UMASS/AMHERST II II II IN INI 1 1 1 II II 1 II II 1 II 1 III III II 315Dbt,D0SlSa This book may be kept out TWO WEEKS only, and is subject to a fine of TWO CENTS a day thereafter. It will be due on the day m- dicated below. CVl3 -67 ^fx- . THE FRUITS AND FRUIT-TREES AMERICA THE CULTURE, PROPAGATION, AND MANAGEMENT, IN THE GARDEN AND ORCHARD, OF FRUIT-TREES GENERALLY ; DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL THE FINEST VARIETIES OF FRUIT, NATIVE AND FOREIGN, CULTIVATED IN THIS COUNTRY. By a. J. downi:ni^. COERESPONDIKQ MEMBER OP THE ROTAL BOTANIC SOCIETY OF LONDON; AND OK TUB HOKTK'Ul. TUBAL SOCIETIES OF BERLIN, THE LOW COUNTRIES, MASSACnUSETTS, PENNSYLVANIA, INDIANA, CINCINNATI, ETC. Second Revision and Comction^ icitJi large Additions, including the Ap2)eudices ( f 1872 to 1881, and containing many New Varieties. By CHARLES DOWNING. With nearly 400 Outline Illustrations of Fruit. NEW YOEK : lOHN ^VILEY & SONS, 15 ASTOK PLACE, 1881. 0^75- Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by JOHN WILEY & SON, [fl i^f ^f'^"-' "''■'■ T •! Ill inT¥-^-rY-rr.p,„o^ at Washington. LIBRARY UNIVERSJV OF .;i AMHERST, MASS. ^ Trow's Printing and Bookbinding Company, 201-213 ^asi i2iA Street, NEW YORK. TO MARSHALL P. WILDER, Esq.j PRESIDENT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATEB, BY HIS FRIEND, THE AUTHOR. 3 -4 J^ NOTE FRUITS OF CALIFOPvNIA Since the publication of the recent edition of this book, the author has visited California, and his observations in thaf newly developed region have elicited the facts that fruit trees grow much faster there, and come into bearing much earlier than Math us, and it may be fairly inferred, therefore, that they will not be as long-lived. The same varieties of Apples, Pears, Peaches, Plums, Apri- cots, Cherries, &c., are grown as with us ; but all kinds of fruit, especially some kinds of Apples, do not succeed equally well as in the Eastern States. The following sorts were considered most profitable : Williams' Favorite, Early Strawberry, Red Astrachan, Early Harvest, Winesap, Rawles' Janet, Newtown Pippin, White Winter Pearmain, Smith's Cider, Yellow Belflower. Newtown Pippin best and most profitable. The Northern Spy and Baldwin had failed. The fruit is rather larger, fairer, and handsomer, and the quality equally good, except Strawberries and Blackberries, which were not quite as high flavored. Grapes are grown exten- sfvely in many localities, and succeed admirably. They are chiefly of the foreign varieties, and are grown in the open air, without protection, requiring but little labor, compared with our system of cultivation. They are grown in tlie tree form on stems or stumps from wo to three feet hiajh, and those from ten to fifteen years old ire from five to six inches in diameter. The vines are planted From seven to eight feet apart, each way. They are pruned^ annually, hack to the stems, and when the new shoots have grown five or six inches, all are thinned out, except ten or twelve of the strongest, and in most vineyards they have no further care till gathering time, except to keep the ground clean. In some orchards that had been neglected, the trees were failing, and I was told that if the ground was not cultivated and the trees cared for, they soon died. We found Figs abundant and of fine quahty in nearly every locality we visited. English Walnuts, or Madeira iJ^uts, Almonds, and Olives are grown successfully in most places. The climate and soil are favorable for fruit-growing. In tlie latter, clay predominates. The characteristics of fruit are about the same as with us. CONTENTS. PASB Preface ix Preface to the Second Revision xiii Abbreviations and Books Quoted xvii CHAPTER I. The Production op New Varieties op Fruit 1 The Van Mons Theory 5 Cross-Breeding. 7 CHAPTER 11. Remarks on the Duration of the Varieties of Fruit-Trees 10 CHAPTER III. Propagation op Varieties, Grafting, Budding, Cuttings, Layers, and SUCKERa 16 CHAPTER IV. Pruning 33 CHAPTER V. Training 38 CHAPTER VI. Transplanting 45 CHAPTER VII. The Position of Fruit-Trees — SorL and Aspect 51 CHAPTER Vin. General REM.'i.RKs on Insects , 64 VUl CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. PAGR The Apple . . 58 Uses 59 Propagation 60 Soil and Situation 61 Preparing, Planting, and Cultivation of Orchards 62 Pruning 63 Insects 63 Gathering and Keeping the Fruit 67 Cider 69 Varieties, Classification, and Terms used in Describing Apples 70 Descriptive List of Varieties 72 Siberian Crabs and Improved Siberian Apples, with Descriptive List 421 Select List of Varieties for Table Use, Cooking, and Keeping, &c 427 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive Lists 437 CHAPTER X. The Almond 430 Uses and Cultivation 430 Descriptive List of Varieties 431 Ornamental Varieties 432 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 437 CHAPTER XI. TnE Apricot , . , 432 Uses, Cultivation, Diseases 433 Descriptive List of Varieties 433 Curious or Ornamental Varieties 442 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1013 CHAPTER XII. The Berberry 442 Culture 443 The Blackberry 413 Descriptive List of Varieties 443 Ornamental Varieties 446 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1015 CHAPTER Xin. The Cherry 447 Uses 447 Soil and Situation 448 Propagation and Cultivation 449 Training and Gathering the Fruit 450 Descriptive List of Varieties : Class I. — Bigarreau and Heart Cherries 450 Class II. — Duke and Morello Cherries 476 Ornamental Varieties 486 Selections of Choice Cherries for Family Use 487 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1015 CONTENTS, IX CHAPTER XIV. PAOR The Currant 487 Uses, Propagation and Culture, Insects and Diseases 488 Descriptive List of Varieties : Class I. — Red and White Currants 489 Class II. — Black Cimants 492 Ornamental Varieties 493 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1 0£0 CHAPTER XY. The CRvVNberry 493 Alphabetical Index 1019 CHAPTER XVI. The Fig 494 Propagation, Soil, and Culture 495 Descriptive List of Varieties: Class I. — Red, Brown, or Purple 496 Class II. — White, Green, or Yellow 498 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1020 CHAPTER XVII. The Gooseberry 499 Uses, Propagation, and Cultivation 500 Descriptive List of Varieties 501 American Varieties 503 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1031 CIIA1>TER XVIII. Toe Gr.pe 504 Uses, Soil 505 Propagation 50(5 1 . Culture of the Foreign Grape 506 Renewal Training 507 Culture under Glass without Artificial Heat 508 Culture vander Glass with Fire Heat 510 Construction of the Vinery 511 Insects and Diseases 513 Descrptive List of Foreign Grapes 513 2. American Grajjes 525 Vineyard Culture 520 Diseases and Insects, Grafting, Keeping 527 Descriptive List of American Grapes 528 Selection of Varieties 558 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive Lists of Foreign and American Grapes 1022 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIX. TA-GH The Melon 559 Culture 559 Descriptive List of Varieties 560 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1026 CHAPTER XX. The AYater-Melon 561 Descriptive List of Varieties 562 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1027 CHAPTER XXI. The Mulberry 564 Descriirtion of Varieties 564 Alphabetical Index 102? CHAPTER XXII. The Nectarine 565 Culture 565 Descriptive List of Varieties 566 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1027 CHAPTER XXIII. Nuts 572 Descriptive List of Varieties 573 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1028 CHAPTER XXIV. The Olive 575 Uses and Value 575 Propagation and Culture 575 Varieties 576 Index to Varieties 1029 CHAPTER XXV. The Orange Family 576 Soil and Culture 577 Varieties . . 578 Lemons 579 The Lime 579 The Citron 579 The Shaddock 579 Index to Varieties 1029 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XXVI. PA OH TuE Peach 580 Uses 581 Propagation, Soil, and Situation 582 Priming 58:3 Insects and Diseases 586 The Yellows 587 Remedy for the Yellows 591 Raising Peaches in Pots 594 Descriptive List of Varieties 596 Curious or Ornamental Varieties 638 Selection of Varieties 639 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1029 CHAPTER XXVII. TaE Prar 639 General Description 639 Gathering and Keeping the Fruit 641 Propagation 643 Soil, Situation, and Culture 643 Diseases and Insects 644 The Insect Blight 645 The Frozen-sap Blight 646 Varieties : 650 Descriptive List of Varieties 651 Select List for Table Use, Marketing, and Cooking 887 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1033 CHAPTER XXVin. The Plum 889 Uses 889 Propagation and Culture 890 Soil ; Insects and Diseases 891 Varieties , 895 Descriptive List of Varieties 895 Ornamental Varieties 955 Selection of Varieties for Table, Marketing, and Cooking 955 Alphabetical Index to Descriptive List 1056 CHAPTER XXIX. The Pomegranate 956 Propagation and Culture 957 Varieties 957 Alphabetical Index to Varieties 1063 CHAPTER XXX. The Quince 957 Uses, Propagation, Soil, and Culture 958 Varieties 958 Ornamental Varieties 960 Alphabetical Index to Varieties 1063 XU CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXXI. PAGE The Raspberry 960 Uses, Propagation, Soil, and Culture 963 Varieties 962 Alphabetical Index to Varieties 1063 CHAPTER XXXII. The Strawberry 974 Propagation, Soil, and Culture 975 Varieties 977 Alpine and Wood Strawberries 1005 Hautbois Strawberries 1007 Chili Strawberries 1007 Green Strawberries 1008 Selection of Varieties 1008 Alphabr^ical Index to Varieties 1064 Index to the Different Fruits 1013 General Index 1069 APPENDIXES. PREFACE. A MAN born on the banks of one of the noblest and most fruitful rivors in America, and whose best days have been spent in gardens and orchards, may perhaps be pardoned for talking about fruit-trees. Indeed the subject deserves not a few, but many words. " Fine fruit is the flower of commodities." It is the most perfect union of the useful and the beautiful that the earth knows. Trees full of soft foliage ; blossoms fresh with spring beauty ; and, filially, — fruit, rich, bloom-dusfced, melting, and luscious, — such are the treasui'es of the orchard and the garden, temptinglj'^ ofiered to every landholder in this bright and sunny, though temperate climate. " If a man," says an acute essayist, " should send for me to come a hundred miles to visit him, and should set before me a basket of fine summer fruit, I should think there was some proportion between the labor and the reward," I must add a counterpart to this. He who owns a rood of proper land in this country, and, in the face of all the pomonal riches of the day, only raises crabs and choke-pears, deserves to lose the respect of all sensible men. The classical antiquarian must pardon one for doubting if, amid all the wonderful beauty of the golden age, there was anything to equal our delicious modern fruits — our honeyed Seckels, and Beurres, our melting Rarei-ipes. At any rate, the science of modern horticulture has restored almost everything that can be desired to give a paradisi- acal richness to our fruit-gardens. Yet there are many in utter igno- rance of most of these fruits, who seem to live under some ban of expul- sion from all the fair and goodly productions of the garden. Happily, the number is every day lessening. America is a young orchard, but when the planting of fruit-trees in one of the newest States numbers nearly a quarter of a million in a single year ; when there are more peaches exposed in the markets of New York, annually, than are raised in all France ; wlien American apples, in large quantities, com- mand double prices in European markets ; there is little need for enter- ing into any praises of this soil and climate generally, regarding the cul- ture of fruit. In one part or another of the Union every man may, literally, sit under his own vine and fig-tree. XIV PREFACE. It is fortunate foi* an author, in this practical age, when his suhjeci reqiiires no explanation to show its downi-ight and direct usefulness. When I say I heartily desire that every man should cultivate an or- chard, or at least a ti-ee, of good fruit, it is not necessary that I should point out how much both himself and the public will be^ in every sense, the gainers. Otherwise I might be obliged to repeat the advice of Dr. Johnson to one of his friends. " If possible," said he, " have a good orchard. I know a clergyman of small income who brought up a family very reputably, which he chiefly fed on apple dvimplings."(!) The first object, then, of this work is to increase the taste for the planting and cultivation of fruit-trees. The second one is to furnish a manual for those who, already more or less informed upon the subject, desire some work of reference to guide them in the operations of cul- ture, and in the selection of varieties. If it were only necessary for me to present for the acceptance of my readers a choice garland of fruit, comprising the few sorts that I esteem of the most priceless value, the space and time to be occupied would be very brief. But this would only imperfectly answer the demand that is at pres- ent made by our cultivatois. The country abounds with collections of all the finest foreign varieties ; our own soil has produced many native sorts of the highest merit ; and from all these, kinds may be selected which are highly valuable for every part of the country. But opinions differ much as to the merits of some sorts. Those which succeed per- fectly in one section, are sometimes ill-adapted to another. And, finally, one needs some accurate description to know, when a variety comes into bearing, if its fruit is genuine, or even to identify an indiftei*- ent kind, in order to avoid pi-ocuring it again. Hence the number of varieties of fruit that are admitted here. Little by little I have sum- moned them into my pleasant and quiet court, tested them as far as possible, and endeavored to pass the most impartial judgment upon them. The verdicts will be found in the following pages. From this great accumulation of names. Pomology has become an embarrassing study, and those of our readers who are large collectors will best understand the difficulty — nay, the impossibility of making a work like this perfect. Towards settling this chaos in nomenclature, the exertions of the Horticultural Society of London have been steadily directed for the last twenty years. That greatest of experimental gardens contains, or has contained, nearly all the varieties of fruit, from all pai'ts of the world, possessing the least celebrity. The vast confusion of names, dozens sometimes meaning the same variety, has been by careful comparison reduced to something like real order. The relative merit of the kinda has been proved and published. In short, the horticultural world owes PREFACE, XV this Society a hea\y debt of gratitude for these labors, and to tho science and accviracy of Mr. Robert Thompson, the head of its fruit depai'tment, horticulturists here will gladly join me in bearing the fullest testimony. To give additional value to these results, I have adopted in neai-ly all cases, for fruits known abroad, the nomenclature of the London Horticultural Society. By this means I hope to render universal on this side of the Atlantic the same standard names, so that the difficulty and confusion which have always more or less surrounded this part of the subject may be hereafter avoided. These foreign fruits ha\'e now been nearly all proved in this country, and remarks on their value in this climate, deduced from actual experi- ence, are here given to the public. To our native and local fruits espe- cial care has also been devoted. Not only have most of the noted soi'ts been proved in the gardens here, but I have had specimens before me for comparison, the gro^vth of no less than fourteen of the different States. There ai-e still many sorts, nominally fine, which remain to be collected, compared, and proved ; some of which will undoubtedly deserve a place in future editions. To the kindness of pomologists in various sections of the country I must trust for the detection of errors in the present volume, and for information of really valuable new varieties.* Of the descrij)tions of fruit, some explanation may be necessary. First, is given the standard name in capitals. Below this are placed, in smaller type, the various synonymes, or local names, by which the same fniit is knowTi in various countries or parts of the country. Thus, on page 761, is the following : Flemish Beauty, Belle de Flandres. I Poire Davy. Bosch NouveUe. | .Imperatrice de France. Bosch. I Fondant du Bois. Bosc Sire. ( Boschpeer. Beun-A Spence {erroneomly). By this is signified, first, that Flemish Beauty is the standard name of the pear ; secondly, that the others— synorayme.s — are various local names by which the Flemish Beauty is also known in various places ; and, lastly, that by the latter name — Beurre Spence — it is incorrectly known in some collections, this name belonging to another distinct pear. It is at once apparent that one of the chief points of value of a book like this, lies in the accuracy with which these synonymous names * It is well to remark that many of the so-called new varieties, especially from the West, prove to be old and well-known kinds, slightly altered in appearance by new soU and difiEerent climate. A new variety must possess veiy superior qualities to entitle it to regard, now that we hav^ so many fine fruits in our collections. XVI PREFACE. are given — since a person might, in looking over different catalogues issued here and abroad, suppose that all ten of the above are different varieties — when they are really all different names for a single pear. In this record of synonymes, I have therefore availed myself of the valu- able experience of the London Horticultural Society, and added all the additional information in my own possession. Many of the more important varieties of fruit are shown in outline. I have chosen this method as likely to give the most correct idea of the form of a fruit, and because I believe that the mere outline of a fiiiit, like a profile of the human face, will often be found more characteristic than a highly finished portrait in color. The outlines have been nearly all traced directly from fi'uits gi'own here. They are from sj^ecimens 'mostly beloio the average size. It has been the custom to choose the largest and finest fruits for illustration — a practice very likely to mis- lead. I believe the general character is better expressed by specimens of medium size, or rather below it. It only remains for me to present my acknowledgments to the nu- merous gentlemen, in various parts of the country, who have kindly fur- nished information necessary to the completion of the work. The names of many are given in the body of the volume. But to the following I must especially tender my thanks, for notes of their experience, or for specimens of fruits to solve existing doubts. In Massachusetts, to Messrs. M. P. Wilder, S. G. Perkins, J. P. Gushing, B. V. French, S. Downer, and C. M. Hovey, of Boston ; John C. Lee, J. M. Ives, the late Robert Manning, and his son, P. Manning, of Salem ; and Otis Johnson, of Lynn. In Connecticut, to Dr. E. W. Bull, of Hartford ; Mr. S. Lyman, of Manchester ; and the Rev. H. S. Ramsdell, of Thompson. In New York, to Messrs. David Thomas, of Aurora ; J. J. Thomas, of Macedon ; Lixther Tucker and Isaac Denniston, of Albany ; Alexan- der Walsh, of Lansingburgh ; T. H. Hyatt, of Rochester ; R. L. Pell, of Pelham ; C Downing, of Newburgh ; and Wm. H. Aspinwall, of Staten Island. In Ohio, to Professor Kirtland, of Cleveland ; Dr. Hildreth, of Marietta ; and Messrs. N. Longworth, C. W. Elliott, and A. H. Ernst, of Cincinnati. In Indiana, to the Rev. H. W. Beecher, of Indianapolis. In New Jersey, to Messrs. Thomas Hancock, of Burlington, and J. W. Hayes, of Newark. In Pennsylvania, to Mr. Frederick Brown and Col. Carr, of Philadelphia. In Maryland, to Lloyd N. Rogei'S, Esq., of Baltimore. In Georgia, to James Camak, Esq., of Athens. A. J. D. HiGHLANi) Gardens, ) Newburgli, N. F., May, 1845. f PREFACE TO THE SECOND REVISION. The second revision of the Fruits and Fruit- Trees of America, originally written by my lamented brother, in 1845, has been under- taken with very great hesitancy ; but the extended increased interest in fruit-culture, and demand for this work, have seemed to require of me such aid in its construction, commensurate with the progress of the age, as I could command. I have therefore, by the assistance of numerous friends in all parts of the States and the Canadas, gathered together material, and embodied, enlarged, and revised the work, trusting that the desire to assist, aid, and continue the advancement of fruit-culture may be taken as the incentive which has guided my labors ; and that imperfections will not be too freely commented upon, without cai'eful thought of the time and obser- vation, etc., requisite in deciding many points in Pomology. The cor- recting or deciding relative to the various names under which one fruit is known in different sections, was originally a feature of great diffi- culty, even when they were brought together and gTown in one garden, as by the London Horticultural Society; but when this has to be done with the varieties spread over such a wide territory, and with so many varied climates and soils as ours, the task is one of no light character. At the first writing of this book the accumxilation of names was s\ich as to then cause the study of Pomology to be counted as an embarrass- ing one. What then shall we say of it now, when the list of names has been more than trebled ? Ne^y varieties have spming into existence with the magic rapidity belonging to everything of our country ; but, unfortunately, regard has not always been had to the qualifications which should have been by them possessed ere their introduction to our lists; and at this day I may safely say that not jierhaps one in thii-ty of the recent introductions, for the past twenty years, will bear the criticism of a first-class fruit. In my revision I have endeavored to keep as near as possible the simple ari'angement of the original, omitting the arrangement of classes and periods of ripening, and placing the whole alphabetically in order, trusting to the text descri})tion to give the information sought by the reader. The nomenclature of the London Hoi-ticultural Society in the original edition has been retained, and, so far as known, I have con- tinued the original name by which each fruit was first described, as its true name, appending all others as synonyms. In the first edition of this work the names of authors who had Xviii PREFACE TO THE SECOND REVISION. before giveu descriptions of the fruits were appended to eacli dLScri})- tion, but owing to the great number of names such a record woiihl now make, and to its little practical benefit, I have omitted it. In the labor of ascertaining synonyms and identifying disputed varie- ties, much credit is due to the American Pomological, Massachu setts, Western New York, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, and othei kindred Societies, by their gathering and comparing great numbers of specimens from various i^oiirces, and in the accumulation of knowledge and opinions here reported as tlie result of long-continued examinations of private individuals. But the confusion of names yet exists to a large extent, and while much has been done toward correction, order and accu- racy can only be arrived at when the diiferent varieties are well grown in the same soil and locality, a result only to be realized in an experi- mental garden on a large scale. The place of origin of each variety has been attached whenever it could be truly traced or known; but many are noted only as having been received from certain States or sections, their oi'igin being possibly in another State. The period of maturity has been given as its period when fruited here ; but it is well known locations South or North cause great changes in this respect, as well as in quality, and many good long- keeping winter apples of this section, when grown in our Southern States, become early autumn and inferior sorts. Again, nearly all varie- ties of our early summer fruits, although ripened at an earlier period, are equal, if not improved, in size and quality when grown at the South. In the revision of a former edition, as well as in aid of revision of the present, I have received valuable notes, specimens of fruits, &c., from a large number of gentlemen, and in here inaking my grateful ac- knowledgments, I desire to I'ecord all names as a simple tribute, al- though some have passed from this land of chaotic terrestiial fruit to that where order and system ever reigns. In Massachusetts — to John Milton Earl, Samuel Colton, Geoi-ge A. Chamberlain, and George Jacques, Worcester ; J. C. Stone, Shrewsbury ; F. Burr, Hingham ; Asa Clement, Lowell ; Willis P. Sargent, West Amesbury ; O. V. Hills, Leominster ; Dr. L. W. Pufter, North Bridge- water ; Joseph Merrill, James D. Black, and N. Page, Danversport ; Asa- hel Foote, Williamstown ; Col. E. Stone, Dedham ; Simon Brown, Con- cord; J, W. Manning, Reading; Marshall P. Wildei-, Dorchester; C. M. Hovey, Boston ; J. F. C. Hyde, Newton Centre ; N. P. Morrison, North Cambridge; M. Ordway, West Newbury; J. W. Clai-k, Fram- ingham ; J. W. Foster, Dorchester ; Sumner Goss, Millbury ; Jona- than Ames, West Bridgewater ; Robert Manning, Salem ; Joel Knapp, Wilkinsonville ; S. W. Cole, Chelsea. In Connecticut — to S. D. Pardee and Prof. Eli Ives, New Haven ; Sheldon Moore, Kensington ; George Seymour, Nor walk ; G. W. Gager, Sharon ; P. S. Beers, Southville j D. S. Dewey and Dr. G. W. Russell, PREFACE TO THE SECOND REVISION. xix Hartford; S. Lyman, Manchester; Major J. McLellai., Woorlstock ; ]:>r. D. W. Coit, Norwich ; E. Newbury, Brooklyn. In Canada West — to Charles Arnold, Paris ; D. W. Beadle, St. Ca- thai-ine's ; Wm. H. Reed, Port Dalhousie. In Vermont — to Chauncey Goodrich and Rev. John Wheeler, Burling ton; J. M. Ketehum, Brandon; G. W. Hai-man, Bennington ; Bnel Lan- don, Grand Isle ; Albert Bresee, Hubbardton ; Solon Burroiighs, Waltham. In New York — to Wm. S. Feri-is, Williamsbridgo ; T. M. Younglove and S. B. Fairchild, Hammondsport ; Jacob G. Sickles, Stuy vesant ; Chas. G. Benedict, Perry ; Wm. Brocksbank, Hudson ; E. JNIoody and L. C. Hoag, Lockport ; Wm. S. Carpenter, Rye ; Dr. James Fountain, Jefterson Yalley ; S. P. Carpenter, New Rochelle ; William R. Pi-ince, Flushing ; Dr. C. W. Grant, Dr. T. B. Shelton, James H. Ricketts, and A. Saul, Newburgh ; Elisha Dorr and Prof. James Hall, Albany ; J. W. Bailey, Plattsburgh ; J. Battey, Keeseville ; J. C. Hastings, Clinton ; Matthew Mackie, Clyde ; Isaac Hildreth, Watkins ; T. C. Maxwell Brothei's, and W. T. & E. Smith, Geneva; Ellwanger and Berry, H. E. Hooker, A. Frost & Co., and James H. Watts, Rochester ; J. B. Eaton, Buffalo ; Stephen Underbill, Croton Point ; Wm. Collins, Smyrna; M. J. Parrish, Hillsdale; N. T. Arms, Albany; Geo. S. Con- over, West Fayette ; H. N. Longworthy, Rochester ; Reagles & Son, Schenectady; James Yick, Rochester; John R. Comstock, Hart's Vil- lage ; James M. Matteson, Jacksonville ; Dr. E. W. Sylvester, Lyons ; E. G. Studley, Claverick ; Dr. Henry Reeder, Yarick ; Isaac Hicks, Old Westbury ; W. Brown Smith, Syracuse ; J. H. Case, New Hart- ford ; Harvey Green, Jefferson Yalley. In New Jersey — to Louis E. Berckmanns, Plainfield ; William Reid, Elizabethtown ; James McLean, Roadstown ; William Parry, Cinna- nimson ; A. G. Baldwin, Newark ; Chas. Davis, jr., Philipsburgh ; David Pettit, Salem; John Needles, Mt. Laurel; E. Williams, Mont- clair ; A, S. Fullei-, Ridgewood ; Peter B. Mead, Tenafly. In Pennsylvania — to Dr. W. D. Brinckle, Chas, Harmer, and Dr. J. S. Houghton, Philadelphia ; Chas. Kessler and Daniel B. Lorah, Read- ing ; Dr. J. K. Eshleman anil Jonathan Baldwin, Downington ; Thomas Harvey, West Grove; David Miller, jr., Carlisle; D. H. Wakefield, Rostra ver ; Josiah Hoopes, Westchester; S. W. Noble, Jenkintown; J. A. Nelson & Sons, Indian Run ; Edward J. Evans, York ; O. T. Hobbs, Randolph ; B. L. Rydei', Lovidon ; Mahlon Moon, Morrisville ; Daniel Engle and Engle Brothers, Marietta ; Caspar Hiller, Cones- toga Centre ; Luckens Peirce, Coatesville ; Wm. G. Waring, Tyrone ; Samuel Miller, Lebanon ; John Hamilton, Jersey Shore ; Wilson Den nis, Applebackville ; W. L. Nesbit, Lewisburg ; E. H. Cocklin, Shepherdstowu ; Josiah G. Youngken, Richland Town. In Ohio — to Robert Buchanan and A. H. Ernst, Cincinnati ; D. 0. Richmond, Sandusky ; A. Thompson, Delaware ; M. B. Batcham, XX PREFACE TO THE SECOND REVISIOIT. Painesville; N. L. Wood, Smithfield ; Isaac Dillen, Zauesville ; Samuel Myers, Salem; H. N. Gillett, Quaker Bottom; J. IST. Shepherd, Marion ; Rev, J. H. Creighton, Chillicothe ; Geo. W. Campbell, Dela- ware ; A. & R. G. Hanford, Columbus ; Chas. Cai-penter, Kelley Island ; S. S. Jackson, Cincinnati ; L. S. Mote, West Milton ; Prof. J. P. Kirt- land, F. E. Elliott, Dr. E. Taylor, and S. B. Marshall, Cleveland ; E. J. Black, Bremen ; Geo. Hapgood, Warren ; W. C. Hampton, Mt. Vic- tory ; A. L. Benedict, Ashley ; H. P. McMaster, Leonardsburgh. In Illinois — to Dr. J. A. Kennicott, West Northfield ; F. K. Phoenix and C. E. Oveiman, Bloomington ; Arthur Bryant, Princeton ; Tyler McWhorter, Pomeroy ; A. M. Lawver, South Pass ; J. W. Stewart, Quincy ; E. H. Skinner, Marengo ; Dr. L. S. Pennington, Sterling ; J. S, Shearman, Eockford ; J. A. Grain, Undulation. In Kentucky — to H. P. By ram, Louisville ; F. Pound, Shortsville ; J. S. Downer, Fairview ; D. L. Adair, Hawesville ; Dr. S. J. Leavell, Trenton ; Geo. C. Curtiss, Maysville ; Thos. Kennedy, Louisville ; A. L. Woodson, Woodsonville. In Iowa — to James C. Smith, Des Moines ; Finley &, Dwp-e, Daven- port ; Henry Avery, Burlington. In Indiana — to Eeuben Eegan, Nicholsonville ; John C. Teas, Eays- ville ; Wm. H. Loomis and E. Y. Teas, Eichmond ; J. D. G. Nelson, Fort Wayne. In Maine — to S. L. Gooijall, Saco. In New Hampshire — to Robert Wilson, Keane ; Nathan Norton, Greenland, and Charles H. Sanborn, Hampton Valley. In Michigan — to T. T. Lyon, Plymouth ; Dr. D. K. Underwood, Adrian. In Delaware — to Edward Tatnall, Wilmington. In Virginia — to H. E. Eoby, Fredericksburgh. In Missouri — to George Husmann, Hermann. In Washington — to John Saul. In Georgia — to William N. White and Dr. M. A. Ward, Athens , Eichard C. Peters and Wm. H. Thurmond, Atlanta ; J. Van Beuren, Clarksville, and P. J. Berckmans, Augusta. In North Carolina — to G. W. Johnson, Milton ; Westbrooke & Co., Greensboro ; E. L. Steele, Eockingham. In South Carolina — to Wm. H. Sumner, Pomona; A. P. Wylie, Chester. In Alabama — to E. E. Hunley, Harpersville ; E. S. Owen, Tus- caloosa. In Tennessee — to J- W. Dodge, Pomona. In Nova Scotia — to C. C. Hamilton, Cornwallis. CHAELES DOWNING. ABBREVIATIONS AND BOOKS QUOTED. Arboretum Brltannicum ; or, The Trees and Shrubs of Britain, pictorially and botanically delineated, and scientifically and iDopuIarly described. By J. C. Loudon. London, 1845, 8 vols. 8vo. Annates de la SodlU (T HorticultuTe de Paris. — Paris. In monthly Nos. 8vo. 1827 to 1845. Annates de Vlnstitut de Fri-obable we shall also find as great a diversity in the size, color, and flavor of the fruit. Each of these individual plants differing from the original type (the mazard) constitutes a new variety ; though only a few, perhaps only one, may be superior to the original species. It is worthy of remark, that exactly in proportion as this reproduc- tion is frequently repeated, is the change to a great variety of forms or new sorts increased. It is likely, indeed, that to gather the seeds from a wild mazai-d in the woods, the instances of departure from the form of the original species would be very few ; while if gathered from a gar- den tree, itself some time cultivated, or several removes from a wild state, though still a mazard, the seedlings will show great variety of character. Once in the possession of a variety which has moved out of the nat- ural into a more domesticated form, we have in our hands the best ma- terial for the improving process. The fixed original habit of the S2>ecies is broken in upon, and this variety which we have created has always afterwards some tendency to make further departures from the oi'iginal form. It is true that all or most of its seedlings will still retain a like- ness to the parent, but a few will differ in some respects, and it is by seizing upon those which show symptoms of variation that the impro- ver of vegetable races founds his hopes. We have said that it is a j^art of the character of a species to pi"oduce the same from seed. This chai-acteristic is retained even where the sjjort (as gardeners term it) into numberless varieties is greatest. Thus, to return to cherries : the Kentish or common pie-cheriy is one species, and the small black mazard another, and although a great number of varieties of each of these species have been produced, j^et thei-e is always the likeness of the species retained. From the first we may have the lai'ge and rich Mayduke, and from the last the sweet and luscious Black- Hearts ; but a glance will show us that the duke cherries retain the dis- tinct dark foliage, and, in the fruit, something of the same flavor, shape, and color of the original species ; and the heart cherries the broad leaves and lofty growth of the mazard. So too the currant and gooseberry are diffex'ent species of the same genus ; but though the English gooseberry- growers have raised thousands of new varieties of this fruit, and shown them as large as hens' eggs, and of every variety of form and color, yet their efforts with the gooseberry have not produced anything resembling the common currant. Why do not varieties produce the same from seed ? Why, if we plant the stone of a Green Gage plum, will it not always produce a Green Gage ? This is often a puzzling question to the practical gardener, wlule his every-day experience forces him to assent to the fact. 4 THE PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES OF FRUIT. We are not sure that tlie vegetable physiologists will undertake to answer this query fully. But in the mean time we can throw some light on the subject. It will be remembered that our garden varieties of fruits are not natural forms. They are the artificial productions of our culture. They have always a tendency to improve, but they have also another and a stronger tendency to return to a natural or vnld state. " There can be no doiibt," says Dr. Lindley, " that if the arts of cxiltivation were abandoned for only a few years, all the annual varieties of plants in our gardens would disappear and be replaced by a few original wild foi'ms." Between these two tendencies, therefore, the one derived from nature, and the other impressed by culture, it is easily seen how little likely is the progeny of varieties always to reappear in the same form. Again, our Ameiican fanners, who raise a number of kinds of Indian corn, very well know that, if they wish to keep the sorts distinct, they must grow them in different fields. Without this precaution they find, on planting the seeds produced on the yellow-corn plants, thai: they have the next season a progeny not of yellow corn alone, but composed of every color and size, yellow, white, and black, large and small, upon the farm. Now many of the varieties of fruit-trees have a similar power of intermixmg with each other while in blossom by the dust or pollen of their flowers, carried through the air by the action of bees and other causes. It will readily occur to the reader, in considering this fact, what an influence our custom of planting the diflerent varieties of plum or of cherry together in a garden or orchard must have upon the constancy of habit in the seedlings of such fruits. But there is still another reason for this habit, so perplexing to the novice, who, having tasted a luscious fruit, plants, watches, and rears its seedling, to find it, perhaps, wholly diflerent in most respects. This is the influence of grafting. Among the great niamber of seedling fruits produced in the United States, there is found occasionally a variety, per- haps a plum or a peach, which will nearly always reproduce itself from seed. From some fortunate circumstances in its origin, unknown to us, this sort, in becomiiig improved, still retains strongly this habit of the natural or wild form, and its seeds produce the same. We can call to mind several examples of this ; fine fruit-ti-ees whose seeds have estab- lished the reputation in the neighborhood of fidelity to the sort. But when a graft is taken from one of these trees, and placed upon another stock, this grafted tree is found to lose its singular power of producing the same by seed, and becomes like all other worked trees. The stock exercises some, as yet, unexplained power iu dissolving the strong natu- ral habit of the vai'iety, and becomes, like its fellows, subject to the laws of its artificial life.* When we desire to raise new varieties of fruit, the common practice * The doctrine here advanced has perhaps no foundation in fact, nor has there been any test made that, to our knowledge, woiild controvei-fc it. Observation of many years, however, leads to the belief that the mere engrafting- a variety upon another stock in no way affects its habit or capacity for reproducing itself just the same as it would if retained upon its parent roct. The great vitality possessed by some varieties, their strong character, &c., prevent them, as it were, from receiving impregnation while in flower from any less vigorous sort, and hence, as a strong variety is oftener than otherwise surrounded by those of less vitality, it mainly fertilizes itself from its own blossoms and thus reproduces its leading qualities. THE PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES OF FRUIT. 5 is to collect llie- seeds of the finest table fruits — those sorts whose merits are everywhere acknowledged to be the highest. In proceeding thus, we are all pretty well awai-e that the chances are generally a hundred to one against our obtaining any new -variety of great excellence. Before we otter any advice on rearing seedlings, let us examine briefly the prac- tice and A'iews of two distinguished horticulturists abroad, who have paid more attention to this subject than any other persons whatever; Dr. Van Mons, of Belgium, and Thos. Andrew Knight, Esq., the latfs President of the Horticultural Society of London. The Van JSIons Theory. Dr. Van Mons, Professor at Louvain, devoted the greater part of his life to the amelioration of fruits. His nurseries contained, in 1823, no less than two thousand seedlings of merit. His perseverance Avas inde- fatigable, and, experimenting mainly on Pears, he succeeded in raising an immense number of new varieties of high excellence. The Beurre Diel, De Louvain, Frederic of Wurtemberg, &c., are a few of the many well- known sorts which are the result of his unwearied labors. The Van Mons theory may be briefly stated as follows : All tine fvuits are artificial products ; the aim of nature, in a wild state, being only a healthy, vigoi'ous state of the tree, and ]:>erfect seeds for continuing the species. It is the object of culture, therefoi-e, to sub- due or enfeeble this excess of vegetation ; to lessen the coarseness of the ti'ee ; to diminish the size of the seeds ; and to refine the quality and in- crease the size of the flesh or pulp. There is always a tendency in our varieties of fruit-trees to return by their seeds towards a wild state. This tendency is most strongly shown in the seeds borne by old fruit- trees. And " the older the tree is of any cultivated variety of Pear," says Dr. Van Mons, " the nearer will the seedlings raised from it approach a wild state, without however ever being able to return to that state." On the other hand, the seeds of a young fruit-tree of a good sort, be- ing itself in the state of amelioration, have the least tendency to retro- grade, and are the most likely to produce improved sorts. Again, there is a certain limit to perfection in fruits. When this point is reached, as in the finest varieties, the next generation will more probably produce bad fruit, than if reared from seeds of an indifl'erent sort in the course of amelioration. While, in other woi"ds, the seeds of the oldest varieties of good fruit mostly yield inferior sorts, seeds taken from recent varieties of bad fruit, and reproduced uninterruptedly for severed generations, will certainly produce good fruit. * With these premises. Dr. Van Mons begins by gatheiing his seeds from a young seedling tree, without paying much regard to its quality, except that it must be in a state of variation / that is to say, a garden variety, and not a wild sort. These he sows in a seed-bed or nui-sery, where he leaves the seedlings until they attain sufficient size to enable him to judge of their character. He then selects those which appear the most promising, plants them a few feet distant in the nursery, and * Experience of Amencan growers does not bear out the supposition here taken. The Seckel, one of the finest and most perfect pears, has perhaps given more valuable seedUngs tJian any other one kind. 6 THE PKODUCTION OF NEW VAKIETIES OF FRUIT. awaits their fi-iiit. Not discouraged at finding most of. tliem mediocre in quality, though differing from the parent, he gathers the first seeds of the most promising and sows them again. The next generation comes more rapidly into bearing than the first, and shows a greater number of promising traits. Gathering immediately, and sowing the seeds of this generation, he produces a third, then a fourth, and even a fifth genera- tion, unintei-ruptedly, from the original sort. Each generation he finds to come more quickly into bearing than the previous ones (the fifth sow- ing of pears fruiting at three years), and to produce a greater number of valuable varieties ; until in the fifth generation the seedlings are nearly all of great excellence. Dr. Yan Mons found the pear to requii-e the longest time to attain perfection, and he carried his pi'ocess with this fruit through five gener- ations. Apples he found needed bvit four races, and peaches, cherries, plums, and other stone fruits were brought to j^erfection in three succes- sive reprodvictions from the seed. It will be remembered that it is a leading feature in this theoiy that, in order to improve the fruit, we must subdue or enfeeble the original coarse luxuriance of the tree. Keeping this in mind. Dr. Van Mons always gathers his fruit before fully ripe, and allows them to rot before planting the seeds, in order to refine or render less wild and harsh the next generation. In transplanting the young seedlings into quarters to bear he cuts off the tap root, and he annually shortens the leading and side branches, besides planting them only a few feet apart. All this les- sens the vigor of the trees, and produces an impression upon the nature of the seeds which will be produced by their first fruit ; and, in order to continue in full force the progressive variation, lie allows his seedlings to bear on their own roots.* Such is Dr. Van Mons' theory and method for obtaining new varieties of fruit. It has never obtained much favor in England, and from the length of time necessary to bring about its results, it is scarcely likely to come into very general use here. At the same time it is not to be de- nied that in his hands it has proved a very successful mode of obtaining new varieties. It is also undoubtedly true that it is a mode closely founded on natural laws, and that the great bulk of our fine varieties have originated by chance. The first colonists here, who brought with them many seeds gath- ered from the best old varieties of fruits, were stirprised to find their seedlings producing only veiy inferior fi-uits. These seedlings had re- titrned, by their inherent tendency, almost to a Avild state. By rearing from them, however, seedlings of many repeated generations, we have arrived at a great number of the finest apples, pears, peaches, and plums. According to Dr. Van Mons, had this process been continued uninter- rujytedly, from one generation to the next, a much shorter time would have been necessary for the production of first-rate varieties. To show how the practice of chance sowing works in the other hemis- * " I have found this art to consist in reg-enerating in a direct line of descent, and as rapidly as possible, an improving variety, taking care that there be no in- terval between the generations. To sow, to re-sow. to sow again, to sow pei-pet- ually, in short, to do nothing but sow, is the practice to be pui-siied. and which cannot be departed from ; and in short this is the whole secret of the art I have employed."— Van Mons' Arhres Fruit iers, 1. p. 22, 223. THE PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES OF FRUIT. 7 phere, it is stated by cue of the most celebrated of the old writers on fruits, Diihaiiiel of i'rauce, that he had been in the habit of planting seeds of tlie finest table })ears for hfty years without ever having pro- duced a good ^■ariety. These seeds were from trees of old A'aiieties of fruit. The American gardener will easily perceive, from what we have stated, a great advantage placed in his hands at the present time for the ameli- oi-atiou of fruits by this system. He will see that, as most of our Amer- ican varieties of fruit are the result of repeated sowings, more or less constantly repeated, he has before him almost every day a part of the ameliorating process in progress ; to which Dr. Van Mous, beginning de otovo, was obliged to devote his whole life. Nearly all that it is necessary for him to do in attempting to raise a new variety of excellence by this simj)le mode, is to gather his seeds (before they are fully rij^je) from a seedling sort of promising quality, though not yet arrived at perfection. The seedling must be quite young — must be on its own root (not graft- ed) ; and it must be a healthy tree, in order to secure a healthy gener- ation of seedlings. Our own experience leads us to believe that he will scarcely have to go beyond one or two generations to obtain fine fruit. These remarks apply to most of our table fruits commonly cultivated. In order to be most successful in raising new varieties by successive reproduction, let us bear in mind that we must avoid — 1st, the seeds of old fruit-trees ; 2d, those of grafted fruit-trees ; and 3d, that we have the best grounds for good results when we gather our seeds from a young seedling tree, which is itself rather a perfecting than a perfect fruit. It is not to be denied that, in the face of Dr. Van Mons' theory, in. this country new varieties of rare excellence are sometimes obtained at once by planting the seeds of old grafted varieties ; thus the Lawrence's Favorite and the Columbia plums were raised from seeds of the Green Gage, one of the oldest European varieties. Such are the means of originating new fi-uits by the Belgian mode. Let us now examine another more direct, more interesting, and more scientific process — cross-breeding; a mode almost univei'sally pursued now by skil- ful cultivators in producing new and finer varieties of jilants ; and which Mr, Knight, the most distinguished horticulturist of the age, so success- fully practised on fruit-trees. Cross-hreeding. In the blossoms of fruit-trees, and of most other plants, the seed is the offspring of the stamens and p>istil, which may be considered the male and female parents, growing in the same flower. Cross-breeding is, then, nothing more than removing out of the blossom of a fruit-ti-ee the stamens, or male parents, and bringing those of another and different variety of fruit, and dusting the pistil or female parent with them, — a process sufficiently simple, but which has the most marked effect on the seeds produced. It is only within about fifty years that cross-breeding has been practised ; biit Lord Bacon, whose great mind seems to have had glimpses into every dark corner of human knowledge, finely fore- shadowed it. " The compounding or mixtin-e of plants is not found out, which, if it were, is more at command than that of living creatui'es ; where- fore, it were one of the most notable discoveries touching plants to find 8 THE PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES OF FRUIT. it out, for SO you may have great varieties of fruits and flowers yet un- known." In Figure 1 is shown the blossom of the Cherry. The central por- tion, a, connected directly with the young fruit, is ^\ 6 the jnstil. The numerous suri-ounding threads, 6, are the stamens. The summit of the stamen is called the anther, and secretes the powdeiy substance called 2Jol- len. The jyistil has at its base the embiyo fruit, and at its summit the stigma. The use of the stamens is to fertilize the young seed contained at the base of the pistil ; and if we fertilize the pistil of one variety of ''*^' ■ fruit by the pollen of another we shall obtain a neAv vai'iety, part.aking intermediately of the qualities of both parents. Thus, among fruits owing their origin dii'ectly to cross-breedmg, Coe's Golden Drop Plum was raised from the Green Gage, impregnated by the Magnum Bonum or Egg Plum ; and the Elton cheiTy from the Bigarrieu, impreg- nated by the White Heart.* Mr. Knight was of opinion that the habits of the new variety would always be found to partake most strongly of the constitution and habits of the female parent. Subsequent experience does not fully confirm this, and it would appear that the parent whose character is most permanent^ impresses its form most forcibly on the offspring. Tlie process of obtaining cross-breed seeds of fruit-trees is very easily performed. It is only necessary, when the tree blooms which we intend to be the mother of the improved race, to select a blossom or blossoms growing upon it not yet fully expanded. With a pair of scissors we cut out and remove all the anthers. The next day, or as soon as the blossom is quite expanded, we collect with a camel's-hair brush the pollen from a fully blown flower of the variety we intend for the male parent, apply- ing the pollen and leaving it upon the titigma or point of the j^istil. If 3"our trees are much exposed to those busy little meddlers, the bees, it is well to cover the blossoms with a loose bag of thin gauze, or they will perhaps get beforehand with you in your experiments in cross-breeding. Watch the blossoms closely as they open, and bear in mind that the two essential points in the operation are : 1st, to extract the anthers care- fully, before they have matured sufficiently to fertilize the pistil ; and '2d, to apply the pollen when it is in pei'fection (dry and powdery), and while the stigma is moist. A very little practice will enable the amateur to judge of these points. There are certain limits to the power of crossing plants. AAliat is strictly called a cross-hred plant or fruit is a sub- variety raised between two varieties of the same species. There are, however, certain species, nearly allied, which are capable of fertilizing each other. The offspring in this case is called a hyhrid, or mule, and does not always produce per- fect seeds. " This power of hybridizing," says Dr. Lindley, " appears to be nuich more common in plants than in animals. It is, however, in general only between nearly allied species that this intercourse can take place ; those which are widely different in structure and constitution not *■ The seeclling-s sometimes most resemble one parent, sometimes the other ; but more frequently share the qualities of both. Mr. Coxe describes an Apple, a cross between a Newtown Pippin and a Russet, the fruit of which resembled exter- nally at one end the Russet and at the other the Pippin, and the flavor at eithei end corresponded exactly with the character of the exterior. THE PKODUCTION OF NEW VjVRIETIES OF FKUIT. SI beinjj capable of any artificial union. Thus the different species of Strawberry, of the gourd or melon family, intermix with tlie greatest facility, thei-e being a great accordance between them in general struc- ture and constitution. But no one has ever succeeded in compelling the pear to fertilize the apple, nor the gooseberi-y the current. And as spe- cies that are very dissimilar appear to liave some natural impediment which prevents their reciprocal fertilization, so does this obstacle, of whatever natiire it may be, present an insuperable bar to the intercourse of the different genera. AH the stories that are current as to the inter- mixture of oranges and pomegranates, of roses and black currants, and the like, may therefore be set down to pure invention." In practice this power of improving varieties by crossing is very lai-gely resorted to by gardeners at the present day. Not only in fruit- trees, but in ornamental trees, shrubs, and plants, and especially in florists' flowers, it has been carried to a great extent. The great number of new and beautiful Roses, Azaleas, Camellias, Fuchsias, Dahlias, and other flowering plants so splendid in color and perfect in form, owe their origin to cai-eful cross-breeding. In the amelioration of fruits it is by far the most certain and satisfac- tory process yet discovered. Its results are more speedily obtained, and correspond much more closely to our aim, than those pi'ocured by succes- sive i-eproduction. In order to obtain a new variety of a certain character, it is only neces- sary to select two parents of well known habits, and which are both varieties of the same or nearly allied species, and cross them for a new and intermediate variety. Thus, if we have a very early but insipid and worthless soi't of pear, and desire to raise from it a variety both early and of fine flavor, we should fertilize some of its pistils with the pollen of the best flavored variety of a little later maturity. Among the seedlings produced we should look for early pears of good ql^ality, and at least for one or two varieties nearly or quite as early as the female parent, and as delicious as the male. If we have a very small but highly flavored pear, and wish for a larger pear with a somewhat similar flavor, we must fertilize the first with the pollen of a large and handsome sort. If we desire to impart the quality of lateness to a very choice plum, we must look out for a late variety' as the mother, and cross it with our best flavored sort. If we desire to impart hai-diness to a tender fruit, we must undertake a cross between it and a much hai-dier sort ; if we seek greater beauty of color or vigor of growth, we must insure these qualities by selecting one parent having such quality strongly marked. As the seeds produced by cross fertilization are not found to pi-oduce precisely the same varieties, though they will nearly all partake of the mixed character of the pai-ents, it follows that we shall be most success- ful in obtaining precisely all we hope for in the new race in proportion to the number of our cross-bred seedlings ; some of which may be infe- rior, as well as some superior to the parents. It is always well, there- fore, to cross several flowers at once on the same plant, when a single blossom does not produce a number of seeds. We should observe here, that those who devote their time to raising new varieties must bear in mind that it is not always by the first fruits of a seedling that it should be judged. Some of the finest varieties require a considei-able age before th^^ir best qualities develop themselves, as it ia only when the tx-ee has arrived at some degree of maturity that its secre- 10 DURATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT-TREES. tions, either for flower or fruit, are perfectly elaborated. The first fruii of the Black Eagle cherry, a fine cross-bred raised by Mr. Knight, was pronounced worthless when first exliibited to the London Hoi'ticultural Society ; its quality now proves that the tree was not then of sufficient age to produce its fruit in perfection. CHAPTER II. REMARKS ON THE DURATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT-TREES. It was for a long time the popular notion, that wjien a good variety of fruit was once originated from seed, it might be continued by grafting and budding forever, — or, at least, as some old parchment deeds pithily gave tenure of land — " as long as grass grows and water runs." About 1830, however, Thomas Andrew Knight, the distinguished President of the Horticultural Society of London, ])ublished an Essay in its Transactions tending entirely to overthrow this opinion, and to establish the doctrine that ail vaiieties are of very limited dui'ation. The theory advanced by Mr. Knight is as follows : All the constitu- tional vigor or properties possessed b}- any variety of fruit are shared at the same time by all the plants that can be made from the buds of that variety, whether by grafting, budding, or other modes of propagating. In similar terms, all the plants or trees of any particular kind of pear or apple being only parts of one original tree, itself of limited duration, it follows, as the parent tree dies, all the others must soon after die also. " No trees, of any variety," to use his own words, " can be made to pro- duce blossom or fruit till the original tree of that variety has attained the age of puberty ; * and, under ordinary modes of propagation, by grafts and buds, all become subject, at no very distant period, to the debilities and diseases of old age!" It is remarkable that such a theory as this should have been offered by Mr. Knight, to whose careful investigations the science of modern horticulture is so deeply indebted — as, however common it is to see the apparent local decline of certain sorts of fruit, yet it is a familiar fact that many sorts have also been continued a far greater length of time than the life of any one parent tree. Still, the doctrine has formd supporters abroad, and at least one hearty advocate in this country. Mr. Kenrick, in his new American Orchardist, adopts this docti-ine, and in speaking of Pears says : " I shall, in the following pages, desig- nate some of these in the class of old varieties, once the finest of all old pears, whose duration we had hoped, but in vain, to perpetuate. For, except in certain sections of the city, and some very few and highly * This part of the doctrine has of late been most distinctly refuted, and any one may repeat the experiment. Seedling fruit-trees, it is well kno\\-n, are usu- ally several years before they produce fruit. But if a graft is inserted on a bearing tree, and, after it makes one season's fair gro%\i:h, the grafted shoot ia bent directly down ;ind tied there, Avith its point to the stock below, it ^vi]l the next season — the sap being checked — produce flower-buds and begin to bear, long before the parent tree. DURATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT-TREES. 11 favored sitiiations in the couutiy aro;incl, tliey (tlie old sorts) have become,either so uncertain in their bearing — so barren — so unproductive — or so miserably blighted — so mortally diseased — that they are no longer to be trusted ; they are no longer what they once were with ns, and what many of them are still described to be by most foreign writers." Mr. Kenrick accordingly arranges in separate classes the Old and iVeiw Pears ; and while he praises the latter, he can hardly find epithets sufficiently severe to bestow on the former poor unfortunates. Of the Doyenne he says : " This most eminent of all Pears has now become an outcast, intolerable even to sight ; " of the Brown Beurre, " once the best of all Pears — now become an outcast." The St. Germain " has long since become an abandoned variety," &c., &c. Many persons have, therefore, supposing that tliese delicious varieties had really and quietly given up the ghost, made no more inquiries after them, and only ordered from the nurseries the new varieties. And this not always^ as they have confessed to us, without some lingering feeling of regret at thus abandoning old and tried friends for new-comers — Avhich, it must be added, not unfrequently failed to equal the good quali- ties of their predecessors. But, while this doctrine of Knight's has found ready supporters, we are bound to add that it has also met with sturdy opposition. At the head of the opposite party we may rank the most distinguished vege- table physiologist of the age. Professor De Candolle, of Geneva. Varie- ties, says De Candolle, will endure and remain permanent so long as man chooses to take care of them, as is evident from the continued existence to this day of sorts, the most ancient of those which have been described in books. By negligence, or through successive bad sea- sons, they may become diseased, but careful culture will restore them, and retain them, to all appearance, forever. Our own opinion coincides, in the main, with that of De Candolle. While we admit that, in the common mode of propagation, varieties are constantly liable to decay or become comparatively worthless, we believe that this is owing not to natural limits set uj)on the duration of a vari- ety ; that it does not depend on the longevity of the parent tree ; but upon the care "with which the sol-t is propagated, and the nature of the climate or soil where the tree is grown. It is a well-established fact, that a seedling ti^ee, if allowed to grow on its own root, is always much longer lived, and often more vigorous than the same variety when grafted upon another stock ; and experi- ence has also proved that in pioportion to the likeness or close relation between the stock and the graft is the long life of the grafted tree. Thus a variety of pear grafted on a healthy ])ear seedling lasts almost as long as upon its own roots. Upon a thorn stock it does not endure so long. Upon a mountain ash or quince stock still less ; until the aver- age life of the pear-tree when grafted on the quince is reduced to one- third of its ordinary duration on the pear stock. This is well known to every ])ractical gardener, and it arises from the want of affinity between the quince stock and the pear graft. The latter is rendered dwarf in its habits, bears very early, and perishes equally soon. Next to this, the ajiparent decay of a variety is often caused by graft- ing upon unhealthy stocks. For although grafts of very vigorous habit have frequently the power of renovating in some measure, or for a timCj 12 DUKATION OF A^ARIETIES OF FRUIT-TREES. tlie healtli of the stock, yet the trfe, when it arrives at a bearing state, will, sooner or later, suffer from the diseased or feeble nature of the stock. Carelessness in selecting scions for engrafting is another fertile source of degeneracy in varieties. E\ery good cultivator is aware that if grafts are cut from the ends of old bearing branches, exhausted by over- bearing, the same feebleness of habit will, in a great degree, be shared by the young graft. And on the contrary, if the thiifty straight shoots that are thrown out by the upright extremities, or the strong limb- sprouts, are selected for grafting, they ensure vigorous gi'owth, and healthy habit in the graft. Finally, unfavorable soil and climate are powerfid agents in deterio- rating varieties of fruit-tree. Certain sorts that have originated La a cold climate ai-e often short-lived and unproductive when taken to warmer ones, and the reverse. This arises from a want of constitutional fitness for a climate different from its natural one. Most varieties of apples originating in the climate of the Middle States, if their period of maturity be mid- winter, when taken to the ex- treme northern limits lose their value, because of the season not being long enough for their juices to become fully matvired. Again, if they are taken to the Southern States their period of maturity is hastened by a greater amount of continued heat, and the quality impaired. Varieties, however, that originate at the North, aud have their matu- rity nat\irally in the warm summer months, are improved by their removal South. But this only proves that it is impossible to pass cer- tain natural limits of fitness for climate, and not that the existence of the variety itself is in any way affected by these local failures. Any or all of these causes are sufficient to explain the apparent decay of some varieties of fruit, and especially of pears, over which some culti- vators, of late, have uttered so many lamentations, scarcely less pathetic than those of Jeremiah. Having stated the theories on this subject, and given an outline of our explanation, let us glance for a moment at the actual state of the so-called decayed varieties, and see whether they are really either extinct, or on the verge of annihilation. Mr. Knight's own observation in England led him to consider the English Golden Pippin and the Nonpareil, their two most celebrated varieties of apple, as the strongest examples of varieties just gone to de- cay, or, in fact, the natural life of which had virtually expii'ed twenty years before. A few years longer he thought it might lingei' on in the warmer parts of England, as he supposed varieties to fall most speedily into decay in the north, or in a cold climate. Lindley, however, his contemporary, and second to no one in practi- cal knowledge of the subject, writing of the Golden Pippin,* very fi*ank- ly states his dissent, as follows : " This apple is considei-ed by some of our modern writers on Pomology to be in a state of decay, its fruit of inferior quality, and its existence near its termination. I cannot for a moment agree with such an opinion, because we have facts annualh' be- fore our eyes completely at vai'iance with such an assertion. In Covent Garden, and indeed in any other large market in the southern or mid- land counties of England, will be found specimens of fruit as perfect * Quide to the Orchard^ by George Lindley. DURATION OF VARIETIES OF FKUIT-TKEES. 13 and as fine as have been figured or described by any writer, either in this or any other country wliat(;ver. Instead of the trees being in a state of ' rapid decay,' they may he founil of unusually large size, per- fectly healthy, and their crops abundant ; the fruit j^erfect in fbnn, beautiful in color, and excellent in (j[uality." And the like remarks are made of the Nonpareil. Certain French writers, aboiit this time, gladly seized Knight's theory as an explanation of the miserable state into which several fine old sorts of pears had fallen about Paris, owing to bad cultui'e and propagation. They sealed the' death-warrant, in like manner, of the Brown Beurre, Doyenne, Chaiimontel, and many others, and consigned them to oblivion in terms which Mr. Kenrick has already abundantly quoted. Notwithstanding this, and that ten or fifteen years have since elaps- ed, it is worthy of Jiotice that the repudiated apples and pears still hold their place among all the best cultivators in both England and France. And the " extinct varieties " seem yet to bid defiance to theorists and bad cultivators. But hidf the ground is not yet covered. How does the theory work in America ? is the most natural inquiry. In this country we have soil varying from the poorest sand to the richest alluvial, climate vary- ing from frigid to almost torrid — a range wide enough to include all fruit-trees between the apple and the orange. We answer that the facts here, judged in the whole, are decidedly against the theory of the extinction of varieties. While hei-e, as abroad, unfavorable soil, climate, or culture have produced their natural results of a feeble and diseased state of certain sorts of fruit, these are only the exceptions to the general vigor and health of the finest old sorts in the country at large. Recent experiments have proved that it is not sufiicient to bring healthy trees of the old varieties from the interior of the seaboard to in- sure, in the latter localities, fair and excellent crops. But, on the other hand, the comjjlete renoA^ation of blighted trees by the plentiful use of wood-ashes, bone-dust, lime, and blacksmith cinders, along with common manure, shows us distinctly that it is not the age of these varieties of fruit which causes their apparent decline, but a want of that food abso- lutely necessary to the production of healthy fruit.* But there is another interesting ])oint in this investigation. Do the newly originated sorts really maintain in the unfavorable districts the appearance of perfect health? Are the new pears uniformly healthy where the old ones are always feeble ? Undoubtedly this question must be answered in the negative. Some * Since the writing of this, in 1845, there have occurred seasons when nearly every variety of fruit perfected, and there have also been seasons when the old as weU as new varieties have failed, and that too in ahnost all soils and in many varied sections of the country. 'J'o our knowledge, no continued experi- ments in the practice of applying special manures as remedial agents have been tried, but, from the fact that old as well as new sorts have frequently failed in our rich western soils and inland climates, we have come to regard the cause of cracking and other diseases of the pear more to proceed from climatic or atmos- pheric influence than from any special- condition or quality of the soil. It is now generally conceded that our seasons are more changeable and the extremes greater than they were half a century back, and to this influence do we attribute in a great measure the deterioration noted in occasional seasons and localities. 14 DURATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT-TREES. of the latest Flemish pears already exhibit symptoms of decay o*' bad health in these districts. Even Mr. Kenrick, with all his enthusiasm for the new sorts, is obliged to make the following admission respecting the Beurrc Diel pear, the most vigorous and hardy here of all : " I re gret to add, that near Boston this noble fruit is liable to crack badly." We predict that many of the Flemish pears originated by Van Mons will become feeble, and the fruit liable to crack, in the neighborhood of Boston, in a much less time than did the old vaiieties. And this leads us to remark here, that the hardiness of any varietj depends greatly upon the cii'cumstances of its origin. Wlien a new variety springs up accidentally from a healthy seed in a semi-natural manner, like the Seckel, the Dix, and other native sorts, it will usually prove the hardiest. It is, as it were, an effort of natvire to produce a new individual OTit of the materials in a progressive state which garden culture has afforded. Cross-bred seedlings — one parent being of a hardy nature, and both healthy ; such as Knight's own seedlings, the Monarch and Dunmore pears — are next in hardine^ss. Lastly, we rank varieties reared by Van Mons' method — that of continually repeated reproduc- tions. This, as Van Mons distinctly states, is an enfeebling process — without any compensating element of vigor. Hence it follows, as a matter of course, that seedlings of the fifth or sixth generation, as are some of his vai-ieties, must in their origin be of feeble habit. Van Mons himself was fully aware of this, and therefore resorted to " gi'afting by copulation," — in fact, root-grafting, — well knowing that on common stocks these new vai-ieties would, in light soils, soon become feeble and decayed. It is needless for us to add that hence we consider the Belgian mode of pi'oducing new varieties gi-eatly inferior to the English one, since it gives us vaiieties often impaired in health in theii* very origin. If any further proof of this is desired, we think it is easily found by compariug the robust vigor and longevity of many native pear-trees to be found in the United States — some of them 80 or 100 years old, and still producing large cro])s of fruit — with the delicate trees of several new varieties now in our gardens from Europe. These varieties are delicate not only with respect to their constitutional vigor, but they are also more' susceptible to injury from the severity of our winter's cold and summer's sun. There are great advantages, undoubtedly, for soils nat;xrally unfavor- able, and for small gardens, in grafting the pear upon quince stocks; yet, as it diminishes the vigor of the tree, it is not impossible that con- tinued propagation from dwarf trees may somewhat lessen the vital powers and the longe\T.ty of a gi' en variety. The deca}^ of varieties of the Apricot, or Peach, much shorter lived trees by nattu-e, we seldom or never hear of. Vaiieties of botli are now in cultivation, and in the most perfect ^-igor, of 200 years' duratiou. This, probably, is owing to the more nattu-al treatment these trees receive generally. Varieties of the vine are said never to degenerate, and this is perhaps owing to their having very rarely been propagated by grafting.* * We do not deny that in any given soil there is a period at which a variety of tree or plant exhibits most vigor, and after havuig grown there awhile it ceases to have its former luxuriance. The same is true of wheat or potatoes, and accordingly farmers are in the habit of " changing then* seed." The nutriment for a given variety is after a time exhausted from the soU, and unless it is again DURATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT-TREES. 15 We are not without leniotly for varieties that have partially decayed in a cei-tain district. If the trees have once liecn productive of excellent fruit, and are still in a sound condition, thoiigh enfeebled, a thorough renewal of their powers will again restore them to health. To effect this, the soil about the roots should be replaced by new, enriched by manure or peat-compost, and mixed with the mineral substances named in the preceding page. The bark of the trunk and large branches should be well scraped, and, as well as all the limbs, thoi-oughly washed with soft soap ; the head should be moderately pruned ; and finally, the tree should be suffered to bear no fVuit for the two following seasons. After this it will genei-ally bear excellent fruit for several years again. In making plantations of fine old varieties, in districts where the stock has become feeble, something may be gained by prociiring grafts or ti-ees from more favorable localities, where the fruit is still as fair as ever, and care shoxild be exercised in selecting only the healthiest grafts or trees. Nurserymen in unfavorable districts should endeavor to pro- pagate only from ti'ees of healthy character ; and if those in their own vicinity are diseased, they should spare no pains to bring into their nurse- ries and propagate only such as they feel confident are healthy and sound. On them, next to the soil, depends very considerably the vigor or debility of the stock of any given variety in the country ai'ound them. In Mr. Knight's original essay on the Decay of "Varieties, he clearly stated a cii'cumstance that most strongly proves what we have here endea- vored to show, viz. : that the local decline of a variety is mainly owing to neglect, and to grafting on bad stock. We allude to the fact repeatedly verified, that healthy young shoots, taken from the roots of an old vai'iety in apparent decline, produce trees which are vigorous and healthy. " The decay," says he, " of the powers of life in the roots of seedling trees is exceedingly slow comparatively with that in the branches. Scions (or shoots) obtained from the roots of pear-trees two hundred years old afford grafts which grow with great vigor, and which are often covered with thorns like young seedling stocks ; whilst other grafts, taken at the same time from the extremities of the branches of such trees, present a totally different character, and a veiy slow and unhealthy growth. I do not conceive that such shoots poss'ess all the powers of a young seedling, but they certainly possess no inconsiderable portion of such powers." This is nothing more, in fact, than going back to the roots — the por- tion of the tree least exhausted — for the renewal of the health of a variety when the branches of the tree have been exhausted by overbearing, &c. It is a simple and easy mode of increasing the vigor of a sort of delicate habit, to take scions from young root-suckers for grafting anew. This can of course only be done with trees that grow on their own roots, or have not been grafted. supplied the tree must decline. In lig-lit soils this speedily happens. In strong clayey or rocky soils, the natural decompositiou of which aifords a continual store of lime, ijotash, &c. , the necessary supply of inorganic food is maintained, and the variety continues healthy and productive. 16 PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. CHAPTER III. PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES GRAFTING BUDDING CUTTINGS, LAYERSj AND SUCKERS. After having obtained a new and choice kind of fruit, which in our hands is perhaps only a single tree, and which, as we have already shown, seldom produces the same from seed, the next inquiry is how to continue this variety in existence, and how to increase and extend it, so that other gardens and countries may possess it as well as ourselves. This leads us to the subject of the pi'opagation of fruit-trees, or the continuation of varieties by grafting and budding. Grafting and budding ai'e the means in most common use for pro- pagating fruit-trees. They are, in fact, nothing more than inserting upon one tree the shoot or bvid of another, in such a maimer that the two may unite and form a new compound. No person having any inte- rest in a garden should be unaljle to perform these operations, as they ai-e capable of effecting transformations and improvements in all trees and shrubs, no less valuable than they are beautiful and interesting. Grafting is a very ancient invention, having been well known and practised by the Greeks and Romans. The latter, indeed, describe a great A^ariety of' modes, quite as ingenious as any of the fanciful varia- tions now used by gardeners. The Fi-ench, who are most expert in grafting, practise occasionally more than fifty modes, and within a few years have succeeded perfectly in grafting annual plants, such as the tomato, the dahlia, and the like. TJie uses of grafting and budding, as applied to fruit-trees, may be briefly stated as follows: 1. The rapid increase of propagation of valuable sorts of fruit not easily raised by seeds or cuttings, as is the case with nearly all varieties. 2. To renew or alter the heads of trees partially or fully grown, pro- ducing in two or thi'ee years, by heading-in and grafting, a new liead, beai-ing the finest fruit, on a foi'merly worthless tree. 3. To render certain foreign and delicate sorts of fruit more hardy by grafting them on robust stocks of the same species native to the country, as the foreign grape on the native ; and to produce tine fruit in climates or situations not naturally favorable, by grafting on another species more hardy, as in a cool climate and damp strong soil by woi'king the Peach on the Plum. 4. To render divarf certain kinds of fruit, by grafting them on suit- able stocks of slower growth, as in the case of the Pear on the Quince, the Apple on the Paradise stock, etc. 5. By gi-afting several kinds on the same tree, to be able to have a succession of fruit, from early to late, in a small garden. 6. To hasten the bearing of seedling vaiieties of fruit, or of such as are a long time in producing fruit, by grafting them on the branches of full-grown or mature bearing trees. Thus a seedling pear, which woidd not produce fruit on its own root in a dozen 3-ears, will generally begin to bear the third or fourth year if grafted on the extremiry of the bear* ing brunches of a mature tree. The proper time for grafting fruit-trees is in the spring, as soon as the sap is in motion, which commences earliest with the Cherry and PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. 17 Phim, and omls with the Pear and Apple. The precise time of course varies with the season and the climate, but is generally comprised from February to the middle of April. The grat)e-vine, however, which sutlers by bleeding, is not usnally grafted until it is ir. leaf. The most fa%orable weather for grafting is a mild atmosphere with occasional showers. Tlie scions ore generally selected previovisly, as it is found, in neai-ly all kinds of grafting by scions, that success is more complete when the stock ujjon which they are placed is a little more advanced — the sap in a more active state than in the scion. To secure this, we usually cut the scions very early in the spring, during the winter, or even in the autumn, buryinir their lower ends in the ground in a shaded place, or keeping them in line soil in the cellar till wanted for use. In cutting scions we ckoose straight thrifty shoots of the last year's growth, wJiich may remain entire until we commence grafting, wlien they may be cut iiito scions of three or four buds each. In selecting scions from old trees it is always advisable to choose the most vigorous of the last year's shoots growing near the centre or top of the tree. Scions from sickly and nnhealthy branches shoidd be rejected, as they are a])t to carry with them this feeble and sickly state. Scions taken from the lower bearing branches will pro- duce fruit soonest, but they will not alford trees of so handsome a shape or so vigorous a growth astliose taken from the thrifty upright shoots near the centre or top of the tree. Nurserymen generally take their scions from young grafted trees in the nursery-rows, these being usually in better condition than those taken from old trees, not always in a healthy state. 21ie stock for grafting upon is generally a tree which has been standing, at least for a year previously, on the spot where it is grafted, as success is much less certain on newly moved trees. In the case, however, of very small trees or stocks, which are grafted below the surface of the ground, as is frequently the yji'actice with the Apple in American nurseries, the stocks are grafted in the house in winter, or early spring, put away carefvilly in a damp cellar, and jilanted out in the spring ; but this method is only successful when the root is small, and when the top of the stock is taken otf, and the whole root is devoted to supjjlying the graft with nourishment. The theory of grafting is based on the power of union between the young tissues or organizable matter of growing wood. When the pai'ts are placed nicely in contact, the ascending sap of the stock passes into and sustains life in the scion ; the buds of the latter, excited by this supply of sap and the warmth of the season, begin to elaborate and send down woody matter, which, passing through the newly gi-anulated sub- stance of the parts in contact, unites the graft firmly with the stock. " If," says De Candolle, " the descending sap has only an incomplete analogy with the wants of the stock, the latter does not thrive, though the organic union may have taken place ; and if the analogy between the albumen of stock and scion is wanting, the organic union does not ope- }-a1e, the scion cannot absorb the sap of the stock, and the graft fails." Grafting tlierefore is confined vntldn certain limits. A scion from one tree will not, from the want of affinity, succeed on every other tree, but only upon those to which it is allied. We are, in short, only success- ful in budding or grafting where there is a close i-elationship and simi- larity of structure between the stock and the scion. This is the case with varieties of the same species which take most freely, as the dilierent 2 18 PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. sorts of Apple ; next with the different species of a geuus, as the Ap])lti and the Pear, which grow, but in which the union is less complete and permanent ; and lastly with the genera of the same natural family, as the Cherry on the PJum, which die after a season or two. The ancients boasted of Yines and Apples grafted on Poplars and Elms ; but repeated experiments, by the most skilful cultivators of modern times, have ciearlv proved that although Ave may, once in a thousand trials, succeed in effect- ing those ill-assorted unions, yet the graft invariably dies after a few months' growth,* The range in grafting or budding, for fruit-trees in ordmary culture, is as the following : Apples, on apple or crab seedlings for orchards (standards), or on Paradise apple stocks, for dwarfs ; Pears, on pear seedlings for common culture, or Quince stocks for dwarfs, and some- times on the thorn for claye}' soils ; Peaches, on their own seedlings for standards or for orchards ; on Almonds, for hot and dry climates ; on Plums in cold or moist soils, or to secure them against the worm; Apri- cots, on Plum stocks, to render them hardy and productive, or on their own seedlings to render them long-lived. Nectarines are usually worked on the Peach or Plum; and Cherries on mazard seedlings, or on the per- fmned Cherry, and on the morello for forming half dwarfs. The manual oj'ieration of grafting is performed in a very easy and complete manner when the size of the stock, or branch to be grafted, corresponds precisely with that of the scion. In this case, which is called splice-grafting , it is only necessary with a smooth sloping cut, upwards on the stock a, and downwards on the scion 6, Fig 2, to make the two fit px'ecisely, so that the inner bark of one corre- sponds exactly with that of the other, to bind them firmly together with a strand of matting, and to cover the wound entirely with grafting clay or wax, and the whole is fin- ished. In this, which is one of the neatest modes, the whole forms a complete union nearly at once, leaving scarcely any wounded part to heal over. But, as it is only rarely that the stock is of so small a size as to fit thus perfectly to the scion, the operation must be varied somewhat, and requii-es more skill. The method in most common iise to cover all ditiiculties is called tongue grafting. We may remark here that grafting the shoots of SpUce-Grafting. pg^ches, Nectarines, and Apricots, OA^dng to their largo pith, is more difiicult than that of other fruit-trees. A variation of splice-grafting. Fig. 3, Las been invented to obviate this. This consists in selecting the scion o., so as to leave at its lower end about a fourth of an inch of two years old wood, which is much firmer. The bottom of * The classical horticulturist will not fail to recall to mind Pliny"s account of the ti'ee in the garden of LncuUus, grafted in such a manner as to bear Olives, Ahnonds, Apples, Pears, Pkims, Figs, and Grapes. There is little doubt, how- ever, that this was some ingenious deception, as to this day the Italian gardeners pretend to sell Jasmines, Honeysuckles, etc. , growing tog-ether and grafted on Oranges and Pomegranates. This is ingeniously managed, for a short-lived effect, by introducing the stems of these smaller })lants through a hole bored up the centre of the stock of the trees — their roots being in the same soil, and their stems, which after a little growth fill up these holes, appearing as if really grafted. PROPAGATION OF VAUIETIES. 19 the slope on the stock is cut with a dovetail notch, h, into which the scion is fitted. Tongue- grafting (or whip-grafting), Fig. 4, resembles very nearlv a Splice-Grafting the Peach. Tongue-Grafting, progressive stages. splice-grafting, except, instead of the simple splice, a tongue is made to hold the two together more firmly. In order to understand this method, let us explain it a little in detail. Having chosen your stock of the proper size, cut it off at the point where, a, it appears best to fix the graft. If the stock is quite small, it may be within three or four inches of the ground. Then, with a very sharp knife, make a smooth cut upwards, h, about two inches in length. Next make a slit from the top of this cut about one-fourth of the way downwards, c, taking out a thin tongue of wood. Cut the scion four or five inches long, or so as to have three buds ; then shape the lower end with a single smooth sloping ciit, e, about the same length as that on the stock, and make the tongue tipward, f to fit in the down- ward slit of the stock. Now apply the scion accurately to the stock, making the inner hark of the scion ft exactly the inner bark of the stock, at least on one side, g. Without changing their position, tie them together carefully with a piece of bass matting or tape, h. And finally cover tlie wound with well-prepared grafting clay or wax, i. This ball of clay should moi'e than cover the union, by an inch above and below, and should be about an inch thick. If gi-afting-wax is used, the cover- ing need not be above half an inch thick. American Whip Tongue- Grafting — the mode generally practised by American nurserymen — is similar to the foregoing method, but much more rapid in its execution. The scion and stock are first cut, as rep- resented in Fig. 2, for splice-grafting, and then the knife is passed upward in the scion, a, Fig. 5, and do-svnward in the stock, h, forming a sliced tongue in appearance, and when joined together, c, serves to hold the scion in place. The tying for out-door grafting is then done by a narrow strip of cloth, say half an inch to an inch wide, one side of which is satiirated or coated ^vath grafting-wax, and as each turn round the 20 PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. American Wliip Tongtio-Grafting in its different stages. (a). Scion cut for insertion. (6). Stock prepared to receive the scion, (c). Stock and scion united, (dj. The same tied up. Wliip-Grafting large stock. (a). Stock prepared to receive the scdon. (J>). Scion cut for insertion, (c). Stock and Bcion united. graft and stock is made, the adhesiv? power of the wax holds the strip tirmly and renders the work complete (grafting large stocks is fre- quently practised, and is a very success- ful manner of operating vipon quite large trees in the niarsery row. The sloping cut upon the stock, and the forming of the graft, is the same as in the ordinary American wliip tongue- grafting, except that one side of the stock, opposite that on which the graft is placed, should be cut away upon the same slope as the grafted side, as indi- cated by the dotted lines in Fig. 6. As soon as the graft has taken, and com- menced expanding its leaves and send- ing out shoots,' it will be necessary to rub or cut otf all shoots between the ball and the ground, if it is a small stock, or all those whif h woiild rob it of a princi- pal share of noui-ishment, if upon a large tree. If the scion or stock is very weak, it is usual to leave one or two other buds for a time, to assist in drawing up the sap. AVhen the graft has made a growth of two or three inches the ball of clay may be remov- ed, and if the graft is securely united, the bandage may be loosened and re- tied, or it may be cut partially away at the back of the graft, for the purpose of permitting the expansion of gTowth, that otherwise would soon be checked, and cause the graft to break off. In the use of the wax-cloth strips, passing the knife at the back and cutting the tie is all that is requisite. Early in August the angle left at the top of the stock should be cut off smoothly, in order to allow the bark of the stock and the scion to heal neatly over the whole wound. Though it is little attended to in common practice, the amateur \vill be glad to know thaf the success of a graft is always greatly insured by choosing the parts so that a bud is left near the top of the stock, k, Fig. 4, and another near the bottom of the scion, I. These buds attract the rising sap to the por- tions where they are placed, form woodv matter, and greatly facilitate the union of the parts near them ; the upper part of PROrAGATION OF VARIETIES. 21 the stock and the lower part of the scion being the portions soonest liable to perish from a want of nourishment.* Cleft-grafting is a very easy tliough rather clumsy mode, and is in more connnon use than any other in the United States. It is chiell} jiractised on large stocks, or trees the branches of which have been headed back, and are too large fur tongue-grafting. The head of the stock is first cut over horizontally with the saw and smoothed with a knife. A cleft about two inches deep is then made in the stock with a hammer and splitting-knife. The scion is now prepared by sloping its lower end in the form of a wedije about an inch and a half lona:, leaving it a little thicker on the outer edge. Opening the cleft with the splitting-knife, or a small chisel for that jjurpose, push the scion carefully down to its place, fitting its inner bark on one side to that of one side of the stock. When the stock is large, it is usual to insert two scions, Fig. 7. On withdrawing the chisel, the cleft closes firmly on the scions, when the graft is tied and clayed in the usual manner. Apple-stocks, in many American nurseries, are grafted in great quantities in this mode — the stocks being previously taken out of the ground, headed down very near the root, cleft-grafted with a single scion, sloping off with an oblique cut the side of the stock opposite that where the graft is placed, and then planted at once in the rows, so as to allow only a single bud of the scion to appear above ground. It is not usual with many either to tie or clay the grafts in this case, as the wound is placed below the surface ; but when this plan is adopted, the grafts must be set and the trees planted at once, drawing the well- )>vdverized soil with great cai'e around the graft. Another way of grafting apple-stocks, common in westei-n nurseries, consists in tongue- grafting on seedling stocks of very small size, cut back almost to the root. Large quantities of trees ai'e also propagated by using pieces of roots each three to five inches long, thus forming from the root of one stock sufficient root for two or more grafts. This practice, although quite com- mon, is of very doubtful value, and by some prominent horticulturists considered as tending to debilitate and reduce vitality — the seat of vital life in fact resting in the natural crown of the seedling, and that once destroyed cannot be renewed. It is therefore apparent that but one healthy permanent tree can ever be grown from a seedling stock. This is performed in winter, by the fireside, the grafts carefully tied, and the Cleft-Grafting. («)• Scion ready for inser- tion. (6). Stock witli two scions inserted. * In grafting large quantities of young trees when stocks are scarce, it is not an unusual practice in some nurseries to tongue or whij:) -graft upon small pieces of roofs, of the proper sort of tree, planting the same in the earth as soon as grafted. Indeed Dr Van Mons considers this the most complete of all modes, with regard to the proper condition of the gi-afted sort: 1st, because the smallest quantity of the stock is used ; and 2d, because the lower part of the scion being thus placed in the ground, after a time it throws out fibres from that portion, and so at last is actually growing on its own roots. 22 PROPAGATION DF VARIETIES. roots placed in the cellar, in sand, tUl spring, when they are planted, the top of the graft just above ground. Grafting the Vine is attended with success in the cleft or whip manner, if treated as follows: — Cut your scions during the winter or early spring, keeping them partially buried in a cool damp cellar till wanted. As soon as the first leaves of the old vine or stock have grown to about two inches in diameter, and all danger of bleeding is past, cut it off smoothly below the sui'face of the ground, and split the stock and insert one or two scions in the usual manner, binding the cleft well together if it does not close firmly. Draw the soil carefully over the wliole, leaving one bud of the scion at the surface. If the root of the stock is a strong native grape, the graft Avill frequently gi-ow ten or fifteen feet during the fu'st season, and yield a fair crop the second year. Saddle-Grafting. Saddle-Grafting Large Stocks. Saddle-grafting, Fig. 8, consists in cutting the top of the stock in the form of a wedge, splittmg the scion and thijuiing away each half to a tongue shape, placing it astride the stock, and fitting the two, at least on one side, as in tongue-grafting. This mode ofiers the largest surface for the junction of the scion and stock, and the union is very per- fect. Mr, Knight, who practised it chiefiy upon Cherry-trees, states that he has rarely ever seen a graft fail, even when the wood has been so succulent and immature as to preclude every hope of success by any other mode. A variety of this mode, for stocks larger than the scions, is prac- tised with much success in England after the usual season is past, and when the bark of the stock separates readily. " The scion, which must be smaller than the stock, is split up between two or thi'ee PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. ^ 23 inches from its lower end, so as to liave one side stronger than the other. This strong side is then properly prepared and introduced between the bark and the wood, while the tlunner division is fitted to the oppo- site side of the stock." The graft, thus placed, receives a large supi)ly of the sustaining fluid from the stock, and the union is rapid ; while the wound on the stock is speedily covered by a new layer of bark from that part of the scion which stands astride it. Side-grafting is a mode described by Elliott, and considered very successful for grafting the Magnolia, and other trees difficult of propaga- tion ; and also for the greater safety of grafts received or delayed late in spring. It is performed by cutting a notch or slit of about one inch long in the side of the stock, paring the outer portion, splitting the lower end of the graft and paring the inner portion, then inserting it, so as to form a union of the bark and wood, leaving meanwhile the top of the stock to carry on the circulation of the sap until the graft becomes united, wlien the stock is to be cut away. Grafting-clay is prepared by mixing one-third cow-dung, free from straw, and two-thirds clay, or clayey loam, with a little hair, like that used in plaster, to prevent its cracking. Beat and temper it for two or three days, until it is thoroughly incorporated. When used, it should be of such a consistency as to be easily put on and shaped with the bands. Grafting-ivax. The common grafting-wax of the French gardeners is of two kinds. The first is melted and laid on with a brush in a fluid state, and is made of half a pound of pitch, half a pound of beeswax, and a pound of cow-dung, boiled together. The second, which is spread while warm on strips of coarse cotton or strong paper, and wrapped directly about the graft, answeiing at once to tie and to protect it, is com- posed of equal parts of beeswax, turpentine, and I'esin. The grafting-wax most commonly used here is made of tallow, beeswax, and resin, in equal parts, or, as many prefer, with a little more tallow to render it pliable. It may be applied directly around the graft, or it may be spread with a brush, when warm, upon cloth or paper, and after- ward the cloth or paper cut into suitable strips for wrapping, as indicated in the directions for grafting. Grafting- wax is a much neater and more perfect protection than gi'afting-clay. Sudding. Sudding {inocvXating, of the old authors) differs from common graft- ing not the least in its nature or effects. Every bud is a distinct indi- vidual, capable of becoming a tree under favorable circumstances. In grafting we use a branch composed of several buds, with a considerable quantity of bark and wood ; while m budding we employ but a single bud, with a veiy small quantity of the adjoining bark and wood. The advantages of budding fruit-trees, compared with grafting, are so considerable that in this country it is ten times as much practised. These are, first, the great rapidity with which it is performed ; a skilful budder, with a clever boy following him to tie the buds, being able to work from a thousand to twelve hundred yomig nursery stocks in a day. 2d. Tlie more convenient season at which it is performed in all coun- tries where a short spring crowds garden labors witliin a small space. 3d. Being able to perform the operation without injuring the stock ia 24 PROPAGATIOX OF VARIETIES. m case of failure, which is always more or less the case in stocks headed down for grafting. 4th. The opportunity which it af lords, when per- formed in good season, of repeating the trial on the same stock. To these we may add that budding is viniversaily pre- ferred here for all stone-fruits, such as Peaches, Apricots, and tlie like, as these requii-e extra skill in grafting, but are budded with great ease. 7^ he pj'oper season for hudding fruit- trees in this country is from the first of July to the middle of September ; the dif- ferent trees coming into season as fol- lows:— Plums, Cherries, Apricots on Plums, Apricots, Pears, Ap2:)les, Quinces, Nectarines, and Peaches. Trees of con- siderable size will require budding earlier than young seedling stocks. But the operation is always, and only, performed when the harh of the stock ^xiris or- sep- arates freely from the wood^ and when the buds of the current year's growth are somewhat plum}), and the young wood is growing firm. Young stocks in the nuisery, if thrifty, are usually planted oat in the rows in the spring, and bud- Budding-Knives, ded the same summer or a\itumii. Before commencing you should pro- h vide yourself with a budding-^-knife. Fig. 10 (aboiit four / and a half inches long), having a round blade at one end, and an ivory handle, terminating in a thin rovmded edge called the haft, at the other. Fig. 11 represents another style or form of budding- knife, by many considered preferable. The cutting por- h tion extends about one-third around the end of the blade, and about two-thirds of its length, leaving the lower pai't dull. The roimded end of the blade to this knife obviates the necessity of reversing it for openii^g the. bark when setting a bxid, and thus facilitates work. In choosing your buds, select thrifty shoots that have nearly done growing, and prepare what is called a stick of buds, Fig. 12, by cutting oft' a few of the imperfect buds at the lower, and such as may be yet too soft at the upper ends, leaving only smooth, well-developed single buds ; double buds being fruit -buds. Great care is essential in selecting biids, as often even on sticks cut from young trees, and especialh' from bear- ing trees, many of the single buds will be fo\ind developed into fruit-buds, and are therefore unfitted for xise. The form of a wood-bud is always long rather tlian round, and, in the case of peaches, there are sometimes triple bxids, A Btiok of Buds, the centre one of which is always a wood-lnid. Cut otF the leaves, allowing about half an inch of the PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. 25 foot-stalls to remain for conveniently inserting the buds. Some strands of bass matting, about twelve or fourteen inches long, and from a quarter to half an inc-h in width, moistened in water to render them soft and pliable (or in the absence of these some soft woollen yarn), must also be at hand for tying the buds. Shield or T-budding is the most approved mode in all countries. A new variety of this method, now generally practised in this country, we shall desci'ibe fii-st, as being the simplest and the best mode for fruit-trees. American shield-bnddmg. Having your stick of buds ready, choose a smooth portion of the stock. When the latter is small, let it be near the ground, and, if equally convenient, select also the north side of the stock, as less exposed to the sun. Make an upright incision in the bark from an inch to an inch and a half long, and at the top of this make a cross cut, so that the whole shall form a T. From the stick of buds, your knife being veiy sharp, cut a thin, smooth slice of wood and bark con- taining a Inid, Fig. 13, a. With the rounded end of your budding-knife, now raise the bark on each side of the incision just wide enough to admit easily the prepared bud. Taking hold of the footstalk of the leaf, insert the bud under the bark, pushing it gently down to the bottom of the incision. If the upper portion of the bud projects above the horizontal part of the T, cut it smoothly oft", so that it may completely fit b. A bandage of the soft matting is now tied over the whole wound. Fig. 14, commencing at the bottom, and tying most firmly above, leaving the bud nnd the footstalk of the leaf only exposed to the light air. Common shield-budding, Fig. 15, practised in all gardens in Europe, differs from the foregoing only in one respect — the removal of the slice of wood contained in the bud. This is taken out with the point of the knife, holding the bud or shield by the leaf-stalk with one hand, inserting the knife under the wood at the lower extremity, and then raising and drawing out the wood by bending it upwards and downwards, with a slight jei'k, until it is loosened from the bark ; always taking care that a small portion of the wood remains behind to fill up the hollow at the base or heart of the bud. The bud thus prepared is in- serted precisely as before de- scribed. The American variety of shield-budding is found greatly preferable to the European mode, at least for this climate. Many sorts of fruit-trees, es- pecially Plums and Chenies, nearly mature their growth, and require to be budded in the hottest part of our summer. In the old method, the bud having only a shield of bark with but a particle of wood in the heart of the bud, is much more liable tc American sliiekl- budding. 26 PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. be destroyed by heat, or dryness, tlian when the slice of wood is left beliind in the American way. Taking out this wood is always an operation requii'ing some dexterity and practice, as few buds grow when their eye or heart-wood is damaged. The American method therefore requires less skill, can be done earlier in the season with younger wood, is performed in much less time, and is uniformly more successful. It has been very fairly tested upon hundreds of thousands of fruit-trees in our gardens for the last twenty years, and although practised English budders coming here at first are greatly prejudiced against it, as being in direct opposition to one of the most essential features in the old mode, yet a fair trial has never failed to convince them of the superiority of the new. After-treatment. In two weeks after the operation you will be able to see whether the bud has taken, by its plumpness and fieshness. If it has failed, you may, if the bark still parts readily, make another trial ; a clever budder will not lose more than G or 8 per cent. If it has succeeded, after a fortnight more has elapsed the bandage must be loosened, or, if the stock has swelled much, it should be removed alto- gether, by cutting on the back side opposite the bud. When budding has been performed very late, we have occasionally found it an advan- tage to leave the bandage on during the winter. As soon as the buds commence swelling in the ensu- ing spring, head down the stock, with a sloping back cut, within two or three inches of the bud. The bud will then start vigorously, and all " robbers," as the shoots of the stock near to and below the bud are termed, must be taken off fi-om time to time. To secure the ujjright growth of the bud, and to prevent its being broken by the winds, it is tied, when a few inches long, to that por- tion of the stock left for the purpose. Fig. IG, a. During the month of August, if the shoot is strong, this support may be removed, and the superfluovis portion of the stock smoothly cut away in the dotted line h, when it will be rapidly covered with young bark. We have found a great advantage, when budding trees which do not take readily, in adopting IMr. Knight's ex- cellent mode of tying wdth two distinct bandages, one covering that part below the bud, and the other the Treatment of the portion above it. In this case the lower bandage is growing bud. removed as soon as the bud has taken, and the upper left for two or three weeks longer. This, by arresting the upward sap, completes the union of the upper portion of bud (which in plums fre- quently dies while the lower part is united) and secures success. Reversed sldeld-btulding, which is nothing more than making the cross cut at the bottom instead of the top of the upright incision in the bark, and inserting the bud from below, is a good deal practised in the south of Europe, but we have not found that it possesses any superior merit for fruit-trees. An ingenious application of budding, worthy the attention of ama- teur cultivators, consists in using a blossom-bud instead of a wood-bud ; when, if the operation is carefully done, blossoms and fruit will be pro- duced at once. This is most successful with the Pear, though we have often succeeded also with the Peach. Blossom-buds ai'e readilv distia- PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. 27 giiished, as soon as well formed, by tlieir roundness, and in some treea by theii' growing in pairs ; while wood-buds grow singly, and are more or less pointed. We have seen a curious fruit-grower borrow in this way, in September, from a neighbor ten miles distant, a single blos- som-bud of a rare new pear, and produce from it a fair and beautif\d fruit the next summer. The bud, in such cases, should be inserted on a favorable limb of a bearing tree. Annular budding, Fig. 17, we have foimd a A'aluable mode for trees with hard wood and thick bark, or those which, like the walnut, have buds so large as to render it difficult to bud them in the common way. A ring of bark, when the sap is flowing freely, is taken fi-om the stock, a, and a ring of corres^jonding size containing a bud, b, from the scion. If the latter should be too large a jjiece must be taken from it to make it fit ; or should all the scions be too small, the ring upon the stock may extend only three-fourths the way round, to suit the ring of the bud. Annular Budding. An ajjjjiication of this inode, of great value, occa- sionally occurs in this country. In snowy winters, fruit-trees in orchards are sometimes girdled at the ground by field-mice, and a growth of twenty years is thus destroyed in a single day, should the girdle extend qiiite round the tree. To save such a tree it is only necessary, as soon as the sap rises vigorously in the spring, to apply a new ring of bark, in the annular mode, taken from a branch of proper size ; tying it firml^^ and drawing up the earth so as to cover the wound com- pletely. When the tree is too large to ap[)ly an entire ring, separate pieces, carefully fitted, will answer ; it is well to reduce the top some- what by pruning, that it may not make too large a demand on the root for a supply of food. Another practice, and perhaps one more easily applicable, is the tak- ing several large grafts or strong twigs of last year's growth, and after splitting them in halves, pare each end down to a thin edge, and in- sert them underneath the bark of the tree just above and below the wound. Tie around firmly with strong bass matting, and then draw up the earth to cover the whole and keep out the air. Budding may be done in the spring as well as at the latter end of summer, and is frequently so performed upon roses and other orna- mental shrubs by French gardeners, but is only in occasional use upon fruit-trees. Influence of the stock and graft. The well-known fact that we may have a hundred different varieties of pear on the same tree, each of which j)roduces its fruit of the proper form, color, and quality ; and that we may have, at least for a time, several distinct though nearly related species upon one stock, as the Peach, Apricot, Nectarine, and Plum, prove very conclusively the power of every gi-afted or budded branch, however small, in preserving its identity. To- explain this, it is only necessary to recall to mind that the ascending sap, which is furnished by the root or stock, is nearly a simple fluid ; that the leaves digest and modify this sap, forming a proper juice, which re-descends in the inner bark ; and that thus every bud and leaf upon a 28 PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. branch maintains its individuality by preparing its own proper nourish- ment, or organizing matter, out of that general aliment the sap. In deed, according to De Candolle,* each separate cellule of the inner bark has this power of preparing its food according to its nature ; in proof of which a striking experiment has been tried by grafting rings of bark, of dilferent allied species, one above another, on the same tree, without allowing any buds to grow upon them. On cutting down and examining this tree, it was found that under each ring of bark was deposited ihe proper wood of its species, thus clearly proving the power of the bark iu preserving its identity, even without leaves. On the other hand, though the stock increases in size by the woody matter received in the descending sap from the graft, yet as this descends through the iimer bark of the stock, it is elaborated by, and receives its chai-acter from the latter ; so that, after a tree has been grafted fifty years, a shoot which springs out from its trunk below the place of union will always be found to bear the original wild fruit, and not to have been in the least afiected by the graft. But whilst grafting never eftects any alteration in the identity of the variety or species of fruit, still it is not to be denied that the stock does exert certain influences over the habits of the graft. The most im])oitant of these are dwarfing, inducing fruitfulness, and adapting the gi-aft to the soil or climate. Thus every one know^s that the slower habit of growth in the Quince stock is shared by the Pear grafted upon it, which becomes a dwarf ; as does also the Ap2)le when worked on the Paradise stock, and, in some degree, the Peach on the Plum. The want of entire similarit}' of struc- ture between the stock and graft confines the growth of the latter, and changes it, in the case of the Peai-, from a lofty tree to a shrub of eight or ten feet in height. The effect of this diflerence of structure is very apparent, when the Peach is grafted on the Plum, in the greater size of the trunk above, as compared with that below the graft ; a fact which seems to arise from the obstruction which the descending sap of the graft finds iia its course through the bai'k of tlie stock. To account for the earlier and greater fruitfulness caused by grafting on a stock of slower growth, Mr. Knight, in one of his able papers, ofiei-s the following excellent remarks : — " The disposition in young trees to produce and nourish blossom buds and fruit is increased by this apparent obstruction of the descending sap ; and the fruit, I think, ripens somewhat earlier than upon other young trees of the same age which grow upon stocks of their own species. But the growth and vigor of the tree, and its power to noiirish a succes- sion of heavy crops, are diminished, apparently, by the stagnation in the branches and stock of a portion of that sap which, in a tree growing on its own stem or upon a stock of its own species, would descend to nourish and promote the extension of its own roots. The practice, therefore, of grafting the Pear on the Quince, and the Peach on the Plum, when ex- tensive growth and durability are wanted, is wrong ; but it is eligible wherever it is washed to diminish the vigor and growth of the tree, and its durability is not so important." In adapting the graft to the soil the stock has a marked influence. Thus in dry chalky soils, where the Peach on its o^vn roots will scarcely * Physiol ogie Vcgtiable. PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. 29 grow, it is found to thrive admirably budded on the Ahnond. We have aU-eady mentioned that in clay soils too heavy and moist for the Peach, it succeeds very well if worked on the Plum. M. Floss, a Prussia)! gardcuicr, succeeded in growing tine pears in veiy sandy soils, whei'c it was nearly impossible to raise them before, by grafting them on the JNIountain Ash, a nearly related tree, which thrives on the driest and lightest soil. A variety of fruit which is found rather tender for a certain climate, or a particular neighborhood, is frequently acclimatized by grafting it on a native stock of very hardy habits. Thus near the sea-coast, where the finer plums thrive badly, we have seen them greatly improved by being worked on the beech-plum, a native stock adajjted to the spot ; and the foreign grape is more luxuriant when grafted on our native stocks. A slight eftect is sometimes produced by the stock on the quality of the fruit. A few sorts of pear are superior in flavor, but many are also inferior, when grafted on the Quince, while they are moi'e gritty on the thoru. The Green Gage, a Plum of great delicacy of flavor, varies con- siderably upon diftereat stocks; and Apples I'aised on the crab, and pears on the Mountain Ash, are said to keep longer than when grown on their own roots. In addition to the foregoing, a diseased stock should always be avoided, as it will communicate disease slowly to the graft, unless the latter is a variety of sufiicient vigor to renew the health of the stock, which is but seldom the case. The cultivator will gather from these remarks that, in a favorable climate and soil, if we desire the greatest growth, duration, and develop- ment in any fruit (and this applies to orchards generally), we should choose a stock of a closely similar nature to the graft— an apple seedling for an apple ; a pear seedling for a pear. If we desire dwarf trees that come into bearing very young, and take little space in a gar- den, we employ for a stock an allied species of slower growth. If our soil or climate is unfavoi^able, we use a stock which is adapted to the soil, or which Avill, by its hardier roots, endure the cold. The iajluence of the graft on the stock seems scarcely to extend be- yond the power of communicating disease. A graft taken from a tree enfeebled by disease will recover with difficidty, even if grafted on healthy stocks for a dozen times in repeated siiccession. And when the disease is an inhei-ent or hereditary one, it will certainly communicate it to the stock. We have seen the yellows, from a diseased peach-tree, propngated through hundreds of individuals by budding, and the stock and graft both perish togetlier from its eftects. Hence the imjDortauce, to nurserymen especially, of securing healthy grafts, and working only upon healthy stocks. J*ro2'}agatlon hy Cuttings. I*ropagating by cuttings, as applied to fruit-trees, consists in causing a shoot of the previous season's wood to grow, by detaching it from the parent tree at a suitable season, and planting it in the gi-ound under fa- vorable circumstances. In this case, instead of uniting itself by Avoody matter to another tree, as does the scion in grafting, the descending woody matter becomes roots at the lower end, and the cutting of which is then a new and entii-e 30 PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. plant. Every bixd being a distinct individual, capable of forming a new plant, has indeed theoretically the power, if separated from the parent stem, of throwing out roots and maintaining a separate existence ; and some plants, as tlie grape-vine, are frequently propagated by single buds planted in the soil. But in practice it is found necessary, with almost all trees and plants, to retain a considerable portion of the stem vnih the bud, to supply it with food until it has formed roots to draw nourish- ment from the soil. All fruit-trees may be propagated by cuttings, with proper care and attention, but only a few grow with sufficient facility in this way to render their propagation by cuttings a common mode. These are the Gooseberry, the Currant, the Vine, the Quince, the Fig, and the Mulberry. Cuttings of the Currant, Gooseberry, and the hardy sorts of Yine ■^'ill root readily, in a soil not too dry, in the open garden. Cun-ants and Gooseberries are generally taken oil' in the fall or winter, j^repared for planting, and two-thirds of their lower ends buried in the gi'ound till the commencement of spring, when they are planted out, either where they are to remain or in nursery i-ows. They will succeed nearly as well if taken off in the sj^ring, but, owing to the period at which they commence growing, this must be attended to very early, if deferred till that season. A successful practice is to prepare the cuttings of Gooseberries and Currants early in the autumn, and to plant them at once in the position where they are to grow the succeeding summer. In planting, set the cuttings into the ground so deeply that but one bud will be left at or near the surface, and then, as soon as the frosts of winter come, cover the whole ground with a light mulch of coarse straw manure, or other litter three or four inches deep. In order to raise plants of the Gooseberry and Currant, with straight clean stems, which shall not throw up suckers, it is only necessary, before planting the cutting, to cut out every eye or bud to be placed below the surface of the ground, Fig. 18. The cutting shoiild be about a foot long, eight inches of wliich may be inserted in the ground. To insure greater success in raising the finer sorts of Gooseberry, or other shrubs, it is customary to plant the cuttings on the shaded side of a wall or fence, in deep rich loam, rather damp than dry. Cuttings of the vine are generally prepared when trimming the old plants in autumn or winter ; they may then be buried with their lower ends in the ground, or kept in earth in the cellar till spring. Grape cuttings are also made as soon as it will answer to prune the vines in the autumn ; and, being planted at once in the ground, covered as above noted for Gooseberries and Currants, are found to grow successfully. Scarce sorts of grapes, which it is desirable to multiply extensively, are frequently propagated by joints : that is, by buds having about two inches of wood attached to each — every bud in this way forming a plant. ^Yhen this mode is adopted, it is usual to plant the joints aboiit half an inch deep, in light soil, in a common hot-bed prepared for the purpose, or each joint is planted in a pot by itself. In the first way a great number of plants may be grown in a small space. «W=^t! Gooseberry cutting pre- pared and ])lanted. PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. 31 Forniorly more certain success in proiiagating the vine by joints waa considered gained by halving the joint before phmting, as shown in Fig 19 ; but, recently, operators have practised the simple manner of prepar ing the ciittings with about two inches of ■wood below, and half an inch above the _,_.-.=-T:-,.^=-«^^-^:r3=.-r^— ---— -•=^. bud, and then planting in frames or pro- ^^^ pagating-houses, by simply placing the ^^^^P^S^WT^^'""'^ eye or cutting in a perpendicular posi- ^s]^^i^4^^^^^ tion, the bud just level with, or nearly covered in a bed of clean, sharp, building ^ ^"« J~"* p'''^^'^^^ ^^^^^ p'-'^"^^'^- or lake sand. A gentle bottom heat is to be maintained steadily, at the same time keeping the air in the house or frame quite cool until the lower end of the cutting or bud has commenced to form roots, when the air of the surface or volume of the hovise may be increased in warmth to stimu- late growth of vine. In the method of gi-owirig from single eyes, or two-eye cuttings, in out-door practice, it is considered best to prepare the cuttings during winter, and pack them in clean damp— not wet — sand, in a cool dai'k cel- lar, where they will callus ; and then, just as soon in the spring as the ground can be worked, plant the cuttings out, selecting as far as possible a sharp sandy loam for the location, covering the bed half an inch deep with the soil, and then two to three inches deep with mulch of sawdust, tan bark, Szc. In preparmg cuttings of what are termed hard-wood varieties, such as Delaware, Norton's Virginia, &c., it is customary with some propaga- tors to scrape oti" the outer bark from the lower end of the cutting, and to soften it by soakmg in water from ten to twenty hours before placing them in the bed or frame. The large English black mulberry is propagated by cuttings, as follows : About the last of October take cuttings from the thrifty shoots of a bearing tree, cut out all the buds except two or three at the top, and pare off the bottom of the cutting just below a bud. Lay in the cuttings in a sheltered boi-der, burying them so that only the two buds at the top are exposed, and covering them with some loose straw or lit- ter. In the spring make a small hot-bed with very sandy soil, in which to plant the cuttings on taking them out of the ground, or place each one in a small pot in any hot-bed ready at hand, and in a few weeks they will be found to have made roots freely. As a general rule, cuttings svicceed best when they are taken off just between the young and the previous year's wood ; or, in the case of young side shoots, when they are cut off close to the branch preserving the collar of the shoot. The lower end should be cut smoothly across just below a bud, the soil should in all cases be pressed firmly about the lower end of the cutting, and it should always be planted before the buds commence swelling, that the wound may in some measure heal before gi'owth and the absorption of fluid commences. JPropagation hy Layers and Suckers. A layer may be considered as a cutting not entirely separated from the plant. Layering is a mode of propagation resorted to in increasing some fruit-tree stocks, as the Paradise stock, the Muscle Plum, and some 32 PROPAGATION OF VARIETIES. kinds wliicli do not grow so well from the seed. Certain varieties of native grape, as the Norton's Virginia, which do not root readily by- cuttings, are also raised in this way, and it may be ajjplied to any sort of fruit-tree which it is desirable to continue on its own root without grafting. Fruit-trees are generally layered in the spring, and the layers may be taken off well-rooted plants in the autumn. But they may also be lay- ered with success early in July, 111 making layers the ground around the mother plant should be made light and mellow by digging. Being provided with some hooked pegs to fasten down the layers, bend down a branch, so that the end may recline npon the ground. Open a little trench three or four inches deep to receive the young wood to be layered ; make a cut or tongiie. Fig. 20, a, half way throvigh the under or upper side of the shoot, pegging down the branch with the hooked peg, h, to keep it in its place ; press the earth slightly Laj-ering. round the tougue, and, in filling in the soil, raise nearly upright the end of the layer, c, which re- mains above the surface of the ground. The descending sap, filled with oi'ganizable matter, is ari-ested by tliis tongue, accumulates there, and the emission of roots speedily takes place. Kinging, wounding, or twisting the limb answers the same purpose less perfectly, and indeed many trees root readily from the mere position of the branches as layers, and the moisture of the soil. A tree or plant which is kept for raising layers is called a stool, and is headed down both to facilitate the rooting of the layers and to afford an abundance of shoots near the earth. Shoots of some of the fridt-tree stocks in the English nurseries are pegged down to the sui-face before growth commences in the spring, covered about an inch deep with soil, and at the end of autumn aflbrd liundreds of plants; almost every bud making a separate root. Suckers are shoots sent up from the root, or from portions of the stem below the surface of the soil, which are easily separated from the parent plant. Suckers of fruit-trees are fi-equently used as stocks for budding or grafting upon ; but they are greatly inferior to seedlings for this purpose, as they are always more liable to produce suckers, and they have not the thrifty, vigorous habit, or the same power of forming as good roots as seedlings. Besides this, should the tree from which they are taken be diseased, they will be likely to carr^^ the malady with them. Pi'opagating by suckers is an easy and desirable way wlien we "vxish to continue a seedling fruit of value on its own root, and some of our common fruits appear to be more healthy and })ermanent when growing in that way. It is also a mode for increasing the Raspberry ; as is also that of runners, which is a kind of sucker above ground, for the Sti-awberry. PRUNING. 33 Propagation hy Pieces of Hoots. INIany varieties of trees, and nearly all vax"ietic:s of Blackberries, Easjiben-ies, Gooseberries, Currants, &c., can be readily propagated by small pieces of roots. Cut tlie root into pieces of aboiit two inches in length, any time in autumn or winter, and pack them in moist sand, storing where they will be free from frost. In spiing j>re])a.re a frame with a gentle bottom heat and plant them, covering about an inch deep, in a sandy loam ; as soon as they have well started they may be transphintod out into the o})en field. Some propagators keep them in the winter packages until the s})ring is well advanced and the ground becomes somewhat warmed, when they plant at once in the open ground, setting the upper end of the piece of root just level with the ground, and then covering the whole surface with about three inches deep of some lisrht mulching material. CHAPTER IV. PRUNING. 1. Pruning to promote G-roxnth or modify the Form of Fruit-trees. In this country almost all fruit-trees are grown as standards. In this way they develop their natural forms, attain the lai-gest size, and proiluce the greatest quantity of fruit with the least possible care. Our bright and powerful sun, reaching every part of the tree, renders the minute systems of pruning and training, which occupy so large a por- tion of the Englisli works on the subject, of little or no moment to the cultivator here. Prunbig is therefore commonly resorted to only for the purpose of increasing the vigor of feeble trees, or to regulate and irapi-ove the form of healthy and luxuriant trees. Pruning has the power of increasing the vigor of a tree in two ways. If we assume that a certain amount of nourishment is supplied by the roots to all the branches and buds of a tree, by cutting ofi' one-half of the branches at the 2)roper season we direct the whole supply of nourish- ment to the remaining portion, which will consequently grow with nearly double theii- former luxuriance. Again, when a tree becomes stunted or enfeebled in its growth, the thinness of its inner bark, with its consequent small sap- vessels (which it must be remembered are the prin- cipal clumnel for the passage of the ascending supply of food), renders the upward and downward circulation tardy, and the growth is small. By heading back or pruning judiciously, all the force of the nourishing fluid is thrown into a smaller number of buds, which make new and luxuriant shoots, larger sap-vessels, and which afford a ready passage to the fluids, and the tree with these renewed energies will contiiuie in vigor for a long time. This treatment is especially valuable in the case of small trees of feeble or stunted growth, which are frequently cut back to a single bud, and a new shoot or shoots, full of vigoi-, gives a healthy habit to the 3 34 PRUNING. tree. In the nurseries this practice of heading doAvn unthrifty trees ia frequently pui-sued, and smaJ orchard trees which have become enfeebled may be treated in the same manner, cutting back the head as far as the place where it is wished that new shoots should spring out. Older trees should be headed back more sparingly, unless they are greatly enfeebled, and their roots should at the same time be assisted by manure. A judicious pruning, to modify the form of our standard trees, is nearly all that is required in ordinary practice. Evei-y fruit-iree, grown in the open orchard or garden as a common standard, should be aUowed to take its natural form, tlie whole efforts of the pruner going no further than to take out all weak and crowded branches^ those which are filling uselessly the intei-ior of the ti-ee, where their leaves cannot be duly exposed to the light and sun, or those which interfere with the growth of others. All pruning of large branches in healthy trees should be avoided, by examining them every season and taking out superfluous shoots while small. Mr. Coxe, the best American author on fruit-trees, remarks very truly : " When orchard trees are pruned, they are apt to throw out numerous (superfluo\is) suckers from the boughs in the follow- ing summer ; these should be rubbed off when they first appear, or they may easily be broken ofi' while young and brittle — cvitting is apt to increase their number." Where pruning is not required to renovate the vigor of an enfeebled tree, or to regulate its shape, — in other words, in the case of a healthy tree which we wish to retain in a state of the gj-eatest luxuriance, health, and vigor, — it may be considered worse than useless. Beai-ing in miiid that growth is always cori-esponding to the action of the leaves and branches, if these are in due proportion and in perfect health, the kjiife will always be found rather detrimental to luxuriance and constitutional vigor than beneficial. * The best season for pruning to promote groicth, theoretically, is in autumn, soon after the fall of the leaf. Next to this, winter pruning, performed in mild Aveather, is best, and in orchards this is the season usually most convenient.! In all parts of the countiy where the "v\TJiters are not very severe (and always in the Southern or Western States) the roots are collecting a certain stock of nourishment during the whole autiimn and winter. When a tree is pruned m autumn or M"inter this whole supply goes to the remaining branches, while in the case of spring pruning it is partly lost. North of the 43d degi-ee of latitude, however, the winters are so severe that winter-pruning should be deferred till the last of February. We should especially avoid pruning at that period in spring when * Ig-norant cultivators frequently weaken the energies of young trees, and cause them to grow up "wath lean and slender stems, by injudiciously trimming off the young side shoots and leaves in the growing season. By taking off these shoots the stem is deprived of all the leaves which would attract and elaborate the sap, thus preparing nourishment for the growth of the stem ; and the trunk of the tree does not increase in size half so fast as when the side branches are allowed to remain for a time, pruning them away gTadually. It is better, in the case of these j'oung trees, to stop the side branches, when of moderate length, by pinching out the terminal bud. f Experience of many years convinces lis that, whatever theory may sug- gest, the befit time to prune in order to p'-omote growth, and to have the wound healed perfectly, is very early in spring, or as soon as the severity of winter haa passed. PRUNING. 35 the buds are swelling, and tlio sap is in fidl flow, as the loss of sap by bleeding is very injurious to most trees, and in some brings on «, seiiou;i and incurable canker in the limbs. In pruning large limbs, some composition shoiild always be at hand to cover the wound. This will not only prevent its cracking by the cold in winter-pruning, but will keep oi;t the air, and maintain the exposed wood in a sound state until it is covered with a new layer of bark. Many compositions have been in fashion abroad for this pur- pose, which under our summer sun and m intry frosts are nearly worth- less, as th(iy generally crack and fall off in a single year. The following is a cheap and admii'able application, which we recommend to all culti- vators of fruit-trees. Composition for wounds made in p)Tuning. Take a quart of alcohol and dissolve in it as much gum-shellac as will make a liquid of the con- sistence of paint. Api)]y this to the wound with a common painter's brush ; always paring the wound smoothly first with the knife. The liquid becomes perfectly hard, adheres closely, excludes the air perfectly, and is afl'ected by no changes of weather ; while at the same time its thinness oflers no resistance to the lip of new bark that gradually closes over the wound. If the composition is kept in a well-corked bottle, sufficifently wide-monthed to admit the brush, it will always be ready for use and suited to the want of the moment. To prevent mice or rabbits from girdling trees. Great injury is done to young orchards in some districts by the meadow mouse. This little ani- mal always Avorks under cover, and therefore does its mischief in winter when the snow lies deeply upon the ground. A common and eifectual mode of deterring it is that of treading down the snow firmly about the stem directly after every fall of snow. But this is a very troublesome aftaii'. The following mixture will be found to be an effectual prevention. Take one spadeful of hot slaked lime, one do. of clean cow-dung, half do. of soot, one handful of flowers of sulphur : mix the whole together with tlie addition of sufficient water to bring it to the consistency of thick paint. At the approach of winter paint the trunks of the trees sufficiently high to be beyond the reach of these vermin. Experience has proved that it .does no injury to the tree. A dry day should be chosen for its application. English nurserymen are in the habit of protecting nurseries of small trees from the attacks of rabbits, simply by distributing thi-ough the squai'cs of the nursery coarse matches made by dipping bunches of rags, or bits of tow, in melted sulphur, and fastening these in split stakes a couple of feet high. The latter are stuck into the ground, among the trees, at from 12 to 20 feet apart, and are said completely to answer the purpose. Wrapping the body of the tree with coarse hardware paper, letting the lower end of the paper go below the soil at the crown of the tree, will effectually prevent the attacks of rabbits. Wash for the trunks and branches of fruit-trees. The best wash for the stems and branches of fruit-trees is made by dissolving two pounds of potash in two gallons of water. This is applied with a brush at any season, but perhaps with most eflfect in the spring. One, or at most tvvo applications will rid the stem of trees of the bark-louse, and render it smooth and glossy. It is far more efficacious than Avhitewash, as a preservative against the attacks of insects, while it promotes the growth of the tree, and adds to the natural lively color of the baik. 36 PRUNING. The toasli of soft soap is also a very good one for many purposes. Though not equal for general purposes to the potash wash, it is better fox old trunks with thick and rigid bark, as a portion of it remains vipon the surface of the bark for some time, and with the action of eveiy rain is dissolved, and thus peneti-ates into all the crevices where insects mav be lodged, destroying them, and softening the bark itself. 2. Pruning to induce Fruitfulness. There are advantages and disadvantages attending all seasons of pruning, but our own experience has led us to believe that, practically, a fortnight before midsummer is by far the best season on the whole for pruning in the N^orthern and JSIiddle States. Wounds made at this season heal over freely and rapidly ; it is the most favorable time to judge of the shaj^e and balance of the head, and to see at a glance which branches require removal ; and all the stock of organizable matter in the tree is directed to the branches that remain. When a young fruit-tree is too luxuiiant, employing all its energies in making vigorous shoots, but forming few or no blossom buds, and producing no fruit, we have it in otir power by different modes of pruning to lessen this over-litxuriance, and force it to expend its ener- gies in fruit-bearing. A successful mode of doing this is by pruning the roots — a proceeding recently brought into very successful pi-actice by European gardeners. Hoot-pruning has the effect of at once cutting off a considerable supply of the nourishment formerly afforded by the roots of a ti-ee. The leaves, losing part of their usual food, are neither able to grow as rapidly as before, nor to use all the nutritious matter already in the branches ; the branches therefore become more stunted in their growth, the organ- izable matter accumulates, and fruit-buds are dii-ectly formed. The en- ergies of the tree are no longer entirely carried off in growth, and the re- tui-ning sap is employed in producing fruit-buds for the next year. Root-pruning should be performed in auttimn or winter, and it usually consists in laying bare the roots and cutting off smoothly at a dis- tance of a few feet from the trunk (in proportion to the size of the tree) the principal roots. Mr. Rivers, an English nurseryman of celebrity, who has practised this mode with great success, digs a trench early in November, eighteen inches deep, round and under his ti-ees to be root- pruned, cutting off the roots with a sharp spade. By following this practice every year he not only throws his trees into early bearing, but forces Apples, Pears, and the like, grafted on theii- own roots, to become })rolific dwarfs, growing only six feet apart, trained in a conical form, full of fruit branches, and producing abiuidantly. Those dwarf trees, thus annually root-pruned, he supplies abundantly with old composted manure at the ends of the roots, thus keeping up their health and vigor. The plan is an admir;ible one for small gardens, or for amateurs who wish to grow a great many sorts in a small surface. JNIr. Rivers, in a pamphlet on this subject, enumerates the following among the advan tages of systematic root-pruning : — " 1. The facility of thinning (owing to the small size of the trees), and, in some varieties, of setting the blossoms of shy-bearing sorts, and of tliinning and gathering the fruit. " 2. It will make the gardener independent of the natural soil of his PRUNING. 37 gai'den, as a few barrowfuls of ricli mould will support a tree for a lengthened period, thus placing bad soils nearly on a level with those the most favorable. '• 3. The capability of removing trees of fifteen or twenty years^ growth with as much facility as fui'niture." In conclusion, Mr. Rivers recommends caution^ " enough' of vigor must be left in the tree to support its crop of fruit, and one, two, or three seasons' cessation * from root-pruning will often be found necessary." Root-pruning in this country will, we think, be most valuable in its application to common standard trees, which are thrifty but bear little or no fruit. They will generally be found to require but a single prun- ing to bring them into a permanently fiuitful condition ; and some sorts of Pears and Plums, which do not usually give a fair crop till they are twelve or fourteen years old, may be brought into fruit by this means as soon as they are of proper size. Several nearly full-grown peach, pear, and plum trees, on a very rich soil on the Hudson, which were over-lux- uriant but bore no fruit, were root-pruned by our advice, and yielded most excellent and abundant crops afterwards. In the case of Apple oi-chards, where the permanent value depends on the size, longevity, and continue