an i n d its ma d, the w up a n , aft jority ecreta ing 0 t i 0 n s The i s c u s adopt us try rketi n the prop er th of t ry of rder pr for a se prog s i 0 n , a ed. Fi that a ng prob grower osed ma orough he grow Agricu ograms is to bring about commodity and thereby get rams do not just happen-- nd good hard work that goes rst, there has to be sub- marketing order is needed lems. The marketing problem s and shippers should sit rketi ng order which will discussion and with substan- ers in the area to be covered, Iture to hold a hearing. 1. If he agrees there appears to be a need for such a program, he will call a public hearing on the proposal. All interested per- sons may appear to testify at the hearing on the proposed program, the need for it, how it will operate and what they expect to accom- plish by it. Testimony from both proponents and opponents will be heard. 3 - 2. After the conclusion of the hearing, a time will be given for interested persons to file briefs recommending proposed findings and conclusions based on testimony presented at the hearing. 3. A recommended decision is published by the Department based upon the hearing record and the briefs filed. Here again, interested parties are given a period of time in which to file ex- ceptions to the recommended decision. 4. The final decision is issued by the Department based upon the hearing records, briefs, and exceptions to the recommended de- cision. This decision includes the order, if any is recommended, as a result of the proceedings. 5. After the final decision is reached, a referendum is held to determine whether or not growers favor the issuance of the order. A marketing order cannot be issued unless two-thirds of the growers voting in the referendum approve it. At the same time, a compan- ion marketing agreement is submitted to handlers for their signup. 6. If the order is voted in and is issued by the Secretary of Agriculture, then the industry meets and nominates the committee which will operate the order at the local level. Each fruit and vegetable marketing order provides for such a committee. 7. The committee can now meet and recommend regulations within the framework of the order. As soon as such regulations are issued by the Secretary, they have the force and effect of law. 8. At this point, I'd like to point out how a marketing order can be terminated. First, the Secretary shall terminate an order if it is not effectuating the purpose for which it was designed. Second, the order can provide that a grower referendum be held per- iodically to determine whether the marketing order be continued in effect. Most orders today provide for a two, three or five year referendum. Third, the Administrative Committee or a substantial segment of the growers can request the Secretary to hold a refer- endum for continuance of the program at any time. In a grower ref- erendum, if growers producing more than 50 percent of the volume of the commodity produced in the production area covered by the or- der, vote for termination, the order will be terminated. Types of regulations Now to the types of regulations. Most of our fruit and vege- table programs regulate qua! i ty . The plan here is to keep inferior grades of the commodity from depressing the market for the whole crop. This is accomplished by regulating the grades, sizes, or maturity of the commodity which can be shipped to market. These requirements can be changed during the marketing season or from season to season, depending upon changes in supply and demand con- ditions. Inspection is necessary to determine the quality of prod- ucts marketed. Some of our fruit and vegetable marketing order programs reg- ulate quanti ty of a commodity marketed -- by rate of flow -- or by total quantity marketed during the season. Rate of flow regula- tions are concerned primarily with maintaining an orderly flow of the commodity moving to market during the normal marketing season. A good example of this type of regulation is our California-Arizona lemon order under which an industry committee each week recommends to the Secretary the number of carloads of lemons which should move to market each week. Under the total seasonal type of quantity regulation, market- ings are limited for the season to a specified percentage of the total crop. The residue is usually placed in a pool to be exported or utilized in some non-commercial outlet designated by the indus- try committee, or in the case of red tart cherries to be marketed in some subsequent season. Some other types of regulation are container and pack regula- tions to standardize containers and make packs more uniform. Marketing research and development projects designed to pro- mote the marketing, distribution, and consumption of the commodity are also authorized. Advertising and sales promotion programs may also be included under this program if advertising authority for the particular commodity has been provided in the act. This has been done for many commodities to date. These are the most common of the many provisions which may be included in a Federal marketing agreement and order. As I indicated earlier. Federal marketing orders are adminis- tered by a committee of growers or both growers and shippers. Such committees are nominated by the industries concerned and ap- pointed by the Secretary of Agriculture. The committee employs a manager and a staff to carry out the necessary day-to-day work. The expenses of the committee are financed by assessments on ship- pers. Many of the Federal orders cost less than a cent per box or bushel to operate. What can a Federal marketing order do? Marketing orders, although versatile in many respects for aid ing growers in meeting their marketing problems, are not "cure- alls." THEY CAN'T CHANGE THE LAW OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND. THEY CAN ' FIX PRICES. THEY CAN'T CONTROL PRODUCTION AT THE GROWER LEVEL. THEY CAN'T MAKE GOOD FRUIT OUT OF POOR FRUIT -- AND -- THEY DON'T JUST APPLY TO THE OTHER FELLOW. T THEY CAN IMPROVE MARKETS BY MAKING THEM MORE ORDERLY MARKETS BY REGULATING THE QUALITY, GRADE, SIZE, AND MATURITY OF FRUIT MOV- ING TO MARKET. THEY CAN REGULATE THE VOLUME OF A COMMODITY MOVING TO THE MARKET EITHER WEEKLY OR FOR A WHOLE MARKETING SEASON. THEY CAN AFFORD GROWERS AND SHIPPERS A MEANS FOR WORKING TOGETHER TO IMPROVE THEIR MARKET POSITION, DEVELOP VALUABLE MARKET INFORMATION THROUGH RESEARCH AND EVEN PROMOTE A PRODUCT THROUGH ADVERTISING AND PROMOTION WITH ALL SHIPPERS CONTRIBUTING THEIR SHARE OF THE COST, I want to leave you with one important thought this morning We have nothing to sell -- we only have a service to offer. If you want to know more about it or discuss in more detail how a Federal marketing order could serve your needs, we are ready to assist you in improving your market position. These are not govern' ment programs -- they are industry programs which will- require a lot of foresight and good hard work on the part of industry leaders to develop a program to fit the needs of your industry. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Raised beds for strawberries: During a meeting at a local straw- berry nursery this past fall, there was considerable interest in the raised strawberry beds. Because of poor drainage, the plants were set in rows harrowed and leveled to make them several inches above the alleys that separate the rows. Even on well drained soils, raised beds are advantageous because (1) many fields have low spots where water accumulates during the growing season and (2) they facilitate water drainage resulting from winter thaw or a heavy rain on frozen ground. Root rot and Red Stele are most commonly found in plants growing on poorly drained areas and ice formation on the beds can cause extensive damage to the crowns of strawberry plants. Some growers may recall the winter of 1958-1959 when ice on strawberry beds caused severe plant damage throughout Massachusetts and drastically reduced yields in 1959. However, the writer saw a bumper crop in Andover Massachusetts in 1959 (6,000 quarts on 18,000 sq. ft.). This grower maintained an alley 15-18 inches wide during the 1958 growing season and each time the bed was hoed, the soil was pulled around the plants so that the matted row was raised at least 3 to 4 inches above the alleys. The raised bed was probably responsible for minimizing plant damage from ice the following winter. *************** - 6 - INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT IN MASSACHUSETTS APPLE ORCHARDS G.L. Jensen, E.J. Blyth and A.W. Rossi University of Massachusetts 1 Integrated control may be defined as an ecological approach to pest management in which several available techniques are con- solidated into a unified program. Such programs are set up to avoid economic damage and minimize adverse side effects in manage' ment of pest populations Integrated control programs are desired for several reasons 1. Plant feeding mites and, to a lesser degree, insects, very rapidly develop strains resistant to chemicals, necessitating the constant development and substitution of new chemicals. 2. Predators and parasites of many orchard pests are found to a greater or lesser degree in all fruit growing areas. The benefi- cial effects from these cannot be realized if they are killed by i nsecti cides . 3. Integrated pest management systems rely on reduced spray appli' cations, hence they help to reduce any possible environmental pol- lution by spray chemicals in orchards. 4. The use of reduced spray (as recommended in some integrated control programs) reduces the cash expended for chemicals and in some cases the amount of time spent in applying these materials. 5. Systems utilizing biological control tend to become increasing' ly more efficient from year to year as beneficial insects build up in the orchards (in contrast to chemical control programs which tend to become less effective as the pests develop resistance to i n s e c t i d e s ) . 6. Biological controls have great public appeal, especially in this period of great ecological concern and awareness. There are, however^ several difficulties associated with in- tegrating chemical and biological controls of orchard pests: Extension Entomologist, Graduate Student, Dept Orchard Foreman, respectively. of Entomology and - 7 - 1. Many pests of apples exist in the orchards, and must be held below economic injury levels. There are no known effective biolog- ical controls for some of these pests, hence, chemicals must be re- lied on to keep them in check. This must be done without eliminat- ing the natural enemies of the pests that can be held in check with biological controls. 2. There are few insecticides which are selectively toxic, i.e., most commercially successful insecticides kill many kinds of in- sects. This makes the above mentioned difficulty even more acute. 3. Integrated control systems require a great amount of effort on the orchard manager's part, for he must constantly be aware of the pest and predator situation in his orchard. I. ! c( I . \ na I. I iiM ri g , r u nil u i d l i ri must be closely supervised by spectrum of insect and mite pests on apples, urrently availabl-e is essen- pplication of these materials hard manaaer. 4. Due to the large b^;cv. or um use of the suitable spray chemicals c tial. The timing, formulating, and app the orchard manager Integrated Pest Control Study The effectiveness of a modified integrated control program was tested in a 6-year-old block of Mcintosh and Red Delicious ap- ple trees at the Horticultural Research Center, Belchertown, Massa- chusetts in 1971. Spray applications were applied at 6X concentra- tion with a Kinkelder mist sprayer, except for a dormant oil spray which was applied with a Hardie speed sprayer. norma ful t vol ve drawn i ne s was d each spray and p After spray and p a p p 1 i Half 0 1 mann 0 natu d the betwe prayi n rawn b tree w i n g s u redato spray ed por a r a s i t cation f the e r u s i ral en al tern en row g from etween as spr pposed rs whi ing, t t i 0 n 0 e popu s shou trees ng pe emies ate m s 1 a both rows ayed ly pr ch ar he be f the 1 a t i 0 Id be serv s t i c i . Th iddle nd 2, side 2 an duri n ovi de e gen n e f i c tree ns in nece ed as des wh e inte row 0 3 and s . Fo d 3, 4 g each s an u eral ly i a 1 in s and crease ssary . control ich are grated f spray 4, 5 a r the n and 5 , a p p 1 i c nspraye more m sects a avoid b , fewer s and repu porti ing, nd 6 ext a etc. ati on d hav obi le re ab ei ng pest were tedly on of i.e., etc. , ppl i c Thu . Th en fo than 1 e to kille i cide sprayed the lea the bio the rig with th ation, t s, only is patte r the pa their p move to d. As p a p p 1 i c a in the st harm- c k i n - was e mach- h e rig half of rn of rasi tes rey . the un- redator t i 0 n s Similar pesticides were used in both blocks, however the in- tegrated block received only about half the quantity used in the control block due to the alternate-row spraying technique. The trees were surveyed periodically for the presence of in- sect pests, parasites and predators. Both the aphid and European red mite populations built up to a peak in mid-September in the integrated block. At this time, the aphids occurred at about 3 per leaf and the mite population was about 6-8 per leaf. Popula- tions such as these can be tolerated, especially this late in the season: moreover, a certain number of prey are required to main- tain populations of beneficial insects. The plan of the integrated program is to regulate the pests below the economic level of injury, but to allow sufficient numbers to maintain adequate predator and parasite populations there were sev- -"' were not g, and aceous he presence program An assessment of insect and disease damage to fruit was taken by examining 4 bushels of apples of each variety from each block. Red Delicious apples exhibited no difference in the amount of dam- age, but Mcintosh apples from the integrated trees had more damage from green fruit worm and plum curculio than those from the control trees . Plans for Further Study Further experimentation in the same block is being conducted in 1972 to examine the insect and mite population dynamics in the integrated trees as compared to control trees, together with the resulting damage in each situation. This past winter we laboratory- reared a small, black ladybird bee- tle, Stethorus punctum, (see photo) and some predatory mites which are predaceous on both European red and two-spotted mites. These beetles were released in our experimental orchard this spring. The Ladybird beetle Stethorus punatum feeding on a two- spotted bpiaer Mite. Dean to ry the b for a that e 1 i m i si ze ing i chara the p tors progr The b A s q u i in Bi 1 ack ppl es the a nated of a ts 1i cter e s t i c coul d ams 0 ase s th an g1 erv 1 adyb i n s p p 1 i c . Th p i n h e fe cy of be i des prov f app tock d Dr. i 11 e , i rd b outh- a t i 0 n is 1i ad), cle f ing a used e to les i of the Ri char Pennsy eetle i central of m 1 1 ttle be can eat rom egg ble to on appl be valu n Massa 1 adyb d Col 1 V a n i nto t Penn i c i d e etl e, larg to a rapid es . able chuse i rd b burn a. T heir syl va s in . desp e num dult. ly de Steth eetl es at the hese wo integra n i a and some bl ite its bers of It al velop r orus £u was 0 Fruit rkers ted c have ocks smal mi te so ha esist nctum assets to the int tts. btaine Resea have ontrol had s has be 1 size s (abo s the ance t and 0 egrate d fro rch L i n c 0 r prog uch s en al (abo ut 30 advan 0 mos ther d con m Prof. abora- porated ram uccess most ut the 0) dur- tageous t of preda- trol We hope that it will be possible to produce apples with a low incidence of insect and disease blemishes whileat the same time employing fewer pesticides. During the 1971 season, nvuch injury occurred in the integrated block as a result of plum curculio and green fruit worm. Therefore, in 1972, a regular spray schedule is being used during the period critical for the control of these two pests and a reduced spray schedule will be used in the cover sprays This should hopefully favor the predators and at the same time re- duce spraying cost. Because of the large number of pests infecting apple orchards, and the high quality fruit demanded by the consumer, it is virtu- ally certain that some pesticides will always be necessary for ap- ple growing. However, integrated control programs are potentially applicable to the orchardist. The dependence on chemicals can be minimized while the reliance on natural enemies of pests can be maximized. This ultimately could result in a dollar savings and a cleaner environment. *****1c***ie***-k* Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ^\\\ .t.\ A ■^ ,.%^ H^ >^ A' <&, w WR. PADir^ H. BUNN FN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, RM. 211 STOCKBRIDGE HALL 01002 FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 37 (No. 5) SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1972 TABLE OF CONTENTS Suggestions for Use of Ethephon to Promote Early Red Coloring of Mcintosh Apples Blue Mold Apple Storage Rot Blue Mold Apple Storage Rot, Dip Tanks and Water Dumpers and Washers Pomological Paragraph CA storage requirements of several apple cultivars Controlling Fruit Flies at Roadside Stands CA Storage of Mcintosh Apples: Pre- and Post-Harvest Fruit Handling and Storage Operations Collar Rot Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. SUGGESTIONS FOR USE OF ETHEPHON TO PROMOTE EARLY RED COLORING OF McINTOSH APPLES Duane W. Greene and William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Ethephon (Ethrel*) received a temporary shipping permit (ex- perimental label) on June 14, 1972, and will be available for trial by a limited number of growers this fall. Ethephon loosens apples for more efficient mechanical harvest- ing, stimulates early red color and fruit ripening, and promotes flowering of young apple trees. At present, we will concern our- selves with its use to enhance red color development on Mcintosh apples . Ethephon, when applied alone, rapidly promotes fruit softening and accelerates drop. To help counteract these undesirable effects the ethephon application is preceded by a mid-summer application of Alar 85* and is followed by an application of a stop-drop com- pound . Our limited trial last year showed that the ethephon and stop- drop applications enhanced red color on Mcintosh apples but com- pletely eliminated the increase in flesh firmness induced by Alar 85*. Within 8 days after application of the ethephon-stop-drop combinations, Mcintosh fruits from these treatments were considered unsuitable for CA storage. The abscission-promoting effect was completely overcome by 2,4,5-TP but the Al ar-ethephon-NAA combina- tion failed to reduce preharvest drop. Based on the results cited above, we concluded that the com- mercial potential of ethephon appears to be limited to early fruit sales at harvest time or after a short period of cold storage. For growers interested in using ethephon to advance red color development on Mcintosh, we suggest the following procedure and combination of chemicals. 1. Use ethephon on mi d- July . trees that were sprayed with Alar 85* in Apply a foliar spray of ethephon at rate of 2/3 pint of the commercial material (Ethrel*) per 100 gallons of water (assuming 400 gallons of spray mixture per acre at IX), *Trade name 2. about 2 weeks before the desired harvest date of 2 2/3 pints per acre should be applied.** A total Within 2 days after the ethephon application, use a ar spray of 2,4,5-TP at 20 ppm. foli- **It may be possible to enhance red color development with a lower concentration of Ethrel* and thereby reduce the loss of fruit flesh firmness. We plan to investigate the effects of lower con- centrations this fall. *************** BLUE MOLD APPLE STORAGE ROT C.J. G i 1 g u t Department of Plant Pathology Blue Mold probably causes more rot of apples in storage than all the other rots together. In some years, the loss may be sub- stanti al . The rot is caused by the fungus, Peni ci 1 1 i um expansum, which attacks all parts of the apple and causes a brownish, soft, wet, mushy rot with a musty odor. It may affect part or all of the apple, At times there is some growth of white mold on the rotted surface and usually the surface is covered with bluish-green tufts which consist of masses of fungus spores. A sound apple against a rotten one becomes wet and has a musty odor. Often it also rots and this results in "pockets" of rotten apples in a box. The blue mold fungus grows and produces an abundance of spores on all kinds of dead organic matter in shady places where it stays damp or wet. It grows on dead wood on the tree or in the orchard, on old boards and new boards, on picking boxes and crates, on rot- ting fruit under the tree, on rotting and mashed fruit in dump piles outside of the storage, discarded apples in boxes in the packing room and, of course, on wet boards, boxes and rotting ap- ples in the storage. Blue mold spores are present everywhere the fungus grows. They are air-borne and are in the air of storages and packing rooms, on room surfaces, on grading and handling equipment, on the hands of workers, in water in tanks used for fruit dumping, washing or dipping. All apples dipped in a contaminated tank will have spores on them. Blue mold spores are tough! They can live at least 2 years under dry conditions and are not killed by most fruit fungi- ci des . The rot affects only ripe apples or apples approaching maturity, As apples stay in storage longer, they become more mature and more susceptible and there is more rot. Rot starts from a spore which germinates on the apple and grows into the flesh. The most common places of entry early in storages are injuries or breaks in the 3 - skin such as are caused by stem punctures, nails in boxes, insect stings, bruises in picking and handling, sun scald, chemical injury, limb rub, apple powdery mildew russet, or other rots. Entry may occur also at the stem, at the calyx end and by penetration into an open calyx canal . Although the fungus commonly enters through an injury, it does not need a puncture or injury to enter an apple. It can enter through the lenticels, and lenticels are in fact the most common place of entry late in the storage period. Rot increases consid- erably after 180 days in cold storage. At that time, the lenticels are more vulnerable to entry and the flesh of the apple more mature and more susceptible to rot. a relationship between temperature and the length of for rot to get started and the rate at which it grows negligible at 32 F even after 8 weeks may involve one-third of the apple at 1 n^stor- 41°F, There is time it takes Development of rot is age, by which time it and the entire apple at 50" or higher. Blue mold rot starts slower, and there is less of it early in storage, if apples are picked be- fore fully mature and placed in cold storage and cooled down without delay. After 180 days in storage, low temperatures do not seem to s 1 ow it down much . SOME THINGS A GROWER CAN DO TO REDUCE LOSS FROM BLUE MOLD 1. Obviously, if the blue mold fungus does not have something suitable on which to grow, it will not produce spores to cause storage rot. A grower can get rid of some things he does not need, outside and inside his storage and grading rooms, such as rotting wet boards, broken apple boxes, debris, trash piles and rotting apples - and do it often. In the home, this is called Good Housekeepi ng ! 2 . Kill Bl ue Mol d Spores - Decontaminate picking baskets, picking and storage boxes, lugs, and crates, grading equipment and walls, ceilings, and floors of grading and storage rooms. (It is estimated that an old apple box may have more than 32 million blue mold spores on it). There are several ways of doing it and the method a grower selects will depend on the job that needs to be done. (a) Streaming Steam (Live steam) - An exposure for 2 minutes kills blue mold spores on surfaces, between boards, in cracks and joints and even in dried rotted apple tissue. It leaves no residue to offend anti -pesti ci de crusaders. A steam jenny is a handy thing to have around. (b) Sodium hypochlorite - This is the active ingredient (5.25%) in household bleach, such as Clorox and other brands, which releases available chlorine. Chlorine is used to make drinking water supplies and swimming pools safe and for other disinfecting purposes. - 4 - Sodium hypochlorite solution is mold spores which are wet with it several days - until the solution rine dissipates into the air. It apples which come in contact with In blue mold control experiments Experiment Station, rine solution (4000 registered by the Environmental ping apples.) extremely toxic to blue Action continues for dries out and the chlo- leaves no residue to harm treated surfaces later, at the Washington State apples dipped in a 0.4% available chlo- ppm) were not harmed. (But, it is not Protection Agency for dip- Apply to precleaned surfaces because it does not pene- trate encrusted organic matter such as rotted apple tis- sue very wel 1 . Sodium hypochlorite is registered for use by the Environmental Protection Agency as follows: Lugs : (this would include apple boxes) "Dip empty boxes in 1600 ppm or stronger available chlorine. Do not rinse." Storage Cellars: "For floors, ceilings, and walls, spray with 200 to 5000 ppm available chlorine solutions. Do not rinse." (Although 2000 ppm kills blue mold spores, 4000 ppm gives a little more "oomph" and is what the Washington Experiment Station suggests.) Storage Rooms (ceilings, floors, shelves and walls): "Use 1000 to 1900 ppm available chlorine. Apply with a mop, sponge, or sprayer to precleaned surfaces. Do not rinse." Here is how much household bleach solution containing 5.25% sodium hypochlorite to mix with water to get the ppm (parts per million available chlorine) you want. 1000 ppm-2 1/2 oz solution from jug to 1 gal water. Want more? 1 gallon to 50 gals water. 2000 ppm - 5 oz per gal or 1 gal to about 25 of water. (c) Formal dehyde - Commercially available as formalin which is about 37% formaldehyde dissolved in water with a little methyl alcohol added as a stabilizer. - 5 Formaldehyde solution is drying to the skin and the vapors or fumes are irritating to mucous membranes and eyes. It is very toxic to plants and should only be used in empty storages, grading rooms or on empty containers. Formaldehyde fumes or vapors are fungicidal and bacteri- cidal and will kill blue mold spores as well as other storage rot fungi. The dosages given here are for the amount of formalin (the commercial 37% formaldehyde solu- tion) to use. It may be applied as a spray or used to generate formaldehyde gas for decontamination of empty containers, storage rooms, and grading rooms. By "empty" we mean no agricultural products, plants or other forms of life, like animals. Once a squash grower asked how to disinfect a storage with formaldehyde. He did not say it was full of squash. It was assumed that the storage was empty and he was told how to do it. He ended up with a storage full of damaged squash. As a Spray 1 gallon of formalin to 50 gallons of water. You will need 1 pint of formalin for each 1000 cubic feet of con- fined space. Empty apple boxes, lugs, crates, picking baskets and equipment to be disinfected can be assembled in a pile outside where it can be covered with a plastic tarp to confine the formaldehyde fumes. In a sunny loca- tion, the tarp will trap heat and there will be better disease kill. Wet down the pile with water - it will give better dis- ease kill, spray with the formaldehyde solution, and cover with the tarp . After 24 hours, the tarp can be removed or it can be left on which will delay recontami nation , until a few days be- fore the materials in the pile are to be used. The formal- dehyde fumes will evaporate and dissipate in a few days after the tarp is removed and there will be no residue to harm the apples later. Storage Rooms (with empty boxes, crates or other equipment) and Packing Rooms (with equipment and empty containers). Wet down walls, ceilings, and materials to be decontami- nated with water for better kill. Spray or wet everything down with the required amount of formaldehyde solution. You need 1 pint for each 1000 cubic feet of space to be fumigated. One gallon in 50 gallons of water will do 8000 cubic feet. The temoerature of the packing room or storage room should be 65 F or higher. Spray walls, ceilings and surfaces to be decontaminated and close the room for 24 hours. Then open and ventilate until all formaldehyde fumes are gone (You can smell them) BEFORE ENTERING or STORING PRODUCE. (More about Ventila- tion under "FORMALDEHYDE GAS"). As Formaldehyde Gas: This is an easy method. Suitable for empty storage or packing rooms (no living organisms). Boxes, containers, or equipment stored in them may remain or be placed in them to be decontam- i nated. Gas is generated by reacting 1 pint of formalin (the commer- cial 37% formaldehyde solution) with 8 ounces of potassium permanganate (crystals or powder) for each 1000 cubic feet of storage. When they are combined, there is a violent boiling action and clouds of gas, which soon penetrate all parts of the room, are released. Considerable heat is generated and there may be some spattering. Proceed as follows: 1. Wet down walls, floors and items to be decontaminated with enough water to moisten them. 2. Room temperature 65 F or higher. 3. Calculate cubic content of room. You will need 1 pint of formalin and 8 oz of potassium permanganate for each 1000 cubic feet. 4. You will need several large wide metal containers such as 5 gallon pails, wide pans, or even an ash barrel will do, in which to react the two materials. 5. Put 3 pints of formalin (enough for 3000 cubic feet) in a container and place the containers in different parts of the storage so that starting with the one farthest from the door you can work toward the door. On a wooden floor, place them on bricks, because con- siderable heat is generated. 6. Beside each container of formaldehyde place the re- quired amount of potassium permanganate (8 ozs for each pint) in a coffee can. Now you are ready to generate gas and fumigate. Proceed as follows: Starting with the container farthest from the door, carefully pour the potassium permanganate over the edge - 7 of the container into the formalin. There will be a vio- lent boiling and clouds of gas will come up. Do it at arms length and with the face turned away to avoid possi- ble spattering or a face full of gas. Go without delay from one container to the next closer to the door and out Close the door. That's it. After 24 hours open the storage and ventilate. Do not Enter or store produce in it until there is No Trace of Tormal dehyde . Formaldehyde is absorbed in water will continue to be released until the water and in the storage is dried out and the storage is ai red. and it moi s ture thoroughly Other things a grower can do to reduce loss from blue mold rot in storage - pick before apples are fully ripe, avoid injuries and bruises, and get them into storage and cooled down without delay. *************** ILUE MOLD APPLE STORAGE ROT, DIP TANKS AND WATER DUMPERS AND WASHERS C.J. G i 1 g u t Department of Plant Pathology Every apple box or apple with blue mold on it which is dunked or immersed in the tank leaves blue mold spores in it. By the end of the day, the tank can have quite a load. And eyery apple dipped in the tank will have blue mold spores and other rot spores on it which will be carried into the storage and cause rot later. Growers have included apple fungicides in the dip solution in an effort to reduce storage rot. They doubt that it does much good when they find substantial amounts of storage rot later. Some recent work on effect of fungicides in dip solution on storage rots by Dr. M. Szkolnik, at the New York Agricultural Ex- periment Station at Geneva, is of interest. Mcintosh and Cortland apples were rolled on a board with two nails projecting 3/16 of an inch to simulate stem punctures and the injured apples placed in steam sterlized boxes and dipped in the solutions. After draining, the injured apples were transferred to steam sterilized trays, with the two injuries per apple exposed, and sprayed with a heavy suspension of spores of storage rot fungi. The trays of inoculated apples were placed in storage at 34 F. Blue mold rot readings were made on Mcintosh in February and on Cortlands in March. - 8 - The Findings: Captan 50 W, 2 lbs - alone and with No Scald* 2 lbs, or with Stop Scald* 1 pint, reduced blue mold rot a little, but not enough to talk about. Anti-scald properties were not adversely affected. Difolatan* 4 Flowable 1 pint was tested without anti-scald materials. There was about as much blue mold rot as from water without fungicide. Polyram* 80 W 2 lbs There was more blue mold was tested without anti-scald materials rot than from water alone. Benlate* 50 W 1 lb - Reduced blue mold rot on Mcintosh to 3% compared to 29% from water dip without fungicide; and on Cortland to 0% compared to 53% from water dip alone. It did not interfere wi th seal d control . Benlate* 50 W 1 lb was the only one, of the 4 fungicides tested, that gave satisfactory blue mold control. Benlate* is not yet registered for use in post harvest treat- ment of apples. It does have a temporary permit "For Experimental Use Only," as a post harvest treatment for fruit rot control and a 7 ppm residue tolerance which permits marketing of the fruit if the tolerance is not exceeded. *Trade name *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH CA storage requirements of several apple cultivars cul ti vars (varieties) have the same atmospheric an quirements for CA storage. Howeve Cortland and Macoun apples in "har while Mcintosh rooms operating at able. In "hard" rooms these 2 cul cessive amounts of internal and ex injury shows up as dry, brown area cularly around the core. External pressed yellow or brown areas on t issafer to store Cortland and Mac 38 F, than to store them in "hard" Not all apple e atmospheric and temperature re- r, it is not uncommon to find d" rooms (2% CO^, 3%^09 and 32°F) 5% CO2, 3% O2 and 38°F^are avail- tivars occasfonally develop ex- ternal CO2 injury. Internal COj s or pockets in the flesh, partT- injury appears as wrinkled, de- he green side of the fruit. It oun apples rooms . at 5% CO2, 3% O2 and For those who desire long-term storage of Spartan and Idared apples, we suggest placing them in "hard" rooms. Spartan apples store best in "hard" rooms and have pressure-tested 14-15 lbs in May. Idared apples are subject to a physiological disorder, known as Jonathan spot. This disorder can be commercially controlled by storing the apples in "hard" rooms. Preliminary tests indicate that Empire stores well in "hard" rooms, but our observations with this cultivar are limited. *************** CONTROLLING FRUIT FLIES AT ROADSIDE STANDS l-y 6 . L . Jensen P Department of Entomology ■>■ a- Adult fruit flies (Drosophila or vinegar flies) are very small (less than 1/8 inch long), have bright red eyes and a tan-colored head and thorax, with a blackish abdomen. They are found every- where in the world, and are very common wherever fruit and similar materials are permitted to rot and ferment. The entire life cycle of the flies can be completed in as little as 8 to 10 days, hence large populations can build up in only a few weeks. To control these pests, one should eliminate as much as possi- ble all rotting fruits, vegetables and liquids containing food par- ticles from the premises. The flies can breed in almost anything that contains garbage, even such things as dish water from sinks, drain water from refrigerators and ice boxes, and floor scrubbings saturated with food particles. In short, practice good sanitation to help eliminate these and other insects. In food establishments (and roadside markets), fruit flies can be controlled by frequent application of pyrethrum-synergi s t sprays, fogs or aerosals (the synergist is usually piperonyl but- oxide). Frequent applications are necessary inasmuch as these sprays are of necessity s^t)i short-lived or non-persistent. Such sprays may be applied directly to the fruits in bags, boxes or bins since pyrethrum has a low order of toxicity to warm blooded animals and produces no harmful residues on food crops when used according to the directions on the label. Outdoors around packing or processing plants, unloading docks, outside walls and other areas where fruits are not present^may be treated shortly before the picking season begins and during shut- downs every 7 to 10 days with Diazinon* - 4 lbs. 50% WP per 25 gals of water. *Trade name *************** CA STORAGE OF McINTOSH APPLES: PRE- AND POST-HARVEST FRUIT HANDLING AND STORAGE OPERATIONS F.W. Southwick Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Condition at Harvest: be harvested in a somewhat have the desired characteristics Fruit to be placed in CA storage should immature and firm condition if it is to when offered for sale in late win- 10 - ter and spring. Consequently, Mcintosh for CA should have a flesh firmness of 15 to 17 pounds. This requirement applies irrespective of the use of Alar. Although Alar may provide excellent pre-har- vest drop control and retard the rate of flesh softening for Mcin- tosh until mid-October or later, the fruit is not generally firm enough beyond October 1, to be suitable for CA storage. Remember that when relatively soft, ripe fruit are placed in CA storage, fruit of poor quality is ^ery apt to be present at the end of the storage period, no matter how well the CA storage room is operated. CA Storage Room Operation: To reduce the tendency of fruit to scald and lose flesh firmness, apples should be transported from the orchard to a refrigerated storage room within a few hours. Ideally, the fruit should be cooled to 30-32 F within 24 to 36 hours after harvest. Even though this ideal is not accomplished, the fruit should be stored in air until the temperatureof the ap- ples reaches 30-32°F, regardless of the fact that 37-38 F is the CA operational temperature. Generally, the keeping quality of Mc- intosh is improved by cooling the fruit to 30-32 F in spite of the fact that sealing of the room may be delayed several days. After sealing a CA Mcintosh room(which is also suitable for Cortland, if the apples are properly treated for scald control), the temperature should be allowed to rise to 37-38 F as the carbon dioxide (CO^) level increases (to 3% for the first 4 weeks and 5% thereafter) and the oxygen (Op) level declines to 3-4%. These at- mospheres must be obtained within 20 days after the CA room is sealed to meet the legal requirements for CA rooms. In well con- structed rooms these atmospheres are usually obtained within 10 to 15 days. Use of nitrogen generating systems, purging with cyl- inder nitrogen, reducing air velocity within the storage room and the use of "breather" bags all are ways of hastening the rate of oxygen decline and helping maintain it at the 3-4% level. seale ti vel s i g n i able 1 evel bette gen 1 seal e prove 3.5%. el an A wery d w h i 1 y rapi fy a V to dem was r r than evel d d. Al d by m Ther d risk rapi d e the d rate ery ga onstra educed s i m i 1 id not so , th a i n t a i efore , s e r i 0 oxygen fruit w . Of c s - 1 i g h t te that from 2 ar appl reach e k e e p i n i n g an there us low- drop as we ourse room appl 0% to es he 3% un ng qu oxyg is no oxyge may 11 ab , a r as w es f r 3% i Id in til 2 a 1 i ty en le reas n inj indicate t ove 32°F a a p i d d e c 1 i ell. Howe om CA room n a few ho an adjace weeks aft of Mclnto vel at 2.5 on to main ury. hat the CA room was nd respiring at a rela- ne in oxygen level may ver, we have not been s where the oxygen urs kept significantly nt room where the oxy- er the CA room was sh apples is not im- % rather than at 3.0- tain a 2.5% oxygen lev- We do not encourage CA operators to attempt to improve the marketable life of apples by reducing the temperature of Mcintosh CA rooms to 35-36 F. There is some evidence that this reduction in temperature (compared to the recommended 37-38°F) may improve the keeping quality of Mcintosh slightly. On the other hand, there 11 have been some reports of occasional marked increases in flesh browning (considered to be COp injury) in some CA rooms in New York State where a few CA operators have maintained temperatures at 35-36 F. Apparently, there sre also a few people in Massachu- setts who have been holding Mcintosh in their CA rooms at 35-36 F. Although it is quite possible that fruit injury may not appear in most years or only on occasional lots of fruit in a given room, ^q do not believe the relatively minor improvement in fruit condition warrants the risk of serious fruit injury once every 5 to 10 years, *************** COLLAR ROT Department Duane W . of Plant Greene and Soil Sci ences At a recent meeting, the problem of collar rot or crown rot disease in apple orchards was discussed. The symptoms of this dis- ease, caused by the fungus Phytophthora cactorum, are reduced tree growth, sparse light-colored foliage and a premature reddish colora- tion of leaves in the fall. Trees may show symptoms 2 or 3 years after planting, but generally they are more pronounced when trees start to bear. Initial stages of collar rot are often difficult to detect. However, if infection is suspected, move all soil away from the trunk down to the large roots. Early stages of infection may be recognized by dark water-soaked areas in the bark. Advanced stages are characterized by large dark irregularly shaped areas on the trunk. Removal of some of the bark in these dark areas will reveal a tan or reddish brown inner bark. The disease will continue to spread until the tree is completely girdled. Collar rot is most prevalent where trees are grown on heavy soils with poor drainage. On of the major avenues of entry into the tree is through injured tissue at the crown caused by ice dam- age. Infection generally occurs in the fall or spring when the fungal spores are most numerous. Rootstocks differ in their resistance to this disease. Both MM 104 and MM 106 are especially susceptible. In addition, MM 104 grows very poorly under wet soil conditions and should not be planted in low, poorly drained areas. A low incidence of collar rot has been reported in trees on EM VII and EM II. Mcintosh, Wealthy and Melba have proved to be resistant stocks. Various measures may be taken to control this problem. In- arching above the infected area with seedling trees or clonal root- 12 stocks has been effective. More practical methods employ the use of chemicals. Soil is removed from around the tree and the infec- ted area is cut away and left exposed to the air. Either maneb or ferbam, at a rate of 1 lb per 100 gals, can be sprayed on the in- fected areas. Maneb is^preferred since it is active for a longer period of time in the soil. Application is made in the fall just prior to replacement of the soil around the tree. Soil injections of maneb or ferbam around the crown may be effective in preventing infection by the fungus. It is suggested that 1/2 lb per 100 gals be ^applied once a year either in the spring as the buds open or in September. One quart on 2 sides of the tree should be sufficient for trees 2 to 4 years of age. The same quantity on 4 sides of a tree may be required for larger trees. *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When tradenames are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials. NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS IiNJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spieiman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 DR. WM. J PLANT & SOIL FRENCH HALL LORD ■ SCIENCES FN 01002 FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 37 (No. 6) NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1972 TABLE OF CONTENTS Freezing of Apples: How Much Damage Does it Cause? Calcium Nutrition Influences Apple Quality Pine Mice - What's New? Fruit Notes Index for 1972 Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. FREEZING OF APPLES: HOW MUCH DAMAGE DOES IT CAUSE? W.J. Bramlage and R.E. Bir Department of Plant and Soil Sciences In the fall of 1969, unusually early freezes occurred while many apples were still in the orchard. Many questions were raised about the effects of the freezing on apple quality and storage life, and there was \/ery little firm evidence on which to base answers , Most of the work that has been done on freezing of apples was done many years ago, using freezing procedures and conditions that are quite different from what happens in the orchard or during storage. At the January, 1970, meeting of the New York State Hor- ticultural Society, Dr. R.M. Smock of Cornell University summed up (Proc. N.Y. State Hort. Soc. 115:199-204) what was known about freezing injury to apples and concluded that: Less damage occurs the tree. to apples frozen on the tree than off 2. Apples should never be handled while frozen. 3. It is difficult to predict damage. 4. Frozen apples should be sold as soon as possible. To learn more about freezing injury to apples, we conducted an extensive series of tests last year using 'Richared Delicious' apples. These apples were frozen under carefully controlled con- ditions, their temperatures were constantly measured, and the ef- fects of freezing on condition of the fruit were determined immed' iately after freezing and after storage for 1-3 months at 32 F. We found that the apples had two freezing points (Fig. 1). The fji^st one was at about 28 F and the second one was at about 23-24 F, although in some fruits it occurred somewhat lower than this. We tested apples from August to mid-October and found that the temperature of these freezing points did not change as the fruits matured and ripened. This is the first time that more than one freezing point has been seen in apples, and what makes this finding important is that we learned that injury to the fruit is very closely related to these freezing points. At the first freezing point, ice forms in the fruit and if held long enough at this temperature the apples will become" frozen solid." Any physical contact with the frozen apples will leave brown, sunken "contact points" after thawing, probably because the ice crystals pierce and kill the cells in the contact area. If the apples are allowed to thaw they will survive this freezing FREEZING POINT I FREEZING POINT 2 KILLING POINT I _L _L 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 HOURS AT 19° F Figure 1. Typical freezing curve of a 'Richared Delicious' apple. without visible damage other than "contact points." However, their condition is affected, in that they become softer after freezing to this first freezing point (Table 1). We measured 1-2 pounds difference in firmness between apples that had and had not been frozen to Freezing Point 1. We had some indication that the longer they remained frozen, the softer dence for this was not conclusive. they became but the evi Table 1 Firmness (lbs pressure) of apples after freezing at 25 F for different lengths of time and then stored at 32 F for up to three months. Hrs at 25''F Months at 32''F 0 24 36 48 60 72 1 15.7 14.2 14.7 14.6 13.6 14.2 13.1 12.9 13.9 14.0 13.0 13.8 13.1 13.0 13.3 13.4 12.5 13.8 - 3 As the freezing temperature was lowered from Freezing Point 1 to Freezing Point 2, no additional injury occurred until Freezing Point 2 was reached. What causes the second freezing point to oc- cur is not known, but apparently additional water suddenly becomes available for freezing. Ice formation gives off heat so that the temperature of the fruit remains about the same for a considerable length of time (Figure 1). As soon as Freezing Point 2 was reached, condition of the apples was affected in that they softened some more. Nevertheless, the apples did survive the freezing with no visual injury other than "contact points" when thawed. temp i n d i temp but appa grea soft i cal surf peel inju but crea fied The c eratur cated eratur whenev rently tly an eni ng f reez ace br ; brow ry , a only s sed, e , the r i t i c e dro that e at er th , dea d the the a i n g i 0 n z i n ning dark light i t h e r fruit al po pped at th whi ch i s te th) 0 i r re ppl es njury g and of va brown ly di at r coll int d sharp is po this mpera ccurr spi ra qui c symp brow scul a ring scol 0 oom t apsed un ng ly fro int th occur ture d ed in t i 0 n d kly be toms . ning o r stra near red f 1 empera , and f reezi ng m F reezi e apples red v a r i rop occu the appl ropped s gan to d These a f the fl n d s in t the peel esh. As ture or decay ap of an ng Poin were k e d with rred, m e . The harply . i scol or re : va esh , es he fles underl time a at 32°F peared . apple t 2. illed. i n d i V a s s i v e apple Furt and t ri abl e peci al h ; and ain by fter t brown was w Our d The i d u a 1 dama s sof hermo 0 pro amou ly ne wi th wate hawi n ing i hen the ata all exact appl es , ge (and tened re, upon duce typ- nts of ar the severe r-soaked g in- ntensi - When apoles that had been frozen were sto months at 32 , they looked the same as apples frozen unless they had been frozen to the "kil end of the storage period, those not killed we from the controls except that they were always softer depended on whether they had been froze 1 or to Freezing Point 2. Those frozen to Fre softer than those frozen only to Freezing Poin red for up to 3 that had not been ling point. " At the re indistinguishable softer. How much n to Freezing Point ezing Point 2 were t 1. We concluded from these tests that: 1. Any freezing probably softens apples. 2. Freezing to a fruit temperature of 26-28 F will probably cause less softening than if the fruit temperature drops to 22-24°F. 3. Unless the apples were frozen to the killing point, sub- sequent storage for relatively short times did not inten- sify freezing injury. Rates of freezing and thawing within ranges that might occur in the field or in the storage had no effect on re- suits. The important question was how cold the apples had become. - 4 - 5. Storage did not mask the softening effects of freezing. In storage, the apples continued to soften so that dif- ferences remained distinguishable after storage. Perhaps the most practically important finding in our studies was that extent of freezing injury could be measured quickly and easily. If apples have become frozen, samples should be thawed at room temperature and after a couple of days be compared with simi- lar apples that were not frozen. If they have been killed, dis- coloration should begin upon thawing. If discoloration occurs, the apples have been ruined and cannot be salvaged. If they do not discolor, they have not been killed and the extent of damage can be measured by their firmness with a Magness-Tayl or pressure tester. With this quick and simple assessment, the grower can make a decision on what to do with the apples after they thaw. We did not determine the effects of freezing apples while they were still attached to the tree. However, Smock recently found that less visible injury occurred to apples frozen while attached than when frozen detached from the tree (HortSci ence 7: 174 (1972). It is likely that damage from freezing of attached fruits can be assessed the same way as suggested above for detached fruits. In considering freezing injury to fruits in the field or in the storage, a critical factor is to not handle the fruit while it is frozen. Physical contact with frozen apples, whether on or off the tree, will cause "contact points" to appear after thawing. *************** CALCIUM NUTRITION INFLUENCES APPLE QUALITY Mack Drake, John H. Baker, and W.J. Bramlage Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Incidence of bitter pit in apples is known to increase as the calcium level in leaves and fruit declines. Although foliar sprays of calcium solutions have been shown to reduce bitter pit, they have not eliminated it. A major problem is the very poor absorp- tion of applied calcium into apple trees and fruits. We have been studying methods to increase the level of apple fruit calcium, using a block of over-30-year-ol d 'Baldwin' apple trees located at the Horticultural Research Center, Belchertown, Massachusetts. A series of treatments was begun in April, 1970, and include soil applications of lime and calcium nitrate, foliar applications of calcium nitrate, and combinations of foliar sprays with soil treatments. The specific treatments employed are listed in Table 1. A total of 52 trees are included in the experiment. Tabi e 1 . The effects of various treatments on the foliar calcium content of 'Baldwin' apples. Treatment number Treatment description Leaf calcium (%) change (1970-71 minus 1968-69) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Calcium nitrate, foliar (5 lbs/100 gals, 6 times annual ly) Soil liming (100 lbs/tree annually) Calcium nitrate, foliar, plus soil 1 imi ng Soil calcium nitrate (7 1 bs/tree annual ly) Soil calcium nitrate plus foliar calcium nitrate Calcium hydroxide plus magnesium hydroxide slurry, soil injection April, 1969 +0.212 +0.094 +0.231 +0.073 +0.201 +0.103 In October, 1971, the second year of the experiment, one box fruit was picked from each tree and scored for the occurrence bitter pit. These fruit were then stored until late March at 32 F, when they were removed from storage and again scored for bit- ter pit occurrence. After an additional 5 days at 70 F, the pres- ence of scald, internal breakdown, and decay was recorded. of of. Early in October, 1971, a separate set of fruit samples was taken from 11 trees known to be relatively low in calcium content, and from 8 trees known to be relatively high in calcium content. These apples were stored at 32 F until Janui lary, when they were re- moved from storage and their respiration rate during 9 days at 70 F was determined. Although it is still too early in the experiment to uate treatment effects, certain trends are seen in this sul ts . fully eval year's re- in Table 1, the effects of the treatments to date on the leaf calcium content are shown. The greatest increases in calcium have resulted from foliar applications, either alone (Treatment 1} or in combination with soil applications (Treatments 3 and 5). Soil applications, whether employing lime (Treatment 2), calcium nitrate (Treatment 4), or an injected calcium hydroxide plus magnesium hy- droxide slurry (Treatment 6), have been considerably less effective, - 6 - Although leaf samples were washed with distilled water before analy- sis, there is the possibility that traces of calcium spray residue contaminated the samples and accounted for at least part of the difference between the apparent effectiveness of foliar and soil applications. (r = + 0 fruit harve thi s sampl were tent, a 50% group in po corre 9 2% 1 t i 0 n s fects the i low c Never .775) . Th St li table ed fo from rega diff s. T sthar spond ess i hip t on i n i t i a a 1 c i u thele betw e imp fe of , dat r f ru trees rdl es erenc his 5 vest ed to ntern 0 the ntern 1 rel m con ss , een orta the a ar it r kno s of e i n 0% d f rui a 1 al b occ al b atio tent there w leaf ca nee of f rui t e prese e s p i r a t wn to b treatm either i f feren t behav 7% lowe reakdow urrence reakdow n s h i p t was st as a lei um peel is cl nted i on , e rel ent . peel ce wa i or . r res n , an of s n and 0 bit r i k i n highly s content cal ci um early i 1 for only The sam a t i V e 1 y It can or 1 eaf s relate Fifty p pi ration d 85% le cald. I decay w ter pit, g i g n i f and conte 1 us tr the pies 1 ow 0 be se cal c d to ercen rate ss de t is ere i but i cant peel nt in ated two g i n th r hig en th ium b a dra t mor , 64% cay. p 0 s s i ndi re the 0 correl cal ci um rel ati in Tabl roups 0 ese two h in ca at ther etween m a t i c d e fruit 1 ess b It had ble tha ct, ari veral 1 a t i 0 n of the on to post- e 2. In f trees groups Icium con- e was about the two i f f erence cal ci um itter pit, no rela- t the ef- sing from effect of Table 2 Relationship of calcium content of 'Baldwin' apples to their postharvest life. 1971-1972. Peel Ca content Respiration rate (MgC02/kg-hr) 45.6 37.5 Bitter pi t Scald TIT" 57 53 Internal breakdown 12 1 Decay 34 5 % 0.048 1 0.074' T%) 82 30 1 Leaf calcium averaged 0.67% Leaf calcium averaged 1.09% This experiment employs only the cultivar 'Baldwin' but we suggest that relationships similar to those seen here exist for other apple cultivars as well. PINE MICE - WHAT'S NEW? U.S Edward R. Ladd Fish and Wildlife Servi ce For more than 30 years, the Pine Mouse has been the subject of great interest to orchardists in the Eastern United States. Their major concern has been the damage caused to root systems by this animal in its search for food. The root damage is such that, except in extreme cases, the tree is not killed in one sea- son. Instead, its decline may take several years and be seen as lost vigor and production--as well as reduction of revenue to the grower. ce was held in the State of and accomplishments of per- result was a more clear under under way, as a more search is till need coverage s s- Much of the program was devoted to delineating the overall problem areas (see map) and the variation or intensity of the prob- lem within that area. Perhaps the material is best summarized by stating that the intensity of the pine mouse problem can and does vary by orchard--and even by blocks within an orchard. Some areas may have pine mouse problems to the extent that tree loss or dam- age is heavy; yet, neighboring blocks of trees, or orchards, will have a minimal problem--or none at all. Of major interest to all attending the program were the re- search programs being conducted on the pine mouse. A short resume fol 1 ows . 1. CHLOROPHACINONE AND HERBAGE AS POTENTIALS FOR PINE MOUSE DAM- AGE CONTROL .--Frank Horsfall , Jr., Virginia Polytechnic Insti- tute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia. Dr. Horsfall, for the past several years, has been working on a concept of integrated control. His work has developed a list of grass and forb (broadleaf plants) species that create a balanced habitat in the orchard. Such a balance of species contains numer- ous plants actively sought as food by pine mice; the theory is that with a surplus of desirable foods available, pine mouse dam- age to tree root systems would be minimal. Dr. Horsfall has extended his work on the balanced food con- cept into the field testing of an experimental anticoagulant, Chlorophacinone . Using the selected plant species as ground cover under trees, the experimental Chlorophacinone has been applied as a ground spray and the resulting controls measured. - 8 - H O z >- •H 0. H O > w z M p* O M U OS - 9 - 2. DYNAMICS OF THE PINE VOLE IN A COMMERCIAL ORCHARD . --Lynn E. Walsh, Massachusetts Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts. Miss Walsh's study is to cover the density, distribution, and movement of pine mice in a commercial orchard. Data are to be identified in the orchard by habitat variations, such as vegeta- tion, soil type, thickness and kind of humus, and general topogra- phy. This study, when completed, hopefully will give a better un- derstanding of habitat selection by pine mice. That is, why are they in one specific location and not in another that appears iden- tical? The study also will provide data on movements to and from the orchard, as well as from tree to tree, and perhaps some idea as to vertical movement in the soil. AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR State University of OF THE PINE MOUSE. --George L. New York, New Paltz, New York Kimball, III Mr. Kimball has been conducting laboratory studies on the rank (peck order), behavior of dominant and sub-ordinate individuals, fighting, threat, and appeasement attitudes of individual pine mice This project covers the involvement of individuals within a given population unit and the strife or involvement between adjacent units. Mr. Kimball's theory is that behavioral action between in- dividual mice and population units may have a definite role in de- termining the size of a pine mouse population. 4. VOLE POPULATIONS IN NEW YORK ORCHARDS . --R . S . Gourley and M.E. Richmond, New York Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Much of Mr. Gourley's efforts are toward the building of re- productive and life history tables for the pine mouse. Such items as life span, age, sex structure, mortality, birth pattern, total offspring per female, life span, survival rate, and rate of popu- lation increase are being measured. Much of this information is being gathered from the laboratory pine mouse colony maintained at Cornell. It is supplemented by frequent measurements in a commer- cial orchard to test validity and usability under field situations. These field studies are also providing material on population cen- sus and pine mouse activity signs. The ultimate goal of all these projects, and others to be started, is to gain a more complete and better understanding of this pest species--the PINE MOUSE. It is only through the com- plete understanding of any pest species that logical, intelligent, and acceptable methods of control can be achieved. *************** - 10 FRUIT NOTES INDEX FOR 1972 (This index of major articles has been prepared for those who keep a file of Fruit Notes. The number in parentheses indicate the pages on which the item appears.) January -February Varieties of Peaches for Massachusetts (2-4) Peach Bud Survival (4) Early Ripening Apple Varieties - 1971 (5) Important Insect Pests of Massachusetts Cultivated Blue- berries (6-9) March-April Bitter Pit and Similar Cork Spot of Delicious Reduction (5-6) Tarnished Plant Bug - Its Life History and Control (7-8) Fruit Spots (1-4) and Suggestions for its Possible May- June Pollination in High Density Apple Orchards (1-5) Don't Gamble on Frost with Strawberries (6) Pollination of Cultivateu Highbush Blueberries (7-8) Leaf Analysis of Pear Orchards in 1971 (8-9) Manganese Deficiency (9-10) Problem Weeds in Apple Orchards and Their Control (10-11) July-Augus t Marketing Agreements and Orders for Apples (1-5) Integrated Pest Management ■■■ • Massachusetts Apple Orchards (6-9) September-October Suggestions for Use of Ethephon to Promote Early Red Coloring of Mcintosh Apples (1-2) Blufc Mold Apple Storage Rot (2-7) rJlue Mold Apple Storage Rot, Dip Tanks and Water Dumpers and Washers (7-8) Controlling Fruit Flies at Roadside Stands (9) CA Storage of Mcintosh Apples: Pre and Post-Harvest Fruit Handling and Storage Operations (9-11) Collar Rot (11-12) November-December Freezing of Apples: How Much Damage Does it Cause? Calcium Nutrition Influences Apple Quality (4-6) Pine Mice - What's New? (7-9) (1-4) - 11 - All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar mater- ials. NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Splelman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300 POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAAALAGE Vol. 38 (No. 1) JANUARY-FBRUARY 1973 TABLE OF CONTENTS Recent Tree Fruit Variety Introductions Pomological Paragrapti Aspiration Bulbs Continue to be Troublesome San Jose Scale - Life History and Control Pomological Paragraph Publication Available Recent Small Fruit Introductions Research from Other Areas Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. RECENT TREE FRUIT VARIETY INTRODUCTIONS J . F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences This is an up-date of prev selections under test at the Ho Belchertown. As most of our ob or 5 years, we must consider th are also including descriptions been tested at our Belchertown aid to growers wishing to selec AP Quinte An Ottawa introduction rip The fruits are medium in s and averaged greater than i ty is good. The attracti ish are strong points of t New Jersey #26 This selection ripens in 1 Horticultural Research Cen angular, roundish-oblate i finish and medium red colo ties of the early-ripening Jersey #36 has been at lea Julyred A New Jersey introduction August. The fruits are of have a bright smooth finis ing qualities are '^qt)/ goo Carave I We fruited this Ottawa int 1972. The fruit was less less color than Quinte. T shape and have good desser a biennial producer. Jerseymac (New Jersey #38) This recent 1971 introduct Horticultural Reserach Cen very promising variety by ripens about one month bef size, has a pale yellow un red). The fruit flavor is good. The texture is medi The trees are said to be p Tydeman Early (Tydeman Red) This English variety ripen Mcintosh in appearance and fruits have a green underc red blush. The fruit has the early fall trade. The growth habi t. nous repo r t i c u 1 1 u r servation em to be of sever f a c i 1 i ty , t V a r i e t i PLES e n i n g in ize (2-1/ 80% red c ve red bl his new v ate July ter. The n shape a r. The e s e 1 e c t i 0 st equal ripening medium s h . Thee d . Julyr reduction than medi he apples t quality rts on fruit varieties and al Research Center in s have been limited to 4 preliminary in nature. We al varieties that have not this is being done as an es for new plantings. late July and early August. 2"+), round-conic in shape olor in 1972. Fruit qual- ush, shape and smooth fin- ariety . and early August at the fruits are of medium size, nd have a bright smooth at ing and keeping quali- n are very good. New to Julyred in our trials. during the first week of ize, medium red color and ating, handling and keep- ed appears to be promising. for the first time in urn in size and had much are roundish-oblate in Caravel is said to be 1 on ter, many ore has not been tested at the it is considered to be a t specialists. Jerseymac osh, is above medium in and good overcolor (80% and the eating quality is ut the fruit bruises easily and annual . but frui Mclnt dercol or aromati c um-firm b roductive s in late si i ghtly olor and good qual tree is August and is similar to larger in size. The are overlaid with a medium- i ty and looks promising for similar to Rome in its Paulared This recent introduction ripens with or slightly after Tyde- man. The fruits of Paulared are medium to large in size, roundish-oblate in shape and have excellent finish. The fruit colors early and has a solid red blush at harvest (Aug. 31, 1972) Our limited trials suggest that Paulared is most promising for the early September market. Summerved We have fruited this British Columbia introduction for two seasons. Summerred ripens in late August. The fruits are round-conic to oblong in shape, above medium in size and have a bright red blush. The dots have been conspicuous and often russeted in our trials. The fruit quality has been good. Summerred is a Mcintosh X Delicious cross. IJiagara This variety ripens about 10 days before Mcintosh. Niagara is similar to Mcintosh in shape and color. The fruit finish has been less than satisfactory in past seasons. The fruit seems susceptible to russeting and the lenticels have tended to be larger and blurred. The eating quality of Niagara is \jQry good and the variety has been well received by those who have tried it here at the University. Jonamac (New York 4428-5) A New York Agricultural Experiment Station introduction orig- inating from a Mcintosh X Jonathan cross. This Mcintosh type apple is said to be superior to Mcintosh in both color develop- ment and eating quality. Jonamac is an early fall apple that ripens about 8 days earlier than Mcintosh and is being recom- mended to replace some of the Mcintosh now harvested when im- mature and marketed before they are ripe. The foregoing com- ments are based on the originator's description. Empire A yery promising introduction of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva. Empire, resulting from a Mcin- tosh X Delicious cross, was introduced in 1966. The fruit ripens about 2 weeks later than Mcintosh. This very attrac- tive apple has a solid red blushj is of medium size, has very good dessert quality and has been a good keeper. The tree appears to be annual and productive. This appears to be a very promising variety. PEACHES Collins A New Jersey introduction ripening a few days before Sunrise. The peach is medium-sized, firm and yellow-fleshed. Collins is semi-cling when picked at maximum shipping condition and a freestone when fully matured. Thinning is recommended to in- sure good size. Brighton (N.Y. 2622) A 1972 introduction of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station. Brighton is described as an attracti ve, hi gh quality yellow-fleshed peach, ripening just before Sunhaven. The fruit is roundish, uniformly medium in size, and nearly all- over bright red on yellow ground. The flesh is medium firm. semi -cl ing , slightly fibrous, juicy and slow to oxidize, with a sweet, rich flavor. It attains its high quality while still quite firm and maintains it well. The tree is vigorous, productive and medium-hardy. (Introducer's description) Sunrise An attractive, yellow-fleshed peach of medium size. It is firm and almost a freestone when ripe. Has been a biennial bearer in our orchard. Golden Dawn A seedling peach that was discovered in the Bolton orchard of Jonathan Davis in 1953. It is a yellow-fleshed peach of high quality which ripens with Jerseyland. Re tiance An introduction from the New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station is said to be extremely bud-hardy. It is reported to have survived minimum temperatures of -25 F. The fruit is nearly round, moderately fuzzy and has a dull red color. The bright yellow flesh is juicy, medium firm, slightly stringy, of good flavor and ripens with Redhaven. Go Idgem A large yellow-fleshed peach that ripens at the same time as Golden Jubilee. It does not have the solid red of Redhaven, but it is easier to grow and tends to run larger in size. Eden (N.Y. 1466) This New York Agricultural Experiment Station selection was introduced in 1972. It is being described by the introducing agency as a very productive white-fleshed peach that ripens about 3 days before Halehaven or in between Raritan Rose and Redrose. The fruit is large, roundish and 60% red on creamy- white ground. The flesh is thick, firm, juicy, freestone and nearly smooth textured, with a sweet rich flavor, and oxidizes slowly for a white-fleshed peach. It has canned well. The tree is vigorous, very productive and equal to Richhaven in bud-hardiness . Washington One of a new series of introductions from the Virginia Poly- technic Institute (V.P.I. ). Its flowers are reported to be extremely tolerant of spring frosts. The fruits are round, ovate in shape and a high percentage of the skin is covered with a bright red. The flesh is orange-yellow with a bright red at the pit. The flesh is fine textured and it resembles Sunhigh in flavor. This variety ripens about 3 weeks before Elberta. Washington lacks sufficient winter bud-hardiness under our conditions. Summerqueen A large, attractive, firm, yellow-fleshed peach of excellent quality. This New Jersey introduction ripens with Sunhigh. Summerqueen requires cross-pollination. Eedqueen Was selected by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station because of its bud-hardiness. The fruit is large, well-colored and of good quality. It is equal to Elberta in shelf life and firmness. Redqueen ripens about 14 days before Elberta. This variety has been productive in our orchard. - 4 Madison A highly colored, attractive peach with short pubescence. The flesh is yellow, firm, juicy and has a good flavor. Sets yer^ heavy crops and requires heavy thinning to maintain med- ium size. Ores thaven A large, oblate-shaped peach with a dark red blush. The bright yellow flesh is firm, juicy and slightly fibrous. There is some red at the pit. The flavor is very good. The tree is vigorous, productive and medium in hardiness. Recom- mended for trial on basis of performance in other areas. Jefferson Another V.P.I, introduction with blossoms that are resistant to spring frosts. The fruits are large and wel 1 -colored. The flesh is yellow and comparable to J.H. Hale in flavor and and firmness. Jefferson ripens 2 to 3 days after Elberta. Jefferson lacks winter bud-hardiness. PLUMS Howard Miracle (Japanese ) A large, attractive, high quality Japanese plum. The fruit is golden yellow with a light red blush. The firm-fleshed, freestone is picked in late August. Production was very good this year. The flavor of this variety is not typical of a plum and might be objectionable to some. Ozark Premier (Japanese) A large, attractive plum with a medium-red overcolor and firm yellow flesh. The quality of the fruit is very good. The tree is vigorous and appears to be productive. The fruit is ready in late August. Mohawk (European) This variety, along with Oneida and Iroquois, was named by the New York Agricultural Experiment Station in 1966. Mohawk is an attractive blue prune, ripening in late August. The size is medium to large and the quality is very good. Produc- tion has been moderate. Mohawk is said to be self-unfruitful. Seneca (N.Y. 981) (European) This variety was named in 1972. It is a large, attractive, oval, reddish-purple plum of a very high quality. Seneca was a good producer in our Amherst orchard. Seneca ripens in late August and early September. Iroquois (European) An attractive blue prune that ripens in early September about a week before Stanley. The fruit is of medium size, longer than Stanley and of good quality. The tree is productive. There was some splitting of the fruit when the trees first came into bearing in our Amherst orchard. Iroquois is said to be sel f-f rui tf ul . Oneida (European) A large, reddish-black prune shaped plum of very good quality. The tree is medium in size, vigorous and productive. Oneida keeps well in storage and appears to be worthy of trial where a late ripening plum is desired. - 5 We hav They appear Lexington This h are ab and ye and a Neatarose This V bright 1 arger flesh Neotaheart This w ber . good, have a Cavalier A yell of Sep i nches NECTARI e fruited the following to be quite reliable i as been a productive va out 2-1/4" in diameter, 1 1 ow undercolor. The f freestone. Lexington r ariety ripens in early red and the undercolor in size than the other is white, the stone fre hi te- fleshed variety ri The flesh is white and The surface color is a veraged slightly under ow-fleshed freestone va tember. The fruits hav in diameter, and have NES nectarines the n production. past 5 seasons riety in our planting. The fruits have an attractive red overcolor lesh is yellow, has a good flavor ipens in the last week of August. September. The surface color is whitish. The fruits average 3 varieties under test. The e, and the flavor good. pens in the first week of Septem- the stone free, the quality is bright red. Nectaheart fruits 2 inches in diameter. riety ripening in the first week e averaged slightly under 2 an attractive red surface color. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Aspiration bulbs continue to be troublesome : Many growers use a rubber aspiration bulb to pump samples of atmosphere from their CA rooms to the Orsat analyzer. These bulbs become porous and prac- tically every year some CA storage operator obtains erroneous read- ings with his Orsat analyzer because of introduction of outside air through the bulb during the aspiration process. Two years ago, 'Mcintosh' apples in 2 CA rooms were severely injured from low oxy- gen (Og) because the leaky aspirator bulb was responsible for higher Op readings than were actually present in the atmosphere of the storages . A few storage operators who have short sampling lines to the storages skip the rubber aspiration bulb and use the water level- ling bottle to take their CA storage atmosphere samples. For most storage operators, however, it is more practical to replace the aspiration bulb with a small air pump. The investment in an air pump is minut^in comparison to the value of the apples in storage. *************** SAN JOSE SCALE - LIFE HISTORY AND CONTROL G. L . Jensen Department of Entomology San Jose scales (Quadraspidiotus pemiaiosus) have been the object of numerous complaints during the past season. They are small (about 1/12 inch across) disk-shaped insects which are just discernible to the naked eye. Under the hand lens the disks reveal a raised nipple-shaped spot near the center. All parts of the tree are attacked above ground level includ- ing the trunk, branches, leaves and fruit. Usually, the bark or skin of the fruit is reddened for a short distance around each of the scales. This phenomenon is especially noticeable on young trees and on new growth of old trees. Heavily infested trees show a general decrease in vigor and the foliage is sparse. If infesta- tions are allowed to develop unchecked, trees may be killed. Ter- minal twigs chacteri sti cal ly die first. The fruits of infested trees often are mottled or spotted in appearance due to the red- dish inflamed areas surrounding each of the scales. Life Cycle ti on other The s to fl bl oom becom ing y are k bark settl throu al ong ing 0 mouth the p gener pests The inse under sm stages mall sea ow i n th The w e winged oung whi nown as for a sh ing down gh the b with th nly flat parts . rotecti V ations o , they a ct pass all bla of the 1 es bre e s p r i n i nged m nor em ch have "crawl e ort tim , they ark and e i r old tened y As they e scale f seal e re favo es the ck sea i nsect ak dor g. Th ales e erge f the a rs" , a e seek i nsert being skin el low grow , s unde each red by wi nter les. U are ki mancy a ey usua merge i rom ben ppearna nd they ing the thei r s u c k i n they lo sacks a they s r which year in hot , d 1 n a nder lied t abo lly b n May eath ce of craw prop s lend g the se th ttach ecret they this ry we dorm New E duri n ut th ecome . Th the s yell 1 ove er sp er th sap. ei r 1 ed to e a w live area ather ant, par ngland c g the wi e time t f ul 1 -gr e female cale giv ow mites r the su ot to se read-1 i k They s egs and the tre axy subs There As wi tly grow ondi tion nter mon he sap b own by f s which e birth or lice rface of ttle dow e mouth oon molt antennae es only tance wh are pro th most n condi- s, all ths. egi ns ull never to liv- These the n. Upon parts and , becom- by their i ch forms bably 3 i nsect The insects are carried from orchard to orchard on the bodies of birds and larger insects, but probably to a greater extent by wind or air currents. In common with many scale insects, they al- so often spread on contaminated nursery stock. Control Measures These insects are best controlled with 60 or 70 Second oil at 2 gals/100 during the half-inch green stage. In order to realize satisfactory control, it is necessary to obtain a thorough coverage of the entire tree since the tiny scales are generally distributed over the entire tree and only those hit with the spray will be killed. During the growing season (petal fall and first cover) Guthion* (1 lb 50 WP), carbaryl (2 lbs 50 WP or 2/3 lb SOS) and Diazinon* (1/2 lb 50 WP) are all effective against the crawler stages. *Trade name *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Publication availiable: In January, 1969, a National Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference was held at Michigan State University This conference was summarized in an article entitled "What's New with CA Storage"in the March-April, 1969 issue of Fruit Notes. The entire Proceedings of this conference was published as Horticultural Report No. 9 by the Horticulture Department at Michi- gan State. The available supply was quickly exhausted and in re- sponse to a continuing demand, the Proceedings have been republished A copy may be obtained by sending an order to the Department of Hor- ticulture, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48823. The cost is $2.50 for domestic orders, $3,00 for foreign orders, and an order should be accompanied by a check or money order written to the order of Michigan State University. A great deal of information is contained in this publication, and the information is only slightly outdated. This publication should be of interest and value to anyone concerned with the broad application of CA storage. *************** RECENT SMALL FRUIT INTRODUCTIONS James F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Three blueberry varieties, Bluetta, Lateblue and Elizabeth were introduced in 1967. None of these have been tested in our University plantings and the following notes are taken from the introducer's descriptions. Btuetta A new blueberry variety released by the Crops Research Division of the U.S.D.A. and the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station The plants of Bluetta are short compact spreading and - 8 - medium in vigor. The fruit is medium-sized, light blue in color, firm but has broad stem scars. The fruit is said to have more flavor than Weymouth and to be more resistant to spring frosts than Weymouth and to be more resistant to spring frosts than Weymouth. Its outstanding features are early ri- pening and consistent production. The above notes are based on performance of the variety in New Jersey. Elizabeth. Was developed by the late Miss Elizabeth White and was intro- duced by the New Jersey Cultivated Blueberry Council, Inc. It has an unusually long picking season. The berry color is a medium blue and its size very large being about equal to Herbert. Its dessert quality and flavor are rated as excel- lent. It is yery sweet and aromatic. The clusters are very loose and easily picked. The scar is small. Elizabeth is sim- ilar to Coville in vigor and growth habit. The plant is said to be a good producer and to be hardy. Elizabeth appears to thrive best on moderately peaty soils and is not recommended on yery sandy soils. Lateb lue Was introduced by the U.S.D.A. and the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. The plants are erect, vigorous and con- sistently productive. The fruit is borne in medium-sized clusters. The berries are highly flavored, firm, light blue in color and have small stem scars. They are smaller and ri- pen about one week after Coville. One of its outstanding features is simultaneous ripening of fruit in a short period of time. STRAWBERRY Holiday (N.Y. 1144) Is a new very firm-fruited variety for commercial planting or home gardens. The plants are productive, vigorous, making a good matted row of well-spaced plants. The fruit is large, very firm, bright red, glossy, attractive, oblate to round- oblate. Primary fruits hold in good condition until secon- daries and even some tertiaries ripen, thus exhibiting concen- trated ripening. The fruits are of good quality with a dis- tinctive aromatic flavor. Holiday is a good freezer and ri- pens in early-mi dseason. (Originator's description) *************** RESEARCH FROM OTHER AREAS William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences The Influence of Shade and Within-Tvee Position on Apple Fruit Sizey Color and Storage Quality: Several experiments to determine the influence of shade and within-tree position on fruit size. - 9 - color and storage quality of 'Cox's Orange Pippin' apples were con- ducted by J.E. Jackson, R.O. Sharpies and J.W. Palmer, East Mailing Research Center, Kent, England and reported in Vol. 46 (No. 3) of the Journal of Horticultural Saience. The studies showed that apples from the inside of the trees differed from those borne on the outside and similar differences were obtained by artificially shading parts or the entire tree. Fruits harvested from the tree periphery were larger and better colored but were more susceptible to bitter pit and rot due to Gloeosporium spp. and to soft rot fungi. However, these fruit were less susceptible to shrivel and core flush than fruits from the more shaded parts of the tree. The effects of in-tree position on their storage behavior in relation to fruit size and mineral composition also were studied. Fruits from 2 trees growing in an east-west hedgerow that were well exposed to the south were separated according to whether they were harvested on the north side (segment) or south side (segment) of the trees or whether they were picked with (upper segment) or without a ladder (lower segment). Size of the fruit reached from the ground was larger from the south side than the north side of the trees. Fruit size did not differ between the north and south upper segments of the trees, however. Fruit from the upper segments and larger fruit from within each segment of the tree had more red col or . After storage, a relationship between size and bitter pit only was evident on fruits from the upper segments of the trees; the incidence of pit was greater on the larger fruits. Although not severa Gloeosporium rot was more frequent on larger fruits and more severe in the upper segments of the trees. Severity of shrivelling differed little among the tree segments but the disorder was more severe on smaller than on larger fruits. Concentration of nitrogen was higher in smaller fruit than lar- ger fruit from a similar segment of the tree. Calcium contents and the ratios of calcium (Ca): potassium (K) were lower in the larger fruits within each tree segment and in fruits from the upper seg- ments of the trees. In storage, the fruits from the upper segments of the trees developed more bitter pit than similar-size fruits from the lower segments. Within the upper segments of the trees, larger fruits developed more bitter pit than the smaller fruits. Editors' Note: The advantages attributed to small apple trees from the standpoint of better fruit color and fruit size probably are due to greater exposure of foliage and fruit to light. These studies by Jackson et al . which indicate that larger and better- - 10 - colored fruits were more susceptible to bitter pit emphasize the need for Ca in our plantings on size-controlling rootstocks since both bitter pit and cork spot development appears to be most di- rectly related to low calcium in the peel area of apples. The findings of Jackson et al . also support our observations in 1971 that cork spot was more severe in the tops of 'Delicious' apple tree than on the lower limbs. *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, S300 POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR101 FRUIT NOTES Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Cooperative Extension Service College of Agriculture University of Massachusetts, Amherst ■'■::-xi:^^ .•"; r.-i/:,"^*£i*;j^*i^';-".*'^: :*;■?;',■.■« EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 38 (No. 2) MARCH-APRIL TABLE OF CONTENTS Suggestions for Fertilization of Apple Trees in 1973 Influence of Potassium on Calcium Uptake of 'Delicious' Apples Pomological Paragraph Low calcium (Ca) levels have prevailed for many years Controlling Weeds in Strawberries Mummy Berry Use of Ethephon (Ethrel*) to Initiate Flower Bud Development Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. SUGGESTIONS FOR FERTILIZATION OF APPLE TREES IN 1973 William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences More growers participated in our leaf analysis program in 1972 than in any previous year. Thereby, we obtained considerable information concerning the nutritional status of our apple trees which is discussed below in conjunction with fertilization sugges- tions for 1973. Although leaf analysis is a valuable tool for determining nu- tritional status of fruit trees, it is no substitute for careful observations of tree growth, fruit size, and fruit color when de- ciding the amount of nitrogen to apply. In the case of the other essential elements, however, leaf analysis is the best means of determining if their levels in trees are low or excessive. The essential elements for apple trees are supplied either by foliar or soil applications. However, we think it is safest to ap' ply all elements as a fertilizer except in emergency cases because foliar sprays may be more expensive, be of no benefit, or could damage fruit. Nitrogen (N): N is Still the key to a satisfactory fertility pro- gram. The desirable N content of leaves from bearing 'Mcintosh' apple trees is 1.80-2.10%. In 1972, 56% of the leaf samples from bearing trees of this cultivar exceeded 2.10%. The remaining sam- ples, with one exception, were within the desirable range. A lim- ited number of leaf samples from young 'Mcintosh' trees (10 years of age or less) averaged 2.24% N and some samples from bearing 'Delicious' trees averaged 2.25%. Since apple trees are showing abundant eating a potentially good crop for 1973, we 1973, growers should: flower buds, thus indi- are suggesting that in 1. 2. Apply Omit 0 of 'Mc in 19 7 Reduce they a si vely b e a r i n 2.6%, start Apply orous . are pr the tr no mor r redu Intosh 2. or om re sta 1 arge g 'McI but th to pro suf f i c N le obably e e V i g e than normal ce N applicat rates of N. ions by one-half in those blocks trees which produced fruit with poor color it N on young rting to bear , poorly colo ntosh' apple ese high N le duce . ient N to kee vels of 2.2-2 sati sf actory orous in orde , vigorous 'Mcintosh' trees if a crop in order to avoid exces- red fruit. Young, vigorous, non- trees may have N levels of 2.4- vels should be reduced when trees p bearing 'Delicious' trees vig- .4% in bearing 'Delicious' trees because it is necessary to keep r to produce large-sized fruits. - 2 4. (cont) Furthermore, obtaining sufficient red color on the newer strains of 'Delicious' is not a problem. Suggested rates of actual N for bearing apple orchards, based on potential yield of trees are as follows: (a) less than 15 bu- shels (bu): 0.66 lbs.; (b) 15 to 25 bu: 0.66 to 1.00 lbs; (c) more than 25 bu: 1,33 to 2.00 lbs. These suggested amounts are for hand applications under the spread of the branches. When the materials are broadcast over the entire orchard floor, it may be necessary to increase the rate of application in order to obtain the same tree response as with hand applications. Calcium (Ca): Ca in 'Mcintosh' and 'Delicious' leaves in 1972 averaged 0.80% and 0.71%, respectively, which is considerably less than the desirable content of 1.25-1.50%. The incidence of cork spot and bitter pit in apples is known to increase as the calcium level in leaves and fruit declines. Furthermore, recent data show that fruits with low Ca content de- velop more internal breakdown and decay in storage than those with a high Ca level. It is MQvy difficult to increase Ca content of apple trees and fruits. Although foliar sprays of Ca solutions have been shown to reduce bitter pit, they have not eliminated it. A major problem is the Mery poor absorption of applied Ca into apple trees and fruits Furthermore, Ca in the soil moves yery slowly in the tree and most of it is quickly tied up in insoluble form. However, we suggest the following measures to increase Ca content of apple leaves and fruits. How far these treatments will go in developing adequate Ca levels, or how long it will take to reach adequate levels, is not known. Continue to apply 3 tons of limestone per acre every 2 to 3 years. Where high magnesium lime was used in the last application, the use of a more soluble high Ca lime will act more rapidly and will provide more Ca. Change from ammonium nitrate or urea sources of fertilizer N to calcium nitrate. Calcium nitrate fertilizer quickly increases the level of soluble soil Ca, increases the downward movement of Ca and raises the pH of the soil. Apply 3 to 5 calcium sprays at 10-day intervals, starting 2 weeks after petal-fall. We suggest using calcium ni- trate (fertilizer or technical grade) at the rate of 5 lbs per 100 gallons of water. A spreader or wetting agent, such as Triton B, should be used at the rate of 3 fluid ounces per 100 gallons of water. Calcium nitrate may stimulate shoot growth which will com- pete with the transport of Ca into the fruit. Calcium - 3 Potassium (K): The desirable level of K in bearing apple trees ex- pressed as percentage dry weight is 1.25-1.60. In 1972, 35% of the 'Mcintosh' leaves were below these levels whereas only 13% of those from 'Delicious' trees were found to be low in K. Since this ele- ment generally is not higher than the desirable level in apple leaves, K may be needed annually. The requirements for K (expressed as K^O) based on potential yields are as follows: (a) less than 15 buT 1.3 lbs/tree; (b) 1" to 25 bu: 1.3-2.7 lbs/tree; (c) more than 25 bu: 2.7-4.3 lbs/tree. The KpO requirements can be supplied by applying muriate of potash, a "complete" fertilizer, or either Sul-Po Mag* or K-Mag*. The lat- ter two fertilizers may be of value when both K and magnesium (Mg) are low, since they are sources of both of these elements. High levels of K can depress both Mg and Ca, particularly if the soil supply of Mg and Ca is low. Magnesium (Mg): Low magnesium levels (less than 0.25%) were present in 20% of the leaves sampled in 1972. The Mg requirements of trees can best be met by maintaining an adequate dolomitic liming pro- gram. Since it takes several years before lime is effective in correcting Mg deficiency, Epsom salt sprays can be used to help correct the condition. Apply 2 or 3 sprays at the rate of 15-20 lbs per 100 gallons of water at the time of calyx, first cover and second cover sprays. To avoid possible incompatibilities, the Ep- som salt sprays should not be combined with the regular pesticide sprays . Boron (B): B was generally low in the leaf samples obtained in 1972. B can be supplied to apple trees either by foliar or soil applications. Use the most economical and convenient method. Soil applications of B should be applied to orchards every 3 years. Borax is the common material used. The rates of applica- tion per tree vary with age and size. Apply 0.25 lb of fertilizer borate (20.2% B) or its equivalent to young trees, 0.5-0.75 lb to medium age and size trees, and 0.75-1.00 lb to large or mature trees. If the soil application of B is followed by a wet spring and summer, it may be advisable to apply 2 foliar applications of B the following year. Many growers rely on annual foliar applications of B. The usual practice is to add Solubor* to the first 2 cover sprays. Fertilizer grades of borax may contain grit and should not be used in a sprayer. Mature trees should receive 4 lbs of Solubor* per *Trade Name acre each year. Consequently, the goal is to apply about 2 lbs per acre in each of the 2 applications. For young orchards, the addi- tion of 0.5 lb of Solubor* per 100 gallons (dilute basis) to the first 2 cover sprays meets the B requirement of these trees. Re- ports from New York State indicate that sprays can be concentrated up to 8X with satisfactory results. Manganese (Mn): This element was low in 48% of the orchards sam- pled in 1972. In some orchards, deficiency symptoms were evident. (A picture and description of deficiency symptoms of this element appeared in the May-June, 1972, issue of Fruit Notes). Research has shown that in its milder stages, Mn deficiency of apple trees does not seem to be accompanied by loss of tree vigor or f rui tf ul ness . However, the condition can be corrected by foliar applications of manganese sulfate or of a fungicide containing Mn. Manganese sulfate is applied about first cover at a rate of 3 lbs per 100 gallons of water. If using an Mn-contai ni ng fungicide, 2 or 3 applications are necessary with timings about petal fall, first and second cover. Zino (Zn): Based on optimum levels of Zn established by some states, some of our apple orchards are low in this element. We are not convinced that dormant applications of zinc sulfate are worthwhile from the standpoint of increasing tree performance. Until the value of this zinc sulfate spray applied at the "green- tip" stage of bud development can be substantiated, we suggest its use only on a trial basis. *************** INFLUENCE OF POTASSIUM ON CALCIUM UPTAKE OF 'DELICIOUS' APPLES William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Since several apple fruit disorders are associated with in- adequate calcium (Ca) in the fruits, growers have been cautioned against excessive use of potassium (K) because this element sup- presses Ca uptake. To help maintain a balance between Ca and K, it has been suggested therefore, that leaf K levels be maintained in the range of 1.25 to 1.50%. However, studies by the late Dr. with a 'Delicious' cultivar indicated that decreased K levels far in Walter Weeks accumulation of Ca in the excess of 1.50% (Table 1) 'Delicious' cultivar indicated foliage occurred only at *Trade Name 5 - Table 1, Effect of varying levels of K on Ca accumulation. 1 n Delicious' apple leaves Percent dry weight basis 1960 1961 K Ca 1962 K Ca 1963 K K 1 Ca Ca 1.44a^ .71b 1.87b .66ab 2.07c .62a 1.31a .63b 1.75b .59ab 1.91c .54a 1.41a .69b 1.97b .63b 2.21c .57a 1.43a 1.73b 1.96c .65b .58ab .56a Means in the same column followed by different letters are signifi- cantly different at the 5% level. The data in Table 1 show that there were differences in leaf K among all three K levels in 1960 through 1963, but only the highest level (2.07, 1.91. 2.21 and 1.96%) significantly decreased the accum- ulation of Ca in the foliage. It is doubtful that K levels of 1.90% or more are common in 'Delicious' trees in grower orchards or that high K levels have been a major factor in the increased incidence of cork spot and bitter pit in 'Delicious' apples in our orchards. The Ca levels in Table 1 are much below the 1.5% or higher optimum level established by some states for Ca. However, as shown in the Pomological Paragraph that follows, low Ca levels have been and con- tinue to be common occurrence in Massachusetts. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Low aaloium (Ca) levels have prevailed for many years: When the leaf analysis service for apple growers was initiated in 1956, we established for the major elements what was considered to be the desirable mineral content of leaves from bearing 'Mcintosh' apple trees. For leaf Ca, 0.90-1.40% per weight was suggested as being optimum. Since 1956, leaf Ca has been consistently low in our 'Mcintosh' apple trees (Table 1), but we paid little attention to this element except for stressing the need of lime. Table 1. Ca content of 'Mcintosh' dry weight, from growers apple leaves orchards . expressed as % Year 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 Avg. % Ca 80 92 82 95 89 89 Range in % Ca 61 61 49 62 37 50 1.04 1.33 1.52 1.90 1.60 1.46 Year Avg. % Ca 1962 1963 1964 1965 1969 1971 1972 90 98 97 96 95 76 80 Range in % Ca .56 - 1.30 .51 - 1.80 .59 - 1.30 .50 - 1.80 .78 - 1.30 .48 - 1.17 .43 - 1.33 In the last several years, it has been shown that this "neg- lected" element is very essential in apple trees. It is now believed that the leaf Ca should be 1.25 - 1.50% or higher in apple trees. Therefore, it is obvious that Massachusetts apple growers are faced with the problem of increasing Ca content of their apple trees. Unfortunately, at the present time, there is no quick and sure rem- edy for correcting low Ca levels. *************** CONTROLLING WEEDS IN STRAWBERRIES Dominic A. Marini Regional Fruit & Vegetable Specialist Weed control is one of the major problems in producing straw- berries. Weed killers can help to control weeds but cannot be expected to eliminate all cultivation, since a loose, open soil is necessary for runners to take root. Chemical weed control is a useful tool, and like any tool, must be used properly for best results. Application equipment must be calibrated and in good working order so as to apply the proper amount of material uniformly. The soil surface should be smooth and free of clods. Chemicals used for pre-emergence weed control must be applied to clean, weed-free, moist soil followed by 1/2 to 1 inch of moisture within 3 or 4 days for best results. Weed population influences choice of material, since each controls some weeds and not others. In Massachusetts, there are three materials suggested for weed control in strawberries in 1973. They are Dacthal* and diphenamid (Dymid*or Enide*) for pre-emergence use, and Tenoran*, which may be applied either pre-emergence or early post-emergence. Dacthal* is the most versatile in that it may be applied im- mediately after planting and there is no limitation on the number of times that it can be applied, except that it may not be used during bloom and harvest. It is effective for about 4 to 6 weeks providing good control of crabgrass and other annual grasses, chickweed, purslane and 1 ambsquarters . It does not control gal- *Trade Name 1 nsoga weed. or cruciferous weeds, and is weak against ragweed and smart- Diphenamid controls most of the weeds controlled by Dacthal* and is more effective against ones that Dacthal* does not control except galinsoga, and usually is longer lasting in its effective- ness. It should not be used until plants are established (about 2 weeks after planting) or injury may result. It may temporarily delay rooting of runners, but this should not affect yields. It should not be used on 'Raritan' since injury may occur. A second application may not be made within 6 months and it may not be ap- plied within 60 days of harvest. Tenoran* should not be applied until plants are established or injury may result. It may be applied either pre-emergence or post-emergence when weeds are less than 2 inches tall and grasses are less than 1/2 inch. It is weak against grasses, particularly cis a post-emergence treatment, but controls most broadleafed weeds including galinsoga. Not more than 2 applications may be made in one year and it may not be applied within 60 days of harvest. Early spring applications the year of harvest are reported to have caused serious injury in New Jersey. Tenoran* remains effective longer than other materials. Some growers apply it after culti- vation and hoeing in late May or early June and obtain good con- trol for the rest of the season. Cost of materials per application is roughly comparable, vary- ing from $17.50 to $20.00 per acre (1972 prices) for the 3 mater- ials. Regardless of cost considerations, perhaps the most impor- tant argument in favor of chemical weed control in strawberries is the difficulty of finding the time or labor to do the job by hand. As one grower remarked recently, "I wouldn't be in the strawberry business without weedkillers." *************** MUMMY BERRY Domi ni c A. Mari ni Regional Fruit & Vegetable Specialist Mummy berry, caused by the fungus Solerotin-ia vaaoinii-oorym- bosi brought about losses in many cultivated blueberry plantings during the 1972 season. Prolonged cool, wet weather last spring provided ideal conditions for primary infection, the cause of the leaf and twig blight stage which resembles frost injury, and of secondary blossom infection which results in the mummified berries from which the name is derived. Mummy berry is difficult most blueberries are grown in to control in Massachusetts, where sod. In New Jersey, where clean *Trade Name 8 - culture is practiced, mummy berry is seldom a problem in clean, veil kept plantings, while it is a frequent problem in weedy, poorly kept ones. The reason for this is that frequent cultivation dis- turbs the mummy berries; those that are buried or lose contact with the soil fail to produce the spores that are the cause of primary infection. In addition to cultivation. New Jersey growers use ground applications of calcium cyanamid to destroy the "mummy cups" that develop from the mummy berries and release the primary spores. In Massachusetts, calcium cyanamid applications have not given sat- isfactory control, possibly because of the protection afforded the mummies by the sod cover. Protective fungicide sprays are suggested for mummy berry con- trol in Massachusetts. Timing is critical. Spores are released and infection takes place during wet periods from the time that the buds begin to swell until the blossoms have set fruit. The plants must be covered before wet periods during this time. Ferbam, at the rate of 3 pounds per 100 gallons, is the recommended fungicide. Make the first application when the buds have swollen and the earl- iest ones have begun to open, and repeat in 7 days. Spray again when the blossoms are in the close cluster stage and repeat 7 to 10 days later. *************** USE OF ETHEPHON (ETHREL*) TO INITIATE FLOWER BUD DEVELOPMENT William J. Lord and Duane W. Greene Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Growers are interested in ethephon's ability to promote spur development and flower-bud formation on young apple trees. To in- duce this response, the proposed label gives the following directions "To increase flower bud development in both spur and non-spur type young non-bearing apple trees, apply a foliar spray of ETHREL* 1 to 2 weeks after peak bloom period (as determined by bearing trees in the area). On young trees just beginning to initiate a few flowers , treat 4 to 5 weeks after full bloom to minimize overthin- ning and mis-shapen fruit (calyx end pinched). Reduced vegetative growth and increased bud development during the season of applica- tion should increase flowering the following spring. Trees should be large enough to support a set of apples before they are treated to initiate flower buds. 1. Spur type trees: Mix 1-2/3 pints of ETHREL* in 100 gallons of water (5 pints in 300 gallons). Spray trees thoroughly and uniformly to the point of runoff. *Trade Name 2. Non-spur type trees: Mix 3-1/3 pints of ETHREL* in 100 gallons of water (10 pints in 300 gallons). Spray trees thoroughly and uniformly to the point of runoff. This rate may completely defruit trees. Treat when air temperatures are between 60°F and 90°F Our studies show that concentrations much less than those recommended on the label for non-spur trees will reduce fruit set drastically when applied as late as 44 days after full bloom (F.B.) Therefore, until more is known about ethephon, we suggest it not be used on bearing trees to promote flower bud initiation if fruit thinning is undesirable. We have conducted no trials with ethephon on non-bearing trees, However, research elsewhere indicates that if this chemical is com- bined with Alar-85*, it is possible to promote flower bud formation with lower rates of each chemical. Therefore, we offer the follow- ing suggestions for trial by those interested in initiating flower bud development on non-bearing, non-spur type trees. Mix 1-2/3 pints of ethephon plus 1 lb. of Alar-85* in 100 gallons of water. Apply this mixture 1 or 2 weeks after F.B. (as determined by bear- ing trees in the area). Suppression of vegetative growth should occur during the season of application as well as increased flower bud formation. *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials, NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. *Trade Name Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR101 Vol. 38 (No. 3) MAY-JUNE, 1973 FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE TABLE OF CONTENTS Program Planning for New England Fruit Meetings Chemical Thinning of Apples Integrated Pest Management of Apple Insects, 1972 Woodchucks in Orchards Pomological Paragraphs Timing of calcium sprays Carbaryl (Sevin*) for thinning Comparative Responses of Peach Trees to Chemical Weed Control, Hay Mulch, Frequent Mowing and Cultivation Brown Rot of Peaches, Plums, Cherries and other Stone Fruit Pomological Paragraph Influence of timing of bee hive introduction on production of highbush blueberries issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. PROGRAM PLANNING FOR NEW ENGLAND FRUIT MEETINGS As in previous years, the Program Planning Committee for the New England Fruit Meetings will be held in mid-June. Each New England State is represented on the committee by its Fruit Exten- sion Specialist and President of the Pomological or Horticultural Society. The committee members would appreciate suggestions for speakers and/or topics for 1974 meetings. *************** CHEMICAL THINNING OF APPLES 1 arge that er pr ous t us ual i m p 0 r neces ti ng i e t i e al fl 'Deli as po bl oom This spri r crop on chemi cal e V a i 1 s at hreat . ly necess tant reas sity for ' Del i ci ou s need ch owe ring b ci ous ' , i s s i b 1 e be may set ng we many thi nni bl OSS Some m ary to on for i m p r 0 V s ' and emi cal ut als t is d cause only a a n t i c i p of our ng wi 1 1 om time oderate assure thi nni ing fru many o thi nni 0 to si esi rabl too fre light ate a h apple t be des and a thi nni annual ng Mcln it size ther ea ng not gni f i ca e to de quently crop. eavier b rees tha irable i late spr ng of he f 1 oweri tosh in . To th rly and only to ntly imp lay the this va loom an n in 19 f good ing fro avy set ng. Th Massach e contr late ma improve rove fr deci si o riety i d a pot 72. Th p 0 1 1 i n a s t is n ting Mc is is a usetts ary, he t u r i n g chance u i t s i z n to th n spite e n t i a 1 1 y is means ting weath- ot a seri- I n 1 0 s h is much more than the avy set- apple var- s of annu- e. With in as late of a heavy Chemical thinning has been a standard procedure in orchards for many years and except for testing a new chemical as a possible peach thinner and determining the effect of Alar* treatments on the response of 'Mcintosh' apple trees to chemical thinning, our research work in this area has been limited. 0 had th fore t that si on fall i e u , NAAm b i n a t i petal of NAA The mi gave t ur stu inning his wo mid-A f youn n 1972 t had naphth on of fall p at 10 1 der m he des dy with peaches in 1971 showed that the new chemical capability but caused severe foliage injury, there- rk was discontinued. The experiments with Alar* showed ugust treatment at 2000 ppm in 1971 retarded abscis- g fruits when counts were made 11 days after petal- In spite of this carry-over effect of Alar on fruit no influence on the ability of carbaryl (Sevin*-50% WP) aleneacetamide) , NAA ( napthaleneaceti c acid) or a com- carbaryl plus NAA to reduce fruit set when applied at lus 17 days. NAA at 10 ppm or the combination spray ppm plus 1/2 lb Sevin* - 50% WP seriously overthinned. aterials, Sevin* - 50% WP at 1/2 lb or NAAm at 50 ppm, ired degree of thinning. Details concerning chemicals, concentrations and timing for thinning several apple cultivars are given in the following chart, *Trade name U5 OH s- E (U -a res s- >, > B 0) to 4J >r- QC Q. ro rtJ LU •a: T3 +-> 00 a: CM I— I <_) o o (/> UJ tD CJ3 oo O.Q. O E ^— o s- 0) •.- 4-> .— I- (O <1- ITS — o res »t- to +J to 3 Q <: to >)l res s- CL 00 3 C_) to D. ^ s- +-> -a res O o O Ll_ O) 4-> Q. +-> res <: E E a. s~ Q. Q. O Q. o o I in CM c res c: J= •r- o (U rei -)-> s- to 4J c to cu cC > >i res ■o — s_ , ^ rej ■O to "* C7> o •r— c o C r-t -C cC ■M o u- ro U. Q. r— I CM <: E E a. i~ a. Q. O Ql o CM o ID s: (A O ■M C rej I I E ja J= i- c o O Q-'i- CU o o o to cu +-> E O to c c I— +J •■- CDi— C r- >, 3 res r— o o ja >- •!- rej cu > res E ^ o o +J r— O X) E to to , res 4-> ^ > res s- > res JD to i- -1- C_} +J o 1—1 I U- Q- I CM rM >» i- ta XI s- 10 o 'X. •a: E -1 o I Lf) CM res 3 -E E 4-> ;- -a 4-> 1— s- •1- o cu i- o n5 +-> E -M cC res to T3 to E (U OJ J- Q. I— T3 >>E s_ res na XI to 1- s- res .■•-> S- to res at xj a> s- O) res 3 c_3 to • to ;^ res E res cu x: x: to -M O +J * E s- I — I lo O I— s: cc ■»J s I— , • 4-> res S- res I- rt3 3 £i CU cr to >, I o I res ct XI <: S- ^ z to O E E Q, Q. J3 S- Q. S- Q. .— O O O O JT" •-< •* I I ID ID CM <: reJT3 -J E (/> rtJ E O XJ r — 3 ■»-> E +-> O E to s- CJ »— 1 o res O c_> 2: 2: res *r- S o to -r- CU >— X> >XJ S- to to I— XJ •!- S- res res > O res I >> s- res X3 i. res o A"^ to 3 O CU o +-> >> +J E res 3 >^ o- res cu E -O res >> to $- 3 res O XJ -r- S- O res -r- O r— O) ■O Q E res E (U E -O cC ■— ■< o I CM o <: ■a: E Q. I o 3 O CU -o O C3 CU > a cu Q. (/) cu cu ■o E res ■M (U tj nj cu E (U Q. res E res res to T3 O • to %- cu t/> ■u +J res •■- 3 i- M- o O to T3 E •1— O O 1 — res 1 — res o CD •1— 4-> O (U o O t— 1 (O CU 1. E (U E jE •I— Q. > rtJ CU E CO ^^^ +-> E r— (U >. to S- cu res s- XI Q. s- CU rej S- O E •o +-> E cu to S < &« «a: o z ID -1 CM INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT OF APPLE INSECTS, 1972 G.L. Jensen, E.J. Blyth and A.W. Rossi 1 "Integrated pest management" is receiving a great deal of attention these days. New integrated techniques can, and in some instances have, proven to be economical and effective control measures. A desirable and highly popular chai^acteri sti c of inte- grated pest management programs is the supplementation of current chemical controls with other more environmentally acceptable tech- niques. The use of such techniques will hopefully help solve the dilemma of a need for increasing food production while, at the same time, maintaining and preserving environmental quality. In light of these needs, an integrated pest management program was initated at the University of Massachusetts Horticultural Re- search Center at Belchertown. In 1971, a standard spray program was applied to a segment of the orchard; however, only alterate rows were sprayed. Thus only half the usual amounts of pesticide was applied to the block. A subsequent check for insect and disease damage to the fruits from this block, as compared to the regularly sprayed blocks , indicated that this method had definite promise. In 1972, a block of trees at the Horticultural Research Center was divided into three equal parts. On one-third of the block, the pesticide sprays were applied with a Kinkelder 1 ow-vol ume "sprayer , using a standard spray program. Fifteen spray applications were made: 3 of fungicide only, 1 fungicide-oil combination, 10 of an insecti ci de- fungi cide combination, and 1 i nsecti ci de-mi ti ci de com- bination. The second one-third of the block was sprayed with the same machine and materials on the same dates, except that only alternate rows were treated, i.e., the rig was drawn between rows 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6 etc., with the machine spraying from both sides. For the next application, the rig was drawn between rows 2 and 3, 4 and 5, etc. Thus, only half of each tree was sprayed during each application. This pattern of spraying supposedly provides an un- sprayed haven for the parasites and predators which are generally more mobile than their prey. After spraying, the beneficial in- sects are able to move to the unsprayed portion of the trees and avoid being killed. As predator and parasite populations increase, fewer pesticide applications should be necessary. The pesticides on the ic spray) were applied only when insect pressures were consi'^'^ level . As a resul t, only remaining third of the block (limited lien it was deemed "necessary", i.e., when idered to exceed the economic threshold 11 pesticide appli "" ---■- cations were made, and Extension Entomologist, Graduate Student, Department of Entomology and Orchard Foreman, respectively 4 - only 4 of these were insecticide-fungicide combinations. Five fungicide sprays were applied, while 1 oi 1 -fungi ci de combination and 1 miticide (Kelthane*) application were made, the latter being applied in mid-August. The insecticides used in the regular spray and alternate spray plots were Guthion*, Imidan* and Zolone*, while only lead arsenate and the fungicide Captan were used in the limited spray plot after the 1/2" green stage of development. These last two materials are recommended by integrated control specialists as being among the least detrimental (of all the available registered materials) to the natural enemies of insects and mites normally found in apple orchards . Insect and mite population levels were monitored carefully throughout the growing season, both within these three treatments and in an abandoned orchard 1-1/2 miles away. Pheromone (sex attrac- tant) traps were used to monitor codling moth, lesser apple worm, red banded leaf roller and oriental fruit moth populations. Apple maggot population levels were monitored with bait and visual attrac- tants. The plum curculio was monitored by beating the branches over a 30" x 30" beating sheet for a specified length of time, and mite counts on the leaves of several trees were made routinely. Aphid populations were monitored by visual observations of the ter- minal foliage. Aphids and other pests were noticeably more numerous in the limited spray plot than in either the alternate-row-sprayed plot or the regular sprayed plot; however, the numbers of beneficial insects were also noticeably higher in this plot. Insect levels in the abandoned orchard naturally exceeded those in the treated orchard. Mite counts (including predaceous mites) were also con- siderably higher in the limited spray plot than in the others. Although the predaceous mites were apparently beginning to get the upper-hand over the red mites in this plot, the blister mites were so numerous (300+/leaf) that Kelthane* was applied on August 15. R Mclnto harves s i b 1 e leaf r (0.34% f rui ts in any were e courag 1 imi te The la i n the sampl e 1972, and pi epresen sh appl t for i for the ol 1 ers ) all e i n jure of the xami ned ingly h d-spray tter re al tern from t with on um cure tative s es taken n s e c t in most CO (0.7%), xceeded d by ins f rui ts without i g h per (95.1%) suits CO ate row he regul ly a few u 1 i 0 . ampl e from jury, mmon apple the c ects exami any cent and mpare exper ar sp i nju s of r the c The type 0 sawf 1 0 d 1 i n g (3%). ned, a e V i d e n of the al tern favor iment ray pi r i e s c andomly s enters of tarn i shed f injury ies (0.5% moth (0. Apple ma nd many o ce of app fruits w ate-row-s ably with at the re ot reveal aused by el ect each plan (1.1% ) , an 22%) ggots ther le ma ere c praye thos searc ed th the t ed Re pi ot t bug ), wh d pi u in to were addi t ggot 1 ean d pi 0 e obt h cen em to amis d Deli were s were i 1 e re m cure tal nu not d i 0 n a 1 i n j u ry in b 0 1 ts (97 a i n e d ter. be 99 hed pi cious and graded at respon- d-banded ul i OS mber of i s cove red f rui ts An en- h the .4%). in 1971 The fruit • 3% cl ean ant bug 1 n Trade name Summary Although the results we obtained both in 1971 and 1972 are encouraging, and would seem to indicate that growers can through a carefully monitored program eliminate a few spray applications without serious loss of quality or quantity, we are not as yet pre- pared to recommend a reduced spray program on a wide scale. Insect and disease pressures vary from orchard to orchard and in order to successfully employ a reduced spray program without risk to quality and quantity, much information concerning insect and mite popula- tion levels (both beneficial and otherwise) is needed. Further experimentation in this block and others is planned for 1973, and a more widespread survey of insect and mite fauna in several areas of the Commonwealth will be conducted. Hopefully, the information gleaned will enable us to better establish economic injury levels and to better manage insect and mite populations in the future without endangering our environment in the process. *************** WOODCHUCKS IN ORCHARDS Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist U.S. Fish & Wi Idlife Service With the advent of spring, the largest member of the squirrel family, the woodchuck, will be making its appearance. Originally, the Eastern woodchuck was believed to be a forest animal. Like several other animals, it evidently has taken advantage of man's endeavors and now can be found near or in clearings, meadows, fields, and cultivated farmlands. To the fruitgrower, the presence of this animal in his orchard may pose a problem due to the injury it inflicts on trees. Visible damage, although slight, usually is limited to the spring when the animal first emerges from hibernation and scratches and chews the lower trunks of trees. This activity is caused by the woodchuck's attempt to wear down his teeth that have continued to grow while he was in hiberation. Since his emergence is at a time when pre- ferred green vegetation for food is scarce, some tree bark and buds may be taken. Perhaps a more serious form of injury is caused by the wood- chuck's burrow system if it is located at the base of a tree. In addition to aerating the root system, excavation of the tunnel re- moves soil necessary for supporting the tree and increases its probability of tilting and wind throw. 6 - Gassi n h u n t i cartr woodc chemi gasse conf i contr wise ri dge ings. ng, or i dges huck d cals a s. Wh ned wi ol is to tak s shou Cart if s may b ens . re bu en th thi n af fee e car 1 d no ridge f adequ afety r e used. Cardbo rned to e chemi the bur ted. S e not t t be us s may b ate relief from damage is not gained by equirements do not permit shooting, gas These are special cartridges for gassing ard cylinders filled with slow-burning produce sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide cals are ignited by a fuse and the gasses row system, lethal amounts accumulate and ince a burning material is involved, it is 0 set fire to dry grass or brush. Gas cart- ed in dens near abandoned sheds and build- e available at farm supplies stores. Trappi ng; In addition to shooting and gassing, trapping may be employed to reduce woodchuck populations. The chuck may be taken with the regular #2 steel trap, or with a box trap made of wood and wire mesh. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS Timing of calcium spray t i r i n g bi tter in July this di e r i ty o sprays ing the the ski and cor main Ca and it most gr 2 weeks of ca pit. and sorde f bit early m 1 at n. ' k spo diso is mo owers afte 1 ci urn Acco is 1 0 r , ea ter p to i e to Delic t, wh rder . re CO shou r pet rcTT r d i n g cated rly sp it, th ncreas i ncrea i ous ' i 1 e on Sine n V e n i e Id sta al fal s^: There have been some questions about sprays for the reduction of cork spot and to Dr. Miklos Faust, USDA, cork spot develops deep in the flesh; therefore, to control rays of Ca are necessary. To decrease sev- e grower has the option of applying the e the Ca level of the entire fruit or apply- se the Ca level in the cells just beneath apples are susceptible to both bitter pit our other varieties, bitter pit is the e our varieties frequently are i nterpl anted , nt to spray all varieties at the same time, rt applying their Ca sprays approximately 1. Carbaryl (Sevin*) for thinning: There seems to be confusion among some growers concerning the rate of carbaryl (Sevin*) for thinning. Our Chemical Thinning Circular suggests 1/2 pound of carbaryl. The confusion lies in whether or not this means 1/2 pound actual car- baryl or 1/2 pound of Sevin* W. The rate suggested 1n the thinning circular is based on Sevin* W. This means a grower will use 1/2 pound per 100 gallons of Sevin* SOW (which is equivalent to 1/4 pound of actual carbaryl) *************** COMPARATIVE RESPONSES OF PEACH TREES TO CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL, HAY MULCH, FREQUENT MOWING AND CULTIVATION W.J. Lord and Edward Vlach University of Massachusetts n was recently completed in which aquat-pl us-simazi ne , frequent mowing, tments on growth, yield and nutri- es were compared. The data obtained 1. The growth and yield of trees which received annually 2 applications of paraquat or 1 application of a paraquat- pi us-simazi ne mixture were comparable to the trees main- tained under cultivation or mulched annually with a 40- Ib bale of hay. 2. Annual grassy and broadleaf weed were not as readily con- trolled by the residual simazine in the soil from the annu- al applications of the paraquat-pl us-simazi ne mixture in early May as by 2 applications of paraquat annually in early May and-mi-d-July . 3. There is concern about complete elimination of weed cover under fruit trees with herbicides. With no snow cover, a soil free of weeds might expose fruit trees to a deep soil freeze and root injury. Complete control of peren- nial grasses and broadleaf weeds was not obtained. In ad- dition, annual grassy and broadleaf weeds generally in- vaded the herbicide-treated areas and by late summer the weed population frequently was as dense as under cultivated trees . 4. An annual application of a 40-lb bale of hay resulted in peach tree performance comparable to cultivation. Hay mulch increased leaf potassium (K) in comparison to the other treatments and high leaf K was associated with de- pressed magnesium levels. 5. Trees that were mowed 4 or 5 times during the growing sea- son generally were lower in nitrogen, made less growth and produced less fruit than the other treatments. These trees were probably more sensitive to periods of moisture stress, as indicated by trunk circumference increase. Herbicides present the opportunity for peach growers to replace cultivation with an economical minimum tillage practice. *************** BROWN ROT OF PEACHES, PLUMS, CHERRIES AND OTHER STONE FRUITS C.J. Gil gut Department of Plant Pathology Brown rot is the most destructive disease of peaches, plums, cherries and other stone fruits in Massachusetts. It causes blos- som blight, spur blight, twig blight, stem cankers and it rots fruit on the tree and after harvest. Some varieties are more sus- ceptible than others. Disease Cycle Brown rot is caused by the fungus, Monilinia fructicola, which overwinters in cankers, on twigs and branches, and in hanging mum- mied fruit on the tree and in mummies of fruit which fell to the ground and rotted. In the spring, about the time new growth devel- ops and blossoms start to open, the fungus grows on the surface of the cankers and mummied fruit in the tree as a fuzzy graytsh mold and produces large quantities of dust-like spores called c o n i d i a . Spores are also produced in spring by the mummies of fruit on the ground - but in a different way. The fungus does not produce spores directly, as it does on cankers and mummies in the tree, but first produces tiny funnel-shaped, mushroom-like fruiting bod- ies - shaped like a champagne glass. The inside of the cup of the fruiting body is lined with spore-forming tissue which produces dust-like spores, called ascospores , which are released into the aii in puffs as tiny visible clouds when conditions are favorable. Both kinds of spores, conidia and ascospores, are carried wind and air currents, and splashed by rain to different parts the tree and to other trees where they germinate and grow into tissues when trees are wet during rainy or humid weather - and can happen in a few hours. Control by of tree this For satisfactory prevention and control of brown rot, it is im- portant for one to keep in mind the following facts: (1) The source of spores for infection is twig and stem cankers mummied fruit in the tree and mummied fruit on the ground. Sanitation - picking up rotted fruit on the ground and in the trees, and removal of stem cankers - reduces the spore load in the orchard. (2) ^8? (3) Spores germinate 6 to 7 hours at 45"F; in tion, the fungicide must if necessary to spray in cause infection when trees are wet in 3 hours at 70 F. To get protec- be applied before the rain or, the rain, before the time for in- fection at the prevailing temperature goes by. There are two critical times when soecial attention must be given for brown rot control: (a) during blossoming - to protect against blossom blight, spur blight, twig blight and stem canker, and (b) during ripening and har- vest - to protect against fruit rot. During these times there are usually rains which keep the trees wet and favor disease development. (a) Blossoming period - pink, bloom, petal fall Pro di sease ling fru f u n g i c i d from yea early bl be neede opened a spray an til tip parti cul weather , f al 1 may tecti 0 devel 0 it rot e appl r to y oom , m d at 3 nd new d to r (s tigm arly s an ap be ne n at this pment ear at the e i cati ons ear. The i d-bl oom to 5 day growth t eplace th a) and wi uscepti bl pi i cati on cessary . time not 1 y , but i nd of the needed de first ap or later. i nterval hat came e f u n g i c i Iting and e to infe in shuck only s imp seas pends plica Rep s to out s de wa dyin cti on - s p 1 i prevents ortant fo on. The on rains tion may eat appli protect b i n c e the shed off. g flower In pro t and aga senous r control- number of and varies be in pink, cations may lossoms that previ ous The p i s - parts are longed rainy in in shuck- Fungicides are usually applied as sprays but may be applied as dusts in emergencies when protection is needed and the time is short. Satisfactory fungicides in sprays are dichlone, 50% WP, 1/2 lb; wettable sulfur, 95%, 5 lbs; captan, 50% WP , 2 lbs; benomyl , 50%, 1/2 lb; and thiram, 65%, 2 lbs in 100 gallons of water. Dichlone has some "kickback" effect - about 12 hours - when applied to wet trees. Captain, especially when used with malathion, may cause some leaf injury and "shot-holing" when applied to tender young leaves on some varieties. Growers should read labels for dosages, use suggestions, and precautions. (b) Late season, pre-harvest, and harvest control Immature fruit during mid-season usually do not rot unless there is a great deal of wet weather but should be sprayed for scab control. Fruit becomes increasingly susceptible as it starts to ripen and mature and during harvest. There can be con- siderable fruit rot in the trees if weather is rainy and wet unless the fruit is wel 1 -protected with fungicide - 10 and rot can continue in harvested fruit before and after it is marketed. Fungicide applications should start about three weeks before harvest and be repeated as needed until fruit is harvested. A repeat spray may be 7 days or longer after a previous spray if there is little or no rain or 3 to 5 days if there is much rain. The fruit should be protec- ted at all times during this period. It is no time to take chances. Satisfactory fungicides, with pounds to 100 gallons of water and with days to harvest (dh) or no time limit (NTL) when last application is allowed, are: Captan, 50% WP; 2 lbs (NTL); thiram, 65% WP, 2 lbs (7dh); sulfur, 95% WP, 5 lbs (NTL); and benomyl , 50% WP, 1/2 lb (NTL). Sulfur applied closer than 10 days to harvest may leave objectionable residue. No more than two sprays of benomyl should be applied during this period. Rhizopus rot (a grayish black mold) causes rot of harvested fruit. Botran*, 75% WP controls it but does not control brown rot. Both rots - brown rot and Rhizopus rot - can be reduced on harvested fruit if the last spray on the tree, 1 to 3 days before picking, is a mixture of captan, 1 lb plus benomyl, 1/2 lb, plus Botran*, '2/3 lb. Harvesting Suggestions The hand which touches or handles a fruit with brown rot tran- fers spores to healthy fruit handled later and increases post-har- vest rot. Fruit picked into new baskets will not become contaminated by the containers, but containers that are used over and over again will become contaminated with spores and will increase post-harvest rot. Decontaminate them by dipping or spraying them, inside and outside, with captan, 2 lbs to 100 gallons of water, at the begin- ning of each day they are used. *Trade name *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Influence of timing of bee hive introduction on production of high- bush blueberries: The relationship between the time when bee hives were brought into the planting and the productivity of 'Jersey' blueberry was studied by G.S. Howell et al . at Michigan State Uni- versity, East Lansing, and reported in Volume 7 (No. 2) of Horc Science. Their findings suggest that early pollination is asso- - 11 ciated with increased yields and fruit size. Based on these find- ings, they suggested that blueberry growers using honey bees for pollination should place the hives in their plantings by no later than 25% of full bloom. * * -^ * "A- * •.'»• * ^V ***** * All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials. NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of Mays and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTIVIENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 38 (No. 4) JULY-AUGUST, 1973 TABLE OF CONTENTS Preliminary Suggestions for the Use of Ethephon (Ethrel*) on 'Mcintosh' Apple Trees Summer Care of Fruit Trees Pomological Paragraph Firmness benefits from Alar 1972 Blueberry Survey Pomological Paragraph Some cost figures on picking apples Storing Blueberry Netting Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service. A. A. Soielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of iVIav 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. PRELIMINARY SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF ETHEPHON (ETHREL*) ON 'McINTOSH' APPLE TREES W.J. Lord and D.W. Greene Department of Plant and Soil Sciences used and mate soli ble have mi s- ing ment nel s phon matu ethe prob pi ac Coun vote and back A new correc cons ume rial w i ds and to adva high q use of its use and po at or - treate rity, c phon-tr lems of ed on t tl ess m d to de m a i n t a i wards . compoun tly, CO rs of a 11 s t i m hasten nee the ual i ty ethepho coul d or f r u i shortly d appl e oul d ca eated f the ap he fres an-hour vel opme n i n g t h d, 2,ch ul d iDe pples b ul ate r fruit m market fruits n and/o i n t e n s i t condi fol 1 ow s that use d i s r u i t s w pie i n d h marke s of gr nt of m is q u a 1 1 oroe of si ecaus ed CO a t u r i i ng s for t r an fy ou t i 0 n . i ng h must tress oul d us try t. E ower ethod ity i thylp gnifi e a p 1 or d ty. eason hese unavo r cur The arves be so sell i nten -too theph hosph cant rehar evel 0 These of ' early idabl rent pi ac t of Id qu i ng . si fy many on mu om c val ue vest pment resp Mclnt sale e del probl ement exces i c k 1 y The one 0 f rui St be aci d to b appl i , inc onses osh' s. T ay in ems 0 i n m s i ve beca stora f the ts in used (ethephon ) oth produc cation of rease solu make it p apples and 0 the cont harvest f f supply m arketing c volume of use of ove ge of over most seri poor cond with caut , if ers this ble 0 s s i - to rary , ol 1 ow- anage- han- ethe- r- -ripe ous i tion i on ! and researcher time have been de- s for growing high quality fruits n storage. Let's not take a step What ethephon does. A single application of ethephon applied 2-3 weeks before normal harvest at concentrations ranging from 1/4 to 1 pint per 100 gallons of water (assuming 400 gallons of spray mixture per acre at IX) will increase red color development within 7 days af- ter application. Fruit color will continue to increase at a faster rate than on non-sprayed trees. This response is accompanied by fruit flesh softening; the degree of softening is associated with the concentration of ethephon applied and number of days from ap- plication to harvest of the treated fruits. 'Mcintosh' fruits sprayed with only 1/12 pint of ethephon may be excessively soft 21 days after treatment, being suitable for immediate use only. Ethephon applied alone rapidly accelerates fruit drop. There- fore, napthaleneaceti c acid (NAA) or 2 ,4 ,5-tri chl orophenoxypropi oni c acid (2,4,5-TP) must be used to counteract the abscission effect of ethephon. A single application of NAA is effective for only 7-10 days. Therefore, its use may involve 2 applications of NAA and the risk of unfavorable weather which may delay the second appli- cation or picking. The 2,4,5-TP may cause more ripening than NAA, but it does eliminate the chance of excessive fruit loss following an ethephon application *Trade name A mid-July application of Alar-85* on trees scheduled to re- ceive ethephon is of benefit. Although Alar-85* is ineffective for drop control on ethephon- treated trees, it will help maintain fruit-flesh firmness. Successful use of ethephon. condi ti 0 ally ass excessi v tage of a p p 1 i c a t medi urn v from whi harveste phon-tre By the t will pro medi ate ns u oci a e vi frui ion, i gor ch a d i n ated ime babl sale nfavo ted w gor, t hav The or w high one frui these y be rabl e i th p or de ing 5 refor ell-p perc p i c k i ts i n poor too s for oor f nse t 0% or e , et runed entag ng. thei ly CO oft a Ethepho devel opme rui t col 0 rees , wi 1 more red h e p h 0 n is , medium e of wel 1 Large den r interio lored fru nd thus s n wi nt 0 r, s 1 ad col mos size -col set r wi its ui ta 11 no f red uch a verse or fo t use d tre ored rees th in obtai bl e 0 t comple col or. s high t ly affec 1 1 owi ng ful on y es of mo fruits a will hav adequate n adequa nly for tely Fact emper t the an et oung derat re no e man red te CO j ui ce overcome ors norm- atures , percen- hephon trees of e vigor rmal ly y ethe- color. lor they or i m - Ethephon should not be applied earlier than 3 weeks prior to normal anticipated harvest because fruit quality could be reduced. Apply the ethephon-stop-drop spray combination when good drying conditions are anticipated for at least 12 hours after spraying. For best results, thorough coverage of the fruits and leaves is needed. Good sprayer calibration is essential to insure uniform cover- age and to avoid over-application. Apply ethephon at IX and use no spreader-sticker. Basically, there are 3 time periods for sale of ethephon- treated frui ts--pri or to normal harvest time, during normal har- vest, and from storage until January 1. The volume of fruits sprayed with ethephon should be based upon anticipated sales during one or more of these sale periods. The harvest of ethephon-treated fruits must not interfere with the timely harvest of fruits for CA storage since at present the placement of ethephon-treated fruits in this type of storage is not recommended. Limited data show that ethe- phon-treated fruit which still are in good condition will store satisfactorily in CA but we are concerned that apples not in good condition will be stored. Fruit to be placed in storage at 32 maturity. Fruits to be sold through January 1 more than 1/4 pint of ethephon per 100 gallons 1) and be harvested 7-10 days after treatment, fruits should store well until January 1, they Alar-treated fruits. F must be picked at proper should receive no of water (See Table Although these will be softer than Suggestions for use. In the table below are our suggestions for ethephon use. Ethephon should prove beneficial particularly for early season sales if used properly. Don't over-apply and use only on a trial basis since we need more experience with this compound under commercial usage. ~ Table 1 . Suggested use of ethephon on 'Mcintosh' apple trees. Purpose Sales prior to normal harvest Compound, timing and rate Alar-85* - mid-July - 1 lb/100 gals. pi us ethephon - 2 to 3 weeks prior to normal harvest - 1 pint/lGO gals. pi us 2,4,5-TP - same timing as ethephon spray - 20 ppm Fruits to be held at 32 F in air for 1 month or less Alar-85* - mid-July - 1 lb/100 gals. pi us ethephon - 2 weeks prior to normal har- vest - 1/2 to 2/3 pt/100 gals. pi us NAA or 2,4,5-TP - same timing as ethephon spray - 20 ppm Fruits to be held at 32 F in air as late as Jan, 1 Alar-85* - mid-July - 1-1/2 lb/100 gals. pi us ethephon - same timing as ethephon spray ■ 1/4 pt/100 gals. pi us NAA or 2,4,5-TP - same timing as ethephon spray - 20 ppm *************** SUMMER CARE OF FRUIT TREES William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sci ences Research findings and grower experience both show that tree training along with other cultural procedures is essential to the success of medium or high density planting. For the last sever- al years, there has been greater emphasis on year-around care of compact trees. Below are suggestions of Dr. Robert Carlson, Michigan State University, that appeared in the July, 1972, issue of Compact Fruit Tree , on the summer care of compact trees. Once over, once-a-year is a thing of the past in successful fruit culture. The modern orchard made up of compact trees in a medium or high density arrangement requires season to season atten^ tion rather than year to year observation. - 4 - Dormant Care: Since late fall, winter and early spring can be a "slack season" in fruit growing, these are good times to get some of the major tree training and pruning chores done. However, that is not enough to satisfy conditions for a well-trained or well managed orchard. To be sure, the basic tree forms can be established in the dormant season by branch spreading and tying, elimination of poor branches, "hold" pruning, tipping, etc., but a follow-up summer program puts the finishing accomplished touches on the trees. Summer Care: During June and July, both non-bearing and bearing apple trees can be "shaped up" by eliminating excess shoot growth. This can be done in two ways. First, by removing shoots which grow upright and are so vigorous that they compete with fruiting wood. Twin shoots originating at one point should be reduced to one leaving the best positioned one for future bearing wood. Secondly, rather than eliminating an entire shoot (1973 growth) pinch or cut it back leaving 2 or 3 buds at the base. This satisfies two conditions of the tree: 1. Growth control by adjusting total leaf surface and by pro- viding uniform light exposure. 2. Creation of a more compact fruiting tree in a predeter- mined density. Summer care can also include shaping trees by making one or two major cuts eliminating branches which for some reason are not productive or perhaps crowding other more fruitful branches. In fact, pruning cuts in older wood heal rapidly in the summer. Sucker Removal : Summer orchard care also includes the removal of sucker growth that can be abundant due to major pruning cuts in the dormant season. These suckers should be pulled off rather than cut off, because re-growth is less by so doing. An occasional sucker (shoot) can be left as a potential fruit branch replacement for an older branch or to fill in a non-productive part of the tree. In compact and intensive fruit plantings, it is important to maintain the trees fruitful on young active branches. In other words, do not hesitate to eliminate larger branches in preference to branches which fruit closer to the trunk. Central Leader Care: Summer also is the time to prevent the loss of leaders because of heavy fruit loads. This is especially im- portant until the tree is large enough for a particular tree den- sity. So, it is best to remove all fruit from the top one-fourth of the leader. When the tree has reached its ultimate height, the leader can be allowed to fruit and flex over to one side. Incidentally, the central leader in a compact tree bears annu- al watching. When it becomes overly vigorous, head it back to a weak lateral branch, son or in the summer and a quick hand can Check Your Trees This can be done either in A keen eye can catch what correct it before it is too the dormant sea- should be done 1 ate . old trees case, the Remove the shovels of the soil. Grass and weeds next to the trunk of young and can set up a condition favorable to collar rot. In this trunk near the ground line remains moist 24 hours a day, grass, weeds and decayed matter and then put a few coarse gravel or pea gravel around the trunk and top of Do not make a saucer around the trunk. Soils high in clay are more prone to collar rot so avoid sites having high clay content. Rootstocks vary in tolerance to collar rot; however, inadequate orchard management can lead to trouble with both vigorous and dwarfing apple rootstocks. M. 7 is appa- rently more resistant to collar rot than MM. 106. However, root- stocks (such as M. 7, 9, and 26) which are budded high and planted deeper in the orchard require extra care around the trunk base. Furthermore, best insurance against problems of collar rot is to choose (if possible) a well-drained sandy loam as the site. Phy thoph thora cactorum is one name associated with other factors ' col 1 ar rot crown rot ' , ' root rot and winter injury, but all are not the and often referred to as ' trunk rot ' , 'bark rot ' , same. Factors that may be associated with collar rot are extreme low temperature at various times during the winter, and also, fluc- tuating or sudden changes in temperatures. A white quick drying outdoor latex paint applied to the lower tree trunk will reduce temperature changes and lessen the chances of collar rot infections. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Firmness benefits from Alar: a 1-1 c a t i 0 This past orcha were On bo fruit CA St ing d check b fi n of assu summ rd w harv th t s we orag ates f ru rmne Ala mpti er w ith este he e re 1 e i n wer i ts . ss benef r-85* at on is b a hich inv Alar-85* d either a r 1 i e r a -lb f i rm early M e 0.9 an i t on the sed 0 ol ved . Th Sept nd 1 a er th ay, 1 d 0.6 It 'Mcln rate o n a tr spray e tree ember ter ha an the 973, t lbs f appears that growers might expect tosh' apples from a mid-July appli- f 1-lb per 100 gallons of water, ial conducted in 13 orchards this ing one side of 2 trees in each s were sprayed on the same date and 19 or 20, and September 27, 1972. rvest dates, the Alar-85* sprayed check fruits. When removed from he Alar-85* fruit from the 2 pick- irmer, respectively, than the *Trade name. 1972 BLUEBERRY SURVEY Dominic A. Marini, Reg. Fruit & Vegetable Spec. Southeast Extension Region A mail survey of Massachusetts cultivated blueberry growers was taken in Fall, 1972, to determine more clearly the nature of this industry. Objectives of the survey included determination of the varieties being grown, the market outlets being utilized, and the methods being used to reduce bird damage. Two hundred growers were sent questionnaires and 32% of these growers responded. Size of plantings: Of the respondents, 32% have less than 100 bushes; 37% have 100-1000 bushes; 24% have 1000-5000 bushes; and 7% have 5000 or more bushes. Since, at the usual planting dis- tance of 5 X 8 feet there are 1,089 bushes per acre, it is obvious that most plantings are small. It thus appears that in Massachu- setts blueberries are grown primarily as a supplementary farm en- terprise or else to supplement income of persons not purposefully engaged in farming. Varieties being grown: varieties reported, and The following table lists the different the percentage of growers reporting each Jersey. . Berkel ey C 0 V i 1 1 e . 81 ueray . E a r 1 i b 1 u e 31 uecrop Collins. Herbert. Rubel . . . 40 36 33 32 27 24 20 19 19 Dixi 12 Rancocas 11 Burlington... 8 Pemberton .... 8 Pi oneer 5 Bluetta 4 Darrow 4 Stanley 4 Atlantic 3 Latebl ue 3 Adams 1 Cabot 1 Concord 1 Early Blaze. 1 Early Dawn . . 1 GN 87 1 Ivanhoe 1 June 1 Wareham 1 Weymouth .... 1 It is apparent that while the varieties that are currently recommended for Massachusetts (Special Circular No. 212-E) are the ones most widely grown, plantings vary greatly in their variety assortments Bi rd damage: Netting is the most commonly used method of control- ling bird damage, with 69% reporting that they use it and 64% say- ing that it is effective. In commenting on the use of netting, 2 growers mentioned having trouble with raccoons tearing the net. Only a few growers commented on the expense of netti ng, i ndi cati ng that most people who use it feel that it more than pays for itself. Some growers use other bird control devices. Reflectors were re- ported by 11%, with opinion equally divided on its effectiveness. Exploders and scarecrows were each used by 5% of the respondents, and in both cases half of the users felt they were ineffective. One grower reported that 1 helium filled balloon per acre plus re- flectors was effective against crows and starlings, but not against other birds. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Some cost figures on picking apples. In a study in the State of Washington, each foot of the ladder represented a reduction in pick- ing rate of 0.4 of a box per hour. Pickers in dwarf tree orchards averaged 18.1 boxes per hour vs. 11.7 boxes on standard trees. This also affected their hourly earnings. On dwarf trees at 25(t per box, pickers would have earned $4.52 per hour, and on standard trees, $2.92 per hour. The study also showed differences in picker efficiency. Experienced men pickers outpicked inexper- ienced men by 20% and experienced women by more than a third. How- ever, in dwarf orchards, all pickers harvested at about the same rate.--L.D. Tukey, Perm. State. Hort. Reviews :21( No . 4), Oct. 1972. *************** STORING BLUEBERRY NETTING Dominic A. Marini, Reg. Fruit & Vegetable Spec Southeast Extension Region One of the time-consuming aspects of using netting to prevent bird damage to cultivated blueberries is putting up and taking down the net every year. This is done in order to minimize deteriora- tion of the netting by sunlight and to prevent physical damage from wind, ice and snow. It involves unwinding the sections, plac- ing them over the wires, sewing them together and securing the en- tire net in position. The entire operation is then reversed fol- lowing the harvest. With the introduction of lightweight polypropylene netting, two Massachusetts growers have found that it is no longer necessary to go through the entire procedure every year. Rather than dis- mantling and removing the net completely, they are storing it in - 8 - the field. This is done by unfastening the net and rolling it up into a long snakelike roll on top of the wire framework. The roll is covered with black plastic to protect the net from sunlight and tied in place right on apart into small, easy storing them until the is being stored in the now with no noticeable the wires. This eliminates taking the net to handle sections, rolling them up, and next season. At one planting, the netting field in this manner for the second winter harmful effects. *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials, NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300 POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT FRUITpc NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE. UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 38 (5) SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER TABLE OF CONTENTS Cider Notes Publications Available Some Handling and Storage Problems of 'Idared' Don't Delay the Harvest of Alar-Sprayed Fruits Pomological Paragraph Soft Mcintosh Freezing of Apples: Its Effect on Cider Production Carbon Dioxide Levels in Apple Storages Pomological Paragraphs Cortland apples in 32°F CA Arcat generators Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman. Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. CIDER NOTES Kirby M. Hayes Department of Food Science and Technology A question that often arises is how to make good cider. Al- though there is no easy answer, or hard and fast rules, two of the most important factors to consider are maturity and variety. Maturi ty Firm, ripe apples those that are ripe enough to eat out of hand make the best cider and give the highest yield. Immature or overripe apples lower the quality. Early-maturing varieties should be allowed to ripen sufficiently to yield a high-quality jui ce. Variety The best cider is usually made from a blend of different var- ieties of apples. A blend provides an appealing balance of sweet- ness, tartness, and tang, as well as aromatic overtones. A single variety of apple seldom makes a satisfactory cider. However , 'Mcintosh 'has been used alone successfully, but only at the peak of its maturity. Sometimes the desired fullness and balance can be obtained from two varieties. A blend of three or more varieties is better. Using several vari eties ,permi ts greater latitude in varying the proportions to obtain the desired blend, and also allows practical management of the available supply. Many commercially important varieties may be separated into four groups according to their suitability as cider material: Sweet subacid, mildly acid to slightly tart, aromatic and strin- gent. A strict classification is not possible because many vari- eties have a number of different flavor characteristics. For example, 'Delicious' may be listed in both the sweet subacid and aromatic groups. Moreover, varieties differ in their character- istics from one area to another. Varieties in the sweet subacid group are grown primarily for eating raw; they usually furnish the highest percentage of the total stock used for cider. Varieties in the aromatic group have outstanding fragrance, aroma and flavor that are carried over into the cider. Crabapples, in the astringent grouD» provide tannin - a con- stituent difficult to obtain in making a high-grade cider. The juices of this astringent group also are highly acidic. Only a small quantity of these apples should be used in the blend. Use the following list as a guide in selecting the right blend of varieties. Sweet subacid group: Baldwin, Delicious, Cortland, Spartan, Empire, Macoun. Mildly acid to slightly tart group: Winesap, Jonathan, North- ern Spy, R.I. Greening, Roxbury Russet. Aromatic group: Delicious, Golden Delicious, Mcintosh, Empire, By fitting the above suggestions to your operation, using sound clean apples, pressing in a clean mill, and storing and dis- playing the finished product under refrigeration, you can keep your customers coming back for more. *************** PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE A series of new publications that should be of interest to many apple growers is now available from Cornell University. These are: 1. "Refrigerated Farm Storages," Information Bulletin 16. ($1.00) 2. "Harvesting Fresh Market Apples in New York," Information Bulletin 49. ($.30) 3. "Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Apples," Information Bulletin 41. ($.30) 4. "Handbook for Controlled Atmosphere Rooms," July 1, 1973. ( Free) The first 3 publications may be obtained from: Mailing Room, Building 7 Research Park, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850. The fourth publication may be obtained from the Pomology Department, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850. *************** SOME HANDLING AND STORAGE PROBLEMS OF 'IDARED' R.M. Smock, Pomology Department Cornell University 'Idared' is an attractive, high-yielding apple variety resulted from a cross of 'Jonathan' and 'Wagener' in Idaho, some areas it has been widely planted in recent years, with utation as a good-keeping apple with few storage problems, of problems with internal breakdown of 'Idared' prompted an tigation of its characteristics in New York. that In a rep- Reports i nves- Scald control 'Idared' is somewhat susceptible to scald. at the proper time the problem should be minimal, but If picked for insurance 1800 ppm of Stop Scald (2 pints/100 gallons) or 1000 ppm of DPA (1 lb of dry, wettable DPA/100 gallons) would be our recommendati on . Jonathan spot: 'Jonathan' was one parent of 'Idared,' and like its parent th'-s variety, especially if picked late, can devel- op Jonathan Spot in storage. However, if picked at the proper time, the-oroblem should be minimal, and if stored in CA (3% Op. 11 CO2, 32 F) the problem has not developed. Freezing damage: Since this is a late variety, the danger of freezing in the orchard exists. In fact, freezing occurred in 1969 and in 1972. Samples that had been frozen were stored and observed. Freezing reduced their firmness at harvest, but in gen- eral the apples recovered remarkably well. Whereas varieties like 'Northern Spy' developed much breakdown by January, 'Idared' did not. However, by late spring they did show breakdown, testifying to the rule that severely frozen apples than is absolutely necessary. should never be held later Breakdown : 'Idared' can break down in a manner similar to the problem with late-picked, large 'Jonathan.' Fruit size in relation to breakdown was examined. Large fruit (78 fruit/box) had over 60% breakdown after storage, whereas smaller fruit (89-153 fruit/ box) had little or no breakdown. Maturity was also examined, and fruit harvested at the end of October or early November had a much greater susceptibility to breakdown than those picked in mid-October, Limited evidence suggested that the fruit that broke down were low in calcium. Attempts to reduce breakdown with calcium sprays and dips have not succeeded to date. *************** DON'T DELAY THE HARVEST OF ALAR-SPRAYED FRUITS William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences that appl e of 1- trial one s spray 20, a dates fruit 85* f respe In th growe tree lb pe cond i de 0 ed on nd Se , the s. W rui ts cti ve e July-Aug rs might e s from a m r 100 gall ucted in 1 f 2 trees the same ptember 27 Alar-85* hen remove from the ly, than t ust, 1973, xpect a 1-1 id-July app ons of wate 3 orchards in each ore date and we , 1972. On sprayed fru d from CA s 2 picking d he check fr issue b firm 1 i cati r. Th in 197 hard w re har both its we torage ates w ui ts . of £r ness on of i s es 2, wh ith A ves te the e re 1 i n e ere 0 uit N benef Alar t i m a t i c h i lar-8 d eit arl i e lb fi arly .9 an otes , w it on ' -85* at e was b nvol ved 5*. Th her Sep r and 1 rmer th May, 19 d 0.6 1 e mentioned Mcintosh ' the rate ased on a spraying e trees were tember 19 or ater harvest an the check 73, the Alar- bs firmer. This trial in grower orchards was such that the data could not be statistically analyzed. Therefore, it is not possible to determine if the 0.9 and/or 0.6 lb firmness difference after stor- age of Alar and check fruits was significant. However, data ob- tained in other experiments in 1971 and 1972 showed that the firm- ness difference of Alar-85* fruits harvested in the first picking persisted in storage whereas it disappeared if the fruits were picked 7 days later (Table 1). 5 - Table 1. The influence of Alar-85* on flesh firmness of 'Mcintosh' apples at harvest and following storage. Alar treatment in mid- July 1971 Flesh firmness at harvest First pi cki ng Second picking 9/16 9/23 Flesh firmness when removed from storage First picking Second pi cki ng Stgred until 12/13 at 32 F in air 1-lb/lOO 0 16.4a' 15.6b 15.8a 14.9b 13.5a 12.6b 12.8a 12.4a 1972 IJ^-lb/lOO 0 16, 15, 9/13 7a 8b 9/20 16.0a 15.3b Stored 28 weeks in CA 13 13. 8a Ob 12, 12, 3a Oa Means within a column for any year followed are significantly different at the 5% level by a different letter The data show that growers should not be complacent about har- vest of Mcintosh because the trees have received Alar-85*. If you want to retain the firmness advantage imparted by the Alar-85*, the fruits should be harvested as early as possible. Secondly, when the fruits from non-Alar sprayed trees are unsuitable for CA stor- age, the same probably is true of Alar-sprayed fruits. *Trade name *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Soft Mcintosh. R.M. Smock and 6.D. Blanpied, Cornell University, designed an experiment in 1972 to determine if the 'soft Mcintosh' problem encountered by New York and New England apple growers in the spring of 1969,1971, and 1972 might be associated with dry con- ditions during the summer followed by excessive rainfall just prior to harvest. They withheld water from some trees for 2 months and then ir- rigated with 2-1/2 inches of water. 'Mcintosh' apples from these trees and check trees were pressure tested for flesh firmness at monthly intervals after harvest. At each test period, the irri- gated apples were softer than the check apples even though they were slightly smaller than the check fruits. - 6 These findings appear to support the study of cl imatol ogi cal data made by Dr. Blanpied which showed a strong correlation between soft Mcintosh apples and dry periodsin the summer followed by heavy rains and warm weather prior to harvest. *************** FREEZING OF APPLES: ITS EFFECTS ON CIDER PRODUCTION P. Footrakul and S.W. Fletcher Department of Food and Agricultural Engineering Accidental freezing ing storage, is a fairly pies affect the yield or pies? This question has freezing of apples might per unit weight of apple ture of cells in the fruit of apples, either in the orchard or dur- common occurrence. Does freezing of ap- quality of cider obtained from these ap- been raised, and we felt that perhaps increase the quantity of juice produced used, since freezing breaks up the struc- To investigate the effect of freezing on apples for juice pro- duction, last fall we carried out an extensive series of tests us- ing both Mcintosh and Delicious apples. In this study the primary emphasis was on the quantity of cider released, but consideration was also given to cider quality, optimal press load and pressing speed. In hours a Before then th that ha to reac desi one rate me pressed along w were ma ar cont Table 1 the s t diff press i e f r u i d not h 70*F d cy 1 i asurem coul d ith 2 de on ent , a tudy , erent ng , th t were been f bef or nder o ent of be ob di f fer the ex nd col both va tempera e sampl cut an rozen w e press n an In 1 oadi n tai ned. ent rat pressed or. Th ri eti e ture 1 es wer d grou as rem ing. s tron g rate Thre es of jui ce e tota s of ap evels : e thawe nd to a oved fr Samples Uni vers , force e diffe loading sample 1 yield 20°, d and Stan om 35 were al Te , and rent (pre s for resu were frozen for 24 10°, 0° and 520°F. warmed to 70 F, and dard size. A control F storage and allowed pressed in a specially ster so that an accu- quantity of juice ex- pressures were utilized, ssing). Measurements the total yield, sug- Its are summarized in As was expected, the higher the pressing load and the slower the rate of pressing, the greater was the yield of cider, whether or not the apples had been frozen. It can also be seen in Table 1 that Delicious apples yielded more cider than Mcintosh apples. The total yield harvested apples did pressing conditions. results clearly show that freezing of recently not increase the yield of cider under most In fact, freezing usually decreased yield. sometimes quite drastically and especially with Mcintosh. This effect of freezing was not consistent, however, in that the warmer freezing temperatures often caused more reduction of juice yield than the colder freezing temperatures; again this was particularly true with Mcintosh. Table 1. Yield of cider from apples that had been frozen to dif- ferent temperatures. Press pressure (Ib/sq in) Rel ati ve pressi ng rate Temp, to which apples were frozen: Control 20°F 10°F 0°F (% of total fresh fruit weight) 20°F 64 Slow 127 Slow 225 Slow 64 Fast 127 Fast 225 Fast Avg 54 57 59 46 49 52 53 33 40 19 25 29 Mcintosh 38 46 59 21 31 43 40 39 51 69 27 37 46 45 35 53 67 28 39 44 44 Deli 64 127 225 64 127 225 SI ow Slow SI ow Fast Fast Fast Avg, 61 65 64 55 60 59 61 61 63 68 46 51 55 57 Cl ous 53 56 60 40 42 43 49 52 56 61 37 40 45 49 53 58 66 42 44 48 52 Yield reductions from frozen apples were avoidable, however. Use of optimum pressing conditions (high press pressure and slow speed) not only eliminated the yield reduction with both varieties, but actually appeared to increase the yield by using frozen apples. This raises the question of possibly freezing apples deliberately before pressing, in order to increase the cider yield. Such a pro- cedure does not appear to be commercially practical, for not only did it require optimum pressing conditions, but also the possible increase in yield did not appear to be great enough to offset the cost of freezing. The importance of these observations is to emph- asize that when apples that have been frozen are being pressed, it is especially important that optimum conditions of pressing be em- ployed. Does freezing affect cider quality? We found that sugar con- tent of expressed juice was not affected by freezing itself or by the temperature to which the apples were frozen; neither was it affected by press load or pressing rate. Likewise, the tests showed no significant difference in color of cider among the sam- ples at the time of pressing. Therefore, we concluded that freez- ing of these 2 varieties of apples did not significantly affect the quality of cider yielded. In summary, our tests showed that if apples become frozen, at least shortly thereafter they may be pressed for cider without a loss of cider quality. However, total yield will likely be reduced unless the press is being operated under optimum pressing condi- tions. *************** CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS IN APPLE STORAGES Wi 1 1 i am J . Braml age Department of Plant and Soil Sciences For most apple cultivars the COp level recommended in a CA atmosphere is from 2 to 5%, and for some it is recommended that COp be kept lower during the first month of storage than during the later months. There is now some indication that these may not be the best COp conditions for apples. In 1971, H.M. Couey and K.L. Olsen at the U.S.D.A. Laboratory in Wenatchee, Washington conducted an experiment on Golden Deli- cious apples, in which the fruit were treated with from 5% to 20% COp for 10 days immediately after harvest. Some of these apples were ripened immediately thereafter and others were placed in reg- ular CA until spring. Whether ripened immediately or stored in CA, those apples given the short COp treatment right after harvest were significantly firmer than those that had not been treated. I they w 1940's Rhode sul ts that t air fo them i storag area, was on Del i ci n rev ere n , Dr. Islan (Proc reati r up^ n reg e. W Inju ly si ous , 1 ewi ng ot the S.A. d stud . Amer ng a n to 10 ul ar a i th ce ry was ight i Northe the lite first to P i e n i a z e k ied the u . Soc. Ho umber of days imme ir storag r t a i n c u 1 severe i n Mclntos rn Spy, a ratur obse and se of r_t. S cul ti di ate e sha ti var n Due h and nd ot e, Couey rve this his cowo CO, to 01.^^46:1 vars wit ly after rply red s, COp i hess and did not her cult and Olsen discovered that response. During the mid- rkers at the University of control scald. Their re- 23-130; and 48:81-88) showed h from 25% to 60% COp in harvest and then keeping uced scald during and after njury developed in the core Yellow Transparent, but occur at all in Cortland, i vars . These findings were never developed for commercial to control scald because no practical means to generate COp atmosphere was available at that time. By the time generators were developed, chemicals were available for trol . appli cation these high atmosphere scald con- - 9 - An observation made in this work was that in every case, ap- ples treated with COp were firmer after storage than ones not treated with COp- Tnese differences were usually sizeable, with the COp-treated apples usually being 1.5 to 3.0 lbs firmer. How- ever, since the scald-controlling property of COp was of greatest concern and could not be commercially applied, tne effect of COp on firmness was overlooked and had been forgotten. We are very much interested by these results. We have been conducting some experiments of our own for several years using un- usually high COp levels in CA atmospheres and have found that high levels of COp usually almost prevent softening in storage, even when COp injury is abundant. There is clear danger in applying high concentrations of COp even for short periods. COp can cause fermentation and off-flavors as well as cause characteristic fruit injury. Therefore, the in- teresting findings of firmness retention must be examined care- fully before any commercial recommendations may be considered. Although a test last year at Cornell University by R.M. Smock and G.D. Blanpied found no benefit to Golden Delicious or Delicious apples from a brief high-COp exposure, we think that this question needs more examination and intend to give it a great deal of atten- tion in the near future. Our experience has been that apples are reasonably tolerant to COp, especially at low Op levels. Since many storage operators now have COp generators available for use, it would be easy to apply the treatment, and if high COg can cause appreciable retention of fruit firmness, major losses of fruit quality would be avoided. ************ POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS Cortland apples in 32°F CA. R.M. Smock and G.D. Blanpied reported in Cornell Fruit Handling and Storage Newsletter, July, 1973, that a few Hudson Valley growers have for a number of years successfully stored Cortland apples in 32 F CA. During the 1972-73 storage sea- son, Smock and Blanpied conducted a study comparing Cortlagd appleg harvested from a number of orchards and stored in CA at 32 F or 38 F, They found no difference in flesh firmness and a taste panel had no preference for Cortlands stored either in 32 F or 38 F CA. These researchers stated that they are almost ready to ghange t^e CA stor- age recommendations for this variety to either 32 F or 38 F. How- ever, they suggest that all CA storage operators store a few boxes of Cortlands at 32°F this 1973-74 storage season in order to con- firm previous years' observations. *** - 10 - Arcat generators. Atlantic Research Corporation of Alexandria, Virginia no longer sells or supplies parts for Arcat generators. Their patents and inventories of this equipment have been purchased by S.M.B. Corporation of Seattle, Washington who are now manufac- turing their own line of generators. S.M.B, Corporation is repre- sented on the East Coast by Doub Engineering Co., P.O. Box 2080, Falls Church, Virginia, 22042 (703-534-5978). In addition to sup- plying new generators, Doub Engineering Company supplies parts and servicing for Atlantic Research generators. *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publica- ti on. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorse- ment is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materi al s . NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PER- SONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS, AND LIVESTOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MAN- NER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 US BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 38 (No. 6) NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1973 TABLE OF CONTENTS Controlling Orchard Mice How Is the Keeping Ouallty of Your Sweet Cider? Controlling Deer in Orchards Calcium: Its Relationship with Apple Quality and Yield Effect of Two Apple Viruses on Respiration and on Organic Acid and Sugar Composition of Apple Fruits Fruit Notes Index for 1973 Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. i I CONTROLLING ORCHARD MICE Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Unless preventive measures are taken, orchardists can expect mouse damage to fruit trees during the winter months. Most know from past experience which areas and blocks of trees are likely to be damaged. Still, it is a good idea to make a survey of the orchard in the fall to determine whether any new trouble areas have developed. Areas having clean mouse trails, chewed apples, or the characteristic fan-shaped mounds of soil, pushed up by pine mice, are potential mouse damage problems. These are the areas where a thorough mouse control program should be undertaken. MEADOW MICE These are the surface- li vi ng mice most common to orchards in the Northeast. They injure fruit trees by chewing bark from the root collar upward. Since these mice require food and shelter for survival, some protection can be gained by eliminating these two requirements. Control of grass and weeds in the orchard should be done periodically throughout the year, but especially in the fall. Close mowing and removing hay destroys cover and meadow mice are less active in these exposed areas. This should help prevent damage prior to snowfall. Control of vegetation should not be used as the primary mea- dow mouse control method in the fall, but merely as a supplement to the use of toxic baits. Remember that during the winter deep snow will provide the needed cover for mice and they will be able to reach the trees without exposing themselves. The best method for controlling orchard mice is still the use of zinc phosphide-treated grai ns--ei ther oats or corn. These treated grains may be applied either with the trail builder machine or by broadcasting at a rate of 6-10 pounds per acre. All sections of the orchard having meadow mice should be treated in the fall. Those areas having an overabundance of mice will need an extra treatment, if the initial one does not give adequate control. Hand placement or a broadcast of Zinc Phosphide Rodenti ci de-treated apple cubes is a good follow-up method. Periodic checks during the winter months, particularly after a thaw, may reveal spots still having meadow mouse infestations. A tablespoon of zinc phosphi de- treated grain poured into the holes, may give added protection for the remaining winter months. PINE MICE Pine mice are an underground species found in many orchards in the Northeast. These mice damage trees by girdling the root sys- tern. This form of injury is not readily apparent loses its vigor, the leaves take on a yellow cast, pear from the damaged roots. until the tree or sprouts ap- Control of pine mice is more difficult and seldom as effective as for meadow mice. The broadcast method of distributing poisoned baits recommended for meadow mice may eliminate a few pine mice but usually not enough for adequate protection. It should be noted that control of vegetation may not have any effect on pine mice because of their subterranean living habits. To obtain good control, zinc phosphide-treated baits must be placed in underground trails where the animals spend most of their time. If the infested area is small, hand baiting of the pine mouse natural runways--usi ng treated grains or apple cubes--is eff ecti ve. For larger areas, the use of the trail builder machine is an advantage if soil and sod conditions permit. Be sure the machine is aligned properly and is making a good tunnel through the sod. By making artificial trails on 2 or 4 sides of each tree, a great number of the pine mouse natural runs are intersected. Most of the commercially-available trail builder machines are equipped with automatic dispensers that put out 3-5 bait placements per each 20 feet of trai 1 . Whether an orchardist hand baits for pine mice or uses a machine, there is one absolute necessity: the artificial trail and the natural runs must be kept as clean as possible. Pine mi ce maintain clean, well-packed trails. They remove all foreign mat- ter and debris, especially soil, from the tunnel. In the process, mice quite often will cover or carry out the treated bait with other materials. NOTE: As in previous years, a permit for bait application must be obtained from the Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Game 100 Cambridge Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02202, before any or- chard mouse control can be done using toxic baits. *************** HOW IS THE KEEPING QUALITY OF YOUR SWEET CIDER? Wi 1 1 i am J . Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Too frequently, the author obtains sweet cider that has star- ted to ferment or maintains its quality for only 2 or 3 days in the refrigerator. Undoubtedly, other consumers have experienced this problem and many potential repeat sales are lost. Consumers want value for their money and that sweet (ider will maintain the refrigerator. it is reasonable for them to expect its quality for at least a week in Poor keeping quality appears to be most prevalent in late winter and spring, when cider is pressed less frequently. Apparent- ly some growers store their cider under refrigeration for 2 weeks or longer and when the cider is displayed for sale and/or purchased by the customer, it has lost most of its potential keeping quality. Kirby Hayes, Department of Food Science and Technology, had the following pertinent comments about cider quality in the Septem- ber-October, 1971, issue of Fruit Notes. "Consumers are becoming more critical of everything they buy --not only from a price aspect, but from a quality point of view. With living costs continually rising, consumers want value for their money. Quality in food refers to taste, appearance, color, cost per serving, and keeping quality. Cider is not a necessary food item in most budgets. Cider is basically a beverage to be enjoyed, and if the quality is low or the keeping quality poor, repeat purchases can easily be elimin- inated. Have you examined your cider critically as a consumer would? Take a half gallon and subject it to the conditions that the buyer does. Taste a glassful--is it musty? chlorine off-flavor? taste like dirty press cloths? insipid? Do this until the container is empty. Did it start to ferment? Did the last glass look and taste like the first? Or, go out and buy from several other stands, have your wife pour samples including yours in unmarked glasses--now taste and judge. If you pick your own as best, now try to main- tain the year's run that way or even improve. If yours comes out second or third best, what is wrong? Remember, quality is a silent salesman ! The keeping quality of cider is directly related to the sani- tation practices observed during the operating season. Unsanitary practices foster the growth of microorganisms, which cause fermen- tation or produce undesirable flavors in the final product. ing After a day's run, the cider plant: observe the following procedures in clean- Dismantle the press for cleaning. Rinse it thoroughly with a hose to remove surface dirt. Scrub all parts of the press thor- oughly, using a sanitizing or detergent-sanitizing solution. Where possible, use hot water for both the rinsing and the scrub- bing operations. Sanitizing compounds may be of the chlorine or quaternary am- monium types. Dairy-cleaning compounds are usually of these types, and they are easily obtained. Directions given by the manufacturer of the solution for cleaning dairy equipment will be satisfactory for ci der pi ants . " *************** CONTROLLING DEER IN ORCHARDS Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service The white-tailed deer is of economic importance in the United States and annually large sums of money are spent by hunters in quest of this game animal. When food and cover are plentiful, deer do not range very far. They tend to stay in one area for long periods of time, moving only when food and shelter become inade- quate or weather forces them to seek more favorable locations. In some areas, however, the local deer population may increase to a point where animals cause a great deal of damage by browsing on agricultural and forest crops. REPELLENTS T fruit materi termi n weathe apt to with a damage affect season will b thorou amount aste trees als h e the r con brow repe even the s of e les ghnes of p repel . Un ave p effe d i t i 0 se on llent thou 1 engt heavy sened s use rotec lents der mo roved cti ven ns ; an agric How gh a r h of t preci becau d when ti on t offer s t win practi ess of d thor ul tura ever, epel le ime a pi tati se of apply hey af one m ter 0 cal a a re oughn 1 or a 1 ac nt ha repel on , t erosi ing r ford. ethod of r dormant nd effect pel 1 ent : ess of ap forest cr k of norm s been ap lent rema he effect on and di epel 1 ents reduci ng season c ive. Thr the a n i m pi i cati on ops that al food m plied. W ins effec iveness o 1 uti on . will d e t deer damage to ondi ti ons , these ee factors de- al ' s appeti te ; Deer are less have been treated ay cause deer eather conditions tive. During f a repellent The degree of ermine the Some of the more effect repellents are those containing THIRAM or Z.A.C. It is best to follow the manufacturer's recommendations when mixing and applying repellents. Winter Application: Applying the repellents to only the ter- mi n a 1 ""gTovrUTwiTi provi de sufficient protection. This method is more economical than treating the entire tree. All terminal tips should be treated to a height of 6 feet above the expected snowline, (NOTE: The 5ame repellents recommended above, if applied as a drenching spray, will protect fruit trees from rabbit damage.) FENCING Another effective means for keeping deer out of orchards is by a deer-proof fence. The degree of damage and size of the area will determine whether fencing is feasible. Although the initial cost of erecting the fence may seem high, when prorated over a period of years it may pay for itself in increased crop yields. HUNTING Depending upon state regulations, problem deer can be removed during the regular deer hunting season. Orchardists should show hunters the problem areas that deer are frequenting. This will en- hance the hunter's chances and also remove deer that are causing damage. *************** CALCIUM: ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH APPLE QUALITY AND YIELD William J. Bramlage, Mack Drake and John H. Baker Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Last year we reported results of experiments to increase the calcium (Ca) levels of apple trees and fruit, and of determina- tions of the effects of Ca level in fruit on their keeping qual- ity (Fruit Notes 37 (November-December 1972):4-6). Tests were con- tinued during the 1972-73 season and some interesting relationships were observed. The 1972 growing season was unusually cool and wet, and the apples produced generally had exceptionally good storage quality. The Baldwin apples in our study were no exception. At commer- cial harvest, 1-bushel samples of apples were taken from individual trees within a block of 52 mature trees of varying Ca levels. These samples were stored in 32 F air for 5 months, and then kept at room temperature for up to 9 days. The amount of bitter pit, scald, internal breakdown and decay were recorded, 10 fruit per box were pressure- tested , and then fruit from each box were peeled and the peels were analyzed for Ca. As seen in Table 1, very little bitter pit occurred in 1972, in contrast to 1971 when at least half the fruit were pitted. Fur- thermore, most of the pit that was found developed on the fruit with extremely low Ca. Internal breakdown, which occurred frequent- ly the previous year, was almost absent in 1972 and is not listed in Table 1. Decay was also much lower than the previous year, yet it can be seen in Table 1 that Ca deficiency can increase the amount of rotting during and after storage. Scald susceptibility was also increased when Ca was low. This was not seen the pre- vious year, perhaps because other disorders were so prevalent that scald could not be easily seen. Table 1. Relationships between peel Ca content and condition 'Baldwin' apples after 5 months storage in 32 F air. of Peel Ca F 1 rmness Bitter pit Scald Decay (Ca) (lbs pressure) (%) (%) {%) .0450-. 0500 13.6 7 32 12 .0501-. 0600 13.2 1 28 3 .0601-. 0700 12.8 1 37 1 .0701-. 0800 11.2 1 16 4 .0801-. 0900 11.0 0 10 3 .0901-. 1000 11.1 0 9 2 .1000-. 1400 11.1 0 8 1 The results of pressure tests were surprising. Low Ca apples were 1.5 to 2.5 lbs firmer than high Ca apples (Table 1). However, this was misleading because the apples were actually mealy. Drs. Miklos Faust and C.B. Shear of the U.S.D.A. at Beltsville, Maryland last year suggested that pressure tests may not be accurate for low Ca apples, and this suggestion appears to be correct. The ap- parently firmer low-Ca 'Baldwins' were definitely not of superior quality to the high- Ca fruit. An f 1 uence answer dergoes duri ng was com effect previ ou i orati o pened e deteri o have be vest. other aspect of our study was to determine if Ca levels in- the time of fruit ripening. The best way to accurately this question is to examine fruit respiration, since it un- a distinct rise and fall (the "respiratory climacteric") ripening. When respiration of apples of varying Ca levels pared, it was clear that the Ca levels had no significant on time of ripening. This was somewhat surprising; the s year's results showed so much more extensive fruit deter- n with low Ca that we suspected that these apples had ri- arlier. Since ripening rate was not affected by Ca, the ration during and after storage attributable to low Ca must en directly due to more rapid aging of the apples after har- We in 1971. tively h were usu for 1971 a major ^Qry low were tho tend to during 1 the high of crop that occ attemp This i gh in ally 1 and 1 effect Ca we se bea bi enni 971 an yield size 0 urs wh ted to di d n 1972, arger 972. on f r re tho ri ng h al bea d 1972 , high n frui en cro pred ot wo and than In Ta ui t C se be eavy ring, . Th Ca t t Ca p si z i ct Ca le rk. Tree vice vers high Ca a ble 2, it a level . aring few fruit cro the Ca 1 e 1 ow y i e rees of 1 m ay lie i e is s m a 1 vels s 1 ow a. W ppl es can In b frui ps. evel Id, 1 972, n the 1 ; av in 19 7 in Ca e noti , so w be see oth ye t , and Si nee of i nd ow Ca and vi vigor ai 1 abl 2 from in 19 ced th e exam n that ars , t those these i V i d u a trees ce ver ous ve e Ca m the C 71 wer at low i ned y crop he tre wi th Bal dwi 1 tree in 197 sa. T g e t a t i ay be a lev e rel Ca a ield size es wi high n tre s rev 1 bee he ef ve gr di rec els a- ppl es data had th Ca es ersed ame feet owth ted into the It seems fruit is Table 2. growing stem tips probable that one to maintain annual at the expense of the developing fruit, way of combatting excessively low Ca in rather than biennial bearing. Relationship between peel and total fruit yield per Ca content of Baldwin apples tree. 1971 1972 Range, peel Ca (%) Avg. yield/tree (bu. boxes) Range, peel Ca (%) Avg. yield/tree (bu. boxes) 0350- 0501- 0601- 0701- 0801- 0500 0600 0700 0800 0920 5, 12, 14. 23. 19. 0450-.0500 3.4 0501-.0600 8.1 0601-.0700 14.5 0701-.0800 20.5 0801-.0900 21.9 0901-.1080 21.7 Conclusions drawn from the 1972 experiments with Ca are as f ol 1 ows : 1. Calcium levels had no effect on time of fruit ripening. 2. Low Ca in apples led to increased susceptibility to stor- age disorders and rots. 3. Small crop size decreased the Ca level in the fruit, and large crop size increased fruit Ca. An additional observation should be noted. In 1971 and 1972, nearly the same range of Ca levels existed among the trees, although the individual trees changed greatly. However, occurrence of disorders and decay was much less than in 1971, even on the 'i/ery low-Ca fruit. It therefore appears that while low Ca is related to poor "keeping" quality of apples, it is only among several con- tributing factors. In other words, there is much more to "keeping" quality than just Ca. For example, low fruit Ca makes the fruit susceptible to pitting, but some factors, such as moisture stress or high temperture, "triggers" this disorder. This disorder sel- dom occurs in high Ca fruit. *************** EFFECT OF TWO APPLE VIRUSES ON RESPIRATION AND ON ORGANIC ACID AND SUGAR COMPOSTION OF APPLE FRUITS J.S. Makarski and G.N. Agrios Department of Plant Pathology Plant viruses are known to reduce of leaves and to at first increase and the photosyntheti c ability later decrease the respira- tion of direct o duced ph the acid aspects f rui t i s i ncrease Furtherm to resem to virus termi ne of the r tion tha and acid tosh app i nfected toms but both fol trees wi si gns of taken in Septembe using v a leaf t r i ndi otosyn and s of f ru i n f 1 u the r ore , t bl e an i nfec the ef e s p i r a t occu compo le tre with not f i ar an th fru vi rus June , r . Su ri ous issue rect theti ugar it qu enced e s p i r he ge acce t i 0 n s feet to ry rs du s i t i 0 es gr ei the rui t d fru i t fr i nfe July gars chemi yery 1 effects 0 c abi 1 i ty composi ti a 1 i ty . I greatly ation rat neral pat lerated a , and we of virus cl imacter ring a p p 1 n of the owing in r appl e m symptoms , it sympto om other cti on . R and Augu and acids cal proce - 8 i 1 1 1 e is f virus i of the 1 ons of th n a d d i t i 0 by i ts re e, they m tern in m ging proc have cond i nfection i c , i.e. e r i p e n i n fruit. F a commerc 0 s a i c V i r or wi th ms . We c trees in e s p i r a t i 0 st, as we were als dures . known, h nfecti on e a f m i g h e fruit, n, the k s p i r a t i 0 i ght sho any vi ru ess. Ap ucted a s on the the rise g , and t or this ial orch us, w h i c russet r ompared the same n was me 11 as on 0 measur oweve s on t be whi c e e p i n n rat rten s di s pie t two-y onse and he ef study ard t h cau ing v appl e orch asure samp ed on r , ab fruit ref 1 e h are g qua e and the s eases rees ear s t and fall feet , we hat w ses f i r u s , s fro ard t d on 1 es c thes out th . The cted i impor li ty 0 if vi torage appea are su tudy t i n t e n of res on sug used M e knew 0 1 i a r whi ch m thes hat sh sampl e ol lect e samp e re- n tant f ruses life, rs bject 0 de- si ty pi ra- ar cln- were symp- causes e owed no s ed in 1 es , Results of this study showed that neither apple mosaic virus nor russet ring virus affected the respiration rate of the apples. The amount of 0^ used by the fruit, the amount of CO2 they pro- duced and the "respiratory quotient" (the ratio of tnese two values) were about the same whether or not the apples were from virus-in- fected trees. In addition, the respiratory climacteric occurred at just about the same time in all the fruits, indicating that time of ripening was not affected by the virus. The virus-infec- ted fruit did appear to respire more rapidly than the healthy ap- ples during the climacteric, but we do not know the significance of this difference. The chemical analyses of the apples showed only two acids in measurable amounts--qui ni c acid and malic acid. The amount of quinic acid was not affected by either virus. However, both vir- uses slightly reduced the amount of malic acid in the apples. Virus infection of trees did not result in any consistent major difference in the relative concentrations of the three main sugars (glucose, fructose, and sucrose) in fruit during either of the two years . We concluded from this study that neither apple mosaic virus nor russet ring virus had much effect on the behavior or quality of Mcintosh apples. This is rather surprising since viruses affect both the behavior and chemical composition of leaves. However, we have no information about the concentrations of apple mosaic or russet ring viruses in fruit tissues, and in fact only RRV exhibits fruit symptoms. If virus is present and operates only in the area where symptoms appear on the fruit, its effects might not be measur- 9 - able when whole apples are examined, since most of the cells would therefore be healthy. Nevertheless, from a practical viewpoint, it appears that even when these viruses are known to exist in an orchard, fruit quality can be expected to be similar whether or not they come from affected trees. However, it must be emphasized that yield may be drastically reduced by these viruses. Yield re- ductions of from 12% to 55% on trees affected with apple mosaic virus have been measured. Therefore, growers should certainly not conclude from this study that viruses are not important concerns. They are causes for a great deal of concern! *************** FRUIT NOTES INDEX FOR 1973 (This index of major articles has been prepared for those who keep a file of Fruit Notes . . The number in parentheses indicate the pages on which the item appears.) January-February Recent Tree Fruit Variety Introductions (1-5) San Jose Scale - Life History and Control (6-7) Recent Small Fruit Introductions (7-9) The Influence of Shade and Within-Tree Position on Apple Fruit Size, Color and Storage Quality (8-10) in 1973 (1-4) Delicious' March-Apri 1 Suggestions for Fertilization of Apple Trees Influence of Potassium on Calcium Uptake of Apples (4-5) Controlling Weeds in Strawberries (6-7) Mummy Berry (7-8) Use of Ethephon (Ethrel*) to Initiate Flower Bud Develop ment (8-9) May- June July-August Preliminary Suggestions for the Use of Ethephon (Ethrel*) on 'Mcintosh' Apple Trees (1-3) Summer Care of Fruit Trees (3-5) 1972 Blueberry Survey (6-7) Storing Blueberry Netting (7-8) - 10 - September-October Cider Notes (1-2) Publications Available (2) Some Handling and Storage Problems of 'Idared' (3-4) Don't Delay the Harvest of Alar-Sprayed Fruits (4-5) Freezing of Apples: Its Effect on Cider Production (6-8) Carbon Dioxide Levels in Apple Storages (8-9) November- December Controlling Orchard Mice (1-2) How is the Keeping Quality of Your Sweet Cider? (2-4) Controlling Deer in Orchards (4-5) Calcium: Its Relationship with Apple Quality and Yield (5-7) Effect of Two Apple Viruses on Respiration and on Organic Acid and Sugar Composition of Apple Fruits (7-9) Fruit Notes Index for 1973. (9-10) *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement Is implied, nor Is discrimination Intended against similar mater- ials. NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, S300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 39 (No. 1) JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 1974 TABLE OF CONTENTS Progress in Breeding Hardy Rootstocks and Hardy Peaches for the Fresh Market at Harrow Varieties of Blueberries for Massachusetts Publications Available Performance and Anchorage of Rootstock-Scion Combinations under High Moisture Conditions Hay Mulch may be a Valuable Supplement to a Herbicide Program in Orchards Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. PROGRESS IN BREEDING HARDY ROOTSTOCKS AND HARDY PEACHES FOR THE FRESH MARKET AT HARROW R.E.C. Layne, Research Scientist (Pomology) Research Station, Canada Agriculture, Harrow, Ontario The main objectives of the peach rootstock improvement pro- gram at Harrow are to develop seedling rootstocks that have cold- hardiness combined with good adaptation to light, sandy soils. Other important attributes include: nematode and disease resis- tance, size control, scion compatibility, seed productivity, ease of germination, nursery uniformity and ease of budding. Appropri- ate laboratory, greenhouse, nursery and field tests are conducted to provide strong selection pressure for these characters. If some peach rootstocks were able to impart certain desir- able characteristics to scion varieties, such as size control, pre- cocity, or cold-hardiness, then the choice of rootstocks could be- come almost as important as the choice of the scion varieties them- selves. Most published evidence tends to discount this possibil- ity. However, during the last four years, we have obtained a sig- nificant body of data at Harrow which prove conclusively that at least one peach seedling rootstock ' Siberian-C ' , in addition to having very cold hardy roots, also imparts the following charac- teristics to the scion variety: 1) greater cold hardiness, 2) ear- lier defoliation, 3) earlier bearing, 4) greater production in the early years, 5) earlier ripening, and 6) slight to moderate dwarf- ing. These are important effects that have great commercial sig- nificance. To date, no compatibility problems have been encoun- tered with 'Siberian-C' This rootstock was released by the Harrow Research Station in 1967. The mother trees are virus free and the seed stocks are virus free as well. Several seed orchards have been established in Canada and the United States which should provide an adequate seed supply to the peach industry in both countries in a few years. It should be noted, however, that 'Siberian-C is not resistant to root knot or root lesion nematodes. We also released another rootstock in 1967, 'Harrow Blood', on account of its cold-hardiness and possible size controlling ability. Further tests have shown that although 'Harrow Blood' is more cold-hardy than 'Halford', 'Elberta' or 'Rutgers Red Leaf, it is less cold-hardy than 'Siberian-C' Trees on 'Harrow Blood' tend to be smaller than standard when young but the dwarfing re- sponse tends to disappear as the trees attain bearing age. The beneficial effects of 'Siberian-C on scion varieties previously mentioned have not been noted with 'Harrow Blood.' It appears, therefore, that 'Harrow Blood' should not be used if 'Siberian-C is available. 'Harrow Blood' is also more difficult to handle in the nursery than other commonly used peach seedling rootstocks. - 2 - Our efforts in rootstock breeding are now aimed at developing cultivars with the cold-hardiness of 'Siberian-C ' , and the red fol- iage of 'Rutgers Red Leaf, combined with nematode, crown gall and canker resistance, and greater tolerance to finer textured soils that are not as well drained. This work is just under way and will require many years of selection and testing to develop improved varieties. We also have a major peach breeding program to develop cold- hardy, attractive, disease resistant freestone cultivars with high quality suitable for the fresh market and also suitable for canning and freezing. In 1968, we released 'Harbelle' and 'Canadian Har- mony. ' They were followed by 'Harbrite' in 1969, 'Harken' in 1970 and 'Harbinger' in 1971. We are receiving many encouraging reports on the performance of these new varieties in Canada and the United States. We also have several promising numbered selections which require further testing before a decision can be made on their nam- ing and introduction. They are presently being tested by research cooperators at other Experiment Stations in Canada and the United States and by cooperating growers in both countries. A summary of their main features is given in Table 1. The testing of numbered selections from our program is con- ducted by the Western Ontario Fruit Testing Association. This or- ganization has contracted with Hilltop Orchards and Nurseries Inc., Hartford, Michigan, to make these selections available in limited quantities and under restricted propagation to interested growers in the United States. They are available for test with the under- standing that they are not yet proven and may not warrant commer- cial introduction. Nevertheless, they have been selected for cold-hardiness, tolerance to bacterial spot, eye appeal and qual- ity and appear to be worthy of further test. Recently, we have selected two promising cold-hardy nectarines, HWlOl and HW102, that ripen 3 to 7 days, respectively, after Redhaven. ' Trees of these will be available for test in 1974 and 1975. You should heed the advice of your Pomologists and Extension Horticulturists before making too large a commitment to our new varieties and numbered test selections because other varieties may be better suited to your climate and the needs of your industry. Limited quantities of the numbered selections are available for test from Hilltop Orchards and Nurseries Inc., Hartford, Michigan, and from the Western Ontario Fruit Testing Association, Harrow, Ontario. The named varieties are available from the major nur- series in the United States and Canada. - 3 - Table 1. Summary of main features of Harrow peach varieties and promising test selections evaluated at the Harrow Research Station compared with 'Redhaven' A B C D E F G H I J K Name or Ripe Produc- Diam. Red Flesh Qual- Pit Ripening Hardi- Use number date tivity (in.) color firm- ness ity free- ness uniform- ity ness Harbinger HIV201 H719 Harbelle H1102B HW207 7/19 7/27 7/31 8/4 8/12 8/12 4 4 2 3 3 3 2-1/4 2-1/2 2-1/2 2-3/4 2-1/2 2-1/2 80 70 80 60 70 70 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 2 3 3 4 4 1 2 3 3 4 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 2 4 2 4 F F F F F+P F+P Redhaven 8/15 2-1/2 70 F+P Harken Harbrite H593 HWlOl H4219 HW102 H2091 Canadian Harmony HW204 H2219 ■87T7" 8/19 8/20 8/20 8/22 8/23 8/25 8/27 9/4 9/6 3 5 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 2-1/2 2-1/2 2-3/4 2-1/2 2-1/2 2-1/4 2-3/4 2-3/4 2-1/2 2-1/2 80 80 50 90 70 90 70 80 50 70 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 4 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 T 3 5 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 3 4 3 F+P F+P F+P F F+P F F+P F+P F+P F A HWlOl and mi02 are nectarines B First date at which a few soft ripe fruit can be picked C 1 = very light to 5 = very heavy D Average fruit diameter E Percent of skin surface that is red in color F 1 = very soft to 5 = very firm but melting flesh G 1 = poor to 5 = outstanding H 1 = cling to 5 = air free 11= poor to 5 = very good J 1 = tender (Redglobe) 2 = medium tender (Loring) 3 = medium (Elberta) 4 = medium hardy (Redhaven) 5 = hardy (Reliance K F = for fresh use only, F+P = for fresh use, home canning and freezing, *************** VARIETIES OF BLUEBERRIES FOR MASSACHUSETTS James F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Variety* Recommended for Harvesting Season Earliblue C ^ H Early Bluetta T Early Collins C 5 H Early Blueray C 5 H Early Bluecrop C § H Midseason Berkeley C 5 H Midseason Herbert C ^ H Late Jersey C ^ H Late Rubel H Late Coville C a H Late *In approximate order of ripening T = Trial H = Home garden C = Commercial - Varieties so marked are not necessarily adapted to all parts of the state. Earliblue Ripens early, fruit light blue, very firm, good fla- vor, cluster medium size, medium loose. Bush upright, vigorous, well-shaped, easy to prune and propagate. Requires a high concentration of bees for adequate pollination and fruit set. Especially attractive to birds. Bluetta Ripens with or slightly after Earliblue. The plants are short, compact spreading and medium in vigor. The fruit is medium-sized of good flavor, light blue in color, firm and has a broad stem scar. The clusters are loose. Collins Ripens early, midway between Earliblue and Bluecrop. The bush is erect, vigorous, and moderately productive May winter kill in cold winters or cold locations. The fruit is borne in medium-sized, rather tight, at- tractive clusters. The berries are as large as Earli- blue, firm, light blue in color and highly flavored. Fruit does not drop nor crack. Collins requires a high bee population for adequate pollination and fruit set. Blueray Ripens early, just after Earliblue; fruit clusters small, tight attractive; berries very large, firm, light blue, aromatic, very fine flavored if fully ripe; bushes erect, somewhat spreading, vigorous and productive. Has considerable cold resistance. Easy to prune. Bluecrop Ripens early mid-season, fruit ver> light blue, very firm, good flavor, small scar, clusters large, medium loose. Bush upright, vigorous and productive, easy to propagate, easy to prune, resistant to spring frost and winter cold. Berkeley Ripens mid-season, fruit very large, light blue, firm, mild flavor, scar large and dry; bush upright, vigor- ous, productive, easy to propagate and prune. Herbert Ripens late, fruit large, fair blue, good scar, flavor good, skin tender; bush spreading, vigorous, produc- tive and easy to propagate. Superior for local market and home use. Jersey Ripens late, fruit medium to large, fair blue, attrac- tive, firm, good flavor, but tart if not fully ripe, good scar, open cluster; bush upright, vigorous, pro- ductive, hardy. Rubel Ripens late, fruit medium size, firm, good flavor, good blue, fairly attractive, good scar; bush upright, very vigorous, very productive, hardy. Rubel is recom- mended for those persons desiring a smaller highly flavored berry for muffins and pancakes. Coville Ripens very late, fruit large, firm, good scar, highly aromatic flavor, tart when not fully ripe, good blue, attractive; bush upright, spreading, vigorous and very productive. Coville requires a high bee concentration for adequate pollination and fruit set. *************** PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE Available from Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, is Extension Bulleting 634 entitled "Frost and Frost Control in Wash- ington Orchards." This publication discusses the factors affecting frosts and freezes, weather monitoring equipment, and frost preven- tion techniques. Of particular interest are tables showing the crit- ical temperatures for blossom buds for several fruits, including ap- ples, pears and peaches. Available from the Cooperative Extension Service, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, is Bulletin 143, entitled "High bush Blueberry Culture." This publication discusses all phases of blueberry production including propagation. *************** 6 - PERFORMANCE AND ANCHORAGE OF ROOTSTOCK-SCION COMBINATIONS UNDER HIGH MOISTURE CONDITIONS Duane Greene Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Research results and grower observations are continually re- confirming reports that apple trees grown on size-controlling rootstocks are more productive, precocious and efficient. However, much information is still needed so that fruit growers can improve production by more intelligent choice of rootstocks for future plantings. In 1964 and 1965, a rootstock trial involving six rootstocks and five varieties replicated eight times was initiated at the Horticultural Research Center in Belchertown, Massachusetts. Root- stock and scion selections were made to include those that, at the time, appeared to hold the most promise for fruit growers in New England. All rootstock-scion combinations grew well for the first six years. During the first four growing seasons of the 1970's, above average rainfall was experienced that resulted in waterlogged soil conditions for much of the year. In addition, high winds from tropical storms in August of 1970 and 1971 blew over a considerable number of the trees in this experimental plant- ing. Although the damage invalidated much of the data for which the trial was established, it did provide an excellent opportunity to compare the anchorage and to qualitatively evaluate the per- formance of the rootstock-scion combinations under high moisture conditions . Table 1 shows the percent trees of each rootstock scion combin- ation that were blown over during these two storms. These data confirm earlier reports that trees grown on M 7 were poorly an- chored particularly when Red Delicious was the scion variety. All eight trees were uprooted by the wind. The Niagara/M 7 combina- tion was also poorly anchored. The only other combination that appeared to be poorly supported was Red Delicious/M 2, where 57% of the trees were tipped over by the wind. To the contrary, all varieties on MM 106 and seedling roots remained well anchored. Table 1. Effect of Rootstock-Scion Combination on the Anchorage of Trees Grown at the Horticultural Research Center, Belchertown, Massachusetts. Scion Rootstock - % trees tipped over Variety M 2 Robusta 5 M 7 MM 106 MM 104 Seedling Puritan 0 0 0 0 0 0 Niagara 0 0 63 0 0 0 Mcintosh 0, 17? 13 0 0 0 Delicious 57b 14b 100 0 13 0 Golden Delicious 0 0 13 0 13 0 ^Replicated 6 times ^Replicated 7 times - 7 If you intend to plant one of these rootstock-scion combina- tions that has been shown to be poorly anchored, several sugges- tions may be made. 1. Purchase trees that have been budded at least 18 inches high. 2. Avoid planting trees on soil types not favorable for deep rooting . 3. Avoid planting trees on windy sites. 4. Provide support for newly planted trees to minimize whip- ping of the tree and thus encourage adventitious root formation along the entire below-ground portion of the rootstock. Of the six rootstocks included in this experiment, MM 104 appeared the least tolerant to the wet conditions of the last 4 years. This agrees with reports of others who have found that MM 104 rootstock does not perform well on poorly drained sites. However, the differences in leaf color, terminal growth and fruit size between trees on MM 104 and the other rootstocks was not great. The other rootstocks in this trial (MM 106, M 7, Robusta 5, Seedling, M 2) are considered intermediate in their tolerance to high moisture conditions. Differences among these intermediately tolerant stocks were not observed. Yellowing of the leaves and reduced terminal growth were noted to a limited extent on all rootstocks indicating that all rootstocks in this test were injured by the excessive moisture conditions. Planting trees on poorly drained sites is hazardous at best and is not recommended. However, if a grower wishes to take the chance and plant on a poorly drained site, one suggestion may be made. Plant trees that have been budded on M 13 rootstock. This rootstock has been shown to be somewhat tolerant to wet soil con- ditions, but it should be noted that scion varieties budded on this rootstock grow to a size similar to those budded on seedling roots . *************** HAY MULCH MAY BE A VALUABLE SUPPLEMENT TO A HERBICIDE PROGRAM IN ORCHARDS William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Several years ago, we showed that simazine, a pre-emergence herbicide, accumulated in the hay mulch under apple trees. As a consequence, the residue in the soil under the mulch was less than when simazine v\ras applied on sod or cultivated soil. The question arose whether this accumulation in mulch was of practical signifi- cance. To answer this question, in 1968, we initiated an experi- ment in a block of Richhaven peach trees at the Horticultural Re- search Center using dichlobenil (Casoron*) as the pre-emergence herbicide . TREATMENTS The trees were planted in the spring of 1968 and 4 bales of hay weighing approximately 40 lbs each were spread over a circular area extending 7 feet from the tree trunk. (A grower would prob- ably apply only 1 bale to a limited area. The amount applied in the experiment was approximately equivalent to one bale on a cir- cular area extending 3-1/2 feet from the trunk.) Eight single- tree replications of the following treatments were established in November, 1968: (A) hay mulch applied only at planting; (B) culti- vation twice annually in May and early July; (C) dichlobenil at 6 lbs of active ingredient per acre (ai/A) applied annually; (D) di- chlobenil at 12 lbs ai/A applied annually; (E) dichlobenil applied on mulch at 6 lbs of ai/A; and (F) dichlobenil applied on mulch at 12 lbs of ai/A annually. The mulch was removed prior to establish- ing treatments B, C, and D. RESULTS Leaf injury. Foliar injury symptoms, characterized by leaf margin yellowing (LMY) and leaf tip burn resulted from treatments with dichlobenil (Table 1). Table 1. Percent of leaves on terminal shoots of Richhaven peach trees showing leaf injury following dichlobenil usage. % leaves showing injury in late Aug.^ Treatment^ 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 On bare soil, 6 lbs dichlobenil On mulch, 6 lbs dichlobenil On bare soil, 12 lbs dichlobenil On mulch, 12 lbs dichlobenil ^Dichlobenil applied annually in mid-November for 5 consecutive years starting in 1968, ^Three shoots per tree. ^Mean separation, within columns, by Duncan's multiple range test at the 5% level. The mulch application in May, 1968, prevented foliar injury in 1969, even though one dichlobenil treatment was twice the recom- 30b^ 69b 78a 15bc 50b Oc 18c 47b 8c 30b 69a 94a 94a 70a 97a Oc 53b 81a 29b 91a - 9 mended rate (12 lbs). The mulch decomposed rapidly and was less effective in 1970 through 1972. In 1972, LMY appeared later and was less severe than in 1971. Total rainfall from April through June, 1972, was 148% of the 1967-71 average for these months and the temperatures were lower than normal. These weather conditions could have been responsible for the reduction of foliar injury from dichlobenil in 1972 in comparison to previous years; the ef- fect would most likely be due to temperature, since dichlobenil does not leach readily. In 1973, foliar injury from dichlobenil was again severe and mulch did not reduce severity. Weed control . The data 1968 was of in Table 2 show that the single application little or no value for weed control and of mulch in this was mainly due to reinf estation by quackgrass. Table 2. Effects of soil management practices on weed control un- - der Richhaven peach trees planted in 1968. Treatment Weed control in mid-August (I) 1969 1970 T§7J 1972 197T Cultivation Dichlobenil, 6 lbs Dichlobenil, 12 lbs Mulch Mulch + dichlobenil. 6 lbs Mulch + dichlobenil, 12 lbs 95a^ 44c 83b 16d 53c 91ab 56c 54c 81a 7d 68b 90a 45d 50cd 77b 3e 61c 94a 7c 9c 2 9b --y 9c 60a 2c 3c 8bc --y 13b 44a ^Mean separation, \\rithin columns, at the 51 level. by Duncan's multiple range test y^Since the effectiveness of mulch for control of weeds had disap- peared the data were not included in the statistical analysis. Several annual grassy weeds and quackgrass invaded the culti- vated and herbicide treated areas particularly in 1972 and 1973. During these 2 years, only 12 lbs dichlobenil applied on top of the mulch residue resulted in an appreciable control of these an- nual weeds. Tree performance. Due to the severity of leaf injury symptoms, one would expect reductions in growth and productivity of the trees. For the first 3 years of the experiment, there was no growth or yield difference among treatments with the exception of the mulch treatment. The mulched trees produced significantly less vegeta- tive growth in 1970 and 1971 and had the least yield in 1971. Limb breakage and the presence of weak limbs invalidated the growth and yield data after the 1971 growing season. This is in- deed unfortunate, since leaves on the trees receiving either 6 or 12 lbs dichlobenil on bare soil had interveinal chlorosis and brown, tattered leaf margins. Some of the more severely injured leaves dropped in early September. Therefore, it is unfortunate - 10 - that reliable growth and yield data could not be obtained in 1972 and 1973 and the experiment continued for another 2 or 3 years. DISCUSSION Younger fruit trees are less tolerant of herbicides than older trees. The tolerance difference probably is due to the lim- ited root system and "depth protection" of newly-set trees. The results from the present experiment show that hay mulch can be of value for reducing the risk of injury to young trees from pre-emer- gence herbicides (Table 1). Hay mulch decomposes rapidly, however, and additional applications seem necessary to sustain this benefi- cial effect. Better weed control in 1972 and 1973, resulting from 12 lbs of dichlobenil applied on the mulch residue rather than on bare soil (Table 2), shows another possible benefit of mulch. Dichlo- benil content was higher in the mulch (7 ppm as compared to 0.5 ppm in the top 0.6 inches of the unmulched soil) and was probably re- sponsible for killing many germinating annual weeds. All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials. NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. I Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, S300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. Vol. 39 (No. 2) MARCH -APRIL 1974 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chemical Frost Protection for Fruit Blossoms Suggestions for Fertilization of Peach Trees in 1974 Research from Other Areas Suggestions for Fertilization of Apple Trees in 1974 Do Your Blueberry Plants Have Tired Blood (Do They Need Iron)? Misnamed Trees and Propagation of the Unknown Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. ss CHEMICAL FROST PROTECTION FOR FRUIT BLOSSOMS B.R. Boyce Department of Plant and Soil Science University o£ Vermont Frost injury on fruit blossoms amounts to millions of dollars worth of crop losses annually. Methods of reducing these losses fall into four general categories: 1) variety selection; 2) site selection; 3) adding heat during a frost; and 4) reducing heat lo..^ during a frost. A fifth method would be through the application of substances to lower the killing temperature of the blossoms. Sev- eral chemicals are currently being tested for this purpose. One of these materials is Chem-Frost*, a commercial product marketed by Chemical Frost Control Corporation of Meridian, Idaho. Chem-Frost* was sprayed at a dilution of 1 to 100 on Catskill strawberry plants under both greenhouse and field conditions and on Mcintosh apple, Delicious apple and Bartlett pear trees in the field. Three applications were applied to the point of run-off. The first application went on the strawberries as growth started but before flower buds were visible, the second application as the buds were first noticeable, and the third just prior to the first bud opening. The first application on the apples and pears occur- red at silver tip, the second at green tip, and the third at half- inch green. Blossoms were collected at full bloom from the treated plants and from untreated checks and frozen at several temperatures. Af- ter two hours at each temperature they were floated on water for 24 hours and evaluated for injury. Table 1 summarizes the number of blossoms killed at each tem- perature. The temperatures ranged from 31°F, which did not kill any blossoms to 23°F which killed all blossoms. Under the condi- tions of this experiment, Chem-Frost* did not significantly reduce the amount of low temperature injury to the blossoms of any of the fruits tested at any of the temperatures used. In some cases, in fact, there appeared to be a trend towards more injury where the material was used than on the unsprayed checks. The manufacturer of Chem-Frost* is now marketing a new formu- lation of the frost-protection agent. We have not tested the new formulation. However, the results of our tests showed that under the old formulation, Chem-Frost* applied under Vermont conditions had no effect on lowering the killing temperature of strawberry, apple, or pear blossoms. "s Trade name Table 1 Effect of Chem-Frost* on number of blossoms killed after exposure to several freezing temperatures, 1972. Number of blossoms kille d at various temperatures (° F) Total % 31 29 27 25 23 Killed Killed Greenhouse Strawberries Check 0 2 8 27 40 77 38 Chem-Frost* 0 2 10 33 40 85 42 Field Strawberries Check 0 8 10 26 40 84 42 Chem-Frost* 0 10 27 28 40 105 52 Mcintosh Apples Check 0 2 4 8 20 34 34 Chem-Frost* 0 4 7 10 20 41 41 Delicious Apples Check 0 2 5 14 20 41 41 Chem-Frost* 0 0 6 19 20 45 45 Bartlett Pears Check 0 1 4 10 20 35 35 Chem-Frost* 0 0 4 9 20 33 33 *Trade name *************** SUGGESTIONS FOR FERTILIZATION OF PEACH TREES IN 1974 William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Tree growth is the best fulfills the needs of peach t ing factor. Since fruit buds shoot growth, it is essential ally by the use of a nitrogen should make about 18 inches o inches are sufficient for mat amounts may result in poor fr The kind of N to use should b N and/or availability of fert plete fertilizer" has been mo N needs. guide to how yo rees, if soil m of the peach a to produce ade (N) fertilizer f new terminal ure trees. Gro uit color and e e chosen on the ilizers. Ammon St commonly use ur fertilizer pr oisture is not a re formed along quate new growth Young peach t growth annually; wth in excess of xcessive cold in basis of cost o ium nitrate or a d in the past to ogram limit- the new annu- rees 12-15 these jury. f actual "com- supply Potassium (K) is the only nutrient, other than N, that is fre- quently deficient in Massachusetts peach orchards. Therefore, the recommendations given below are guides for fulfilling the N and K needs for peach trees. The K may be applied either in the spring 3 - or fall, but N fertilizer should be applied in the spring about 2 or 3 weeks before bloom. Suggested Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Peach Trees Approximate amounts per tree (lbs) Ammonium nitrate Muriate of potash Tree age or its equivalent or its equivalent 3-6 1/2 - 1 1-2 6-9 1 - 1-1/2 2 - 3 9 - 12 1-1/2 - 2 3-4 12 and over 2-4 4-8 *************** RESEARCH FROM OTHER AREAS Mack Drake Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Calcium distribution in 'Merton' apple fruits. A paper entitled "Longitudinal Distribution of Applied Calcium and of Naturally Occurring Calcium, Magnesium, and Potassium in 'Merton' Apple Fruits," which appeared in the Australia Journal of Agricultural Research, Volume 24, 1973, by T. L. Lewis and D. Martin, contains several pertinent findings concerning calcium (Ca) in apple fruit. These workers showed that the Ca concentration in the 'Merton' fruits declined from the stem end to the calyx end, which may ex- plain w^^y bitter pit lesions generally are more prevalent near the blossom end of apples. On the other hand, Mg concentration increased toward the calyx end to about 8 times the Ca concentration. The authors proposed that if the Ca level in the calyx end of fruits were to fall below the critical level, the concentration of Mg would be high enough to replace Ca within the cells of the apples. This replacement may have adverse effects on the cells and cause bitter pit lesions to develop. This emphasizes the impor- tance of maintaining other nutrients in balance with Ca . To find out why Ca sprays are more effective than soil appli- cations in increasing fruit Ca, Lewis and Martin injected radio- actively labeled calcium chloride s-olution into a fruiting branch of a 'Merton'- tree 8 weeks prior to harvest. Only very small amounts reached the calyx end of the mature fruits. Leaves and buds on the injected branch accumulated 95% of the recoverable Ca, and the fruits accumulated the remaining 51 of which only about 1% was in the calyx end. This illustrates why it is difficult to in- - 4 - crease Ca in fruit by soil applications of this element. Not only is there very poor absorption of Ca into apple trees, but also what does enter moves slowly and much of it is immobilized in plant tis- sue other than fruit. Radio-actively labeled calcium chloride was then applied to the skin of 'Merton' apples at several stages of development. Applying Ca to more developed rather than to very young fruits increased the amount of Ca absorbed, so that mid- to late- summer sprays should be more effective than early-summer sprays in controlling bitter pit.. In addition, they found that more Ca was absorbed into the calyx end than into the stem end region of a fruit, regardless of its age. Therefore, the greatest absorption was into that portion of the fruit that is lowest in Ca and most subject to bitter pit. The authors stated that the lenticels (dots) on apples are an entry site for Ca sprays and that lenticels are more numerous on the calyx end than on the stem end of an apple. With more entry points at the calyx end, direct application of Ca should be (and is known to be) the most efficient way of increasing fruit Ca and reducing bitter pit. In summary, the research by Lewis and Martin shows why tree sprays may be more effective than soil applications for increasing Ca content of apple fruits. Growers with bitter pit or cork spot problems in their orchards may wish to use the control measure for these disorders suggested in the article enclosed in this issue of Fruit Notes entitled "Suggestions for Fertilization of Apple Trees in 1974." *************** SUGGESTIONS FOR FERTILIZATION OF APPLE TREES IN 1974 William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Most apple orchards appear to have an abundance of fruit buds which, with favorable weather, could produce an excessive crop in 1974. Therefore, your fertilizer program in 1974 should be direc- ted toward the production of a medium-sized crop of high quality fruit. Nitrogen (N) : To help accomplish the above goal, we believe that N applications should be reduced by one-third to one-half in many bearing blocks. Most Mcintosh trees had only a light crop in 1973 and these should have considerable reserve N available for utiliza- tion this spring. Blocks of excessively vigorous trees probably should receive no N. It is well to remember that it may take sever- al years before an appreciable decrease in N level occurs on exces- sively vigorous trees. 5 - Reduce or omit N on young, vigorous Mcintosh trees if they are starting to bear a crop, in order to avoid excessively large, poorly colored fruit. Young vigorous, non-bearing Mcintosh apple trees may have N levels of 2.4-2.6%, but these N levels should be reduced when trees start to produce. Apply sufficient N to keep bearing Delicious trees vigorous. N levels of 2.2-2.41 in bearing Delicious trees are probably sat- isfactory because it is necessary to keep the tree vigorous in or- der to produce large-sized fruits. Furthermore, obtaining suffi- cient red color on the newer strains of Delicious is not a problem. The N requirement can be met by applying calcium nitrate, am- monium nitrate or urea sources of fertilizer N or a "complete" fer- tilizer. (Growers concerned about bitter pit and/or cork spot may wish to rely on calcium nitrate as the source of N.) However, the phosphorous (P) in the complete fertilizer is not needed in our orchards and fertilizer is in short supply. Therefore, we strongly urge growers to purchase a prepared mix such as 15-0-14 which con- tains no P or to purchase an N and a K fertilizer and mix them prior to application, or apply them separately. Potassium (K) : Results of the leaf analyses for the 1973 season indicated that K levels were generally low in our apple trees. The K requirements of apple trees in a heavy crop year are high since the fruit utilizes about 3 times as much K as N. Secondly, the quantity of K stored by the tree which is available for utilization is extremely small in comparison with N. Thus, it seems important to supply adequate K this spring in anticipation of a heavy crop year. The requirements of apple trees for K (expressed as K7O) based on potential yields are as follows: (a) less than 15 bu: I.3 lbs/tree; (b) 15 to 25 lbs: 1.3-2.7 lbs/tree; and (c) more than 25 bu: 2.7-4.3 lbs/tree. It is necessary, however, to maintain a bal- ance among the essential nutrients for apple trees. Excessive lev- els of K can reduce both leaf and fruit Ca. Therefore, you should attempt to maintain K levels in apple leaves in the range of 1.25 to 1.60%. Calcium (Ca) : As expected, Ca in our apple leaves in 1973 contin- ued to be considerably less than the supposedly desirable content of 1.25-1.50%. Bitter pit was more prevalent than usual on Mcintosh -■ - _ i_ • . -.^-.^ -, , , . , . ^ *Trade name - 6 use of this compound until more information can be obtained concern- ing safeness of calcium chloride from the standpoint of leaf injury. Apply the calcium chloride sprays as separate applications. Use 2 lbs of calcium chloride per 100 gallons of water beginning 2 weeks after petal fall, because research indicates that cork spot deform- ations arise in the first 30 days of fruit development. Repeat the calcium chloride sprays at 2 or 3 week intervals, totaling 3-5 ap- plications. Where bitter pit is the only problem, the first appli- cation can be delayed until July. Until more experience is obtained concerning calcium chloride sprays, we will continue to suggest calcium nitrate. The timing of the sprays is the same as for calcium chloride. Calcium nitrate (fertilizer of technical grade) is used at the rate of 5 lbs per 100 gallons of water. A spreading agent, such as Triton B, should be added to the calcium nitrate spray at the rate of 3 fluid ounces per 100 gallons of water. Magnesium (Mg) : Most leaf higher) in 1973. The Mg r maintaining an adequate do several years before lime Epsom salt sprays can be u ply 2 or 3 sprays at the r at the time of calyx, firs avoid possible incompatibi be combined with the regul salts or a lime high in Mg samples had equirements lomitic limi is effective sed to help ate of 15-20 t cover and lities, the ar pesticide unless leaf suff i of tre ng pro in CO correc lbs p second Epsom spray sampl cient Mg (o.25% or es can best be met by gram. Since it takes _ rrecting Mg deficiency, t the condition. Ap- er 100 gallons of water cover sprays. To salt sprays should not s . Don't apply Epsom es or visual observa- tion indicate need because Mg can suppress Ca~ Boron (B) : B was generally low in the leaf samples obtained in 1973. B can be supplied to apple trees either by foliar or soil applications. Use the most economical and convenient method. Soil applications of B should be applied to orchards every 3 years. Borax is the common material used. The rates of applica- tion per tree vary with age and size. Apply 0.25 lb of fertilizer borate (20.2% B) or its equivalent to young trees, 0.5-0.75 lb to medium age and size trees, and 0.75 - i.o lb to large or mature trees If the soil application of B is followed by a wet spring and summer, it may be advisable to apply 2 foliar applications of B the follow- ing year. Many growers rely on annual foliar applications of B. The usual practice is to add Solubor* to the first 2 cover sprays. Fertilizer grades of borax may contain grit and should not be used in a sprayer. Mature trees should receive 4 lbs of Solubor* per acre each year. Consequently, the goal is to apply about 2 lbs per acre in each of the 2 applications. For young orchards, the addition of 0.5 lb of Solubor* per 100 gallons (dilute basis) to the first 2 cover sprays meets the B requirement of these trees. *Trade name Reports from New York State indicate that sprays can be concentrated up to 8X with satisfactory results. Zinc (Zn) : Based on optimum levels of Zn established by some states, some of our apple orchards are low in this element. We are not con- vinced that dormant applications of zinc sulfate are worthwhile from the standpoint of increasing tree performance. Until the value of this zinc sulfate spray applied at the "greentip" stage of bud de- velopment can be substantiated, we suggest its use only on a trial basis . *************** DO YOUR BLUEBERRY PLANTS HAVE TIRED BLOOD (DO THEY NEED IRON)? Dominic A. Marini Regional Fruit d, Vegetable Specialist In Massachusetts, "iron deficiency anemia" can be a problem to the grower of cultivated blueberries. Blueberries grow best in an acid soil with a pH between 4.0 and 5.0. One reason for this is that blueberries need iron and iron becomes increasingly available as soil acidity increases. Conversely, at high pH levels, iron is less available and blueber- ries frequently develop iron deficiency symptoms, however, the recent experience of a Plymouth County blueberry grower shows that iron may be needed even though the soil is acid. In *late summer, 1972, the grower reported that some bushes in one portion of his plantation were not growing well. They were unproductive, the plants produced little new growth, and the new leaves were stunted. Some of the leaves were pale in color, but did not have interveinal chlorosis, the typical symptom of iron de- ficient blueberry plants. A soil test revealed no difference in nutrient levels between the vigorous and non-vigorous bushes. There was little difference in soil acidity between the productive and un- productive areas; the weak bushes had a soil pH of 4.9, while the vigorous ones had a pH of 5.1. Nevertheless, it was decided to try some fertilizer treatments in the spring of 1973 to see if the cause of the problem could be determined. The treatments were made on May 3. Three different materials were used, each being applied to the soil around three different bushes. Ammonium sulfate was applied at 1/2 pound, magnesium sul- fate (Epsom salts) at 1/4 pound and chelated iron at 1/4 pound per bush. By September, the answer to the problem was obvious. The bushes treated with iron had. dark green foliage and had made good growth. The bushes treated with the other materials made only limited growth, had small leaves, and had now developed the typi- cal interveinal chlorosis symptom of iron deficiency. If your blueberry bushes are not producing well, making little new growth, and have pale, yellowish leaves, they could be suffer- ing from "iron deficiency anemia." *************** MISNAMED TREES AND PROPAGATION OF THE UNKNOWN James F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences As reported in the January-February, 1972 issue of Fruit Rotes , one of the major problems encountered in our variety evaluation program is that of misnamed trees. The problem is most acute in our peach testing program, where we have had instances when up to 25% of the trees of one variety were not true- to-name ; in other instances, we have had a complete substitution for the variety. We have also discovered mixtures in our apple blocks. One of the most serious problems is in our Red Delicious strain test orchard, where a complete substitution for one strain, and substitutions of one or two trees in two other strains have been found. This could lead to an inaccurate evaluation of a variety or strain. I am sure that this problem can occur in commercial orchards. Mixtures can develop during several stages of the nursery op- eration and during the planting operation in the growers' orchards. Many of the maj or nurseries have their trees inspected for trueness- to-name and this eliminates most of the mixtures that have occurred as a result of budding and/or staking errors. Unfortunately, the budsport strains of apple varieties are indistinguishable from their parent variety and other strains in the nursery row. Mixtures that occur during the digging and shipping process or when the trees are planted in the grower's orchard will probably not be noticed until the trees have begun to fruit. It is not uncommon for a grower to forget or lose the variety names of some trees in his orchards. These trees may have proven to be very profitable and he wishes to plant more of them. In such an instance, we would suggest the grower make arrangements with a nursery to custom-bud the number of trees desired. - 9 These arrangements should be made one or two years in advance of planting to insure that the nursery will have the desired root- stocks upon which to bud the trees. The grower or nurseryman will cut the buds from the tree or trees to be propagated and this will offer greater assurance that the grower will get the variety or varieties desired. ************ All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials, NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin. FRUITp^ NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 39 (No. 3) MAY-JUNE 1974 TABLE OF CONTENTS Bee Notes for Orchardists Pomological Paragraph Leaf analysis program SAT - The Single Application Treatment with Difolatan for Early Season Apple Scab Control Use of Ethephon (Ethrel*) to Initiate Flower Bud Development on Apple Trees Pomological Paragraph Diuron now labeled for use under peach tree Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service. A. A. Spielman. Direcloi. in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. BEE NOTES FOR ORCHARDISTS Spring, 1974 D.C. Newton Apiculturist, Department of Biological Sciences Central Connecticult State College, New Britain, Ct. 06050 Orchardists must know enough about beehives, pollination, and bee behavior to provide the kind o£ orchard management that will re- sult in setting a commercial crop. These notes are designed to pro- vide such information. What is a Beehive? Honey bees are always found in a social unit called a colony consisting of a queen, her daughters called workers, and a relative few of her sons called drones. Colony worker populations vary from less than 10,000 to approximately 60,000. Population fluctuation occurs throughout the season depending on the colony's history, time of year and present-past floral conditions. Each colony is housed in a modular hive that may be expanded to suit the needs of the individual colony. It is important for the orchardist to real- ize a puny colony may be housed in a large hive made of one or more modules (called brood chamber and supers^. Value of the colony for pollination depends on the size of the colony, not the size of the hive. Why do Bees Pollinate Flowers? An individual honey bee worker lives about six weeks during the active season. Only a part of this time is spent gathering pollen and nectar in the field. Each colony is constantly engaged in rear- ing replacements for workers as they die in the fields of old age and predators. The only source of protein to the bees is pollen gathered from flowers. It is collected and used in large quantities to feed young bees (called brood) as they grow to adulthood. There- fore, a colony with brood is a better pollinating unit than one with adult bees lacking brood. Pollination occurs when pollen grains sticking to the hair coat of a bee are transferred from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of a compatible flower. Certain wild bees and honey bees are good pollinators because they have a dense hair coat and each hair is built like a small brush. Why Move Honey Beehives to an Orchard? Several kinds of wild bees can set a fruit crop. However, their numbers. vary from year to year and they may be killed by spraying of the orchard or adjacent areas. By placing honey bees in the orchard, the orchardist knows that adequate pollination will occur unless the weather is very unusual. The worse the weather, the greater the importance of having honey bees in the orchard to swiftly set a crop when a short period of good flying conditions occurs. In summary, moving honey bee colonies to the orchard increases the control of the orchardist over pollination and insures an adequate fruit set. In addition, the incidence of misshapen fruit caused by partial pollination and loss of crop because of light bloom or bad weather may be reduced or eliminated. How Many Honey Bee Colonies are Required for Adequate Pollination? Obviously, many factors influence the answer to this question. Generally, one colony per acre is recommended. Hives may be arranged singly or in groups of four in various locations. Grouping in fours is superior because colonies competing with one another increase the number of workers flying from tree to tree thereby increasing the number of flowers being cross-pollinated. Peculiar planting patterns may require a different number of hives and require special management plans. How Do I Know I am Renting Colonies of Significant Size? In New England, there are two sources of bees used for pollina- tion; colonies that have survived the winter and those established in the spring from a package of workers and a queen shipped from the southern United States. Overwintered colonies are best for pollina- tion. They begin to rear brood (young bees) in large numbers in March and by late April the colony should be increasing rapidly in adult population and quantity of brood. Such colonies are ideal for orchard pollination. Packages are frequently established in the North in late April and early May. They consist of two or three pounds of bees (about 6-9000) and a queen. Because it takes 21 days to rear a bee to adulthood, the adult population of a package colony will decline for at least 21 days after they are placed in a hive. Therefore, this unit will very likely have a reduced adult population at the very time pollination is desired. A colony rented for pol- lination should have at least three to four combs (frames) of brood and the necessary adults to care for the brood. The modules making up a bee hive come in several sizes. The combs referred to above are 8-7/16" x 16-3/4". An orcha.rdist should have a letter of contract with the hee- keeper specifying three to four combs of brood in e'very colony rented for pollination regardless of the hive size. An orchardist should have the right to inspect colonies provided for pollination to see that the size requirement is met. This need not be a danger- ous procedure. An alternative is to have the beekeeper open and display colonies randomly chosen by the orchardist. Brood combs may be identified by the dense covering of bees. Covers may be re- moved from comb cells revealing developing young bees. Each box usually has nine or ten combs in wooden frames. Brood containing frames are at the bottom of the hive or sometimes in the second box (super) . 3 - Cost of Renting Bees An orchardist should not be surprised to be charged $15 or more for each colony moved to his orchard. The cost figure (1974) will be quickly outdated. The orchardist is not doing the beekeeper a favor by using his bees. Proper pollination requires planning labor, equipment and time. In addition, it risks pesticide losses to the beekeeper. Populous colonies are easily worth the price be- cause they have 6-7 or more frames of brood. A beekeeper should have a letter of contract specifying a penalty if the orchardist sprays and kills his bees. In addition, a date when the bees are to be removed should be specified (so the orchardist can continue his spray program) . Many beekeepers no longer wish to pollinate orchards because their bees have been needlessly killed in the past. A penalty for pesticide loss in the orchard should equal the poten- tial honey crop value for the year -- about $60 (1974) per colony. How Long Should Honey Bees Remain in the Orchard? Bees can set a crop in two good flying days (temperature above 65 and partial sun) . Frequently, bees become accustomed to working dandelion which blooms at about the same time as apple trees. For best results, bring the bees into the orchard when there is early partial bloom. When the bees leave their hives in the new location, they begin work nearby first (in the orchard) and progressively work further from their hives. "Late" move into the orchard helps insure that bees will work in the orchard before they discover a more at- tractive bloom up to two miles away (outside the orchard) . If there is no significant competition, then there is no problem. Pay par- ticular attention to this procedure when pollinating pears. Bees prefer apple blossoms to pear blooms. After full bloom, bees should be removed as soon as possible (from the orchardist' s standpoint). Where do I Find Populous Colonies for Rent? There are plenty of beekeepers in New England. However, many lack trucks to move their bees. The orchardist is advised to con- tact the beekeepers in his area (beekeepers are registered with town clerks) and work out an arrangement where he provides trucks and help to move bees into and out of the orchard under direction of the beekeeper. An agreement should describe how the parties will provide equipment and labor to accomplish the job. A few hours in an apiary can show an orchardist how to help move bees without dan- ger. It is a matter of having and using proper protective equipment. Some beekeepers provide complete pollination service. Be sure you know what you are renting and specify the strength of each colony rented as noted previously. Remember, overwintered colonies are best if they are available and well worth the additional time and trouble required to bring them to the orchard. Can an Orchard Block be Made to Yield it if Was Misplanted and Lacks Proper Cross Pollination? - 4 - Yes, you can purchase compatible hand collected pollen from the South and place a special entrance on bee hives which force bees leaving the colony to walk through the purchased pollen. Then, as they fly from bloom to bloom, they will set a crop. This proce- dure does require time and prior planning but is worth the invest- ment . What Varieties of Apples and Peaches are Self-Sterile? Some varieties, including Delicious, Mcintosh, Red Astrachan, Mutsu, Wealthy and Northern Spy are known to be self -sterile . On the other hand, Baldwin, Oldenburg, Early Mcintosh, and Yellow Trans- parent are known to be partially self -fertile . Even self-fertile varieties produce larger fruit when cross-pollinated. Many peaches are self -pollinated but Hale and Mikado are known to be self-sterile Even in the case of self -fruitful varieties, bees are important to the transfer of pollen with individual flowers. SOURCES OF HONEY BEE INFORMATION Journals and Addresses for Subscription The Connecticut Honey Bee American Bee Journal P.S. Hewett, Jr. Hamilton, Illinois 62341 Route 2 12/year at $4.50 Litchfield, Conn. 06759 (A publication of the Bee World Conn. Beekeepers Assoc. Bee Research Association 4/year at $3.00) Chalfont St. Peter, Gerraris Cross Gleanings in Bee Culture Buckinghamshire THe A.I. Root Co. England SL9 ONR Medina, Ohio 44256 4/year at $8.50 12/year at $4.50 Catalogs of Bee Equipment Books Dadant and Sons The Hive and the Honey Bee Hamilton, Illinois 62341 edited by Ray A. Grout 0)adant and Sons, Hamilton, A.I. Root Co. Illinois 62341) Medina, Ohio 44256 ABC + XYZ of Bee Culture Walter T. Kelley Co. (A.I. Root Co. Clarkson, Kentucky Medina, Ohio 44256) 42726 *************** - 5 - POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Leaf analysis program: Grower participation in our leaf analysis program in 1973 was disappointing in comparison to 1972. Leaf anal- ysis of established fruit plants provides the most reliable informa- tion of nutrient needs. It can determine nutrient shortages and ex- cesses, and shows nutrient balance. Frequently, leaf analysis shows that certain fertilizer elements are not needed, which saves you money. One grower, for example, has not applied nitrogen (N) on some blocks of Mcintosh trees for 4 years and leaf analysis in 1973 showed the N level in his orchard still to be somewhat high. Many growers are concerned about calcium (Ca) levels in their apple trees. Other nutrients must be kept in balance with the Ca for apple trees to utilize Ca efficiently. Leaf analysis is the only means by which we can determine the level and balance of the essential elements. Therefore, we strongly urge greater participation in our 1974 leaf analysis program. It could make and/or save you money! *************** SAT - THE SINGLE APPLICATION TREATMENT WITH DIFOLATAN FOR EARLY SEASON APPLE SCAB CONTROL C.J. Gilgut Department of Plant Pathology One spray for scab at the beginning of the growing season which controls scab up to petal fall without additional scab sprays ap- peals to growers. It can be a "peace-of -mind" program. SAT has given good scab control for several years in experi- ments. But, it is a new method and, as with any new method or new pesticide, we need to learn how it will work for growers in their orchards when applied with different spray equipment, during differ- ent seasons, and with different weather conditions. Some growers have already tried the method. Those who followed directions care- fully got good scab control; others who were careless, made mistakes, or tried short cuts, got poor control. A review of the SAT method should help grov;ers understand it and get better results, and an account of some of the reasons for poor results may help avoid them in the future. The SAT Method: A heavy dosage of fungicide is sprayed on the trees at Dormant to 1/4 Inch Green Tip. Enough fungicide is depos- ited on buds , twigs and branches for distribution during rains in sufficient amounts to protect new growth for about four weeks dur- ing the early part of the season, usually up to Petal Fall. Beginning with Petal Fall, the regular program with a standard scab fungicide is followed. However, in some years tree growth and weather conditions are such that the regular program should be started before Petal Fall. For example, tree development from Green Tip to Petal Fall is usually from the third week in April to the third week in May, about 4 weeks. In 1973, it was not 4 weeks but 6 weeks and, in some places 7 weeks; in addition, the entire month of May except for a few short breaks was a continuous wetting period. Growers who waited until Petal Fall did not get good scab control. Obviously, a grower needs to remain alert and use judgement whether to wait until Petal Fall to start the regular program or whether to start it earlier. If in doubt, he can include a scab fungicide in rust or powdery mildew control sprays if they are needed or in insect sprays which are started before bloom. What to use: Difolatan 4 Flowable is the only fungicide registered for the Single Application Treatment. Other scab fungicides have been tested but do not give satisfactory results. Difol- atan irritates eyes and skin of some people. Observe all safe- ty precautions. When: The spray is applied on trees at Dormant to 1/4 Inch Green Tip. It usually causes some crinkling of cluster leaves. If applied later than 1/4 Inch Green Tip, there may be leaf in- jury and fruit russet on some varieties. How much to apply: Five quarts in 100 gallons of dilute spray is applied at 400 gallons per acre of standard mature trees. This is 20 quarts or 5 gallons of fungicide per acre. Concentrate sprays at 3X or 4X may be used provided the same amount of fungicide is deposited on the buds, twigs and branches as with 400 gallons of dilute spray. The full amount, 20 quarts or 5 gallons per acre is needed if it is to protect long enough. Do not reduce by 20 to 2S% to compensate for no run- off or drip as is done in concentrate spraying in regular pro- grams. Growers who cut the dosage in concentrate sprays in 1973 had disappointing scab control. In order for SAT to work, the maximum amount of fungicide has to be applied to buds, twigs and branches. Some adjustment in number of gallons applied per acre may be necessary because of tree size and spacing. High density plantings .with narrow rows may require as much as mature standard trees. Non- bearing or small trees with wide row spacing probably need less. What is important, is that enough gallons are used to provide an adequate deposit of fungicide on buds, twigs and branches. - 7 - Some Reasons for Poor Results with SAT 1. Insufficient deposit because: (a) Sprayer inadequate - does not deposit enough fungicide in the tree, especially the tops, from where the fungi- cide redistributes to growth below. (b) Nozzle size and arrangement not good. Spray pattern does not give proper coverage, (c) Sprayer not calibrated - Some growers do not know how much material the sprayer is applying per acre and some do not know how big an acre is. (d) Sprayer speed too fast - especially with concentrate spray. (e) Spray dosage in tank reduced for concentrate spray - a common mistake. 2. Unfavorable weather conditions when SAT spray is applied. (a) Too windy - Gusts of wind deflect spray as sprayer passes tree. No spray is deposited either in entire trees or in some parts of trees, especially the tops. (b) Rain when SAT spray is being applied or before it dries on the tree. Too much washes off so that what is left is not enough to redistribute in later rains to pro- tect new growth. (c) Frequent and heavy rains wash away dried spray deposit so there is not enough to protect up to petal fall and grower does not start regular scab protection soon enough. 3. Tree development longer than 4 weeks from Green Tip to Petal Fall. Don't expect SAT to protect more than 4 weeks under normal weather conditions. May need to start regular scab program in Pink. 4. SAT is a one-spray program. Inadequate deposit or misses cannot be corrected by following sprays, as with the regu- lar multi-spray program, because there are no following sprays for several weeks. Difolatan and oil mixture may cause serious leaf injury and fruit russet. This should not be a problem, because Green Tip is too early to start insect control with oil. Adapting SAT to Insect Control Programs that Start in Tight Cluster or Pink Some growers start insect control in Tight Cluster or Pink, at which time they are able to include scab fungicides in the insect sprays. Such growers may want SAT scab protection up to the time they start spraying for insects which would be two or three weeks after Green Tip. Dr. M. Szkolnik of the Geneva, New York Experiment Station has had some success in programming the SAT application to give one, two or three weeks scab protection, as desired, by adjus- ting the amount of fungicide in the spray tank and applying at 400 gals, per acre. This is still in the experimental stage, but he believes that 1 quart to 100 gallons dilute (one gallon Difolatan per acre) may give one week of protection, two quarts per 100 (2 gallons/A) may give two weeks protection, and 3 quarts per 100 (3 gallons/A) may give three weeks protection. He is not yet ready to make recommendations. *************** USE OF ETHEPHON (ETHREL*) TO INITIATE FLOWER BUD DEVELOPMENT ON APPLE TREES W.J. Lord and Duane Greene Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Growers are interested in ethephon's ability to promote spur development and flower-bud formation on young apple trees. To in- duce this response, the label gives the following directions: "To increase flower-bud development in both spur and non-spur type young non-bearing trees, apply a foliar spray of Ethrel 1 or 2 weeks after peak bloom period (as determined by bearing trees in the area). On young trees just beginning to initiate a few flowers, treat 4 to 5 weeks after full bloom to minimize over- thinning and misshapen fruit (calyx end pinched) . Reduced vegetative growth and increased bud development during the season of application should increase flowering the following spring. Trees should be large enough to support a set of apples before they are treated to initi- ate flower buds. I. Spur-Type Trees: Mix 1-1/3 pints of Ethrel* in 100 gallons on water (5 pints in 300 gallons). Spray trees thoroughly and uniformly to the point of runoff. II. Non-Spur Type Trees: Mix 3-1/3 pints of Ethrel* in 100 gallons of water (10 pints in 300 gallons) . Spray trees thoroughly and uniformly to the point of runoff. This rate may completely defruit trees. Treat when air temperatures are between 60"F and 90°F." Our studies show that concentrations much less than those sug- gested on the label will reduce fruit set drastically when applied anytime from full bloom to the completion of June drop. Therefore, we will continue to suggest that ethephon not be used on young bearing trees if fruit thinning is undesirable. *Trade name Our trials with ethephon usage to promote flower-bud initia- tion on young non-bearing trees, large enough to bear a crop, are still limited. Our preliminary data in 1973 indicate that 1-2/3 to 3-1/3 pints of ethephon per 100 gallons of water applied 3 weeks after full bloom suppressed vegetative growth on 'Triple Red Delicious', a non-spur type and appears to have increased flower bud formation. More data are needed, however, before we can make specific recommendations concerning concentration and use of ethe- phon for flower bud initiation. Until such data are available, we can merely suggest that growers follow the label suggestions given above for increasing flower bud development on young non-bearing trees. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Diuron now labeled for use under peach trees. EPA has approved labeling of diuron (Karmex*) for control of annual weeds such as foxtail, crabgrass, pigweed, laml squarters , ragweed, purslane, chick- weed and mustard under peach trees. The best use of diuron is as a tank mix with paraquat. Make a single application in mid-May of two to five pounds of diuron plus one quart of paraquat with a spreader per treated acre. Use the lower rates of diuron on lighter soils and higher rates on heavier soils. Do not use this combination spray on sand, loamy sand or gravelly soils, nor on soils containing less than II organic matter, as injury to the trees may occur. The label includes the following important precaution: "Use only where trees have been established in the orchard for at least 3 years. Avoid contact of fruit or foliage with spray or drift. Do not apply within 3 months of harvest. Do not replant treated areas to any other crop within 2 years after last applica- tion as injury to subsequent crops may result." *Trade name *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials. NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE VOL. 39 (No. 4) JULY-AUGUST 1974 TABLE OF CONTENTS Suggestions for the Use of Ethephon (Ethrel*) for Promoting Uniform Ripening and Red Coloring on Apple Trees Report on Apple Maggot Conference Chemical Control of Sprouts Around Apple Trees Beneficial Orchard Insects Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielinan, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF ETHEPHON (ETHREL*) FOR PROMOTING UNIFORM RIPENING AND RED COLORING ON APPLE TREES W.J. Lord and D.W. Greene Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Eth ducers a this mat b 1 e soli sible to qual i ty enabl es the tree and/or a tens i fy conditio channel s that mus price. ephon nd CO e r i a 1 ds an adva f rui t the g s at n una our c n wit of a t be Ethep IS p nsume will d has nee t s for rower the f V 0 i d a urren h the n exc sold hon m rovi ng rs of a s t i m u 1 ten fru he mark these to har irst pi ble del t probl Mclnto e s s i V e quickly ust be to be pples ate re it mat e t i n g early vest a eking, ay in ems of sh var vol ume becau used w of si becau d col u r i ty seaso sal es larg Nev harve supp iety. of e se of i th c gnifi sea or de . Th n of . Fu er pe erthe St fo ly ma The theph over a u t i 0 cant preha vel op ese r apple rther rcent less, 1 1 owi nagem plac on-tr -matu n! value to rvest, ap ment, in esponses s and to more, th age of h misuse n g its u ent and ement in eated Mc rity cou both pi ica creas make have is ch is cr of et se CO poor mark Intos Id de pro- t i 0 n of e solu- i t p 0 s - high emi cal op from hephon u 1 d i n - fruit e t i n g h apples press Success ful Use of Ethephon for d has b to ap are n ature to de not b most sized col or of et their col or soft 1 em 0 dense d u r i n cedur crop the t Ethep evel 0 een t pi es ormal s, ex vel op ring usef u tree ed f r hepho i nte ed f r and t f obt tree g the es sh 1 oad ree b hon w i pment hat et within ly ass c e s s i V red c col or 1 on y s of m u i t s a n , 1 ar r i 0 r w u i t s 0 hus su a i n i n g s can summe oul d b and pe ef ore 11 no of re hepho 7 da 0 c i a t e vig 01 or up to oung odera re no ge, d ith i btai n itabl adeq be CO r and e fol rmi t the a t comp d col 0 n trea ys aft e d wit or, or may be satis trees t e vig rmal ly ense t nadequ adequ e only uate c rrecte doi ng 1 owed better p p 1 i c a letel r. 0 tment er ap h poo dens so 1 facto of me or f r harv rees ate r ate c for ol or d som some by sp ligh tion y ove ur ex s add pi ica r fru e tre ow th ry le di um om wh ested will ed CO ol or, juice on th ewhat light ot pi t pen of an rcome con perience ed only a tion. U n it color, es, the a at a d d i ng vel s . Th vigor or i c h a h i g in one p still h a V lor. By they wil or immed e interio by pulli summer p eking, wh etration ethephon d i t i 0 n the pa bout 1 der CO such b i 1 i ty etheph erefor wel 1 -p h perc i c k i n g e many the ti 1 prob iate s r f rui ng the runi ng i c h w i into t spray s unfa St two 0-20% n d i t i 0 as h i g of th on s t i e , eth runed , entage . Des fruit me the ably b al e . ts of water . The n lig he i n t vorabl e years red color ns that h temper- e fruits 11 will ephon is medi um- of wel 1 - pite use s in se poorly e too The prob- large sprouts se pro- hten the e r i 0 r of Apply the ethephon spray when good drying conditions are anti- cipated for at least 6 hours after spraying. For best results, thorough coverage of the fruits and leaves is needed. Good sprayer calibration is essential to insure uniform coverage and to avoid over-application. Apply ethephon at IX and use no spreader-sticker. 2 - Use o V a r i e a p p 1 i 100 g days p i c k i ri pen one p shoul Some phon , AUho pre-h to di day 0 p 1 y i n alone (NAA) effec n ear ties c a t i 0 al Ion and p ng. ing. i c k i n d hel growe then ugh t arves scour r 1 0 g the acce shou t. ty varie such as n a p p 1 i e s of wat ermit th Neverthe Theref 0 g to rem p minimi rs may.w picking he ethep t interv age the r 2 days ethepho 1 erates Id be us ties. E Early Mc d 7-10 d e r will e harves 1 ess , ea re , i t m ove the ze the p onder ab the rip hon-appl al , AmCh spraying later, n is the fruit dr e d with thepho Intosh ays be increa t of a rly va ay be riper robl em out th e frui e 1 abe em, th of th Harve pref e op. T the et n 1 s a and Pu fore no se red high p r i e t i e s a d V i s a b fruit a of ove e possi t that 1 is no e manuf is chem sting t rred pr heref or hephon very u ri tan . rmal h col or ercent are n le for nd the r - r i p e bility day, 0 t defi acture i c a 1 a he mat a c t i c e e , nap to cou seful too In gene arvest at devel opme age of th otorious some var n apply e fruit at of spray r 1 or 2 nite with r of ethe nd harves ure fruit Etheph hthal enea nteract t 1 on ral , 1/2 nt wi e cro for u i e t i e theph harv ing t days rega phon , ting and on ap c e t i c his a early a single pint per thin 4-5 p in one neven s to make on. This est. he ethe- 1 ater . rd to prefers the same then ap- plied acid bsci ssi on Once the color benefit from the ethephon-stop-drop spray com- bination becomes apparent, color develops quickly. Therefore, be- ginning the 3rd day after applying this combination spray, you would do well to look at the fruit at least twice a day. The fruit should be picked as soon as color is adequate in order to minimize firmness loss. Use on before per 1 0 acre a a p p 1 i c rate t fruit the CO cation with 0 ter tr Mcintosh. normal har 0 gal 1 ons o t IX) will a t i 0 n . F r u han on non- flesh softe ncentrati on to harvest nly 1/12 pi eatment, be A single application of ethephon applied 2-3 weeks vest at concentrations ranging from 1/4 to 1 pint f water (assuming 400 gallons of spray mixture per increase red color development within 7 days after it color will continue to increase at a faster sprayed trees. This response is accompanied by ning; the degree of softening is associated with of ethephon applied and number of days from appli- of the treated fruits. Mcintosh fruits sprayed nt of ethephon may be excessively soft 21 days af- ing suitable for immediate use only. Ethephon-treated fruits will keep well in regular storage pro- vided they are in good condition at harvest. Scald may develop to a greater extent on stored fruit that has received ethephon than on non-treated fruits. Ethephon should not be applied earlier than 3 weeks prior to normal anticipated harvest because fruit quality could be reduced. A mid-July application of Alar-85* on trees scheduled to receive ethephon is of benefit. Although Alar-85* is ineffective for drop control on ethephon-treated trees, it will help maintain fruit-flesh f i rmness . NAA or 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxypropionic acid (2,4,5-TP) must be used to counteract the abscission effect of ethephon. A single ap- plication of NAA is effective for only 7-10 days. Therefore, its use may involve 2 applications of NAA and the risk of unfavorable weather which may delay the second application or picking. The 2,4,5-TP may cause more ripening than NAA, but it does eliminate the chance of excessive fruit loss following an ethephon applica- tion. Basically, there are 3 time periods for sale of ethephon- treated Mcintosh f rui ts--prior to normal harvest time, during nor- mal harvest, and from storage. The volume of fruits sprayed with ethephon should be based upon anticipated sales during one or more of these sale periods. The harvest of ethephon-treated fruits must not interfere with the timely harvest of fruits for CA storage since at present the placement of ethephon-treated fruits in this type of storage is not recommended. Although our data shows that ethephon- treated fruit which still are in good condition will store satis- factorily in CA, we are concerned that apples not in good condition will be stored. Fruit to be placed in storage at 32°F must be picked at proper maturity. Fruits to be sold through January 1 should receive no more than 1/4 pint of ethephon per 100 gallons 1) and be harvested 7-10 days after treatment, fruits should store well until January 1, they Alar-treated fruits. of water (See Table Although these may be softer than Suggestions for Use In the table below are our suggestions for ethephon use. Eth- ephon should prove beneficial if used properly. Table 1. Suggested use of ethephon for promoting uniform ripening and red coloring on apple trees Purpose Compound, timing and rate Early varieties To promote uniform ripening and red coloring Ethephon - 7-10 days prior to normal harvest - 1/2 pt/100 gals plus NAA - same timing as ethephon spray 10- 20 ppm Mcintosh Sales prior to normal harvest Alar-85* - mid July - 1 lb/100 gals plus ethephon - 2 to 3 weeks prior to nor- mal harvest - 1 pint/100 gals plus 2,4,5-TP - same timing as ethephon spray - 10-20 PDm. Purpose Compound, timing and rate Fruits to be held at 32°F in air for 1 month or less Alar-85* - mid-July - 1-1/2 lb/100 gals plus ethephon - 2 weeks prior to normal har- vest - 1/2 to 2/3 pt/100 gals plus NAA or 2,4,5-TP - same timing as ethe- phon spray - 10 to 20 ppm Fruits to be held at 32 °F in air a as January 1 . 32 °F in air as late Alar-85* - mid-July - 1-1/2 lb/100 gals plus ethephon - 2 weeks prior to normal har- vest - 1/4 pt/100 gals plus NAA or 2,4,5-TP same timing as ethephon spray - 10 to 20 ppm. *Trade name *************** REPORT ON APPLE MAGGOT CONFERENCE J.G. Stoffolano, Jr. Department of Entomology A conference on apple maggot research in the Northeastern United States and Canada was held on March 27-28, 1974, at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York. Twenty-seven participants in this area of research attended, includ- ing 6 Canadians. Topics covered included: 1. Apple Maggot Population Monitoring. The relative effec- tiveness, spacing and positioning of various traps. Uses of traps in orchard monitoring. Improvement and future development of moni- toring systems. 2. Apple Maggot Management and Control. Chemical control, al- ternate control measures (habitat manipulation, trapping, hormones and pheromones, and male sterile release programs). 3. Laboratory and Mass Rearing Techniques . Artificial diets, handling techniques, and artificial oviposition systems. 4. Eoologioal and Behavior Researoh Needs. Population dynam- ics, life tables, behavior, dispersal and host orientation. 5. Regional Communication and Cooperation. Discussion of means of providing future regional communication and delineation of areas of possible cooperative research. Dr. Ed Glass, head of the Entomology Department, reported that in all of their research programs with delineation, altering and reducing the number of sprays, the apple maggot has been their most serious pest. It is apparent that most of the apple maggot problem in commercial orchards comes from abandoned orchards, home trees and possibly some hawthorn species. The flies apparently migrate from these areas into commercial orchards. In order to monitor this movement, a couple of different traps have been used. The yel- low trap is most effective in catching female flies with undevel- oped ovaries while the red traps are most effective in catching fe- males ready to lay their eggs into the fruit. Workers in Connecti- cut have found that the yellow traps are more effective than the red sphere traps in defoliated trees while the reverse is true in foliated trees. One of the most important results of the meeting was the standardization of the two traps used. The yellow trap is to be made from the top portion of the ICY Pherocon trap and is to be coated with the adhesi ve/attractant consisting of ammonium ace- tate (50%) and HyCase (50%). The price of each trap is $0.35. The red spheres wil 1 be an 8 cm diameter plastic ball painted with two coats of Red Tartar paint. The price per trap is $0.65 for less than 1000 traps, or $0.55 for more than 1000 traps. Dr. Gary Jensen Extension Entomologist, will be conducting a trapping program using these traps this summer in both the University Orchard and commer- cail orchards. At the same time. Dr. John Soffolano will be evalu- ating the reproductive condition of the flies caught in these traps. Such trapping programs are designed to help the grower time his sprays and possibly to help determine population levels. Another topic that raised considerable discussion was that of the flight capabilities and dispersal characteristics of the adult flies. The Canadian researchers felt that if old abandoned orchards were removed from within one-quarter mile of commercial orchards, the growers would be protected. This, however, would depend on the type of habitat existing between the old trees and the orchard. Michigan researchers felt that the adults could travel up to one- half mile. It was evident that more research in this area is needed. In one study, it was shown that 1.2 to 1.5% of the adult flies in an unsprayed orchard were leaving those orchards. Why they were doing this and where they were going was not determined. Workers at Geneva sprayed an abandoned orchard one year and then left it unsprayed to determine the rate of re-infestation of maggot. The year the orchard was sprayed no maggots were found in the fruit. The first year after discontinuation of spraying, fruit 6 - were not sampled. However, in the second year after discontinuation, 3% of the fruit were infested with maggot; in the third year, 78% were infected; and in the fourth year 100% were infested with maggot. From then on, the percentage of infested fruit never went below 85% and was normally 100%. Gravenstein was found to be the most suscep- tible variety, and the one most preferred by the maggot. They con- cluded from the study that maggot was the most serious pest in un- sprayed apple orchards. In general, it was agreed that areas that needed considerably more research were: 1) What the natural foods of the flies are in the natural state, and what role these foods play in their reproductive devel- opment. 2) Migration and dispersal ability of the flies. 3) Development of a more effective attractant. 4) The possibility of some type of pheromone produced by either sex, since pheromones are rather common in other members of this group. It was agreed upon that this conference would continue to be held annually for several years to come. Dr. Ed Glass of the Geneva Experiment Station was elected chairman of this annual con- ference. *************** CHEMICAL CONTROL OF SPROUTS AROUND APPLE TREES Benjamin L. Rogers University of Maryland Fruit Lab, Hancock 1 from t or 0 r i and me ground merely the re among Luce ( be con He sug the br on the T prouts (s he roots ginate in chanical level as increase maining s rootstock 1973. The trolled w gested pr u s h k i 1 1 e exposed uckers) un or lower p the V i c i n equipment. part of t s their nu tubs. The s as wel 1 Goodfruit ith a brus u n i n g the r mixed 1 stubs. Th Based on an ar Grower 44( 1 ) : 6 der apple trees a art of the trunk, ity of roots or t It is necessary he overall prunin mber because shoo severity of suck as among rootstoc Grower 23:4) rep h killer combinat sprouts in early part to 19 parts e two chemicals i re shoots that originate They occur naturally runks damaged by rodents to cut these sprouts at g procedure, but this ts develop from buds on ering varies considerably k-scion combinations, orted that sprouts can ion of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. March and then applying of heating or spray oil n the brush killer are tide originally appearing in The Maryland Fruit -7. Table 1. Control of sprouts around 'Starkrimson Delicious' apple trees with sprays of ammonium sulfamate (AMS) and paraquat Control rating* Sprout removal Dates Dec. Nov. Dec. "1970 Material and rate sprayed 1970 1971 (min/tree) AMS, 60 lb/100 AMS, 60 lb/100 plus Spreader WK, 4 oz/100 Paraquat, 1 qt/100 plus X77, 1/2 pt/100 Paraquat, 1 qt/100 plus X77, 1/2 pt/100 Check 5/22/70 5/25/71 5/22/70 5/25/71 5/22/70 5/22/70 0.9 0.8 2.9 2.7 5.0 0.3 0.1 5.0 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.8 1 .1 *Rating: 0-good control, no live sprouts; 5- no control *************** BENEFICIAL ORCHARD INSECTS G.L Department Jensen of Entomology Although there are many insects which may be observed in any given orchard, many are of little or no consequence. Most orchard- ists hopefully are able to recognize the harmful species, or the damage done by them, but few are aware that beneficial insects are also at work in their orchards. The following information, descrip- tions and pictures are provided in hopes that some of the more com- mon beneficial insects might be recognized and protected by orchard- is t s . Assassin bugs (Fig 1) are about 1/2" long or longer, usually black or brown with an abdomen which is often widened at the middle. A few members of this family are known as "kissing bugs" and will bite man to obtain blood; however, most are predacious on other insects such as honeybees, leafhoppers and caterpillars. Many will inflict a painful bite if carelessly handled. Ant lions (Fig 2) are of little or no consequence to orchardists, since the larvae eat only ants and other ground crawling insects. However, the larvae are similar to those of the lacewings consid- ered next (shown in Fig 3). 7 - potent growth regulators and it is questionable whether 2,4,5-T will be approved for use in apple orchards. Another drawback of the stub treatment is that it would be tedious. Therefore, an easily applied and safe chemical means of sprout control is still needed. A seedl i effect contro ting a ting a chards The sp thorou weed c sprays ment b basis , used a Vigo ng ro ivene 1: ( gent gent , but routs ghly ontro were ecaus all nd re rous b otstoc ss of 1 ) amm Spread 1-11 . the 1 were spraye 1 with repea e of p treatm sul ts 1 ock ks ne two c on i urn er WK Both abel prune d at a kn ted 0 oor s ents obtai of sp ar Ha ommer sulf and herb does d dur rates apsac n May ucker were ned a ur-type ' ncock. Ma c i a 1 1 y a V amate (AM (2) paraq icides ar not s p e c i i n g the d no h i g h e k sprayer 25, 1971 control made to 1 re shown Del icious ' ryland, wa ailable he S)2 with a u a t , with e labeled f ical ly me ormant sea r than rec on May 22 , but not in 1970. 4 or more in Table 1 tree s use r b i c i nd wi and w for u n t i 0 n son a ommen , 197 the p Appl i s i n g 1 s grow d to t des f 0 thout i thout se in sprou nd reg ded fo 0. Th araqua ed on e tree mg on est the r sprout the wet- the wet- apple or- t control rowth was r general e AMS t treat- a row s. Rates AMS with or without Spreader WK gave good initial kill of sprayed sprouts but some short and slender regrowth occurred later in the season. Paraquat caused some leaf chlorosis and crooked growth but failed to kill the sprouts. The pruning time required to remove the sprouts from the check trees was slightly over 1 minute per tree; whereas, approximately one-third the time was needed where AMS was used. The slight suppression of growth by paraquat was reflected by some decrease in pruning time as compared with check trees. The AMS sprays were repeated on the same trees on May 25, 1971. Sprout control was better than in 1970 and little regrowth occurred. These results indicate that AMS sprays will satisfactorily control young sprouts around apple trees if thoroughly sprayed in mid- to late May, or when the sprouts are only 6 to 8 inches tall. Old woody sprouts from the previous year might not be killed. AMS should not be used around trees younger than 3 years due to the danger of bark injury. It is not translocated into the tree, but is effective for the rapid killing of young sprouts. When applying AMS, no spray should contact fruit or foliage as injury will occur. Spray equipment should be rinsed and cleaned thoroughly after each use because of the corrosive nature of AMS. Ammate X* long Ground beetles (Fig 4) are large, usually 3/4" or longer>and gener- ally shiny, dark and flattened. Nearly all members of this family are predacious on other insects and some are highly beneficial. One, the European ground beetle, a large beetle with beautiful irrides- cent blue green color, was imported to aid in the control of gypsy and brown-tail moths. Although called ground beetles, these insects often climb trees and shrubs in search of prey. Syrphid flies (Fig 5) are often observed hovering about flowers in the adult stage. Many are brightly colored and resemble various bees and wasps; however, none of the species found will bit or sting man. The larvae in orchards are predacious for the most part on a p h i d s . Parasitic wasps (Fig 6) are among the most beneficial of all insect families. They are cosmopolitan in distribution, and parasitic in the immature stages. Members of the family Ichneumoni dae are very numerous, this family being one of the largest in the insect class. The adults vary considerably in size, form and coloration, but the majority resemble slender wasps, and the ovipositor is usually quite long, often longer than the body. The ichneumons attack a great var- iety of hosts, there being very few groups of insects which are not attacked by some member of this family. Adults are active fliers and usually go unobserved by most orchardists unless the insect fauna are routinely observed with keen eyes. The brachonids are also very numerous, but somewhat smaller and more stout-bodied than the ichneumons. Members of this group also attack a wide variety of insects, but sawflies, aphids, cater- pillars and flies such as the apple maggot would be those of most interest to orchardists. Ladybird beetles (Fig 7), of which there are many species, are per- haps the most common and best known of all aphid predators. The yellow-orange eggs of these beetles are laid in small groups on leaves of plants which usually are infested with aphids. The "alligator-like" larvae (Fig 7) are black or blue with yellow or orange. They commonly pupate on the plant leaves, and although stationary as pupae, they exhibit an interesting protective trait of jerking back and forth when disturbed by another organism. Adult lady beetles often live a full year and may fly from plants in one area to those in another area many miles distant during their life- - 10 - time. Lady beetles that migrate long distances between habitats are very difficult to establish locally by man in his efforts to promote the control of pest aphids by this means. On the other hand, many lady beetles that prey on more stationary host pests (such as scale insects) have been introduced into new environments quite successfully. A small black lady beetle (Stethorus) has been encouraged via pest management techniques in Pennsylvania and is apparently doing a good job of controlling orchard mite popula- tions in that area. Ladybeetles are predators in both the adult and larval stages. Adults most often observed are the reddish- orange beetles generally with black spots (Fig 7); however, there are many darker, smaller species which feed on scale insects, mites and mealybugs. The reddish-orange species generally feed on aphids of almost any species, and occasionally on the eggs of moths. Predacious stinkbugs (Fig 8) are not numerous in most orchard situ- ations and additionally they often prey on beneficial species such as lacewings and lady beetles. For these reasons, their usefulness to orchardists is probably minimal. Praying Mantids (Fig 9) have received much attention as predators during the past decade, and mantid egg cases may be purchased and attached to trees and shrubs in gardens. Their fame is probably not entirely justifiable because of the thousands of young mantids which come out of the egg cases, only a few will survive. They do have avid appetites and eat many insects; however, many of those consumed are either beneficial or are of little or no consequence to the orchardist. They commonly eat their own kind as well. Many of the advertisements about these insects are grossly false in their claims concerning the numbers and types of prey consumed. *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials. NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. CE 25 November 1968 BENEFICIAL INSECTS An Aid to Identification and Control -/ » ASSASSIN BUG ANT LION LACEWINS GROUND BEETLE SYRPHID FLY LARVA 6. TOBACCO HORNWORM Parasitized by Braconid Wasp (Pupal Stage) LADYBIRD BEETLE Left - Larva Feeding on Aphids Right - A Typical Adult PREDACEOUS STINKBUG (Top Ready to Attack Cabbage Bug PRAYING MANTID PREPARED BY THE CLEMSON UNIVERSITY COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE'S ENTOMOLOGY - PLANT PATHOLOGY AND AGRICULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS SECTIONS, FEDERAL EXTENSION SERVICE COOPERATING Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, S300 POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT — Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 39 (No. 5) SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1974 TABLE OF CONTENTS The "Soft Mcintosh Problem" Ethephon (Ethrel*) on Mcintosh Red Color Without Ripening Soil Treatment for Nematode Control on Strawberries Controlling Fruit Flies at Roadside Stands Orchard Mouse Control Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. THE "SOFT Mcintosh problem" W.J. Bramlage and W.J. Lord Department o£ Plant and Soil Sciences Once again, in 1973-74, the "soft Mcintosh problem" was very serious in the Northeast, The problem is that when Mcintosh are removed from CA storage in late spring, they are or rapidly become excessively soft easily indented by finger pressure. The re- tail market cannot accept such fruit, and large economic losses occur. In 1973, Dr. R.M. Smock discussed this problem at the New Eng- land Fruit Meetings (Proc. Mass. Fruit Growers ' Assn. 79:97-102). He pointed out that there are many causes of soft apples, including large fruit, high nitrogen, low calcium, over pruning, stop-drop sprays, late picking, delayed storage, slow cooling, high storage temperature, poor air distribution, slow Ot drop in CA, and over- storage. An individual grower may have a soft Mac problem" due to any one of these factors, or any combination of them. When the problem is widespread throughout the region, however, a basic problem seems to exist. Dr. Smock discussed several such pos- sibilities. The frequent recurrence of the problem corresponds with the widespread adoption of Alar* treatments, and therefore, some have implicated Alar* as the cause of the problem. Smock pointed out that if misused. Alar* could indirectly be a cause: Alar*- treated fruit should be harvested at about the same time as untreated fruit, and if their harvest is delayed significantly, these fruit will not hold up in storage^ But if Alar* is properly used, there is no basis for blaming the "soft Mac problem" on it. (We shall re- turn to this question later.) Is Ethrel* a cause of the problem? Dr. Smock pointed out that it could be, if misused. Mcintosh re- spond explosively to high concentrations of Ethrel*. But if used properly, Ethrel* has only a small effect on softening. (See the accompanying article.) Smock reported that Dr. G.D. Blanpied has studied 20 years of weather data from New York and has found a strong correlation be- tween soft apples and dry periods in the summer followed by heavy rains and warm weather prior to harvest. Smock and Blanpied followed this up with an experiment that demonstrated this effect on Mcintosh firmness. In 1973, we had a period of dry weather and a period of extremely hot weather prior to harvest that almost certainly caused some fruit softening. It appears that growers should carefully ob- serve the weather pattern during the season, and if a dry period is followed by a hot, wet period, the probability of a "soft Mac problem" is high. Growers should then observe fruit carefully dur- ing storage and watch for signs of excessive softening. *Trade Name - 2 This past spring, we recorded some significant features of "soft Mcintosh." During the past two years, we have conducted an experiment with the help of Bill Pearse of the J. P. Sullivan Co. and Joe Costante, Regional Fruit Specialist, to determine if Alar might be increasing the softening rate of Mcintosh. Trees were selected in 13 orchards in Massachusetts, and half of each tree was sprayed with Alar* while the other half was not. A bushel sample of fruit from each half of the trees was harvested on two dates one week apart, and they were all stored together in CA at the Horti- cultural Research Center, Belchertown. In 1972-73, Alar* fruits in all instances were firmer at har- vest than the non-sprayed fruits (Table 1) . The firmness differ- ence between Alar* and non-Alar* fruits disappeared somewhat in storage. However, with 3 exceptions, the Alar fruits still remained somewhat firmer at the end of storage than the non-sprayed fruits. The apples kept exceptionally well during this 1972-73 storage per- iod and there were virtually no soft apples among those examined. Table 1. Treatment Influence of Alar* on firmness of 'Mcintosh' apples at harvest and after storage. Firmness at harvest Firmness after CA storage 1972-73 9/20 or 21 9/26 or 27 Picked 9/20 or 21 Picked 9/26 or 27 Control 17.0 lbs 16.0 lbs 12.8 lbs 12.1 lbs Alar* 18.0 lbs 16.9 lbs 13.6 lbs 1973-74 12.7 lbs 9/17 or 18 9/24 or 25 Picked 9/17 or 18 Picked 9/24 or 25 Control 15.7 lbs 15.0 lbs 9.6 lbs 9.3 lbs Alar* 16.4 lbs 15.7 lbs 9.8 lbs 9.4 lbs In 1973-74, the fruit were considerably softer at harvest than in 1972-73 (Table 1). Once again, the Alar* fruits were firmer at harvest than the non-Alar* fruits, but the firmness difference dis- appeared in storage. When the fruit was pressure-tested and exam- ined 1 day after removal from CA storage it was apparent the fruits were soft but did not have the characteristic "soft Mac problem." After 4 days at room temperature, however, some lots of fruit de- veloped the characteristic "soft Mac problem," which was more severe in the later picking. On the average, there was no effect of Alar on firmness after storage (Table 1). Furthermore, within only the samples from orch- ards that produced soft fruit, there was no difference between con- trol and Alar*-treated fruit. We find no evidence that Alar*, if properly used, is contributing to the "soft Mac problem." We dT3" note, however, that after storage until May, Alar^^treated fruit con- tained more browncore than control fruit, a response that also has been reported from New York. - 3 - Because of some observations in other experiments with calcium on apples, Dr. Mack Drake sampledsome of these apples from orchards that produced fruit of different degrees of softening and analyzed them for calcium. The results of these observations were as follows: Average firmness 5/9/74 of fruit (lbs) 8.2 9.7 10.9 11.8 13.0 13.0 13.2 Peel calcium (ppm) : 309 393 327 374 486 608 692 As can be seen, the firmest fruit had twice the amount of calcium in them as the softest fruit. There was a significant correlation between calcium level and firmness; that is, the higher the calcium, the firmer the fruit. However, this represents a very limited num- ber of observations. To obtain additional evidence on this rela- tionship, in May, 1974, fruit of comparable size but clearly differ- ent condition were taken from identical boxes of Mcintosh that had been grown and stored at the Research Center. When analyzed for calcium, we found the following: Fruit condition: Split Soft Firm Peel calcium, ppm: 484 516 606 The firm fruit had a significantly higher calcium level than the split or soft fruit. Thus, there is limited evidence that a low calcium level may be contributing significantly to the "soft Mac problem." What, then, is the "soft Mac problem?" It is our present be- lief that it is not a unique problem, but rather an expression of rapid aging and deterioration of the apples. We have noted that these "soft Macs" usually show symptoms of senescent browning in their flesh. This aging could be promoted by any or all of the factors cited by Smock. Furthermore, the correlation of weather and softening, noted by Blanpied and Smock, and our correlation between calcium and softening could be related and contributing to aging. Dry weather impedes absorption of calcium by tree rooots, and so the water stress may be reducing calcium level. Subsequent rain may aggravate this problem by promoting rapid growth, and hot weather may advance maturity. Both low calcium and advanced matur- ity can hasten deterioration during storage. In this way, all that we know about causes of "soft Macs" can be related, and this rela- tionship corresponds to our observations. Time will tell whether or not this view is correct, but for now it serves as our best model for understanding the problem. - 4 - What can a grower do to prevent "soft Macs?" We know of no sure preventative other than early marketing of the fruit. However, careful attention to basic details of fruit growing, handling and storage reduce the problem. Avoid over-fertilizing and over-prun- ing, and try to maintain annual bearing. Large, soft fruit are especially susceptible to the problem, (although smaller fruits may also develop it) and such fruit should be marketed early. Do not store late-harvested fruit for long periods of time even though they have been treated with Alar*. Their storage life has been sig- nificantly shortened before they have come off the tree, because they are already ripe. Use growth regulators with great caution. Stop-drop sprays other than Alar* hasten ripening and shorten stor- age life, and Ethrel* can promote ripening tremendously. Don't de- lay harvest of growth regulator-treated fruits if they are intended for late storage! Cool harvested fruits as quickly as possible, and thoroughly. We suspect that many apples, especially those in bulk bins, are not thoroughly precooled. Store them a_t the recommended tempera- ture, not near it. We have repeatedly pointed out that a degree or two above the recommended temperature can reduce life dramati- cally. (How accurate is your storage thermometer?) Maintain air movement in storage so that "hot spots" do not develop. Nevertheless, the most careful and conscientious grower may still suffer losses from "soft Macs" if his fruit happen to be sub- ject to the problem. We recommend frequent observation of fruit scheduled to be stored until March or later as a precaution. Place several boxes of the largest, reddest fruit (sampled from the lots being stored) in front of the "porthole" in the door. Starting in mid-February, periodically open the porthole and remove 20 or so apples; determine their condition after 5 to 7 days at room temper- ature. A fairly large sample is necessary for observation because at the onset of the "soft Mcintosh problem" only a relatively small percentage of the fruit show it. The best way to determine if any of the fruit are excessively soft is by applying pressure with the thumb. On soft apples, the flesh ruptures readily from the pressure, If your apples do not appear to be "holding condition" as well as they should, market them as quickly as possible. Obviously, there is no cure for "soft Macs," only prevention. And only care, careful observation, and good fortune can be offered as protectants at this time. - 5 - ETHEPHON (ETHREL*) ON McINTOSH: RED COLOR WITHOUT RIPENING W.J. Bramlage, M^.J. Lord, and D.W. Greene Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Ethephon (Ethrel*) has been used in Washington to increase red color o£ Delicious apples without reducing the storage life of the fruit through its ripening effect. However, most trials with Mcin- tosh have indicated that increased redness from ethephon is accom- panied by stimulated ripening and softening. Nevertheless, the pos- sibility remained that by using very low ethephon concentrations combined with Alar*, red color might be enhanced without significant losses of storage life at least for relatively short storage times . To obtain a clearer picture of the effect of low ethephon con- centrations on Mcintosh, last year a regional experiment was direc- ted by Dr. G.D. Blanpied at Cornell University. The experiment in- cluded orchards in western and central New York (^Br . Blanpied), eastern New York (Dr. C.G. Forshey) , Maine (Dr. W.G. Stiles, and Massachusetts. Ethephon was applied at 75 or 150 ppm (1/4 or 1/2 pint/100 gal) 2 weeks before the anticipated middle of the harvest season, in combination with 1000 ppm (1 lb/100 gal) Alar* 2 months before harvest plus a stop-drop spray of either 10 ppm 2,4,5-TP or 20 ppm NAA. (The stop-drop is necessary to counteract the dropping action of ethephon.) Harvested fruits were stored in both regular and CA storage and evaluated for both red color and firmness. In addition, taste panels were asked to distinguish preference or ripe- ness among the treatments after they had been at room temperature for a week, to see if the treatments would influence marketability of the apples. The results of the experiment showed that ethephon, whether at 75 or 150 ppm and whether combined with NAA or 2,4,5-TP, increased the red color of the fruit. Thus, low concentrations of ethephon are capable of improving red color of Mcintosh throughout the North- east. (See also the article on ethephon use in July-August, 1974, Fruit Notes. ) Did ethephon at these concentrations stimulate fruit softening? Some small differences were measurable, especially with 150 ppm. Apples that received this dosage were slightly softer than ones that had not received ethephon when they were taken from regular storage in November, and when they were taken from CA in the spring. How- ever, differences were very small. In addition, apples that re- ceived only 75 ppm ethephon plus 20 ppm NAA were slightly softer than apples that received only Alar* when fruit were taken from CA in the spring. What effect did the treatments have on marketability? Taste panels had an extremely difficult time trying to determine prefer- *Trade name - 6 - ences or differences in ripening among the samples after storage. When the data from all 5 locations were combined and analyzed, there was no overall difference among the treated samples. This inability of taste panels to consistently distinguish differences among sam- ples is important, for it indicates that low concentrations of eth- ephon had little or no effect on shelf life or marketability of the fruit. The conclusion from the study is as follows: Red color of Mcin- tosh apples can be increased without sacrificing fruit condition dur- ing and after storage if the following restrictions are met: (1) Alar* is applied 60 days before harvest; (2) ethephon is applied at 75 ppm (1/4 pt/100 gal); (3) 10 ppm of 2,4,5-TP is applied with eth- ephon, or 10 ppm NAA is applied 3 days after ethephon; (4) apples are harvested within 8 days after ethephon is applied; and (5) tem- peratures during the period between ethephon application and har- vest are not above normal. It therefore appears that ethephon can be used to improve Mcin- tosh color without stimulating ripening and loss of condition during storage. It should be emphasized, however, that ethephon can tre- mendously stimulate Mcintosh ripening. It must be used with extreme care if apples are to be stored. If the above conditions are met, storage life will likely not be reduced, but to meet these conditions requires great care by the grower plus a large measure of coopera- tion by the weather. Use ethephon very cautiously on Mcintosh. SOIL TREATMENT FOR NEMATODE CONTROL ON STRAWBERRIES Richard A. Rohde Department of Plant Pathology There are probably very few commercial strawberry growers in the state who are without some experience with soil fumigation. This experience may result from personal use, from observation of a neighbor's fields, or from demonstrations by regional specialists or chemical companies. Reactions vary from enthusiastic acceptance to lukewarm skepticism and many feel that it is probably a good idea and "maybe I'll try it next year." If next year is to be that year, now is the time to plan fall soil fumigation in preparation for new beds to be set next spring. Why fumigate? Fumigation is practiced to control disease or- ganisms in the soil. The main culprit here is the lesion, or mead- ow nematode, a microscopic worm which burrows through roots, feed- ing and laying eggs, and, together with several species of fungi, brings about a condition called "black root rot." This disease was in part responsible for the decline of the strawberry industry in the Cape Cod area several years ago and is still apparent through- - 7 out the state. The root-knot nematode species that attacks straw- berries in areas south o£ Massachusetts does not overwinter here and the root-knot species that attacks our carrots will not live on strawberries. The soil fungi that cause the diseases Red Stele and Verticil- lium Wilt are not generally controlled by fumigation, although con- trol is possible under some conditions by using large amounts of chemical. Nematode control will often reduce the amount of injury from these fungi that enter the plant through the roots. More com- monly, soil fumigation brings about a response spoken of as the "I.G.R." effect. The I.G.R. effect, or Increased Growth Response, is presumed to occur because secondary pests are killed at higher rates of fumigation and plants simply grow more vigorously in their absence. Should I fumigate? Fumigation is expensive. In most cases, however, a 10-151 increase in yield will make the treatment profit- able. Each field has its own set of conditions, and whether or not disease organisms build up to a point where they cause trouble is largely a matter of crop sequence, temperature, moisture, organic matter, and a host of unknowns. Many of these unknowns will also determine whether or not a chemical treatment will work. Poor growth of plants will lead you to suspect a problem, a soil test may con- . firm that a nematode problem is present, and a trial application of chemical may lead to a better growth. What can be used? Listed below are fumigants registered for use in Massachusetts. All are liquids that are injected into soil before planting. They become gases that diffuse through all parts of the soil mass. There are a number of factors that can influence their effectiveness: organic matter absorbs these fumes; soil water fills air spaces and prevents their spread: and at low temperatures disease organisms are very resistant to toxic fumes. More than any other group of pesticides, fumigants must be applied precisely ac- cording to directions. Unless the soil temperature, texture, mois- ture, and organic matter are right, and the proper amount of chemi- cal is deposited at the right depth and is sealed in properly, the entire treatment may be useless. Companies which manufacture soil chemicals can supply detailed information on application equipment. In addition, custom applica- tors are available who will not only apply treatments, but can give advice based on their rather wide experience. The chemicals listed below are those generally in use. In ad- dition, your regional specialist can supply you with the names of others that may be of use under special conditions. One of these is DBCP (Nemagon*, Fumazone*) , a fumigant which does not injure strawberries at low rates and can be used on growing plants. Methyl bromide mixtures (Dowfume MC-2*, MC-33*, Brozonel* require *Trade name an air-tight plastic seal over the field and have not been used ex- tensively because of the expense and need for specialized applica- tion equipment. Chemical (Brand Name) Remarks ethylene dibromide Preplant fumigants used primarily (Dowfume W-8 5*, Dow Ethylene for nematode control. Dibromide*) dichloropropene - dichloropro- pane mixture (Shell D-D*, Vidden-D*) dichloropropene (Telone*) dichloropropene mixture plus Lowest rates recommended by manu- methyl isothiocyanate facturer give primarily nematode (Vorlex*) control. Increased dosages give dichloropropene mixture plus additional soil fungus and weed chloropicrin control. (DD-Pic*, Vidden DC-15*, Telone C) A final word should be added about the importance of clean plants. It does no good to fumigate soil if disease organisms are immediately added back to the soil with the roots of new plants. The use of healthy-appearing planting stock from a reliabel source is the best insurance against this. CONTROLLING FRUIT FLIES AT ROADSIDE STANDS G.L. Jensen Department of Entomology Adult fruit flies (Drosophila or vinegar flies) are very small (less than 1/8 inch long) , have bright red eyes and a tan-colored head and thorax, with a blackish abdomen. They are found every- where in the world, and are very common wherever fruit and similar materials are permitted to rot and ferment. The entire life cycle of the flies can be completed in as little as 8 to 10 days, hence large populations can build up in only a few weeks. To control these pests, one should eliminate as much as possi- ble all rotting fruits, vegetables and liquids containing food par- ticles from the premises. The flies can breed in almost anything that contains garbage, even such things as dish water from sinks. drain water from refrigerators and ice boxes, and floor scrubbings saturated with food particles. In short, practice good sanitation to help eliminate these and other insects. In food establishments (and roadside markets) , fruit flies can be controlled by frequent application of pyrethrum-synergist sprays, fogs or aerosals (the synergist is usually piperonyl but- oxide). Frequent applications are necessary inasmuch as these sprays are of necessity very short-lived or non-persistent. Such sprays may be applied directly to the fruits in bags, boxes or bins, since pyrethrum has a low order of toxicity to warm-blooded animals and produces no harmful residues on food crops when used according to the directions on the label. Outdoors around packing or processing plants, unloading docks, outside walls and other areas where fruits are not present, may be treated shortly before the picking season begins and during shut- downs every 7 to 10 days with Diazinon* - 4 lbs 50% WP per 25 gals of water. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA ORCHARD MOUSE CONTROL Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist U.S. Fish ^ Wildlife Service Hadley, Massachusetts Control of two native species of mice in orchards is a necess- ity if fruit growers are to prevent damage to their trees during the winter months. Girdling of tree trunks by meadow mice can occur in a relatively short time and, if severe enough, will cause immed- iate loss of trees. Damage by these mammals is not restricted to the fall. It can occur, and does, at any time. A more insidious damage to apple trees is that caused by the pine mouse. This animal is primarily a burrowing rodent. It, too, girdles trees. However, its activity and damage are confined mostly to the root system. Loss of a tree may not be immediate, depending on the severity of the injury. Only a general loss of the tree's vigor or yield may result. Since an infestation of pine mice may not be readily apparent, orchardists should check blocks of trees periodically. This will make control easier if the locations of this particular species are known. During the growing season, the easiest method for detecting the presence of pine mice is to probe under trees and locate their their subsurface runways. In the fall, just after harvest, probing can be supplemented by searching for mounds of fine soil, pushed up *Trade name - 10 - by the pine mice clearing out their burrow systems. It is also advantageous to keep an eye on meadow mouse activ- ity. Since the surface runs o£ these animals may persist for quite some time, it is necessary to determine activity by other signs-- such as fresh grass clippings, droppings, and an appearance of run- ways being used. Fall control of both species of mice remains the same as in previous years. For meadow mice, reduction of vegetation will help during the growing season by eliminating cover. During the winter, with snow cover, prior vegetative control will have little effect. For both pine and meadow mouse control, Zinc Phosphide-treated baits still are recommended. Broadcasting these baits (either oats or corn), at the rate of 6-10 pounds per acre, should give adequate control of the meadow mouse. In the control of pine mice, broadcast baits may only give min- imal control. Proper dispersal of bait still requires placing the bait either in the natural travel system by hand baiting or by the use of an artificial trail making machine. Timing and weather conditions can still be an important f actor - in control results. Choose a period of the least human activity in the orchard and good, clear weather for applying the bait. This is the period when mice will be most active and most apt to consume the applied baits. NOTE: As in previous years, before applying any toxic baits, a per- mit must be obtained for bait application from: Massachusetts Divi- sion of Fisheries and Game, 100 Cambridge Street, Boston, Mass. 02202, *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials. NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT Availalbe to the public without regard to race, color or national origin. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1974 Vol. 39 (No. 6) TABLE OF CONTENTS New England Fruit Meetings and Trade Show Apple Maggot Survey (1974) Is Calcium Deficiency Reducing the Storage Life of Mcintosh Apples Fruit Notes Index Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of IVIay 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. NEW ENGLAND FRUIT MEETINGS AND TRADE SHOW The New England Fruit Meetings and Trade Show will be held at the New Hanpshire Highway Hotel, Concord, New Hampshire. The meet- ings are srheduled for January 8 and 9, 1975. The lotel is accessible from all major highways. Routes 3 and 93, which lead to Concord, are accessible from anywhere in Massa- chusetts. Persons coming from Western Massachusetts and Southern Vermont may find the most convenient route to be Routes 9 or 10 to Keene, New Hampshire, and then Routes 9 and US 202, 89 and 93 to the Hi ghway Hotel . *************** APPLE MAGGOT SURVEY (1974) R.P. Webster and J.G. Stoffolano, Jr Department of Entomology redu are the i n c This and this comp regi 1974 orch 8 cm were capt The a ced sp the br commer ommerc in tu popula , effe ari son on. A i n V 0 1 ard at diame made ured 0 pple mag ray prog e e d i n g g c i a 1 ore i a 1 orch rn requi t i 0 n t r e c t i V e St s of app t r a p p i n V i n g s a m Belcher ter red on both n the 2 got i rams round h a r d i ards, res m nds i andar 1 e ma g pro P 1 i n g town spher numbe ki nds s a m are e and St. prope ethod n nea d i z e d ggot gram of 3 using es . rs an of t ajor pe mpl oyed probabl To effe r t i m i n s f or m rby aba traps popul at was con abando both t Popul at d repro raps . st of a and in e sourc c t i V e 1 y g of sp on i tori ndoned are nee ion t r e ducted ned ore he yell ion tre ducti ve ppl es aban e of cont ray p ng ap orcha ded t nds t d u r i n hards ow IC nds a cond , parti doned o appl e m rol the rograms pi e mag rds . T 0 f a c i 1 hrougho g the s and th Y Phero nd trap i t i 0 n 0 cul ar rchar aggot appl i s e got e 0 ace i tate ut a ummer e uni eon t comp f the ly when d s which s for e maggot ssential mergence ompl i sh val id given of versi ty raps and ari sons f 1 ies The ICY Pherocon trap is a yellow rectangular trap coated with an adhesive attractant consisting of ammonium acetate (50%) and HyCase* (50% ) . The traps were hung with the adhesive surfaces ex- posed, on peripheral branches on the south side of the trees. The red sphere is an 8 cm diameter plastic ball with 2 coats of Red Tartar*paint . These traps then were coated with Stikem Special* before being hung on peripheral branches on the south side of the tree. *Trade name Four areas were sampled: 3 abandoned orchards and the Univer- sity orchard. Except in 1 traps were set July 1, and weekly between July 15 and approximately once every 3 fol lows : abandoned orchard (Orchard Hill), the examined for apple maggots and rotated October 3, 1974. The traps were replaced weeks. The four sampling areas were as Bel chertown . An abandoned orchard sampled with 10 traps (5 red spheres and 5 yellow traps). University Orchard. The portion sampled in this orchard was under a partial spray program. Six traps were used (3 red spheres and 3 yel 1 ow traps ) . Shel burne Fal 1 s . Five red spheres and 5 yellow traps were used in this abandoned orchard. Orchard Hill. This abandoned orchard is located on the University of Massachusetts campus. Three red spheres and 3 yellow traps were used, and were checked once a day between August 6 and September 4, 1974. Data also were obtained from an abandoned block of Yellow Transpar- ent apple trees in Northborough , Massachusetts by Joseph Costante, Regional Fruit Specialist. Vial bait traps were used in Costante's work. Resul ts . The yellow traps and red spheres appeared to be equally effective in capturing apple maggots (Table 1), though nearly twice as many apple maggots were caught on the red spheres at Orchard Hill. The yellow traps were most effective in capturing females while the red sphereswere better at attracting males (Table 1). Table 1. Number of adult apple maggots caught on yellow traps and red spheres in 4 orchards in 1974. Sampl ing area Yellow Traps Males Females Total Red Spheres Mai es Fema I es Total Univ. Orchard 0 1 Belchertown 16 82 Shelburne Falls 32 180 Orchard Hill 7 98 1 98 212 105 0 74 142 112 0 21 66 93 0 95 208 205 The yellow traps tended to attract a larger percentage of new- ly emerged females (females with undeveloped ovaries) than did the red spheres (Table 2). - 3 - Table 2. Development of the ovaries of female apple maggots caught on yellow traps versus red spheres, 1974. Sampling area % of females with undeveloped ovaries Bel chertown She! burne Falls Yel 1 ow Traps 10 16 Red Spheres 5 8 Seasonal Cyc nd se and S er 18 new t place ere a trap at Or furt son 0 ) and re th At N week appro Augu shou Orch rogra s wit ion t first a ertown Septemb of the were re there w off the ducted trends , c 0 m p a r i borough tance a areas . second curred week of ted and grams . spray p chusett populat le. The cond wee he! burne , may ha raps tha d had be number s , parti chard Hi hermore, f season that of e differ orthboro of July, ximately St. Thi Id be of a r d i s t s ms on ap hout tak rends be appl e m k of Aug Falls ( ve been t were s en in th of heavy cul arly 11 was t only on al cycle western e n c e s in ugh, the while i 1 month s marked some si in w e s t e pie magg i n g into tween th aggot ust a F i g u r the r et ou e ore rai n from 00 sh e fly betw Mass the peak n wes late diff g n i f i rn Ma ot em acco e 2 a popu t the e 1). esul t t on hard s tha the r ort t was een e achus popul occu tern r , be erenc cance ssach ergen unt t reas . 1 atio aban The of t Septe about t was ed sp 0 i nd caugh aster etts . a t i 0 n rred Massa tween e was for usett ce da he po n pea doned seco he gr mber 4 we hed s heres i c a t e t. F n Mas Of peak betwe chuse the much appl e s sho ta fr s s i b 1 ked be orcha nd pea eater 13. T eks du ome of . The any 1 i g u r e sachus p a r t i c s betw en the tts, t first 1 arge maggo uldn't om eas e diff tween th rds in B k, aroun eff ecti V he traps ring w h i the mat survey ong-term 2 shows etts (No u 1 a r imp een thes first a he peak and seco r than e t spray base th tern Mas erences e el ch- d eness that ch e r i a 1 con- the rth- or- e 2 nd oc- nd xpec- pro- ei r sa- in Many more apple maggots were captured at Northborough than in our study (Figure 2). This difference might be attributed to a larger population of apple maggots as influenced by apple variety at the Northborough orchard. Also, vial traps may be more efficient than the yellow or red sphere traps. This shows the importance of using standardized traps when attempting to make comparisons of trap data between various orchards and regions. - 4 - betchertown University Orchord Orchard Hill She4burn« Falls 10 20 30 10 20 30 10 20 30 JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER Rgure I. Comparjson of total numbers of apple maggot adults captured on trops at the four sampling areas between July 15 and Oct. 3, 1974. A few points should be made on our observations concerning the effectiveness of the traps over time. The yellow traps attract large numbers of Tachinid flies which clutter the trap to the ex- tent that fewer apple maggots may be caught and those that are caught are more difficult to find. We found this became a problem by the third week. Therefore, the yellow traps should be renewed at least eyery 3 weeks. Though the red spheres attract fewer num- 250 1 Northbofough O O UJ _l a. Q. < a: UJ CD 3 200 150 100 50 • Western Mass. 0 20 30 AUGUST 10 20 30 SEPTEMBER Figure 2. Comparison of numbers of apple maggot adults captured on traps at NorlhborouqhC number of adults per trap) and western Massachusetts ( total number of adults captured at Shelbume Falls and Belchertown) during trap survey* of 1974. bers of other species of flies, they begin to lose their effective- ness by the third week mainly because the stikum tends to dry and drip off the bottom of the trap. Heavy rain also removes the stikum to such an extent that the trap may become essentially ineffective. After heavy rain, the red sphere should be checked and replaced if the stikum has washed off. The red spheres should be replaced at least every 2 or 3 weeks. Summary of Results. 1. The yellow traps and red spheres were equally effective in numbers of apple maggots captured. 2. The yellow traps were more effective in catching females while the red traps were more effective in capturing males. 3. The yellow traps attracted a larger percentage of newly emerged females than did the red traps; thus the yellow trap was more useful in predicting early apple maggot emergence. - 6 The apple maggot population peaked between the first and second week of July in eastern Massachusetts while in wes- tern Massachusetts, it peaked nearly one month later, be- tween the first and second week of August. Orchardists should be aware of such differences for properly timing their spray programs. Both types of traps should be replaced every 3 their effectiveness lessens. weeks or 6. To make valid comparisons of apple maggot population trends between different regions, standardized traps are required. Future Work. As a result of these findings, a more intensive study will be conducted setts to those of red sphere traps. ef f ici ency to compare next summer comparing western Massachusetts We also will use the of all 3 traps. Field cages the yellow trap's ability to Acknowl edgments trends of eastern Massachu- by again using the yellow and vial bait trap to compare will be utilized in order capture the first emergents. The authors thank Roger Adams and Dr. Gary Jensen of the Ento- mology Department for their assistance in 'locating sampling areas and in conducting the sampling of the orchards. Appreciation is also extended to Joseph Costante, Regional Fruit Specialist, for the use of his data obtained at Northboro. *************** IS CALCIUM DEFICIENCY REDUCING THE STORAGE LIFE OF McINTOSH APPLES? W.J. Bramlage, Mack Drake, and John H. Baker Department of Plant and Soil Sciences the H cal ci t e r i 0 and N found 1 evel was a the u were i 0 r a t norma In 19 0 r t i c urn 1 e ratio ov.-D that with 1 so r nexpe f i rme i ng m 1 dev 72, a ul tur vel s n of ec . 1 bitt in th educe cted r tha ore r el opm nd aga al Res in Bal the fr 973). er pit e f r u i d at t f i n d i n n at h a p i d 1 y ent of in in 1 earch C dwin ap u i t in We con , cork, t incre he high g that igher 1 . This the ca 973, we enter, pies we storage t i n u e d and de ased, a est cal at yery evel s , f i rmne 1 ci um-d reported results of tests at Belchertown, showing that low re increasing the rates of de- (Fruit Notes. Nov. -Dec, 1972 these tests last year and again cay were reduced as calcium nd as we reported in 1973, scald cium level. We also confirmed low calcium levels the apples despite being larger and deter- ss apparently reflects an ab- eficient apples. The question most frequently asked us during these years has been: Is calcium level influencing storage life of Mcintosh? It is more difficult for us to answer this question for Mcintosh than Baldwin, because we do not have a large block of Mcintosh trees known to be calcium-deficient, as we do with Baldwin. Neverthe- less, we last year conducted a number of calcium experiments on Mcintosh trees and fruit, and by compiling all the data, an inter- esting pattern has consistently emerged: calcium deficiency does seem to exist in Mcintosh and it does seem to be influencing stor- age life of apples. In September, 1973, we harvested fruit from a block of 10- year-old Mcintosh trees at Belchertown that varied in leaf calcium levels. Bushel samples were stored in 32°F air until January. After 1 week at room temperature, these samples were assessed for disorders and some fruit were peeled and analyzed for calcium. The results are in Table 1. The amount of calcium in the flesh of these apples was very low, and the fruit at the highest level had Table 1. Flesh calcium levels, bitter pit, and decay of Mcintosh apples following 4 months storage in 32°F air. Flesh calcium range ( % ) Number of trees Bitter i%L pi t Decay (%) 0091 - .0124 18 0126 - .0148 15 0159 - .0173 3 6 5 1 9 4 1 about twice as much calcium as the ones at the lowest level, a sur- prisingly large range. The apples with more than 0.0150% calcium were almost free of bitter pit and decay, whereas those below 0.0150% had substantial amounts of both disorders. In another experiment, Mcintosh dips in calcium solutions and stored were assessed and analyzed as above, again that above 0.0150%, bitter pit that had been given postharvest in 32°F air until February The results in Table 2 showed was virtually absent, and also Table 2. Flesh calcium levels, bitter pit, and internal breakdown of Mcintosh apples following 5 months storage in 32°F air. Flesh calcium range (%) Number of sampl es Bitter pit (%) Internal breakdown in 0107 - 0126 - 0153 - 0177 - 0124 0147 0175 0195 17 7 18 10 7 0 5 1 internal breakdown 16 12 8 5 that above this level was reduced to about 50% 8 - In a third experiment, fruits from limbs with differing yields were stored in 32°F air until March, then assessed and analyzed. The results in Table 3 are based on peel calcium rather than flesh calcium. Since peel calcium is usually about 3 times higher than flesh calcium, the 4 categories in Table 3 are about equivalent to the 4 categories in Table 2. Again we found internal breakdown to occur predominantly (in this case exclusively) in the lowest calcium sampl es . Table 3. Peel calcium levels and internal breakdown of Mcintosh apples following 6 months storage in 32°F air. Peel calcium range {%) Number of samples Internal breakdown in 0300 - 0400 - 0500 - 0600 - 0399 0499 0599 0773 4 15 24 11 8 2 0 0 All 3 of the experiments suggest that calcium deficiency does exist in our Mcintosh trees at the Research Center, and that it is resulting in loss of storage life of our fruit. Analyses of a few samples from some commercial orchards in various parts of Massachusetts resulted in values spanning the ranges shown in Table 3, so the calcium levels in our orchard are not unique. These analyses were associated with the relationship we observed between low calcium levels and "soft Mcintosh" reported in a previous Fruit Notes*on that problem in which the very soft fruit had calcium contents that would fall into the lowest 2 categories in Table 3. While all of these pieces of information are incom- plete, they all suggest that calcium deficiencies do exist in Massachus etts Mcintosh, and that such a deficiency is expressing itself in a reduction of storage life of the fruit. Agricul (J. Ame recent ar ture Cana r . Soc . H They gr 1 evel s . for 3 d The lev level s we pres accompa ternal tend to itself. Researc fruit d ew Sparta Appl es if ferent els of ca of c a 1 c i u ent in Ta nied by d breakdown the Mcln We samo h Center, isorders tide by J.L. da Research S ort. Sci. 99: n trees in nu harvested fro seasons. The lei urn in the m nutrition c ble 2, and as ecreasing occ ) . Therefore tosh-1 ike var led a limited and found no following sto Mason and J.M. Mc tation, Summerland 318-321 ) is pertin trient culture at m these trees were results are summa fruit flesh obtain orrespond closely in Table 2, incre urre nee of senesce , the calcium prob ieties as well as number of Cortlan relationship of c rage because y/ery Dougald of the , British Columbia ent to this question different calcium stored in 31 °F air rized in Table 4. ed at different to the categories asing calcium was nt breakdown (in- 1 em appears to ex- affecting Mcintosh d trees at the alcium level to few disorders ap- *Sept.-0ct., 1974 peared. However, the calcium levels in these samples were all above 0.0175%, and if Cortland is comparable to Mcintosh and Spartan, we can see from Tables 2 and 4 that there should not have been much incidence of disorders, as we found there was not. Table 4. Calcium level and senescent breakdown of Spartan apples stored at 31°F. (From Mason, J.L. and J.M. McDougald. 1974. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci . 99:318-321.) Flesh calcium content (%), 3-year avg. Senescent breakdown (%), 3-year avg. 0131 0139 0150 0178 25 18 9 1 In summary, while we have not conclusively established calcium deficiency in Mcintosh apples and its postharvest consequences, a number of observations strongly suggest that calcium deficiency does exist in Massachusetts Mcintosh, and that where it does exist it is causing reduced storage life and increased wastage of the appl es . *************** FRUIT NOTES INDEX FOR 1974 (This index of major articles has been prepared for those who keep a file of Fruit Notes. The number in parenthesis indicate the pages on which the item appears.) January-February Progress in Breeding Hardy Rootstocks and Hardy Peaches for the Fresh Market at Harrow (1-3) Varieties of Blueberries for Massachusetts (4-5) Performance and Anchorage of Rootstock-Scion Combinations under High Moisture Conditions (6-7) Hay Mulch May Be a Valuable Supplement to a Herbicide Program (7-10) March-Apri 1 Chemical Frost Protection for Fruit Blossoms (1-2) Suggestions for Fertilization of Peach Trees in 1974 Calcium Distribution in 'Merton' Apple Fruits (3-4) Suggestions for Fertilization of Apple Trees in 1974 Do Your Blueberry Plants Have Tired Blood? (7-8) Misnamed Trees and Propagation of the Unknown (8-9) (2-3) (4-7) 10 - May-June Bee Notes for Orchardists (1-4) SAT - The Single Application Treatment with Difolatan for Early Season Apple Scab Control (5-8) Use of Ethephon to Initiate Flower Bud Development on Apple Trees (8-9) July-August Suggestions for the Use of Ethephon for Promoting Uniform Ripening and Red Coloring on Apple Trees (1-4) Report on Apple Maggot Conference (4-6) Chemical Control of Sprouts Around Apple Trees (6-8) Beneficial Orchard Insects (9-10) September-October The "Soft-Mclntcsh" Problem" (1-4) Ethephon on Mcintosh Red Color Without Ripening (5-6) Soil Treatment for Nematode Control on Strawberries (6-8) Controlling Fruit Flies at Roadside Stands (8-9) Orchard Mouse Control (9-10) November-December Apple Maggot Survey (1974) (1-6) Is Calcium Deficiency Reducing the Storage Life of Mcintosh Apples? (6-9) Fruit Notes Index for 1974 (9-10) *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials. NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, S300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT DR. WM. J. LORD PLANT & SOIL SCIENCES FRENCH HALL FN 01002 Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 40 (No. 1) JANUARY-FEBRUARY 1975 TABLE OF CONTENTS Attempts to Raise the Calcium Level in Apples Varieties of Strawberries for Massachusetts Pomological Paragraphs Use of calcium in the regular spray program Pentachlorophenol-treated posts A disorder of Quinte? Varieties of Pears and Quinces for Massachusetts Notes on Other Pear Varieties Publications Available Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. ATTEMPTS TO RAISE THE CALCIUM LEVEL IN APPLES W.J. Bramlage, Mack Drake, and John H. Baker Department of Plant and Soil Sciences It has long been recognized that insufficient calcium can lead to development of cork spot of apples in the orchard, and bitter pit development on the fruit both on the tree and after harvest. Recently, there also has been a rapidly increasing awareness that low calcium levels are contributing to a greater rate of deteriora- tion of apples after harvest, probably through a hastening of the aging processes in the fruit. With this recognition comes the question of how to raise the calcium level in the fruit. Answering this question has proven to be yery difficult. Soil applications have been generally ineffec- tive, because apple roots do not absorb calcium very readily, the tree does not translocate it efficiently, and because it appears that what calcium is available is drawn away from the fruit by the vegetative growth. 1 evel an ex Horti with woul d f erti were 3 , an (10 1 from were eval u ferti of ca 1 evel inter Mulch appl e inter Analy t a s s i potas Last in a p e r i m cul tu hay ( impr 1 i z e d spray d Jul bs hi m i d - J store ated 1 i z e r 1 c i u m sign nal b ing t s , an nal b ses s um, a sium year , pples ent i ral R 100 1 ove c with ed wi y 16; gh ca une t d in and a nor in t i f i c a reakd he tr d the reakd howed nd it that we CO with n a bl esearc bs/tre al cium c a 1 c i th cal and s 1 cium hrough regul a nalyze the ca he app ntly a own th e e s si re was own , a that is 1 i i nterf n t i n u e severa ock of h Cent e) in absor um nit cium E till 0 hydrat 1 ate r stor d for 1 ci um 1 es . nd al s at dev g n i f i c a str nd dec these kely t ered w d our a 1 new e 40, 10 e r , in hopes t ption f rate at DTA at ther tr ed 1 ime August, age unt cal cium EDTA sp Lime-wa 0 reduc eloped antly r ong tre ay in t fruits hat the i t h cal ttempt X p e r i m -year- which hat re rom th 5.4 1 1 lb p ees we per 1 At h i 1 Jan . Nei rays h ter sp ed the during educed nd tow he f ru were s hay r cium a s to rai ents. F old Mcln some tre d u c t i 0 n e soil; bs per t er 75 ga re spray 00 gal ) arvest , uary, wh ther the ad any e rays rai amount and fol the cal a r d i n c r se th irst , tosh es we of wa other ree ; 1 on ed wi at 2- sampl en th cal c ffect sed t of bi 1 0 w i n ci um eased its from i g n i f i c a el eased b s 0 r p t i 0 thes ntly 1 arge n by e cal we e trees re mu ter s tree other June th li week es of e app ium n on t he ca tter g sto 1 evel bitt e tre h i g h e amou the t CI um stabl at t 1 ched tress s wer tree 18, J me-wa inter frui 1 es w i trat he am 1 ci um pit a rage . of t er pi es . r i n nts 0 ree r i s h e d he e s uly ter val s t ere e ount nd he t. Why? po- f oots This experiment will be continued for a number of years to assess long-range results of the treatments. However, we are re- placing calcium EDTA sprays with calcium chloride sprays this year. Not only was calcium EDTA ineffective but it caused injury to both leaves and fruits. Furthermore, experiments with calcium chloride in other areas and in a commercial orchard suggest that it may be effective in increasing the calcium level. Another experiment was conducted on a block of mature Baldwin trees, in which some trees received 6 lbs per tree of calcium nitrate fertilizer, others received lime water sprays, and others received a combination of the 2 treatments. As with Mcintosh, cal- cium nitrate fertilizer did not raise calcium, and lime-water sprays did. A combination of the fertilizer and spray treatments was no better than the sprays alone. It might appear that lime-water sprays are a good way to raise the calcium level of apples. However, it leaves a residue that is extremely persistent, and therefore, cannot be recommended commer- cially. These experiments add to what has been found before: rais- ing the calcium level of apples on the tree is a very difficult task. We still have no solution to this problem. In rec evolved -- year, dips. of 4% We fou raised ety. to 3, from 4 they s f i cant tory. improv exists crease t i 0 n , whi 1 e less 0 we CO We d c a 1 c i nd th calc Furth 2, or to 1 how t ly. The e sto . Fu aver fruit fruit f the ent yea the use nducted ipped M urn chlo at both ium lev ermore, }% wit % wit ho hat a p Neverth average rage li rthermo aged 15 s from s from compos rs , an of po a ser cintos ride o mater els in with hout c ut eff osthar el ess , i ncre fe of re , th % rega some t other i t i 0 n other sthar ies 0 h, Co r 2% i a 1 s , f rui Baldw ausi n ect . vest the ase i the a e res r d 1 e s rees trees of th appr vest f exp r 1 1 a n EDTA with t fie in we gad Thes dip c resu 1 n cal pples ponse s of absor abso e d i f) oach to dips in eriment d , and with an or wit sh abou also r if feren e resul an r a i s ts were cium wa if a s was no variety bed muc rbed mu s 0 1 u t i the cal s wi Bald d wi hout t 15 educ ce , ts a e th not s no erio t un and h mo ch 1 on . cal c cium th po win a thout a we %, re ed th and V re en e cal comp t eno us ca iform rega re ca ess t ium probl solutions stharvest pples in a wettin tting age gardl ess e calcium a r i e d cal cou raging cium leve letely sa ugh to ma Icium def . While rdless of Icium tha hat this. em has Last cal cium solutions g agent. nt , of vari- chloride, cium EDTA , for 1 s i g n i - ti sfac- rkedly i ciency the in- sol u- t this, regard- dip p i life. treat use. throu with howev in th of pr posth We fe ng of How ments Cons ghout posth er , t e ore obi em arves el t app ever bef ider the arve here hard s . t ca hat t Ies i , the ore w able worl St ca rema , whe We ar 1 cium here n cal re is e can resea d , an 1 cium ins t re a e con prob IS cons cium so much t comfor r c h is d it is dips w he prob cal cium t i n u i n g lems wi iderabl 1 u t i 0 n s hat we tably r being c hoped ill rap lem of d e f i c i to pur th exte e promi to imp must ye ecommen onducte that an idly be raising ency pr sue bot n s i V e s se for rove t t 1 ear d them d on t swers found the c oduces h the e r i e s posth heir s n abou for c his p r to the Mea al cium a sep prehar of exp arvest torage t these ommercial obi em probl ems nwhi 1 e , 1 evel arate set vest and eriments . *************** VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES FOR MASSACHUSETTS James F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Variety Recommended for Harvesting Se a s o n Earl idawn Darrow Sunrise Midland Hoi iday Surecrop Rari tan Midway Cat ski 11 Redchief Guardian Garnet Sparkl e Del ite Vesper T = Trial c T c c & T C H c & H c & H c & H c & H c & H c & H c & T C H H = Home garden Very early Early Early Early Early-midseason Midseason Midseason Midseason Midseason Midseason Midseason Mid -late Mid -late Late Very late C = Commercial Varieties so marked are not necessarily equally adapted to all sections of the state. Variety Notes Earl idawn A very early ripening variety. The fruits are of medi- um size and of fair to good flavor. The plants are pro- ductive and of moderate vigor. Earlidawn is recommen- ded where red stele is not a factor. Darrow This new variety is recommended for trial because of its earliness and resistance to races of red stele. Darrow is intermediate in resistance to Verticillium wilt. The berries are medium to large, firm, glossy and have a good red color. The primary berries tend to be rough. The plants have shown moderate vigor and moderate runner production. Yields in our trials have been fair. Sunrise This variety is resistant to 3 races of red stele and to Verticillium wilt. The berries are medium in size, glossy bright red, firm and have a symmetrical conic shape. The plants are vigorous, make a good bed and are fair in production. Midland An early ripening variety with large firm fruit of very good flavor. Midland produces many large, coarse ber- ries and the berries are inclined to be dark in color. Good yields are obtained only with virus-free plants. Midland is not resistant to red stele. Hoi iday Produces an attractive, glossy, medium-to-dark-red berry. The berries are large, very firm and have fair to good flavor. The plants are vigorous, make a good bed and are yery productive. Holiday shows no resis- tance to red stele. Surecrop Recommended largely because of its resistance to several strains of red stele. The fruits are attractive, medi- um in size and fair to good in flavor. The plants are vigorous and moderately productive. Midway The fruit is of good size, a deep red color, glossy and very good in flavor. The plants are vigorous, produc- tive and resistant to the common strain of red stele. C a t s k i 1 1 A leading commercial variety with many growers because of its productivity. The berries are large, attractive, have a good strawberry flavor and are good freezers. The berries have a tender surface and rate only fair in firmness. The plants are quite susceptible to leaf spot and require a high level of fertility for best yields. Catskill is resistant to Verticillium wilt but has no resistance to red stele. Redchief Produces attractive fruit of medium to large size, good red color and high gloss. The berries are firm and have good flavor. The plants are vigorous and make a good matted row. Redchief has been a good producer in our trials. The plants are resistant to 5 races of red stele and have intermediate resistance to Verticillium wilt. Guardian A sister seedling of Redchief. The berries are large, glossy, and have a light red color. The primary ber- ries tend to be rough. The flesh is firm and has a good strawberry flavor. The plants are vigorous, make a good matted row and the yield was good in our trials. Guardian is resistant to 5 races of red stele and highly resistant to Verticillium wilt. Garnet The plant is vigorous, forms a full bed and is produc- tive. The berries are large, attractive, moderately firm and have a good flavor.' Garnet is not resistant to red stele. Sparki e One of the important late season varieties. Its out- standing values are productiveness, firmness, good quality and resistance to red stele disease. Berry size is medium to large in early pickings but tends to decline rapidly. It is rated as a good freezer. Del ite A new late ripening variety that is resistant to 5 races of red stele and highly resistant to Verticillium wilt. In our trials, Delite has produced a medium to large, long conic to long wedged-shaped berry. The bright red berries have good gloss, firmness and straw- berry flavor. The plants are vigorous and make a good matted row, and have yielded well. Vesper The plants are large, vigorous and productive. The fruit ripens late, is very large in size, attractive, moderate in firmness and good in flavor. Vesper has prominent protruding seeds. This variety merits trial because of its large size, attractiveness, lateness and productiveness. Vesper is not resistant to red stele. *************** Pomological Paragraph Use of calcium in the regular spray progr cumulate i ty of ca the regul any growe sprays . CaClp sta with no a CaClp was filled s p cause tes t i 0 n , the inf or 1 ci urn ar sp r con At th r t i n g dvers diss ray t ts in spra matio chlo ray p c e r n i e Hor wi th e eff ol ved ank. Virg ys sh n for ride ( rogram ng exp t i c u 1 1 the 5 ects 0 in a The C i n i a h ould b the CaClp . To e r i e n ural th CO n McI bucke aCl2- ave s e app ew Eng ) with do th c e wit Resear ver sp ntosh t of w p e s t i c hown t 1 ied i 1 and othe is , w h com ch Ce ray i and D ater ide s hat f n thi am. We are anxious to ac- area about the compatibil- r pesticides when used in e would like to hear from bined CaCl2 and pesticide nter last year, we used n the schedule given below elicious strains. The and added to the nearly pray was applied at IX be- or maximum calcium absorp- s dilute form. Spray Record at H.R.C., Belchertown, starting with 5th Cover, 1974. Appli cation Date Material rate per 5th Cover 7/8 used and 100 gals Weather^ Captan-80%, 10 Imidan*-50%, 1 CaClo-2 Iby oz lb Warm and clear 6th Cover 7/22 Captan-80%, 10 oz Imidan*-50%, 1 lb Omite*-30%, 1-1/2 CaClo-2 lb lb Warm and clear Appl ication 7th Cover Date Material rate per used and 100 gals 8/5 Captan-80%, 10 oz Imidan*-50%, 1 lb CalCl2' 2 lb Weather Warm and clear 8th Cover 8/19 Captan-80%, 10 oz Zolone*-3EC, 1 pt PI ictran-50%, 4 oz CaCl 2' 2 lb *Trade name ^All sprays applied at 6 to ^ A.M ^CaClo: 77-80% Flake Warm and clear *************** Pomological Paragraphs Pentachl orophenol -treated posts. Dr. David C. Ferree, Ohio Agricul- tural Research and Development Center Wooster, Ohio, suggests that pentachlorophenol -treated posts should be wel 1 -weathered before be- ing used to support apple trees. When pentachlorophenol was applied 2-4 weeks before setting the posts beside trees, injury and growth retardation occurred, and in some instances, death of the trees. Varieties appeared to differ in their susceptibility to pentachloro- phenol. He suggests that treated posts be allowed to weather out- doors for a year before being used to support apple trees. - Fruit Crops Research- 1974., Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster, Ohio. *************** A disorder of Quinte?: In two orchards this past summer, numerous Quinte fruits had purplish blotches on the skin on both the calyx and stem ends of the apple. The nature of the blotches suggested that low calcium was involved with the disorders. However, analy- ses of a limited number of blotched and non-blotched apples by Dr. Mack Drake showed that the peel calcium was low in both normal and blotched fruit. We would appreciate knowing if blotching of Quinte has been observed by other growers. Also, we have observed that cracking at the stem-end of the fruit appears to be a weakness of Quinte. *************** - 7 - VARIETIES OF PEARS AND QUINCES FOR MASSACHUSETTS James F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Variety ^__ Clapp Favorite Aurora Bartlett Gorham Seckel FT emi sh Bosc Anjou Dumont T = Trial Pear Varieties Recommended for Harvesting Season & H T & H & H & H C & H & H C H = Home Garden Mid-Aupust Late August Early September Mid-September Mid-September Mid-September Late September Late September Early October C = Commercial Varieties so marked are not necessarily equally adapted to all sections of the state. Clapp Favorite Aurora Bartlett Gorham Variety Notes Fruit greenish yellow with a blushed cheek, good quality, large, attractive, tends to blacken at core when over-ripe, does not keep well. Tree hardy, productive, susceptible to fireblight. A new variety from New York. The fruit is bright yellow, overlaid with a light russet and frequently blushed, pyriform in shape and large in size. This attractive pear has a smooth, melting and juicy flesh of high quality. The tree is vigorous, spreading and not resistant to fireblight. Descrip- tion based on performance in New York. Leading commercial pear variety. Fruit yellow, good quality, large size, firm, ships well. Tree medium in size, productive, adapted to wide variety of soils, is susceptible to fireblight. A seedling of Bartlett which it resembles in size and color. Flesh is white, tender, melting and juicy. Holds in storage longer than Bartlett and may be a desirable variety to extend Bartlett sea- son. Said to require a higher level of nutrition than Bartlett to maintain production. Seckel Fruit bronze color, small, excellent quality, a popular variety for pickling. Tree large, upright- spreading, productive in alternate years, immune to fireblight. Flemish Fruit large, attractive, excellent quality, highly susceptible to pear scab which can be controlled effectively with modern fungicides. Tree large, vigorous, very productive in alternate years, highly resistant to winter cold. Bosc Fruit russet, large with long neck, excellent qual- ity when ripened properly, excellent keeper and shipper. Tree medium size, zig-zag growth, produc- tive, tendency to biennial bearing. Anjou Fruit greenish, large, good quality, good keeper and shipper. Desirable as a late market variety. Trees are large but may lack in vigor and produc- tion. Dumont A late ripening pear of medium to large size and obtuse pyriform shape. The flesh is firm, juicy and the quality is very good. The tree is vigor- ous and productive. Quince Varieties Quince production in Massachusetts is primarily a home garden enterprise although there are a few commercial plantings. This fruit is used entirely for jellies and preserves. Quince trees are notoriously susceptible to fireblight and quince rust. These dis- eases are not so serious in Massachusetts as to preclude the grow- ing of this fruit provided adequate control measures are employed. Two varieties are propagated by Eastern nurserymen, characteristics of these varieties are as follows: Orange Champion Fruit roundish, greenish yellow, medium size, flesh pale yellow, tender mild. Ripens in October a few days ahead of Champion. This variety is by far the more popular. Fruit large, pear shaped, yellowish, with consider- able pubescence, flesh pale yellow, f irm, si ightly astringent, aromatic, mild subacid. Somewhat in- ferior in quality to Orange. *************** 9 - NOTES ON OTHER PEAR VARIETIES Starkrimson Max-Red Bartlett Dawn Moongi ow Magness A red bud sport of Clapp Favorite. The fruit is similar in size, shape and quality to Clapp but has a solid red surface color. The fruit was har- vested in mid-August in our Amherst orchards and held up well in storage. This variety would add color and interest to a pear display. A red bud sport of Bartlett. The fruit is simi- lar to Bartlett in shape, size and quality but has a reddish surface color. We have harvested Max- Red with Bartlett in our plantings. A USDA introduction that is harvested in late Aug- ust or early September at the Horticultural Research Center. The fruit has tended to be larger and more elongate than Bartlett in our trials. This yellow pear has white flesh and fair to good quality. Dawn is not resistant to fireblight and has been a poor producer at the Horticultural Research Center This USDA introduction was picked in early Septem- ber at the Horticultural Research Center. Moonglow has a greenish color and is not especially attrac- tive in shape or color under our conditions. The flesh is white and of fair to good quality. Produc- tion has been less than satisfactory. This USDA introduction was harvested the third week of September. This medium-sized, yellow pear is covered with a fine russet. The flesh is soft, fine textured, juicy and of good flavor. Magness has been very slow in coming into production and has yielded poorly at the Horticultural Research Center, This variety is pollen sterile. *************** PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE Available from New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York, is New York's Food and Life Sciences Bulletin No. 41, entitled "Apple Rootstock Problems and Potentials." The authors, J.N. Cummins and Richard N. Norton, prepared this publication to assist the apple grower in anticipating problems that can occur in high density plantings in hopes that growers can avoid them. Prob- lems discussed in the publication include fireblight, "collar rot," Woolly apple aphids, viruses, anchorage, and winter hardiness. - 10 - Available from Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Cen- ter, Wooster, Ohio, is Research Bulletin 1060, entitled "Insect and Mite Pests of Grapes in Ohio." The illustrations in the publica- tion will help growers identify troublesome insects, and insect dam- age occurring on grapes. *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials. NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for private use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 40 (No. 2) MARCH/APRIL 1975 TABLE OF CONTENTS Causes of Peach Tree Decline Let's Reduce the Damage to Peach Trees from Cytospora Canker Effect of Nitrogen and Potassium Fertilizer on Color, Russet and Cork Spot of Golden Delicious Apples Influence of Lime, Source of Nitrogen, and/or Time of Application on Vegetative Growth and Fruit of Sturdy Spur Delicious Pomological Paragraph Elimination of Sod with Herbicides Response of Mcintosh Apple Trees to Annual Applications of Dichlobenil (Casoron*) Farm Marketing Publications Available Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of IVIav 8 and June 30. 1914; Untversitv of Massachusetts, United States Departrnent of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. CAUSES OF PEACH TREE DECLINE William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences "Peach tree decline" is a major problem for fruit growers, and also a frustrating problem because its cause is often difficult to diagnose. Factors causing peach decline were discussed in a sympo- sium on peach problems and published in Proceedings of the New York State Horticultural Society, Volume 119, 1974. Some of the pertinent facts presented at the symposium are discussed below. Factors contributing to peach tree decline in the Hudson Valley. A peach orchard survey conducted in 1973 by Dr. R.C. Pearson, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Hudson Valley Labora- tory, showed that Valsa Canker (Cytospora Canker) was perhaps the most important problem. It was present on 26% of the trees exam- ined. Five percent of the trees were damaged by peach borer, and only 3% were suspected (though not confirmed) of having X-disease. It had been generally thought that X-disease was the most important problem associated with peach decline, but the survey by Pearson indicates that this may not be true. Minimizing peach decline. According to Dr. G.H. Oberly, Cornell University, winter injury to the wood which permits penetration of the organism causing canker is perhaps one of the greatest contri- buting factors in shortening the life of peach trees in New York. Methods of reducing winter injury and Valsa canker are discussed in an accompanying article entitled "Let's Reduce the Damage to Peach Trees from Cytospora Canker." X-Di sease. Research on X-disease has been renewed at a number of Universities and Experiment Stations. Perhaps the most significant finding at present is that the causal organism of X-disease is not a virus but a mycoplasma, an organism which can be controlled by antibiotics. Chemical therapy of X-disease is being researched by Dr. David Sands, Department of Plant Pathology, Connecticut Agricul- tual Experiment Station, New Haven. In tests of injection methods and antibiotic preparations. Dr. Sands has found that tetracyclines (being used for treating pear decline in California) show promise for the control of X-disease of peach. Other methods of X-disease control also are under investigation, such as control of the leafhopper vector of the disease and the use of resistant rootstocks such as wild black cherry. Until methods of X-disease control are perfected, growers should renew their efforts at chokecherry eradication. Chokecherries are the main source of inoculum for X-disease and according to Dr. Allen S. Jones, Michigan State University, they should be eradicated from areas bordering cherry, peach, or nectarine plantings for a distance of 500 feet. Removal to a shorter distance, although not as effective, will be beneficial. Dr. M. Wayne McKee, Hudson Valley Laboratory, stated that preliminary results indicate that spread of X-disease can be reduced to as low as 1°/ tree loss by eradication of chokecherry and applications of insecticide sprays during September and October to control the leafhopper vector of X-disease. The sprays are essen- tial because the highest populations of leafhopper vectors are pre- sent on peach trees in September and October when insecticides are not ordinarily applied. The peach replant problem. Dr. P. A. Arneson, Extension Pathologist, Cornell University, stated that there is a high rate of mortality of newly-planted peach trees in the Hudson Valley. Examination of these orchards showed that the problem is more related to the "peach replant problem" than X-disease. The young trees often were planted where dead trees had been removed, or else a new planting had been established immediately after removal of old trees. The trees ap- pear weak and many die shortly after planting. The symptoms of the peach replant problem as described by Dr. Arneson are retarded growth, shortened internodes, and reduced yields if the trees come into bearing. The replant problem is considered a complex of problems with several contributing factors: (1) poor soil structure; (2) low soil fertility; (3) toxic chemicals leached from decomposing peach roots; (4) pathogenic fungi; (5) pathogenic bacteria; (6) stem-pit- ting virus; and (7) nematodes. One or more of these factors could be the cause of tree mortality and/or low vigor in a peach orchard. The following are suggestions by Dr. Arneson for preventing replant probl ems . "In sites where the populations of the root lesion nematode are high, the soil must be fumigated. For proper fumigation, the land must be plowed and fitted to seedbed condition, that is, the soil must be loose and free of large clods to a depth of at least 10 inches. This should be done well in advance of fumigation to allow adequate time for decomposition of the organic matter. Soil temper- atures must be above 50°F for proper fumigant action. Therefore, the fumigation should be done from about mid-August to mid-October of the year before the trees are planted. This is to assure ade- quate time for the fumigant to dissipate before the spring planting. The newly planted trees cannot be simply ignored until they begin to produce a crop. The first 3 years are the most important ones in the life of a young peach tree. Careful attention to fer- tilization, ground cover management, pruning, training, and pest control at this time will reap benefits throughout the production life of the orchard." *************** - 3 - LET'S REDUCE THE DAMAGE TO PEACH TREES FROM CYTOSPORA CANKER Donald H. Peterson The Pennsylvania State University Cytospora canker may be referred to by several different names: Valsa canker, or peach canker, or just plain canker, or gummosis, or perennial canker. These cankers occur on twigs, branches, and scaffold limbs, in the crotch area and on the trunk, and at pruning cuts. The disease occurs on all stone fruit trees, but seems to cause the most concern on peaches and nectarines. During and af- ter rains and periods of high humidity, gum oozes in the area of the canker. When it dries, it turns black and hard. Smooth sections of the bark in the cankered areas become pep- pered with the pimple-like fruiting bodies of the causal fungi. During rainy periods, these pimples ooze a white to orange miniature toothpaste-like mass of spores. These can be splashed by rain or, when dry, be blown by wind. Spore production can occur anytime the temperatures are above freezing. However, the disease is usually not initiated when the trees are growing vigorously. Most infec- tions take place during the fall, early spring, and during winter when temperatures are above freezing. The organism causing Cytospora canker cannot penetrate healthy bark or buds. It must have injured areas of some kind. The injured areas most frequently entered are: (1) dead dormant buds; (2)cold- injured wood; (3) pruning cuts, particularly those made when the trees are dormant; (4) pruning stubs, which often die back to their main branch; and (5) brown rot cankers. None of the stone fruit species are immune to Cytospora canker. Chemical treatments alone are not very effective. Thus we need to "learn to live with Cytospora canker." This can be done quite suc- cessfully by your management practices. Let's begin with the new orchard you are planning. Setting a new orchard. 1. Your site should not be one with poor internal soil drainage. Wet spots need to be drained or avoided. Trees on these sites often suffer cold damage and have a considerable amount of dead wood in them. The more dead wood in trees, the more like- lihood of places for Cytospora to get started. 2. New orchards should not be planted near cankered, older ones, and especially not downwind from them. It is nearly impossible to protect the new planting from the vast number of spores com- ing from the older cankered trees. Let me give you an example. t This article appeared in The Maryland Fruit Grower, Vol. 44 (No. 2) 1974 Two 0 to an Every years The 0 d i s e a older terpl It is with an ol wind rchar ol de thing , the bviou sed 0 than ants far all y der , side ds of r , di was re we s 1 es nes . 5 ye have bette oung d i s e a of th Sel ect an exc to the d u c i n g standa mant b Jersey abl e. and ne might Horti c have p may wa i e t i e s a-r" a mony. varietie el lent sp tree. W spores 0 rd to app ud- hard in queen or If you n ctari nes , be intere ulture, P repared c nt to est from Har t the beg etc. 156 sease done re 80 son i Inte ars 0 1 ittl r to trees sed 0 e ol d s tha ot fo hen i n twi roach ess . Was hi eed h talk sted enn . ailed a b 1 i s row, i n n i n trees in each were planted. One was next d planting - the other one-third mile away, alike to both orchards. At the end of 5 8 cankers in the more distant planting, s not to place young trees next to older, rplanting in peach and nectarine orchards f age is of questionable value. These in- e chance of a productive, canker-free life, push out all the old trees and start over If the planting cannot be separated from ne, at least try to establish it on the up- er trees. t are winter bud-hardy. Dead buds offer r the Cytospora canker organism to get in- t does, it becomes quite efficient in pro- gs it kills. I like to use Redhaven as a or exceed in choosing varieties for dor- For most of you this means not selecting ngton, which otherwise may be quite desir- elp in identifying winter bud-hardy peaches with your state university people. You in a listing Dr. Marshall Ritter, Dept. of State Univ., University Park, Pa., and I "Peach Varieties for the Seventies." You h a trial planting of some of the named var- Canada. These can be identified by the "h- g of their name: Harbinger, Harbrite, Har- 4. Attempting to transplant and train large-sized nursery trees often results in canker at an early age. Those 7/16 to 9/16 caliper, 2 to 3-1/2 feet high, I believe are the ideal size to transplant and train. Training young trees. All too frequently, trees received from the nursery are planted, then headed-back somewhere to a point between the knee and the belt, and left to shift for themselves. This seems especially true of re- plants. In Michigan, a cultural management survey was made of 42 orchards. The one management practice most often associated with winter injury and canker was poor training of the young trees. Trees that were allowed to develop close, narrow crotches or those that had received no training, were often broken down or dead at an early age. Only 20 percent or less of the trees in these 42 orchards had moderate to good crotches. Whether you choose an open-vase or some type of central leader system for you tree form, begin the training that first year. - 5 Pruning P conse ted. So pr for t of th other marke 1000 of th stres sugge T the m 1 1 s s u trunk as do sul ts to! er tempe the b bloom of wi 1ng t may p are f a sic ing n the c some 1 onge fruit rumng i quently The tre uning wo he Cytos e trees half at d in e a c cuts mad e cuts m s the im St other s one it re e can unds pora of 4 the h hal e dur ade j porta reas of the e presents heal its made duri organism varieties time of b f for lat ing the w ust befor nee of de ons as we ssent a typ woun ng la as th were ud-sw er ex inter e bio 1 ayi n 11. ial prac e of inj ds only te fall ey do no pruned ell. On aminatio had can om were g p r u n i n tices in an orchard, and ury that cannot be preven- during the growing season, or winter remain open doors t heal until spring. Half before mid-February and the e thousand pruning cuts were n. At shuck fall , 50 of the ker started in them. None infected. These results g until spring, but I shall here ajor es ca s , an the in a ate a ratur est d . De nter ree i enetr i n d i n kleba eeded rop. of th r the but is no d point 0 n be bu d crotc buds of decrea rapid es. Sp ay to p laying injury s more ate the g the h r mower is don Cuts a e p r u n i fol low it will 0 u b t in f entry ds, bra hes. N some V s e in t drop in ring p r rune a pruning to buds resista bark o e a d i n g a val u e yery re made ng i s d ing s p r also c my mi n for th nches , arrow c a r i e t i e he abil temper uning p stone f until and sh nt to t r p r u n i back of able pr rapidly at a t one, th ing. T oncentr d that wi e Cytospo areas on rotches 1 s. Beyon i ty of pe ature to revents t ruit tree near bud oots and he diseas ng cuts. new grow actice . by flat- ime when e remaind he practi ate fruit nter- in ra orga the sea a c k win d that, ach and below f his h a z is the swel 1 w after b e even Quite t h in e A good topping they he e r m i g h ce does ripeni jured ni sm. ffold ter h prun nect reezi ard . day ill r ud sw thoug a num arly bit 0 the al ra t be aid ng. ti ss The limb a r d i n ing a a r i n e ng an Keep it is educe ell, h the ber 0 to mi f the trees p i d 1 y delay in CO ues a se in s and ess j 1 ways tree d to i n m in f the the g fung f gro d-Jul toal just . Si ed a 1 0 r i n re j ured ust re- s to 1 ow ind ull risk row- US wers y with prun- above nee bit g the Pruning stubs of limbs an inch or more in diameter are favorite places for Cytospora canker. This is especially true of cuts made during the dormant season. Three practices will aid in reducing the number of infected cuts: (1) Wait until bud-swell or later to make the cuts. (2) Do not leave stubs; rather make the cut as close to the next branch as possible. (3) Apply a fungicide spray before the first rain following spring pruning. The materials do not seem 6 - to be as important as getting the job done. Sulfurs, dichlone, captan, ferbam and benomyl all appear effective. Other management practices and Cytospora canker. 1. Winter injury. We have discussed orchard sites, selection of varieties, tree training and pruning as they relate to winter injury. Fluctuating winter temperatures can result in injury to the bark of trunks, crotches and scaffold limbs. The dark- colored bark absorbs the sun's energy. On quiet, sunny winter days, the temperature under the bark on the sun-side of the trees will rise 30 degrees or more above the air temperature. Then the rapid cooling to below freezing after sunset sets up conditions for winter injury. Coating the trunks, crotches and lower portions of scaffold limbs with a white water-emul- sion paint will moderate the temperature extremes under the bark and reduce winter-injured areas. 2. Brown rot cankers from blossom blight and fruit rot are entry points for the Cytospora fungi. In summary, I wish to stress the following points: 1. Do not plant young peach trees near older, diseased stone fruit trees . 4 5 Begin tree training the first growing season and strive for wide-angled crotches in whatever training system you use. Provide adequate fertilization for good tree growth, but avoid excessive nitrogen and late cultivations. Follow a good brown rot control program. Remove all fruit from the trees following last picking to pre- vent brown rot cankers. 6. When pruning, make all cuts clean and close to the next larger branch . 7. Delay pruning until bud swell and follow the pruning before the next rain with an effective fungicide. Try some summer mowing. With these measures, you are not likely to clean up trees al- ready severely diseased. You will be able to prevent many new in- fections and add years to the life span of young orchards. *************** EFFECT OF NITROGEN AND POTASSIUM FERTILIZER ON COLOR, RUSSET AND CORK SPOT OF GOLDEN DELICIOUS APPLES Mack Drake, John H. Baker, W.J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences In a recent article, (Journal of the American Society for Hor- ticultural Science 99:144-145, 1974) M.W. Williams and H.D. Billings- ley reported effects of N fertilizer on yield, size and color of Golden Delicious apples grown in Washington. They found that fruit color and quality of Golden Delicious apples was directly re- lated to leaf N content. The correlation coefficient between leaf nitrogen and extra fancy yellow fruit was -0.89, which means that as N level increased, packout of extra fancy yellow fruit decreased. When leaf-N was above 2.2%, the fruit tended to be large and green. Trees with light green foliage, indicating low to intermediate leaf-N, always produced yellow fruit. Maximum yields of high-quality fruit were obtained when leaf-N levels were from 1.9 to 2.1%. Working cooperatively with Davis Orchard, Bolton, Massachusetts, we are studying the effects of 3 levels of N and 3 levels of K fer- tilizer on the color and russet condition of Golden Delicious apples. During the past 5 years, levels of approximately 1.95, 2.10 and 2.20% leaf-N have produced decreasing quantities of yellow fruit as leaf-N has increased. This is in close agreement with the results reported above by Williams and Billingsley. In addition, we have found that russet increased as leaf-N in- creased, but decreased as leaf-K increased. The data in Table 1, obtained in 1973, illustrate this relationship and are typical of those for 1969-72. Effects of leaf-N and 1973. Davis Orchard, K on color and russet of Golden Delicious, Bolton, Massachusetts. Leaf-N (%) Yellow color (%) Russet ( % ) 2.00 2.15 2.20 82 70 62 63 67 86 Leaf-K (%) 1.60 1.75 1.90 74 70 69 77 75 66 Under Massachusetts conditions, we recommend that Golden Deli cious be maintained in the range of 1.9 to 2.0% leaf N and 1.8% leaf K. - 8 - INFLUENCE OF LIME, SOURCE OF NITROGEN, AND/OR TIME OF APPLICATION ON VEGETATIVE GROWTH AND FRUIT OF STURDY SPUR DELICIOUS W.J. Lord and John Baker Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Fo not the apples . core, i verity f rui t. USDA, r than do it s h 0 u to nitr soil p H duce th was sug Researc vi ewed. di f fere i n V e s t i time of Del i cio Researc r yea sour How ntern if ca At 0 eport es ni Id be ate b , app e pro geste h Tas The nee i gate N ap us , a h Cen rs , w ce, w ever, al br 1 cium ur Ne ed th trate appl efore lying bl ems d and k For sour n gro the i plica n exp ter . e told as the it is eakdow (Ca) w Engl at a mm N. H ied ea bloom Ca to assoc 1 ater ce" (J ce of wth, h nf 1 uen t i 0 n 0 erimen grow most now n, st is pr and F on i urn e sug rly e . Fu the iated Stat une 1 N, wh ardi n ce of n veg t was ers that importan known tha orage rot e s e n t in ruit Meet N reduce gested th nough so rthermore soil, and with low e d in the 973) that ether nit ess, flow a high s etative g ini tiate the am t cons t bitt s , etc high e ings i s both at if that a , Faus using c a 1 c i "Repo "N nu rate o e r i n g oi 1 pH rowth d in 1 ount 0 iderat e r pit . are nough n 1972 leaf ammoni 1 1 amm t sugg Ca sp um. M rt of tri tio r ammo and f r , 1 i m i and f r 972 at f nitro ion in , cork all red concent , Dr. M and fru um nitr 0 n i a is ested c rays to ore rec Northea n shoul nia, ma u i t qua ng, N s u i t of the Ho gen ap grow in spot, u c e d i ration ikios it Ca ate is conve orrect hel p ently, St Fru d be r y make 1 i ty . '• ource Sturdy r t i c u 1 plied, g water- n se- s in Faust, more used , rted ing re- it it e- a To and Spur tural The Delicious trees were planted in a soil having a pH of 6.5- 7.0 to a 2 foot depth. Two and one-half lbs of high Ca lime (40% CaO; 1% MgO) were mixed in the soil in the planting holes for half the trees. Ammonium nitrate, calcium nitrate or potassium nitrate was then applied annually either 1 month before bloom or at bloom. Resul ts. Leaf analyses to date show that N source had no influence on N and Ca content of leaves (Table 1). Although muriate of pot- ash was applied under the trees receiving ammonium nitrate and cal- cium nitrate in amounts to equal the potassium (K) content of potas- sium nitrate, differences in K levels were apparent in 1973. Leaf K was higher in the trees receiving ammonium nitrate plus muriate of potash than in those receiving just potassium nitrate. Time of N application ( a month prior to bloom or at bloom) did not influence the N, Ca, K or Mg levels in the leaves. Of in- terest is that the economical procedure of incorporating high cal- cium lime with the soil in the planting hole, significantly increased Ca content in 1972 and 1973 although the differences were small: 1.08 and 0.79% Ca in leaves of trees from limed soil in 1972 and 1973, respectively, as compared to 0.96 and 0.74% Ca in leaves from the trees in non-limed soil. - 9 Conclusion. Mixing lime with the soil used in the planting hole for apple trees enhanced Ca levels for 2 years. Although the pH of this soil was high and/or lime was incorporated in the soil, leaf Ca was still relatively low, further emphasing the difficulty of increasing the amount of this element in apple trees. The effect of soil applications of 3 sources of nitrogen on leaf nitrogen (N), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) of Sturdy Spur Delicious trees. Year Treatment Element (% of the dried weight) N K Ca Mg 1972 Potassium nitrate 2.32a^ 0.98a 0.97a 0.40a Ammonium nitrate 2.34a 1.01a 1.02a 0.39a Calcium nitrate 2.33a 0.93a 1.07a 0.41a 1973 Potassium nitrate 2.48a 1.63b 0.74a 0.26a Ammonium nitrate 2.49a 1.76a 0.79a 0.25ab Calcium nitrate 2.52a 1.71ab 0.77a 0.24b ^Means for an individual year, within a column, followed by a dif- ferent letter are significantly different at the 5% level. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Elimination of Sod with Herbicides. At our New England Fruit Meet- ings, the panel on size-control rootstocks expressed concern about complete elimination of sod under fruit trees with herbicides. With no snow cover, a soil free of grass and weeds might expose fruit trees to a deep soil freeze and root injury. Our experience using paraquat plus simazine, dalapon alone or in combination with simazine has shown that complete control of perennial grasses and broadleaf weeds is unlikely when herbicides are applied at recom- mended rates. In addition, annual grassy and broadleaf weeds gen- erally invade the herbicide-treated areas, and by late summer the weed population frequently is as dense as under trees that had been cultivated until early July. At our Horticultural Research Center, when we purposely applied excessive amounts of herbicides, not only was the soil free of weeds, but soil erosion occurred which exposed tree roots. Under these conditions, increased winter injury might well occur. *************** - 12 - All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. I Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE. UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 40 (No. 3) MAY-JUNE 1975 TABLE OF CONTENTS Program Planning for New England Fruit Meetings Learning from the Dutch Netherlands and Its Fruit Industry Mummy Berry Disease of Blueberry Controlling Weeds in Strawberries with Herbicides Galinsoga Control in Strawberries with Chloroxuron Pomological Paragraph Containers for strawberry shipment Problem Weeds in Apple Orchards and Their Control What Type of Research are Entomologists Doing on Insect Pests of Apples? Factors Influencing the Shape of Apples Pomological Paragraph Effect of Alar on the response of Mcintosh apple trees to chemical thinners issued by the Cooperative Extensron Sefvice, A. A. Spielman. Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914; University of Massachusetts. United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. PROGRAM PLANNING FOR NEW ENGLAND FRUIT MEETINGS As in previous years, the Program Planning Committee for the New England Fruit Meetings will be held in mid- June. Each New England State is represented on the committee by its Fruit Extension Specialist and President of the Pomological or Horticultural Soci- ety. The committee members would appreciate suggestions for speak- ers and/or topics for 1975 meetings. LEARNING FROM THE DUTCH William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences The University o£ Massachusetts granted me a sabbatical leave from February 1, to July 15, 1975, to study designs and training systems for intensive orchards. Since many of the concepts and techniques used in intensive orchards were originated or "refined" by the Dutch, it seemed most logical to make my headquarters in this country. I am at the Wilhelminadorp Research Station located in a major fruit growing area of the Netherlands. The research station bears the name of the polder on which it is located. The Wilhelminadorp polder is a 10,000 acre company-owned farm, one of the largest, if not the largest, in the Netherlands. Arable crops are grown on this farm with the exception of the research orchards and those of the company. The polder is near the city of Goes and a part of the Zeeland Province. Zeeland includes a small part of the continent and 6 islands jutting into an estuary of the North Sea. Wilhelminadorp was established as an experimental garden in 1902. In 1940, laboratories for entomology, plant pathology and soil science were added. In 1954, it became the Fruit Research Station for the Netherlands. The station conducts applied research in all fields of fruit growing, i.e. pomology, pathology, entomol- ogy, soil fertility, physiology and economics, both for tree and small fruits. The research on small fruit is conducted in an Exper- imental Garden at Kapelle, 4 miles from Wilhelminadorp. There are 50 research acres at Wilhelminadorp and a professional staff of 10, including the Director, plus 27 assistants. Ir. R.K. Elema is di- rector of the station and at the same time the National Fruit Advis- or. The National Fruit Advisor is responsible for the coordination and the technical content of extension recommendations. The Pomology section, to which I am attached, has a profession- al staff of 3. Dr. S.J. Wertheim, Head, Dr. H.J. van Oosten, and Ing. P.D. Goddrie. Dr. Wertheim's fields of specialty are planting systems, pollination, pruning, and growth regulators. Incidentally, Dr. Wertheim presented 2 talks on the Dutch Fruit Industry at the Dwarf Fruit Tree Meetings at Grand Rapids, Michigan in March, 1973. Dr. van Oosten's specialties are virology, clones, rootstocks, and interstems, and Ing. Goddrie does variety testing. The small fruit section is staffed with a professional and one assistant. Seven Experimental Fruit Gardens are located in the important apple and pear districts in the Netherlands and are financed by the government and growers on a 50-50 basis. The researchers from Wil- helminadorp and the Extension Service in the area where the Exper- imental Gardens are located establish research and demonstration plots at these locations. 2 - I plan to report in Fruit Notes on the fruit industry in the Netherlands and its trends'^ and on research developments. The first of several articles appears below in which the statistics of the fruit industry are summarized with major emphasis on apples. ^The reclaimed land surrounded by dikes is a polder. Each polder has a name. A polder may be small in area or over 100,000 acres in size, such as the North-east polder. AAAAAAAA*AAAA:f:A NETHERLANDS AND ITS FRUIT INDUSTRY William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Over 13.5 million people live in the Netherlands, a country about 1/3 larger than Massachusetts. Population density is nearly 1000 per square mile, but in the western part of the country it is nearly 8 times as high. An area about the same size as Greater London, which includes the cities of Dordrecht, Rotterdam, Delft, the Hague, Leiden. Haarleem, Amsterdam, Hilversum, and Utrecht, has a population of about 5 million. The Netherlands has an oceanic climate with no hot summers or cold winters and little snow. It is situated 52" north latitude and therefore the light intensity is low; hence the interest in small fruit trees which utilize light more efficiently than large trees. The land is flat, half of which has been taken from the sea. The marine and river clay soils on which most orchards are found have a high clay and silt content. They are frequently shallow but the combination of rich soil, humid climate, and a high water table produces vigorous tree growth unless controlled both by dwarfing rootstocks and pruning. Major fruit crops. The acreage of major fruit crops is shown in Table 1. It can be noted that the acreage has decreased since 1950. However, the decrease in strawberry acreage has been less dramatic because of a surge in planting during the 1950's. In 1969, there were 2688 tree fruit holdings of 12.5 acres or more (Table 2). Orcharding is less specialized than in Massachusetts and many of the orchardists produce sizeable tonnage of each major tree fruit. This means that the acreage of either apple, pear, plum of cherry on a fruit farm may be quite small by our standards. Table 1. Average trend of fruit crops in the Netherlands. Fruit Year 2. crop 1950 1960 1970^ 1974*^ Apple 101,530 88,998 65,410 54,770 Pear 36,328 27,083 20,888 17,785 Plum 13,408 6,005 3,410 2,770 Cherry 12,973 8,433 4,638 3,313 Strawberry 8,958 12,208 6,728 6,083 Raspberry 2,438 3,298 985 638 Red currant 4,480 3,935 1,235 710 Black currant 4,100 3,595 405 160 Source: Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics. ^Reporting of small holdings discontinued but total acreage involved is small. Table 2. Number of tree fruit holdings and acreage by size in 1969. Orchard size (acres) No. of holdings No. of acres 12.5 - 15 626 8,358 15 - 17.5 510 8,085 17.5 - 20 372 6,815 20 - 22.5 269 5,598 22.5 - 25 199 4,658 25 - 37.5 426 14,148 37.5 - 50 127 5,400 50 or more 99 7,385 2,628 60,447 ■'-Source: Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics. The number of holdings greater than 12.5 acres increased dur- ing the 1960's but probably are on the decrease now. Basically, there are 4 reasons for the decreasing acreage and size of holdings in tree fruit: the Eurpoean Economic Community (EEC), increased production in other European countries, rising costs, and intensi- fication. The EEC's Common Agricultural Policy established in 1967, elim- inated the trade barriers for apples and pears within the Community. As a result, the Dutch apple and pear market became exposed to the EEC's oversupply caused by extensive plantings during the 1960 's of apples in France and pears in Italy. The problem of oversupply is further intensified by the "bumper" crop years in Germany, the prin- cipal market for Dutch apples. The "bumper" crops are primarily due to the biennial nature of numerous small holdings of obsolete trees that receiv plantings came in the fruit auction cause it is compe France from one o whether apples co cooperative. The now because the G uniformly packed auction, small lo fruit quality var e little or no care. Until t to production, the German app s in the Netherlands. They 1 titive buying. If the German f the cooperatives, they did uld have been bought for less advantage of the Dutch aucti erman buyer can obtain large from a cooperative in France, ts of grower-packed apples pr ies considerably among lots. he extensive apple le buyer bought at ike the system be- buyers bought in not know at the time money at another on system is less quantities of apples At the Dutch apple edominate. Naturally, Growing and mark sequently, beginning faced with low prices costs. Acreage decre initiated, and intens acre and production p because of high labor It now is believed th chard with no hired 1 some individuals beli ical unit for one man come. eting costs in 1967, the for his pro ased, a subs ification wa er man hour. costs; thus at the most abor except eve that 15 when tree f rose rapidly in the 1960's. Con- Dutch apple and pear grower was duct due to oversupply and rising idized tree removal program was s started to increase yields per The large grower suffered most the trend to smaller holdings, economical unit is the family or- harvest help. In terms of acreage, to 20 acres constitutes an econom- ruits are the only source of in- Apple production. Table 3 shows the trend by variety. Apple pro- duction increased during the 1960's and in 1971 the Dutch apple growers marketed the biggest apple crop ever (about 28.7 million 40-lb bushels). This amount may never again be reached. Table 3. Apple production by variety in of metric tons marketed). ^'^ the Netherlands (thousands Year "7 Variety 1965 1969 1971 1973 1974-^ G. Delicious 63 140 188 168 160 Cox's Orange 37 78 88 81 58 Belle de Boskoop 67 72 85 66 44 James Grieve 30 38 38 36 32 Jonathan 45 38 26 13 12 Stark Earliest 8 7 Lombartscalville 8 11 Y. Transparent 10 7 Laxton's Superb 5 5 Winston 5 Tydeman's Early 3 Benoni 3 Others 85 68 95 86 79 Total Marketed Production fl — - 358 475 520 450 385 ;Metric ton = 2204.6 lbs. ;Source: Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics. 'Forecasted marketed production. - 5 - The industry is geared to the fresh market, thus varieties with good eating and/or cooking qualities are preferred (Red Deli- cious are considered too sweet and Mcintosh lacking in flavor and texture. ) The Golden Delicious became the major variety during the 1960's which is unfortunate because much of the EEC oversupply of apples is of this variety. The production of Cox's Orange, a high quality eating apple, increased, whereas Belle de Boskoop' and James Grieve production has been stable. The popularity of Jonathan with the grower has declinedrapidly since 1965. The Benoni variety may be of interest to the Massachusetts apple grower since it originated in Dedham around 1830. This is an early variety, by Dutch standards, ripening in late-August to early September. Benoni is strongly biennial and requires chemical thin- ing to insure the harvest of marketable-sized apples and repeat bloom. At present ethephon is the best thinning compound for Benoni It is applied in early bloom at 960 ppm on young trees and 1920 ppm on older trees. Pear industry. This industry is small in comparison to the apple industry, with Conference being the leading variety (Table 4). Table 4. Pear production in the Netherlands (thousands of metric tons marketed)-*-'^ Year Variety 1965 1969 1971 1973 1974'' Conference 17 21 TZ 18 36 Legipont 9 12 9 6 11 Doyenne du Comice 3 5 12 6 17 Beurre Hardy 2 7 8 2 19 Clapp's Favorite 8 10 9 3 5 Bonne Louise d'Avranches 7 7 8 3 12 Triomphe de Vienne 2 8 Precoce de Trevoux 4 6 Beurre Alexandre Lucas 1 3 Others 26 11 3^ 17 29_ Total Marketed Production 79 90 110 55 129 ^Metric ton = 2204.6 lbs. :^Source: Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics. ^Forecasted marketed production. Pear production fluctuates considerably, as illustrated by the production figures for 1973 and 1974, and in heavy crop years the supply exceeds the demand. Much of the biennial bearing is due to unfavorable weather for pollination. Fortunately, weather is gen- erally more favorable for pollination of apple trees because they bloom later. At present (March 10) a small pear crop appears pos- - 6 - sible this year due to the large crop in 1974 and in part to the advancement of flower development by the unusually warm weather. ■""I will refer frequently to Boskoop in other articles concerning planting systems and pruning because trees of this variety have Mcintosh vigor. The fruit are large, green and russetted. I rate the fruit good for flavor and texture. *************** MUMMY BERRY DISEASE OF BLUEBERRY C.J. Gilgut Department of Plant Pathology One of the most destructive diseases of highbush blueberries in Massachusetts is mummy berry, caused by a fungus with the awe- some name, Monilinia vaccinii corymbosi. It does not occur every year and several years may pass without the disease. The fungus winters over in the diseased fruit, called mummies, which drop to the ground during the growing season. The mummies are hard, dry, pumpkin-shaped, dark grey bodies and, when moist, swell to twice their size and are black. They are very resistant to cold, heat, and drought and may lie dormant on or in the soil under the plants for more than one season. When weather is wet in spring, about the time buds swell and growth starts on the plants, the mummies produce brown, moist, cup- shaped or funnel-shaped "mummy cups," 1/4 to 1/2 inch in diameter. Clouds of dust-like spores called ascospores , are discharged from the cups over a period of time - usually between mid-April and the end of May. Spores that land on swelling buds and new growth at- tack the new shoots causing a twig blight, spur blight and dieback which often is confused with late frost injury. Later, the die- back may extend down the stem and kill it, sometimes even to the ground. The fungus also attacks the blossom clusters to produce a blossom blight. If moist conditions continue during the spring and especially during bloom, the spread of the disease is rapid and the loss may be serious. In about 10 days to two weeks after infection, there develops a greyish or brownish fuzz on the diseased shoots, spurs, and flow- er clusters and the fuzz produces an abundance of secondary spores, different from those produced by the mummy cups, which are called conidia. It is the conidia that invade the green berries in wet weather. The fungus continues to grow inside the berries as they enlarge and causes them to turn salmon-colored and dry and hard as they approach ripening. They drop to the ground before the healthy berries are ripe and the skin sloughs off leaving the hard fungus mass which dries and hardens into the mummy which winters over. The cycle is repeated the following spring. Control. No control is needed if weather is dry from the time buds begin to swell until "flowers" drop because the disease is not like- ly to be serious. But if weather is wet during this time, some cultural practices and a spray program will be helpful in reducing the loss of fruit. 1. Keep the diseased plants and plant parts removed from the planting and remove wild or neglected blueberry bushes around the borders outside of the planting. Such plants often harbour diseases and are a source of infection in the planting. They make disease control in the planting difficult. 2. Rake or hoe under the plants to disturb the mummies or sweep them into the rows where they can be cultivated. Disturbing the soil about one inch deep is enough. Mummies that are disturbed frequently, so that contact with the soil is broken, do not produce mummy cups and mummy cups broken from mummies do not produce spores. Disturbing mummies should be done several times at weekly intervals during the time they form mummy cups usually from about April 15 to about the end of May, de- pending on the season. It is practical only when the planting is in clean cultivation and not in sod culture. 3. Spraying - Do not expect complete control. In carefully controlled experiments carried on for several years, research work- ers could get only 50 to 60% reduction in mummy berry. Ferbam was more effective than other spray materials tested. Use ferbam for the first few sprays at 2 to 3 lbs in 100 gal- lons of water and apply to "drip-off." Time the applications long enough before rains so they dry on and will be there to give pro- tection during the rain. Applications after rains are usually too late to prevent the disease from entering the berries and will not eradicate it from inside the berries. Make the first application of ferbam about May first and re- peat in 7 days if weather is wet, otherwise in 10 days. Repeat again in 7 to 10 days. The Environmental Protection Agency does not allow ferbam on blueberries closer to harvest than 40 days. For this reason, after May 15 or 20, use captan at 2 lbs in 100 gallons of water at 7 to 10 day intervals until harvest time. Cap- tan is allowed during harvest and on the day of harvest. These late sprays will help reduce the amount of brown fruit rot during harvest and post-harvest fruit rot. ie************** 8 - CONTROLLING WEEDS IN STRAWBERRIES WITH HERBICIDES Dominic A. Marini Regional Fruit and Vegetable Specialist Since strawberries occupy the soil for more than a year from planting to harvest, control of weeds is a major production prob- lem. Herbicides, properly used, can reduce the problem consider- ably but not entirely. Some cultivation is necessary for loosen- ing the soil to enhance the rooting of runners, and to eliminate weeds not controlled by herbicides. In Massachusetts, herbicides that have been found effective for use on strawberries are chloroxuron fNorex* or Tenoran*) , Dac- thal* and diphenamid (Dymid* or Enide*). Dacthal* and diphenamid are pre-emergence materials and must be applied to weed-free soil before weeds appear; they do not control weeds that have emerged. Chlorox- uron can be applied either pre-emergence or early post-emergence be- fore weeds reach two inches in height. Best results are obtained when herbicides are uniformly applied to moist, smooth, clod-free soil followed by one-half to one inch of rain or irrigation within one week. Dacthal* may be pre-plant incorporated -- apply and work it in- to the soil shallowly with a disc harrow or weeder before setting plants. Or, it may be applied immediately after transplanting. It is effective for about 6 weeks and controls annual grasses and most broadleaf weeds except ragweed, smartweed and Galinsoga. It may also be applied late in the season for fall and winter weeds. Diphenamid should not be applied on new beds until plants are established, and it may not be applied again for 6 months. It is effective for about 8 weeks and controls annual grasses and broad- leaf weeds except Galinsoga. It is not recommended for use on the Raritan variety since injury may occur. Chloroxuron should not be applied until plants are established and not more than twice in one season. It is effective for about 8 weeks. Most broadleaf weeds are controlled up to two inches tall, while Galinsoga is controlled up to 3/4 of an inch in height. Grass control is poor, particularly with post-emergence applications. Do not apply it when temperature exceeds 85°F, as injury may occur. Late season applications control fall, and winter weeds. Some growers apply Dacthal* at transplanting followed by an application of chloroxuron when weeds begin to appear for long term weed control. *Trade name *************** GALINSOGA CONTROL IN STRAWBERRIES WITH CHLOROXURON Dominic A. Marini Regional Fruit and Vegetable Specialist Galinsoga has become one of the most serious weed problems in Massachusetts since most herbicides fail to control it. Two of the herbicides used on strawberries, Dacthal* and diphenamid (Dymid* or Enide*) , do not control it and are not of much value on farms heavily infested with Galinsoga. Chloroxuron (Norex* or Tenoran*) , in pre-emergence or early post-emergence applications, provided effective control in 1974 tests conducted in cooperation with Nor-am Chemical Co., manufac- turer of Norex*. Tests were conducted in several Massachusetts lo- cations. The results of one test are as follows: Galinsoga plants per square foot Treatment 1 2 3 Average Check 9 12 11 11 6 lbs per acre 2 0 0 1 8 lbs per acre 0 0 1 0 Treatments were applied on May 26, when weeds were up to 3/4 inch in height. Weed counts were made on June 19. The results of this and other tests showed that chloroxuron can control Galinsoga effectively in pre-emergence or post-emergence applications up to 3/4 inch in height. Plants from 3/4 to 1-1/2 inches in height are stunted but outgrow it; the larger the plants the less stunting occurs and the sooner they outgrow it. *Trade name *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Containers for strawberry shipment. -P.M. Porter and W.J. Tietjen, of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, report that in simulated shipping tests, clear polystyrene, foam polystyrene and paper pulp pint baskets caused significantly less cutting and bruising of strawberries than the widely used plastic mesh baskets (HortScience 8:August, 1973). The pressure and/or movement of berries against the multiple cutting surfaces on the sides and bottoms of the plas- tic mesh pint baskets caused many cuts. The type of basket had 10 little influence on the cooling rate of the strawberries, although those in clear polystyrene quart baskets cooled slightly slower than those in paper pulp or veneer (wood) baskets. The authors mentioned that the excellent visibility afforded by the polystyrene baskets, and the relatively small storage space needed for empty baskets, are additional assets of the clear polystyrene containers. *************** PROBLEM WEEDS IN APPLE ORCHARDS AND THEIR CONTROL William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Although we have several good herbicides available fo apple orchards, certain perennial broadleaf weeds such as poison ivy, milkweed, trailing blackberries and morning gl become a problem where chemical weed control is practiced, weeds may have been present before the use of herbicides, chemical control of the more susceptible weeds has made co more favorable for their growth and allowed them to become serious problems. Because of herbicide usage for the cont perennial grasses, we also have encountered an increasing with some annual grasses, namely, crabgrass, foxtail, fall and barnyard grass, which invade the weed-free areas in mi late-summer. For those of you concerned with one or more problem weeds mentioned above, we have prepared below our tions for their control. r use m dandelions , ory have These but the nditions more rol of problem panicum d- and of the sugges- Problem Weed Brambles Poison ivy Herbicide to Use Remarks Perennial Broadleaf Weeds Ammate X* Contrary to some re- ports, we have found that 2 applications of a 2,4-D formulation in the same season failed to control bram- bles. Ammate X* Weedone 638*, Dacamine* or Dacamine 4D* would be a second choice. Dandelions, Dock, Bindweed, Plantain, and Sorrel 2,4-D formulations: Optimum time of appli- Dacamine* or Dacamine cation will vary with 4D* weed species. 11 - Problem Weed Herbicide to Use Remarks Milkweed Ammate X* Terbacil or repeat ap- plication of paraquat or one o£ the 2,4-D formulations mentioned above may be somewhat effective. Barnyard grass, Crabgrass, Yellow Foxtail and Witch- grass. Annual Grassy Weeds Terbacil These weeds often in- vade herbicide-treated areas by August. Fol- lowing the emergence of these weeds, an ap- plication of paraquat may keep the treated areas practically weed- free for the remainder of the season. Lambsquarters and Ragweed Annual Broadleaf Weeds 2,4-D formulations Same as for annual grassy weeds . *Trade name itifkifkitifkifkifkftitlt WHAT TYPE OF RESEARCH ARE ENTOMOLOGISTS DOING ON INSECT PESTS OF APPLES? John G. Stoffolano, Jr. Department of Entomology Amid the great concerns about safe and efficient use of pesti- cides, fruit growers rightly ask what type of research is being done by entomologists today to resolve these concerns. During 1974, I attended 4 national conferences of entomologists, at which a num- ber of papers were presented that are of direct interest to growers. A report on one of these meetings, the Apple Maggot Conference, was published in Fruit Notes, July-August, 1974. An analysis of the papers presented at these meetings clearly shows the direction of today's entomological research. Among the 4 meetings, 14 papers were presented on topics deal- ing with apple insects. Of these, 4 were on the biology of the pest; 4 were on pest management; 3 were on pheromones [sex attrac- on biological control; and only 2 were on insecticid tants) ; 1 was es - 12 - A drastic shift in research has taken place within the last 10 years. Fewer studies are being conducted on the evaluation and use o£ insecticides in orchards. Considerable emphasis instead is being placed on the biology of the pest species, pest management practices and the use of pheromone traps as a tool in monitoring pest population. This trend has been brought about by our increased understand- ing of insect pheromones plus the ability and technology to isolate and synthesize these biological agents. Renewed interests in the biology of the insect pests has certainly resulted from current pressure from the Environmental Protection Agency and legislation banning many insecticides. Most research, consequently, has been restructured to evaluate and investigate alternate methods of pest control. The apple or- chard, however, basically by the nature of its design is a simple unstructured ecosystem. Because of this, the number of different, natural parasites and predators is low compared to a more complex system. Exactly how effective biological and cultural control practices will be in controlling insect pests of apples in the future remains questionable. This, however, does not mean that re- search in this area is unproductive. I would like to conclude by asking one question. Will the re- search that is being conducted on pest management ever get out of the confines of the experimental orchards and into the hands of the grower; and, if so, how long will this take? FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SHAPE OF APPLES"'" William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Shape of apples is an important contribution to attractive- ness. It is known to be influenced by several factors, one of which is distribution of seeds in the fruits. As most growers know, apples with small numbers of seeds are frequently lop-sided with the less fleshy side being the one lacking seeds. Climate also can affect shape. In Massachusetts, J.K. Shaw in 1914 (A study of variation in apples. Massachusetts Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui . 149) , reported on the relationship between shape of Ben Davis and Baldwin apples and the temperature following bloom; the cooler the tempera- ture, the more elongated the apple. He concluded that during the post-bloom period, temperature variations between the 6th and 16th day after full bloom fitted the observed variations in shape more closely than during any other period. 13 In 1963, M.N. Westwood and L.T. Blaney in Oregon (Non-clim- atic factors affecting the shape of apple fruits. Nature 200:802- 803.) reported effects of several non-climatic factors on shape of apples. In a study with Red Delicious, rootstocks were found to have a significant effect, with fruits on seedling roots, EM I, or EM XVI being more elongated than those from trees on EM VI, EM VII or EM IX. With Golden Delicious, both crop load and fruit location in the cluster affected the shape of fruits. Those from trees with a light crop (whether the result of heavy thinning or a light bloom) were longer than fruits from trees with a heavy crop. The "king" fruits were longer than side-bloom fruits. A possible genetic effect on fruit shape also was studied by Westwood and Blaney using three strains of Red Delicious. They found that fruit shape differed significantly with strain, common Delicious fruits being flatter than Starking and Starkrimson fruits. M.W. Williams and E.A. Stahly in Washington (Effect of cyto- kinins and gibberellins on shape of 'Delicious' apple fruits. Jour . Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 94(No. 1):17-19), suggested in 1969 that the influences of temperature, crop size, and fruit location in the blossom cluster on fruit shape are possibly related to their ef- fects on growth regulators in the developing fruits. They showed that an application after full bloom of two kinds of growth regu- lators, cytokinins and gibberellins, alone and in combination in- creased fruit length. Cytokinin-treated fruits were longer than normal with prominent, well-developed calyx lobes, whereas those treated with gibberellin were merely longer. To the contrary, it is well known that Alar-85 will cause flattening of apple fruit. Recently, C.R. Unrath in North Carolina (Jour. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 99(No. 4):381-384) reported that for Red Delicious, a single spray of gibberellin (GA 4-7) plus benzyladenine (a cytokinin) ap- plied between full bloom and petal fall appears practical, especially in areas where high post-bloom temperatures normally result in poor- ly shaped fruit. This spray combination improved fruit shape and increased fruit weight. (Unfortunately, gibberellin (GA 4-7) and benzyladenine have no label clearance for use in orchards.) ■•■This article first appeared in the Jan. -Feb., 1971 issue of Fruit Notes but due to frequent questions pertaining to factors influ- encing shape of apples, this article has been updated. 2 Trade name *************** - 14 - POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Effect of Alar on the response of Mcintosh apple trees to chemical thinner's^ Last year, we reported that an application of Alar* in mid-August, 1971, increased fruit set on Mcintosh apple trees in 1972, but had no influence on the thinning ability of naphthalene- acetamide (NAAm) or a combination of NAA plus carbaryl. NAA, 10 ppm or NAA, 10 ppm plus 1/2 lb of 50% WP carbaryl, seriously over- thinned while milder treatments, carbaryl, 1/2 lb of 50% WP and NAAm at 50 ppm (rates commonly used in Massachusetts) resulted in very satisfactory thinning. It was of interest to note that the research findings of Dr. S.J. Leuty, Smithfield Experimental Farm, Trenton, Ontario (Influ- ence of SADH (Alar*) on response of 'Mcintosh' apples to chemical thinning sprays, HortScience 9:193-195, 1974) were in agreement with our results. His findings showed that Alar applied one or two consecutive seasons for preharvest drop control did not reduce re- sponse of Mcintosh apples to chemical thinners the following year, and increased dosage of these materials (carbaryl or NAA) was not warranted. *Trade name *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorse- ment is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar ma- terials . NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spieiman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 40 (No. 4) JULY/AUGUST 1975 TABLE OF CONTENTS Use of Ethephon to Promote Color and Ripening of Apples in Massachusetts Dutch Apple Growing: Intensification and Training Pomological Paragraph Effectiveness of Alar as influenced by coverage Mcintosh Apples in Scotland Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of IVIav 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. USE OF ETHEPHON TO PROMOTE COLOR AND RIPENING OF APPLES IN MASSACHUSETTS W.J. Lord and D.W. Greene Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Ethephon is proving to be of significant value to both pro- ducers and consumers of apples because a pre-harvest application of this material will stimulate red color development, increase soluble solids (sugar content) and hasten fruit maturity. These responses make it possible to advance the marketing season of ap- ples and to have high quality fruits for these early sales. Fur- thermore, this chemical enables the grower to harvest a larger per- centage of his crop from the trees at the first picking. Neverthe- less, misuse of ethephon and/or unavoidable delay in harvest fol- lowing its use could intensify our current problems of supply man- agement and poor fruit condition with the 'Mcintosh' variety. The placement in marketing channels of an excessive volume of ethephon- treated 'Mcintosh' apples that must be sold quickly because of over- maturity could depress prices. Ethephon must be used with caution! Successful Use of Ethephon Ethephon will not completely overcome conditions unfavorable for development of red color. Our experience, the past 3 years, has been that ethephon at 1/2 pint added 10 to 281 red color to 'Mcintosh' apples borne on the periphery of the trees within 7 or 8 days after application (Table 1). Two years' data have shown that 1/4 pint and 1/2 pint promoted comparable color increases within 7 or 8 days after application but the 1/2 pint rate softened fruit (Table 1). Table 1. Influence of ethephon on red color development and flesh firmness of 'Mcintosh' apples. Fruit harvest from peri- phery of the tree. Ethephon Flesh rate '^ Year ^ Red color firmness (lbs) 9/13 (7 days after application) 1/2 pint 1972 71 15.2 1/4 pint 1972 66 16.4 Alar*, 1-1/2 lb 1972 54 16.7 9/19 (8 days after application) 1/2 pint 1973 78 15.2 1/4 pint 1973 77 15.6 Alar*, 1 lb 1973 68 15.7 9/17 (7 days after application) 1/2 pint 1974 89 15.7 Alar*, 1 lb 1974 61 16.9 ^All ethephon treatments were preceded by a mid-July application of Alar*. In 1972, Alar* was used at 1-1/2 lb/100 gal; in 1973 and 1974 at 1 lb/100 gal. ypenoprop (2,4,5-TP) applied with ethephon to control drop. Appli- cation rate was 20 ppm in 1972 and 10 ppm in 1973 and 1974. *Trade name Under color, such vigor, or d color may b color up to tion. Furt may not br i factory lev ety) within allowed to becomes gre non- sprayed after the e 10-year-old Extra Fancy check trees color. conditions that are normally associated with p as high temperatures, wet and cloudy weather, ense trees, the ability of the fruits to devel e so low that an ethephon spray still will not satisfactory levels within 7 or 8 days after hermore, both on young trees and older trees, ng the fruit in the interior of the tree up to el (501 of surface having red color typical of 7 days after treatment (Table 2) . When the f remain longer on the tree, however, the color ater between the ethephon-sprayed shaded fruit shaded fruit. It is of interest to note that thephon spray in 1974, 661 of the interior fru trees had typical red color and would have gr On the other hand, none of the interior fru would have graded U.S. Extra Fancy in regard oor fruit excessive op red bring applica- ethephon a satis- the vari- ruit are difference and the 11 days it on the aded U.S. it on the to red Table 2. The influence of 1/2 pint of ethephon applied on Septem- ber 5, on red coloration of shaded 'Mcintosh' apples . Treatment' Ethephon Control Red color 973" 1973 wn — 9/17 Red "973"" color < 9/12 1974 (%) 9/16 T5^ 4a T2a 33b 10-year-old trees on M.7 3a 3a 58a 33b 76a 28b ^7r9" Ethephon Control 3a 3a 40-year-old standard trees (30 ft spread) 29a 16b 50a 26b la la 16a 9b 28a 10b 52a 21b ^NM, 20 ppm, and 2,4,5-TP, 10 ppm, used for drop control in 1973 and 1974, respectively. y Means for tree type, within a column, followed by a different let ter are significantly different at the 51 level. By obtain juice o ing ade correct and doi followe mit bet the app the time the ethephon fruits in the interior of most trees adequate color, they will probably be suitable only for r immediate sale because of ripeness. The problem of obtain- quate color on the interior of large dense trees can be ed somewhat by pulling the water sprouts during the summer ng some light summer pruning. These procedures should be d by spot picking which will lighten the crop load and per- ter light penetration into the interior of the tree before lication of an ethephon spray. Use on early maturing varieties. Ethephon is a very useful tool on early varieties. In general, a single application applied 7-10 days before normal harvest at 1/2 pint per 100 gallons of water will increase red color development within 4-5 days (Table 3). 3 - Table 3. Influence of ethephon on red color development on 'Niagara.' Sprayed with 1/2 pint of ethephon on August 25; harvested August 28, 1973^. ?. Red color, % Treatment 8/23 8/28 Increase in^color, Ethephon 49 7l Ua^ Check 48 51 3b ^Applied with a Hardie sprayer ^Means, within a column, followed by a different letter are signifi- cantly different at the S% level. Ethephon was used extensively on Early Mcintosh, Puritan and Milton varieties by Massachusetts growers in 1974 with generally good results. Several growers observed that color developed more slowly following the ethephon spray in 1974 than in 1973, particu- larly with the earliest-sprayed trees which did not develop satis- factory color for 7-8 days. The color benefit from later sprays on the same variety in the same block was apparent within 3 days and the fruit were picked on the fourth day. This shows that color develops more quickly in some instances than others and that there is no substitute for a careful daily check of trees. Early vari- eties are notorious for uneven ripening. Therefore, it may be advis- able, for some varieties, to make one picking to remove the riper fruit and then apply ethephon. This should help minimize the prob- lem of over-ripe fruit at harvest. Some growers may wonder about the possibility of spraying the ethephon, then picking the ripe fruit that day, or 1 or 2 days later. Although the ethephon-apple label is not definite with regard to pre-harvest interval, AmChem, the manufacturer of ethephon, prefers to discourage the spraying of this chemical and harvesting the same day or 1 or 2 days later. Harvesting the mature fruit and then applying the ethephon is the preferred practice. Ethephon applied alone accelerates fruit drop. Therefore, naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) should be used with the ethephon to counteract this abscission effect. Use on 'Mcintosh. ' Our suggestions are based on 3 time periods for sale of ethephon-treated 'Mcintosh' fruits prior to normal har- vest time (Labor Day or shortly after), during normal harvest, and after several months of storage (Table 4) . The volume of fruits sprayed with ethephon should be based upon anticipated sales during one or more of these sale periods. The harvest of ethephon-treated fruits must not interfere with the timely harvest of fruits for CA since the placement of ethephon-treated fruits in this type of stor- age is not recommended. Our data and those from a regional exper- iment involving New, York, Maine and Massachusetts, show that ethe- phon-treated fruit which still are in good condition will store satisfactorily in CA, but we are concerned that apples not in good condition will be stored. However, if labor difficulties worsen, it may be necessary to extend the harvest season by advancing it through the judicious use of ethephon on CA 'Mcintosh, * - 4 - Fruit to be placed in storage at 32°F must be picked at proper maturity. Fruits to be sold through January 1, should receive no more than 1/4 pint o£ ethephon per 100 gallons of water and be har- vested 7-8 days after treatment. Although these fruits should store well until January 1, they may be softer than Alar*-treated fruits. Table 4. Suggested use of ethephon for promoting uniform ripening and red color on 'Mcintosh' apple trees. Purpose Compound, timing and rate Fruit for sale 1st or 2nd week of September Fruit to be picked during normal harvest and held at 32°F in air for 1 month or less Fruit to be picked during normal harvest and held at 32°F in air as late as January 1"^ Alar* - mid-July at 1 lb/100 gals plus ethephon - 8 to 12^ days prior to anticipated harvest at 2/3 to 1 pt/100 gals. plus 2,4,5-TP same timing as ethephon spray at 20 ppm Alar* - mid-July at 1 lb/100 gals plus ethephon - 7 to 8 days prior to anticipated harvest at 1/2 to 2/3 pt/100 gals^" plus NAA or 2,4,5-TP same timing as ethephon spray at 20 ppm Alar* - mid-July at 1 to 1-1/2 lbs/100 gals plus ethephon - 7 to 8 days prior to anticpated har- vest at 1/4 pt/100 gals plus NAA or 2,4,5-TP same timing as ethephon spray at 10 ppm ^Weather and tree vigor, etc. affect color development. It may be best to allow 12 days, but be prepared to harvest sooner. y2,4,5-TP is preferred if 2/3 pt of ethephon is used because its X pre-harvest drop control capability is greater than that of NAA. If fruit are in good condition, they will store satisfactorily in CA. *************** 5 - DUTCH APPLE GROWING: INTENSIFICATION AND TRAINING William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Between lands were o and M. 16) , s dwarf rootst seedling-roo of the vigor and 20-30 fe leader or op inches from stricted to the 1930 's and 1950, apple trees planted in the Nether- n seedling roots, vigorous M. rootstocks (M.ll, M.13, emi-dwarf rootstocks (M.l, M.2, M.4 and M,7), or full ock (M.9). Shortly after World War II, spacing of ted trees began to be reduced in new plantings to that ous and semi-dwarf rootstocks: 16-25 feet in the row et between rows. Trees were trained as either central- en-center type with the lowest limbs no less than 20 the ground. These "bush" shaped trees were usually re- 10 to 13 feet in height. Today, in a well-cared-for orchard, trees of this era have 4 to 6 heavily pruned main branches with much of the growth origi- nating from the upper side of these branches removed to in- crease light penetration in- to the tree. [(Scaffold limbs pruned this severely in Massachusetts would be sub- ject to sun Fig. I. A 40-year-old 'Belle de Boskoop' apple tree on M.7. scald.) This is a bush tree of l6-foot height. The M.9's of that era were often planted as fillers between the permanent seedling-rooted and more vigorous M. rootstock trees. Two systems of training trees on M. 9 developed. Some trees were headed-low at planting, supported by a short post and grown as bushes, while others were trained to a central leader and supported by a longer post. The author is indebted to Dr. S.J. Wertheim for supplying the photographs and information for the tables and for examining the paper for accuracy. - 6 - The small tree produced by M.9, with early bearing and often better fruit size and quality, soon convinced the Dutch of the superiority of this stock for their conditions. Therefore, many growers removed their "permanent" trees and replaced them with trees on M.9. They were grown predominantly as bushes. Trends in the 1950's The permanent and filler system was discarded and interest in seedling roots and vigorous rootstocks faded rapidly. M.9 became the most popular rootstock although a sizable number of plantings were established on semi-dwarf rootstocks in the early 1950's. Planting design became rectan- gular and to obtain most of the sunlight available, the tree rows extended north and south. Tree form changed in the early 1950's to the free-spin- dle (Fig. 2) which because of its conical shape allowed good light distribution along the sides of the hedgerows and with^ in the trees. The free-spindle , sometimes referred to in the past as the "free round spindle," is characterized by the presence of 3 or 4, generally 3, perman- ent branches at the base of the leader. Above this permanent framework are short fruiting branches arranged around a cen- tral leader. These branches are kept small by pruning and renewal. Form and training of free- spindle distances for trees on M.9 were frequently 10 feet by 13 feet (335 trees/A) for vigor- ous varieties, or 7 feet by 13 feet (479 trees/A) for weaker growing varieties, such as Golden Delicious. The semi- Fig. 2. A 4-yeap-old 'Golden Delicious' dwarfs were spaced about 10 feet apple tree onM.26. This is a free- by 16 feet (272 trees/A). spindle tree with its characteristic whorl of 3 strong branches at the base of the leader. 'Unfortunately, there appears to be considerable confusion in the USA on the nomenclature of the tree forms used in the Netherlands, 7 - On limited acreage, the "layer spindle" tree form became popu- lar. Each tree has 2 permanent limbs trained in opposite directions in the tree row (Fig. 3). The branches originating from these limbs are tied to 3 wires supported by yokes nailed to every other post in the tree row. Fruiting wood on the central leader is kept very short and of limited amount. Thus, fruit are produced mainly in the horizontal canopy of branches. Trends in the 1960 's M.9 continued to increase in popularity and by 1968 (Table 1), 82% of the trees grown by the Dutch nurserymen were on this rootstock. Actu- ally, the figures in Table 1 are somewhat misleading because many of the trees on semi-dwarf rootstocks were exported and the Dutch imported some M.9's from Belgium and France. Apple growing became less profitable in the 1960's due to rising labor costs which doubled between 1962 and 1967 and reduced prices due to the EEC's oversupply of apples. To help avoid the price/cost squeeze, it became increasingly necessary to obtain higher pro- duction per acre and per man- hour. This was accomplished by adoption of the slender- hod of training trees which permitted further intensi- In this system, the tree has a permanent whorl of 4 or in its lower half (Fig- 4). The lowest limb is 28 inches ound and the leader on older trees is about 7-1/2 feet Ider bearing tree, in a well-pruned orchard, will have a Fig. Z. An 8 apple tree on spindle tree. spindle met f ication. 5 branches from the gr high. An o -year-old 'Golden Delicious' M. 9 trained as a layer- Table 1 The tr nurser gated end in number of apple trees grown by the Dutch ymen and the rootstocks on which they were propa- Year Number of trees X 1000 Percentage on rootstock M.9 M.2 M.4 M.7 Seedl. Other 1951/52 959 15 12 21 17 16 19 1952/53 765 16 13 21 6 13 31 1965/66 2,170 56 15 12 9 0.2 8 1966/67 1,849 63 14 8 6 0.1 8 1967/68 2,214 75 10 5 4 0.1 6 1968/69 2,018 82 7 3 3 0.1 5 total of 13 to 16 branches, half of which are 3/4 inch or more in diameter. A conical tree shape is maintained. Trained to this system, 'Golden Delicious' trees on good soil were spaced 5 feet by 11.5 feet (758 trees/A); on lighter soil 3.3 feet by 10 feet (1320 trees/A). Boskoop, a vigorous variety, on good soil, were spaced at 6.5 feet by 13 feet (516 trees/A); on lighter soil, they were spaced at 5 feet by 11.5 feet (758 trees/A). Productivity ards increased per man-hour (Table 2) creased due to mor acre, easier produ slender-spindle tr yielding varieties Golden Delicious, cultural technique tion per man-hour cause pruning, pic ing , and other cul dures were relativ with the smaller t in the orch- acre and per Yields in- e trees per ction on ees, higher- such as and improved s. Produc- increased be- king, spray- tural proce- ely simpler rees. Fig. 4. A 2-y ear-old 'Belle of Bos- koop' apple tree on M.9. This is a slender- spindle tree with its frame of heavy branches on the lower part of the central-leader. Table 2. Influence of tree type and intensification on production, yield per acre per man-hour, hours to prune and pick, and total hours to grow and harvest the crop. Bush-type Free-Spindle Slender -Spindle tree, 1955 1959 1967 1971 Yield 440 506 616 704 Lb/man-hour 44 67 109 148 Pruning hours/A 80 80 60 30 Picking hours/A 150 139 108 112 Total hours to grow and harvest crop/A 398 302 226 190 Interes but the firs ance in 2,3, Wertheim at tion in 1973 Fruit Tree 6 t in the multi-row system of planting developed in 1959 t trial was not established until 1966. Tree perform- 4,5 or 6-row planting systems was discussed by Dr. S.J. the Annual Conference of the Dwarf Fruit Tree Associa- (Intensive orchards: designs and training. Compact : 105-121). He reviewed the pros and cons of each system, and concluded that, at present, the single-row system is preferred in the Netherlands. Multi-row plantings account for only II of the acreage in commercial orchards. Trend in the 1970 's The most recent development with intensifica field planting (Fig. 5). In such a planting, pes plied through a sprinkle irrigation system, and o Fig. 5. A full-field planting of 'Melrose' ccpple trees on M.9 at the spacing of 0.80 meters by 1.50 meters. Trees planted in the spring of 1972; photograph taken in Oatobery 1974. Sprinklers operating merely to show hoa pesticides are applied. Table 3. Yield of two apple varieties in single row and plantings at Wilhelminadorp Research Station. planted in 1972. tion is the full- ticides are ap- ther cultural prac- tices with an over-the-row tractor. Yields of 1000 bushels per acre can be obtained on 3- year-old trees (Table 3) but the investment per acre is high and harvest is a problem unless a mechanical harvester can be developed. However, sever- al full-field plantings have been established on a commercial basis . full-field Trees Planting system Trees per acre Yield per acre TT. Delicious (40-lb bushel) 1973 1974 Karmyn 1973 1974 Single row 800 1600 75 190 238 420 103 238 352 576 Full-field 1600 3200 206 396 372 1061 222 523 436 1204 "Tree number was reduced 10% when figuring yields to allow for work- ing space in planting. 10 - Summary Since the late 1930's, tree number per acre has increased from 20-40 trees in standard orchards, to 680-1200 trees in the slender- spindle orchards. Planting design has changed from the square planting for standard trees to the rectangular systems for slender- spindle orchards. More recently, interest has developed in multi- row and full-field planting systems but, at present, single rows are preferred in the Netherlands. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Effectiveness of Alar as influenced by coverage. A study conduc- ted by B.L. Rogers and E.R. Kristensen entitled "Preharvest Drop of 'Stayman' Apples as Influenced by SADH (Alar*) in Dilute and Concentrate Form" and published in HortScience 8:314 (August 1973) showed the importance of good coverage for preharvest drop control. Spray equipment which had given good pest control in apple orchards when sprays were applied up to 33X failed to provide adequate pre- harvest drop control on 'Stayman' apple trees when Alar* was ap- plied at 3X or higher. The failure to get effective drop control with concentrates of 3X or higher was probably due to poor spray coverage. There is little or no translocation of Alar from sprayed to non-sprayed branches, so thorough spray coverage is required for best results regardless of spray concentration. *Trade name *************** Mcintosh apples in Scotland William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Mcintosh apples exported from New England to Scotland go to Rotterdam, Netherlands, then are transferred to smaller ships for transport to Edinburgh, Scotland. The apples are handled by Ran- kins Fruit Markets, Ltd., a small importing firm in Edinburgh. In addition to being importers, Rankins have 18 specialty shops which sell fruits, vegetables and flowers. Mcintosh apples from both New England and Canada are found in Edinburgh stores. The red color and soft flesh make Mcintosh a popular eating apple, particularly with older people. However, - 11 younger people (and the English in general), like the firmness and quality of Cox Orange or Golden Delicious or the tartness of Granny Smith in preference to Mcintosh. Which size of Mcintosh is pre- ferred? Either 140- or 160-count is always mentioned as the best size. The 200-counts are considered too small except for customers having small children. One cannot help but wonder if the Mcintosh name helps to sell the variety which is frequently spelled "Macintosh" in Edinburgh stores. Also, it was of interest to note that they are advertised by origin -- "American Macintosh" or "Canadian Macintosh." Rankin Specialty Stores The American Mcintosh displayed in the window of the Rankin stores made a striking contrast to Golden Delicious from the Nether- lands or France. The author was proud of them! Golden Delicious from the Netherlands varied considerably in color, while those from France were uniformly green. The German market prefers a green- colored Golden Delicious, so the same may be true in Scotland and England. At the time of my visit, the Mcintosh, French Golden Delicous, and Dutch Golden Delicious, all of which were Class I fruit, were priced 48, 43.2, and 33.6 cents per pound, respectively, With the exception of a trayed gift pack of assorted fruit, all fruit and vegetables in the Rankin stores are displayed in bulk. They have no self-service. I spoke with a very knowledge- able woman, Mrs. Gillon (a member of the Rankin family with 55 years experience in retailing) who supervises one of the stores. She believes that customers should not be allowed to handle fruit and vegetables because of damage they cause through rough handling. She also was of the opinion that people like the personal service furnished by the Rankin stores. All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials, NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS, Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300 POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 40 (No. 5) SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER, 1975 TABLE OF CONTENTS Harvesting and Storing Apples: A Time for Observing Details New Books on Postharvest Handling of Fruit and Vegetables Re-evaluating the CO2 Levels for CA Apple Storages New Extension Entomologist Unusual Weather in the Netherlands Orchard Mouse Control Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Departrnent of Agricuilure and County Extension Services cooperating. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 40 (No. 5) SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER, 1975 TABLE OF CONTENTS Harvesting and Storing Apples: A Time for Observing Details New Books on Postharvest Handling of Fruit and Vegetables Re-evaluating the CO2 Levels for CA Apple Storages New Extension Entomologist Unusual Weather in the Netherlands Orchard Mouse Control Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of Mav 8 and June 30, 1914; Unrversitv of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. HARVESTING AND STORING APPLES: A TIME FOR OBSERVING DETAILS W.J. Bramlage and F.W. Southwick Department of Plant and Soil Sciences The apple harvest season is a hectic time for a fruit grower. His attention is often focused on his harvest labor, and perhaps on his harvest sales operation. And, unfortunately, something may have to "give." Don't let it be your storage operation! Shortcuts or mistakes in September can mean disaster in April. If a grower is to market quality fruit in the spring, he must pay attention to details in the fall. Some comments follow on things to be watched. Weather. Hot weather shortly preceding and during harvest is gen- erally detrimental. It ripens fruit rapidly, leading to harvesting of overmature apples with shorter storage life. It results in poorer coloring, especially if night temperatures are high, and again leads to harvesting riper apples because it is necessary to wait for at least 33% red color. It increases susceptibility to scald, making effective scald treatments crucial. If it's hot dur- ing the harvest period, the hot apples increase the heat load going into a storage room. Unless ample refrigeration is available, it is probably best to allow these hot apples to cool overnight in the orchard, and bring them into storage early the next morning. If the weather is cool just before and during harvest, the prospects for high quality fruit in the Spring are much better. Nevertheless, there is need to get apples off the tree and into storage as quickly as possible. The riper the fruit at harvest, the shorter is its storage life. With late varieties, freezing is a concern. If it gets cold enough that apples freeze, a whole new set of problems arise. Freezing causes softening, and probably promotes fruit breakdown during storage. It is probably correct to assume that any freezing causes damage and that fruit that has been frozen should not be stored for long periods. If frozen to a temperature of about 20-22°F, or for too long a time, the apples will be killed and will begin to brown soon after thawing. Fruit maturity. Maturity is the stage of development at harvest. If too immature at harvest, fruit will never develop top quality flavor and may be more subject to shriveling, scald, bitterpit and browncore after harvest. If overmature, fruit will deteriorate quickly and be more subject to softening, breakdowns and rots. How to identify maturity is a difficult question. Pressure test, color (especially undercolor), abscission, and flavor are helpful guides, but experience with your own fruit may be your best measure. Use of growth regulators has made this an even more dif- ficult question. Alar* delays maturity, but not as much as many people think. Its phenomenal drop control capability and its delay *Trade name - 2 - o£ softening can be misleading. Do not delay harvest of Alar*- treated fruit; a significant amount of the firmness difference be- tween Alar*-treated and untreated fruits will disappear rapidly during storage. Ethrel* hastens maturity, and despite our belief that Ethrel*-treated fruits can be stored if^ harvested at the right time, we think that it's extremely dangerous to try to CA-store Ethrel*-treated apples commercially. The hormone-type Stop-drop sprays also promote maturation, and should be used with this under- standing. Further complicating the maturity problem is the use of red strains and dwarfing rootstocks. Since for marketing reasons har- vesting is usually gauged by red color, the red strains are prob- ably an advantage to proper storage management since less mature (and longer keeping) fruit may be harvested. However, among the strains of 'Delicious' it is well known that some red strains ma- ture well ahead of others. Therefore, it cannot be assumed that red strains are just like the standard strains except for color; other criteria must also be watched. It is very likely that some rootstocks influence maturity, although this must yet be defined, European studies suggest that fruit from M.9 rootstocks have higher Ca levels and less bitterpit than fruit from M.M.104 root- stocks. Again, you cannot assume that fruits from dwarf ing-root- stock trees are the same as those from seedling-rooted trees. You must watch these fruits closely. Just when to harvest apples for maximum storage life is per- haps the most frustrating question to face. In Massachusetts, flesh firmness of at least 15 to 17 lbs (if Alar*-treated, 16 to 17 lbs) is considered essential for 'Mcintosh' if they are to be stored in CA. Most of the problems of immaturity can be dealt with, but most of the problems of overmaturity cannot be overcome except through rapid disposal of the fruit. Overmaturity is likely the greatest cause of storage problems. It is better to pick a little too soon than a little too late. Pre-storage operations. It is absolutely essential that apples be cooled quickly and thoroughly before storage if they are to be stored effectively. Ideally, the fruit should be cooled to 32°F within 24 to 36 hours after harvest. Use of bulk bins increases the cooling problem. Cooling systems of many older storages were designed for slower loading rates than occur with use of bulk bins. The bulk of fruits within bins interferes with heat exchange: cen- ters of the bins remain warm long after the surfaces have cooled. Furthermore, arrangement of the bins in the storage room often is without regard to correct air flow patterns, and cooling is delayed still further. Few growers have any idea what the temperature of their fruit actually is in the storage. Those who have measured it have been surprised; air temperature is a very poor gauge of the apple temperature. Inadequate cooling undoubtedly is another major source of storage problems. - 3 - Apples susceptible to scald should be treated with an inhibi- tor before storage if they are to be stored beyond early January, Postharvest dips are very effective if used properly; however. Dr. Robert Smock recently commented that he was shocked last fall when he traveled around New York and saw how scald inhibitors were actu- ally being used. Follow the recommendations with care if you want to be successful. If a postharvest dip is being used, it is wise to add a fungi- cide. A circular on "New England Suggestions for Postharvest Fruit Rot and Storage Scald Control" is available from your Regional Fruit Specialist. Benlate* has given excellent decay control on apples, but it should be noted that Benlate* seems to be unusually condu- cive to development of resistant strains of fungi. If Benlate* has been used during the growing season, there is a possibility that a resistant strain is present on the fruit. Furthermore, it is sug- / gested that treated fruit be removed from the dipping area as quick- ly as feasible to avoid buildup of resistant spores. Much can be done to reduce storage decay problems by preharvest sanitation treatments; this was carefully described in Fruit Notes by Dr. C.J. Gilgut in 1972 (Fruit Notes, Sept . -Oct . :pp. 2^TJT If a postharvest dip is used, calcium chloride (CaCl2) may al- so be added to raise the Ca level of the fruit. This practice is commercially employed in several areas of the world, and we have been conducting tests for the past two years. Several grower in Massa- chusetts will use CaCl- dips this fall on a limited scale but we feel that more trials are essential before we can make any general suggestions. Storage operations. CA rooms should be filled and sealed as quickly as the apples can be properly cooled. Growers have been sealing their rooms later in the fall in recent years, and we feel that this is contributing significantly to storage problems. The longer the fruit remain in air after harvest, the less benefit CA will have on them. However, if it is a question of thorough cooling or early sealing, choose thorough cooling. Storage temperature is a vital factor. Fruits should be at SO-SZ'F when a room is sealed: 'Mcintosh' should then be allowed to rise to 37-38°F while the CA atmosphere (3% O2 , 51 CO2) is being attained. It is important to store at the proper temperature, not near it. Temperature 1° or 2° above the recommended point can sharply reduce storage life. 'Cortland' has been successfully stored at 32*'F in recent years, and this has lead to the question of whether 'Mcintosh' should not also be stored at 32°F. Those who have studied the ef- fect of temperature on 'Mcintosh' emphasize that while they may keep well at 32° in the occasional year, 'Mcintosh' generally will not tolerate this temperature for long-term storage (brown core and off-flavors may develop) . A storage operator should measure temperature as accurately as he possibly can. A highly reliable, calibrated thermometer is the minimum gauge. Thermocouples that are now readily available are quite desirable for monitoring tem- perature. The most beneficial COo level in a CA atmosphere is being re- evaluated (See the accompanying article.). However, at present, we still recommend 3% Oy with 5% CO2 for "soft" rooms, and 3% O7 with 31 COt fo^ "hard" rooms. Recent results do suggest that CD2 need not be kept low at the beginning of CA, however. Therefore, we recommend a rapid "pull-down" of Oo to 3^ without concern for the CO2 level, which can be adjusted later. It appears that some growers have been placing excessive amounts of lime in CA rooms, so that CO2 never reaches 51. If the CO2 remains low during storage, much of the CA effect will not occur. Based on recent observations, the practice of putting lime in the CA room seems debatable unless the scrubbing system is simply inadequate. The proper humidity for storage is also being re-evaluated. It is clear that a relative humidity very near 100% can increase breakdown problems. However, storages are more likely to have too low a humidity than too high a humidity, since humidity is hard to maintain in many storages. Storage operators are encouraged to do everything possible to maintain a high relative humidity as this question is looked at more closely. Careful observations and record keeping do not end with attain- ment of the CA condition. Atmosphere and temperature should be monitored and recorded daily. If the O2 falls below 31, it should be brought back up immediately. Storage conditions should be watched closely and recorded. (The gas analyzer, the aspirator bulb, and all sample lines should have been carefully checked before sealing, and any indication of malfunction during storage should be checked- out immediately. Porous aspirator bulbs which result in higher O2 readings than actually exist in the room, have been responsible for severe low O2 injury to fruit.) It is well to sample fruit period- ically during the storage season. (See: "The Soft Mcintosh Prob- lem" Fruit Notes, Sept. -Oct. 1974:pp. 1-4.) Successful storage operation requires attention to details, from the beginning of harvest to the sale of the last apples. Any mistake or oversight can be disastrous, especially with the trend to longer storage periods: the longer apples are kept, the more important are the details. The successful operator should recog- nize a problem as it develops, and adjust his marketing practices accordingly. For example, if cooling in some fruits has been inad- equate, these fruits should be disposed of as quickly as is feasible. Long term storage should be attempted only with apples that have "everything going for them." Long-term CA does not correct mistakes; it only underlines them. *************** 5 - NEW BOOKS ON POSTHARVEST HANDLING OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES W.J. Bramlage Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Until recently, few books were available on postharvest hand- ling of fruits and vegetables. But within the past couple of years a series of books has appeared that may be of interest to many readers. 1. "Handling, Transportation, and Storage of Fruits and Vege- tables. Volume 1. Vegetables and Melons" (1972. by A. Lloyd Ryall and Werner J. Lipton.) "Volume 2. Fruits and Tree Nuts'" (1974. by A. Lloyd Ryall and W.T. Pentzer.) The Avi Publishing Company, Inc., Westport, Connecticut. Volume 1, $21.00. Volume 2, $34,00. These two volumes give a broad view of handling requirements and practices of many different fruits and vegetables. 2. "Postharvest Physiology, Handling and Utilization of Trop- ical and Subtropical Fruits and Vegetables" (1975. by E.B. Pantastico.) The Avi Publishing Company, Inc., West- port, Connecticut. $39.00. This book includes a great deal of information about the nature and composition of fruits and vegetables as well as specific information about certain commodities. 3. "The Biology of Apple and Pear Storage" (1973. by J.C. Fidler, B.C. Wilkinson, K.L. Edney, and R.O. Sharpies.) Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Central Sales, Farnham Royal, Slough SL2 3BN, ENGLAND. $13.00. This is an excellent publication relating only to apples and pears, but summarizing many years of findings by the English on storage conditions, physiological disorders, diseases, and orchard and climatic factors influencing storage behavior. It contains many excellent colored photos of disorders. *************** - 6 - RE-EVALUATING THE CO2 LEVELS FOR CA APPLE STORAGES W.J. Bramlage Department of Plant and Soil Sciences In 1973 (Fruit Notes, Sept. -Oct.), we reported that recommen- dations for COo levels in CA apple storages were being re-examined. Since then, we and others at a number of different experiment sta- tions have been testing the use of short periods of high CO2 at the beginning of CA, as a means of delaying ripening, and especial- ly softening during and following CA storage. The widespread interest in this technique arises from the ex- cellent results that Dr. H. Melvin Couey and his colleagues of the U.S.D.A. in Wenatchee, Washington have obtained on 'Golden Delicious.' They began high CO tests in 1971, and their technique has been so successful that it was given an industry-wide test on Washington 'Golden Delicious' last year. Their treatment consists of simply raising the CO2 level to 201 (in 4-5% O2) for the first 8-10 days of CA or to 15% (in 4-51 Oy) for the first 15 days, followed by the normal CA atmosphere. They have found the 'Golden Delicious' trea- ted in this way to be 2 lbs firmer than normal CA fruit in February, and to continue to be significantly firmer and have a better flavor throughout the remainder of the storage season. The possibility that 'Mcintosh' quality after storage might al- so be improved by a similar treatment has been pursued at several experiment stations. We have conducted substantial tests during the past 2 storage seasons with mixed results, but these tests have illustrated the potentials for both benefit and damage. In the 1973-74 storage season, we treated 'Mcintosh' and 'Red Delicious' with high CO2 . Using an Arcat* generator, we "pulled down" O2 to 3% but did no CO2 scrubbing. The CO2 level during pull- down rose to about 9%, and during subsequent weeKs slowly rose to about 11%. Apples kept at these high CO^ levels at 38°F for up to 9 weeks before being transferred to a normal Mcintosh atmosphere of 3% Oy, 5% CO2 and 38°F, and samples were examined for quality in January, March, and May. There was no benefit to 'Mcintosh' from these treatments, and while 'Delicious' held in high CO2 for 3,6 or 9 weeks were firmer in January than ones in normal CA, the differ- ences disappeared during later storage. We concluded that 9% CO2 at the beginning of CA was of no value to 'Mcintosh, ' but we also were impressed by the lack of any injury to the fruit, even after 9 weeks exposure to 9-11% CO2 . This suggested that the apples had more tolerance for CO2 than we had believed. In the 1974-75 season, we decided to test this tolerance with some extreme treatments on 'Mcintosh' and 'Cortland.' Again, O2 was "pulled down" without scrubbing and CO2 was then added to the *Trade name - 7 - CA to raise the atmosphere to either 121 or 151 CO2 (with about 31 Oo)- Samples were kept at 38°F in 12% CO2 for 3 weeks, and in 151 for 1,2, or 3 weeks, before transfer to 31 O9, 51 CO2 and 38°F; samples were examined in January, March and May. The effects of the treatments on fruit firmness are shown in Table 1. Benefit to 'Mcintosh' was substantial. All treatments retarded softening, and the effect persisted throughout the storage season. These values are for fruit kept 1 day at room temperature after removal from storage, but substantial differences were also measured after 7 days at room temperature, so the benefit should carry through to the consumer. 'Cortland' apples responded less than 'Mcintosh' ; only 15% CO2 for 3 weeks produced a measurable difference in May. The benefit to 'Mcintosh' was obtained at a price; CO2 caused injury to some fruits. CO2 injury can be of 2 forms: an exernal scald-like injury on the green portion of the fruit; and, an inter- nal damage characterized by dry pockets in the flesh, that often leads to breakdown of the fruit. Both forms of CO2 injury appeared in and on 'Mcintosh. ' The scald-like injury occurs during the CO2 exposure and was detectable at all examinations. It resulted from all treatments to 'Mcintosh,' but the amount of injury was usually only 1-2% of the total number of fruit. This injury can be sorted out easily, gets no worse during later storage, and would probably be tolerable because of the firmness benefits obtained on 'Mcintosh.' 'Cortland* showed none of this injury. The internal injury is of much more concern. It was not de- tected until May, could not be removed by sorting, got worse with time, and was worse in larger than in smaller fruits. The percent occurrence was not determined, but some internal injury was present in all the treated samples of 'Mcintosh. ' This injury is probably not tolerable. Again, however, injury did not occur in 'Cortland' from any treatment. The 1974-75 test clearly illustrated that 1) high CO2 can sharply retard softening of 'Mcintosh, ' but 2) 'Mcintosh* can be severely injured if exposed to too high a CO2 level at the begin- ning of storage. Thus, it is obvious that considerable work remains to be done on this subject. Other experiment stations have also been examining high CO2 treatments on 'Mcintosh' during the past several years, and their findings suggest that 12-13% CO2 for about 2 weeks at the begin- ning of CA may be optimum. However, many questions must be answered before any commercial recommendations can be made. Some of these questions are: How quickly after harvest must the high CO2 level be obtained to influence firmness? (Dr. Couey finds half the bene- fit to 'Golden Delicious' to be lost if treatment is delayed only 10 days.) Is the benefit related to maturity of the fruit at har- - 8 - vest? How much do temperature, O2 level, and storage humidity dur- ing the high CO- treatment influence benefit or injury? Can the high CO2 treatments be extended beyond 2 weeks? What is the sensi- tivity to CO2 of other varieties that might be in the room with 'Mcintosh?' To attempt to answer these and other questions in the shortest period of time, a joint experiment has been designed for the com- ing season at Cornell University, Michigan State University, Uni- versity of Guelph COntario, Canada), Agriculture Canada Research Station, Summerland, British Columbia, and the University of Massa- chusetts. Personnel at each of these locations will conduct a basic experiment with 'Mcintosh' with each institution examining at least one of the above questions. It is hoped that this joint research approach will substanti- ally decrease the length of time needed to determine the feasibility of high CO2 treatment in retarding softening of 'Mcintosh. ' Exces- sive softening of 'Mcintosh' is a severe problem, and the use of high CO2 may be a simple approach to lessening the problem. But the possibility of CO2 injury is a constant threat that will requi much data and much caution before commercial trial on 'Mcintosh. ' Unfortunately, we are working with a variety that appears to be more susceptible to CO2 injury that 'Golden Delicious,' and we can- not simply apply the results from Dr. Couey's tests in Washington to our conditions in Massachusetts. re Table 1. Effects of high CO9 levels at the beginning of CA storage on firmness of apples. Firmness Clbs pressure) after storage to: Treatment January March May Mcintosh 5% CO2, 3% O2, CCA) 12% CD^, 3% Do, 3 wk.* 12% CO2, 3% O2, 6 wk.* 11.4 9.8 9.4 12.9 10.9 9.9 13.0 10.9 10.4 15% CO2, 3% O2, 1 wk.* 15% COo, 3% Oo, 2 wk.* 15% CO2, 3% O2, 3 wk.* 12.5 10.4 9.8 13.1 12.0 10,7 13.8 12.7 10.2 Cortland 5% CO?, 3% O2, CCA) 12% CO2, 3% O2, 3 wk.* 11.1 10.7 10.5 11.9 11.4 10.7 12% CO2, 3% O2, 6 wk.* 11.5 11.1 10.6 15% CO2, 3% O2, 1 wk.* 11.3 11.0 10.5 15% COo, 3% O2, 2 wk.* 15% CO2, 3% O2, 3 wk.* 11.9 11.2 10.7 12.2 11.5 11.3 *Followed by 5% CO2 , 3% O2 for duration of storage period. *************** NEW EXTENSION ENTOMOLOGIST Dr. John G. Stoffolano, Jr., Acting Chairman for the Depart- ment of Entomology, is pleased to announce the addition of Dr. R. J. Prokopy to its staff. Dr. Prokopy will officially assume his new position of extension entomologist starting September 1, 1975, A graduate of Cornell University, Dr. Prokopy received his doctorate's degree in economic entomology under the supervision of Dr. G. Gyrisco. After working four years as an assistant entomol- ogist at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Dr. Prokopy spent several years overseas: 1 year in Poland at the In- stitute of Pomology, 1 year at the Swiss Federal Research Station working on cherry maggot, and 1 year as a United Nations, Food and Agriculture Overseas consultant at the Democritos Research Center in Athens, Greece, where he worked on the olive maggot. Following this, he was appointed a research associate at the Department of Zoology, University of Texas, where he researched the Rhagoletis complex. Dr. Prokopy was invited to participate in the recent Gordon Conference on Herbivore Plant Interactions, held this summer in New Hampshire. While at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, he published several bulletins entitled, "Experiments on control of insects and mites on the fruits in Connecticut." Currently, he has an extensive review article in press entitled, "Biology and management of Rhagoletis flies." Dr. Prokopy has a personal feeling for fruit growing, having maintained an apple orchard in Wisconsin. Dr. Prokopy has worked closely with Zoecon on developing baited traps for apple maggot and this summer has a Rockefeller Foundation Grant in conjunction with Dr. W. Roelofs from the Geneva Experiment Station in New York State. Dr. Prokopy has expressed his enthusiasm to return to the East where he was born (Danbury, Conn.) and is looking foward to research on the fruit pest complex here in Massachusetts. UNUSUAL WEATHER IN THE NETHERLANDS William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Rainfall in July through November, 1974, at the Wilhelminadorp Research Station was 166% of the 1951 through 1973 average. As a result of excessive rainfall throughout the Netherlands, the har- vest of many crops was prevented or delayed. For example, it was predicted that about 25,000 acres of potatoes would be lost. - 10 - Last fall, some meteorological experts in Europe were fore- casting the bitterest, longest, and nastiest winter for a century. In fact, all of Europe enjoyed the mildest "non-winter" in living memory until late February. The mild weather permitted the harvest of potatoes during the winter months and as a result only 5000 to 7500 acres were not harvested instead of the predicted 25,000 acres. The first freezing temperatures at the Wilhelminadorp Research Station occurred on the morning of February 5, 1975. 'Blue Rock,' the earliest plum variety at the research station, commenced bloom on February 13. This variety normally blooms in early April. Thus, at this time, the season was about 2 months advanced. The weather turned cooler after mid-February and the 'Blue Rock' plum variety was not in full bloom until March 12. By mid- March, fruit trees in some orchards had been sprayed once or twice and scab lesions were found on pear fruit on March 27. By mid- March, the season was considered to be advanced by 3-4 weeks. Cool weather persisted in late March and early April, The first snow of the winter at Wilhelminadorp occurred on Easter and the temperature was 18°F, lower than on Christmas. Fortunately, growth advanced very slowly throughout April and as a result bloom date of apples was "normal" at Wilhelminadorp (first week of May) . Thus, 1975 season changed from 2 months advanced to normal and points out the needlessness of worrying about the weather over which you have no control. The view that "normal weather is unus- ual weather" has validity. Extreme conditions during the growing season usually, for the most part, evens out by the beginning of apple harvest. *************** ORCHARD MOUSE CONTROL Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist U.S. Fish a Wildlife Service Hadley, Massachusetts The time for fall control of mice in orchards is here. As in previous years, a check of the orchard should be conducted to deter- mine which blocks or areas show higher than usual mouse activity. These areas should receive extra care in treatment and, if necessary and if time permits, a follow-up treatment should be made. Some orchard blocks were hit harder than usual during the lat- ter part of this last winter. Damage in most cases was along the edges of blocks adjacent to unmowed fields. Migration of mice in search of food from these untreated areas was the apparent cause and indicates the need to create a treated buffer strip around these blocks. - 11 Control practices are the same as for previous seasons. For the control of meadow mice, reduction of vegetative cover during the growing season will help. During the winter, under snow cover, it will have little effect. The use of zinc phosphide-treated baits still is recommended for the control of both meadow and pine mice. Bait broadcasted at the rate of 6-10 pounds per acre should give adequate control of meadow mice. For pine mice, broadcasted bait will give some control. Better results will be achieved if zinc phosphide baits are trail baited either by hand or machine. NOTE: Before applying any toxic bait, a permit still is required from the Massachusetts Division of Fish and Wildlife, 100 Cambridge Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02202. All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials, NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massacliusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT FRUITp^" NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 40 (No. 6) NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1975 TABLE OF CONTENTS Fruit Virus Research and the Introduction of Virus -Free Trees to Fruit Industry in the Netherlands Pomological Paragraph Dutch small fruit acreage shows and 83% decline since 1950 Reflections After the Sabbatical in the Netherlands Fruit Notes Index for 1975 Issued by the Coooerative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman. Director, in furtherance of the Acts of Mav 8 and June 30, 1914; Unrversity of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. FRUIT VIRUS RESEARCH AND THE INTRODUCTION OF VIRUS-FREE TREES TO FRUIT INDUSTRY IN THE NETHERLANDS Dr. Ir. H.J. van Oosten* Research Station for Fruit Growing, Wilhelminadorp After World War II, research on fruit tree viruses expanded rapidly throughout the world. Initially, most of the research was conducted in England and the USA. In 1953, virus research with fruit trees was started in the Netherlands by the Plant Protection Service. This agency established that several viruses known to occur in apple and pear in other countries were also present in the Netherlands. Later, the Institute of Phytopathological Research in Wageningen, the Netherlands, started more basic fruit virus research. They found better indicator plants for some viruses than those which were generally used, with quick and distinct symptom expression af- ter infection. The Plant Protection Service and the Institute of Phytopathological Research were also involved in the production of virus-free trees. The value of virus-free plant material for the fruit industry was examined by the Research Station for Fruit Growing at Wilhelminadorp while the propagation of the promising virus-free material was organized by the General Inspection Service for Woody Nursery Stock. Thus, 4 organizations are involved in the fruit virus research, evalution of virus-free material, and the release of the new material to the fruit industry. This paper will briefly review why the virus program was started, research results, and the organization for the release of virus-free material. Virus-infected Trees It has been shown that several important diseases of fruit trees are caused by viruses: rubbery wood, mosaic, chat fruit, proliferation, star crack, and rough skin in apple; vein yellows, ring mosaic, and stony pit in pear. Especially in the USA incom- patibility of some cultivars with important stocks like Virginia Crab and Northern Spy were found to be caused by viruses. In some cases, yield losses up to 501 were reported. But several viruses also were detected that gave no symptoms on the leaves, stems or fruits of the main cultivars (varieties). These viruses were called the "latent" viruses. When each of these "latent" viruses occurred separately, no effect on growth and production could be detected, but when more than one was present (as often is the case) tree growth and yield reductions could be measured in trials. Thus, it was concluded that many viruses were harmful to apple and pear trees and that the problem was serious enough to warrant investi- gations of ways to eliminate viruses from apple and pear. *Researcher on virology, clones, rootstocks and interstocks Virus-tested Trees The initial research of the Plant Protection Service showed that some harmful viruses (like rubbery wood in apple and vein yel- lows in pear) were widely spread in Dutch fruit orchards. Latent viruses occurred in most trees, especially in those on the most im- portant rootstocks. Therefore, the Plant Protection Service ini- tiated a program to find trees free of the most important viruses. Thousands of trees from commercial orchards were tested on indica- tor plants but only a few trees proved to be free of the most impor- tant viruses. The virus-free trees were used to build up a new stock of mother trees and rootstocks. This plant material was named "virus-tested," because of the absence of some important vi- ruses (rubbery wood, mosaic, proliferation and fruit attacking vi- ruses in apple; vein yellows, ring mosaic and stony pit in pear). However, the problems were how to introduce this material into the fruit industry and how to guarantee and to maintain the absence of some viruses. In the old system, every nurseryman had his own mother trees of cultivars and stoolbeds of rootstocks and the Gen- eral Inspection Service controlled only the authenticity of the cultivars and rootstocks. Now it was thought that the General In- spection Service should also control the health of the plants. Therefore, it was decided that growing of "virus-tested" mother trees should be centralized on a special plot under the control of General Inspection Service. Since about 1965, hundreds of "virus- tested" mother trees of most cultivars have been planted. All nurserymen are obliged to buy their bud- and graftwood from these mother trees. The virus-tested rootstocks are propagated in com- mercial nurseries but are strictly controlled by the General Inspec- tion Service. This system has worked quite well. Virus-free Trees About 1960, a new technique became available for the produc- tion of trees free of all known viruses: heat treatment. Plants are grown in a climate chamber at 37°C for 6-8 weeks and very small tips (5 mm or less) of new growth are grafted to apple and pear seedlings, free of all known viruses. Usually 95% of the tip-grafts made on the seedlings survive. Generally, several sources of each cultivar are treated. The tip-grafts produced are usually free of any virus contamination. However, it is necessary to test every tip-graft on indicator plants to be sure of the absence of viruses. These tests for viruses causing symptoms on leaves and stems usually take 3 years, while those for viruses causing symptoms on fruits may take 6 years. The Research Station for Fruit Growing at Wilhelminadorp ob- tained some trees resulting from the tip-grafts for pomological tests and the General Inspection Service was allowed to build up a stock of heat-treated material. However, generally no material was released until the completion of the virus and pomological tests. - 3 - Pomological Tests A. Comparison of virus-free and virus -infected trees At the Wilhelminadorp Research Station and the 6 experimental gardens in the Netherlands, trials are established to compare the "old" virus-infected trees, the virus-tested trees, and "the new" virus-free trees. So far only preliminary results have been ob- tained (van Oosten 1974 and 1975), but these seem to confirm, in general, the older data of the English research stations at Long Ashton and East Mailing in that (a)virus-free trees grow more vig- orously than virus- infected trees; (b)virus-free trees usually pro- duce larger yields than virus-infected trees; (c)the yield effi- ciency (pounds per unit of growth) of virus-free trees is equal or higher than of virus-infected trees and Cd)fruit quality (color, smoothness of fruit skin, grade) is also usually better for virus- free trees. These conclusions underline important advantages of virus-free trees. But in the Netherlands, the stronger growth of virus-free trees is not always considered as positive. The planting system in the Netherlands is based on small trees on weak (virus-infected) M.9 rootstock with tree spacing of 10.7 or 11.6 feet between the row and 4.1 or 4.9 feet in the rows, depending on the cultivar. Tree height does not exceed 8.2 to 9.8 feet to permit picking with- out ladders. The stronger growth of virus-free trees will affect tree-spacing, tree height, and perhaps increase pruning time. The Dutch experiments have shown that on apple replant soil* the stronger growth of virus-free trees seems to be acceptable in the first years after planting (Table 1). The growth of normal virus-infected trees in replant soil is often considered to be too weak in the first years after planting. It is questioned how growth of virus-free trees will develop later. In experiments on new land for apple, the growth is considered too strong, especially for some strong-growing cultivars (Table 1) . It is expected that on new land planting distances may have to be greater. It is ques- tioned what the influence will be on tree height in later years and what the consequences are for yield per acre. The growth of virus- free trees especially on fresh apple soil will be one of the main concerns of Dutch fruit research in the next years. B. Testing of tip-grafts In the trials mentioned above, only a very limited number of tip-grafts of a few cultivars is included. Most of the produced virus-free tip-grafts are therefore studied in other trials at the Wilhelminadorp Research Station and the Experimental Gardens. This is to be sure that no unexpected mutations have occurred and to *Soil previously planted to apples. Trees grow less vigorously in replanted soil than in "new" soil or in fumigated replant soil. avoid mistakes with industry. Three tre free M.9 rootstock. quality are studied each tip-graft for p value of these tests already been detecte 'Red Boskoop' , the ' obtained after heat- grafts from the same - 4 the material which may be released to the fruit es of every tip-graft are made, using the virus- Characteristics of growth, production and fruit for about 3 years. This program for testing of omological characteristics started in 1972. The is beyond doubt. Some unexpected events have d. For example, in the important Dutch cultivar Schmitz-Hubsch' a mutant with striped fruits was treatment at 2 different institutes. Other tip- source of the cultivar had normal fruits. Table 1. The growth per tree (meters) of virus-free and virus-in- fected trees of 'Golden Delicious' on M.9 on fresh and replant soil. Virus status Growth per tree (meters) Fresh soil Virus-free Virus-infected Replant soil Virus-free Virus -infected 1972' 2.9 2.4 3.2 3.2 1973' 6.3 4.2 4.8 3.2 1974' 28.1 18.2 11.9 7.9 In the nursery After planting in the orchard C. Comparison of different virus-free sources of one cultivar (variety) . It is well known that different sources of a cultivar may dif- fer in growth, production and fruit quality. There are two main reasons for this: (a) the sources differ in virus-contamination; and (b)genetic variation. In the Netherlands, the virus-induced variation in the culti- var 'Cox's Orange Pippin' is well knovm. In almost every orchard of this cultivar, poor and heavy bearing trees occur. But, there seems to be a genetic variation also. Campbell (1974) found that the virus-free English clone of 'Cox's Orange Pippin' was less pro- ductive than some virus-infected commercial sources of the cultivar These virus-infected sources will be heat-treated and it is hoped that a heavy-bearing 'Cox's* clone can be found. Similar work is now being done in the Netherlands with the most important cultivars. In one trial, differences in smoothness of the fruit skin has been found among the 4 virus-free sources of 'Golden Delicious' (Table 2). These results were very important to Dutch fruit industry. - 5 - It has led, for example, to the complete replacement of mother trees of 'Golden Delicious' by the two best sources. No. 2 and No. 5. These are now generally known as clone A and B, respectively. Dif- ferences in production between virus-free sources of 'Anjou' pear were recently reported by Westwood and Cameron (1974) . Thus the virus story will not end with the removal of viruses by heat treat- ment of a cultivar. The choice of the source of a cultivar before heat treatment is also of importance. The comparison of different sources of one cultivar will therefore have the attention of our research station in the next years. Table 2. The skin smoothness of 4 different virus-free sources of 'Golden Delicious' on M.26. Mean for the 1971 through the 1974 harvest seasons. Source No. Smooth fruit (I) 2 33. 4a^ 5 28.7ab 1 24.2bc 3 20.6c ^Means followed by the same letter are not significant at the 5^ level. Propagation When the virus and pomological tests are completed, the collab- orating organizations jointly decide which tip-grafts of a cultivar are worth multiplying for release to the fruit industry. For root- stocks, the virus tests are the main basis for the decisions because of the long time necessary for pomological evaluations. The General Inspection Service then establishes mother trees and stoolbeds of the newly selected material. The nurseries also are allowed to start new stoolbeds of virus-free rootstocks but under control of the General Inspection Service. The nurseries, however, have to buy their bud- and graft-wood of virus-free cultivars from the Gen- eral Inspection Service. To give an impression of what's going on, some data are pre- sented in Table 3 about the release of apple bud and graftwood in the past season (summer, 1974 and winter 1975). It should be noted that this season there were no virus-free M.9 rootstocks available for budding. (M.9 is the most important rootstock in the Nether- lands.) The virus-free buds were therefore budded on other virus- free rootstocks and on virus-infected M.9. Virus-free M.9 rootstocks are rapidly being multiplied under the control of the General Inspection Service. Some nurseries have started new stoolbeds with all the new virus-free layers that have become available. These stoolbeds are now coming into production - 6 - and it is thought that next season all nurseries will have enough stoolbeds of virus-free M.9. Therefore, in 1975/1976, the Dutch nurseries are free to do what they want. Most virus-free M,9 root- stocks will be planted and budded in 1976. It is estimated that at least one million trees on virus-free M.9 will be available in 1977. Table 3. The release of budwood and graftwood of apple with a dif- ferent virus content in the season 1974/1975 in the Netherlands. (Data of the General Inspection Service NAKB) Virus status Buds Grafts Total (I) Virus-free Virus-tested Not tested 980,200 297,800 47.6 809,600 93,800 33,7 192,450 30,100 8.3 Literature Cited 1. Campbell, A.I. 1974. Which Cox clone is the best? Grower 81 (24) :1166-67. 2. Oosten, H.J. van. 1974. Virus research and clonal selection in fruit trees. Ann. Rept. Res. Sta. Fruit Growing, Wilhelmin- adorp, 1973:19-20. 3. Oosten, H.J. van. 1975. Virus research and clonal selection in fruit trees. Ann. Rept. Res. Sta. Fruit Growing, Wilhelmin- adorp, 1974:17-18 4. Westwood, M.N., and H.R. Cameron. 1974. Effects of vein yel- lows virus on growth, flowering and yield of Anjou pear. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 99: (5) : 425-427 . AAAAAAAA:%AAAAA:I: POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH Dutch small fruit acreage shows an 851 decline since 1950. Increas- ing labor costs steady decline to 1973, the ac than 2,000 acre crease are blac about 578 acres your-own method lands. and lack of harvest labor have been responsible for a in small fruit acreage in the Netherlands. From 1950 reage decreased from 12,300 acres to a little more s. The only small fruit crops that have shown an in- kberries and blueberries which together total only It was the opinion of the author that the pick- of sale warranted serious consideration in the Nether- - 7 - REFLECTIONS AFTER THE SABBATICAL IN THE NETHERLANDS William J. Lord Department o£ Plant and Soil Sciences The apple industry in the United States suffered 3 consecutive marketing seasons, starting with the 1969-70 season, of over-supply and low prices. It became clear that in order to survive, the in- dustry must strive for production increases per acre and per man hour without sacrificing fruit quality. Fortunately, production decreased somewhat the last 3 years and returns to growers have been more favorable. However, it is likely that apple surplus years will again occur, and production and marketing costs have increased rapid- ly since the fall of 1973. Since many of the concepts and techniques used in intensive orchards to increase yields per acre and per man hour were originated or refined in the Netherlands, this seemed a logical place to spend a sabbatical. Now that my sabbatical leave has terminated, it is time to reflect on what I observed, how it might apply to Massachusetts, and ask, "Where do we go from here?" The Apple Industry in the Netherlands Research. The Netherlands, which covers an area little larger than the combined areas of Connecticut and Massachusetts, has a National Fruit Research Station at Wilhelminadorp and 7 Experimental Gardens for fruit. Since field research at Wilhelminadorp is frequently duplicated at one or more Experimental Gardens, the time interval between experiments and commercial adoption of useful practices is shortened. An impressive feature of the research work at Wilhelminadorp is the close liaison and cooperation with growers. Most research is designed to answer questions by growers. A "Wild-Idea Club," composed of researchers and progressive growers, organized by the National Fruit Advisory Service, meets periodically to discuss and implement research on "futuristic" ideas. Researchers at Wilhelminadorp are presently studying varieties, pruning methods, virus-free varieties and rootstocks, chemical thin- ning, pollination and fruit set, nutrition, trickle-irrigation, multi- row and full field plantings, growth regulators, integrated pest con- trol, etc. Modern orchards. The orchard is generally family-owned with no hired labor except for harvest. An orchard of 15 to 20 acres is considered an economical unit for one family when tree fruit are the only source of income. Dutch apple growing will be discussed in detail at the N.E. Fruit Meetings. 8 - Most orchards are on M.9 rootstocks and most are trained as slender-spindles with 680 to 1200 trees per acre. The minimal frame-work on these trees is a striking contrast to the frame-work on apple trees in Massachusetts. The slender-spindle training sys- tem makes a large number of trees per acre possible and this com- bined with little pruning for the first 4 to 5 years leads to a large quantity of fruiting wood per acre within a few years. Thus, early heavy yields are obtained. The oldest slender-spindle trees are probably 13 to 15 years of age and it is possible that in some instances, the trees are too closely planted. However, economics have forced growers to be more concerned about producing heavy, early yields than the necessity for early removal of the trees. Furthermore, shorter rotations (the talk is that orchards will be removed after 15 years) will enable the growers to more frequently apply the latest technological ad- vancements in orcharding. The "modern" apple grower is a perfectionist by our standards, particularly in training his trees, and he excels in production ef- ficiency. Like the American grower, he has "pioneered" many con- cepts used in fruit growing. The quality of Dutch apples on the tree is good. However, like the United States, the major problems are in the areas of harvest and post-harvest operations. Most fruit, regardless of grade, is sold jumble-packed in open crates holding 44 pounds of apples. Al- though the wholesalers are prepared to pay more for cartoned apples, the growers are not convinced that increased returns for cartoned- apples will offset increased packing and packaging costs. The apple industry is geared to the fresh fruit market and processing is practically limited to making of apple sauce. The Dutch consumer doesn't know fresh apple cider and, thereby, is not willing to pay a higher price for the product that the more economi- cal "bottled" apple juice. Although 101 of the apples are sold at the farm, this method of sales is much less specialized than in Massachusetts with no roadside stands, consumer packaging, nor sales on Sunday. In general, packing is decentralized and selling is central- ized. Growers store and pack their own fruit, but it is sold through auctions. Too often, the storage is "speculative," the fruit is not stored properly (like in the United States), and the Golden Delicious in the packs are non-uniform in color. Intensification in Massachusetts Past. In the 1930's and 1940's, pomologists at the University of Massachusetts had considerable expertise for this era on size-con- trol rootstocks. Based on research at Amherst and several trials in commercial orchards, it was concluded that M.9 was for the home gardener and M,2, M.7, and M.13 had commercial value along with seedling trees. Permanent trees on seedling roots were spaced 40 feet by 40 feet (27 trees/A) and the trees were mowed and sprayed from both directions. When filler trees were used in the rows and between rows, tree number increased to 106 trees per acre. However, fre- quently the loss in productiveness on the trees exceeded the value of the fillers because the filler trees were not removed before crowding occurred. The introduction of air blast sprayers eliminated the need of applying sprays from both directions and herbicide usage eliminated the need of cross-mowing. Therefore, it became possible to retain the 20 feet by 40 feet (54 trees per acre) plantings on seedling roots or plant seedling trees at a 32-foot by 40-foot spacing (34 trees/A) . The increased tree number and reduced orchard travel in^ creased efficiency (higher yields and less cost) , In 1956, we recommended M.7 with no reservations, except for Red Delicious, and planting distances of 20 feet by 30 feet (72 trees per acre). M.13 was suggested for wetter soils. Since the loss of the late Dr. Walter D, Weeks in 1968, size-control rootstocks and orchard intensification has received little or no research emphasis in Massachusetts since it is not possible to investigate every re- searchable area in fruit growing! Therefore, we had to look to other fruit growing areas for information on size-control rootstocks and orchard intensification and Massachusetts growers did consider- able "pioneering" on their own. The apple industry was subjected to rising production costs and harvest labor difficulties in the 1960 's and as a result inter- est in smaller trees and closer spacing to increase production per acre and per man hour heightened. Since the author was not actively involved in testing rootstocks and planting systems, all he could do was caution and observe. Growers, in the meantime, planted trees on M.7 and MM 106 at spacings as close as 10 feet by 18 feet (242 trees/A) and tree training, in general, involved limb spreading and standard pruning techniques. The present. Growers have found that dense plantings on M.7 and^Mloe are not a guarantee for success. However, we are indebted to these pioneers for we have gained much valuable information from their experiences. Currently, some blocks of young bearing trees are crowded and growers are forced to remove trees to reduce crowding. If the "temporary" trees have paid for themselves and the remaining trees are not adversely affected, the closer spacings were worth- while. 10 - In 1970, New England Tree Fruit Survey indicated that only II of the trees in Massachusetts were on M.9 rootstocks. Interest in this rootstock has increased only slightly in the last 4 years. To the contrary, interest in spur trees, the M.26 rootstock, limb spreading, and summer pruning have increased greatly. Where Do We Go From Here? General Comments. We need to increase the yield of high quality fruit per acre and per man-hour in Massachusetts and few will argue against orchard intensification as being an essential step toward fulfilling this goal. However, making the right decisions on de- gree of intensification, rootstock/variety combinations, training systems and planting systems is difficult, to say the least. Trees on size control rootstocks produce earlier, and are eas- ier to prune, spray, pick and should produce better quality fruit if the trees are managed properly. Furthermore, research has shown that yield in pounds per square foot of space occupied by the tree is greater for trees on size control rootstocks than those on seed- ling roots. But, small trees will not produce high yields per acre at an early age nor high life-time yields per acre unless correctly pruned and spaced. In Massachusetts and other fruit-growing areas in the United States, tree crowding has become a serious problem in some intensive orchards because increased tree numbers per acre has not been associated with a comparable decrease in tree size. Furthermore, high yields per acre at early tree ages frequently have not been realized. Orchard land in Massachusetts is less expensive and more avail- able than in the Netherlands. Many Massachusetts growers have been satisfied with low density plantings and thereby have avoided errors that result in tree crowding. They may continue to follow this al- ternative in the future! However, all growers should be concerned with earlier returns on their investment and increased production of high quality fruit per man-hour and this need has become increas- ingly essential with our present economy. However, whatever is done, it is well to keep in mind that our industry is based on red apples for fresh fruit market, and that we cannot sacrifice red color and good keepability for high yields per acre. Vigorous size-control rootstocks. The Dutch apple industry, at present, is geared to M.9*s supported by posts, and the Massachu- setts industry to the more vigorous rootstocks and the free-standing tree. We certainly will not abandon our present orchard management practices until we are satisfied that weaker rootstocks, including M.9's, are suitable alternatives to M.7 or MM 106 in Massachusetts. The question then arises, how can we control the size of our trees on M.7 or MM 106 and plant them closer without encountering serious overcrowding problems. Perhaps pruning techniques, other than what we have used in the past, will enable us to do this and to obtain profitable yields earlier. - 11 - The slender-spindle pruning techniques used in the Netherlands warrants investigation. The slender-spindles in the Netherlands are not a "pretty" tree, but they are productive! The slender- spindle pruning technique has enabled the Dutch growers to increase yields per acre and per man-hour and to keep their trees smaller. However, the author is not willing to suggest the slender-spindle pruning method other than on a trial basis. Extensive testing is needed and spacings will vary according to variety and soil type. Even though we may use slender-spindle techniques, our trees may look more like the free-spindle trees found in the Netherlands with a heavy frame of scaffolds in the lower third of the trees because of wide spacings. The heavy frame may be necessary to reduce the vigor of the trees on M,7 or MM 106, Weaker rootstocks. The writer is convinced the proper way to keep trees srtiall Is by use of weak rootstocks, more dwarfing than M.7, and not by chemicals. Chemicals can be useful in promoting flower- ing of young trees and restricting growth but annual applications to keep trees small do not seem practical. Hopefully, the M.26 rootstock will prove to be a suitably weaker rootstock. There is much interest in M,26 in Massachusetts and elsewhere. However, thorough evaluation of standard trees and spur-types on M.26 at various spacings and training systems is needed under our conditions. The Dutch, even though they have M.9, are also interested in spurs on M.26. A question concerning M.26 is the need of supporting trees on this rootstock. English re- searchers have found that budding 4 inches higher and then planting 4 inches deeper than in the nursery will stabilize trees of M.26. This procedure warrants investigation under our conditions. It is difficult for the European Pomologists to understand why we have large holdings of big trees, whereas equivalent yields and profits might be derived from much less acreage with trees on M.9. Furthermore, they are amazed that United States apple growers are content to wait 5 or 6 years for their first "real" crop and to work with such large trees. One European Pomologist stated that the American Fruit Grower has everything going his way because, compared to many European apple growing areas, he has better soils and cli- mate. I was frequently asked in the Netherlands, "Why aren't you in- terested in M.9's?" My answer was that our industry at present is not mentally prepared or forced by economics to make such a drastic change and that M.9 hasn't been adequately tested for our conditions. It is best that changes come slowly, but frequently disasters force rapid changes. World War II, the floods of 1953, and the price/cost squeeze of the 1960's certainly were responsible in part for the rapid changes in the Netherland apple industry. We now are faced with a serious price/cost squeeze and we in the United States should give serious thought to present orcharding techniques used in the Netherlands and other countries. Technological advancements during - 12 - the last decade with trickle irrigation, herbicides, frost pre- vention, and virus-free rootstocks, behoove us to take another look at the M.9 rootstock! Needed research on M.9. The creosote-impregnated posts used to support trees on M.9 in the Netherlands are much smaller in diameter than those commonly used in New England, being only 2 to 2-1/2 inches at the base. The use of creosote-impregnated posts (if economical) or substitutes for wood appears to need investigation under our con- ditions. There are 4 virus-free sources of M.9 in the Netherlands which may or may not be different. Growth of trees on these virus-free rootstocks is considerably greater than those budded to virus-infec- ted M.9 rootstocks. The need to evaluate virus-free rootstocks of M.9 under our conditions is obvious. Slender-spindle techniques need investigation for individually- staked trees on M.9 in Massachusetts. These techniques may induce earlier heavy yields and reduce pruning time in comparison to cur- rent pruning practices. Budding height. Budding height and its effect on tree performance is being investigated in the Netherlands. It is now suggested that budding height on M.9 rootstock be increased by 2 inches Cfi^om 4 inches to 6 inches in height) . This will reduce the incidence of scion rooting and decrease tree vigor. Budding M.9 and M.26 at heights of 8 inches to 20 inches will cause even greater reduction in tree size than by budding at 6 inches. However, tree variabil- ity is increased because of burr knots (adventitious roots on trunks of trees) on M.9 and M.26 rootstocks and variation among rootstocks in form. The burr knots restrict carbohydrate transport to the roots which leads to tree decline. Deeper plantings would allow the burr knots to develop into roots and thus improve anchorage. However, tree vigor is increased. High budding of MM 106 and M.2 rootstocks is of little value for growth suppression in the Nether- lands but it does induce better branching. Certainly somewhat higher budding, as being advocated in the Netherlands or more care at planting, should help reduce the incidence of scion rooting in our orchards. Interstem trees. At present, there is little interest in using M.9 as an interstem in the Netherlands because the trees would be more costly and burr knots on M.9 and variable rootstock form increases tree variability. However, there seems to be considerable interest in the United States in interstem trees and we should evaluate them in Massachusetts. Pruning. The statement heard in the Netherlands that continually comes to mind is -- orchard size should be g6verned by the number of skilled pruners available on the farm. Those considering high density plantings or even medium density plantings of more than - 13 - 120 trees per acre on M.7 would do well to consider this statement. These plantings require "tender loving care" and if a grower cannot provide this care nor is willing to make acreage reductions in or-- der to provide this care, it would be best to avoid such plantings. The Dutch are studying the effects of heading height at plant- ing on tree training. This is particularly important on the *Bos- koop* variety, which like most of our varieties, is not well branched when planted as a 1-year-old. A year or more time can be lost be- cause of corrective pruning of heading errors at planting. Thus, considerable attention is given to heading height in the Netherlands and we would do well to "follow suit." We must pay more attention to training young trees. Perhaps by giving more attention to proper heading heights at planting and by using slender-spindle training techniques, there will be less need of limb spreading. This is true in the Netherlands, Summer pruning has gained interest in the United States. How- ever, in some instances we may have been pruning too early in the season, particularly when it involved shortening of some current season's shoots. Research in the Netherlands shows that summer pruning should be done after completion of shoot growth. Earlier shortening of shoots causes regrowth on the shortened shoots and the breaking of bud rest on the adjacent 2-year-old wood, which means less flower-bud initiation. Multi-rows. The Dutch have studied multi-rows extensively and have concluded that, at present, the single-row is preferred. We would do well to rely on their experiences. The double row was of no ad- vantage whereas the even-numbered rows in a 3,5 or 7 multi-row sys- tem can be only temporary because tree management and harvest is difficult in multi-row orchards. However, this doesn't preclude the need of continued research with multi-row or full-field plant- ings because of the availability of M.27, chemical techniques, and new planting techniques. Equipment. The trend toward smaller sprayers in the United States has reduced the need for large tractors. The orchard tractor used by the Dutch is approximately 48 inches wide and I was told that it is capable of handling 2 bulk bins front and back (a bin full of apples weighs about 650 pounds). Of course the land is flat in the Netherlands! However, small tractors and other equipment that can operate in a 4-foot alley may be feasible in some orchards and thus would premit further intensification. Summary Increasing yields over the life-time of the orchard, especially in early years, can be achieved by increasing tree density. Unfor- tunately, at present, the single-row planting is most practical which is disappointing when one considers land wastage. Multi-row 14 systems which utilize available space more efficiently than the single-row system are limited by a number of factors such as the high initial cost, tree management, current equipment, and harvest difficulties . It is impossible for us in Massachusetts to investigate all of the researchable areas mentioned above and there are other problems of concern besides orchard intensification. Furthermore, many of the "proposed" researchable areas are probably under investigation in neighboring states. Some of the orcharding techniques currently popular are not new but neglected practices of the past. Basically, the young, slender-spindle tree is a non-pruned tree. Years ago, there were numerous experiments comparing pruned and non-pruned non-bearing trees and it was generally concluded that young trees should be pruned. Now we want weak growing trees and early, heavy production in order to maintain them at close spacings. In the Netherlands, they talk about removing orchards after 15 years. We all could improve present orchard practices by making ful- ler use of present knowledge and undoubtedly research will continue to show how to improve on present practices. Thus, in this age of rapid change, we should take fuller advantage of the many man-years of study devoted to apple husbandry all over the world. *************** FRUIT NOTES INDEX FOR 1975 (This index of major articles has been prepared for those who keep a file of Fruit Notes. The number in parenthesis indicates the pages on which the item appears.) January -February Attempts to Raise the Calcium Level in Apples (1-2) Varieties of Strawberries for Massachusetts (3-5) Varieties of Pears and Quinces for Massachusetts (7-8) Notes on Other Pear Varieties (9) March-April Causes of Peach Tree Decline (1-2) Let's Reduce the Damage to Peach Trees from Cytospora Canker (3-6) Effect of Nitrogen and Potassium Fertilizer on Color, Russet and Cork Spot of Golden Delicious Apples (7) Influence of Lime, Source of Nitrogen, and/or Time of Applica- tion on Vegetative Growth and Fruit of Sturdy Spur Delicious (7-9) Response of Mcintosh Apple Trees to Annual Applications of Dichlobenil (Casoron*) (10-11) - 15 - May-June Learning from the Dutch Cl~2) Netherlands and its Fruit Industry (2-6) Mummy Berry Disease o£ Blueberry C6-7) Controlling Weeds in Strawberries with Herbicides (^8) Galinsoga Control in Strawberries with Chloroxuron (9) Problem Weeds in Apple Orchards and Their Control (10-11) What Type of Research are Entomologists Doing on Insect Pests of Apples (11-12) Factors Influencing the Shape of Apples (12-13) July-August Use of Ethephon to Promote Color and Ripening of Apples in Massachusetts (1-4) Dutch Apple Growing: Intensification and Training (S'rlO) Mcintosh Apples in Scotland (10-11) Sept ember -October Harvesting and Storing Apples: A Time for Observing Details (1-4) New Books on Postharvest Handling of Fruit and Vegetables (5) Re-evaluating the CO2 Levels for CA Apple Storages (6-8) New Extension Entomologist (9) Unusual Weather in the Netherlands (9-10) Orchard Mouse Control (10-11) November -Dec ember Fruit Virus Research and the Introduction of Virus -Free Trees to Fruit Industry in the Netherlands (1-6) Reflections After the Sabbatical in the Netherlands (7-14) Fruit Notes Index for 1975 (14-15) Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol, 41 (No. 1) JANUARY-FEBRUARY 1976 TABLE OF CONTENTS Cost of Production Reduced Spraying for Apple Insects and Mites: Results from British Columbia Varieties of Apples for Massachusetts Early Ripening Apple Varieties - 1975 Fruit Growing and Research in Switztrland Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service. A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. COST OF PRODUCTION Robert L. Christensen Department of Food and Resource Economics The cost of production is a very popular concept; but not clearly understood. A single value advanced as the cost of pro- duction for a product, such as apples, should be viewed with skep- ticism for several reasons: 1. A cost of production estimate reflects some average or norm situation. If it is based on a representative or "model farm" production situation, it only represents that situation's assumptions. If it is based on a survey of some number of observations, it may be questioned on grounds of representativeness. The cost of production estimate resulting from a survey is the result of an implicit distribution of a set of costs of production. Some will be higher than the "aver- age" and some lower. Selection of the average, as a mea- sure to be used for pricing purposes, means that approxi- mately half of the producers would have a cost of produc- tion higher than the average and half lower (assuming a normal distribution). What is the equity of such a situ- ation? Should one say that the price should be high enough to cover the costs incurred by the highest cost producer? Would the incentives for gains in efficiency be strong? Most importantly, would such a pricing strat- egy be acceptable politically and is it consistent with maximization of consumer welfare? Still another alterna- tive might be to propose that the price should be that which favors the most efficient (lowest cost) orchards. Thus, higher cost operators would be stimulated to become more efficient or go out of business. Attrition of orch- ards would be expected with substantial increases in orchard size. The industry would then become more vulner able to market changes. 2. Cost of production estimates are the result of a set of direct costs and a set of implied costs. These latter costs include depreciation charges and interest on invest- ment, both of which are somewhat arbitrary and variable from, orchard to orchard. In most cases, the cost of pro- duction estimate also contains an arbitrary cost assign- ment for the operator and family labor. These charges are also variable from orchard to orchard depending on the situation and known opportunities available for the family's labor and maragement. 2 - 3. Another problem occurs when the orchard has more than one crop such as apples, pears and peaches. Many equipment items are shared and thus ownership costs must be alloca- ted to the different enterprises in some manner. The method used is usually arbitrary and may be based on the proportionate contribution of each enterprise to gross in- come or, alternatively, on the proportion of total hours the equipment is used on a given enterprise. A prime ex- ample might involve the allocation of storage costs to different fruits or even different varieties of the same fruit. Another difficulty arises in allocating the costs of activities which are not readily attributable to a specific enterprise. It should be evident that the method of allocating shared costs among enterprises will have a substantial effect on the production cost estimate for a given fruit crop. 4. Production costs will vary from orchard to orchard and from year to year. Tree age and/or size, tree spacings, varieties, rainfall, timing of orchard operations, input costs and managerial decisions are factors which vary from year to year. Thus, a cost of production estimate should be identified with the whole complex of factors and assumptions involved. 5. In a production period, the price is determined by the short run supply and demand situation. Economic theory defines demand in terms of prices that consumers are will- ing to pay for varying quantities of a product. It has no relation to cost of production. Supply is defined as the quantities of the product that individual producers are willing to sell at varying prices. The short run supply curve of the individual producer is defined as his marginal cost function. Marginal costs are derived from variable costs, not total costs. Thus by definition, fixed or overhead costs are excluded from the determination of the supply function and, therefore, mar- ket price. Thus, while a figure representing the cost of production for apples may be attractive from a political and policy point of view, it has many shortcomings which make it unreliable for such uses. The cost-price squeeze on almost all farmers is a very real problem and the seriousness of the situation should be brought to to attention of the public and policy-makers. However, the use of a "cost of production" estimate can easily create a misleading im- pression and, at worst, result in action that would unwittingly have an undesired effect. Finally, there are alternative approaches 3 - to expressing the problem through indices, balance sheets, and cash flows that mav be preferable, though perhaps less dramatic. *************** REDUCED SPRAYING FOR APPLE INSECTS AND MITES: RESULTS FROM BRITISH COLUMBIA Ronald J. Prokopy Department of Entomology Many, if not most, Massachusetts apple growers feel that they probably apply more insecticides and miticides than actually needed to obtain high yields of high quality fruit. If pesticide applica- tions could be reduced without sacrificing yield or quality, there could be (1) dollar savings in cost of apple production, including savings on cost of spray materials as well as savings on such appli- cation costs as time, wages, fuel, and equipment wear; (2) greater opportunity for build up of natural enemies of mites and insects, and therefore, likelihood of even further reduced need for miticide and insecticide application; (3) less selective pressure for the development of resistance to miticides and insecticides, and there- fore a longer useful life expectancy of those miticides and insecti- cides presently used in orchards; and (4) less danger of pesticide residues in the fruit and in the orchard environment. The question is how to develop a reliable program for reduced insecticide and miticide usage that will succeed in Massachusetts apple orchards. In this and future issues of Fruit Notes, I would like to explore this question. Because Massachusetts has had no recent history of fruit insect and mite research, we must turn first to other states and examine their progress toward this goal. In this article, I want to take a look at a report entitled "Pest Man- agement: Experience in Six British Columbia Apple Orchards," which appeared in the August, 1975 issue of the Canadian Entomologist and is authored by Drs. Harold Madsen, Fred Peters , and Jerry Vakenti of the Canadian Department of Agriculture. The following is an excerpt from this report. "The number of chemical sprays per (commercial fruit) orchard averaged eight when the study was initiated (in 1972). In 1973, the sprays required for pest control were reduced to an average of 5.6 per orchard, and in 1974, this figure was further reduced to 3.1. This reduction in chemical sprays was accomplished without an increase in insect or mite injury to fruit or foliage." How was this exciting result achieved? It was achieved pri- marily by employing techniques for detecting and monitoring popu- - 4 - lations o£ those insect and mite species known to cause injury in British Columbia apple orchards, and by spraying only when those species were found to occur in numbers sufficient to cause economic injury. The species were: codling moth, San Jose scale, fruittree leafroller, thrips, plant bugs, white apple leafhopper, apple aphids, and three species of plant-eating mites. Now, it is true that the apple maggot and plum, curculio are not known to occur in British Columbia, and that these are two of our most potentially injurious apple pests in Massachusetts. On the other hand, codling moth and mite injury is usually much more severe in British Columbia than here . The approach that these researchers used to control codling moth and mites is particularly instructive. To monitor codling moth populations, they utilized sex attractant traps Pherocon ICP type traps, manufactured by Zoecon Corporation, Palo Alto, Califor- nia). These traps contain a small capsule of the synthetic sex odor of female codling moths, which is a strong attractant for the males. This odor was discovered and sythesized 4 years ago by Dr. Wendell Roelofs and his associates of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva. Male codling moths attracted to this odor are captured by a stick substance inside the trap. Dr. Madsen and his colleagues installed these traps at a density of one trap per hectare (about 2.5 acres) of orchard. They advised the growers to apply a spray against codling moth only when the trap catches averaged two or more male codling moths per hectare per week. Pre- vious studies had shown them that virtually no codling moth larval injury to the fruit occurred when fewer than this num.ber of male moths was captured. By spraying for codling moth only when the traps indicated it was necessary, less insecticide was applied. As a result, certain natural enemies (predators) of the mites were able to survive, and in some orchards began to build up into numbers which, by the end of 1974, were sufficiently great to control the mites without need for any miticide application. It would be a significant advance if we in Massachusetts were able to succeed in reducing the spray program as well as these British Columbia growers have done. In the next issues of Fruit Notes, I will explore some of the reduced spray programs that are being studied in places closer to home than British Columbia. *************** 5 - VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR MASSACHUSETTS J.F, Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Variety Recommended for Harvesting Season Vista Bella T Late July to Early Aug. Julyred T Late July to Early Aug. Quinte T Late July to Early Aug. Puritan C ^ H Mid August Jerseymac T Mid to Late August Tydeman's Early T Late Aug. to Early Sept Paulared T Late Aug. to Early Sept Mcintosh C Mid-Septeirber T T T c T T T C H c fi H c § H c § H c § H c a H c § H c 5 H c 5 c H Macoun C fi H Late Septen:ber Spartan C § H Late Septei:^ber Empire C § H Late SepteP'ber Cortland C § H Early October Delicious C ^ H Early to Mid-October Golden Delicious C § H Mid-October Idared C § H Mid-October Spencer C 5 H Mid-October Mutsu C Mid-October T = Trial H = Home garden C = Commercial - Varieties so marked are not necessarily equally adapted to all parts of the state. Variety Notes Vista Bella - Ripening in late July, the fruits are of medium size, firm, and have a bright, smooth finish and medium red color. The fruits have very good quality for an apple of this season. The tree is large, vigorous, and productive. Julyred - An attractive apple of medium size, bright red color and good quality. The fruit handles well for an apple of this sea- son. The tree appears to be productive. Q"^"^^ " A Canadian introduction ripening 7 to 10 days before Melba. Yellow skin overlaid with a red blush. Quinte bears annually but thinning may be necessary to obtain adequate size. Puritan - An attractive, early, red apple. Fruit of Mcintosh type, good quality for its season, though somewhat tart. Tree hardy, vigorous, tendency toward biennial bearing, will pollinate Mcintosh. Jerseymac - An attractive Mcintosh type that ripens a month before Mcintosh. Fruit color is attractive (801 red), size is above medium, texture is medium-firm, but fruits show bruises easily. Eating quality is good. The trees are annual and productive. Description based on performance in New York. 6 - Tydeman's Early - Often labeled Tydeman's Red. A Mcintosh type, ripening in late August. Fruit has green undercolor overlaid with a medium-red blush. May average larger than Mcintosh in size. Similar to Rome in habit of growth. Paulared - Ripens with or slightly later than Tydeman's Early. The fruits are medium to large in size, roundish-oblate in shape and have excellent color and finish. The fruits color very early. The fruit has tended to cluster on our young tree. Production appears to be good. Mcintosh - Fruit is attractive and has excellent quality but bruises easily. Tree is vigorous, hardy, annual and productive. Rogers Mcintosh or an equally good red strain is preferred. Macoun - Fruit of excellent quality, attractive dark red color. Tree has poor structure, is biennial and requires thinning to maintain good fruit size. Spartan - Fruit has good color and quality but has a tendency to small size. Tree is vigorous and of good structure, annual, will pollinate Mcintosh. Empire - A very attractive apple with full red color, medium size, and very good dessert quality. Empire is annual, and produc- tive. Cortland - Fruit is attractive, good quality, excellent for salads as flesh does not discolor, very susceptible to storage scald. Tree is hardy, productive, and annual. An excellent pollen- izer for Mcintosh. Delicious - Fruit of excellent quality but susceptible to watercore and internal breakdown. Tree is of medium vigor, often bien- nial and may require thinning. A good pollenizer, Richared or an equally good red strain is preferred. Spur-types are now available. Golden Delicious - Fruit of excellent quality, yellow, attractive where well-grown. Fruit is subject to russeting. Tree is of medium vigor, biennial and requires thinning to obtain satis- factory size, color and quality. Russet-free and spur type strains are now available for trial. Idared - Attractive, bright red, winter apple of good quality and size. Suitable for both dessert and cooking. Tree is produc- tive and annual. Spencer - Fruit is attractive, bright red and has very good quality Suitable for dessert and pie. Tree is hardy, productive and annual . Mutsu - A Golden Delicious type that is less susceptible to fruit russeting and storage shrivel. Tree is vigorous and produc- tive. Mutsu pollen is triploid and not viable. Fruit size may be too large and susceptibility to Psuedomonas has been noted. *************** EARLY RIPENING APPLE VARIETIES - 1975 J. P. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences This is an update of previous reports on the early-ripening apple cultivars under test at the Horticultural Research Center, Belchertovn. Vista Bella (N.J. #36) - A promising variety that ripens in late July or early August. The fruits are attractive with a bright, smooth finish and medium red color. The medium-sized fruits have a crisp, white flesh and very good eating quality. The fruits have held up well in past years. The tree is large, vigorous and productive. Julyred - This New Jersey introduction ripens just after Vista Bella. The fruits are of medium size, good red color and a bright smooth finish. The eating quality is good for an apple of this season. The Julyred trees have been productive in our plantings . Quinte - An Ottawa introduction ripening in late July and early August. The fruits are medium in size and round-conic in shape. The attractive red blush, smooth finish and shape are strong points for this variety. Quinte has shown a tendency to crack around the stem and several growers have reported a susceptibility to blotching (small discolored areas of the skin and tissue immediately under the skin). Caravel - This Ottawa introduction ripens several days after Quinte. Caravel lacks the appearance and quality of Quinte. Summerred - We have fruited this British Columbia introduction for five years. The fruits are round-conic to oblong in shape, above medium in size and have a bright red blush. The lenti- cels are conspicuous and often russeted. The fruits tend to ^ ripen unevenly. The fruit has been harvested in late August in past years, but this year the fruit was picked during the second week of August. Summerred does not appear to be prom- ising under our conditions. - 8 - Tydeman's Early (Tydeman's Red) - This English introduction ripens in late August and is similar to Mcintosh in appearance but tends to be larger in size. The fruits have a green under- color and are overlaid v;ith a medium-red blush. The fruit has good quality and looks promising for the early fall trade. The tree is similar to Rome in growth and fruiting habit and production has been fair to good in past seasons. Paulared - Ripens with or slightly later than Tydeman's Early. The fruits are medium to large in size, roundish-oblate in shape and have excellent color and finish. The fruits color very early. The fruit has tended to cluster on our young trees. Production appears to he good. AAA************ FRUIT GROWING AND RESEARCH IN SWITZERLAND William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences During my recent sabbatical leave, I had the opportunity to visit Switzerland for 9 days to observe its fruit industry, and to talk with Dr. Robert Schumacher and other researchers at the Feder- al Research Station at Wadenswil. Here are some observations dur- ing this brief period. Fruit growing in Switzerland is an interesting mix of the old and the new. The mountainsides are covered with numerous small diversified farms, each having some sheep and/or cows and frequent- ly several "traditional" trees of apple, pear, or cherry (tradition al" trees have long trunks under which the livestock may be grazed or the grass cut for hay). In 1971, there were about 7.5 million of these trees scattered over the mountainsides and valleys of Switzerland. Often these trees are pruned, sprayed with a hydrau- lic rig and hand gun, and the fruit processed apples and pears into cider, and cherries into brandy. An interesting feature of the mountainsides is the espaliered pear trees on the sides of homes and barns. Cultural practices in the modern orchards are quite similar to those used in the Netherlands, except a lower percentage of the apple trees are on M. 9 rootstocks or trained as slender-spindles. The holdings for the most part are small, and the farms are diver- sified, but farming remains profitable because of government sup- port and because importing of farm products is either prohibited or regulated according to local supply. Thereby, the Swiss farmers receive higher prices for their products than farmers in neighbor- ing countries. 9 - Research: The Swiss Federal Research Station for fruit growing, viticulture and horticulture is located at Wadenswil, which is about a half hour by train south of Zurich and on the edge of Lake Zurich. The research station has laboratory buildings for chemistry, pomol- ogy, entomology, plant pathology, microbiology, food technology, growth chambers, and radiation. There are cold storages, green- houses, a winery and 2 experimental farms at Wadenswil. Five other experimental farms are located in the important cherry, apple, and grape producing areas and there is one farm for the production of virus-free apple rootstocks and scions. The purpose of the Federal Research Station is to improve agri- cultural production and the quality of the fresh and processed prod- ucts through: (a) evaluation of fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and preservation agents; (b) evaluation of cultural and storage techniques; (c) providing nurseries with healthy grape- vines, virus-free apple rootstocks and scions, virus-free or healthy small fruits plants, and high quality vegetable seeds; (d) intro- duction of new varieties; (e) study of technology, microbiology and chemistry of beverages; and (f) providing pure yeast cultures for wineries. All fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and pres- ervf.tion agents must undergo tests at Wadenswil and collaborating institutes in Switzerland before they can be marketed. Fruit research deals specifically with farm management, effi- ciency, physiology, and nursery and fruit growing techniques. Ex- tensive tests of chemical thinners, varieties, rootstock grafting methods for cherries, walnut propagation, growth regulators, and storage techniques have been and continue to be conducted. The in- fluence of growth regulators on fruit development of sweet cherry, the flowering of apple, on shoot and root development of fruit trees, and the mechanical harvesting of cherries has been studied extensively by Dr. Robert Schumacher and Fritz Fankhauser. Problems currently receiving considerable attention are calcium rCa) nutrition of apples, development of biological methods of pest control, and prevention of bird damage. The Ca problem in Switzer- land is not caused by the lack of this element, but by an excess potassium (K) . There is much adverse public opinion concerning pesticide usage and some individuals have expressed the need for a research station for biological controls. Therefore, the pomolo- gists, whenever possible, are including a treatment testing a bio- logical technique when designing experiments. Bird depredation is serious in small fruit plantings and on early-maturing sweet cherry varieties. To combat this problem, plastic nettings and plastic strips attached to wires which are propelled slowly over the tops Of the trees are being tested. Plastic sheets and nettings also are being evaluated to determine their effectiveness in prevent- ing hail damage and splitting of sweet cherries and grapes caused by rain near harvest. - 10 Modern apple orchards: Apples are by far the most important tree fruit crop while peaches and apricots are of minor importance (Table 1). The apple varieties grown in order of their importance are 'Golden Delicious,' 'Jonathan,' ' Gravenstein, ' 'Glockenapf el , ' 'Idared,' and 'Maigold,' 'Idared' is popular for fresh fruit. Table 1. Acres of tree fruits in Switzerland, 1974 (hedges and slender-spindles, not including old orchards). Apples Pears Cherries Prunes Peaches Apricots 11,616 2,178 724 464 75 13 'Spartan' and 'Jonagold' are found in some of the newer orch- ards. When asked about fruit size of 'Spartan,' one researcher said that small fruit was not a problem because trees of the vari- ety on M. 9 or M.26 produce larger fruit than trees on vigorous size-control rootstocks or seedling trees. In general, the new orchards producing fruit for fresh use are on either M. 9 or M.26 rootstocks and are being trained as slender-spin- dles, whereas, the cider varieties mostly are on the more vigorous rootstocks MM. 106, M.2, etc., and the trees trained as hedges. (A hedge tree has 2 large scaffold limbs, in the lower part of the tree opposite one another in the tree row, and a central leader. The 2 large limbs are trained horizontally by means of a wire strung along the tree row. ) The trees on M. 9 or M.26 may be spaced 4.9 feet to 8.2 feet in the row and 13.1 feet to 14 feet between rows depending on the var- iety and rootstock combination. These spacings are wider than used in the Netherlands to reduce cost of establishing orchards and to permit tractor travel. (The tractors used on the diversified Swiss fruit farm are wider than those used on the specialized Dutch fruit farm. ) The research station at IVadenswil produces virus-free varie- ties by heat treatment for the nurseries. This procedure involves growing selected trees of various varieties in a climate chamber at 37° to 38°C for several weeks. The tips of the new growth on these :he source of bud wood for cooperating Swiss nurserymen. Thus, the Swiss apple grower is reasonably sure that the trees purchased from local nurserymen are healthy. 11 The orchards are grown under sod culture with a strip along the tree row kept free of weeds with herbicides. The Swiss divide the year into 3 seasons in regard to weed control. The first sea- son is post-harvest when an herbicide is applied to control weeds as protection against mouse damage. The second season starts at end of winter when a weed-free area is desired under the trees to facilitate growth and an herbicide is applied if needed. Lastly, the third period commences in late-June when regrowth of annual weeds are desired to compete with the tree for moisture and nitrogen. NAA and NAAm (Amid-Thin*) are used for chemical thinning but not carbaryl (Sevin*) . Carbaryl is not used because it is toxic to bees and it tends to enhance build-up of mites. 'Boskoop' and ' Gravenstein' are chemically thinned only if weather has been very favorable for pollination and fruit set, whereas 'Golden Delicious' almost always requires chemical thinning and follow-up thinning by hand. 'Spartan' are thinned with NAAm applied at 751 petal fall to 1 day past petal fall, and again 10 to 14 days later if neces- sary . The apple growers in the main fruit regions of Switzerland apply, on the average, 15 fungicide and pesticide sprays per season. However, it may be possible to reduce the insecticide sprays in half by monitoring insect populations, especially those of codling moths and summer fruit tortrix moths (Adoxophyes reticulana) . The primary pests are powdery mildew, scab"j and codling moth. ^However, codling moths are not particularly injurious in well-sprayed orch- ards as is the case in Massachusetts. Rosy apple aphids, green apple aphids, and red mites are considered secondary pests although the author observed rosy apple aphids to be much more abundant than in Massachusetts. Much time and money is being spent on experiments with intergrated pest control. Like Massachusetts growers, the Swiss are primarily concerned with nitrogen and Ca levels. Four applications of calcium chloride, as separate applications, 9,7,5 and 3 weeks before harvest, is the general recommendation for reduction of bitter pit. Late Ca sprays are more effective than earlier sprays but applications closer than 3 weeks before harvest are not made because of public concern it is easy for the public to keep a watchful eye on spray practices on small farms interspersed with villages. Ethephon has been researched but its use is not permitted. Alar-85* is used on apple trees to increase fruit set and enhance flower bud initiation, suppress vegetative growth and control pre- harvest drop. Fruit set is increased with 1500 to 2000 ppm of this growth retardant applied at full bloom. Shoot growth is suppressed and flower bud initiation enhanced by 1500 to 2500 ppm Alar-85*, the concentration depending on the variety, applied when the cur- rent season's growth is 8 to 10 inches long. Preharvest drop is problem with only 'Gravenstein' and to minimize drop, Alar-85* is applied 60-70 days prior to harvest. *Trade name a 12 - On cider varieties, Alar-85* may be applied to the upper parts of the tree to suppress vegetative growth and encourage flower bud initiation and this can be accomplished with a minimum of fruit size suppression. It is suggested that the spray be applied within 2 to 4 weeks after full bloom at concentrations of 1500 to 2500 ppm. Most orchards are small, therefore, the apples are stored in commercial storages or by cooperatives which grade, pack, and sell most of the apples. The use of scald control compounds is prohib- ited. More than 501 of the fresh market apples in Switzerland are stored in controlled atmosphere (CA) , 'Golden Delicious' are stored at 1-2°C and in atmospheres of 41 CO and 3% 0 . The other varieties are stored at 4°C and 3% CO^ and 3% 6 . In these rooms, the CO2 level is regulated by activated charcoal scrubbers, as they are in the Netherlands. Fifty per cent or more of the Swiss apples and even a higher percentage of the pears are processed into cider products, of which the Swiss can be justly proud because of their high quality. The cider products produced in Switzerland are: (a) fresh apple juice made by the grower for immediate sale in the fall; (b) carbonated apple juice; (c) a mixture of apple juice and mineral water; (d) turbid apple juice (not filtered, no CO2, but pasteurized); (e) mix- tures of apple juice and other fruit juices; [f) apple wine; and (g) concentrated apple juice. Alcohol is made from the cider apples in large crop years, mainly from the apples produced in traditional orchards . Packing and marketing. The majority of the fruit is packed in con- sumer units (poly bags and overwrapped trays) and marketed by the cooperatives. This procedure contrasts to that in the Netherlands where fruit is sold in wooden crates through auctions. Furthermore, the consumer wants a "yellow" 'Golden Delicious' rather than a "green" 'Golden Delicious' which is popular on the German market. Apple prices are set yearly by individuals representing the growers, tlie cooperatives , and the Swiss government. For example, the agreed price to growers for 'Gravenstein ' in 1974 was approxi- mately 20 cents and 14 cents per pound for Class I and Class II fruit respectively. Class I and Class II 'Golden Delicious' were priced 17 cents and 12 cents per pound, respectively. *************** Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR101 Penalty for Private Use, $300. BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. w. EDITORS J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 41 (Na 2) MARCH-APRIL 1976 TABLE OF CONTENTS Strawberry Growing in the Netherlands Reduced Spraying for Apple Insects and Mites: Results from Michigan and North Carolina Recent Strawberry Introductions Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of IVIav 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. STRAWBERRY GROWING IN THE NETHERLANDS William J, Lord Department o£ Plant and Soil Sciences Growing strawberries in the Netherlands has become a very in- teresting but complex operation, because it employs a variety of techniques that result in the production o£ fresh berries from April until the first frost in the fall. To accomplish this, the Dutch produce strawberries under cold frames, under plastic tunnels, in moveable greenhouses, in fixed greenhouses (both heated and un- heated) , as well as in the field. From 1950 to 1960, total strawberry plantings underwent an in- crease from 8,958 acres up to 12,208 acres in response to a high demand and favorable prices for this fruit. However, since 1960, rapidly increasing labor costs and increasing competition from other countries have forced a drastic reduction in acreage until in 1974, only 6,083 acres of strawberries remained. Distribution of this acreage among production styles is shown in Table 1. Table 1. Acreage of strawberries ripened under field conditions or under glass or plastic tunnels in the Netherlands, 1974. Ripened under Ripened in Ripened In plastic tunnels heated cold Field ripened or cold frames greenhouses greenhouses (acres) (acres) (acres) (acres) 5683 135 165 100 These berries are grown mainly in southern Netherlands, and about 60% of the crop is processed. Competition for Dutch berries has come primarily from Italy, Belgium, and Poland. The field- grown strawberries from Italy are as early, and less costly to grow, as those grown and ripened under glass or plastic tunnels in the Netherlands. The Belgium market was lost because growers in that country increased their acreage of strawberries grown and rip- ened under plastic tunnels. Poland has become a strong competitor especially with field-grown strawberries for processing. Growing under Mobile Greenhouses, Cold Frames and Plastic Tunnels Harvest of strawberries can be advanced by growing and ripen- ing the berries under greenhouses, cold frames and plastic tunnels. The Dutch employ all these techniques. However, use of mobile green- houses has now been largely replaced by use of the more economical - 2 - and mobile plastic tunnels; and the mobile greenhouse technique will not be discussed here. Plants scheduled to be covered by cold frames or plastic tun- nels are planted in the field in late July or early August, These are rooted runner plants from growers own propagation fields , from a nurseryman, or from cold storage. Plants from cold storage are planted a month earlier than fresh-dug plants. Cold storage plants, which were dug and stored the previous winter, produce flower buds which must be removed. Otherwise, the flowering would restrict plant growth, and an extra month of growth would then be needed to produce plants equal to those produced by rooted runners freshly dug from propagation beds. Although the use of cold stor- age plants is more expensive, they frequently produce bigger plants and the fruit quality is better because they produce fewer (but sufficient) flowers. In late December or early January (earlier when there is a threat of frost) , the cold frames are placed over the strawberry plants to protect them against frost, wind and other unfavorable weather conditions. This procedure advances harvest about 3 Aveeks. There is more danger from frosts under plastic tunnels than under cold frames. Thus, the plastic tunnels are not placed over the plants until late February or early March. They advance harvest about 10 days. Harvest advancement under cold frames and plastic tunnels is slight in comparison to heated greenhouses. Therefore, production of plants with shortened flower and leaf stems because of insuffi- cient day-length and low temperatures is of no concern. If plants do develop with shortened flower and leaf stems, they are less pro- ductive, and this is of concern where heated greenhouses are used. The fruit ripened in cold frames and under plastic tunnels are lighter-colored and softer than fruit of the same varieties ripened in the open field. Growing in Fixed-Greenhouses Prior to planting in the greenhouse, the soil is fumigated to prevent the transfer of soil-borne diseases to strawberries from Virus-free plants are frequently multiplied in propagation fields by the gro\>fers. The grower may have his own field or with other growers maintain a "collective" propagation field. Propagation fields also are used as a source of runner plants for production fields and "waiting beds." "Waiting beds" are special plants that receive the best possible care in order to grow large plants with numerous roots. Plants from waiting beds are used in green- houses. previous crops such as tomatoes. It is desirable not to plant be- fore mid-November and to keep the temperature as near 32°F as pos- sible for several weeks since early planting and high temperatures will produce premature flowering and low quality fruit. The plants used are from waiting beds (described in footnote 1) being either freshly dug or first subjected to cold storage. Sheets of white plastic (Figure 1) or black plastic are placed on the soil prior to planting and the plants are set through this material. White plastic in comparison to black plastic will delay harvest about 4 to 7 days, but yields may be 10 to 15% higher be- cause of the light reflected by the plastic. However, rots are more of a problem when white plastic rather than black plastic is used because of moisture condensation. Fig. I. The 'Glasa' variety of strawberries in greenhouse mulched with white plastic which advances harvest. (Courtesy of Wilhelminadorp Research Station) - 4 Growers generally have several greenhouses, or one greenhouse with sections. A greenhouse or section o£ a greenhouse may be either heated and illuminated, heated, heated but started on a different date in each greenhouse or section, or non-heated. Two or more of these procedures are generally followed to spread the harvest season. In the early-house or section, heat is started about January 10th and the plants are illuminated because natural daylight is too short for the development of long flower stalks. Gas (usually) or oil is used for heat. It is risky to force grov;th earlier than the beginning of January because of possible reductions in yield and fruit quality due to low light intensity. Fortunately, the illumination period can be other than at the end of the natural day, because electric rates are higher at this time than at night. In fact, growth response is greater from short periods of illumination at night than from a continuous period of illumination at the end of the natural day. Illumination for 15 minutes each hour from 11:00 P.M. to 7:00 A.M. is sufficient and is practiced. Eight to 10 watts of light per square yard is suf- ficient to form long leaves and flower stalks. However, the light intensity is too low to produce growth comparable to that obtained during the day. Light on a clear winter day is about 100 times brighter than that supplied by the artificial light. Thus, even when illumination is used, the plants need the duration and inten- sity of daylight for the manufacture of food and to produce vigor- ous growth. The artificial light does have an influence on the utilization of daylight. Early, heated but non-lighted plants have leaves with short stalks whereas early, heated, illuminated plants have longer stalks and larger leaves. Thus, because of a greater photosynthetic surface, artificially illuminated plants produce earlier and higher yields than non-lighted plants. Harvest of early, heated, illuminated plants starts in late March. The berries are picked at least twice a week into aluminum boxes. On April 2, 1975, growers received $1.29 to $1.71 per box containing 0.44 pounds of strawberries. A week later, due to in- creased supply, growers received $0.73 to $1.06 per box of berries of the same quality. Varieties differ as to when artificial light is no longer necessary in a heated greenhouse. Some varieties can be forced in early February without illumination. Thus, in February, plants may be grown in either a heated, non- illuminated greenhouse or a non-heated house. The plants develop somewhat more quickly and fruit earlier in a non-heated greenhouse than in a cold frame. 5 - Field-Crown Strawberries: June-Bearing Plants and varieties. About 10 million plants are sold annually by the Dutch nurserymen. Of these, 7 51 are sold in the summer and 251 in the sprinr. The plants scld in the summer are used by grow- ers for propagation beds and summer planting of production fields (Figure 2). The plants delivered in the spring are mainly for home gardeners and export. About 30 virus-free varieties are being grown by Dutch nurserymen, but none of these varieties are grown in Massachusetts . It is possible to harvest June-bearing strawberries, grown in the field by ordinary procedures, from early June to late July. The early-maturing 'Regina' variety, if mulched with black plastic, can be harvested in early-June in southwestern Netherlands. 'Talis- man,' a late-maturing variety, when planted on heavy, late soil in the middle of the country, can be harvested from late June through late July. Soils . Like Massachusetts, strawberries are grovvn on a variety of soils but permeable soils with good moisture-holding capacity are preferred. Often it is necessary to grow strawberries on the sam.e land for many years and in these situations, soil fumigation is beneficial because of the adverse effect of soil nematodes on plant growth and fruiting. Generally, the soil is fumigated at least once in 2 years. After fumigation, there is a 6- to 8-week delay before planting. Fertilization. Manure is still used extensively for fertilization of strawberries. This is applied at the rate of 25 to 35 tons per acre; if poiiltry manure is used, half this amount is sufficient. Farmyard mianures are supplemented with commercial fertilizers (com- plete or nitrogenous) at planting and/or during the growing season. int ing . The plants are generally freshly-dug from a propagation i and set in late July or early August, depending upon variety. Plai beT _ _ _._ ^ _ ^ ..„„___, _., „ _,_.. , The planting distances are generally 13 inches in the row and 40 inches between rows. Double rows with plant spacings of 13 inches by 22 inches with 38-inch alleys also can be seen. Sprinkler- irri- gation is indispensable with summer planting. Pest and weed control. Gray mold, blossom weevils, wireworms, red mites , red stele, and verticillum wilt are insect and disease prob- lems which concern the Dutch strawberry grower. Control methods and those for v;eeds are, in general, similar to those used in Mass- achusetts. Winter protection. Mulch is seldom applied for frost protection in winter but there are times when 2.5 to 3.0 tons of straw per acre would be beneficial. However, straw is applied in the spring to keep the berries cleaner. 6 - Advancing or retarding harvest. Harvest can be advanced 3 to 5 days by planting through black plastic and 10 days by covering the plants with plastic tunnels. Harvest can be retarded 7 days by an application of mulch in early winter and its gradual removal as growth starts in the spring. Harvest and sale. For fresh consumption, the berries are picked with the calyx, and for processing, they are picked without the calyx. Berries for fresh market are harvested into veneer baskets, 8 to a flat. The majority of the berries, both for fresh consump- tion and processing, are sold through auctions. Harvest of June-bearing varieties year of planting. In one area of southern Netherlands, growers are fruiting June-bearing varie- ties in August and September of the year of planting because the soil is too sandy and the soil temperature too high for satisfac- tory yields of everbearing strawberries. The productivity of cold- stored, June-bearing varieties, when grown as a late-summer crop, is higher than that of everbearing strawberries under these condi- tions. Harvest of June-bearing varieties in the year of planting re- quires the use of cold storage plants, and a deviation from ordi- nary cultural methods used in the Netherlands. The plants are dug from a waiting" bed when they are completely at rest. This occurs between mid-December and the end of February. However, research has shown that January is the best time for digging. The plants are dug, cleaned, and then packed in plastic-lined boxes and stored at 26.6 to 30.2°F. Generally, the production field is planted in early June because later plantings are less productive. Harvest starts 7 to 8 weeks after planting and lasts 3 to 4 weeks, depend- ing upon weather conditions. Everbearing Strawberries General. Although the cultivation of everbearing strawberries has been known for years, until 1960 they were grown only by home garden- ers. In 1960, the 'Repita' and "Revada' varieties were introduced by the Institute for Horticultural Planting Breeding (IVT) , Wageningen, Netherlands, and these became the foundation of a commer cial industry. ' Revada ' was especially successful in the North Holland Province. The fruit quality and yield of these everbear- Cultivation. Everbearing strawberries are planted in April. Run- ner plants are either taken directly from the propagation bed or first grown in a greenhouse or cold frame to give them an early start. When giving the plants an early start, the rooted runners - 7 Fig. 2. A production field of 'Senga Sengana' variety in early-June . The field was planted in late-July of the previous year. (Courtesy of Wilhel- minadorp Research Station) are planted into plastic pots or small baskets of 3 to 4 inch diameter in December or January and placed in a greenhouse or under cold frames. They al- so might be planted "loose- ly" in the greenhouse in 4 inches of peat or potting soil. About mid-April, these plants are transplan- ted into the field. The procedure of starting the plants under glass advances harvest by 10 to 16 days thus lengthening the harvest period of everbearing straw- berries . Removal of flower clusters and runners. Tt is desir- able to begin the harvest of the everbearing plants when the harvest of the June- bearing varieties is com- pleted. Thus, the first flowers on the everbearing plants are removed. For plants started under glass, flower cluster removal is necessary before transplant- ing. When harvest is sched- uled to start about July 10, the blossoms are removed un- til the end of May. Runners are removed until harvest. Harvest. The harvesting peri6d of 'Ostara' and'Rabunda' is from mid-July to the beginning of October. In North Holland, the 'Revada' variety is harvested from mid-August to late October and in the mid- dle and the southern part of the country, it is 10 to 12 days earl- ier. The berries are picked once every 5 to 7 days depending upon weather. Only the first 4 to 6 berries from a cluster are harves- ted and then the cluster is removed, because the rest of the ber- ries will be too small and their presence will delay the formation of new flower clusters. In a field of well-grown plants, about 2.2 pounds of berries can be harvested per plant. The fruit is sold for fresh consumption in boxes holding about 0.55 pounds of fruit. - 8 - Summary The strawberry industry has suffered because of competition from other countries where harvest is earlier and/or the berries can be produced at less cost. Therefore, the Dutch strawberry grower must be a perfectionist and as efficient as possible to survive. Striking differences exist between the Netherlands and Massa- chusetts in regard to planting season and techniques used to ad- vance or delay harvest, and method of sale. Berries are harvested from April until the first heavy frost in the fall; April, from heated greenhouses; May, from cold greenhouses; early June, from cold frames and plastic tunnels; mid-June to early July, from June- bearing varieties; late July to early September, from June-bearing varieties from cold storage; and after early-August to frost, from everbearing varieties. The majority of fruit produced for fresh fruit use is sold through auctions and about 601 of the total production is processed, Strawberries in Massachusetts are produced for the fresh fruit mar- ket and the majority of these are sold by the "pick-your-own" meth- od of sale. This method of sale also warrants investigation in the Netherlands . *************** REDUCED SPRAYING FOR APPLE INSECTS AND MITES: RESULTS FROM MICHIGAN AND NORTH CAROLINA Ronald J. Prokopy Department of Entomology In the last issue of Fruit Notes, I discussed an article by Dr. Harold Madsen and colleagues wherein the number of sprays in orchards in British Columbia, Canada was reduced from 8 in 1972 to 3 in 1974 without increase in insect or mite injury to the fruit or foliage. This spray reduction was made possible by employing techniques for detecting and monitoring populations of those insect and mite species known to cause injury in British Columbia apple orchards and by spraying only when such species were found to occur in numbers sufficient to cause economic injury. In this issue of Fruit Notes, I will discuss reports on re- duced spray programs for mites in Michigan and North Carolina. The reports are by Drs. Brian Croft and George Rock, respectively, and appeared in the recently published proceedings of a symposium on integrated control of orchard pests held in Bolzano, Italy in September, 1974. Both reports show how it has been possible to reduce or completely omit miticide sprays in Michigan and North Carolina apple orchards without buildup o£ plant-feeding mites (red, two-spotted, and apple rust mites). How was this achieved? First, it was established that popula- tions o£ plant-feeding mites begin to cause injury when they reach a level of 15 or more per leaf. If there are fewer than 15 mites per leaf, then no detectable injury results from their presence. In abandoned or unsprayed orchards, plant-feeding mites are scarce, and rarely or never reach the econom.ic threshold level of 15 per leaf. One of the reasons why they are scarce in abandoned orchards is that they are eaten by predators, which are abundant in un- sprayed trees. When organic insecticides were first used in apple orchards, plant-feeding mites were not troublesome. The reason was that the insecticides killed both the mite predators and the plant-feeding mites. However, the plant-feeding mites rapidly began to develop resistance to insecticides, and subsequently to miticides. The ecology and behavior of mite predators is not the same as that of plant-feeding mites and their resistance to pesticides was slow to develop. Consequently, few mite predators were able to survive in commercial orchards and plant-feeding mites became a major problem. What Croft and Rock have found is that certain species of mite predators in Michigan and North Carolina orchards have now become resistant to or tolerant of certain insecticides. When they em- ployed these particular insecticides selectively and at the proper time, the need for miticide usage was greatly reduced or completely eliminated without buildup of plant-feeding mites to the economic threshold. The insecticide-resistant mite predators did the job. In these and other publications, Croft and Rock are careful to emphasize that maintenance of a sufficient number of insecti- cide-resistant mite predators in the orchard is a very delicate operation. It usually requires the continuous presence of at least a few plant-feeding mites as a source of food for the predators, and the balance can be upset by even minimum use of an insecticide or miticide harmful to the predators. Certain fungicides and herb- icides also were found to be toxic to the predators and could not be used in the integrated control orchards. Can we apply the findings of Croft, Rock, and others, who studied integrated pest control, to Massachusetts orchards? Yes, we hope so - but first we must do some research. We need to sur- vey which species of mite predators occur in our abandoned orchards. This will tell us which predators thrive naturally in our state. Then we need to survey our commercial orchards to determine which of the naturally occurring predators, if any, have developed resis- tance to which insecticides. In Michigan and North Carolina, the predominant insecticide-resistant predator of plant-eating mites in apple trees is a predacious mite called Amblyseius fallaais . 10 In Western New York, it is a predacious mite called Typhlodromus pyri. In Pennsylvania, it is a ladybird beetle called Stetorus ipunctum. The degree o£ resistance or susceptibility to a given insecticide (for example, carbaryl) varies greatly between these types of predators end between localities for the same predator. Also, the comparative innate effectiveness of each of these 3 species as predators is not the same, A. falloois apparently being the most efficient. It is entirely conceivable that in our survey we might find one or more species of mite predator already abundant in certain commercial orchards where growers have been using a certain type of spray program, but a different species of mite predator of greater or lesser innate effectiveness in certain other orchards where growers have been using a different type of spray program. It is also likely that in still other orchards (perhaps most orch- ards) few or no mite predators now exist owing to type of spray program used. We will initiate, this spring, a study of the relative abun- dance of mite predators and plant-feeding mites in various aban- doned and com.mercial apple orchards in Massachusetts. If we can be as successful in our study as Croft, Rock and others, then not immediately but perhaps within a few years' time it may be possible for us to recommend a type of insecticide-fungicide-herbicide spray program that will substantially reduce or possibly even eliminate the need for miticide sprays in our commercial orchards. Mr. Robert Hislop, who has worked extensively on plant-eating mites and has just received his Master's degree from the University of California at Riverside, has now joined our staff in tree fruit extension entomology and will be focusing his attention on this as- pect of our fruit extension program. We look forward to cooperat- ing with Massachusetts fruit growers in this venture. *************** RECENT STRAWBERRY INTRODUCTIONS J.F. Anderson Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Darrow This early ripening disease-resistant variety was intro- duced cooperatively by the United States Department of Agri- culture and the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station in January, 1974. Darrow is resistant to five races of red stele root rot and intermediate in resistance to verticillium wilt. Its leaves - 11 - are moderately resistant to mildew, leaf spot and leaf scorch. We fruited Darrow in our variety trials at the Horticultural Research Center in 1972, 1973, 1974 and 1975. The berries are medium to large, firm, glossy, and have good red color. The flesh is firm and has a uniform red color. The primary berries tend to be rough but secondary and later berries im- prove in symmetry and shape. The plants have shown moderate vigor and moderate runner production in our trials. Earliglow Another early ripening disease-resistant variety intro- duced cooperatively by the United States Department of Agri- culture and the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station. Earliglow was introduced in January, 1975. Earliglow is re- sistant to five races of red stele root rot and to verticil- lium wilt. Its leaves are moderately resistant to leaf spot and leaf scorch, but only partially resistant to mildew. We fruited Earliglow in our variety trials at the Horticultur- al Research Center in 1974 and 1975. The fruits ripen v\dth Darrow and about 2 to 3 days after Earli- dawn. The berries in our trials have been medium to large in size, conic shape, symetrical, medium to dark red in skin and flesh color. The berries are firm and have good flavor. Delite A late ripening strawberry variety that was introduced coop- eratively by the United States Department of Agriculture and Southern Illinois University in 1974. We fruited Delite in our 1972 and 1974 trials. The plants are very vigorous and produce runners freely. The plants are resistant to 5 races of red stele and highly resis- tant to verticillium wilt. In our trials, Delite has produced a medium to large, long conic to long wedge-shaped berry. The bright red berries have good gloss, firmness and flavor. Delite would be worthy of trial where a late, disease-resistant variety is desired. Yield comparisons for these and several other varieties are shown below. Calculated yields-quarts/acre Variety 1975 1974 1972 Sunrise 7,195 Darrow 7,376 6,302 3.267 Earliglow 7,289 7,260 Redchief 11,456 5,699 Midway 10,418 10,941 Delite 11,834 6,316 Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT Penalty for Private Use, $300. DP. WM. J. LORD PLANT & SOIL FHEMOH KALL FN SCIENCES 01002 Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE. UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 41 (No. 3) MAY-JUNE, 1976 TABLE OF CONTENTS Important Massachusetts Highbush Blueberry Insects Getting the Most out of Strawberry Herbicides Promotion of Flower Bud Formation and Fruit Set on Non-Bearing Delicious Apple Trees Reduced Spraying for Apple Insects and Mites: Results from New York Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service. A. A. Spielman. Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. IMPORTANT MASSACHUSETTS HIGHBUSH BLUEBERRY INSECTS William E. Tomlinson, Jr. Cranberry Experiment Station, East Wareham Cultivated highbush blueberries are subject to the attacks of many insect pests, d£ which some of the more damaging can seri- ously reduce productioi or adversely affect the marketability of the crop by their presence in the berries when picked. Growers should be familiar with the different pests, their potential for harm to the crop or plant, and the control methods that can be used against them. During the pruning operation is an ideal time to be on the watch for insect stem galls , stem borers, and scale insects . Insect stem galls are hard, kidney-shaped callus tissue deformations of blueberry twigs and stems. Galls vary considerably in size, depend- ing on the number of gall wasp larvae they contain. They may be numerous enough to reduce the fruitfulness of a bush if not con- trolled. The galls are formed when the small black wasp lays her eggs in the soft new wood. The eggs hatch and form cells in which the larvae feed. A secretion given off by the larvae apparently causes the formation of the galls. The larvae overwinter in the galls, change to pupae, and transform to adults within the galls in the spring. The adult wasps emerge from the galls at the time twig and stem growth is underway. Removal of galls any time they are noticed, but not later than during winter and early spring pruning is all the control necessary. Be sure to destroy the galls or remove them far enough from the planting to insure that there is no chance of wasp emergence to reinfect new growth. Stem borer is a beetle grub that tunnels in stems of blueberry. Flagging of shoots in mid-summer is the first sign of borer attack. Examination reveals 2 parallel rows of punctures about half an inch apart girdling the stem several inches from the tip. An egg is laid just under the bark between the rows of punctures by the stem borer beetle. The grub that hatches tunnels in the stem for 3 years before producing an adult beetle. The first year the grub tunnels only a few inches but the second year it may tunnel the whole length of the stem down to the crown. The third year it may start to tun- nel up another stem from the crown before transforming to an adult in July or August. The beetle is slender, about 5/8 of an inch long, yellow, with dark antennae nearly as long as the body. The wing covers are yel- low with black edges. The grub is also yellow, attaining a length of about 5/8 of an inch when full grown. Pupation occurs in the tunnel in a cell plugged with sawdust. The flagged tips, the weakened appearance of infested stems during the growing season and the emission of elongate yellow frass 2 - pellets aid in the detection of stem borer infestations in all seasons. Removal of flagged tips below the girdling punctures or re- moval of stems below signs of tunneling controls this pest. If the grub is in the crown, it should be probed for with a wire or slender twig. There are several species of scale insects that may attack blueberry. Putnam scale has been the most commonly troublesome on cultivated highbush blueberry. This is a small round scale with a grayish covering that hides the yellow scale beneath. It most commonly settles under loose bark on older canes where it may f orm encrustations resembling the bark itself. In heavy infestations, scales may settle on young stems, leaves and fruit, causing circu- lar red spots where they settle. Regular removal of older, low producing canes during pruning helps to prevent Putnam scale infestations from developing to ser- ious proportions. A dormanr application of a Z% concentration of superior oil to thoroughly wet all parts of the bush controls Putnam scale or any other scales that may be present. In the early spring, small, dark reddish brown beetles may be found feeding on expanding blueberry fruit buds. These are cran- berry weevils , also an important pest of cranberry as the name in- dicates^ If disturbed, the beetles usually drop from the bud so that the holes they have drilled in unopened blossoms as they feed and lay eggs may be the most obvious sign of their presence. The beetles are about 1/16 inch long with a slightly curved beak which is about half as long as the body. A single egg is laid among the stamens in unopened blossoms in a hole drilled for that purpose by the female. Blossoms that contain an egg are partly severed from the stem, turn purplish, do not open and eventually drop from the bush. Pupation takes place in the hollowed-out blossom. The new brood of weevils emerge in late June and early July, feed on blue- berry leaves and soon go into diapause in the litter in the field. They cause serious crop reduction when abundant, and infestations persist for years unless controlled. At present, there is no insecticide labeled for control of cranberry weevil on blueberry. Clean cultivation affords some control, but most Massachusetts plantings are in sod or mulch. Sometimes present with cranberry weevil are 2 other snout beetles: the currant fruit weevil and the plum curculio . Currant fruit weevils are about the same size as cranberry weevils, but are light brown in color and possess a shorter and stouter beak. Plum curcu- lio is a dark brown and black snout beetle about 1/4 inch long. There are lighter brownish, yellowish and white scales forming bands on the body and wing covers as well as several raised humps or crests on the wing covers that give them a rough appearance. Currant fruit weevils lay their eggs in or near the stem of newly set blueberries. Plum curculio eggs are laid in crescent shaped cuts in the skin of the berry made by the female. The lar- vae of both species are white legless grubs that feed in one berry only. Infested berries turn prematurely blue and shrivel. Not only can these 2 beetles seriously reduce the crop but their larvae may spoil early pickings by their presence in the pack. Guthion is labeled for control of plum curculio on blueberry. If plum curculio is abundant or has been a problem previous years, apply it just prior to bloom and repeat when about 75% of the blos- soms have dropped on late varieties. If cranberry and currant fruit weevils are present, Guthion will also control them. Cranberry fruitworm and cherry fruitworm infect green blue- berries, not only causing serious crop reduction, but also appear- ing in large numbers in early picked fruit where they become a prob- lem when they emerge and crawl around under the cellophane or in- side the refrigerator. Cranberry fruitworms spend the winter as full-grown larvae in cocoons near the surface of the soil under the bushes. The larvae pupate about the time the bushes are starting to bloom and the moths emerge from the time early varieties start to set fruit until after late varieties have set. The moths are black, tinged with reddish and white scales. They have a wingspread of about 1/2 inch. The forewings have a patch of white scales near the base and another larger one toward the apex. Moths lay eggs singly in the calyx of the small. green berries. The eggs hatch in about 5 days and the worms enter berries to feed on the seeds and pulp. The larvae form clusters of berries into a frassy web as they feed, destroying sev- eral berries before they are through feeding. The mature larvae are green, tinged with red on the back, and measure about 1/2 inch in length. When through feeding, the worms drop to the ground and spin their cocoons in which they remain until the following spring. Cherry fruitworms also spend the winter as a full grown larvae, but in tunnels that they made in dead pruning stubs on the bush or in dead weeds. Pupation takes place in the tunnels in May about the time bushes are in bloom. Moths emerge and lay eggs on the berries and leaves in late May and June. Moths are dull blackish with gray and brown bands on the wings and have a wingspan of only about 5/16 of an inch. The eggs are circular, flat and nearly color- less. They hatch in about a week, enter a berry and feed on seeds and pulp. They do not form clusters together and feed on only 1 or 2 berries. Full grown larvae are bright orange red and measure about 1/4 to 5/16 of an inch long. In heavy infestations, 2 or 3 dozen larvae per pint of berries is not uncommon. - 4 - Several insecticides are labeled for control o£ cranberry and cherry fruitworms on blueberry. Two or 3 applications of carbaryl (Sevin*) or malathion are recommended and labeled for their control. Guthion and parathion are also labeled but should not be used un- less all safety precautions are scrupulously followed. Blueberry maggot or fruitf ly is closely related to the apple maggot. It is primarily a pest of ripe berries in contrast to cranberry and cherry fruitworms. Winter is spent in the pupal stage close to the surface of the soil. Flies emerge from the puparia from late June until late in the summer. The flies are black with characteristic black bands on the wings and are about the size of horseflies. About a week or 10 days after emergence, flies start to lay eggs. Ripe or nearly ripe berries are preferred, but they will lay eggs in green fruit when abundant or when ripening fruit is absent or scarce early in the summer. Eggs are inserted just under the skin of the berry. These hatch into tiny colorless mag- gots in about 5 days and feed in the berry for about 3 weeks. They first feed and soften the center of the berry, but as they grow, they feed within the entire berry, turning the contents into purple juice and seeds. Full grown maggots are white and about 1/4 inch long. When through feeding, the maggots drop to the ground and form puparia in which they remain until the following growing sea- son. In fact, they have insured their survival in case of crop failure, by delaying the emergence of a small percentage of flies from their puparia until the second of even the third growing sea- son after they entered the soil. Maggot control is complicated by the long flight and egg lay- ing period of the flies and by the fact that infestation occurs during the picking period. This calls for several applications of a short-lived, low toxicity insecticide. Malathion sprays or dusts every 10 days beginning about July 4 are safe, effective and short- lived enough to not interfere with the harvest schedule. In fields where maggot has been difficult to control, applications every 7 days may be necessary for adequate control. Japanese beetles may cause injury when they congregate on the ripening berry clusters to feed. They score the berries, which then shrivel and become worthless. Beetles also feed on tender terminal leaves, leaving them a network of veins. The latter injury can be important in heavy infestations. Carbaryl (Sevin*) sprays or dusts, applied as necessary, are recommended for Japanese beetle control. Present occasionally during the summer on individual bushes or branches may be Datana worms and fall webworms. Datana worms feed in colonies of many individuals with no web or nest. When the worms are large, they can strip a branch or small bush almost overnight, it seems. The full grown caterpillar is about 2 inches long with a dark head and body, a yellowish neck and yellow stripe running the length of the body. When disturbed, the worms raise *Trade name their heads and anal segments in a characteristic alert pose. Fall webworms also feed in colonies o£ many individuals, but enclose their feeding area in a web. The mature caternillar is about an inch long and covered with white hairs. To control these worms, remove the colony and destroy it. A heavy foot works well. Don't waste insecticides on them. *************** GETTING THE MOST OUT OF STRAWBERRY HERBICIDES Dominic A. Marini Southeast Regional Fruit and Vegetable Specialist At the present time, Dacthal* and chloroxuron, (Norex* or Tenoran*) are the most widely used materials for controlling weeds in strawberries in Massachusetts. They are useful tools, but like all tools, must be properly used to get the most out of them. They are not cure-alls; they have their limitations, but when these limitations are understood and when they are used properly, these herbicides can greatly reduce the amount of hand labor required to control weeds in strawberries. Dacthal* is a pre-emergence weed killer. It kills only ger- minating weed seeds, and must come in contact with seeds as they start to germinate. In order to come in contact with germinating weed seeds, Dacthal* should be applied to soil that is moist and it must be followed by about 1/2 inch of water from rain or irriga- tion to move it down into the soil ivithin 4 or 5 days after appli- cation. This is the reason Dacthal* is not effective in dry wea- ther. To make certain that Dacthal* comes in contact with germinat- ing weed seeds, some growers apply it before setting plants and in- corporate it shallowly into the soil with a disc harrow, or spike- tooth harrow, or finger weeder. Chloroxuron on the other hand, is both a pre-emergence and post-emergence weed killer. It kills germinating weed seeds and weeds that are already out of the ground. Most broadleaved weeds up to 2 inches in height are controlled with post-emergence appli- cation with the exception of galinsoga, which must be treated be- fore it is 3/4 inches tall. Dacthal* is useful early in the season since it does not injure newly set strawberry plants. It may be applied before or immedi- ately after setting. Chloroxuron, however, may injure newly set *Trade name 6 - plants and should not be used until new growth appears. It may not be used more than twice in a growing season. It has been ob- served that temporary injury sometimes occurs when Dacthal* and chloroxuron are applied within a few days of each other during hot weather with temperatures above 85°F. Varieties differ in their susceptibility to this type of injury. Dacthal* is very effective for controlling crabgrass and other annual grasses, and most broadleaf weeds except for ragweed and smartweed. It is completely ineffective against galinsoga. Chlor- oxuron complements Dacthal* very well in that it controls most broadleaf weeds including galinsoga, but gives poor control of grasses. To keep weeds to a minimum, some growers apply Dacthal* before setting plants and incorporate it, or apply it immediately after setting, before weeds have a chance to germinate. It remains effec- tive for 4 to 6 weeks, then breaks down and weeds begin to appear. At this point, it is advisable to cultivate to get rid of weeds and to loosen the soil to permit runners to root easily. Then, depending on the weed population, either Dacthal* or chloroxuron may be applied immediately after cultivation; or chloroxuron may be applied when weeds emerge; or Dacthal* may be applied immediately after cultivation and be followed by chloroxuron when weeds again appear. Dacthal* and chloroxuron may also be used in late summer or early fall to control chickweed and other fall germinating weeds. Dacthal* may be applied following the final side-dressing and cul- tivation in August, followed by chloroxuron in September or October. Or, chloroxuron may be used in September or early October, before the weeds are 2 inches tall (or across, in the case of chickweed). Detailed instructions on rates of application, and other in- formation are to be found in the "Small Fruit Weed Control Guide" available from your County Extension Service. *************** PROMOTION OF FLOWER BUD FORMATION AND FRUIT SET ON NON-BEARING DELICIOUS APPLE TREES Duane W. Greene and William J. Lord Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Young Delicious apple trees are slow to come into production, so we have been conducting tests on the effectiveness of both mech- anical and chemical techniques for promotion of flowering and fruiting on this variety. *Trade name 7 - Scoring is an age-old technique in which the bark is cut to the wood all the way around the trunk of a tree. This manipulation restricts terminal growth of the tree and increases flower bud ini- tiation, and may thereby increase fruiting the following year. Limb-spreading is another technique to restrict terminal growth and encourage flowering and fruiting. Vegetative growth may also be restricted by application of some plant growth regulators, which are known to induce flowering under some conditions. During the past 3 years, we have been comparing the abilities of these tech- niques to restrict growth, encourage flower bud formation, and in- crease fruit set on young Delicious apple trees at the Horticultural Research Center in Belchertown. Timing of a Growth Regulator Spray for Growth Suppression A combination of Alar and ethephon applied early in the grow- ing season can markedly suppress vegetative growth on apple trees, and has been reported to encourage flowering on young trees. To test its effectiveness on young Delicious trees in Massachusetts, a combination of Alar-85* (750 ppm) and ethephon (600 ppm) was ap- plied at about 10-day intervals throughout the growing season. The effects of the treatments on terminal growth are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Effect of a spray mixture containing 600 ppm ethephon and 750 ppm Alar-85* on terminal growth of spur-type Delicious trees when applied at different intervals after full bloom, 1975. Time of application (days after full bloom) ^ Terminal growth (cm) Check 44ab>' 2 31d 11 25e 22 31d 32 36c 43 41bc 53 42b 64 42b 74 41bc 85 45ab 95 44ab 107 47a n6 45ab ^Full bloom May 19, 1975 y^Means in the same column followed by different letters are signif- icantly different at the 5% level. Greatest shoot suppression occurred when the growth regulators were applied about a week and a half after full bloom. Treatment earlier than this was less effective because regrowth of suppressed *Trade name - 8 - shoots can occur. Later treatments were less effective because the period of most rapid shoot growth is the 4-week period follow- ing full bloom. Treatment more than 4 weeks after full bloom can be expected to have little or no effect on terminal growth since it has virtually ceased by this time. The importance of time of application lies in the fact that in experiments of this type, one usually finds that there is an inverse relationship between shoot growth and flower bud initiation: the less shoot growth, the greater the bloom the following year. Comparative Effectiveness of Treatments for Growth Suppression Mechanical and chemical treatments were compared for their ability to suppress growth under our conditions. All treatments did suppress growth (Table 2). However, limb spreading was less effective than the other methods, and scoring, although effective, in- jured the trees as evidenced by the season-long presence of red-bronze colored foliage. Consistent, sizeable growth suppression was obtained Table 2. Effects of limb spreading, scoring, and growth regulators on terminal growth of non-spur Delicious trees. Treatment^ Terminal growth (cm) Control Limb spreading Scoring Alar, 1000 ppm (1 lb/100) Ethephon, 500 ppm (1-2/3 pints/100) Ethephon, 1000 ppm (3-1/2 pints/100) Ethephon, 500 ppm + Alar, 1000 ppm Ethephon, 1000 ppm + Alar, 1000 ppm 1973 1974 1975 74a^ 68a 55a 53bc 51c 36de 54bc 38bc 68ab 43b 46cd 60ab 38bc 27e 48c 35cd 49cd 47c 30de 34de 30d 25e ^Treatments applied 10-13 days after full bloom. A different set of trees was used each year. ^Means in the same column followed by different letters are signif- icantly different at the 5% level. with 1000 ppm ethephon alone, and with 500 or 1000 ppm ethephon in combination with 1000 ppm Alar-85* applied 10 to 13 days after full bloom. Trees receiving these treatments looked like spur-type De- licious. To date, the only adverse effect observed with these chemical sprays applied 10-14 days after full bloom, has been the killing of very weak spurs (less than S% of the total number of spurs) with ethephon at 1000 ppm alone or combined with Alar-85*. Increased Bloom and Fruit Set the Year Following Treatment The scoring, limb spreading, ethephon and ethephon-plus-Alar- 85* treatments in 1973 increased bloom in 1974 but no treatment in- creased fruit set (Table 3). Scoring in 1974 increased bloom but *Trade name not fruit set in 1975; however, 1000 ppm did increase fruit set ethephon, 1000 ppm in 1975 (Table 4) . plus Alar-85' Table 3. Effects of limb spreading, scoring and growth regulator sprays in 1973 on bloom and fruit set on non-spur type Delicious trees in 1974. Treatments in 1973' Check Limb spreading Scoring Alar, 1000 ppm Ethephon, 500 ppm Ethephon, 1000 ppm Ethephon, 500 ppm + Alar, 1000 ppm Ethephon, 1000 ppm + Alar, 1000 ppm Blossom clusters/ cm limb circ. , 1974 ■oi^ 6ab 5a 4de 2bc Oabc Fruit/ cm limb circ, 1974 0, 0, 0, 0. 0, 0, 16a 33a 89a 19a 30a 77a 3.9cd 5 . 2abc 0.24a 0.84a 2 Scoring, limb spreading, and growth regulator treatments estab- lished May 28, 1973, 13 days after full bloom. ^Means in the same column followed by different letters are signif- icantly different at the 5% level. Table 4. Effects of limb spreading, scoring and growth regulator treatments established in 1974 on bloom and fruit set of non-spur Delicious trees in 1975. Treatments in 1974 Bl ossom clusters/ Fruit/ cm limb circ. , 1975 cm limb circ. , 1975 Check 4.63by 0.50b Limb spreading 5.13b 0.81ab Scoring 7.16a 0.7 9ab Ethephon, 500 ppm 4.77b 0.53ab Ethephon, 1000 ppm 5.90ab 0.90ab Ethephon, 500 ppm + Alar, 1000 ppm 4.64b 0.51b Ethephon, 1000 ppm + Alar, 1000 ppm 5.76ab 0.97a ^Growth regulator treatments applied May 28, 1974, 13 days after full bloom. Scoring and limb spreading May 31, 1974. y^Means in the same column followed by different letters are signif- icantly different at the 5% level. Summary We have shown that both mechanical and chemical techniques can suppress vegetative growth of young Delicious trees. However, *Trade name - 10 - this response has not been consistently accompanied by greater fruit set the year following treatment. The only instance where fruit set was increased was with the most potent chemical treat- ment in 1974, The study was continued in 1975 and by July of 1976, more data will be available, but to date, results on fruiting have not been encouraging. Frequently, there are blocks of young, non-bearing Delicious trees that are growing too vigorously as a result of excessive pruning and/or fertility and occasionally bearing trees will be de- fruited by frost. In these instances, a restriction of tree growth would be beneficial on both the older and younger trees, whether or not it is accompanied by increased bloom and/or fruit set on the young trees. To restrict growth, we suggest the following combin- ation sprays of ethephon and Alar-85*. Non-Spur trees: Apply ethephon at 900 ppm (3 pt/100 gal) plus Alar- 85* at 1000 ppm (1 lb/100 gal) 10-14 days after full bloom. Spur trees : Spur trees are more sensitive to growth retardant sprays than are non-spur trees. Therefore, on spur-type trees, apply ethephon at 600 ppm (2 pt/100 gal) plus Alar-85* at 1000 ppm (1 lb/100 gal) 10-14 days after full bloom. Treatments other than limb spreading should not be applied to trees until they are large enough to bear a crop. •kicisit'k'kit'k'kititlfkisit REDUCED SPRAYING FOR APPLE INSECTS AND MITES: RESULTS FROM NEW YORK Ronald J. Prokopy Department of Entomology In the preceding 2 issues of Fruit Notes, I discussed results of reduced spray programs for apple insects and mites obtained in British Columbia, Michigan, and North Carolina. Here, I will dis- cuss the results of an apple pest management pilot project carried out in commercial orchards in western New York from 1973 to 1975. Most of the project was conducted in a 5 square mile area of Wayne County, and involved 16 growers. The results, not yet published, have been compiled and summarized by 4 members of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station at Ithaca and Geneva: Drs. J. P. Tette (Manager of Project Field Operations), E.H. Glass (Proj ect Leader), J.L. Brann (Extension Entomologist), and P. A. Arneson (Extension Plant Pathologist). *Trade name - 11 - The rationale leading to initiation o£ the project was as fol- lows: "Although extension effort to provide New York fruit growers with the best possible advice on controlling their orchard pests has been successful, growers are receiving information and advice primarily on an area basis and often cannot interpret and adapt this to conditions on their farms. For example, pest pressures may be heavier on certain farms than on others and, presently, growers have no way of determining their specific needs for con- trol measures. Consequently, growers predominently use insurance (preventative) type pesticide programs." In 1973, the project was established to determine: "(1) if a pest management system could be established to integrate all the useful known and new pest management techniques, (2) if New York fruit growers could reduce their pesticide use through efficient pest management without reduction of the quality and quantity of fruit, and (3) if a core of specialists could be trained in fruit pest management to continue and expand the practices demonstrated in this system." The approach taken in Wayne County aimed at establishing a total farm advisory program on all apple pests, beginning with pre-season grower conferences and strategy meetings, and including full (daily-weekly) in-season grower advice and consultation. The program was carried out by farm advisors and assisting field scouts trained in insect, mite, and disease management, and by research and extension personnel. The backbone of the program was continuous monitoring of all orchards for pertinent weather data, pests, chemicals, and bene- ficial organisms. For example, traps baited with synthetic sex odor attractants (pheromones) were used to monitor populations of codling moth and several leafrollers (see Fruit Notes 41:Jan-Feb. 1976 for further information on codling moth traps) . Visual traps baited with a feeding-type odor lure were used to monitor apple maggot flies. (I will discuss apple maggot traps in the next issue of Fruit Notes.) Apple maggot, codling moth, and leafrollers have been controlled so well during the past decade or more that they are no longer present in most commercial orchards. But they are ever-present in nearby wild or abandoned trees. The strategy of the program was to prevent these pests from becoming established in commercial orchards. The monitoring traps were employed to de- tect such invasions. The data on daily or weekly pest captures in the monitoring traps also provided information on insect emergence patterns and prediction of potential pest outbreaks. Many insect pests such as plant bugs, aphids, leafrollers, curculio, scales, and fruitworms were monitored through traditional sampling methods such as emergence cages and orchard inspection. Programs encour- aging the development of mite predators and other beneficial organ- isms were established (see Fruit Notes 41:Mar-Apr. 1976 for further information on mite predators) . Extensive programs for precisely - 12 - predicting ascospore maturity and infection periods of apple scab and fireblight infection periods also comprised a very essential part of the pest management strategy of this project. While the results of the project must be interpreted with caution, every indication points to the fact that the growers who followed the pest recommendations of the farm advisors realized substantial reductions in the amount and cost of pesticide usage. Specifically, the 6 growers within the project area who followed all or most of the recommendations in 1975 averaged 94% clean fruit sprayed an average of 8 times, and incurred an average pesticide cost of $68.06 per acre. From 1973 to 1975, their insecticide, miticide, and fungicide usage decreased 10, 58, and 25%, respec- tively. The 4 growers within the project area who followed few or none of the recommendations in 1975 also averaged 941 clean fruit, but sprayed an average of 11 times, with an average pesticide cost of $96.29 per acre. It is very important to point out, however, that the 6 growers within the project area who followed about half of the recommendations averaged only 83% clean fruit even though they sprayed more often (9 times) and their pesticide costs x-iere greater ($79.59 per acre) than growers who followed all or most of the recommendations. As in the old saying "half a truth is a dan- gerous thing", these data show that following only half the recom- mendations of the farm advisors in a program as complex as this pest management program was indeed counter-productive. ome Do apple pest management programs of the sort carried out in New York, Michigan, North Carolina, and British Columbia, and som other states and countries have a future in Massachusetts? My answer is hopefully yes, but the road to implementation will take time. Apple production in Massachusetts is on a much smaller scale than in states like New York or Michigan. We lack the agri cultural funding, equipment, and number of fruit research, exten- sion, and farm advisor personnel that New York and Michigan have. But we intend to make a beginning, instituting the initial stages of pest management trials and demonstration plots in a few small blocks in commercial apple orchards in different parts of the state this year. We welcome your interest and cooperation. *************** Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman D irector Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT Available to the public without regard to race, color, or national origin. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 41 (No. 4) JULY-AUGUST, 1976 TABLE OF CONTENTS Combining Calcium Chloride with Pesticide Sprays Pick-Your-Own Strawberries The Peach Tree Replant Problem Early Ethephon Sprays for Flower Bud Initiation and Ripening of Apples Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Splelman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Departrnent of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. COMBINING CALCIUM CHLORIDE WITH PESTICIDE SPRAYS W.J. Bramlage, W.J. Lord, A.W. Rossi, and M. Drake Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Growers have been using calcium chloride (CaCl2) sprays on apple trees at IX and as separate applications for the past sever- al years to reduce the severity of cork spot and bitter pit and to increase the keepability of fruit in storage. A question unanswered is the compatibility with other pesticides when used in the regular spray program. Experience in Virginia indicates this to be a safe practice, but we had no experience in Massachusetts. We initiated studies at the Horticultural Research Station in 1974 to accumulate information about CaClo compatibility with other pesticides when used in a regular spray program. No foliar damage occurred on Mcintosh and Delicious strains when we used 2 lbs of CaClo per 100 gal at dilute (IX) concentration in the 5th through the 8th cover sprays in 1974 (See Fruit Notes 40 (No . 1) : 5-6 , 1975). However, the results of another study showed that this 2 lb-rate of CaCl2 produced only a slight increase in fruit calcium (Ca) . In 1975, we decided to increase the CaCl2 rate and to determine whether it could be concentrated. Thus, CaCl2 was applied as 4 lbs per 100 gal of water (IX) and as 24 lbs per 100 gal (6X concentrate) starting with the 2nd cover spray in the schedule shown in Table 1. Some burn on the tip and edges of Mcintosh leaves was observed after the 3rd cover spray, regardless of concentration. This damage was considered excessive on Mcintosh strains when the CaCl2 was ap- plied at 6X concentrate. The injury from sprays applied at IX with a hydraulic sprayer was not considered excessive and did not increase witn tne 4 additional sprays of the same concentration. Furthermore, in a separate experiment in which the IX spray of CaCl- v>/as applied with a "speed-sprayer" little or no injury occurred on Mcintosh leaves. However, it must be noted that 6 inches of rain fell between the 4th and 5th cover spray, 2.5 inches fell between the 5th and 6th cover spray, and 3.0 inches fell between the 6th and 7th cover spray. Without this rainfall, the injury might have been more severe. Clearly, at 4 lbs CaCl2 per 100 gal there is potential for foliar injury to Mcintosh, and this potential is much greater when the spray is applied as a concentrate. Was the CaCl2 spray beneficial? In a separate experiment, we found that 7 sprays of CaCl- (IX) at 4 lbs per 100 gal increased the Ca level in fruit 501. Assessment of the value of this increase in improving storage life of the fruit is still incomplete, but to date we have found that the 50% increase in fruit Ca virtually elim- inated bitterpit and internal breakdown after regular storage to January. Thus, it appears that repeated application of 4 lbs per 100 gal of CaCl2 has the potential for substantially improving stor- age life, but we need more experience to determine if this rate can be safely applied to Mcintosh trees in Massachusetts. Spray Record at H.R.C., Belchertown, starting with 2nd cover, 1975 Materials used/100 gal Weather^ and other Application Date spraying dilute^ comments 2nd cover 676 Thiram, 65%WP, 1-1/2 lb Cloudy Imidan*,50"^WP, 1-1/2 lb CaCl2,4 Ibs^ 3rd cover 6/20 Captan, 50%WP , 1 lb Imidan*,50%WP,l lb Endosulfan,50%WP,l lb CaCl2,4 lbs Clear, windy 1.8 inches of rain between 2nd and 3rd cover. 777 Captan, 50%V/P,1 lb Imidan*,50IWP,l lb Propargite,30IWP,l lb CaCl ,4 lbs Warm and clear 0. 2 inches of rain 4th cover between 3rd and cover. 4th 5th cover 7/18 Same as 4th cover 6th cover T/Sl Captan, 80 WP , 5/8 lb Imidan*,50%WP,l lb CaCl2,4 lbs V/arm, cloudy 6.0 inches of rain between 4th and 5th cover Warm, clear 2 . 5 inches of rain between 5th and 6th cover 7th cover 87T6 Captan, 80%WP, 5/8 lb Imidan*,50%WP,l lb Kelthane*,18. 5^oEC,l pt CaCl2,4 lbs Warm, clear 3.0 inches of rain between 6th and 7th cover 'When spraying 6X, approximately 5 times more used/100 gals. With CaCl2, 24 lbs/100 gals. ^All sprays applied at 6 to 8 A.M. ^CaCl2: 77-801 Flake What should sprav your trees IX, tions and at the apple growers with 3 lbs CaCl-7 tl do in 1976? We suggest that you er 100 gal as separate applica- beginning about"the 1st cover and repeated at 2 to 3 week intervals, totalling 5 to 6 applications. Those who ap- ply pesticides at IX may want to add the CaCl2 to one tankful in each cover spray as a trial; we have seen no evidence of incompati- bility but with the many possible combinations, caution is advised, If foliar damage appears and is considered excessive, reduce the CaCl_ concentration to 2 lbs per 100 gal in subsequent sprays. *Trade name - 3 - We cannot recommend application of CaClo in a concentrate spray, whether alone or with pesticides. Research by Dr. George Greene at Pennsylvania State University, indicates that it can be applied in concentrate on York Imperial trees. However, we do not know ivhat concentration of CaCl2 can be safely applied to Mcintosh trees in Massachusetts. The grower who applies CaCl2 in concentrate sprays does so with considerable risk of failure or injury to the foliage. *************** POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH "Grow 'em" like tomatoes. When questioning researchers in the Nether- lands as to whether the trend toward small apple trees and high den- sity plantings has gone too far, one facetiously remarked, "We will end up growing apples like tomatoes." Apples will always be borne on branches above the ground (how much above is anyone's guess), but the Dutch are experimenting with a planting system which involves planting the tree underground. The "Dutch Nulti-Shoot System" is being tried in an attempt to overcome a major problem with the mead- ow orchards: the high establishment cost because of tree numbers ranging from 12,000 to 28,000 trees per acre. The "Dutch Multi-Shoot System" involves laying 1-year-old unfeathered (unbranched) trees in a shallow trench (about 6 inches deep), end to end, and covering the stem with soil. Trees planted this way will produce roots at the node and the buds will develop stems. Thus, several trees on their own roots can be eventually established from a single young tree by severing the stems from the parent tree. By using 39 inch parent trees and 39 inch alleys, tree numbers can be reduced to about 4000 trees per acre in comparison to 12,000 to 28,000 trees for the meadow system. The Dutch favor cropping these trees 2 to 4 years before mowing the tree near ground level instead of after the first harvest as is done with the meadow system. Research with this novel idea is still in its initial stages, and like many ap- proaches to "super" intensive plantings and mechanical harvesting, it may not prove feasible. However, techniques and novel ideas like this may eventually revolutionize tree fruit growing. *************** PICK-YOUR-OWN STRAWBERRIES Dominic A. Marini Southeast Regional Fruit and Vegetable Specialist Pick-your-own is not new. Some growers adopted this method of marketing strawberries over 20 years ago because of the diffi- culty of obtaining harvest labor. It grew gradually until a few years ago, when the effects of inflation felt both on the farm and in the supermarkets suddenly stimulated new awareness of its advan- tages. Farmers seeking alternative crops to increase income, and consumers searching for ways of stretching their food dollars, have found it to be of mutual advantage and pick-your-ouTi is booming at present. The greatest advantage of pick-your-own for the grower is elim- ination of the problem of finding adequate harvest labor. Not all labor is eliminated, however, since it is necessary to have super- visory help in the field to direct parking, explain the rules, show people where and how to pick, and to tally and collect the money. The greatest problem is providing enough fruit to avoid disappoint- ing customers, many of whom travel long distances to pick berries. In addition to the obvious advantage to the customer of saving some money, there are other advantages including quality and freshness and for many urban dwellers, an outing in the country. Location is not a problem. A recent survey indicated that 45% of pick-your- own customers traveled 10 to 25 miles and that 20% traveled 25 to 50 miles. For the grower, there are other savings in addition to harvest labor. The costs of baskets and shipping trays or crates are elim- inated, along with shipping and selling costs. (Some growers even make a profit on baskets sold to customers who come to pick without containers.) In addition, the fields are picked clean. Pick-your- own customers will pick small, deformed, cull berries that hired pickers would not bother with and that most growers would not offer for sale. Pick-your-own is not for every grower. Some would not allow the public in to pick their berries under any circumstances. Ob- viously, it is not for these growers. And, you have to like people and enjoy dealing with the public to be successful. The first requirement in a pick-your-own operation is parking facilities as close to the fields as possible. On busy days, a person to direct traffic helps to get the customers in and out quickly. Separate entrance and exit roads help to keep traffic flowing smoothly. Some growers provide transportation to and from fields located a distance from the parking area. Most growers do not allow small children into the fields and some provide playgrounds to keep children occupied. Sheep, goats, ducks and other animals are also desirable to attract the attention of children. Wider aisles between beds for walking and picking are desir- able for pick-your-own customers, who are not accustomed to the nar- row aisles with rows spaced 3-1/2 feet apart. A spacing of 4-1/2 or 5 feet would allow more room. Easy picking varieties, such as 5 - Sunrise and Raritan, with tender stems that break easily are desir- able to facilitate picking and reduce fruit bruising. Short rows are more convenient for assigning rows to pickers. Supervision in the field is a "must." Rules should be posted where customers can read them before entering the field. Super- visors must be present in the field at all times to show customers how to pick, to assign them rows to pick, and to make certain that all rules are observed. It is best to tally the berries and col- lect the money as the customers leave the field and before they re- turn to their cars. Some growers harvest the fields once or twice before allowing the public in; others harvest first-year beds themselves and allow public picking on second and third-year beds. Some growers allow customers to pick into any kind of container and charge by weight; others insist that they pick into quart boxes to reduce bruising and charge either by weight or by the box. Some growers allow customers to heap the boxes as high as they can; others charge extra for boxes heaped higher than specified in their rules. To avoid the problem of "how full is full", growers are increas- ingly charging by weight. Most growers vary prices according to the picking, charging the top price- where berries are large and plenti- ful and a lower price where berries are smaller and less abundant. In 1975, the price range in southeastern Massachusetts was SScf- to 65if: per quart and 40(f per pound. A quart weighs about 1-1/2 pounds. Growers with pick-your-own operations do very little advertis- ing. Most advertise once or twice to let customers know when the berries are reac^and after that, they don't have enough berries, so advertising isn't necessary. Some have a mailing list of cus- tomers and send cards to them when the berries are ready. Public picking is an idea whose time has come. Cost-conscious consumers and those looking for freshness and quality have accepted it. And growers having difficulty finding harvest labor, and seek- ing ways to increase gross income, are finding that pick-your-own strawberries is one way of doing it. *************** THE PEACH TREE REPLANT PROBLEM C.J. Gilgut, Extension Plant Pathologist Department of Plant Pathology Peach growers commonly find that a new peach tree, planted where a peach tree has died and been removed, grows poorly and often dies. And, in an orchard site from which old trees have been re- moved recently, new trees grow poorly and do not live as long as those planted on new land. This problem has been known for many years and is world wide. It is referred to as "the peach replant problem," "the short life of peach replants," "peach decline, "soil sickness" and even "win- ter injury." The symptoms above ground are the same as caused by any condi- tion that interferes with good root development and function. The plant grows poorly and has a sickly appearance. Later, there may be dieback of twigs and branches and the plant may even die. Below ground, on declining plants, the feeder root system is poorly devel- oped and inadequate. Some roots have large brown or dead areas and many of the feeder roots are shriveled and dead. Investigators name different causes for the trouble - soil- borne fungi such as Pythium spp. or Phytophthora spp. , Clitocybe root rot, bacterial canker, nematodes, winter injury, drought, soil too wet, high soil temperature, over-fertilizing, starved plants, etc. Each of these causes has been found to be responsible at some time or other in different orchards. Som.e investigators agree on several causes, others do not. Most likely several conditions, •either occurring at the same time or one after the other, are re- sponsible. For example, it is quite common in spring for soils to be wet and cold - a condition that does not favor feeder root devel- opment of peach trees. But it does favor development and root in- vasion by soil fungi such as Pythium and Phytophthora . As the soil dries and becomes warmer, it is less favorable for these two fungi but more favorable for development and invasion of roots by nema- todes which further weaken the root system. As the season progresses and rains are less frequent, the soil becomes even drier, and often drought conditions exist, at least for a while. At the same time the hot weather evaporates large quantities of water from the leaves of the trees. A poor or weakened feeder root system in a soil that does not have enough water and even in a wet soil cannot keep up with the water demand of the tree and the stress shows up as weak and poor growth of the tree above ground. Weakened trees are sus- ceptible to bacterial canker, twig and branch dieback caused by several fungi such as Cytospcra and Valsa, and winter injury, and the whole business ends up as "decline" and dead trees. Rather than review in detail the extensive research that has been done over the years on the replant problem, it may be helpful to give some of the conclusions of some of the more recent investi- gations. The following is from "Peach Decline in Georgia," Georgia Agri- cultural Experiment Station Bulletin 77, June, 1970. It reports investigations from 1929 - about 40 years. - 7 - "We have concluded that Pythium spp. cause reduced vigor by killing the feeder roots of peach trees, making them more responsive to stress conditions such as fruit set and prolonged drought and cold." "Winter and spring rains produce periodically flooded and saturated conditions in the field. These conditions along with moderately cold temperatures favor build-up, libera- tion, dispersal, and infection by Pythium. Moreover, the flooded and saturated soils are slower to warm., thereby further retarding root growth of host plants. These fac- tors acting and interacting together severely restrict root growth at a time when it is at a premium due to de- mands of bud-break and initiation of flowers and leaf growth. " "Factors active in reduction of feeder root systems of peach trees in Georgia include Pythium species, nematodes, and cultural practices." "From our data, we concluded that although all three are important, the first step in any control program is the reduction of root injury from discing. Peach trees are shallow rooted and the majority of feeder roots are in the top 8 inches of soil. Discs frequently penetrate 6 to 8 inches destroying most of the surface feeder roots." "Pythium spp. and nematodes even when present in moderate numbers reduce vigor of peach trees enough to result in greatly increased mortality. They usually operate in an orchard simultaneously. If the Pythium population is lo to moderate, elimination of discing, and a reduction of the nematode population will reduce disease severity." "Fumigation will reduce the Pythium and nematode popula- tions so that trees can become established before re-in- fection. " "Trees in plots which were solidly tarped after injection of 170 or 200 pounds (per acre) Trizone were larger, more vigorous, and more uniform than those in plots strip treated with 170 pounds of Trizone . Pythium populations were effectively reduced in the strip treatment but build- up was more rapid than in the broadcast treatment." In the Section, "Control of Peach Tree Decline in Estab- lished Orchards," a. "the single most significant factor in the reduc- tion of tree loss is the elimination of discing in the orchards." (Sinbar was used for weed control) . w b. "The next most beneficial practice appears to be the use of Fumazone where sub-soiling is not done." (Fumazone 70% EC at 5 gal/A was injected 6 inches deep in 5 foot strips on each side of the trees after planting . ) c. "It appears that post plant nematicides improve both tree survival and yield but no post plant treatment with nematicides is as effective or as desirable as preplant treatments." d. "It is also apparent that sub-soiling after planting is beneficial, particularly where herbicides are used. It improves sub-surface drainage and breaks up hard pan layers to allow better root colonization." (The sub-soiling consisted of 3 sub-soil furrows - one down the center between rows and one 5 feet on each side of center in November.) 9. In Research Bulletin 30, May 1968, Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station, "The effect of sub-soiling on growth and yield of peach trees" we have, a. Preplant sub-soiling in March consisted of one furrow in row wliere plants were to be set and one 20 inches out on each side, with furrows 22 inches deep, in sub- soil dry enough to break up well. b. During 3 years of measurements, where there was no sub- soiling, trees grew only a little more than half as much as trees where it was sub-soiled. c. Over 8 crops, trees in preplant sub-soil yielded nearly twice as much as where not sub-soiled. d. After 13 years, 711 trees in preplant sub-soil were alive and only M% in plots not sub-soiled. e. A second sub-soiling -- a furrow 4 feet from the trees on each side, a year after the trees were planted, showed no improvement in growth over the single preplant sub-soiling. f. The experiment also showed "that once stunted the trees never attained the growth and size of the trees which were able to establish a good root system and grow off rapidly the first growing season." 10. "A deficiency of any element (N,P, or K) necessary for healthy growth may cause increased susceptibility to cold damage . " - 9 - 11. In California - "soil fumigation and fertilization affec- ted tree survival." With trees replanted, where trees killed by bacterial canker were removed, "During the first three years after planting, no trees were killed by cankers where soil was fumigated either with DD or Picfume prior to planting. Tree mortality in non-fumigated plots ranged from 25°6 in complete fertilizer plots to 85.9% in low nitro- gen plots. Growth of trees was significantly greater in fumigated plots than in plots not fumigated." 12. In South Carolina - "October pruning followed by inocula- tion with bacterial canker caused winter injury in addi- tion to typical bacterial canker symptoms. Trees pruned in February and inoculated with the canker organism suf- fered little damage from either winter injury or bacterial canker. It is suggested that trees be pruned only after they are completely dormant." Suggestions for Planting and Replanting Peach Trees From the many years of research on replant survival of peach trees, some practices are indicated which should improve survival of trees planted in a new location or in a location where trees have died and have been removed. A half-hearted effort will not give satisfactory results. The suggestions listed below are the same as those of the Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station Peach Decline Committee. New Orchards 1. Plant where peaches have not been planted before, if at all possible. This gets away from root-attacking soil fungi, nematodes, and other causes of trouble which have built up over the years in the old orchard site. 2. Plow and prepare soil. 3. Follow suggestions 2 through 11 in section on Planting an Old Orchard Site. Planting an Old Orchard Site 1. Remove old trees, plow soil, and remove old roots and other debris. 2. Subsoil before planting. It improves subsurface drainage and breaks up levels of hardpan layers to allow better root development. In the experiments, three subsoil fur- rows were made about 22 inches deep - one in the rows where the trees were to be planted and one 2 to 3 feet on each side. Furrows were in subsoil dry enough to break up well. - 10 - 3. Fumigate the soil to kill nematodes and reduce the amount of soil-inhabiting fungi. It gives the newly planted trees a chance to get established and start growing before populations of these soil-inhabiting organisms build up again. Fumigate in September or October and it will be safe to plant next spring. Spring fumigation takes at least 2 weeks and considerably longer, if the weather is cold and wet, for the fumigant to leave the soil so it is safe to plant. Satisfactory soil fumigants are dichloropropene type - DD or Vidden D at 40 gallons, or Telone at 32 gallons per acre; EDB (ethylene dibromide) , Dowfume W-85 , or Soilfume 85 at 9 to 10 gallons per acre; DECP (1-2 dibromo-3-chloro- propene) - Nemagon EC2 or Fumazone 70E at 5-8 gallons per acre; also Trizone at 170 pounds per acre. Read the label and follow directions and precautions. Applications should be 8 to 10 inches deep in rows 12 inches apart and sealed in by drag or roller. There will be a better seal of fumigant if the top 4 or 5 inches of soil is worked into a fine seedbed condition before fumigation. Unless a grower wants to go to the expense of building and calibrating a tractor-drawn chisel or plow sole application rig, he can have the job done by a custom applicator. They have properly made and calibrated rigs and know how to use them. 4. Lime and fertilize according to soil test. 5. Plant trees from nurseries where soil ivas fumigated with methyl bromide. 6. Best rootstock appears to be Lovell - better than Elberta seedlings. 7. Follow a disease and insect control program from the time of setting. 8. Prune in spring - better than pruning in fall or winter. 9. Avoid discing - follow herbicide program. 10. Provide water the first year if needed, so plants will get a good start, and also during droughts in later years. 11. Extra nitrogen in August seems to improve survival in Georgia. (In Massachusetts, follow Massachusetts fertil- izer recommendations.) - 11 - Replanting in a Peach Orchard Where Trees Have Died The same procedure as replanting in an old orchard site apply but, because a location where a tree has been removed is small and the locations are scattered through the orchard, a rototiller can be used to prepare a planting site. The fumigant can be applied with a hand applicator and the fumigated area covered with a poly- ethylene tarp. *************** EARLY ETHEPHON SPRAYS FOR FLOWER BUD INITIATION AND RIPENING OF APPLES D.W. Greene, W.J. Lord, and W.J. Bramlage Department of Plant and Soil Sciences Ethephon sprays to enhance red color development on apples is now an established practice. In our studies with ethephon, we have also been interested in its potential for initiation of flower buds on bearing trees. Our early studies showed that ethephon at rates of 500 to 1000 ppm (1-2/3 to 3-1/3 pt/100 gal) thinned Cortland and Mutsu apples when applied 26 to 44 days after full bloom. No fruit abscission of Mutsu occurred at 250 ppm (5/6 pt/100 gal) when ethe- phon was applied 35 to 44 days after full bloom but flower bud ini- tiation was not increased. In an experiment in 1973 with Early Mcintosh, we found that a combination spray of Alar-85* and ethe- phon applied after the completion of June drop caused no fruit ab- scission, and that increased flower bud initiation was recorded the following spring. In 1974, we expanded our studies on flower bud initiation with ethephon on bearing trees, and included Cortland, Mcintosh, Red Delicious, and Early Mcintosh. Our findings are sum- marized below. Early Mcintosh. We failed to verify our 1973 results. Post-June drop applications of ethephon (July 8) at 250 ppm and 500 ppm stim- ulated fruit ripening within a week after application and the en- tire crop dropped prior to normal harvest. Furthermore, unlike 1973, the ethephon sprays in 1974 failed to enhance repeat bloom in 1975. Cortland. The response of this cultivar to ethephon was strikingly different from that of Early Mcintosh. Concentrations up to 1000 ppm, applied at the same timing, caused no fruit abscission. Red color enhancement was slight, and only at 1000 ppm did ethephon re- duce flesh firmness. However, respiration studies showed that 1000 ppm ethephon clearly stimulated earlier ripening, while lower con- centrations produced a small advancement of ripening and Alar-85* *Trade name - 12 - reduced the ethephon effect. Ethephon alone at 500 ppm or lOQO ppn^ or ethephon at 500 ppm plus Alar-85* at 1000 ppm suppressed fruit size. None of the treatments increased repeat bloom in 1975. Mcintosh. Post-bloom sprays of ethephon were applied on July 22 and August 8 on this cultivar. Ethephon at 1000 ppm applied on July 22 eliminated the crop and 500 ppm thinned excessively, whereas trees receiving 250 ppm ethephon on July 22 lost only 16^ of their crop and averaged 68^ red color on fruit by August 28. Ethephon applied at 75, 125, or 250 ppm (1/4, 5/12 and 5/6 pt/100 gal) on August 7, enhanced red color development and only the highest con- centration caused excessive drop by August 28. All concentrations of ethephon on both dates increased soluble solids (sugar content) and decreased flesh firmness. This advancement in fruit maturity was confirmed by respiration data. The ethephon sprays as on Early Mcintosh and Cortland failed to enhance repeat bloom in 1975. Red Delicious. Ripening of this cultivar also was stimulated by ethephon. Both 500 and 1000 ppm caused fruit drop and all concen- trations advanced watercore development and suppressed fruit size. Alar-85* was capable of reducing the ripening effects but caused further fruit size suppression. A loss of flesh firmness which usually accompanies ripening did not occur with the ethephon- treated fruit, probably due to the presence of water core. The watercore in the fruit tissue may have increased the resistance to the plunger of the pressure tester. The ethephon and ethephon plus Alar-85* sprays, with the excep- tion of ethephon at 250 ppm, increased repeat bloom in 1975 but no treatment increased fruit set. Conclusions Increased flower bud initiation is not a consistent response of apple cultivars to post-June drop applications of ethephon. Sum- mer applications of ethephon can advance harvest date but the ques- tion is can it be done consistently without excessive fruit drop? Our 1975-1976 studies may help to answer this question, but even if feasible, the value of the advancement is questionable. We generally are not concerned about advancing the maturity of Cortland and Delicious since the harvest of these cultivars is usually de- layed until Mcintosh harvest is nearly complete, and therefore, they are often overmature. The use of ethephon might aggravate this prob- lem. Fruit size on Mcintosh trees harvested the 3rd or 4th week of August might be excessively small except on young trees or those with a light crop. Thus, it appears that mid-July or early-August applications of ethephon have little value when one considers the risk of excessive fruit drop, loss of fruit size or advanced matur- ity. Present recommendations for ethephon' s use which permits the harvest of Mcintosh in the first week of September appears to be a safer practice. *************** *Trade name - 13 All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State Laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials. NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARiNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Off ic iai Business Penalty for Private Use, S300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin. FRUIT NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 41 (No. 5) SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1976 TABLE OF CONTENTS Baited Yellow Rectangles for Trapping Apple Maggot Flies Collecting Soil Samples for Nematode Identification Postharvest Dips of Apples in Calcium Chloride Solution Marketing Margins for Mcintosh and Red Delicious Apples Pomological Paragraph Varieties of U.S. Origin in the Netherlands Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. BAITED YELLOW RECTANGLES FOR TRAPPING APPLE MAGGOT FLIES Ronald J. Prokopy Department of Entomology There are about a dozen major insect-type pests o£ apples in Massachusetts. Some of these, svch as mites, rosy and green aphids, leafhoppers, and scale insects attack the vegetative parts of the tree and can be tolerated in small or moderate numbers without eco- nomic injury. In unsprayed orchards, predators and parasites aid in suppressing these vegetative pests at population levels which are not injurious. Most of our common orchard sprays are highly toxic to predators and parasites, and hence we must spray additional ma- terials to prevent these vegetative pests from reaching economically injurious levels. There are other major pests of apples, such as plum curculio, codling moth, red-banded leafroller, sawfly, and apple maggot whose larvae (worms) feed directly on or in developing or mature fruit. Even small numbers of adults of any one of these fruit pests in a commercial orchard can cause economic injury. Numerous studies and observations have shown that the apple maggot is one of the most damaging of these pests in the northeastern states, including Massachusetts. In unsprayed trees, usually 95-100% of the fruit is infested by apple maggot larvae. In commercial orchards, the last 3-5 insecticide cover sprays of the season are directed principally against the apple maggot. In nearly all cases, I expect that most or all of these maggot cover sprays are applied as a preventative, irrespective of whether or not flies are actually present in the orchard and constitute an economic threat. Development and use of effective traps to monitor maggot fly populations would tell a grower when, if at all, maggot flies first appear in his orchard, and when they have died out for the season. With this knowledge, the first maggot spray could be delayed until first fly capture on the traps, and the last one or two maggot sprays eliminated if no further maggot flies were cap- tured. In this day of rapidly increasing pesticide costs and re- strictions on pesticide usage, any pesticide reduction without sac- rifice of fruit yield or quality will make for greater profit and less environmental damage. I've been studying apple maggot fly behavior for several years, and in this article will relate how certain of these studies have aided in the development of effective apple maggot traps. Apple maggot flies emerge from overwintering puparia (cocoons) in the soil. They spend the first week or two of their lives feed- ing on insect honeydew (the sugary secretion of aphids and similar - 2 - insects). This honeydew accumulates principally on the surface of foliage, and the flies' feeding activities may carry them to all sorts of foliage, not just apple or their native host, hawthorne . How do the flies locate foliage, especially foliage with honey- dew on it? Studies conducted in Wisconsin in 1972 by Drs. Guy Bush and Stewart Berlocher (University of Texas), and Dr. Volker Moericke (University of Bonn, West Germany), and myself showed that the flies locate foliage principally, perhaps even exclusively, by its physi- cal characteristics. The size and shape of a foliated tree had some influence on attraction, but the most important factor was foliage color. The color of foliage in summer (when flies are active) is green, We found that apple maggot flies (as well as cherry flies in Switzer- land and olive flies in Greece) were more attracted to wooden rectan- gles painted green than to ones painted red, blue, white, gray, or black. What was surprising, however, is that the flies were much more attracted to yellow rectangles than to green ones, especially to the very intensely reflective color of daylight fluorescent yel- low. Why should the flies be m.uch more attracted to bright yellow color than to green? With the aid of a spectrophotometer (an in- strument which measures wavelengths of light reflectance), we found that green leaves reflect most light from about 520-580 nano- meters (nm) in the visible spectrum. (Violet reflects most light at 360-430 nm , blue at 430-500 nm , green and yellow at 500-590, orange at 590-630, and red at 630-760 nm) . It turns out that day- light fluorescent yellow paint, just as green leaves, reflects its maximum energy from 520-580 nm. But the amount of energy relected from 520-580 nm by the yellow paint is much greater than by green leaves. We believe that the reason that flies are more attracted to yellow than green is that they perceive yellow as if it were super-bright or super-intense foliage. What practical use can be made of this information? We painted daylight fluorescent yellow paint (Saturn Yellow*, manufactured by Day-Glo Corp., Cleveland, Ohio) onto small (about 6" x 8") wooden or cardboard rectangles, coated the rectangles with a clear sticky odorless substance (Bird Tanglefoot*, manufactured by the Tangle- foot Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan) to capture arriving flies, and hung these rectangles in fruit trees in the U.S. and Europe. They proved to be very useful in attracting and capturing apple maggot, cherry maggot, and olive flies and are now being widely used to monitor the activities of these pests in orchards. In fact, when these traps were employed by colleagues in Switzerland (Dr. Ernst Boiler and associates) at the rate of 2.5 per cherry tree in one orchard and 1.7 per tree in another, they captured enough female and male cherry flies to provide a high degree of direct control *Trade name (larval infestation in the fruit was reduced by 90'o). For direct fly control, this method of capturing the flies with sticky yellow traps is laborious and doubtless uneconomical on a large scale. But it does illustrate the effectiveness of the traps. Studies originated by Dr. Ralph Dean in the Hudson Valley in the 1930's and Dr. A.C. Hodson in Minnesota in the 1940's showed that apple maggot flies are attracted to the odor of decomposing protein and the odor of ammonia. The real reason for this attrac- tion isn't known for certain. But it is known that the insect hon- eydew on which the flies feed does contain amino acids (the build- ing blocks of protein) . It seems quite likely that as honeydew ages, it decomposes slightly, and in the process gives off ammonia (which is a product of protein putrefaction). Hence, the flies may be cueing in on ammonia as a guide to locating honeydew. Ammonia-type substances and protein hydrolysates have now been added to the sticky-coated daylight fluorescent yellow rectangles to combine in one trap the essential visual and olfactory stimuli eliciting the food-finding behavior of the flies. Currently, Zoecon Corporation (c/o Dr. W.H. Palmer, 346 South Avenue, Williamson, N.Y. 14589) is marketing this type of trap. It is a Saturn Yellow* 9" x 10" cardboard rectangle. One surface of the rectangle is coated with Bird Tanglefoot*, with protein hydrolysate and ammonium acetate mixed into the Tanglefoot. For transport and handling the card is folded in half, with the Tanglefoot area inside. The trap is easily assembled for use by folding back the cardboard to expose the Tangle- foot, and attaching a wire for hanging it in an apple tree. Every grower knows from past experience which of his blocks are in greatest danger from maggot attack. Employment of 1-2 traps per acre in maggot hot-spots would provide instant information on the status of the maggot fly population. This will aid in better timing of maggot sprays, and avoidence of unnecessary applications when no maggots are present. In the next two issues of Fruit Notes , I will discuss other as- pects of apple maggot fly behavior which have practical import. COLLECTING SOIL SAMPLES FOR NEMATODE IDENTIFICATION R.A. Rohde Department of Plant Pathology The plant-parasitic nematodes that attack fruit trees live in the soil and feed on the roots. They are too small to be seen un- less removed from the soil. Nematode populations vary greatly both horizontally and vertically in roughly circular patches and samp- ling is generally a compromise hoping to truly estimate the popu- lation without collecting an unreasonable amount of soil. When to collect : Any time of year, although populations are larg- est during late summer. Where to collect: If a field is being sampled prior to treatment, a systematic sampling should be made of future planting sites. Established trees should be sampled at the drip line. What to collect: An ideal sample would consist of 20 cores, 1 inch diameter by 12 inches long, taken in a zig-zag pattern from an area 10 X 100 feet. This much soil should fit into 2 1-quart plastic bags. Include any roots that may be present. For a large orchard, additional 1000 sq. ft. strips should be sampled separately. Send : Samples sealed in a plastic bag or container. Dry samples such as those collected for chemical analysis are useless. Ordin- ary temperatures won't hurt but don't leave samples in a hot car trunk. Massachusetts fruit growers can bring or mail the samples to: R.A. Rohde, Department of Plant Pathology, Fernald Hall, Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass. 01002. POSTHARVEST DIPS OF APPLES IN CALCIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTION Heather A. Betts and William J. Bramlage Department of Plant and Soil Sciences In recent years, there has been a growing recognition world- wide that calcium (Ca) can play an important role in protecting apples from different physiological disorders -- on the tree, but especially off the tree during and following storage. We have been finding during the past few years that Massachusetts apples, too, are often Ca-deficient and that this is contributing to stor- age problems. Consequently, we have been investigating ways of correcting this problem. One approach to the problem is the use of postharvest dips in Ca-containing solutions. A number of researchers have tested dips, and have generally found them to be relatively effective. However, there are many factors that might influence the successful use of Ca dips, and these effects are very poorly understood. During the past year, we conducted an intensive study of factors affecting ab- sorption of Ca from a postharvest dip solution, results of which we report here. We have dipped several varieties of apples in various concen- trations of CaCl2 from 0.5°^ (4 lbs/100 gal) to 41 (32 lbs/100 gal). We found that little Ca was absorbed during the actual dip and that uptake was mainly during storage from residues left on the apple. Thus, the length of time apples actually spent in the dip was not important, whether it was as short as a few seconds or as long as 60 minutes. Also, the solution temperature, whether cold or hot, did not in itself affect Ca uptake. However, we observed that put- ting warm apples into a cold solution may increase the uptake and will of course have the added benefit of helping to cool the fruit. Apparently, the cooling apple forms a partial vacuum that draws some Ca solution into the fruit from the dip solution. The factor most influencing the uptake of Ca is the concentra- tion of CaCl2 in the solution. The optimum CaCl^ concentration for the dip is not yet clear. Low concentration (O.S and 1.01) of CaCl-, were insufficient to substantially increase the Ca level of apples. The effects of a 2% solution were variable; 1% signifi- cantly increased the Ca in 'Mcintosh' stored for 3 months, but did not significantly increase 'Cortland' or 'Baldwin' flesh Ca. This does not mean that at \% and 1% concentrations the Ca is not pene- trating the fruit; tests with radioactive Ca demonstrated that a 1% solution did penetrate into the flesh. However, individual fruits vary greatly in their native Ca concentration as well as in their ability to absorb Ca, so that the effect of the 2% CaCl^ was not great enough to significantly overcome these variations^within our relatively small sample sizes. Whether or not 1% CaCl2 is a high enough concentration to substantially raise the Ca level in the fruit during storage probably depends on the conditions of the fruit and the storage. Furthermore, the most suitable CaClT concentration probably varies with the variety being treated and the growing con- ditions. We found that ^% CaCl2 significantly increased flesh Ca in all varieties tested; this very concentrated solution (32 lbs of CaCl2/100 gal) can probably be counted upon to raise the Ca level in apples under most conditions that might be encountered, but it is also probably more concentrated that necessary under many condi- tions and may lead to problems, as will be mentioned later. How does Ca enter the apple, since absorption is almost entirely from residue? We tested this question using radioactive Ca "tracers" and found that absorption appears to be almost exclusively through natural openings in the fruit, but at a very slow rate. Therefore, the more openings available (open lenticels, open calyx, punctures, etc.) the more readily Ca will penetrate. However, different vari- eties and individual fruits within a variety varied greatly in open- ness. Submerging cold apples in warm water and observing air bub- ble formation may be a quick test to determine these fruit openings and thus get an indication of how readily they will respond to post- harvest dips; if many bubbles appear quickly, perhaps reduced CaCl2 concentrations may be used. - 6 Various additives have been reported to influence Ca absorption from a CaClo dip, E.g. , certain "thickeners" have been reported to greatly increase absorption, and wetting agents to reduce it. Fur- ther, commercial adoption of the practice would likely incorporate CaCl2 into a solution containing a scald inhibitor and fungicide. The presence of thickeners, a strong wetting agent, a fungicide, a scald inhibitor, and combinations of these materials in a 2% CaClo dip neither aided nor hindered Ca uptake by 'Mcintosh' nor produced any adverse effects on the apples. Thus, a CaCl^ dip can be suc- cessfully combined with a wide range of other materials. It is noteworthy that we have had no success in trying to increase Ca ab- sorption through use of "thickeners," and cannot recommend their use. It must be recognized that uptake of Ca from residues is slow. Relative humidity (R.H.) of the storage atmosphere is a factor that can influence this uptake. Whether this influence is good or bad, again would seem to depend on the specific conditions you are work- ing with. It appears that a high R.H. (95-98'o) has a positive in- fluence if it keeps the CaCl7 residue from drying out, so that the apples can continue to absorb Ca for several months. On the other hand, a low R.H. (85-901) may concentrate a weak solution (that is make a 11 CaCl^ solution act like a 4% CaCl2 solution) and increase the rate of Ca^'absorpt ion, but if the low rTh. causes the residue to completely dry up, the absorption will cease. Thus, at a low storage R.H., rapid penetration of Ca may occur, but only for a short period of time. Since apples are normally stored for many months, high R.H. is probably desirable, to maintain uptake over a long period of time and thus obtain maximum benefit from dips. If you maintain a high storage R.H., you can probably obtain consider- able benefit from moderate CaCl2 concentrations in the dip solu- tions and avoid the necessity for the very high (3^ or 4%) CaCl2 concentrations . Will postharvest CaCl2 dips improve the storageability of Massachusetts apples? We conducted a small scale pilot study to measure potential benefits to fruits from the CaCl2 dip treatments. A 21 or 4% CaCl2 dip significantly increased the flesh Ca of 'Mcin- tosh' and decreased their internal breakdown from 16% in the con- trols to 2-3% in treated samples. Also, the fruit dipped in 4% CaCl were significantly firmer than the controls after 3 months storage. In 'Cortland', breakdown was seemingly reduced from 17% in the controls to 6% in samples dipped in 4% CaCl2. These were encouraging results, and there is another way to look at the re- sults,too. In Massachusetts, a flesh Ca concentration of about 225 ppm appears to be optimum for quality retention during long- term storage of apples. Fruits frequently possess Ca levels sub- stantially lower than this at harvest, and therefore, have a high potential for deterioration. Ca concentrations in 'Mcintosh' and 'Cortland' were increased more than 100 ppm by a 4% CaCl2 dip, and 50 ppm by a 2% dip, and in 'Baldwin' more than 60 ppm ana about 30 ppm by 41 and 2% dips, respectively. Dips therefore made the fruits considerably more suitable for long-term storage. We believe that - 7 - CaCl2 dips have the potential for marked reductions of storage prob- lems in Northeastern apples, but we still need to conduct more exten- sive tests to accurately measure their usefulness. Commercial use of postharvest CaCl^ dips is rapidly occurring in many parts of the world, but not without problems. The CaCl^ solutions are corrosive and may shorten the "life" of storage equip- ment and bins. Furthermore, while we detected no injury to 'Mcin- tosh' and 'Baldwin', and only very slight injury (flecks of calyx- end burn on a few fruit) to 'Cortland', it is known that serious damage can occur. Our tests should help considerably in understand- ing how to optimize the use of postharvest dips and minimize these problems of corrosion and possible injury to the fruit. The prin- ciples involved seem to be simple: 1. Natural openings (holes) must exist in the apple surface for Ca entry. The more holes (open lenticels, open calyx, etc.) there are, the more Ca will be absorbed from a treat- ment . 2. Absorption is almost entirely from residue following the dip. The only role of the dip is to produce a residue (which, incidentally, is not considered harmful to con- sumers) , and normal variables of dip conditions seem to have no influence on this residue. 3. The humidity in the storage is a factor to be carefully con- sidered. If a storage is maintained at 95°o R.H. , as is usually recommended, dips will probably be more successful than if the R.H. is lower, because absorption will continue over a long period of time -- as long as the residue re- mains liquid. 4. The key factor is the concentration of CaCl2 used in the dip solution. Different varieties and different conditions will produce different amounts of Ca absorbed into the apple flesh from a given CaCl2 concentration. Use of 41 CaCl2 (32 lbs/100 gal) can probably be expected to produce significant gains in Ca under a wide range of conditions, but 1.51 or 1% (12 or 16 lbs/100 gal) CaCl2 is probably sufficient under many conditions. If treatment is employed judiciously, it is probably not nec- essary to use the very high CaCl2 concentrations (24-32 lbs/100 gal) , and therefore, potential problems can be minimized. Several Massa- chusetts growers who tested CaCl^ dips on small lots of 'Mcintosh' and 'Cortland' apples in 1975 incurred no problems and were pleased with the results. We hope that considerably more experience will be obtained this year so that this promising approach to improved storageability of apples will be more clearly understood and more widely applicable. *************** MARKETING MARGINS FOR McINTOSH AND RED DELICIOUS APPLES Robert L. Christensen Department of Food and Resource Economics A study recently published by agricultural economists at the University of Connecticut focused on the, determination of wholesale and retail marketing margins for apples. Producers interested in performing this marketing function themselves through roadside stand operations should find this study of interest in making such a decision. Apple growers have at least three alternatives for selling their fresh apples: (1) through their own roadside outlet, (2) selling direct to a retail outlet or (3) selling to a wholesaler. Many growers use a combination of all three, Mcintosh and Red Delicious were the two varieties selected for the study. The package studied was 12-3's. The data consisted of 238 observations of prices in 1969-70 for U.S. No. 1 or better apples. Considerable variability of prices was observed both in terms of variety and stage of marketing. yjholesale Markups Wholesalers of Mcintosh apples apparently applied a constant markup which was then "adjusted" by the farm price. The constant factor was found to be $2.10 (for the 12-3 package). The adjuster operated in such a way as to reduce the margin when farm prices are high and increase it when the farm price falls. The adjustment fac- tor was 21 percent of the farm price. For example: Farm Price in Period 1 $4.00 Constant Factor-Wholesale 2.10 Adjuster (.21 x 4.00) -.84 Wholesale Markup $1.26 Farm Price in Period 2 $5.00 Constant Factor Wholesale 2.10 Adjuster (.21 x 5.00 - 1.05 Wholesale Markup $1.05 Wholesalers of Red Delicious used the same strategy in market- ing. However, the constant factor was $2.06 and the adjuster was 18 percent. ^Montero, Jose, and D.G. Stitts, "Marketing Margins for Mcintosh and Red Delicious Apples in Connecticut." Journal of the North- eastern Agricultural Economics Council, Vol. IV, No . 2 , October, 1975 - 9 Retail Markups Retailers of Mcintosh apples used a different strategy in establishing markups. They add a constant factor plus a percentage adjuster (as contrasted with wholesalers where the adjuster was subtracted) . This strategy leads to lower retail margins when farm prices are low and higher when farm prices are high. The constant factor used by retailers tended to be $2.28 with an adjuster of 37 percent of tlie farm price. (This is, of course, in addition to the wholesale margin.) For example (using data from the previous example) : Farm Price in Period 1 $4.00 Wholesale Markup 1. 26 Price to Retailer $5.26 Constant Factor-Retail $2.28 Adjuster (.37 x 4.00) 1.48 Total Wholesale Markup $3.76 Total Price at Retail $9.02 Farm Price in Period 2 $5.00 V/holesale Markup 1 . 05 Price to Retailer $6.05 Constant Factor-Retail $2.28 Adjuster (.57 x 5.00) +1. 85 Total Wholesale Markup $4.13 Total Price at Retail $10.18 Retailers of Red Delicious apples also followed the same mark- up practices. The constant factor was $3.70 and the adjuster was 25 percent. Conclusions "Given these types of markups, as supply increases, per unit wholesale markup increases, while per unit retail markup decreases. Therefore, in a period of overproduction, growers may find it profit- able to bypass the wholesale, depending on how much it would cost them to do this." -- (Montero and Stitts) Wholesalers and retailers marketing margins are based, at least in part, on their costs of performing the marketing function. Thus, when a grower takes on the job of wholesaling and retailing, he too must assume those costs. To assess the profitability of taking the role of a wholesaler and/or retailer involves consideration of sev- eral factors. The basic decision criteria is the answer to the question: "Can I perform the marketing functions at a cost lower than charged by firms in the marketing system?" Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts A. A. Spielman Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300. POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT FRUITp," NOTES PREPARED BY DEPARTMENT OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCES COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COUNTY EXTENSION SERVICES COOPERATING. EDITORS W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE Vol. 41 (No. 6) NOVEMBER^DECEMBER 1976 TABLE OF CONTENTS Interregional Cooperative Research in Fruit Tree Viruses and Aspects of Control Measures: I. History Publications Available Nematode Control and Apple Trees Sticky Red Spheres for Trapping Apple Maggot Flies Fruit Notes Index for 1976 Supplement - Establishment of Compact Apple Trees (Eight pages) Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spieiman, Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914; University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating. INTERREGIONAL COOPERATIVE RESEARCH IN FRUIT TREE VIRUSES AND ASPECTS OF CONTROL MEASURES: I. HISTORY R.C. McCrum Department of Botany and Plant Pathology University of Maine Writing an article pertaining to U.S. apple virus research efforts, following the very informative article by Dr. van Oosten on the Netherlands fruit tree research in the Nov -Dec, 1975 Fruit Notes , is quite a challenge. The Netherlands' success with its system of distribution of nuclear stock coupled with the nursery management system of inspection and regulations has set an extremely difficult path for us to follow. Free American enterprise and its competitive economics does not always furnish the best vehicle in which to carry out a system of plant virus controls. This is il- lustrated in the recent concern over the impending influenza virus epidemic and governmental concern and action in instituting a national program of vaccine distribution and inoculations. Disease pathogens are unfortunately not considerate of the political as- pects of a free laissez faire system. We presently lack the neces- sary controls needed to control the distribution of virus-indexed material along with inspections and cooperative nursery management that has led to the success attained by the Netherlands and other countries in speeding up their fruit tree virus control programs. The U.S. has come a long way in the last few years in obtain- ing knowledge regarding fruit tree viral and mycoplasmal pathogens. In so doing, we have established quarantine restrictions on imports to exclude some serious systemic fruit tree diseases from entering the U.S. This in turn has led to a superior product which must be imported to U.S. buyers. At the same time, however, it has also required cleaner, virus-free material to be produced in the U.S. when we desire to export our apple tree material to other countries. Fruit tree virus research in the United States received in- creases in support and importance in 1955 when the federal govern- ment in cooperation with the separate experiment stations initi- ated projects on tree fruits in the Cooperative Regional Research Projects. At first, there were 3 regional fruit tree virus proj- ects: a Northeastern, a Central and a Western group. At present, the Northeastern group is the only one that is active. Other re- gions still cooperate but not on an active formal basis. Incor- porated into the regional approach to fruit tree viruses was an interregional (IR-2) project and its coordinating committee whose purpose was to establish, obtain, and preserve virus-free decidu- ous tree fruit materials. By 1958, after 3 years of operation, the IR-2 project had established facilities for research work and in- dexing at the Irrigation Experiment Station at Prosser, Washington. At the same time, there were plots established adjacent to the Washington State Plant Quarantine station near Moxee, Washington where virus-free cones could be maintained for budwood and seed - 2 - sources. Technical conunittee members elected from each region as well as their administrative advisors formed a working advisory board for the IR-2 fruit tree repository. At first, emphasis was given to stone fruit problems only and the repository had received up to I960 a total of 472 candidate clones submitted for consider- ation. The spring of 1960 saw 13 virus free clones planted in iso- lation at the Moxee site. Extensive therapy of budwood of varie- ties in which no clean propagating material could be found was be- gun in 1960-61. In 1964, initial release of several Prunus selec- tions was authorized as a result of this work. Starting in 1963, work en pome fruit viruses was included in the interregional and regional projects. A subcommittee was set up for the new apple and pear work and they immediately reported out a project to find suitable indicators for virus indexing. An- nual reports of 1964 revealed that 15 indicators and 92 sources of virus-infected and healthy apple collections were being tested at the Indiana and the New York (Geneva) Experiment Stations. These tests were undertaken to find more sensitive indicators to both the latent and fruit distorting virus entities. Also included at that time were indicators such as the Russian indicator R-127407, Mai us platycarpa and Virginia Crab. Mechanically inoculated her- baceous indicators were also used to identify and screen out other possible contaminating entities in apple and pear budwood sources. In the meantime, work with pome fruits had already been initiated at several stations and became dovetailed with the IR-2 endeavors. The consent to officially start work at the IR-2 repository on pome fruits was given in 1965 and at that time 37 candidate clones were assembled for further testing in screenhouse tests at the Washing- ton Station. Additional Malus clones w^ere also received at the repository that had been initially screened at individual cooperat- ing stations, and by other workers concerned with maintaining a virus-free repository of budwood. Thus, after 10 years of work on Prunus , 1965 also saw the beginnings of a collection of virus in- dexed apple clones established in the interregional repository. In response to the U.S. success of the IR-2 project in establishing screenhouse nuclear stocks and isolated fruit tree plantings, other countries initiated similar repositories modeled after the IR-2 development . By 1969, provisions were made to include patented cultivar selections in the repository along with proper restrictions and permission from the patent holder allowing experimental manipula- tion and incorporation of the cultivar in the repository. This was deemed necessary because many of the newer and most important commercial apple cultivars used were the patented ones. In 1971, the release of indexed apple budwood under the regional and IR-2 project working groups was started. A distribution list of 66 clones was available and 900 buds of 59 selections were formally released to 9 research and regulatory scientists. At the time, a number of states including Maine, made use of this indexed IR-2 budwood to form mother block trees for use in orchard and nursery improvement projects. - 3 - By 1975, the success o£ the continuing IR-2 and regional proj- ects was demonstrated by examining the records for the release of material from the repository. In 1975, 18,960 Prunus, 3115 Malus and 1600 Pyrus buds representing respectively, 640, 122, and 76 cultivar selections were released to 53 research or regulatory sci- entists. In addition, indexed budstocks of 21 patented selections in the repository were returned to commercial contractors. The lat- ter distributed material represented the first release of incorpo- rate patented budwood material. Up to 1975, repository material has been distributed by re- quests to 193 research or regulatory scientists, representing 34 states, 4 Canadian provinces and 33 foreign countries. (To be oontinued in Jan-Feb, 1977 issue.) PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE Available from the Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, for $1.00 is Exten- sion Bulletin E-791, entitled "Problem Perennial Weeds." This pub- lication contains excellent color photographs of problem perennial weeds in Michigan. Since many of these weeds are also found in our tree and small fruit plantings in Massachusetts, this publica- tion will be valuable for their identification. "Management of Pick-Your-Own Marketing Operations" is a recent bulletin of the Northeast Extension Marketing Committee, published by the University of Delaware. Its 66 pages cover all aspects of PYO operations and should be of special interest to fruit growers who are contemplating or who are currently using this method of sales. A copy may be obtained by sending $2.50 to the Agricultural Bulletin Room, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19711. *************** NEMATODE CONTROL AND APPLE TREES R.A. Rohde Department of Plant Pathology Plant-parasitic nematodes occur in all soils and have been shown by many workers to be the cause of root injury to virtually all plants, including apple trees. The result of feeding by these microscopic worms may be a reduction in overall growth of any sized-trees but the problem, is most evident in newly planted blocks that fail to develop uniformly. The nematode species most often associated with poor growth of apples in the Northeast is the meadow nematode, Pratylenchus penetrans . This parasite is also called the lesion nematode be- cause adults and larvae burrow through the root cortex, breaking down cells and causing tissue collapse. The initial cavities or spots become infection courts for numerous fungi and bacteria which complete the breakdown of the roots. Populations build up fastest in lighter soils, or at least injury seems to be more severe in sandy and sandy loam soils but this is not always the case. The other nematode species most often found feeding on apples are ectoparasites, meaning that they remain in the soil. Their surface feeding does not cause extensive tissue breakdown but can contribute to reduced root groivth. Poorly developed root systems lead to a variety of symptoms. Water is not absorbed efficiently and trees become stunted. Mar- ginally available nutrients become limited. Poor growth leads to poor winter hardiness. Dagger nematodes, one of the ectoparasitic species, are transmitters of peach viruses and may possibly trans- mit apple viruses as well. Experimental evidence that nem.atodes injure apples is usually obtained either by adding nematodes to seedlings growing in pots or else by treating larger trees with chemicals called nematicides and comparing them with untreated trees. A number of general con- clusions may be drawn from the research literature in the U.S. and Europe. 1. The presence of nematodes does not always mean that chem- ical treatment will lead to increased yields. Healthy trees, grow- ing vigorously, can support relatively large numbers of nematodes and are unlikely to grow better with treatment. 2. Treatment is usually profitable only when there is evidence of poor root growth or reason to suspect that there might be. Soil should be sampled and analyzed for nematodes but at the same time, nutrient levels, drainage, hardpan and other soil conditions should be checked out. 3. The younger the trees, the better the chances for success from chemical treatments and for all practical purposes, nematode control should be done in conjunction with planting. It is far easier to prevent infection than to try and get rid of nematodes already in the roots. 4. The head start given to young trees will usually last for the life of the tree even when nematode populations build up later. Chemicals used for control are classified as either fumigants or contact nemat icides . The chemicals mentioned are those listed in the EPA compendium, but before using, the grower should check with the Regional Fruit Specialist. Fumigants - are liquids that, when injected 6-8" de turn into a gas which penetrates the soil mass. These c are toxic to all forms of life including nematodes, inse and apple trees. They are used before planting and do n properly unless old roots and plant materials are remove temperatures are above 50°F and the soil is worked up to condition." Standard soil fumigants are formulations of dichloropropene (Shell D-D*, Telone*, Vidden-D*] or ethy mide (Dowfume W-85*]. The fungicidal activity of dichlo is increased with the addition of chloropicrin to make T or methyl isothiocyanate to make Vorlex* or both chlorop methyl isothiocyanate to make Vorlex-201*. The increase responses from the broader spectrum compounds are largel plained but nonetheless profitable. ep in soil, hemicals cts, fungi ot work d, soil "seedbed either lene dibro- ropropene elone-C* icrin and d growth y unex- Contact nematicides - are liquid or granular formulations that can be used on nursery or other trees during a nonbearing year. Only two chemicals are presently registered for apples: Zinophos* as a bare root dip during planting and oxamyl (Vydate-L*) as a pre- plant soil treatment, a foliar spray or a root dip. Both are highly toxic to humans and both will have some sys- temic insecticidal activity. Both work best when used to prevent infection and are part of an overall control program. It is important to start with clean planting stock, preferably produced on fumigated soil with any type of replanting program. Lesion nematode populations decline with cover crops of sudangrass, perennial ryegrass or fescue, and one or two cover crops com.bined with plowing to get rid of old tree roots will greatly improve the results from fumigation. Time-of -planting treatments work best when coupled with fumigation and both work best when integrated with the cultural procedures described above. Because nematode control is expensive and takes a lot of care to do properly and because every orchard soil is different, it will be important to proceed with caution. In Massachusetts, most fumi- gation is done by custom applicators who are able to meet special- ized needs. Enough evidence exists to show that in many cases, howev'er, it could be a profitable venture. *Trade name *************** STICKY RED SPHERES FOR TRAPPING APPLE MAGGOT FLIES Ronald J. Prokopy Department of Entomology In the last issue o£ Fruit Notes, I discussed the visual and odor cues that guide apple maggot flies to insect honeydew, their principal source of food. I mentioned that the honeydew accumu- lates principally on tree leaves, and that both the color of leaves, as well as the odor of honeydew are attractive to the flies. I al- so briefly described experiments which showed that daylight fluo- rescent yellow paint is, to the flies, the equivalent of super- bright and therefore super-attractive foliage, and that small sticky coated rectangles painted this color are effective in attracting and capturing flies which are in a feeding mood. Ammonium acetate and protein hydrolysate emit odors which are apparently similar to the odors emitted by honeydew, and these materials, when added to the yellow rectangles, further enhance their effectiveness in cap- turing food-seeking maggot flies. To infest apples, apple maggot flies must of course not only find food but also succeed in finding mates and apples in a stage susceptible for egglaying. In this article, I wish to briefly de- scribe some of the research which I (alone, or in conjunction with Guy Bush of Texas and Volker Moericke of West Germany) have been doing in recent years to determ.ine how these flies find mates and apples. This research has yielded a trap which from mid-season on, is even more effective than the odor-baited yellow rectangles in capturing and monitoring fly populations in commercial orchards. Apple maggot females must mate in order to lay fertile eggs. We have found that the site of mating is exclusively the fruit of the larval host plant. The original larval host of the apple mag- ,got, an insect native to North America and not found elsewhere, is hawthorn Apples were introduced into the U.S. from Europe by early pioneers about 350 years ago. About 110 years ago, the apple mag- got shifted from hawthorn onto apples, and about 20 years ago it shifted onto sour cherries in Wisconsin. Thus, the mating site of the flies is the fruit of hawthorn, apples and sour cherries. How do the males and females locate fruits favorable as mating and egglaying sites? We have found that the odor of apples in a stage suitable for egglaying, in combination with the general vis- ual stimulus of apple tree color, size and shape, attracts both sexes of flies to apple trees. If the apples on a tree are not ripe enough for egglaying, or if they're too ripe, then their odor does not attract the flies. After the flies arrive on an apple tree, both sexes locate the individual fruits principally, if not exclu- sively, by vision. I showed this by hanging wooden models of ap- pies (the same color, size, and shape as real apples) near real ap- ples on a tree and observing that just as many males and females landed on the wooden models as on the real apples. What then are the particular visual characteristics of indi- vidual apples which the flies cue in on? I found that the spheri- cal-type shape of an apple is a very powerful visual stimulus, and that wooden spheres attract many times more flies than wooden cubes, cylinders, or rectangles of the same color and size. Color is al- so important, the most preferred colors of wooden, apple-size spheres being red and black, the least preferred being light green, light orange, and yellow. My interpretation of this is that dark-colored fruits stand out in greater contrast (and are thus more readily detectable) against the background of tree foliage and skylight than are light-colored fruits. Just as humans would, so also would the flies eventually discover all the yellow or yellow-green apples on a tree. But the flies, as well as humans, have an easier time locating dark-colored apples. Size of apple is another important stimulus to the flies. The)' are not as attracted to small apples, one inch or so in diameter, as they are to 3-inch-diameter apples. Early in the season, they are just as attracted to red spheres 12 inches in diameter (only in Texas do apples grow so big!) as to ones 3 inches in diameter. But as the season progresses, the flies apparently learn, through practice and experience, the normal size of apples, so that by mid-season, they show a decided preference for 3-inch red spheres over 12-inch ones. After an apple maggot m.ale arrives on an apple, it waits there, visually searching the vicinity for the presence of a female. Re- cently, I found that virgin females are attracted from a short dis- tance to a sex odor given off by the males. Also, we found that when a female visits an apple, it lays down an odor of short dura- tion (2-3 hours) that acts to arrest a male arriving on that apple. This odor lets the male know that a female has recently been there, and that it would pay the male to wait there and watch for the fe- male. What practical use can be made of this information to aid in our apple maggot control programs? It turns out that a very power- ful visual trap for attracting and capturing the flies can be made simply by painting a bocce or croquet ball (3-4 inches in diameter) dark red, coating it with Bird Tanglefoot* (manufactured by the Tanglefoot Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan) and hanging it by wire in an apple tree of a maggot-favored variety - Astrachan, Wealthy, Puritan, Early Mcintosh, Cortland, Delicious, Spy. This ball or sphere effectively mimics the visual stimulus of an apple, and is highly attractive to male apple maggot flies in a mating mood and to females in a mating and egglaying mood. It is extremely impor- tant, however, that the flies be able to clearly see the sphere. *Trade name 8 - All foliage and fruit within 12 inches of all sides and top and bottom of a sphere should be removed. But beyond this distance, there should be as much fruit and foliage as possible to attract flies into the general area. The sphere should be hung at head- height or higher. This past summer, Everett Wilder and Dom Marini (regional fruit specialists in Massachusetts) and I hung 1-4 of these un- baited sticky-coated red spheres plus 1-4 baited sticky-coated day- light fluorescent yellow rectangles in each of 9 commercial apple orchards in Massachusetts to monitor the activities of apple mag- got flies. We found that early in the fly season (up to July 10), when the flies had a high drive to feed, the rectangles generally attracted slightly more maggot flies than the spheres. But after that time, as the flies matured and developed a higher drive to mate and lay eggs, the spheres became 2-15 times more attractive than the rectangles. This was true even though the rectangles were usually freshly renewed every 3 weeks, while the spheres re- mained unaltered. We captured mature apple maggot females on the spheres in 8 of the 9 commercial orchards, in some cases as many as 5 females/ week/sphere. Because the flies are unable to perceive the spheres at a distance greater than about 1 yard, these captures suggested that other uncaptured maggot flies were probably present in the immediate vicinity, constituting an egglaying threat to the apples. Protective maggot sprays were therefore advisable. Sphere capture data proved especially helpful toward the end of the season, when there was uncertainty as to when to stop spraying for maggot. In at least 2 orchards, considerable numbers of mature females were captured after mid-August, and as a result, an additional protec- tive spray was applied to Cortlands and Delicious. Maggot can be a serious pest, the average female capable of laying 300 eggs, and therefore stinging and infesting 300 fruits. All growers, especially those having early-season varieties, should be aware of the potential destructiveness of this insect. In fact, this year in 2 of the best commercial orchards in Massachusetts, we found substantial numbers of fallen Wealthies and Puritans in- fested by fully developed maggot larvae. In these and other orch- ards, we also observed maggot egg-laying stings and early larval development in some Cortlands and Delicious. Just as the unbaited red spheres are effective in monitoring apple maggot populations, they also are of real usefulness in di- rectly controlling the flies in small orchards of about 100 trees or less. For example, in my own insecticide-free, 150-tree orch- ard in Wisconsin in 1974, I hung 6 of these spheres in each fruit- ing tree and captured more than 9500 apple maggot flies. If un- controlled, this number of flies would have given rise to about 30 eggs/apple in my orchard. But I received an average of fewer than 2 eggs/100 apples, clearly demonstrating the effectiveness of the spheres in directly controlling the flies before much egg lay- ing was underway. The amount of labor required to prepare and em- place the number of spheres required for directly controlling the maggot (about 6 spheres/standard-size tree) would be prohibitive in an orchard larger than 150 trees. At present, we a U. Mass., in conjunction with other scien- tists from Geneva, New York, are aiming to improve the effective- ness of the sphere trap still further by attempting to identify and then synthesize the fly-attracting components of apple fruit odor and male sex odor. This work will require at least 2-4 years. If successful, it will mean that we should be able to bait the spheres with these synthesized odors, and have a trap whose range of effectiveness extends beyond the one yard or so at which un- baited spheres are attractive. In the next issue of Fruit Notes, I will discuss a unique sort of behavior engaged in by the apple maggot just after egglaying. This behavior, and the fly-originating chemicals associated with it, offers promise as a new means of controlling the apple maggot without insecticide in large commercial orchards. FRUIT NOTES INDEX FOR 1976 (This index of major articles has been prepared for those who keep a file of Fruit Notes. The number in parenthesis indicates the pages on which the item appears.) January -February Cost of Production (1-3) Reduced Spraying for Apple Insects and Mites: Results from British Columbia (3-4) Varieties of Apples for Massachusetts (5-7) Early Ripening Apple Varieties - 1975 (7-8) Fruit Growing and Research in Switzerland (8-12) March-April Strawberry Growing in the Netherlands (i-g) Reduced Spraying for Apple Insects and Mites: Results from Michigan and North Carolina (8-10) Recent Strawberry Introductions (10-11) - 10 - May- June Important Massachusetts Highbush Blueberry Insects (1-5) Getting the Most out of Strawberry Herbicides (5-6) Promotion of Flower Bud Formation and Fruit Set on Non-Bear- ing Delicious Apple Trees (7-10) Reduced Spraying for Apple Insects and Mites: Results from New York (10-12) July-August Combining Calcium Chloride Avith Pesticide Sprays (1-3) Pick-Your-Own Strawberries (3-5) The Peach Tree Replant Problem (5-11) Early Ethephon Sprays for Flower-Bud Initiation and Ripening of Apples (11-12) Sept ember -October Baited Yellow Rectangles for Trapping Apple Maggot Flies (1-3) Collecting Soil Samples for Nematode Identification (3-4) Postharvest 'Dips of Apples in Calcium Chloride Solution (4-7) Marketing Margins for Mcintosh and Red Delicious Apples (8-10) November -December Interregional Cooperative Research in Fruit Tree Viruses and Aspects of Control Measures: I. History (1-3) Nematode Control and Apple Trees (3-5) Sticky Red Spheres for Trapping Apple Maggot Flies (6-9) Fruit Notes Index for 1976 (9-10) Supplement - Establishment and Management of Compact Apple Trees (8 pages) *************** All pesticides listed in this publication are registered and cleared for suggested uses according to Federal registrations and State laws and regulations in effect on the date of this publication. When trade names are used for identification, no product endorsement is implied, nor is discrimination intended against similar materials, NOTICE: THE USER OF THIS INFORMATION ASSUMES ALL RISKS FOR PERSONAL INJURY OR PROPERTY DAMAGE. WARNING: PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL LABELED CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVE- STOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS AND PONDS. Establishment and Management of Compact Apple Trees William J. Lord and Joseph Costante University of Massachusetts Parti Introduction This information has been prepared for the purpose of discussing the establishment and management of compact apple trees and will appear in serial form in this publication. It is hoped that both the experienced and novice orchardist will find some useful guidelines in the following pages. Certain management aspects, such as orchard fertilization and pest control, are not fully covered because the subject matter is discussed in detail in othei publications. The inflationary spiral has forced apple growers to explore every possible means of increasing production per acre and per man hour. Small trees on size-control rootstocks (com- pact trees) in comparison to large trees on seedling roots, can be more economically pruned, sprayed, and harvested. Com- pact trees, properly spaced, produce more bushels per acre and reach maximum production at an earlier age than larger trees. However, compact trees do not guarantee fruit grow- ing success. Much remains to be learned about compact apple trees in Massachusetts because our studies thus far have been very limited. In this publication, we rely heavily on observations, experience, and trials in commercial orchards. Economics The size of the orchard is not a major factor determining efficiency in producing apples. Net returns per acre are of- ten as high on small enterprises as on large ones. However, the large operators are able to use capital in the form of air blast sprayers, weed sprayers, dip tanks for scald control and other specialized equipment more effectively than small operators. Thus the labor efficiency may be higher and costs per acre lower for operating these types of equipment on a large operation than a small operation. Growing costs, yields and prices received are variable and reflect how differently growers are managing their businesses.' Cost inputs in apple orcharding should be viewed with some skepticism for several reasons. These reasons have been re- viewed by R.L. Christensen.2 Nevertheless, the cost figures in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 7, are representative of the orchards studied here and in New York State and give the reader an insight of the cost factors in apple production. Site preparation and planting costs. The labor requirements and costs of removing old apple orchards and replanting in 1973 are shown in Table 1. Soil preparation in the low den- sity planting included tree and stump removal, liming, land Item Table 1. Man hours and cost^ per acre to remove an apple orchard and establish a low, medium or high density planting in Massachusetts, 1973. Medium density (200 trees/A) Hrs. Cost Low density (109 trees/A) Hrs. Cost 56 $429 10 113 - 191 6 32 4 40 H igh density (389 trees/A) Hrs. Cost 33 S327 33 290 — 640 — 367 24 92 9 77 26 102 Orchard removal Soil preparation Trees Posts Marking Planting Post setting and tying 32 13 12 10 S514 145 340 53 99 Totals 76 S805 67 S1151 125 $1895 ^Excludes only cost of land and interest on investment in land. ' Formerly Regional Fruit Specialist in Massachusetts. Present address: Department of Plant and Soil Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05041 . ^Christensen, R.L. 1976. "Cost of Production," Fruit Notes AM)): 1-3. Table 2. Cost per acre^ for establishing and growing apple orchards in Massachusetts for the first three growing seasons, 1973—1975. Trees/A Cost of preparing and planting site Growing cost 1st yr. 2nd yr. 3rd yr $156 $219 $202 198 187 277 223 165 266 366 253 308 Total cost 109 192 200 389 $ 805 1082 1151 1895 $1382 1744 1805 2822 -Excludes only cost of land and interest on investment m land. Table 3. Projected cost to remove an existing orchard, replant and manage for the first four growing seasons.^'^ Trees/A 1976-79 Planting and growing years 1977-80 1978-81 1978-82 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 $1673 2032 2252 2421 2556 2641 2869 3083 3267 3462 3661 3846 4002 4179 4299 4396 4524 4565 $1791 2174 2410 2590 2735 2826 3069 3298 3495 3705 3917 3636 4285 4472 4601 4704 4841 4884 E1919 2326 2579 2771 2927 3024 3283 3527 3739 3965 4191 4401 4586 4784 4924 5034 5179 5226 $2050 2488 2758 2965 3132 3236 3512 3773 4000 4242 4485 4709 4908 5118 5269 5387 5542 5591 Assuming annual inflation of 7%. ^Excludes only cost of land and interest on investment in land. leveling, and stone removal. Similar procedures were fol- lowed in the other plantings except the medium density (200 trees/A) required filling in low areas with stone and soil and the high density planting was tile-drained. Open fields can be less costly to plant to orchards because of the high labor requirements of removing an old existing orchard (Table 1). However, it would not be unusual today to spend $1 000 per acre to clear and prepare a stony, wooded area for planting. The number of trees and the need of posts for the high density planting had a very significant influence on the cost of establishing the orchards (Table 1). Establishment costs increased with tree density but data from other areas'''^ indi- cate that compact trees in medium and high density plantings in comparison to low density plantings, if properly matched in regard to spacing, scion/rootstock combination, and soil, will give a quicker return of the investment. ^Funt, R.C. 1975. "High Returns for Higher Density," American Fruit Grower 95 (No. 12): 22-23. "* Norton, R.L. 1975. "Rootstocks: Promises and Prob- lems-Practical Aspects," N.J. State l-lorticultural News. 56 (No. 2):10-12, 16, 18-19, 24-25. Orchard development costs. Our data for oi chard develop- ment costs are limited to three growing seasons (Table 2). Spray costs were the largest single cash item in the second and third development years. The two major components of costs in growmg a crop will become labor and spray (in- cluding dust materials) as the orchards increase in age. Train- ing and pruning will require the most labor of any job in growing apples, thus the interest in compact trees which, among their other attributes, require less pruning time than larger trees. The cost of doing business is increasing annually. Assum- ing an annual inflation rate of 7%, projected costs to remove an existing orchard in 1976, 1977, 1978 or 1979, to replant and manage for the first four growing seasons are shown in Table 3. The figures show, for example, that it would cost S2826/A to remove an existing orchard in 1977, establish a new planting with 200 trees/A and manage them through 1980. A four year delay (1976 to 1979) can inciease the per acre cost by approximately S1000 in plantings of 400 to 500 trees/A. In view of these high investment costs, suc- cess 'n apple production will be very dependent upon: (1) using the best information available in the selection of orchard site, cultivars, rootstocks, and spacings; (2) obtain- ing early yields for a quicker return on the investment; and (3) high annual yields of high quality fruit per acre and per man hour. Yields. Trees on M.9, M.26 or interstem trees with M.9 as the intermediate stem piece produced a few fruit in third growing season but not enough to warrant harvest in the orchards understudy (Table 4). By the fifth growing season, crop returns from a high density planting on M.9 probably surpassed production costs (Table 5). Standard-type trees on M.7 or MM 106 failed to produce sufficient apples to warrant their harvest until the fifth or sixth growmg season. Our observations and the limited data in Table 5 show that Delicious are generally slower coming into production than Mcintosh but planting spur-types and/or the use of MM 106 rootstock may induce earlier bearing. The productivity of cultivars on M.7 increases rapidly and by the eighth year cultivars on this rootstock are capable of producing more than 500 bushels per acre (Table 6). In spite of the greater tree number of Golden Delicious per acre in comparison to Mcintosh and Delicious, the yields were rela- tively similar. The authors believe that the Mcintosh yields could be considered average for a commercial orchard but the yields of the Delicious above average. Furthermore, at the spacings indicated in Table 6, the tiees may have reached their maxi- mum bearing potential. Unfortunately, data as presented in Table 6 are not avail- able in Massachusettsfoicultivar performance on other root- stocks. Data from other areas indicate that high density plantings will produce higher, earlier yields and greater cum- ulative yields than the low or medium density plantings in Table 6. Cost of producing and harvesting apples. Data for cost of producing and harvesting apples in Eastern New York State in 1973 through 1975 are shown in Table 7. Costs and yields in Massachusetts would be relatively similar. The data are based on a survey in six orchards in which the growing costs were divided into five categories— orchard overhead, management, labor, equipment, and materials. Orchard overhead includes real estate taxes, an interest or return on investment charge on land in bearing orchards and buildings used in growing, and rental of land and buildings not owned. Where buildings also were used for other pur- poses, an allocation was made. The interest charge (5% in 1973, IViX in 1974 and 1975), which is a non-cash expense on the proportion of the land and buildings not mortgaged, represents a return on the investment. Management costs include owner and/or manager's sal- ary, accounting, secretarial and office expense. The owner was paid out of the farm business for tasks including among others, deciding when and what to spray, buying equipment, attending meetings, and overseeing other workers. Labor includes the expense for pruning, spraying, mow- Table 4. Production in 1975 on several cultivars on different rootstocks in trial plantings in grower orchards in Massachusetts. Trees planted in 1973. Cultivar Rootstock Spacing (feet) lb. /tree Yield Bu./A Mcintosh Idared Tydeman MacSpur Jerseymac Empire Mcintosh Macoun Spartan Empire M.9 M.9 M.9 M.26 M.26 M.26 M.9/MM 106 M.9/MM 106 M.9/MM 106 M.9/Alnarp2 8x 14 8x 12 8x12 14 x 18 14x 18 14 X 18 12x 18 14x20 14 X 18 14x 18 4 2 2 3 5 2 2 2 2 3 37 24 24 12 22 7 10 7 7 14 Table 5. Production on several cultlvars of young apple trees on different rootstocks in Massachusetts. Orchard Cultivar Rootstock Mcintosh M.7 Mcintosh M.7 Mcintosh M.7 MacSpur M.7A Delicious M.7 Spur Delicious MM 106 Mcintosh MM 106 Mcintosh M.gv Spartan M.gv Trees/A Bu./A in growing year^ 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 g 113 - 23 104 399 113 — — 69 138 113 — — 46 104 140 — 42 126 ? 113 — — — 81 113 — 34 ? ? 93 — 38 95 190 340 34 68 238 442 340 34 136 238 442 Yields were recorded in research trials and then calculated to yields per acre based on planting distances suggested in this publication. ^Trellised. Table 6. Productivity of apple cultivars on M.7 rootstock at the Horticultural Research Center, Belchertown, Massachusetts. Growing year Mcintosh (113 trees/A) Production (bu/A) Delicious (113 trees/A) Golden Delicious (141 trees/A) 8 9 10 11 12 13 Cumulative (8 to 13 years) 550 528 614 791 639^ 1464'* 4586 628 704 595 721 510V 982 4140 423 823 580 605 620 720 3771 Yields were recorded per tree and then calculated to yields per acre based on planting distances suggested in this publication. ^Yields reduced by frost. ''Trees should have been thinned. ing, and other growing practices plus the employer's share of social security and workmen's compensation. When the owner and/or manager performed any of the cultural tasks, the time was figured at an hourly rate, for example, $4.50/ hour in 1975. Depreciation, fuel, repairs, and an interest charge on the investment in equipment, whether fully paid for or not, were included in equipment costs. Materials costs include the cost of spray and dust materials, lime, fertilizer and other items used in production. The growing costs (Table 7) increased 24% from 1973 to 1974, A 31% increase in growing costs occurred in 1975, partly due to the sizeable increase in the category of orchard overhead because of increased land value and to gradual grower realization of the large amounts of money invested in orchards. Cost/bushel increased in 1974 and 1975, in spite of the higher yield. Harvesting costs/bushel did not increase in 1975 in comparison to 1974 because the fixed costs in- volved in harvest were spread over a larger number of bushels in 1975 and the "piece rate" for picking did not increase. Recycling Orchards Formerly, growers kept a block of trees 40 years or more. We now believe it is worthwhile to replace trees in an orchard sooner because: (1) fruit quality is generally higher on young- er mature trees; (2) fruit can be produced more economically on smaller trees; and (3) it presents the opportunity to use the latest technological advances in orcharding more fre- quently. Therefore, renewing 25% of one's orchard holdings every five or six years is a practice worthy of consideration. This allows the oldest orchard block never to exceed 24 years of age. Planting Trees in an Existing Orchard Growers frequently desire to renovate existing orchards to avoid loss of production. The practice of planting among existing trees is not recommended. It is difficult to plant the compact trees at the desired spacing in an established orchard without encountering tree shading and/or crowding, and difficulties in performing necessary cultural practices. Fur- thermore, past experience has shown that the old trees are seldom removed before they seriously crowd and interfere with the development of the young filler trees. The removal of an entire block of trees which permits site preparation and establishment of desired planting dis- tances is the preferred practice but the removal of several rows of existing trees is a suitable compromise, if the per- formance of the existing trees has been less than satisfactory, the soil, among other things, should be examined foi the presence of nematodes. Contact your County Extension Service for information on soil sampling and soil preparation procedures. Choosing Orchard Sites The first consideration in choosing an orchard site is the selection of land with sufficient elevation to permit cold au- to settle into the lower levels surrounding the orchard Cold air is heavier than warm and tends to settle into the low spots. On a cold, still night, the temperature in valleys and low areas surrounded by higher land may be 5° to 10° colder than the more elevated locations. These temperature differ- ences can mean the difference between a fruit crop and a complete crop failure. Too little attention to the selection of sites with sufficient elevation to avoid spring frosts and extreme winter temperatures can only result in loss of crops and eventual abandonment of the orchard. Sites which are surrounded by dense woods or other obstructions which impede the free movement of cold air out of the orchard should be avoided unless a path can be cleared which will allow the cold air to move to lower levels. The direction of the slope for an orchard site is relatively unimportant. Southern and eastern slopes are a little better exposed to light, somewhat warmer and earlier, and have more protection from wind; northern and western slopes are slightly colder, later and subject to wind. However, northern and western slopes with good elevation are to be preferred to southern and eastern slopes with poor elevation. Steep slopes of more than 15 peicent should be avoided wherever possible as the danger of soil erosion is increased. It is also more difficult to move sprayers and other equipment through orchards on steep slopes. Sites on tops of high ridges are unsatisfactory because of high winds which may affect tree shape, blow trees over, in- jure fruit and make spraying difficult. Slopes along the side of the ridges are often more satisfactory than the tops. Sites which are extremely rough and covered with large stones will greatly increase the difficulty and expense of operation. Small areas of this nature adjacent to an existing orchard which can be smoothed and cleared of stones by heavy machinery without too much expense may be a sound investment. However, the cost of clearing rough, stoney land for a large extensive orchard is very likely to be prohibitive. We strongly urge the novice fruit grower to contact the Item Table 7. The cost of producing and harvesting apples in N.Y, State.^'^ 1973 1974 1975 Orchard overhead Management Labor Equipment Materials S 79.60/A 39.32/A 97.77/A 69.91 /A 90.26/A S 94.31 /A 50.68/A 115.36/A 96.98/A 109.28/A S149.18/A 58.32/A 132,56/A 138.60/A 134.26/A Total cost/A S376.86 $466.61 8612.92 Yield/A-bu. Cost/bushel Harvesting costs/bu. 314 31.20 0.74 344 $1.36 0.84 364 SI. 68 0.84 Combined growing and harvesting costs 31.94 S2.20 32.52 Forshey, C.G. and R. Lawrence. 1975. The cost of producing and harvesting apples in eastern New York in 1974. Proc. New York State Hort. Soc. 120: 132-134. ^Lawrence, R.T. 1976. A survey of the cost of growing and harvesting apples in eastern New York in 1975. Proc. New York State Hort. Soc. 121 ; 78-83. County Extension Service for advice concerning the suita- bility of a site for orchards. Orchard Soils A good orchard soil is characterized as being deep, well drained and yet retentive of moisture. To put it another way, the soil should not be too wet nor too dry during the growing season. Soils which have heavy subsoils composed of fine soil particles have such small spaces between the par- ticles that water does not drain out of the soil quickly fol- lowing heavy rains. Oxygen, which is so necessary for root development and growth, is excluded from heavy, wet soils. Tree growth and fruit production is very poor on such soils. Tree roots can stand some submergence during the dormant season providing water drains away by the time growth starts in the spring. An examination of the subsoil, by use of a back hoe or auger, at depths of 4 to 6 feet, will help determine whether or not the land is suitable for growing fruit trees. Subsoils which are mottled in color, with prominent gray streaks or have a compact gray layer close to the surface level, are poor- ly drained and should be avoided. On the other hand, sub- soils which are composed of coarse gravel are too well drained and trees planted on this type of soil will suffer from drought. The ideal orchard soil has a topsoil which is deep and well supplied with colloidal and organic matter. The subsoil is relatively light-textured and uniformly light brown in color, extending a depth of 4 to 6 feet. Careful observation of the natural vegetation growing on or adjacent to the site selected for the orchard can be helpful in determining the suitability of the soil for fruit trees. Pitch pine and scrub oak indicate gravelly soil which is excessively drained and subject to drought. Swamp maple, alder, and willow indicate a soil which is poorly drained and excessively wet. Sugar maple and white ash do best on a deep fertile, well-drained soil of good water-holding capacity. Matching Rootstock and Soil Size-control rootstocks, in general, are more demanding than seedling rootstocks in respect to drainage, depth of soil, and water holding capacity. Therefore, when deciding on which rootstock to use, it is even more important than for- merly to know the soil typels) of the land to be planted. The proper match between rootstock and soil may be the difference between the success or failure of the planting. The first step in matching the rootstocks and soil is to determine the soil type(s) for the land to be planted by re- ferring to the soil map of your farm. If no soil map is avail- able or if it is dated earlier than 1967, contact the Soil Con- servation Office for the information. (Your local Agricultural Extension Service can tell you the location and telephone number of the Soil Conservation Service in your area.) Once the soil type(s) is (are) known, determine which of six soil suitability groups given below include your soil(s). (The suitability groupings are based on soil characteristics and qualities. Site and air drainage are not considered. There- fore, some soils placed in the six groups may not be suitable for apple orchards because of the topographic positions they normally occupy.) Lastly, refer to the guide for rootstock/soil agreement in Table 8 to determine which rootstock(s) are most suitable for your soil(s). Nothing takes the place of an on-site inspection by a soil scientist from the Soil Conservation Service because localized wet or droughty areas can exist within fields that have good, deep soils with good drainage. At best, the guide in Table 8 may prevent you from making some of the more obvious errors. Group l-Light, gravelly or sandy soils with a tendency to drought. Copake fine sandy loam Enfield very fine sandy loam Gloucester loamy sand Hartford gravelly fine sandy loam Haven very fine sandy loam Merrimack fine sandy loam, sandy loam Riverhead sandy loam Warwick gravelly loam Group II — Light, gravelly or sandy soils, without the tendency to drought. Agawam fine sandy loam Canton fine sandy loam Gloucester fine sandy loam, sandy loam Gloucester-Narragansett very fine sandy loams Katama sandy loam Narragansett very fine sandy loam Ondawa fine sandy loam, high bottom Group Ill-Good deep soils with average to good drainage and a good waterholding capacity. Berkshire loam, fine sandy loam Berkshire fine sandy loam, dark subsoil Brookfield fine sandy loam Charlton fine sandy loam Cheshire fine sandy loam Colrain fine sandy loam Dutchess silt loam Hadley silt loam, high bottom Hadley very fine sandy loam, high bottom Hartland silt loam, very fine sandy loam Lenox loam Newport silt loam, loam Pittsfield fine sandy loam Group IV-Good, but shallow soils, with hardpans that prevent deep rooting. Amenia silt loam, fine sandy loam ^The authors are indebted to John R. Mott, Ass't State Soil Scientist, USDA Soil Conservation Service, 29 Cottage St., Amherst, Mass. 01002, for preparing these groupings. Rootstock Table 8. An approximate guide of rootstock/soil agreement. Soil qroup I II III IV V VI Dwarf M.9, 1.9A, or virus-tested M.9 Semi-Dwarf M.26 Inter. M.9/Alnarp 2 Inter. M.9/Seedling Inter. M.9/M.13 Inter. M.9/MM 111 Inter. M.9/I\/IIV1 106 MM 106 M.7 or M.7A Vigorous AInarp 2 MM 111 Seedling XXX XXX XXX X X X X X X XXX XXX XXX XXX X X X X XXX X X* Denotes compatibility of rootstock and soil group Inter. = Interstem Amostown fine sandy loam Bernardston silt loam Birchwood silt loam Broadbrook very fine sandy loam Buckland fine sandy loam Buxton silt loam Chilmark sandy loam Eldridge loamy sand Elmwood fine sandy loam Essex fine sandy loam, loamy sand Hero fine sandy loam, silty subsoil variant Hinesbury loam sand, gravelly loam sand Hudson silt loam Keyport silt loam Ludlow loam Marlow loam Marlow loam, dark subsoil Mattawan fine sandy loam Meckesville loam, fine sandy loam Melrose fine sandy loam Millis fine sandy loam Nantucket sandy loam Ninigret fine sandy loam, silty subsoil variant Paxton fine sandy loam Peru loam Pittstown silt loam, loam Pollux fine sandy loam Poquonock loamy sand Rainbow very fine sandy loam Rhinebeck silt loam Scituate fine sandy loam, sandy loam Shelburne loam Stockbridge silt loam Suffield silt loam Watchaug fine sandy loam Wethersfield loam Woodbridge fine sandy loam, sandy loam Group V— Soils that tend to be wet for short periods of time. Slow drainage but deep rooting possible. Acton fine sandy loam Belgrade very fine sandy loam, silt loam Deerfield loamy fine sand, loamy sand Ellington fine sandy loam Hero fine sandy loam Klej loamy sand Ninigret fine sandy loam Pompton sandy loam Sudbury fine sandy loam Sutton fine sandy loam Tisbury fine sandy loam Winooski very fine sandy loam, high bottom Group VI— Heavy poorly drained soils with clay or hardpans underneath. Au Gres loamy sand, loamy fine sand Cabot fine sandy loam Enosburg loamy sand Fredon fine sandy loam Fredon fine sandy loam, silty subsoil variant Hadley silt loam, low bottom Hadley very fine sandy loam, low bottom Kendaia silt loam Leicester loam, fine sandy loam, sandy loam Limerick silt loam, very fine sandy loam Livingston silty clay loam Madalin silt loam Norwell loamy sand Ondawa fine sandy loam, low bottom Podunk fine sandy loam Raynham silt loam, very fine sandy loam Ridgebury fine sandy loam, loam, sandy loam Rumney fine sandy loam Saugatuck sand Scantic silt loam Stissing silt loam, loam Swanton fine sandy loam Walpole fine sandy loam Wareham loamy sand Wilbraham loam Winooski silt loam, very fine sandy loam, low bottom Cultivars" Apple cultivars do not grow true to type from seed. They are propagated by means of grafting or budding. Hence, most apple trees consist of two distinct parts; the rootstock and the cultivar. The proper choice of cultivars will have much to do with the success or failure of the orchard enterprise. Some impor- tant points to consider in the choice of cultivars are market demand, succession of ripening periods, productiveness and storage life. Descriptions of cultivars recommended for commercial plantings and trials may be obtained from your County Extension Office. There are many strains of some cultivars. Strains differ in fruit characteristics or tree characteristics or both. Spur type strains differ from standard trees in that more of the lateral buds on 2 and 3-year-old wood develop into fruit spurs. This causes compactness of the tree. Spur types in comparison to standard types seem to put more sunlight energy into the fruit. Their disadvantages consist of upright growth habit and more limb-rub on fruit and fruit shading by the leaves. Limb spreading is more essential on spur types because of their upright growth habit than on standard types. There are fewer lateral branches produced from the main branches because many lateral buds form fruiting spurs (Fig. 1A and IB). Thus, branches that are allowed to grow without heading, may develop many short spurs but few laterals. Branches such as this bear early but there is only a small potential fruiting area with few replacement spurs, a condition that can lead to alternate bearing. Fig. 1A. Typical branch from a spur-type tree. Note the heavy fruit bud and spur development and lack of side shoots. °A term that is now used in place of the older term, variety, pjg ig Typical branch from a standard type tree (non-spur), when designating a specific horticultural variation in a plant This branch shows lateral branch development, but series. few fruit spurs. Cooperative Extension Service University of Massachusetts Amherst, IVIassachusetts R. S. Whaley Director Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300 POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR101 BULK THIRD CLASS MAIL PERMIT Available to the public without regard to race, color or national origin.