LEGE | 1761 06120614 0 = oO oO ” = Lu i § = o = E 7p) LL } > ey ” c WW 2 F= > 3 | J. Walter Jones | fur-F arming in & Canada | comms ir Conservati ttt Conada | ii Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/furfarmingincana0Ojoneuoft Commission of Conservation Constituted under “An Act to Establish a Commission for the Conservation of Natural Resources,” 8-9 Edward VII, Chap. 27, 1909. Chairman : Hon. Ciirrorp Sirron Members : Dr. Howarp Morray, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S. Mr. FRANK Davison, Bridgewater, N.S. Dr. Crecit C. Jones, Chancellor, University of New Brunswick, Fred- ericton, N.B. Mr. Wim B. SNowBatu, Chatham, N.B. Hon. Henri 8. Beranp, M.D., M.P., St. Joseph-de-Beauce, Que. MonsEIGNEUR CHARLES P. CuoquetrTe, St. Hyacinthe, Que., Superior, Seminary of St. Hyacinthe and Member of Faculty, Laval University Mr. Epwarp Goumr, St. Laurent, Que. Dr. JAmEs W. Rosertson, C.M.G., Chairman, Royal Commission on Industrial Training and Technical Education, Ottawa, Ont. Srr SanprorpD Fiemina, K.C.M.G., Ottawa, Ont., Chancellor, Queen’s University Hon. Senator WILLIAM CAMERON Epwarps, Ottawa, Ont. Sir a aa B. Oster, M.P., Governor, University of Toronto, Toronto, nt. Mr. CHartes A. McCoon, Ottawa, Ont. Mr. J. F. Mackay, Business Manager, ‘‘ The Globe,’’ Toronto, Ont. Dr. B. E. Fernow, Dean, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. Dr. Grorace Bryce, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man. Dr. W. J. RutHerrorp, Member of Faculty, University of Sas- katchewan, Saskatoon, Sask. Dr. H. M. Tory, President, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta. Mr. JoHN Henpry, Vancouver, B.C > Members, ex-officio : Hon. Martin Burret, Minister of Agriculture, Ottawa Hon. W. J. Rocus, Minister of the Interior, Ottawa Hon. Louis CoprerreE, Minister of Mines, Ottawa Hon. Jonn A. Marureson, K.C., President, Premier and Attorney- General, Prince Edward Island Hon. Ortanpo T. Dantets, Attorney-General, Nova Scotia Hon. ds K. Fiemmina, Premier and Surveyor-General, New Bruns- wic Hon. Jutes ALLARD, Minister of Lands and Forests, Que. Hon. Witu1Am Hearst, Minister of Lands, Forests and Mines, Ontario Hon. JAmes H. Hownen, Provincial Secretary, Manitoba Hon. James A. Cauper, Minister of Education, Provincial Treasurer and Minister of Railways, Saskatchewan Hon. Artuur L. Sirron, Premier, Minister of Education, and Pro- vincial Treasurer, Alberta Hon. Wii1am R. Ross, Minister of Lands, British Columbia Secretary : JAMES WHITE Commission of Conservation CANADA COMMITTEE ON FISHERIES, GAME AND FUR-BEARING ANIMALS FUR-FARMING IN CANADA By J. WALTER JONES, B.S.A. CY PRINTED BY GAZETTE PRINTING CO., LIMITED MONTREAL 1913 Committee on Fisheries, Game and Fur-Bearing Animals ———— Chairman: Dr. Ceci C. JONES Members: Hon. O. T. DanrEzs Hon. J. K. FLEMMING Hon. W. H. Hearst Hon. W. J. HowpDEN Hon. J. A. Marureson Dr. Howard MuRRAY Dr. J. W. ROBERTSON Hon. W. R. Ross Orrawa, Jan. 23, 1913. Sir: I have the honour to transmit herewith a report on fur-farming in Canada. Your obedient servant, JAMES WHITH, Secretary. Hon. CLirForD SIFTON, Chairman, Commission of Conservation. To Fietp MarsHaut His Royat HigHNEss PRINcE ARTHUR WILLIAM PaTRICK ALBERT, DUKE OF CONNAUGHT AND OF STRATHEARN, K.G., K.T., K.P., &., &., GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF CANADA. May it Please Your Royal Highness: The undersigned has the honour to lay before Your Royal Highness a report on fur-farming in Canada. Respectfully submitted, CLIFFORD SIFTON, Chairman. OTTawa, Jan. 24, 1913. Contents PAGE 1 INTRODUCTION ......... ee crea ears Mae aiid aleresatavahchavaveve cialelsiarste wiatsidlcjantiela'elaials alele 1 Lik HARLY ATTEMPTS TO DOMESTICATE, THE FOX sin. ccs rad ! / ay Ss) ) fe x y, ~ FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 1G Investigation of the debated question of the colour phases of Colour : : : : . Phases foxes has produced definite information regarding its occur- rence. The fact that the cross, silver, black and red colours are all colour phases of the common red fox is of too common knowledge to warrant the citing of the many cases examined for evidence. The colours all exist and why they exist may be left to the discussion of biologists, some of whom say that ages ago foxes were originally dark coloured and that the silver is atavistic. It will be more useful in this discussion to describe how the darker colour is produced from red parents. A summary of the facts may be given as follows: 1. Silver parents always produce silver pups—never red or cross pups. (See possible exception below.) 2. Red parents mostly produce red, but, occasionally, some cross pups and even a small proportion of silver pups is produced. 3. Usually cross (patched) parents produce cross pups. 4, When a silver and a pure red are bred, they produce red pups with blacker markings on the belly, neck and points than the red parent. The pups are about of the colour known as ‘ bastard.’ 5. When a bastard red fox and a silver are mated the litter is on the average 50 per cent silver and 50 per cent red. 6. Bastard red parents often produce a black or silver pup in a litter—the proportion of silver being about one out of four. %. The exceptions to the above rules are that sometimes the colours do not segregate, but rather blend, as in roan cattle when red and white hairs are intermixed and not separated into distinct patches. Cross foxes are produced by mating a red and a silver and, sometimes, an intermediate colour is secured in the pups. Thus, in some districts, every combination of the red, white and black colours of foxes is found. There are foxes which are: Red.—Red above and white below, with dark points. RED Bastard.—Red above and dark below and on the neck, with darker points. Poor Cross.—Mostly red and dark as above with a silver Cross patch down the back and over the shoulders and or hips. PatTor Good Cross.—Red on the sides, neck and ears, dark below and silvery over the back, shoulders and rump. 18 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Silver or Light Silver.—Silvery all over, except the neck; dark below and white only on the tip of the tail. Silver Black or Dark Silver.—Black all over, except the tip of the tail and the silvery hairs on the hips and SILVER Pa | orehead. Black.—Pure black all over, except the tip of the tail, with, perhaps, dark silvery hairs only discernible on close examination. No two foxes are exactly alike in colour. Three silver foxes exam- ined had no white tips on their tails and others had only a half dozen white hairs—yet the white tip is one of the marks of identification for the species. Others had white patches on the legs or breast, while the rest of the colouring was almost pure black. A silver fox usually produces silver pups when mated with a pure red in two crosses. If the first cross produces all red pups, two plans may be adopted: (a) A male and a female pup may be crossbred, producing, on the average, one silver pup to three reds. (b) A red pup may be bred to the silver parent, producing, on the average, 50 per cent. red pups. It is a more unusual occurrence to secure a blend or intermediate colour from crossing a silver and a red. By breeding the pups for four generations to a silver, the red colour is eliminated from the pelage markings. The segregation of the red and silver colour appears to be very common in many localities, but, in others, the roan or intermediate form of colour is produced quite frequently, the parent characters blend- ing and the hybrid breeding true. In this connection it will be of interest to quote from a letter dated August 2, 1912, received from Professor W. Bateson of Cambridge Uni- versity, England, a naturalist of high repute and an authority on hair pigmentation. In the early stages of the investigation the usual opinion of naturalists and breeders was accepted and it was thus stated to Pro- fessor Bateson that silver parent foxes would produce an occasional red pup. This popular opinion has since been found to be usually incorrect. Professor Bateson’s opinion has, therefore, been proved correct in every detail by subsequent developments. Professor Bateson says: “ At first sight I should suppose silver to be a recessive to red and that it would always breed true. This, however, you say, is not the case. If silvers, really, when mated together, throw reds, there must be some complication which we cannot yet represent. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 19 Provisionally, I should doubt the statement until incontrovertible evidence is produced. “Tam not perfectly clear what a silver is, but I take it that a silver fox is to a red fox what a silver tabby is to a common tabby, viz., the same thing devoid of the red or yellow element. It may be difficult to disentangle the relations of the colour when there is a series of gradational forms* and, in the first instance, I should try to get a family in which the distinction between the reds and the silvers was sharp. Then I should breed the silvers together—brother and sister if need be. “ From what you say, I infer that two silvers of opposite sexes cannot be gotten to start from. That being so, you must mate together the silvers produced which you will raise from the reds produced by mating red and silver—if only reds come. But, if silvers come, then mate them together or back with the silver parent. “ Apart from the great practical difficulties which there are in breeding foxes in domestication, I think you will easily fix a strain of silvers.” Professor Bateson outlined perfectly the fox-breeding experi- ences of ranchers. Those who have spent their time working with gradational forms like the cross or patched foxes do not know what they will get until mating tests are made. Those who have chosen two dis- tinct colour types are able to breed out to the pure recessive type in two generations. Dr. Eugene Davenport makes an explanation of the BenccBlund. action of Meanie! Law of Hybrids that will prove instructive to many breeders. He says: “When diverse characters are thus brought together two very different results may follow. They may blend into a single new character, in which case our figures show the proportions within the blood, or they may remain distinct as two independent characters within the same individual. Stature and size as well as many colours blend freely, but not all characters behave in that simple way. For example, white and black blend freely in the human race, and the offspring of white and negro are mulattoes of various shades, according to the respective infusions; but colours do not blend in pigs, which are either black, white, or spotted, never roan or mulatto. Some colours blend in horses (roan); some do not. Some breeds of cattle have blended colours (Shorthorns) ; in others, the colours remain distinct (Holstein-Friesian). * Such as cross foxes 20 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION “ And so with characters generally. Many will blend and many others will not. When they will not blend, then the appearance is still less a guide to the real hereditary qualities, and under these circumstances it is little or no index to what will happen when the mixture is bred. This fact was long a great stumbling-block to breeders, involving the business of improvement in unfortunate and, as we now know, unnecessary mystery.” Silver Colour Suppose that a breeder has a silxer fox, which, being Mendelian : Recessiveto recessive, always breeds true, and he chooses a pure type ites of red fox for a mate, being careful in order to secure pureness uf type to obtain the red fox from a district where no melanism exists. Let the red fox be denoted by R. R. and the black or silver fox by B.B. (As to results, the sexes are equal in influence.) ie + oe | | | | R.B R.B R.B R.B (red) (red) (red) (red) All pups are red, but of the bastard type mentioned above, with blacker points,—legs, muzzles and ears. They are really half black, but the colour is hidden or recessive in the first generation, red being dominant. There are now two methods by which he can proceed to secure the black colour or pure B.B. First method: R.B. + R.B. R.R. R.B. R.B. B.B. (pure red) (red) (red) (pure silver or black) Results: One-quarter of the litter is pure red One-half of the litter is red of the bastard type One-quarter of the litter is black or silver Second method: R.B. ++ B.B. R.B. R.B. B.B. B.B (red) (red) (pure silver (pure silver or black) or black) Results: One-half of the litter is red of the bastard type One-half of the litter is pure black or silver 1. A RED Fox Two MONTHS OLD—SHOWING A DARK LINE OF BLOOD 2. A Cross Fox, RED ON SIDES, NECK, AND EARS~SEPTEMBER FUR 3. A Dark SILVER Fox WITH A WHITE PATCH ON His BREAST 4. A BLACK FEMALE IN OCTOBER FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 21 Thus, it may be concluded that, in a district where melanism occurs, or where black and cross foxes occur, or either, there are very few foxes bred pure as to colour. If the unit of union be regarded as of gametes which are produced by each parent in the proportion of its ancestors—red and silver—the results may be forecasted by a simple mathematical calculation, the Law of Probabilities governing the mating of the gametes. R.R. + B.B. Red parent producing Black parent producing only red gamates only black gametes R.B. R.B. R.B. R.B. (red, bastard (red, bastard (red, bastard (red, bastard type) type) type) type) R.B. + R.B. Producing half red and half Producing half red and half black gametes black gametes R.B. R.B. RB: B.B. R.B. + B.B. Producing half red and half Producing only black black gametes gametes R.B. R.B. B.B. B.B. It will be noticed that when the black colour (B.B.) appears the animal is always pure, while R.R. is pure red and R.B. is also red with darker points. It is well to bring out clearly the average results to be expected, as considerable speculation is indulged in as to whether or not certain foxes when bred to a silver will produce some silver pups. As much as $500 each has been paid for red pups that have one silver parent be- cause it is expected that, if the pup is mated to a silver, the resulting litter will be composed of silver and red foxes in about equal numbers. The hopes are realized in most instances, but many chances of securing silver pups are lost because the breeder gets only red pups the first generation and becomes discouraged. 22 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION sewed ale There is a wide-spread belief that the silver descend- earing Silver : FoxesfromReds ants of red foxes are rusty black in colour and are not as pure a type as those bred pure for generations in the fox ranches. Professor W. E. Castle, of Harvard University, says that only experiment will prove what quality will be obtained in the silver young of a red parent.* ‘The results noted in this investigation indicate that some of the best skins ever produced are those of silvers having a red parent. There was difficulty in obtaining information on this important point as breeders were extremely reticent in giving in- formation concerning their experiences in cross-breeding with reds, because of a great prejudice against such breeding on Prince Edward Island. The prejudice, no doubt, results from an ignorance of Mende- lian principles in segregating types. It is interesting to note that Rev. George Clark, of St. Catharines, Ont., has in his possession a black dog fox obtained from near York Factory, Hudson Bay, which, he asserts, has sired none but silver pups, when mated with any vixen. Of course, the five or six litters sired by one dog does not provide sufficient data from which to form a general conclusion. It may be that many of the thousand or more red foxes kept in captivity will yet be crossed so as to produce a proportion of silver stock. As the red foxes were generally purchased from districts which produce very ordinary pelts, it is quite probable that, in many cases, the resulting silver will not be of good quality. The climatic conditions of Canada, however, which are very favourable to the production of good pelts, may improve exotic sub-species. Breeders are generally better pleased if cross foxes are Cross Foxes = 5 : asBreeders produced the first generation, but, as a rule, if cross foxes are bred out, the tendency to produce an occasional red pup will never be wholly eliminated. Having cross foxes in the ancestry of silver foxes means that a proportion of red gametes are thrown and * Professor Castle, replying to an inquiry, says: “The several facts stated in your letter of November 14th, which I assume you have sufficiently verified, show clearly that black (or silver) coat character in foxes is a Mendelian recessive in relation to the common red coat and may be recovered in the second generation from a cross with red. Whether it would be improved or deteriorated as a consequence, ex- periment alone could show. I should think that the ‘patch’ or ‘cross’ foxes occasionally obtained in the F, generation might be well worth experimenting with, as indicating in that particular strain a tendency for the dominance to be reversed. If this tendency could be strengthened by judicious selection, a more potent strain of silvers might result. If, by this means, a strain potent enough to dominate F, could be secured, it is evident that silver foxes could be produced much more readily.” FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 23 at any time a red fox may appear among the other silvers in a litter. Few cases of red or cross pups among litters of silver pups were re- corded, and no absolutely reliable evidence that any were found was submitted; but the general opinion seemed to favour the statement that an occasional red pup appeared. Any breeder of silvers who had such impure foxes in his pens would be likely to conceal the fact by killing or removing the red pups. Silver foxes can be produced of good silver colour by top-crossing cross foxes with silver for several generations, and, if the silver foxes used in the crossing had ancestors of cross foxes, the probability is that a proportion of red, bastard, and cross foxes would appear among their offspring. All evidence tends to show, how- ever, that very few,if any, with red colour on them are produced, and it is clearly demonstrated that the blackness of foxes can be made prac- tically permanent by top-crossing to silvers. After mixing up red, cross, and silver foxes for several generations it is practically impossible to estimate the kind of pups that will come. Litters were seen that had red pups, cross pups and silver pups in them. Beyond a doubt, the finest foxes in captivity are the descendants of foxes captured in Prince Edward Island. The best foxes, therefore, belong to the geographical species, vulpes rubricosa; or, what is affirmed—and is not impossible— the Prince Edward Island fox, because it has been cut off from the mainland, is a distinct sub-species or geographical race. No cranial and other measurements have yet been secured. If scientists admit the fact of its difference from the mainland species, a new name, vulpes abegweit, could be chosen—Abegweit being the Micmac Indian name for Prince Edward Island. As London sales show that silver and red foxes from Prince Ed- ward Island have been sold for the highest prices, the evidence seems to bear out the assumption of its superiority. Red foxes have, in some cases, sold for 80 shillings. Twenty-three red fox skins from Prince Edward Island, marketed in London in 1910, by one man, were sold for £68 sterling, or an average of $14.39 each. Other vendors claimed to have received as much as 88 shillings each, but no documentary proof was produced. When black colour phases of such animals are captured, they are usually of excellent quality in fineness and colour of coat. The ancestors of the highest priced foxes were dug out of dens, as a general rule, situated in Prince Edward Island. One instance of the capturing of wild foxes may be quoted, as the silver blood procured on this occasion flows strong in the highest priced animals of the present time. Two residents of Bedeque, P.E.I., had The Best Furred Foxes 24 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION seen a red vixen in that locality and it was reported one winter that a silver fox was seen running with her. The following July (1900), Louis Holland and Louis Spence found the den and proceeded to dig the young foxes out. They found four blacks and three reds, which they sold to Charles Dalton for $300. Many other instances show that litters frequently occur in nature as described above—half of the litter silver and half of it red. One red female ranched in Nova Scotia and mated to a silver fox has produced fourteen pups in the years 1910, 1911 and 1912. Seven of the pups are red and seven silver. Most of the fox-breeders in other provinces have sold silver and dark silver stock to Prince Edward Island, where the demand has been greatest. Probably in all the dozen or more ranches in Ontario there are not two score silver foxes. The stock kept are bastard and cross foxes that produce litters with a proportion of silver pups. As their ex- perience in selling fur has not led them to believe the present high prices for breeders in the Maritime Provinces are warranted by the pelt value of the animals, the attitude of Ontario ranchers has, in general, been to sell out at the high prices offered. Because of continued importations of foreign stock into Prince Edward Island, probably thirty or forty per cent. of the silver foxes have been crossed with outside stock. In the majority of cases, the fur value has been lessened though, possibly, the crosses in some cases result in an improvement in size, fecundity, or other valuable quality. The appearance of many of the imported foxes examined would seem to warrant the conclusion that they are usually of a much lower fur value, especially those from Newfoundland (sub-species V. deletrir), whose pelts almost uniformly have a rusty-black appearance and are coarse and ‘ flaky.2 The Quebec and Labrador foxes (sub-species V. bangst) are much superior to those from Newfoundland. The Ontario foxes (sub-species V. fulvus) are secured from so many distant points that it is impossible to make a positive statement respecting their qual- ity. Some of them appear to be first class and will prove to be excellent foundation stock for selective breeding for fur. Fur experts who have given special study to the fauna of Canada say that the red and silver foxes found on the Athabaska river and in the Yukon and Alaska are often of great value. These regions should produce a weighty pelt and, if good quality were secured in foundation stock, conditions for fox ranching should be ideal—especially if venison and fish could be easily secured for food. Li — ] po sa Mad : \ re > 7 =) : iv ~ reese |) ~~ ies @ Ml bas wf ANG ee ; ="T) ry a re, 1) Wee OS Wee bee aes is : - a) a Py ; — mee - ee ae . i : ae = pia had mee Sep r y - att 7 oe } y- . / I At eit i ; ay ey i a % i 1 - - a4 - ' : : i ee ele oe vw, = P at ; n “se ’ 2 ed J - ‘~ =. Ol vee —_—_ & a ag aa 2.2 Ae ‘ *) ing ve —e- ae / i’ & a as Si tae’, > i wins 1. wi len ; ne ¥ ; re 4 ae - “i 7 ad y ae aC eS unt VS 2. ile | Ys my ae 2 - “s ‘ a ; O Nid Ea ese Bd] ¥ ts * 4 : ; @ - : : ® oy : to j e433 ‘a: 7 - : - = , 4 Pl i 4 PEN IN THE MAPLE WoopDS—SUNNY IN WINTER AND SHADED IN SUMMER FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 25 RANCHING PRACTICE While it is legal to keep fur-bearers in captivity in those provinces in Canada where there is no close season provided for them, it is unlaw- ful in most provinces to keep protected fur-bearers during the close season. It is also unlawful to catch fur-bearers for ranching purposes in the close season in all provinces except Prince Edward Island. Apparently it is lawful in Saskatchewan and Quebec to hold the animals during the close season, provided they have been caught in the open season, or brought from a point outside the province. In all the other provinces, no ranching can be legally done without a permit from the provincial department charged with the care of game and fur-bearing animals. The various provincial authorities can encourage fur-farming by amending their game laws so as to allow the issue of permits to residents to catch fur-bearers and hold them in captivity for breeding purposes at any season. Requiring annual returns of production would prevent any abuse of this privilege. : If foundation stock of excellent quality has been secured, Location of : : : : the Ranch the next most important question to be considered is the selection of a site for the ranch where the quality of the stock can be maintained from generation to generation. Climatic influ- ences are largely responsible for the value of the coat of fur. If an abun- dance of good food can be secured, an animal produces the heaviest coat where the climate is coldest. Humidity of atmosphere must also be considered. Poland says that open water, such as lakes and seas, renders the fur thicker, probably owing to the high percentage of humid- ity in the atmosphere. Exposed sea coasts and exposed prairies, he says, render fur coarse, while woods and forests cause it to be finer. For instance, the timber or forest wolves have finer fur than those living on the exposed prairie. Mr. Wesley Frost, United States consul at Charlottetown, in a report to his government in 1912, says: “The temperature and humidity on the Island [Prince Edward] are a happy mean between the intense cold and the moist, dull weather of New- foundland, Labrador and Alaska, and the warmer, drier weather of regions farther south. The far northern furs are said to be coarse and shaggy, while the furs produced in the northern states of our own coun- try are light and thin.” It is also said that the absence of limestone in Prince Edward Island and Westmorland county, New Brunswick, gives a perfect soil for foxes to burrow in and is beneficial to the fur covering. As some excellent foxes never burrow at all, the ranchers carefully stopping up the holes whenever a start is made, there can- not be much ground for this assumption. 26 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The following is a summary of the best conditions for fox-ranch- ing operations: 1. Foxes should be ranched in woodland areas in a climate cold enough to produce a heavy fur and overhair. 2. The value of the pelt depends on good health as well as on climatic conditions. Wholesome varied food is a necessary con- dition for health and can be best secured in a thickly-settled rural district. 3. Foundation stock should be the best obtainable. The best foxes are those in captivity in ranches, and they have the addi- tional advantage of being half-domesticated. There are some advantages to be gained by conducting extensive ranching operations in one locality, particularly because breeding animals may be easily exchanged and the dangers of close, or in-breed- ing, prevented. Neighbours can also impart to one another more freely what their experience has taught them. These advantages, however, may be offset by the difficulties of securing food for the foxes. In every rural township there is enough cheap meat and offal to supply flesh diet to scores of foxes, but not to hundreds. Several hundred foxes, therefore, in one neighbourhood, would necessitate the purchase of costly meat. An ordinary farm has enough waste meat scrap, dripping, bread, biscuits and game to support several animals. A wooded area, not subject to flooding, and where the A Woodland : : 3 : : 5 Site snow does not pile up in deep drifts in winter, is best adapted for the site of the ranch. The subsoil should be a hardpan to prevent deep burrowing and escape under the fences. Areas which produce a growth of birch, spruce, fir and cedar, with heath plants and blueberries in the open areas, have usually a good turfy cover and a hardpan subsoil near the surface. In such a situa- tion, it is easy to erect pens as the fences have only to be extended down to hardpan to prevent the foxes from burrowing under and escaping. A sandy soil and subsoil, on the other hand, entails an additional ex pense, as they can burrow to depths of six feet or more. A family of foxes working one behind the other will relay earth out of a sandy hole in a veritable shower. In ordinary loam, the fence is not considered safe unless it extends down a depth of over three feet and is founded on a subsoil of considerable hardness. Proximity to the dwelling of the keeper is also an important con- sideration. This is usually accomplished by building the ranch in a woodland lot a few hundred yards distant from the house, or, if the ranch is a considerable distance from the owner’s dwelling, by building LOIGOOM V NI SI HONVY V YO4 NOILVOO7 183g 3HL FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 27 a house for the keeper. It is not advisable to keep fox pens nearer than twenty rods to a dwelling as, particularly at certain seasons, the peculiar and somewhat disagreeable ‘foxy’ smell is strong and unpleasant. The advantages of a large woodland ranch may be summed up as follows: 1. The outer fence and bush cover protect the foxes from curious sightseers, dogs, cattle and thieves, and gives them a sense of being hidden from enemies. 2. The bush cover is especially valuable for nervous foxes to hide in and to provide shade for the fur. They will also sleep contentedly all day under a bush, where it is more healthful than in a nest or a burrow. 3. The outer fence is an additional insurance against escape to the woods. If a fox escapes from the paddock, he can be easily caught in the outer enclosure, or, if the door is left open, he may, of his own accord, go back to his pen at feeding time. 4. The snow does not pile in drifts, but lies level, on wooded areas. Huge drifts necessitate higher fences, or wiring over, to prevent escape. Fences do not need to be more than six or seven feet high if the snow never lies more than one or two feet deep. 5. A ranch in the woods has more equable climatic condi- tions. It is cooler in summer, less windy in winter, and is warmer for young foxes in the spring. There is less thawing and freezing up of snow to injure the fur. It also affords protection from rain and sleet. 6. The foxes can hide from thieves and could not be captured by a stranger unless the house were broken into when they were shut in their nest. So much noise, however, would be sure to rouse the dog and the watchman. %7. The outer enclosure permits of protective measures being taken. The keeper sleeps in a house there. Dogs are kept chained. Traps for thieves are laid, as, e.g., bear traps, burglar alarms, elec- trie shocking devices; and some ranches are lighted with lanterns or electric lights and equipped with telephones. 8. Large ranches seem to be more successful than smaller ones, because foxes in contiguous pens are company for each other. 4 ‘If a woodlot is not available, the ranch may be built Other Sites. - 3 Chosen in cleared ground and quick growing trees planted. The Carolina poplar, soft maple, Manitoba maple (A. negundo), black locust and willow are among the fastest growers. One rancher living in a grape-growing district in an Ontario city has planted 28 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION grapes about the paddocks and will train them over his pens. The predi- lection of the fox for grapes is well known since the time of Aesop, but life in a vineyard may not be more beneficial to Reynard’s health than life elsewhere. The grapes provide a dense shade in summer, no shelter in winter, fresh fruit in season, and exercise in securing food. The whole ranch is surrounded by a concrete wall. Such a ranch is impossible in a district where there is a heavier snowfall, the lack of ventilation through the pens is objectionable and the cost is consider- able. It shows, however, what can be done by an experienced breeder to establish an industry on city lots in a populous neighbourhood. Sometimes an orchard serves as a suitable situation for a ranch. T. L. Burrowman, of Wyoming, Ont., for instance, has placed his pens in a four-acre orchard, the foxes being kept out of the trees by trunk shields. Barnyards, open fields about the houses, hill-tops where snow drifts off and many other situations are frequently chosen, but the ranchmen, as a rule, regard such sites as temporary only. They usually contemplate larger ranching operations on better sites when sufficient capital can be raised. AWilada Sometimes a small island has been chosen as a site for asaSite a ranch. When such is the case, visitors can be kept out of the vicinity more easily. Also a fox that has escaped is not apt to swim to the mainland away from the place where he has been fed. Prince Edward Island has an advantage over mainland areas as a ranching centre because a fox that has escaped can usually be traced and captured, whereas on the mainland, he could roam for hundreds of miles and get into uninhabited territory. ees When the site of the ranch is chosen, the bush surround- Fencing ing the selected area is cleared for a width of four feet and the ground levelled for the erection of an exterior fence. The trees are trimmed or cut so that foxes may not climb over the fence by means of them. Post-holes about three feet deep are dug from 10 to 16 feet apart, cedar posts being used if it is possible to secure them. If cedar, locust or other durable wood cannot be obtained, the ground end of the post may be charred or treated with hot petro- leum or creosote to render it more lasting. Posts from 10 to 15 feet long are used according to the usual snowfall of the locality and should be sharpened at the end to prevent heaving by the frost. A post four inches in diameter at the small end and 12 feet long will cost from 30 eents in some districts, up to 75 cents in others. ~ = x Ll)? see WN ‘ DETAIL OF FENCE CONSTRUCTION WITH SHEET IRON S PREFER AN ALLEY MANY BREEDER SURROUNDING EACH PEN DETAIL OF FENCE CONSTRUCTION. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 29 The corner posts need nct be anchored when a purline is used. The purline is made with one-inch boards, four inches wide, or of straight poles. These are securely nailed to the posts to brace them and support the meshed wire on the upper side. They also support the over- hang wire. The overhang wire is usually from 18 to 24 inches wide and is laid on brackets nailed at right angles to the posts and purline and then stapled to them. It is usually made of No. 16 galvanized wire having a two-inch mesh. The fence is composed of two-inch diamond meshed wire fas- tened to the purline with staples and hung on the outside of the post. If several rolls of wire are used the selvedges are laced with a soft No. 16 wire. No. 16 galvanized wire is strong enough for the upper part of the fence and No. 14 to No. 15 galvanized for the lower part. The wire is stretched at each corner with second class levers passed through the meshes, the post being used as a ful- crum. All corner posts must be perpendicular and care must be taken when the whole area is not perfectly level that the wire is pleated or gored when a change from one level to another is made; otherwise it ‘buckles.’ This occurs at corner posts on sloping land, and at changes of slope in the fence. The exterior fence is frequently built of boards 6 feet or even 10 feet high. The upper four feet are usually of wire with an overhang to prevent the foxes from climbing out. On the ground, inside, is a carpet wire—three feet wide, and made of No. 15 wire having a two-inch mesh. It is laid on the ground and laced to the selvedge of the fence at the ground level, or stapled, if the fence is of boards. The other selvedge of the carpet wire is stapled to stakes driven in the ground. As he almost always begins to burrow close to the fence, the carpet wire will prevent the fox from burrowing under it. 2 The most durable wire yet used has been imported from Great Wire Ae : : ; . Used Britain. It is specially woven with an extra twist—and has a selvedge of three wires. In the smaller sizes a triple turn is made. The galvanizing, which is done after weaving, practically solders the joints. It comes in bales of 150 feet length and is of various widths. The best wire will last only from eight to twelve years underground. It is of interest to note that the aggregate sales of one of the largest hardware firms supplying this wire in Prince Edward Island have amounted to over 250 miles of wire, of an average width of four feet. The following list gives the prevailing prices of British-made dia- mond mesh ranch wire. They are from 10 to 20 per cent. lower than the prices of ranch wire of United States manufacture: 30 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Price List oF RANCH WIRE Width Mesh Gauge No.* Price per 150 lineal feet 18 2 16 $2.65 24 2 16 3.50 30 2 16 4,25 36 2 16 4.85 48 2 16 6.40 60 2 16 8.00 72 2 16 9.65 36 2 15 6.10 48 2 15 8.15 60 2 15 10.15 24 2 14 5.20 30 2 14 6.20 36 2 14 7.25 48 2 14 9.40 60 2 14 11.85 36 i 17 8.50 48 1 17 11.00 72 1 17 16.50 24 if 16 7.25 36 dl 16 10.25 The following table shows the comparative cost of the various meshed wires manufactured. The Canadian price can be determined by discounting the list price for all sizes smaller than gauge No. 14 by about 15 per cent. On account of a lower rate of duty, the list price of gauge No. 14 and larger gauges may be discounted by about 22 per cent. *Gauges Nos. 16 to 14 are used for fox ranches and Nos. 17 to 16 for mink ranches. 7 91 OL Gl i Lach |-Fo Ol} 2-8 FL 68°9 e¢'s 09°F 19° Ze'S 91 + 9 LI CSIC Taliiee Ole haas.8 €8°9 96'S ILS OF F co's 18°% fire Mi % . SI OS IT | 062 e¢'9 02'S 09°F c6'¢ OFS 08% LEE cc SI » yout $1] 61 09'6 ar 9 GE's 12°F GL's 02° SZ Wee Ig 92'T 6I | your §T , 9 02°61 | O8'ZI | S9°0T | Og's Chl OF '9 0¢°9 02° SIF Iss 91 Ba ; LI 02 ZT | SPIT | S96 09°2 0L°9 GL'S $6'P Il’? €2'E 92% LI ‘ opra Fs SI GI'€I | 08°8 cel G8’ Z1'¢ OF F 08's GI's Shs EL'T SI » sayour OZT |) your ¥q} 61 OF OL | 69 08's £9'F c0'F CP's 00°§ 0¢'% 16'T 9¢°T 61 | your J ih = USUAL TYPE OF KENNEL AND PEN CHEAP KENNEL CONSTRUCTED FROM A PACKING Box FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 33 Construction Lhe requirements of an ideal pen may be summarized of Bens as follows: 1. It should be large enough for foxes to run in at full speed when playing. 2. Part of it should be shaded overhead and it should pro- vide good hiding cover. 3. It should have warm, well-drained, sunny areas in which the young pups may play. 4. Turfy or mossy ground cover is desirable. Leaves, or spruce or pine needles, make a good ground cover. Sand is good, but mud is objectionable. The smallest pens used by the best ranchers enclose an area of at least 900 square feet. One rancher has a highly-valued pair in an enclosure of over 4,000 square feet. The usual size is a pen enclosed by one bale of wire, which is 150 feet long. ‘Thus the area is 37 feet by 37 feet, or 30 feet by 42 feet, or 25 feet by 50 feet. In some cases the last-named dimensions are adopted and a cross fence used, so that the male is shut in one end and the female in the other during the latter part of the period of gestation and while the pups are young. Inasmuch as they must be extended into the ground to prevent the foxes from burrowing under them, the paddock fences are harder to build than the exterior. When a solid hardpan exists, the fence may be laid on it, even if it is only one foot from the surface. If the subsoil is light and open, paddocks are not fox-proof unless the fence is buried over four feet. In light soil additional precaution may be taken by digging the trench wide and by rough-concreting the base a couple of feet inwards from the fence. One rancher, on a sandy area, planned to concrete the whole floor area of his paddocks and cover it with a foot of sand. When it interferes with the drainage, this use of concrete is objectionable. The carpet wire should be used on the paddock fence as well as on the exterior. It prevents the fox from burrowing alongside the fence where digging out is always attempted. The following material is necessary for the construction of a paddock fence 9 feet high and extending three feet into the ground: 12 posts, each 13 feet long. 150 lineal feet of 1-inch board, 4 inches wide. 150 lineal feet of overhang wire, 24 inches wide, 2-inch mesh, gauge No. 16. 150 lineal feet of fence wire, 5 feet wide, 2-inch mesh, gauge No. 16. 34 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION 150 lineal feet of fence wire, 4 feet wide, 2-inch mesh, gauge No. 14. 150 lineal feet of ground wire, 5 feet wide, 2-inch mesh, gauge No. a4 150 lineal feet of carpet wire, 3 feet wide, 2-inch mesh, gauge No. 15. Nails, spikes, staples, hinges, locks for door and No. 16 lacing wire. It is not customary to use a smaller meshed wire at the ground level, but cases are known of the death of fox pups caused by having their heads caught in the two-inch mesh. A smaller mesh, therefore, if it could be procured in No. 15 gauge, furnishes an additional pre- caution against the death of the valuable animals. A new type of paddock fence, which is evidently an improvement, 1s being put up in some of the newest ranches. Instead of the two-inch mesh No. 16 wire, a strip of galvanized sheet iron three feet wide is fastened at a height of four or five feet from the ground. Joist pieces 2 inches by 4 inches are placed from post to post to nail to. The ad- vantage of the sheet iron is that foxes cannot climb to the top of the fence and fall, breaking their legs or producing a rupture or an abor- tion. One pen was seen where the sheet iron was placed at the top of the posts and no overhang was required. Foxes climb fences only when badly frightened. Such a state of fear is to be avoided, but may ke impossible to control with some animals. Sharp sticks and stumps near the fence should be taken out lest the falling fox be ruptured or otherwise hurt. The middle toe nails of the fox may be cut off every few months to prevent climbing, or the sheet iron used as described above. It should not be placed near the ground as it would interfere with the circulation of air in the paddock. Vetus The door into the paddock should be placed from eighteen Door to twenty-four inches above the ground level and should be provided with good hinges and a good lock. If no exterior fence ig used, make a double door entrance, so that one door is closed and locked before the other is opened. If foxes have the run of two pens, a door between the pens set up two feet high and with a sloping platform on each side from the sill to the ground, should be provided. Doors should be about 2 feet by 4 feet in dimensions. Many ranchers have a small passageway between pens, which foxes are obliged to crawl through, as when playing, they do this so often that they wear off the guard hair over the hips and shoulders. COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Ea a : mal 5 Fox | atrance GROUND PLAN H Scale |inch = | Foot Fe | | | _- Shingles | Paper ! art ble | Drrie Remova | Foundation Post SECTION on AB FLOOR PLAN AND VERTICAL SECTION OF A FOX KENNEL FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 35 : In the earlier days, the houses were of logs, barrels, or Construction Sali ofthe Kennel boxes. later, a small box was placed within a larger one and the intervening space packed with sawdust or chaff. An entrance was provided by a passageway constructed of boards. The roof was made water-tight by a piece of sheet iron. Such houses are still in use, but have the disadvantage of being easily robbed. Mr. Burrowman and some other Ontario ranchers attempt to imitate nature more closely by constructing solid one-piece cement dens built mostly underground and in well-drained spots. They can be made quite thief-proof, and, indeed, there is apparently no way for the keeper to get access to the nest. In the case of one den, at Bothwell, Ont., it was only possible to crawl in by shovelling out the small entrance used by the fox. The most generally approved houses are wooden constructions, placed in the centre of each paddock. The interior consists of an inner and an outer kennel, and the entrance for the foxes is through a passageway of rectangular cross-section constructed with four boards. The interior dimensions of,this passageway should be about 7% in. by 10 in., and it should slope from the building down to within 6 inches of the ground. The entrance for the keeper is through a door in the end, or else by means of a hinged roof. The door or hinged roof is, of course, always kept locked. The house is usually made with a floor area 3 feet by 4% feet, or slightly larger. The posts are about 3 feet high; the walls are boarded, papered and shingled; the floors are double boarded with paper between; the roof is boarded, papered and shingled and ventilation is provided by openings in both gables. All parts that the foxes rub against are smoothed and sand-papered so as not to injure the overhair. The building should be set on skids a foot off the ground so that the foxes cannot hide under it. BE So tinst, The inner kennel or nest is to be the home of the young ofthe Nest foxes and must be large enough to prevent crowding and small enough to be warmed by the body heat of the animals. The usual size of the nest is about 18 in. long by 18 in. wide by 20 in. in height, but some prefer to make them with floor dimensions 16 in. by 20 in. The entrance, 8 inches in diameter, is centred on one side; the floor corners are filled up with a triangular piece of moulding; three or four half-inch holes are bored in the roof to provide a slight ventilation and the roof or cover of the nest can be lifted off so that the manager can see into the nest when necessary. The nest is kept warm by being packed about on all sides with some material of low thermal conductivity. The best yet discovered are the ground cork in which the Spanish Malaga grapes are packed, dry seaweed, sawdust, chaff 36 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION and leaves. A space of four or five inches all about the six sides of the box packed with insulating material will retain the heat sufficiently and will absorb dampness. In some cases, a light bedding of earth, leaves, seaweed or marshgrass is given in the winter. Pesan Ssh It is usual to place pens side by side on both sides Pensand Kennels of an alley about six or eight feet wide,* the fences at the ends of the alley being an additional safeguard against escape. The dog (or male) pen, according to one plan, consists of one end of the common pen and the male is segregated by simply closing the door. According to another plan, the pen for the male is several feet distant and segregation is effected by simply closing the slide door in the passageway. The kennel provided for the dog fox may be a box or barrel with a chute entrance. The dog pen is becom- ing less used year by year. It should be constructed near the other pen and arrangements should be made so that the pairs can be separated quietly. No confusion or excitement whatever in effecting a separation of the male and female at this critical period should be permitted. The food of foxes in the wild state does not consist wholly Food and ¢ Feeding of flesh as many suppose; for, to a certain extent, the fox is omnivorous, and will eat grass and berries. If flesh only, were fed to a ranch fox, the probability is that, after a time, digestion would be greatly impaired and the whole intestinal tract would be- come infested with worms. . The food varies so much in each locality that it is impossible to do more than state the principles which should govern the feeding of foxes. The very fact that success is achieved with so many kinds of dieting proves that the fox, like the dog, can live well on almost any kind of food. A prospectus of a ranch at Copper River, Alaska, says that the pelts of their foxes have a magnificent sheen because the animals are fed on oily salmon. Ontario ranchers have many excuses to hunt rabbits and groundhogs, because they are ‘natural’ food for the foxes. J. Beetz of Piastre Baie, Que., finds fish and lobster good, and his success in catching foxes is largely due to the fact that they come down from the interior each winter to seek just such food on the shore of the St. Lawrence river. And who could tell an old Prince Edward Island rancher how to feed his foxes? ‘The best in the heuse is none too good,’ he says, and he will feed them almost every- * See diagram facing this page. COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Horm g & Door Pia E~Pen for ma. A THE BEST TYPE OF FOX RANCH Scale linch = 50 feet lo Barrel Kenre/ mpartments for 4 pas “1 CDi a (S) Zz < a x 0 a i oO} A GOOD TYPE FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 37 thing he would eat himself, and some grass, minnows, mice, crickets and berries besides. Mant The flesh diet of foxes is horse meat, calves, butcher scraps Diet (livers, hearts, heads, etc.), fish (both cured and fresh), rabbits, groundhogs, mice, rats, birds, squirrels, lobster bodies, and old cattle and sheep. The flesh is usually fed raw, but some feeders parboil it. It is salted slightly when parboiled, only a small amount of salt being used. Frequently carcasses are salted down in casks, and, when required for food, a portion is freshened by placing it in running water for a day or two. Some of the finest foxes seen were fed with this kind of food and seemed to be in very thrifty condition, possibly because of being free from worms. Some ranches have cold storage plants, and keep the meat packed with ice. No storage houses similar to bait-freezers are used as yet, but the bait-freezer at Rustico, P.E.I., might serve as a model for such a house. Neither has any mechanical refrigeration of any kind been attempted. Old cattle and horses are kept on the hoof and slaughtered from time to time as required. As foxes have been known to die of tuber- culosis, these should be subjected to the tuberculin test or, at least, examined for tubercles after killing. The amount of meat fed should be about one-fourth pound a day and this amount should be decreased if any of it is buried by the fox. The non-flesh food consists of biscuits, yeast bread, hoe Non-flesh : ‘ Diet bread, vegetables, porridge, grass, berries, apples, milk and eggs. Patent dog biscuits are fed with good results, one ranch using only Spratt’s biscuits, with milk and water, as food. The best ordinary biscuit is the plain hardtack. It is probable that hard- baked non-yeast bread is better than leavened bread. Bread is more relished if grease drippings are poured upon it. Tallow has been used with good success as a butter on hoe bread. Any rations are liable to fail unless the food is served properly. The dishes should be frequently scalded and scrubbed and kept scrupu- lously clean. The water vessel should be fastened to the fence with wire hooks so that the foxes cannot climb over it. The food must be withheld when foxes are observed to bury or hide it. In frosty wea- ther in April or May, frozen meat would kill the young foxes, so it is necessary to feed it warm or parboiled in such weather. If one fox dominates the other and takes too large a share of the food, a large quantity must be supplied at night and removed when both have had enough, e¢.g., a cow’s head may be left in a pen for several days to furnish the flesh diet. 38 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION ae A perfect fox diet can be secured in the patent dog biscuits. Biscuits ‘l’hese are made with various kinds of food content, so that balanced rations can be provided. ‘The biscuit medicines have also been proved excellent, and are easy to administer. It is possible that the manufacture of biscuit with meat or fish fibre will be an industry that will develop contemporaneously with fur-farming. The meat can probably be best preserved in this way and feeding made easier and pleasanter. i PEDAAS Broken bone should not be fed lest some of it be General Directions ; for Feeding swallowed. Bone should be fed, especially to young foxes, to assist in building up bone and in removing the milk teeth. Some do not feed bony fish, e¢.g., perch, lest the bones rupture the delicate linings of the throat and intestines. Observation, however, leads to the belief that such injury is not likely to happen, as they are dainty feeders and, unlike dogs, do not devour their food greedily. In addition to bones, growing foxes are fed a quantity of limewater—about one teaspoonful a day—with their milk. This food gives a substance to the bone and insures stronger limbs. The pregnant mother should also be fed bone broth and limy foods to insure strong limbs for her offspring. | Neither of the foxes should be allowed to become too fat for breeding. When the foxes are less than a year old, they can be fed almost as much as they will eat; after they are older, a full diet may make them too fat for good breeding condition. An average sized fox should weigh from eight to eleven pounds. Some feeders stint foxes in food in November and December and January, to get them into breeding condition; others endeavour to keep them normal always. In the mating season, foxes are very active, and fat pork is fed and a full supply of food is given to keep them in condition. Some roll the meat in sand and soil, claiming that soil is nature’s medicine for worms. Some feeders throw food into the pen over the fence; others, in order to tame them, try to coax them to receive it from between the meshes of the wire. A skilful feeder can do more to tame his foxes through feeding them than in any other way. If the food is always delivered at the same place, the tendency will be for the animal to approach nearer and nearer at each feeding. The science of foods is of less importance than a knowledge of the art of feeding. The mother should be well fed on an attractive and strengthening diet for several weeks before the young are born. Milk, eggs and bone FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 39 broth are good for the purpose. When the young are expected, laxative food should be given. When the mother appears after the young are born, she should be fed well several times a day with meat, eggs, fresh new milk, meat broth, well-cooked oatmeal and other appetizing and varied foods, while a supply of clean, wholesome water in a clean trough should be constantly available. Live rabbits and poultry, squirrel and other game may be used to give variety to the mother’s ration. “ch aha Despite the assertions of many experienced breeders that Management feeding is the most difficult of all operations in fox ranching, very little evidence was found to confirm this opinion. Few cases of failure due to bad dieting were noted. It is not difficult to keep foxes alive in captivity, and, usually, the cause of nearly every loss can be traced. Occasionally mature foxes die sud- denly and no satisfactory cause of death can be found, even though post-mortem examinations have been carefully performed by qualified operators. ‘The proportion of deaths, however, is low, only four being reported in Prince Edward Island in 1912, though probably more took place. In most cases, lack of success may be attributed to an inex- perienced keeper. When men who have never fed even a horse or cow, attempt to rear foxes, they may keep them alive, and may rear a few young, but the probability of failure is great. The failures are usually made in feeding to maintain good breeding condition, and in the care and feeding at the critical period of whelping and rearing the young. The keeper’s own character and disposition will have much to do with success with shy and nervous foxes at this period. A good manager is always studying his animals at the breeding season and he carefully notes the dates of mating and whelping. He treats each pair according to their dispositions. In some cases he separates the male . and female before whelping, and, in other cases, he leaves them to- gether. He must be observant, resourceful and faithful, for he is dealing with animals which have had only several generations of domestic breeding. Masincane The critical period of each year in breeding foxes is Gestation between the dates January 1 and June 30. At this time, as the wild nature of some of the foxes renders them exceedingly sensitive to strange sights, noises, and smells, all ranches are closed to everyone but the keepers. The keeper usually wears the same overcoat when about the pens. All domestic animals are kept at a distance from even the outer fence. Strangers are warned not to approach the ranch premises on pain of being fined for trespass. In 40 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION New Brunswick and Quebec, laws have been passed making it an offence punishable by a heavy fine to approach near a fur ranch.* The keeper should move cautiously and quietly about the pens when feeding. He should have a post of observation from which he can see the pens and yet not be seen. A dark chamber with a hidden approach and a small window to look through may serve. From this post an experienced breeder can ascertain when mating occurs. At the earliest, whelping will take place fifty days after mating, though it may be fifty-two days, or, in rare instances, fifty-three or fifty-four days, especially with the first litter. Fifty-one days is the usual period of gestation. If the keeper plans to remove the male, he should have the Removing 3) ee the Male pens built in such a manner that the male may be shut out (away from the female, though with only a fence or double wired fence intervening) without a suspicion on the part of the foxes of design in such a removal. The action of some breeders in entering the pen and catching the dog with tongs or catching box is universally condemned as very dangerous at this period. If the male is kept close by, he will watch and warn whenever he fears danger and, moreover, he takes an interest in the rearing of the young—frequently carrying his food along the fence, apparently with the intention of giving it to the female and the young. It is not usual for parent foxes to kill the young Calming ; : Excited Mothers intentionally, but, when they become nervous, they want to remove the pups to another place. A mother will frequently become greatly excited, and, dashing into her nest, will carry out the pups one by one and bury them in the snow or mud. This frequently occurs and is the great fear of ranchers in the spring months. It is difficult to tell what to do in such an emergency, except to see that the foregoing preventive measures are taken. The measures suggested in the following paragraph have been successfully carried out in more than one instance. A crate of chickens or rabbits should be kept near at hand so that if a mother carries her young about, a live chicken or rabbit may be put into the pen to attract her attention and turn her from her im- pulse of hiding the young elsewhere. One breeder says that he stopped one mother with an egg which he threw in front of her from outside the fence when she was carrying out her pups. Some ranchers, during the whelping season, always keep posted regarding the whereabouts of at least one cat with young kittens. If the * See Appendix V. — &, es E> GL PrN i oo : es ~s Eg < off a ae Ag ea ae A THREE-QUARTERS BLACK Fox BADLY FRIGHTENED; NO HIDING Fox KITTENS Two WEEKS OLD D. te CovER TO RETREAT INTO KEEPING WATCH ON THE STRANGERS 4. A NorTH SHORE (QUE.) Fox IN AUGUST 3. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 41 mother fox proves to be not capable of rearing her young for any reason, they are taken from her and reared on the cat until four or five weeks old, when the cat will usually desert them. They are then able to lap milk. Young foxes have been found stiff and cold, but by warming them in hot cotton wool and providing them with a feline wet-nurse, have finally grown to maturity. A nursing bottle and a medicine dropper also might be kept on hand to feed milk. glee The young are blind for about three weeks and do not leave Breeders the nest, but when they are about four weeks old, the mother carries them to a sunny place. ‘They soon learn to lap milk and eat. When about three months old, the mother weans them and they may go to quarters of their own. Foxes have only one litter a year, each litter consisting of from one to nine pups. The earliest noted litter came on March 12; the latest, on June 4. No instances are yet recorded of two litters in one year, but it is believed that it may occur within a few years when the animals are more domestic in habit. According to the best authorities, foxes in the wild state are monogamous. In captivity, they are usually paired for life, and in many instances re-mating is said to be impossible. In some cases, however, foxes can be re-mated yearly. Some males will mate with several females during the same winter. Two systems of double mating are practised. Under one system, a male and two females of the same litter are given the run of three pens. After mating they are all separated into their respective pens. The other system also requires the use of three pens, the male spending alternate days with each of the two females. When mating is effected in these ways, success is not as certain as with single mating. The fox continues prolific until about ten or eleven years of age. If a pair fail to produce young after the eighth year, they are usually slaughtered. In the majority of cases foxes mate when ten months old. Some breeders endeavour to mate a young female with a male a year older. Heicné and No serious diseases were observed in foxes on Canadian Diseases ranches. No sick fox was seen except one that had ‘produced no overhair and appeared to be in very poor condition generally. It was probably the type known to hunters as the Samson fox. Evidence furnished by R. E. Hamilton of Grand Valley, Ont., who once had one in similar condition in his possession, indicates that the lack of fur and the poor condition is caused by a tape- worm. Mr. Hamilton cured it by administering a violent vermifuge, using a biscuit vermifuge, puppy doses. 42 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Writers report that rabies and canker of the ear have been known, but no evidence of these diseases was found during the present investi- gation. Mange is also mentioned and probably exists. The usual remedies applied in the case of dogs seem to be effective wherever used and they are usually put up in a form easy to administer. The following quotation from a letter from Spratt’s Patent, Ltd., who manufacture dog biscuits and medicines, contains a number of useful suggestions for the rancher: “In our pamphlet on dog culture, you will find chapters on all the diseases mentioned in your letter. If foxes, also, are subject to these diseases special precautions will have to be taken. Besides being wild animals, we presume they live in artificial or natural earths, and you can readily understand that, when an animal is suffering from ophthalmia, special precautions will have to be taken. “The same applies to mange; otherwise, all the animals will soon contract the disease. “When the animals are from four to six weeks old, they start changing their milk for permanent teeth and bone is a useful article to give, as this helps the shedding of the milk teeth. Sometimes, of course, they are so firmly imbedded in the gums that forceps must be used, and should you find an animal’s head swelling, we strongly advise you to examine the mouth and re- move the milk, especially the canine, or eye, teeth.” Dr. Alexander Ross, of Charlottetown, formerly of Alberton, P.E.1., who has given much attention to fox diseases and their treat- ment and has acquired a rare experience in treating foxes on the numer- ous ranches situated within his practising territory at Alberton, has written the following article on fox diseases and surgery for this report: “ Foxes bred in captivity are more liable to disease than those which roam the wilds. In confinement they are shut off from various foods they seek in the wild state, particularly when they are not well. They are also limited as to exercise, so their muscular tone is usually below par. They often show malformation in the bones of their limbs (rickets) which, I think, is due principally to their food being deficient in bone salts and to restricted exercise. On the whole, however, I have found, in an experience extending over fifteen years, that the colonies of foxes in Prince Edward Island are remarkably free from diseases. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 43 “ Quite a few show rickets which is due largely to the kind of food they get. In those ranches where proper care is taken, very few of them have this disease. Where they are bred simply for quality of fur with- out due regard to physique, where they are in-bred, and especially when they are not properly fed, they are liable to develop rickets. Ground bone, lime water or cod liver oil and hypophosphites of lime and soda administered with their food will help to arrest the disease at its begin- ning. Abundance of fresh air and sunshine should also be provided. prea “Foxes in confinement are prone to suffer especially from Digestion disorders of digestion due to lack of knowledge in feed- ing them. The following are a number of the more com- mon of the diseases of the digestive organs, together with directions for treating them: “ Drarrhoea.—lf severe, give a purge of castor oil with a few drops of spirits of turpentine, followed by 10 to 20 grains of bismuth every two hours till the animal is better. The castor oil dose may be repeated more than once in smaller doses if the diarrhoea persists. At the same time, the food should also receive attention. Meats should be restricted, and milk, biscuits and eggs given. No food should be left in the feed- ing-pans more than a few hours and the pans should be scalded out frequently. “ Constipation.—They do not suffer much from this disease. It can be overcome largely by means of dieting. A dose of cascara acts well, and, when needed, injections of soap suds may be given. “Worms.—Pups are especially liable to worms. Indeed, I have seen the whole intestinal tract full of worms. These often cause fits. Fast the pup for eight or ten hours and give a dose of castor oil with a few drops of turpentine. Also give santonine—one-third of a grain to a pup six weeks old. Repeat every other day till the pup is well. “ Indigestion.—In pups this is liable to cause fits. The young ones will not eat; their coats lose sleekness and they become listless. If not promptly treated, they die quickly. Give castor oil and turpen- tine and feed judiciously. This can only be done by separating the ill from the well. “T have met with no case of disease of the respiratory organs. “There have been no epidemics of any kind among the foxes of Prince Edward Island. Now and again, a grown fox has died suddenly. Usually the fox seemed to be quite lively, and in a few hours the keeper found him dead. I performed autopsies on three or four of these and could in no case be certain of the cause of death. In one case, I found some congestion of the lung, which I regarded as post mortem. In an- 44 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION other, the gall bladder was abnormally distended. Most of them showed some redness of the alimentary tract. I am of opinion that death was due to some food poisons—ptomaine. In one animal that died there was a jelly-like fluid between the pelt and the flesh of the hind legs. “When pups are shedding their milk teeth—usually at the age of three months—abscesses are liable to form at the roots of the tusks. The fox then swells around the snout. In such cases the tusks, which are quite loose, should be extracted. Give them large bones to gnaw so they can knock out these teeth. This will usually prevent the forma- tion of these abscesses. “Fleas and Moths.—Dip the fox in weak solution of creolin in order to rid him of these pests. “Fox SurgerytI have had more to do with foxes in a surgical than in a medical way. They frequently break their limbs in fighting among themselves or in an effort to escape by climbing their enclosures. These fractures are usually compound and necessitate the amputation of the limb. The flesh is stripped back and the protruding bone is snipped off with bone forceps. The wound is dressed antiseptically and the flesh is stitched over the bone. The whole part is well dusted with iodoform, and wrapped in gauze bound on with surgeon’s adhesive plaster. The fox will not touch the dressing when dusted with iodoform. The oper- ation is simple, no anesthetic is needed and there is no danger from bleeding, because, as a rule, no arteries have to be tied. In fact, it is dangerous to give an anesthetic. “When the fracture is not compound, the limb may be set in splints of any light wood; maple saplings make good splints. Bind the splint on with adhesive plaster and with rabbit wire; the fur makes sufficient padding for it. Dust with iodoform to keep the fox from tearing the splint off. In winter, care must be taken that the leg does not freeze. “ Judicious feeding can only be learned by experience. Grass and other green food and fresh earth should be placed in the enclosures at frequent intervals, as the animals require something of that nature to keep them healthy. Their kennels should be kept as clean as possible and should be washed out once or twice a year with a hot solution of creolin, two drams to the pint. One breeder dips all his foxes, after the pups are weaned, in a weak solution of creolin to rid them of fleas and other vermin. “In general, it is far better to take good hygienic precautions before the foxes get sick, than to invite disease by having them live in filth in small enclosures.” FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 45 Baareiveae In 1912, vague reports were circulated among the Diseases breeders of Prince Edward Island that a contagious parasitic disease was being introduced by blue foxes imported from Alaska. A definite warning was furnished the Commis- sion of Conservation by an eminent United States authority that such a dangerous disease exists and would prove fatal to the fox industry if introduced; but few details of the disease were presented. A letter of inquiry was sent to Mr. George M. Bowers, Commissioner of Fisheries, Department of Commerce and Labor, who has charge of the conserva- tion of foxes and seals at certain points in Alaska. The reply under date of November 25, 1912, is as follows: “The Bureau has not been informed of any particular para- sitic disease as existing among the foxes of Alaska. So far as known, fatal disease has been so rare as to be negligible in the con- sideration of fox raising. Improper feeding, accidental poisoning and tuberculosis have been known to cause the death of individual foxes, but nothing in the nature of an epidemic has been reported.” Gabsurite As already stated, the capturing of escaped foxes presents Escaped _ little difficulty provided they do not get outside the exterior SS fence. They will often, of their own accord, return through the open door after a few hours. Or, in the cases where escape has been over snow banks, they will usually return when hungry. They may be driven into the alleys from the outer enclosure when a temporary fence of meshed wire is stretched across from the pen to the outer fence. They can also be caught in box traps, or in steel traps which have the jaws wrapped with muslin so that the limbs will not be injured. A live hen or rabbit makes excellent bait. The latter method will often prove effective when the fox has escaped to the woods, as they are likely, especially if ranch-bred, to remain in the vicinity of the ranch. The ownership of an escaped fox is a disputed point. Many people contend that a fox roaming at large is game for anyone, but, if the ranchman can identify the live fox or the skin, he can recover it as his personal property. pe Ranchmen have given serious study to the question of arking for ; : : F : Identification marking for identification. A numbered aluminum tag, , which may be seen at a considerable distance, is often fastened into the ear. In some way, however, the fox manages to get it off. Marking the teeth by filing or tattooing them is also resorted to, and has, at least, proved practicable. But the disadvantage of not mark- ing the skin is obvious. A possible method, not yet attempted, is to tattoo the skin with the owner’s number or brand, which could be 46 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION stamped into the hide where it is least valuable. ‘he brand could be registered, and the skin or the live animals thus identified. If such a method be practical, it would have the additional advantage of being undiscoverable by thieves and of rendering it possible to identify the skin on the open market. panbied The catching and handling of foxes in their pens pre- Handling sents little difficulty. Expert ranchers will catch and handle them without gloves or instruments, but the ordinary rancher provides himself with a pair of tongs the jaws of which will close to a diameter of two and a half inches. The fox is shut into his nest, and, when the cover is lifted, is grasped about the neck with the tongs. ‘The fox may then be carried away on the arm and the rancher be in no danger of getting bitten. A catching box is also useful. It is made just large enough to admit the fox and has a slide door at each end. When it is placed at the end of the entrance to a house with one slide door opened, the fox may be driven out of the nest into it. The slide door is closed and the fox is thus trapped in the box. If the catching box be made of stiff wire-mesh sides and top, the fur can be closely examined. In the case of the latter type of construction, how- ever, the fox might not readily enter it unless a blanket was placed over the box to darken it. When foxes are transported, they are put into a box which is lined with meshed wire so that they cannot escape by gnawing their way out. They can be kept without water or food for days, but are generally fed water biscuits or a bone and are watered, a can being nailed on the in- terior for that purpose. Express companies are obliged to feed them if food is provided. When foxes are brought to their pens for the first time, they should be liberated by making a small opening in the box and holding it up to the entrance of the kennel. They will then enter their nest and, after a minute’s inspection, will come out into the pen. By this time, the keeper can be away out of sight, and none, or very few, will attempt to climb the wire or rush against it. If pens are provided with cover and built in secluded woodland, the wildest foxes will not climb the wire if the keeper is competent and no strangers are admitted. , No foxes except a few old ones and culls were killed in Slaughtering |. a : : : for Fur Prince Edward Island for their pelts in 1910, 1911 or 1912. The pelt of a fox becomes prime in November, but is not as heavy then as in December. They are killed on Prince Edward Island in the last week of December. An eight months old fox is said to have as full and large a skin as an older one. Some breeders, how- FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 47 ever, disagree with this common opinion and say that one year and eight months is the proper age at which to kill them. The fox, when young, has less silver than in later years and this is an advantage in the present market, silver skins being more common than pure black. It is hardly necessary to remark that no fox should be slaughtered without a careful examination of his coat, and, if it be light and thin and the fox only a pup, he should be spared for a year in order to improve his condition if possible. Considerable care should be taken against injury to the coat dur- ing the months previous to killing. They should not be allowed to lie on damp places and thus have the guard hair frozen into the ground or snow and broken. Smooth, large passageways should be provided. Fleas or mange or other skin affections or parasites should be prevented as they would induce scratching and thus wear off the hair on the shoulders and hips. It is claimed that heavy feeding of nutritious laxative food like molasses, patent food preparations, boiled barley or oats, will fatten the fox and improve the gloss of its coat. Some of the costliest skins marketed were taken off foxes with one quarter of an inch of fat over their ribs. ‘This is contrary to a popular, but incorrect, impression that starving makes the hair longer and improves the coat. Foxes are killed by crushing the chest walls. They are placed on their sides, and the slaughterer places the sole of his foot immediately behind the foreleg and bears down with his full weight. They are also killed by forcing the head back until the neck breaks. There is a danger that the sheen of the overhair—especially the silver hairs—may be somewhat injured with blood and dirt so that clean quarters and methods of killing are essential. The information available indicates that the adoption of some more humane method of killing, such as the use of chloroform or ether, would not injure the fur and, at the same time, be far more merciful. A small padded box with a wad of cotton batting in one of the upper corners upon which chloroform could be dropped from a hole in the cover of the box would be all that would be required. As soon as it is dead, the ani- mal should be removed from the chamber. In the case of such a valuable animal as this, it is not too much to expect of ranchers that they pro- vide one of these inexpensive lethal chambers. Poisons that are available are: cyanide of potassium, prussic acid, strychnine and white arsenic. A very small quantity of cyanide or of prussic acid will kill the fox instantly, but, as these drugs are exces- sively poisonous, it is dangerous to have them in one’s possession unless 48 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION securely locked up. Strychnine and white arsenic do not kill im- mediately, and, if another animal ate the flesh of an animal poisoned by them, it would be poisoned in turn. The cased method of skinning, described elsewhere, is used.* The only difficulty will be with the forelegs and tail. The forelegs become stiff and hard in a short time and should be turned fur side out after a day or two. If the tail bone is not wholly removed in the first attempt, the tail may be slit down the under side. The skins are marketed fur side out and are sewed up in muslin and packed flat in a box. : The condition of the pelt in respect to primeness, proper Judging a PSK: Beaiaic ; Lilt de pis bens Silver Fox Skin killing, skinning, drying and shipping is important. Skins may be blue or unprime; springy, when the hips and shoulders are worn and the hair loose; dirty, shot, chewed, heated, or greasy. In such cases their value is largely decreased. The skin value of the live animal may be judged from the follow- ing standards: Colour.—Glossy black on neck, and wherever no silver hairs are found. The black must be of a bluish cast all over the body rather than a reddish. The underfur must also be dark- coloured. The fur of silver and black foxes is a dark slate next the skin. Silver hairs.—Pure silver bands—not white nor very prominent. In the costliest skins there are only a few silver hairs, which are well scattered over the pelt. The neck and head should be clear black. Flakiness, which is the appearance of whitish silver hairs placed close together in patches, is objectionable. Gloss.—The sheen must be evident. It is caused by the perfect health of the animal and the fineness of the hair, as well as by hereditary influences. Woods and humid atmosphere also favour this important quality. Weight.—A good fox skin will weigh at least one pound, the weight usually varying from ten to nineteen ounces. The thick, long fur makes the weight. This is a very important point, as heavy fur is more durable and handsome. Size-—The value of silver fox pelts increases with the size. FINANCIAL ASPECTS The amount of capital required to finance a ranch containing even tree or four pairs of foxes, involves the organization of companies or ex- *See page 97. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 49 tensive partnerships among people whose experience and location are suitable for fox ranching. In the autumn of 1912, at least $50,000 was required to build, equip, and stock a ranch in Prince Edward Island with five pairs of first-class stock. Many ranches have been equipped for less money, but either cheaper wild or unselected stock from Newfoundland or elsewhere was purchased, or options had been taken at an earlier date on pups for delivery at that time. eee Because of the keen demand for breeding stock, it has been onStock customary to sell options for future delivery. Usually the options are taken on the unborn pups, and 10 per cent. of the price agreed upon is paid when the options are taken. Time of delivery is made the essence of the contract, and, if the rancher has not as many pups as he has sold options for, the orders are filled consecu- tively; i.e., the earliest orders are filled first. In case delivery cannot be made, the agreement provides that the deposit must be returned with 6 per cent. interest per annum. In 1912, options were sold on more pups than could be delivered because of the unusually small number of pups. At the present time (December, 1912), many options on 1915 stock at an average price of about $10,000 per pair have been sold. As large ranchers carefully number the options, the holder of the first option has the best chance of securing the choice of pups when the deliveries are made. All over North America wherever the common red fox is found, agreements are being constantly made with lumbermen, miners, mis- sionaries, fur traders, trappers, government officials and others for future delivery of wild animals captured in their respective districts. The supply of fur, however, will not be appreciably diminished by the capture of wild fur-bearers alive. ae RE In 1911 and 1912 all available foxes were sold for Breeding Stock breeders. The first general sales were made in 1910, at prices not far above the fur-value, viz. about $3,000 to $4,000 a pair. In 1911 the price rose to $5,000 a pair, and, about littering time in 1912, one pair was sold for $20,000. ‘This, however, was for a pair of excellent proved breeders, which, a few weeks later, produced five whelps which were sold for $20,000 in August, 1912. By September 1, when the deliveries of stock began, the price was $8,000 a pair for pups and a month later, $11,000. By December, 1912, $12,000 and $13,000 was the ruling price, with few sales. Old proved breeders of good quality were valued during the last months of 1912 at from $18,000 to $35,000 a pair. 50 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION It can thus be readily understood how highly speculative fox trad- ing is at the present time. The tendency towards inflation is encour- aged and fostered by many of the older breeders. ‘Their optimism is accounted for by the fact that they have become wealthy in the last three years, whereas six or eight years ago, some of them possessed only mortgaged farms and a few foxes. All but three or four have made their fortunes by selling breeding stock, and, with the exception of, possibly, $200,000, obtained for pelts, all of the million or more dollars received by ranchers has been made in this way. The present system of buying for future delivery is another Futures indication of the optimism of investors. In December, 1912, ‘many of the unborn pups of 1913 were purchased and partly paid for, delivery to be made in the first week of September, 1913. The difference between purchasing futures in foxes and gambling in futures in May wheat or October cotton is more apparent than real. Pl A Naturally, the rapid rise of such an industry has unsettled Ownership the peaceful rural conditions in a country like Prince Ed- ward Island. Farmers are using the credit of their farms to purchase shares in silver foxes, or to buy outright cross foxes, red foxes, blue foxes, minks and any other fur-bearer likely to prove profit- able. The banks report a serious withdrawal of deposits and realization upon outside investments, while the lawyers of the little town of Sum- merside, P.H.I., are reported to have recorded about $300,000 in farm mortgages in 1912. A goodly share of the savings banks deposits made by these prosperous islanders has also been withdrawn. Remarking on the great craze for shares of stock in fox ranches and for fox ownership, Wesley Frost, the United States consul at Char- lottetown, wrote to his government in December, 1912: “In adjudging the soundness of the present position of the fox industry on Prince Edward Island it should be borne in mind that the community is an intensely conservative one, composed of Scot- tish and English farmers, intelligent and fairly educated, and with a per capita savings deposit figure to compare with almost any portion of the civilized world..........:. “Tt is true that a large number of the foremost citizens of the Island refuse to participate in the fox boom to any degree whatso- ever. Every large sale by one of the big ranches is hailed as an effort to unload before the tide turns. Investment at the present time is regarded as an attractive speculation—but with the specula- tive element too conspicuous. Granting nearly all that the fox men say, the sceptics fear that, in the readjustments involved in FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 51 getting back to the pelt basis, the industry will injure many of its followers.” Ree It is maintained by some that the present craze is similar to Con the Belgian hare craze in America and the tulip craze in Europe, both of which collapsed with a heavy slump. It is contended that fox fur is only of poor quality; that silver fox has never been bought in large quantities and that, if production is increased, it will become as cheap as rabbit; that wild foxes do not decrease in num- bers when a country is settled; that investments usually yield from 2 to 10 per cent per annum, and that, therefore, the large profits made by fox ranchers during the season of 1912 were abnormal. A smaller propor- tion state that the fox boom was promoted by exaggerated statements respecting the prices received for pelts and by other misrepresentations. They assert that many of the skins marketed have not brought over $50 or $100 each and that a large proportion of the foxes now in captivity is of little more value than red foxes. They also state that the demand for silver fox has been supplied and that the Russian nobility and some other Europeans are the only ones who will pay a high figure. It is also maintained that skins of ranch-bred foxes have not the gloss and quality of the product of the wilds. On the other hand, it is stated that the supply of valuable wild silver fox captured is decreasing, that the demand for costly natural furs is rapidly increasing; that only a few hundred silver foxes are in captivity and that there is ample time for readjustment of values before enough are reared to warrant marketing for fur. The fact is also pointed to that the domestication of fur-bearers has been predicted and attempted for centuries and that those who achieved the work are entitled to reward. Furthermore, it is claimed that when fur is so valuable no animals will be sold unless enormous prices are paid; that it is proved that the fur is better in all respects than the wild product and that the best foxes have not been yet sold and will bring higher prices than the present high record, viz. £580. In addition, the best customers are millionaires and not the nobility. A general comment is all that can be made on the arguments ad- vanced. Some of the points are discussed elsewhere in this report, nota- bly those respecting the prices obtained for ranch-produced furs as com- pared with the wild, the decline in numbers of the natural wild supply, and the general excellent quality of ranch-bred stock as compared with the wild stock. The increased demand and its causes have already been discussed and little remains to be gaid on that subject. It is possible that silver 52 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION fox will become even more fashionable than at present and that the demand will thus be increased, but no one can forecast definitely what fashion will do. It should also be noted that the Russian sable, chin- chilla, sea-otter and seal will be off the market for several years, and, on this account, an increased demand for the fur of the silver fox may be created. ; The imitation of silver fox is also impossible because of the colours of the silver-banded black overhairs. ‘The nearest imitation is the German-dyed pointed fox, made from a common red fox dyed black, which has white hairs from the badger or other animals sewed into it or fastened in by adhesives. It is easily distinguished from the silver fox fur and is not favoured except as a medium-priced article. It is not nearly as beautiful as silver fox. The silver band in a genuine skin is not white, but silvery, and the whole skin possesses a gloss not equalled by a dyed product. The dyeing process, also, has the dis- advantage of rendering the fur less durable. With regard to the statement that much of the stock is of poor quality and low-priced, it must be admitted that this is true. While statistics of the low prices obtained for pelts obviously could not be secured, it is quite probable that at least 30 per cent. of the silver foxes would bring a price of from $50 to $500. At the present quo- tations, probably another 30 per cent. would be priced between $500 and $1,000 and the other 40 per cent. would bring from $1,000 to $4,000 each. The ability to recognize a cheap grade of fur instantly is essential in the present state of the business as traders represent a silver fox as such regardless of quality; and, usually, only a short and distant examination of the animal is tussible. Besides, the sales are made at a season when the fur is not m prime condition to pass judg- ment on. If wild foxes do not decrease when a country is settled, it is not recorded that they increase. The number in unsettled regions, how- ever, is diminishing. Profits in the industry so far have been large, but, except from the point of view of the individual, the dividend on the money invested is not the main consideration. From the social and economic viewpoint, the discovery of how to breed high-grade foxes is what is important. It is akin to an invention; but, as it cannot be patented, the neighbours of the inventors have become the promoters of a new method of pro- ducing a marketable commodity. No huge factories can be built in a few months to manufacture the article to the limit of demand; only the natural law of increase of foxes which is not much over 100 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 53 per cent. per annum can be utilized. Thus, it will be several years before the supply will meet the demand, as it is sure to do eventually. If the investing public can be made to believe that future profits are assured, it is human nature to ask as large a premium on the shares of fox-ranching companies as can be obtained. The stories of the predilection of the nobility of Russia and of other countries for expensive furs like silver fox, sea-otter and sable are mostly drawn from the imagination. The current story that gold is tipped on silver fox overhair was unknown to any of the furriers interviewed, some of whom have been purchasing furs in Europe and America for many years. The story of the Royal Russian furs is doubtless derived from the fact that certain sable and other costly furs were formerly given as tribute to royalty. Ermine happens to be a royal fur and is demanded at coronations and great court ceremonies, yet it is stated that much of the so-called ermine at the coronation of King George V was really rabbit. The best customers of silver fox will be fashionable ladies who will use it in trimmings, stoles and muffs. Because of the removal of foxes to new ranches in Number of Foxes : SPN: In Captivity September, October and November while this inves- tigation was proceeding, no very exact data could be procured regarding the number of silver foxes. The following is an estimate of the number in captivity in each province in October, 1912: Foxers IN CAPTIVITY IN CANADA IN 1912 Bastard No. of Silver Cross and Red Ranches Legh LES OP ae? 650 150 1,000 200 RM COUR 2 5 Wiebe 0 dials a din 32 30 150 13 PHEW SEUNG WICK alec csc stcs's ne 30 10 50 8 SOU ee Ue ol seine we cheie’s 40 10 50 6 CREATING? oii ipa cline Ghidacle ss 30 40 150 14 Other provinces and territories 18 10 50 MNRAS aie cle ka ¢ os aise mk 800 250 1,450 241 The silver fox industry is centred about the following points: Al- berton, Summerside, Charlottetown and Montague in Prince Edward Island; Port Elgin in New Brunswick; Piastre Bay on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Quebec ~ity in Quebec, and Wyoming in On- tario. The number of silver foxes within driving distance of each point is approximately as follows: Alberton, 300; Summerside, 200; Char- lottetown, 100; Montague, 25; Port Elgin, N.B., 25; Quebec city, 20; Piastre Bay, 20; Wyoming, Ont., 12; Carcross, Yukon, 18. In the 54 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION United States there is a silver fox ranch at Dover, Me., and another in New Hampshire. One was reported from Copper River, Alaska. In Russia there are none. EAE a SNES, Since, under present ranching conditions, silver foxes In Numbers increase in numbers approximately 100 per cent. each year, it seems evident that the present prices for founda- tion stock must decline to near the pelt value before many years. The price of the scrub stock and of specimens with the poorer grade of skins will decline first. It is likely that this inferior stock will be used for mating with red and cross foxes which, by the year 1916, should be producing a large number of silvers, mostly of poor quality, however. = With regard to statements frequently made that silver inal Value of i stile Silver Fox fox will be as cheap as rabbit if produced as numerously, the point is not worth discussing since production will not increase beyond the point where a profit can be made. The Lon- den importation of rabbits is now over 80,000,000 skins annually and Australia uses thousands more weekly in her great felting industries. An attempt was made to secure expert opinions from qualified furriers as to the final value of silver fox pelts when they are produced in as large numbers as those of red foxes are now. The consensus of opinion was that because of its greater beauty and more favoured colour, silver fox fur would be three times as valuable as red fox, natural black furs not occurring commonly in nature. In this connection it must be remem- bered that all ranch silver foxes are killed when the fur is prime and no injury whatever is done to the pelt, so that their pelts would be worth from $40 to $80 each for No. 1 skins at the present valuation of the pelts of red foxes from Northeast Canada. But it will be a long time before the production of silver foxes will approach to the number of even high-grade red foxes marketed yearly. The total number of skins, according to the estimates of E. Brass is 1,337,000 yearly for the common fox. Even if the pelts fell to $30, foxes could be raised profit- ably by a farmer who maintained other live stock. In many districts the annual cash outlay per fox for food need not exceed $5, and attending to twenty foxes would not involve as much labour as attending to ten cattle. If fox ranch fences cost more, the land and houses cost much less. 'The fox, moreover, reproduces rapidly and comes to maturity in eight months. Because the silver fox has never been produced in considerable numbers, it has been impossible for furriers to carry a stock large enough to warrant advertising it and featuring its sale. It has been difficult to obtain even two matched skins at one sale. Under the new FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 55 conditions, when thousands of skins may come on the market season after season, matching will be easy, and the best fur stores can carry in stock enough silver fox to warrant the featuring of the stock. RUA & An opportunity is now presented to the ranchmen to Organizations ; : é ae Among Producers unite into a strong co-operative association to pro- tect and promote the industry. Frauds could be ex- posed, breeding records kept, thieves arrested and prosecuted, legis- lation secured, the product advertised and the whole market situation studied. The publication of inexact and fanciful statements by pro- moters of stock companies is also injurious to the industry’s future. The better protection of the stock from thieves can be achieved in two ways. First, the provincial trespass laws could be amended to inerease the fine for trespassing near fox ranch property.* Second, the criminal code could pessibly be revised so as to cause the exte- rior fence of a fur-farming rach to be regarded in law similarly to the walls of a barn or dwelling, and anyone found inside the fence would be guilty of burglary and might be trapped or otherwise captured. These amendments, or others of as effective a nature, might be secured if representations were properly made to legislative bodies by a strong organization. Because of the mixing of various strains of foxes, it is difficult to secure reliable “ performance” records of stock. The only “ perform- ances’ worth noting in foxes are the prices of the pelts of the an- cestors, and such features as fecundity, beauty and weight of the pelt, and size. Well-organized provincial associations could keep perform- ance records, and the various provincial organizations could co-oper- ate with the Federal Department of Agriculture for registration. ‘Quarantine is a question that may, at any time, become of prime importance. Thus, if disease breaks out in any district, the Fed- eral Department of Agriculture, if requested by a strong association of breeders, might be induced to undertake a quarantine. The whole problem of the protection of wild animals and the pos- sibility of propagating them in captivity are broad questions that re- quire more attention than has been given them in the past. A Dominion Furriers and Fur-Farming Association organized along similar lines to the Canadian Forestry Association, and like the latter, publishing its own journal, could do much to promote a healthy interest in protecting and propagating wild life. The organization of provincial associations would be the first logical step in such a movement. To establish a per- *See Appendix V. 56 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION manent, national organization, representatives of the fur trade, the fur farms, the game wardens and commissioners, and the government experts could be called together. POLAR OR ARCTIC FOX (Vulpes lagopus) The polar fox is found in the high latitudes. It is of two colour phases—white, and the so-called blue, which is really a slate- coloured gray. The white fox is brown in summer with the under parts lighter or drab. The white winter coat has a pure white long over- fur with an underwool of a darker colour. The blue phase is of a gray- slate colour all the year round and is found more abundantly in the southern portion of the range of these foxes. It is said to exist in Greenland and Iceland. The number of blue fox pelts sold annually is about one-tenth of the number of white fox, and they sell for sev- eral times as much, bringing, at present market prices, from $20 to $75 each, and even higher for choice pelts. A considerable number of blue foxes were imported into Canada during the season of 1912. Possibly a hundred or more were brought into the Maritime Provinces from Alaska, where feeding is now dif- ficult because the killing of seals is not permitted. One consignment pumbered thirty-two and arrived in very fair condition. They were sold to ranchers at about $800 a pair. No information was obtained to show whether the experiments in breeding these animals in their new environment had been successful or not. Siceee The following account of blue fox farming is taken from Farming “Fur Farming for Profit,’ published by the Fur News Publishing Co., of New York: “For some years past the blue fox has been successfully raised in rather large numbers on several small islands off the coast of Alaska, and for a shorter period on the mainland. The blue fox thrives and multiplies in captivity, and can be raised with rather more satisfaction than the other members of the fox family, as it is more tractable and easily managed. An island makes an excellent blue fox farm for var- ious reasons; there is no large outlay in cash for fencing; as the is- lands are surrounded by the sea, the water does not freeze over in winter and the foxes cannot leave the farm; no danger is to be appre- hended from the intrusion of other animals; a considerable supply of food may be obtained from the sea, which is to a considerable extent self-supplied; crabs are found along the shore, fish are washed up on FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 57 the beach from time to time, and other food is found on the islands. While a number of the islands are now occupied by blue fox farmers, there are many more that are available for the purpose, and which can be leased from the United States Government on reasonable terms. Farms on the mainland may be enclosed with wire fencing, and need not be larger than 50 feet by 50 feet. For raising the foxes on a larger scale than would be possible in an enclosure of the above-mentioned area, several little farms, adjoining each other, may be fenced off. “ Blue foxes breed once a year, mating about February 1, and the young are born near the end of May, the litter comprising from three to seven. Artificial dens or hiding places in which the foxes may re- main secluded at will are provided. “Food for the blue fox includes fresh, dried and cured fish, crabs, fresh meats obtainable in the vicinity of the farms, cooked corn-meal cakes made of a mixture of corn-meal and choppd dried fish, and meal, tallow and fish preserved in oil. “Food should be supplied to the animals most abundantly from the first of July to August, as at that period the care of the young foxes makes it necessary for the old foxes to be better fed than at other times. “The price of blue fox skins is about $30 each, and even more is paid for well-coloured, full-furred and properly handled pelts. “Stock for beginning may be procured from persons raising blue foxes on the islands at a cost of somewhere near $200 per pair. “The Secretary of Commerce and Labor has authority to lease for the purpose of propagating foxes, such islands in the waters of Alaska, excepting the Pribilof group, as have been so leased by the Secretary of the Treasury prior to May, 1898. The rental in the past has been one hundred dollars per annum for each island.” The blue fox is a better climber than the red and an overhang wire of 36 inches is required. Otherwise, the pens are built similarly to those of the common fox. OWE The rate of increase of blue foxes is said by Ernest Thompson Increase Seton to be a good index to the increase of red foxes. He says: “St. George island, about 36 square miles, has about 270 pairs of foxes, and although they are fed and protected and the species has 5 to 12 in a litter, not more than 400 to 500 can be marketed each year without reducing the stock.” The figures are about cor- rect for the annual increase of the silver fox, despite the claims of some ranchers of an average annual increase of from 200 to 300 per cent. 58 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Maj. Gen. A. W. Greely, in his Handbook of Alaska, published in 1909, writes: Rie “Unwise exploitation has very greatly reduced the fur- Additional : wie : Fer - Details bearing productivity of the land animals of the Aleutian islands, as well as of the interior of Alaska. With the early extermination of foxes in prospect, there was organized about 1894 the Semidi Propagation Company, to domesticate and raise foxes on un- inhabited islands. 'The original fox farm was stocked from the Pribi- lof group and was situated on North Semidi island, whence the in- dustry has extended to thirty or more islands to the eastward, far the greater number being situated in Prince William sound, though there are seven in the Kadiak group. Most of the islands are occupied under lease from the United States, and the law excepts from homesteading the fox islets. The companies and several individuals have followed this industry, which has been only moderately successful from the financial standpoint. Considerable investment is necessary, it takes at least four years before any revenue is obtained, the life is most isolated, and skins are not very productive, usually varying in value from $10 to $20, according to quality and demand. In some instances natives have become fox breeders, and, where private parties are so engaged, they have supplemented their fox breeding by fishing, farm- ing, or lumbering. “The largest fox farm is at Long island, near Kadiak, where there are nearly 1,000 blue foxes. The largest number of skins comes, however, from the Pribilof group, where about 700 foxes are annually taken by the natives, supplementary to the fur-seal catch. These foxes are not domesticated. “The very valuable silver-gray fox is too thoroughly savage to accept conditions necessary for profitable fox breeding and, in conse- quence, fox farming is confined almost entirely to the blue fox. The fox is monogamous, and an average of four foxes come to maturity from each litter. It is necessary to feed the foxes the greater part of the year, and careful supervision is essential to their successful raising. “The blue fox thrives wild on the extreme easterly isle of Attu, and from that point several of the Shumagin islands, Chernabura, Simeonof, etc., have been stocked with moderate success. The ex- tension and development of this industry is desirable as one of the much needed means to enable the Aleuts successfully to meet changed con- ditions of Alaskan life.” FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 59 BuLuE Fox BREEDERS IN ALASKA * Island Locality Name of Breeder Post-offiice Address Little Naked...| Pr. William sound.| Walter Story.........| C/o Alaska Packers . Assoc., San Fran- cisco, Cal. Ly ae - Mla Carlson asic 4's sbesweae wet eter eee x a “ ours | Carlsonk . 02. |e ee kan og yaya ete ; Fe “ Fred Lilyogren.......| Ellamar, Alaska. Big Naked..... f James McPherson... . a ‘ oh ee « Ie wardebilkris 74 )5ee b & Fairmount.... ‘ William Byers....... ‘ “ 18) bye see if Pres. Cloudman...... e & Ta es Cen i William Busby....... « ‘ Genser: « George Donaldson.... é « ro OS a a Y Louis Thorstensen.... e « Greene......... A Peterson & Brower... “ 4 Le ea % George Fleming...... as « Grae...) 5 George Fleming...... : s Bonds. 32", ¥ ONS) LT Gs IB a « E DMUbHB.. = 3). ; . James Bettles....... a © Squirrel...,. . f John L. Johnson......| Orca, Alaska. Berne: od og “ Kendall & Stering....| Ellamar, Alaska. Small, near IPerryps: % Christ Christensen. . . c € Glacier’ 0052: < Peter Jackson........ . . An island (no MAINE) 2... > Resurrection bay. .| Alfred Law.......... « 3 Vukons..2,.-..| Kachemak bay....) A. R. Ritchie: ....... Homer, Alaska. Canerblizabetb ies cece es sti kee Mane Wirithite emer -s Seattle, Wash. Yukawak...... Southwest of Wadtaleta7 tse t. Semidi Propagating Comes. eee se Kadiak, Alaska. North Semidi.. Xe : 5 £ South Semidi. . by a « . Chernobour....| Near Unga......... « i “ Little Konuishi Ship, Pe Hien exe ik « . + Simeonof....... PR at eect - a % Marmot..:.... SE Ree 4 ¢ ; Witiglegc scl, Near Kadiak....... - “ « Adronica.......| Near Unga.........| W. L. Washburn......} San Francisco, Cal. (Administrator) CON oo eee, Near Kadiak.......| Semidi Propagating COS eee Kadiak, Alaska. Lerch 1d Bae eee eee Near Cape Eliz....} Alaska Fox Co....... < * byes eo Oy oie Near Kadiak....... ae Propagating (Orato es Gr Looms Ee & ss Samalga....... West of Unalaska. .| Not occupied. Peak..........] Pr. William sound..!| McPherson & Elk....| Ellamar, Alaska. *From Report of U.S. Department of the Interior, Public Lands Section, House Documents, 58th Congress, 2nd Session. There are also two small islands near Prince of Wales sound not now occupied. The following islands, also, are no longer occupied: Demidoff, Eastern Chugatz, Holliday and Near islands. Additional light is thrown on the breeding of blue foxes by the 60 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION following article on “ The Blue Foxes of the Pribilof Islands,” by James Judge: Tue BiuE Foxes oF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS “The Pribilof islands have many natural advantages as a home for foxes. The innumerable caves and subterranean passages afford the best protection possible against the elements or natural enemies, while the bird, seal, and sea-lion life, with what may be picked up on the beach, have in the past afforded a supply of food rarely found else- where. At the present time foxes are about extinct on St. Paul and Otter islands and have been preserved on St. George only through a system of artificial feeding adopted several years ago. This paper deals with St. George foxes only. pelts hal “Tn former times the annual quota of seals killed on St. Food Supply (George island varied between 20,000 and 25,000. Hun- dreds of sea-lions also were killed annually. With the exception of what the natives took for food, these vast quantities of meat were left on the ground where the animals were killed, and during the long period from September to May, these seal and sea-lion fields furnished the foxes with food, when other and more palatable food was not obtainable. Frequently dead whales, walruses, sea-lions, or fish were washed ashore, and, when this occurred, the killing fields were aban- doned by the foxes, and only resorted to again when this temporary food supply was exhausted. These were practically the conditions under which the St. George foxes lived from the time of Russian occupancy of the island down to 1890. During this long interval, no attention was paid to the animals, except that trapping was indulged in by the native residents, from one to two months each winter when the skins were prime. “During the summer of 1896 I had the natives salt 500 Present , : : Food Supply seal carcasses, the meat being preserved in an old silo formerly used by the sealing company. During the fol- lowing winter, these carcasses were taken out, a few at a time, freshened, and thrown out for fox food. The rapidity with which the foxes learned that food would be set out daily at a certain place and time, and the numbers in which they came for it, surprised everyone on the island. They not only ate the meat but nearly all the bones as well. For an hour before feeding time they could be seen ‘coming from all directions to participate in the feast. While waiting, they prowled around the village picking up everything of an edible nature and many things not edible. They came in greatest numbers when the weather was clear and cold. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 61 “Since that time all seal meat on St. George, not used by the natives, has been salted within two or three days of the killing, and fed to the foxes during the succeeding winter. When taken from the silo it is half rotten, most of the brine having escaped, but the foxes prefer it to fresh beef, mutton, or fish of any kind, as has been learned by experiment. With the exception of three seasons, the catch of seals has been under 2,500, and, as fully half the meat is required by the natives, it has been necessary to supplement the amount allowed the foxes with other food. “ In the spring and summer thousands of sea birds make the islands their home. This is the time the foxes enjoy life to the utmost. The birds are very numerous, and, in the early part of the season, many meet death or injury accidentally, and, of course, fall a ready prey to the foxes. During the month of May, hundreds of small auklets or ‘ chooch- kies’ in flying to and from the sea, strike the telephone wire and are killed or injured. No sooner do they reach the ground, however, than the foxes are there to pick them up. For the first few days, reynard will eat the entire bird, but later on as he becomes surfeited, he eats only the head and leaves the body untouched. The eggs of birds are a deli- cacy enjoyed by the foxes. The ‘arrie’® or murre and other large birds lay their eggs on shelving rocks on the cliffs; and it is astonishing to see a fox climb around an almost inaccessible place, secure an egg and carry it away for its young, to return shortly and repeat the operation. “ By September 1, the birds, their breeding season being over, have mostly left the island, the deaths among seals on the rookeries are few, and marine food is not abundant, so it behooves the foxes to seek food in other quarters. “One season a mush of either corn-meal or middlings was used, but while readily eaten by the foxes, it was not good for them. Dried fish was tried and found excellent food, and during the last two years salt fish has been in use. Salt itself is deadly to the foxes, so that in feeding salted food, care must be taken to thoroughly freshen it. “Seal killing begins in June, and, as the carcasses are left on the ground, a good supply of food becomes available. It appears, however, that at that season, the eggs and meat of birds are preferred to seal meat, as the latter is seldom touched, while bird feathers and egg shells are to be found along the trails and at the mouth of every fox warren. With the departure of the birds in the fall the foxes follow the shore line in search of food thrown up by the sea, and pay particular attention to seal rookeries, on the lookout for dead pups, which seem to be re- lished, and are dragged off for the young. 62 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION “ While the animals eat a great deal of grass and other land and marine vegetation, it is evident that they cannot long survive on a diet that does not include animal food. He “The year 1890 may be considered the turning point in Conditions fox life on the Pribilof islands, which, of course, include _ St. George. At that time, or soon after, a scarcity of foxes was everywhere apparent, and the government agents in charge, wrongly attributing the diminution to over-trapping, forbade all trap- ping for three different winters in the early nineties, with the result that the total catch for the seven years ending with 1897 was only 2,198. The real trouble was a shortage of substantial food, such as the foxes had always been accustomed to, but this was not then under- stood, or at least no steps were taken to supply the deficiency. “The slaughter of seals upon the ocean by pelagic hunters had so decimated the seal herd, that in 1890 only 6,139 were secured on St. George island, instead of the regular quota of 25,000. In 1891, 1892 and 1893, owing to the modus vivendi, the number of seals killed on this island was further reduced to 2,500. The sea-lion herd of the island had likewise been greatly depleted, so that but few of those animals were killed, and consequently there was little or none of that meat for the foxes. “With the departure of the birds in the fall, the foxes as usual scoured the beach for food and that source proving insufficient, recourse to the seal fields, where formerly they were sure of something when driven to extremities, proved unavailing. The limited amount of seal meat was soon cleined up. After that, there was nothing for them but starvation, and those that succumbed were quickly devoured by the survivors. hasten “(Coincident with the regular feeding of foxes, the experi- Trapping ment of catching them in small box traps was made. This was successful from the beginning, as the foxes did not hesitate to enter for the bait, and sometimes two would get in before the trap was sprung, although it was intended only for one. The foxes came in such numbers that at least 50 box traps would be needed to accommodate them. This suggested the erection of a house trap, and accordingly a rough corral or house trap 8 by 14 feet was con- structed beside the coal house. Three or four seal carcasses were placed in the trap for bait. The foxes entered with little hesitation and soon 40 or more would be inside. The man operating the trap stood inside the coal house, and by pulling a repe, caused the door to drop, and the foxes were prisoners. Subsequently a wire-mesh trap or cage 14 by 10 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 63 by 8 feet was procured and placed at one end of a house especially for the fox business. This house is divided into three rooms, in the larger of which is a vat for freshening salt meat or fish. The other rooms are designated as trapping and examination rooms, respectively. The cage adjoins the trapping room. All food set out for foxes is placed in the cage, the door being always open. Week after week before trapping begins the foxes feed in this trap, and of course have no fear of it. “When trapping time arrives, food is placed in the trap as usual and 8 or 10 men repair to the fox house. The door of the wire cage is adjusted and the man who operates it is stationed in the trapping room, in a position to observe what is going on in the cage; and when a suffi- cient number of foxes have entered, he closes the door by pulling a small rope. He then goes into the cage and drives the animals into the trapping room, where two men with large leather mittens pick the foxes up and pass them, one at a time, into the hands of others waiting in the examination room. “When foxes are numerous in the trapping room, they run between the legs of the men attempting to catch them, climb up their bodies and jump from their shoulders, but very seldom bite except when they are taken hold of. If they get a good hold of a man’s hand they hang on with bull-dog tenacity until their jaws are pried apart. They seem to realize their inability to bite through the mittens, and with few ex- ceptions are easily handled. Major Clark reports one last year as lying inert in the native’s arms, making no struggle whatever, and apparently enjoying the smoothing it received. “The Government Agent is stationed in the examination Selecting : Wenn . 3 : ; the Breeders 00m, and when a fox is passed in he decides whether it shall be killed, or branded and dismissed as a breeder. The elements on which his decision is based are the colour and quality of the fur, the age, length of brush, and live weight of the animal. All white foxes, runts, those off colour, crippled, bob-tailed, in poor con- dition physically, suffering from mange, or otherwise unfit to be left as breeders, are dispatched at once. All animals left as breeders must be in good physical condition, of good colour, and either young or in the prime of life; males must weigh at least 10 pounds, and females at least 714 pounds. “The age is determined by a dental examination which is made by opening the animal’s mouth with a soft gag, and inspecting the teeth. “Tn taking the live weight, a strap two inches wide is looped around the animal’s tail and the other end of the strap attached to a spring 64 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION balance suspended from the ceiling of the room. When the animal becomes quiet the weight is ascertained and entered. “Tf the beast is to be left as a breeder, a ring one inch wide is cut in the fur of the tail with a pair of scissors after which it is dropped into a hopper and finds itself out of doors. Males are branded near the end of the tail, females near the rump. About four-fifths of those dis- missed as breeders are caught the second time, and some of them are re- caught ten times or more in the course of the season. Recently, Mr. Chichester installed several automatic traps, auxiliary to the regular traps, which have done good work. “When the animal is to be killed, the man who has it in hand bends the head backwards until the neck is broken. The dead animal is then thrown into the adjoining room, where other men remove the pelt. This is done by running a sharp knife up the inside of the legs, and down the length of the tail, and drawing the pelt off, leaving the fur side in. After the breeding quota is secured, all unbranded foxes enter- ing the trap are killed. All trapping is done at night with light from janterns. The next day the skins are cleansed and stretched on frames to dry. Later on they are whipped and combed, and, the following summer, barrelled and shipped to: London. “The skins are prime from November 15 to January 15, approxi- mately. About the latter date the fur begins changing colour, and the skin shows signs of ‘ staginess.’ “ As indicated, the animals’ ages are ascertained by a dental exami- uation. In this work no pretense to absolute accuracy is made. Dental examination of a hundred or more dead foxes of both sexes showed a division of the animals into three classes, which classification has since been followed in making the annual census. These are first, yearling or approximately one year old; second, middle-aged or approximately two years or three years old; third, over three years old. The young and the advanced in life are easily distinguished, but the intervening ages are more difficult to determine. It is doubtful if the life of St. George foxes ordinarily exceeds five years. ae ani “On examination of 334 stomachs, seal meat formed the Stomachs entire contents of 64, and the partial contents of 100 others. This meat of course was gotten in traps, and was what the animals came for. The contents of 17 full stomachs varied in weight between 14 and 20 ounces. These animals were still feeding when trapped and how much more they would have eaten if unmolested, can- not be determined. The stomach, when empty, weighs from 1% to 2 ounces, but its capacity of distention for the reception of food is aston- FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 65 ishing. It is doubtful if an animal after gorging with so much meat would feed the next day, but it is known that certain foxes living in the vicinity of the village do come for food daily. “ Grass was found in 88 stomachs, feathers in 57, wild parsnip in 12, fish bones in 8, bird or seal bones in 28, dirt or sand in 22, tunicates in 66, sea eggs in 4, and fox fur in 8. Seven stomachs contained only water, and 14 were empty. “The intestines varied in length from 6% to 10 feet, no Contents of : 5 : ‘ : Intestines | difference being found in this particular between the sexes. On examination of the intestines of 240 foxes killed in trapping, grass was found in 62, feathers in 20, wild parsnip in 16, tunicates in 5. Neither of these things undergo any apparent chemical change in the stomach or intestines, and can be identified upon evacua- tion in the excrement. Those small circular tunicates are swallowed without mastication and passed without digestion. Dirt was found in 24 intestines, gravel in 11, bones in 12, fox fur in 10. Two varieties of intestinal worms were found in the intestines of 26. Specimens sent to Dr. Stiles were identified as species that affect domestic animals, and not particularly harmful. The distribution of the worms was general, all ages and sexes containing them. Excepting lice in the fur, these worms were the only parasites discovered. phy desi “The live weights of 198 males left for breeders varied Characteristics between 10 and 20 pounds each. Of this number 180 weighed between 10 and 13% pounds. “The live weights of 225 females varied between 734 and 11% pounds. Of this number, 18 weighed less than 8 pounds and 13 over 1014 pounds. Of 180 males killed, 101 weighed 10 pounds and under, while 17 weighed over 13 pounds, the heaviest weighing 19'% pounds. “Of 86 females killed, 55 weighed 8 pounds and under, and 9 weighed 11 pounds, and over. The heaviest female killed weighed 13% pounds, the lightest 4%. “The average length of 180 male skins, after being dried and ready for shipment, was 30 inches plus; average breadth, 11 inches plus; average length of tail, 15 inches plus. “When the skins of male and female are placed side by side and compared, the fur of the former is generally found to be superior to that of the latter. As a rule, the fur of the two and three year old males is the choice of all. “ Assuming that the sexes are equal in number at birth, the evid- ence at my command tends to the conclusion that the males are more 66 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION vigorous and better able to survive adverse climatic or other conditions than the females. “xcept for a few cases, mating, according to my observa- Breeding tion, is confined to the month of March and the first half of April. The earliest birth of pups noted by me was May 17, the latest June 6. Altogether I have seen 22 litters of new-born foxes. The largest of these consisted of 11, the smallest of 5 members. Three litters contained 1 white each, three, 2 dead each, and six, 1 dead each. These discoveries were made shortly after the young were born and before some of them were dry. In all these cases the mother made no preparation, but gave birth in slight depressions on the surface of the ground. In every case the mother was much concerned by my presence, and immediately transferred her young to some subterranean spot in the neighbourhood. She removed the dead as well as the living. The male consort was not present at any of these births. I am inclined to think the mother always gives birth on the surface of the ground, and within a day or so transfers the young underground for protection and security. “As a general thing the young are not observed until about the middle of June. They are then of pretty good size and play or feed about the mouths of their burrows, on food brought by their parents. When the young are thus playing or feeding, one and occasionally two old foxes are in the vicinity. These are supposed to be parents when two are present; but generally only one, presumably the mother, is about, and the approach of a person causes the emission of a shrill note from her which sends the young scampering under the ground. “The number of young seen at the mouths of their burrows varies between 1 and 4, according to my observation. Major Clark saw 12 at the mouth of one warren, but he was under the impression that more than one family was represented. During the summer of 1906, Mr. Chichester observed daily for many weeks a family of eleven, all of which were eventually brought up by the mother. I am inclined to consider this litter a very exceptional one. If it were not, we would have a great many more foxes at trapping time. “The infant mortality, which is very great, takes place shortly after birth and is probably attributable to want of nourishment, cold, and inclement weather. As soon as the young can eat meat, they thrive rapidly and under ordinary conditions reach maturity. “On one occasion a native found a family of 12 young that had just been born. One he thought was dead and brought it to me, but after being in the house ten minutes the little thing showed signs of / FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 67 life. It was placed on a hot water bottle, where it soon revived and began to squeal. Mrs. Judge administered milk with a medicine drop- per and it soon settled down and went into a healthy sleep. When it awoke, the medicine dropper was again brought into use; and, later on, it learned to nurse one end of a bunch of cotton, the other end of which was immersed in milk. It improved steadily on a milk diet until it was three weeks old. It then grew less ravenous, probably as a result of overfeeding, and, at times, refused to nurse. At the age of four weeks it died. Its eyes opened on the 15th day. When brought in, it weighed 2 1-4 ounces; when three weeks old it weighed six ounces. =o patie aii “White foxes are occasionally found in litters of blue. of White Foxes ‘There is no record of a litter of white foxes. As the white skins are of comparatively little value, continued effort to exterminate white foxes has been pursued since 1897. Every white fox entering the trap since that time has been killed at once, and, in addition, the natives are permitted to shoot them any time dur- ing the winter. The total number killed in 1897 was 40, in 1898 it was 18, and since that time the number killed per year has varied be- tween 6 and 12, with the exception of the winter of 1903-1904, when 15 were killed. Last winter 8 white skins were secured, but Major Clark, who was then in charge of St. George, says that only three of these were pure white, the others being either marred or mottled with faint blue spots. During the summer of 1906 Mr. Chichester observed a number of foxes that were part blue and part white. After Septem- ber, he saw but one of these and therefore concluded that as winter approached the parti-coloured coats became white. “Evidence of disease among foxes on the island is scanty. Diseases Foxes found dead at any season are always autopsied, the local physician assisting, but it is seldom that the cause of death can be definitely ascertained. Dr. Mills and I found a fox in spasms, which on post mortem was found to have been suffering from uremic poisoning. One death was due to hemorrhage of the kidney, and another to tuberculosis. This latter case was found by us on May 28, 1905. The animal was a female, 3 years old, carrying one brand. She was void of fat and weighed not more than 4 pounds. The loss of flesh had occurred since the time of trapping, a few month previous. Tubercular nodules were found in both lungs. Death, on one occa- sion, resulted from a sack of pus which had formed on the intestine. Another dead fox showed all the organs normal except one of the kidneys, which was atrophied. “Mr. Chichester reports three dying of kidney disease and one of 68 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION tuberculosis in 1906, and one of perforation of the stomach caused by an ulcer in 1907. In that year he killed four that were suffering from mange, and in 1908, Major Clark killed nine that he found afflicted with the same disease. “An unusual number of dead on St. Paul island the winter of 1902-03, taken in connection with symptoms of mania noticed by Mr. Lembkey, led him to believe that an epidemic of some sort affected the foxes that year. “When foxes starve to death a dark discharge issues from the anus. “Statistics of the catches prior to 1840 are not available. Yield of j : Fox Skins For the 19 years ending with 1860 the average annual catch for St. George island was 1,278. “For the 19 years ending with 1889, according to figures kindly furnished me by the Alaska Commercial Company, the former lessees of the sealing privileges, the average annual yield was 1,074. “The following table shows concisely the entire trapping since steel traps were abandoned, which is coincident with the inauguration of regular feeding. BuuE Foxers TRAPPED : f RELEASED NUMBER OF TRAPPINGS Killed, PO ees ‘Total inc. white trapped Fox house | Elsewhere Male Female 1897-98... . il 1 346 102 324 772 1898-99... . Ul 386 110 389 885 1899-00... . 9 418 65 498 981 1900-01... 24 a 441 204 _ 690 153385 1901-02... . 24 9 246 202 650 1,098 1902-03... 28 21 511 250 250 1,011 1903-04... 28 21 491 284 286 1,061 1904-05.... 38 37 272 244 250 766 1905-06... 43 22 481 279 802 1,062 1906-07... 36 31 380 232 270 882 1907-08... 446 267 272 1,005 *Occasionally the column, “ total trapped”, includes skins of animals found dead. “During the first three years shown in the above table, the work was under the supervision of the government agents, the next five un- der that of the company agents, and, since 1906, again under the gov- ernment agents. The ebb and flow in fox life as shown by the trapping is capable of explanation, but the details cannot here be considered. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 69 “Females were immune from killing during the first six Summary years; since then approximately an equal number of males and females have been released for breeding purposes, and the remainder killed, regardless of sex. It was thought, in the first in- stance, that, by saving all females and a small number of males, poly- gamy would become general among the foxes as is the case with domestic animals. Results not meeting with expectations, the scheme of leaving a number of pairs and saving them for breeders was adopted. “ Evidence of promiscuous sexual intercourse among the foxes is confined to a very few cases, none of which appear in the printed re- ports of the agents of the Department of Commerce and Labor. Only one case has come under my observation. The different method of branding males and females is reported by Mr. Chichester as showing that pairs of foxes often seen playing together in the spring are not always male and female. He also observed a female fox bring up a litter of young alone and unaided. Later on, however, the same gen- tleman found the first authentic case of paired foxes jointly engaged in feeding and guarding the same litter of young. “Tt is possible that some of the females do not mate or become impregnated, and there is evidence that others abort; so, on the whole, it would seem wise to leave a surplus of healthy vigorous females, in- stead of adhering rigidly to the rules now in vogue. “ At present the business is carried on under a contract, by which the North American Commercial Co. gets all the skins taken, com- pensates the natives for their labour, and furnishes a certain mount of fox food, but the feeding, trapping and entire conduct of fox affairs is in the hands of the government agents. “ While the regular annual catch of fox skins on St. George island since the present methods were adopted is less than half what it was from 1870 to 1890, as herein shown, it is evident that the herd, and with it the annual catch of skins, can be indefinitely increased. The fact that on St. Paul island, where nothing was done to perpetuate fox life, the species is about extinct, justifies the opinion that the measures taken on St. George island have preserved the foxes thereon. Summing it up, it may be stated that the preservation and increase of the foxes on St. George island depend, primarily, upon the bountiful feeding of proper food for about eight months every year; and, second- arily, upon the careful and methodical selection of the animals reserved for breeding purposes.” RACCOON (Procyon lotor) HE raccoon beongs to the Carnivora and is closely related to the bears. It weighs from 10 to 25 pounds, is of a brownish-gray colour with black tipped hairs over the back and dark rings on the tail, and, when captured as a cub, is easily tamed. It does not appear to have the fighting characteristics peculiar to the mustelidae and ,there- fore, might possibly be easily kept in a wooded area where numerous dens and hollow trees are found. Its habits are somewhat similar to those of the bear. It hibernates in winter, so that probably mating takes place in the fall, and the young are born about May 1. It will eat meat of all kinds, frogs, corn and vegetables. One breeder said that he had fed his pair almost wholly on wheat shorts supple- mented with table scraps. A heavily-wooded area, several acres in extent, with a creek run- ning through, affords a favourable site for a raccoon ranch. The fence enclosing it should be of No. 14 galvanized woven wire, 2-inch mesh, with a substantially constructed overhang. A sheet of iron around the top of the fence would also help to prevent escape. Brass estimates the yearly production of pelts at 600,000—all from America. The northern pelts are best and No. 1 large northern are now quoted at $4.50 each, with prices advancing sharply. Near large cities the flesh may also be sold for fifty cents or more. If the rich mahogany-coloured raccoons could be secured and bred true to colour, and if present prices were maintained, a profitable in- dustry could probably be built up in northern districts after the neces- sary experience had been acquired. The fact that raccoons are found in only a few portions of Canada does not mean that they cannot be successfully raised in more northern regions if food is provided. In general, it is safer to move a fur-bearer from a warmer to a colder home than to reverse the process. :peztusooe1 oie wOODDBY Jo seroads OAL “Yom aingny Aq pegrpour oq ysnur ‘suordes ysvoD oytovg pus ureyaNOW A¥00xY O49 UL 3Nq ‘a4BINd08 A[qQBI9[0} eI” SOUT] OY} 4889 PUB YZIOU ay} UT "00498 LA pus ‘suiwop “y “Gq ‘pileg “Ag ‘PIN “SD ‘Wally “Vy ‘f ‘AerMoy “f ‘suepy “] ‘qJOo1UUe yy “YY ‘UOSpieyory uyor ‘caedEW WV "OD ‘poosso "HM ‘euBlIBToBy “Ye ‘AoE * A ‘SONI “D ‘qd ‘sussey Aq sieded uo Aperyo pepunoy si dem SIqL VCAVNVO NI SNOODOVA NVOIMANV HLYON AHL JO AONVA—'L AVN “UOjay uosdmoy, fq ‘somis: perl ay) UL BOGI parybuuhidoy ,,"swuguy udoyjoN fo 8a210}817]-afV7,, 8 Uy geouisy UOPY UosdwmoYyy, jsausg WOLf BUOY 8 JoUQrlog: 8aqpy9 fo fisajinoo fiq peonposdagy on 02 7 — = oF v , { a en = Y oe =U: a ) my / =>= | or | — —— eee / p ~ ° “ See ae ee ie ey | ties 7 SS BPBPO CLP LOL LLL ALAA LE OLE OO I A IE LO AIO LOE IIE GEE: - ee ee eee ——. « — * -_ _ a < ,. * = “ - — -. 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AVN ‘uopy uosdwoyy, isauiy fq ‘s2nViS' Pou 2471 U2 GOGT Paryoihdog ,, sjuUUY UsoYMON fo SoNOI82}]]-2/UT,, 8 UOJY UOSdWOYL JsaUL WoUs SUG 8 s9UquOg saLDYD fo senoD fig paonposday og FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 85 value. But the actual test has yet to be made and carried over a term of several years before a decision can be reached as to the degree of suc- cess and the profit to be expected. Many facts of vital importance, such as methods of insuring breeding, the rate and dates of breeding, the most satisfactory and economical food supply, improvement of fur by selection of breeders, and age and date when fur reaches its great- est perfection, remain to be worked out. If the necessary experiments can be carried to a successful conclusion, a valuable industry will be added to our national resources.” SKUNK (Mephitis) No skunk-farms that were examined could be regarded as com- mercial ventures, but two or three ranches purposed to build larger pens when the animals increased in numbers sufficiently. The increase in all cases examined was an average of five young for each female kept. One male was kept for each half dozen females. The question always asked when skunk-farming is mentioned, is concerning the difficulty of conducting such a business in any reputable neighbourhood on account of scenting. Contrary to popular expectation, the skunk appears to be least objectionable of all ranched animals, the fox being the most objectionable. One might pass alongside a hundred skunks and not observe any odour. They can be easily handled as the accompanying photograph shows. While they may be deodorized by cutting into the scent glands when they are about’ ten days old, the operation is an unnecessary one, and may be even harmful to the animal. Skunks are graded according to the proportion of white hair on the skin; as No. 1 with no stripes or very short ones; No. 2, with longer stripes, and No. 3 when the stripes extend the full length of the body. The white part is cut off the pelts and only the black fur is used so that there is a larger area of good fur on No. 1 pelts than on the whiter ones. It is probable that the rapidly advancing prices of skunk in 1912 will give an impetus to the skunk-raising industry. No. 1 northern skunk brings $4.25 at present and, if this price continues, there is a large profit to be made in skunk-farming. Skunks can be kept in captivity under conditions similar to those recommended for mink. On account, however, of the lower value of the pelts and the less vicious and even harmless nature of the animal, it is better to allow them a large run together. Thé males will not injure the females, but the females will kill the males after mating if they are kept enclosed with them. 'The females might be kept in pens, 86 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION after mating and while rearing the young. A wide range is necessary in order to permit of their securing a variety of natural food. The methods used in skunk-raising are completely outlined in the following extracts from letters written to the Hunter-Trader-Trap- per Magazine by Mr. Brae: SKUNK-RAISING “Skunk raising is a failure if on a small scale, while on a large scale, it would be a paying business, giving from 50 to 100 per cent. profit. I will give you my experience on a small scale. The first season I had 12 females and 3 males, all black; the average litter of young was from 3 to 6; the average grade, about 85 per cent. black, the bal- ance being Nos. 2, 3 and 4. “ Naturally, skunks live in holes in the ground, rocks, trees, stumps, etc. Their food consists of mice, birds, bugs, crickets, grasshoppers, bees, wasps, yellow jackets, angle worms, seeds, berries, ground roots and bark. My pen was 14 feet by 36 feet, and 4 feet high with 14-inch mesh wire floor and 1-inch mesh wire top and covering. I had a num- ber of boxes for harbours. My pen is secure against escape but entirely too small for the purpose intended. “In the first place, I wish to discuss the disadvantages of start- ing on a small scale. Having a large number in a small place, will cause them to crowd and fight and kill one another, while to have a separate pen for each female is expensive. After the rutting season the female will kill the male, apparently to protect her young. Skunks are liable to a fatal disease, similar to sore throat or diphtheria. I have known females that had no young ones to take the young of other mothers to their boxes and fight the real mothers away until the kid- napped young starved to death. Others that had young would steal the young of two or three others and then, having more than they could care for, some would starve. “Another disadvantage in a small enclosure is this, that they get so tame they come out in the daytime to feed and the exposure to sunlight fades the fur to a certain extent. As it is also almost impossible to supply a lot of skunks with the kind of food they get in the wild state, it becomes necessary to substitute some other kind of food, such as dead horses, cows, chickens, corn and various other things which a man with a small lot cannot always have. If not fed properly they become cannibalistic. “Like every other business, skunk-raising requires capital; and with some one who has capital, together with the experience and prac- tical knowledge, I venture to say that there is 50 to 100 per cent. profit BEAVER Live SKUNKS—LONG-STRIPED em eee eae am ansin ee " Od FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 87 in the business. To make a success, a man should have at least $2,500 to start with. At least one acre of ground should be enclosed with a 3-foot concrete wall in the ground, and about a 6-foot board fence on top. This would probably cost $1,500. One should then secure at least 100 females and 25 males. These would probably cost $300. The remaining $700 would be needed to pay for feed and for a man to take care of them. “The necessary attention would be to feed and water them, and, in the season of maternity, to see that the females do not steal one another’s young and crowd one another in the boxes. The males and females should, of course, be separated. With good care 90 per cent. of the young should be raised. “Thirty years ago black skunk pelts sold at from 50 to 75 cents. To-day they are one of the leading furs on the market, although they are not known by their own names, but by various assumed ones. At the present time, it is profitable to raise skunks for their fur. The demand is now greater than the supply and is increasing because of the heaviness of the fur, its fine texture, its good wearing qualities and strength. On the other hand, the supply is decreasing for various reasons. ‘The large forest and prairie fires, devasting large sections so that neither bud, snake, nor fur-beating animal can exist, and the high price which spurs every hunter and trapper to his utmost effort, are the principal reasons. Then coon hunters coming from the city with a pack of hounds to hunt for sport, destroy a good many. In fact, they usually get one coon and kill six or eight skunks. You can follow their trail by the smell and the dead bodies of skunks which they have wantonly destroyed. “ Skunks can be raised as easily as house cats, provided you have an enclosure where they cannot dig out or climb over. For every hun- dred mature skunks, you should have an acre of ground enclosed. “T experimented for three years on a small scale. The first year I had one male and three females. They brought forth fifteen young. One of the young ones died, leaving eighteen—eleven females and seven males. Five of the young graded as No. 2, the balance star black. “The second year I started with twelve females and. two males, which brought forth forty-three young. Three of the young ones died, so I had fifty-four in all—fourteen old ones and forty young ones. I disposed of seventeen males and five No. 2 females, leaving a balance of thirty-two black ones. “The third year the females had from three to six young. Unfor- tunately, I could not attend them myself and had to entrust them to a man who had no interest in them except the pay he received from me 88 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION for his work. About the first of August, the skunks dug a hole in the pen and made their escape. That veritably settled my skunk-raising, but, in the fall and winter, I do considerable night hunting with dogs which { have trained not to take hold of them. I catch them alive and use the pen I have to keep them in until their fur is prime. In that way I have live skunks from the first of November to about the first of January.” The following notes are made from the accounts of Ernest balan? son Seton, who has kept these animals in captivity: “ Gestation is about six weeks. The young run from 4 to 9 in a litter. The young come out to eat when two months old and can be admitted to the general run when four months old. They should be fed heavily in autumn in order to produce the fat on which they mostly exist in winter. The colder the weather, the better the fur. Not more than 50 or 60 can be kept on an acre. A diet of all meat will kill every skunk. Feed once a day in the evening. If the bodies of the skinned animals are fed, they should be thoroughly boiled with vege- tables. The oil rendered from the skunk fat is valuable.” The skunk is a burrowing animal and, therefore, like the Habits the Skunk fox, requires a sunken fence around the enclosure in which he is kept. Woven wire is best for all underground fences as it does not interfere with the drainage and is cheapest. To stop a skunk the fence need not extend more than a few feet above ground, but it should be built at least six feet high with no overhang in order to provide for snow banks and to keep other animals out. In northern regions, where the best fur can be produced, a wooded area will be found the best because it is secluded, provides shade and because the snow there lies level. The nest should be a warm insulated box with a pas- sageway entrance similar to that of the mink nest. All nests should be only barely large enough for a mother to move about in without trampling her young and should not be more than 6 or 7 inches high. Thus the interior will be sufficiently warmed by the body heat. A method of killing skunks by drowning is mentioned elsewhere. They can also be dispatched easily and painlessly in a poison box, using carbon bi-sulphide gas or hydrocyanic acid. The latter is a deadly poison and is very dangerous in the hands of an inexperienced person. They can also be killed by a blow over the baek, which paralyses the muscles and destroys the power to scent. They are skinned by the case method. The skins should be carefully cleaned of fat to prevent heating and should be packed separately for shipping. ae ple + . “ss a pd i’ Y i } . : fe a . . : eet C in 6S re ry a > . - a : : 2 2 ot © e ; ‘ a | ’ : | m : A | ‘ ' . oe ee aa - \ . : = A | y —— iets < . . ae y. a > = % , > : - 4 . . ae , oe i A ay « > : ii < n > & 7 ¥ et ~ ‘, af M. - ——— | SE “‘VBIysSHL PUB[pUNOJMeN JO ‘AySNGg ‘sZuRg sninosgo saqug “VBIYSN UOSIIQ, “440 [q $17071d1990 waqrT “PBIYENL UOYNA ‘poossy snjnjpnjods saqrug “SOOCI } SFT YIM (WUYT) SnoLYJaqle 49qLA :peziuso0e1 818 Burmojjojy ayy, ‘ONeMULIZeIp pus [eUCIstAo1d pesepisuod oq ysnur deur oy, "W0}9S LH PU POOSsO "HW “MM ‘(9G “YW ‘ssueg ‘CO Ag! *¢ ‘Aayreg uous, ‘uel Ay “UA WOSON “MA A ‘OuBpre POV “Yy ‘AqQeg “y ‘W ‘suv “y “WY ‘WMIeMWIEW We “O “JOUIW “DH “q ‘UBUIYOeG pu¥ UoqnpNy ‘uospiegory “¢ Aq Spiodel uo papunog VAVNVO NI SLVUMSOW FHL JO ANNVA—'S dV ‘gon wibdiaoa tinea fig ‘saqDig' pay ay} ur GOGI paryhiwidoy ,,sjpwauy usayzLON f0 8ar10j81]]-afv'T ,, $,UOJEG) UOSsdmoY J, PIU] WOLS SUOY § WaUgruiag sapipy fo fisazinoo fiq paonposday RODENTS HE order of mammals known as rodents are nearly all small-sized and are generally not valuable for their fur. They are distin- guished by their chisel-edged teeth, of which they possess two in each jaw. There are no canine teeth and a wide vacant space divides the in- cisors from the grinders. The rabbit is an exception, having four in- cisors in the upper jaw. For furs, the most useful animals of this order are the beaver of the beaver family, the muskrat of the mouse family and the rabbit of the hare family. None, except the rabbit, can be domesticated, but they can be kept under control to a certain extent, especially the muskrat. MUSKRAT (Fiber Zibethicus) While muskrat is one of the lowest priced pelts, it has risen rapidly in value in recent years. In 1911, the best northern muskrat cost the furrier about 80 or 85 cents each and, in 1912, the price of the best skins was approaching $1.25 each. The price for the trapper is, of course, considerably less, being about 55 cents at the present time. The demand has been increased by the new uses found for this fur. The handsome and popular ‘ Hudson Bay seal,’ which is made from the muskrat, even in our own dressing and dyeing establishments, has given the fur much of its present value. About ten millions of pelts are used annually and the high prices are sure to spur trappers and hunt- ers to greater efforts and, if the fur continues fashionable, may re- sult in the depletion of the species in some sections. Because of the ease of stocking a marsh and feeding the rat, it is feasible for owners to take charge of their marshes, control the number killed, improve the housing and nesting conditions and supply food by planting suitable crops and feeding vegetables and fruits. In the salt marshes around Delaware and Chesapeake bays, on the Atlantic coast of the United States, a good quality of rat is produced and the marshes are protected by the owners. The ‘ratting’ privileges are rented, usually for one half of the catch. Use is made of the fur, the flesh and the musk bags. The flesh, known as marsh hare or marsh rabbit, is sold in large quantities on the Baltimore, Philadelphia, Nor- folk and Washington markets and is said to be very agreeable in the fall and early winter, but to be unfit for food in the spring because of the musky flavour. The Indians consider it a splendid dish. In the proper season, canning companies will purchase as much as can be put up. 90 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION It is said that the best salt marshes will furnish 50 rats a year per acre. They may be fenced with 1!4-inch mesh wire, 5 feet wide, by burying it a foot on dry land and deeper near water area. Not more than 50 rat houses, or pairs, should be kept on an acre. It is necessary to have an area of water which does not freeze to the bottom. This, in many cases, could be secured by dredging and the mud thrown up would be used by the rats for making homes. Wild rice, water lilies, cat-tails, and various roots, are their natural food. Carrots, beets, turnips, apples, pumpkins and other cheap vegetables and fruits may be grown in nearby fields for summer food, or stored in pits for winter. A small quantity of meat may also be fed. The muskrat probably has only two litters a year in the colder parts of Canada, but farther south, three litters are born, and the first litters bear young in the autumn. The first are born about the middle of May and each litter numbers from four to nine, although as many as twelve have been reported. BEAVER (Castor Canadensis) The beaver formerly existed over nearly all the continent of North America. It was also found in Europe and the greater part of Asia and Northern Africa, but, in most of these, became extinct centuries ago. There are only a few colonies in Europe at the present time and these are preserved carefully by government authorities. It is rapidly becom- ing extinct in America. The homes of the greatest numbers, at the pre- sent time, are in the country between the Great lakes and the St. Lawrence river northward to Hudson bay, and in northern British Columbia. No animal did more than the beaver to effect the colonization of America. It lured men into the most remote wildernesses, furnished him food and clothing, and was one of the chief articles of commerce with Europe. So universal an article of trade did it become that, in northern Canada, beaver skin became the unit of currency. Brass estimates the world’s production as follows: America, 80,000 skins; Asia, 1,000; Europe, a few. Besides the skins, the castorum, or dry beaver castor, is traded in, bringing from $12 to $15 a pound at the present time. Because of its interesting habits, every schoolboy is well Uses of i p é the Beaver acquainted with most phases of the life of the beaver. Its flesh, skins and castors are valuable, the latter being used as a base in perfume manufacture. The flesh is excellent and the tail is considered a delicacy. The skin was formerly used in the manu- Pte rep Mee Set ne ee eheietensg | RE) ota Soo ek Ap ee [Oe Eades) POLS DISUOD CC ASOT AUIn MILT, ‘ayaued ‘¢ ‘sprogy "NS ‘PUIH “A “H ‘IONID “DC ‘Pa “Y ‘uBUYyORg pus uoqnpny ‘uBsi0owW “YH “]T ‘uospreyqory " ‘Snavoyy '§ Aq spuooel mo Aporyo pepunod 7 ‘SOOUl § ‘[YNY sisuappuny s0jsv9 VAVNVO NI YHAVAE NVOIMANV AHL JO.aD9NVU—'9 dVW ‘uomy uosdwoyy weuty fig ‘83qDIS! PenuUy ay? UL GOGI payhrifdoy ,,"sjpunup usayjton fo SaWOSLH-afVT,, § Uojag uosduoyy, jsausy WoL sug 8 MIUQUIY’ $a]4DY fo fisaj1n09 fiq paonpo.day 09 06 a ee eee! awd ae : FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 91 facture of beaver hats, but, later, this use declined owing to the advent of the silk hat. At the present time, the fur is mostly plucked in dress- ing and sold for use in coats, stoles and mufis. The largest and finest skins are not worth more than $15 to $20, large No. 1 skins being quoted at $12. The beaver cannot be farmed because of the wide extent of terri- tory required to furnish food and also because it usually makes trouble for all neighbours in the same water area, whose lands have aspen, poplar, willow or other trees that furnish food. The only possible method is to enclose a large tract for both the forest and beavers that could be produced on it. Patrolling would be necessary and a certain number of beaver would have to be taken each year to maintain the proper supply. Possibly the range of the animals might be limited by fencing across the valleys. Trappers have said that the beaver will eat cultivated crops (e¢.g., turnips), but no proof of this statement could be found. If it eats such crops, ranching the beaver is feasible. National The logical method to perpetuate the beaver is to create Game Preserves National game preserves under constant patrol. This plan has proved successful in the Algonquin National Park, Ontario, where a considerable revenue is now derived from the sale of their skins. A system of national parks where the beaver and musk- rat would be efficiently protected and where other wild life would be propagated as well as protected is advisable. Protective laws, particu- larly in the case of the beaver, do not protect. During the years when the beaver was contraband in Ontario and Quebec, bales of furs fre- quently contained a number of beaver skins. The bale was sold as it was packed, or another customer was sought. Thus, many Montreal furriers testified that they purchased beaver skins continually and could not avoid it, if they wished to continue to buy raw pelts. For the information of those who desire to keep a few pairs of these interesting animals, it may be stated that when two years old, the beaver mates for life, mating taking place in February. The period of gestation is about three months. ‘The litter usually consists of two or three, but may be larger. The young are weaned before they are two months old and taught to eat tender shoots of the raspberry and other plants. They accompany their mother the whole season. Foundation stock may be obtained from the Department of Lands, For- ests and Mines, Toronto, Ont., at about $50 a pair. Success is easily achieved where water and the proper food are available. REINDEER AND MOOSE | HE United States Congress, in 1892, at the instance of Dr. Sheldon Jackson, appropriated $240,500 to establish herds of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in Alaska. Twelve hundred and eighty reindeer were imported before 1902, when the Russian government with- drew its permission to make shipments from its territory. More lately Dr. Grenfell has established herds in Labrador. Both herds are entirely successful in providing labour, transportation, skins and food for the more primitive people of Canada and Alaska. The native reindeer of Canada, comprising the woodland caribou (Rangifer caribou) and the barren-ground caribou (Rangifer arcticus) might produce a domestic animal of a type superior to its European cousin. In any event, the Huropean reindeer might possibly be improved by crossing with the woodland caribou, which is stronger and larger. The following interesting account of the introduction of reindeer to Canada was contributed by R. H. Campbell, Director of the Forestry Branch, Department of the Interior. THE REINDEER IN CANADA “The earliest recorded attempt to domesticate reindeer on this con- tinent is that of the United States government which, about 1892, imported a herd of Siberian deer to Alaska for that purpose. Several small herds have since been imported and, as the result of careful and intelligent handling, there are now some 15,000 domesticated reindeer in Alaska. The deer are used for practically all the purposes for which domestic cattle may be used and are, in addition, very useful for trans- portation purposes. Heareseteahh “The problem of transportation is, aside from the in the Arctic severity of the weather, the most serious with which dwellers in the Arctic regions have to deal. The cost of grain and hay, neither of which is grown in any considerable quan- tity, precludes the use of horses or cattle for transportation purposes and, prior to the introduction of reindeer, dogs were used almost entirely. While Eskimo, or husky, dogs make excellent beasts of burden, their usefulness is seriously impaired by the necessity of hauling with them sufficient fish or other food for their own subsistence. As on long trips they can haul little, if any, load beyond their own food supply, this seriously limits the sphere of a dog’s usefulness. Rein- deer, on the other hand, while quite as hardy as the best train dogs and FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 93 able to haul somewhat larger loads, find their own subsistence in the moss which covers practically all of the sub-arctic region. No matter how cold the weather, or how deep the snow, the deer can paw their way down to the moss and thus keep themselves in good condition on the longest and roughest trips. Another point in favour of deer is that, should misfortune overtake a party of Arctic travellers and it become necessary to kill the transport animals for food, the flesh of the deer is palatable and nourishing, while only dire necessity would impel anyone to use dogs for food. “Tt seems to have been the idea of the United States government that the establishment of large herds of domesticated reindeer in Alaska would be a long step in the direction of solving the transportation problem of that district and, in addition, would, to a considerable extent, provide a food supply for the natives who otherwise would, from time to time, become charges upon the public treasury. “This experiment by the United States government was followed with great interest by many Canadians who were interested in the de- velopment of our northern territories, and particularly by Sir Wilfred Grenfell, who, in connection with his medical missionary work on the Labrador coast, found himself confronted by practically the same con- ditions that obtained in Alaska, viz.: severe climate, absence of means of winter transportation other than dogs, and scarcity of food supply for natives and fishermen during periods of unusually severe weather. “At Sir Wilfred’s request, the Dominion Government, in The Reindeer : = : : inLabrador 1907, purchased a herd of some 300 Norwegian reindeer. These were handed over to Sir Wilfred to be used by him in connection with his work. It was originally intended that the herd should be established on the North shore of the gulf of St. Lawrence, but he finally decided that his mission station at St. Anthony, on the northeast coast of Newfoundland, was a more suitable place for the experiment. There is an abundance of reindeer moss at, or near, St. Anthony, the climate is in all respects suitable and, should occasion require it, the deer can readily be shipped from there to any desired point on the Labrador coast as conveniently as from the point first selected. “Sir Wilfred’s experiment proved successful from the start and his herd of reindeer now numbers over 1,200. A considerable num- ber of stags and barren does have been killed for food and there have been the usual unavoidable losses by death and accident. He reported in May, 1911, that the meat is excellent and the skins valuable and that, in his opinion, reindeer will, in the future, be as valuable in Labrador as in Alaska and will afford an export industry of meat from a district 94 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION where it is not probable that wheat, corn or other cereals can ever be profitably produced. AMSA! “During the summer of 1910, His Excellency the Gov- the Northwest ernor-General, Harl Grey, visited Dr. Grenfell’s mission station on his return journey from Hudson bay. His Excellency was greatly interested in the reindeer experiment, and having just seen a considerable part of sub-arctic Canada, was impressed with the desirability of further extending the experiment by the establishment of herds in portions of the Northwest Territories. He subsequently dis- cussed the question with Hon. Mr. Oliver, then Minister of the Interior, with the result that an arrangement was made with Dr. Grenfell to supply fifty reindeer to the Dominion government at what the animals had actually cost him. It was decided that the reindeer should be sent to a suitable place near Fort Smith, on the Slave river, at the extreme northern boundary of Alberta. In addition to the reindeer, Dr. Grenfell was to supply two herders and one apprentice to look after the herd, three trained dogs and a supply of moss sufficient for the journey from Newfoundland to our Northwest. “ There was no choice as to the time of year when the reindeer were to be shipped. They could not be taken across the continent in summer weather as they could not stand the heat. They could not be taken across in winter unless provision was made for a supply of reindeer moss near Edmonton, as the rivers are frozen and they could not be transported beyond that point. They could not be moved in the spring as that is the fawning season. ‘There was, therefore, only the short season left between the close of summer and the ‘freeze-up’ of the northern rivers. “Tt was arranged with the Department of Marine and Fisheries that one of their steamers should call at St. Anthony for the reindeer early in September, 1911, and take them to Quebec, from which point they would be sent by train to Edmonton. If the boat had proceeded direct to Quebec, it is probable that there would have been very small loss of deer, but the steamer had to stop on the way to take on board a cargo of powdered gypsum, and the effect on the reindeer was serious. Four deer died before the steamer reached Quebec and five more on the train after leaving Quebec; and, from the symptoms, it is practically certain that death was caused by inhalation of gypsum dust. “Tt was a somewhat difficult matter to transfer the reindeer from the boat to the cars awaiting them at Quebec, but this was finally ac- complished and the trip to Edmonton and from there, sixty miles further on to the end of the steel, was made expeditiously, most of the reindeer reaching this point in good condition. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 95 “ From the end of the steel to Athabaska Landing, something over fifty miles, the deer were conveyed in waggons and were then loaded on scows for the trip down to Fort Smith. This turned out to be the most difficult part of the trip. ‘The scows were hard to manage and a great deal of ice was encountered which hindered progress. In the end it was found impossible to get as far as Fort Smith, and it was decided to remain at a point seventy miles from the fort, where reindeer moss was plentiful, until such time as the deer could be driven to their destination, or until the spring, when they could be conveyed down the river. The herd was-kept here very comfortably until the spring, and on the 20th May, 1912, reached Fort Smith, the total loss of deer en route being nineteen. “The herd wintered satisfactorily and were in good condition in the spring. The chief herder had selected a suitable place for them west of Fort Smith on a point jutting out into a lake lying south of Great Slave lake. There is plenty of reindeer moss in this locality and it seemed in every way suitable for the keeping of the herd. However, the flies became so troublesome to the herd in the summer that they stam- peded and, at last reports, had not all been gathered together again. “A new range for the deer has been selected on a large island in treat Slave lake and it is the intention to move the remainder of the herd there in the spring. “ Considering the difficulties of transportation, the shipment was taken through with comparatively small loss, but the success of the herd is not fully assured until it is certain that they can be controlled and prevented from stampeding at the time when the flies are most active. If matters go satisfactorily with them for another year, it may be advis- able to consider increasing the number by a further shipment.” MOOSE The European moose was formerly under domestication and proved valuable for transportation purposes in the cold northern countries. It is on record that it once hauled a sleigh 234 miles in one day. For divers reasons—the chief one being that exiles in Siberia used it to effect their escape—it became unlawful to maintain the moose in cap- tivity in Russia. Probably it would have developed into a valuable domestic animal for northern latitudes had this prohibition not been imposed. It is possible, also, that the Canadian moose, which is of greater size and strength, could be developed into a domestic animal of value. Several cases are recorded of its being suc- cessfully used for draught purposes, in the first generation from the wild state. It is but just to add, however, that the moose has not yet been bred in captivity. x IV. Preparing Skins for Manufacture AMMALS which have a short, fine, soft coat of fur through which grows hair, usually of greater length, variously called overfur, water-fur, guard-hair, are known as fur-bearers. To provide more warmth for the animal, the coat of fur and over-hair is usually thicker and longer in the winter; hence, furs taken in winter, or when prime, are more valuable than those taken in warmer weather. Bees When the skin is unprime, it has a bluish appearance on Fur-bearer the flesh side down the back and sides; when prime, it is of a whitish or creamy colour. An experienced furrier can, by the appearance of the skin and of the overhair, determine the season at which it was taken. It is desirable to capture fur-bearers when prime, because the fur and overhair are fuller and heavier and will not fall out easily, as commonly occurs in ‘springy’ pelts. It is also desirable to take skins shortly after becoming prime, which is usually about the first of December, immediately after the first winter weather. When taken then, the pelt is better coloured and less worn. In a climate like that of Prince Edward Island, where winter sets in about Christmas, the last week of the year is chosen for killing the fox. The pelts of the majority of animals become prime late in Novem- ber. The fur, or, as it is called in relation to the hair, the underfur, consists of soft, silky, downy, curly filaments. It is usually short and thick, and towards the skin it grows lighter in colour. It is barbed lengthwise and hence is capable of felting—a quality not possessed to so great a degree by wool or silk, which is best handled by spinning and weaving. In a prime pelt the underfur is hardly discernible unless the overhair is blown apart. Then the light colour of the underfur appears. If it were generally known that the undyed skin is whitish and that the underfur close to the skin is a light drab, or pale blue colour, it would not be so easy to sell dyed skins as ‘ natural ’. The overhair is straight, smooth, and, usually, comparatively rigid. It is scattered throughout the fur and, on the living animal, prevents the fur from felting. It serves as a protection against cold and storm as well as against injury. In the case of the fox, which lies out in the open, exposed to the coldest northern weather, the dense overhair, sometimes over six inches in length, protects the body, while the toes and face are protected by the immense tail, which covers them when the fox lies down. The beauty of a pelt is due largely to the overhair. It is the glossy black or the amphimaculated silver-back overhair. that makes the silver fox one hundred times more valuable than his red FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 97 full-brother. Some kinds of animals, as, for example, the beaver and the otter, have cverhair which is not always considered as beautiful as the underfur alone. Thus, they are put through a process of pulling and the manufactured skins are usually plucked. Usually animals intended for slaughter are fed well and are Killing carefully housed so that no injury can be done the overhair, such as from rubbing, the attachment of burrs or from lying in dirt. The killing presents no difficulty except that it must be done so as not to alarm the breeding animals. Therefore, in most cases, the animals to be slaughtered should be removed to the finishing pens in the autumn. The fox is usually killed by crushing the chest with the — foot, a man’s weight applied just back of the foreleg being sufficient, or the head may be forced back until the neck is broken.* Skunk, on account of its liability to scent, presents the greatest problem. It can be removed from its regular pen, however, by a wire snare placed on the end of a long pole. It is then dispatched outside its pen by the usual method of clubbing. If scenting is feared, it may be drowned in a tub of water. 0 There are two distinct methods of removing the skin. Some Skinning ; ; ceviche andCuring animals are opened down the belly, as in skinning a sheep, and the skins are stretched flat or ‘open’. Others are slit up the hind legs to the vent and the skin is stripped off the rest of the body. These are stretched by a board wedged inside and are said to be ‘cased’. The methods of skinning in use for common Cana- dian fur-bearers are as follows: Cased—Fox, marten, fisher, weasel, otter, skunk, lynx, cat, muskrat. Hither Cased or Open—Raccoon, wildcat. Open—Wolverene, badger, beaver, wolf, bear. The process of removing a cased skin is well described by the Fur News Magazine as follows: “Slit skin on both hind legs on the under side of animal from the heel to the vent; skin out the legs to the feet, and in the case of mink, skin out the toes and leave them and the claws on the skin. Skin around the tail, leaving the tail on the back of the skin, and after loosening the tail bone at the base, take hold of it with your forefinger and pull it out of the tail. If the tail bone is hard to remove, split a stock, insert the tail bone in split, and with this to grip the bone, you should have no trouble to pull it out. * See page 47. 98 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION “ Now turn the skin back and carefully pull it off the body. Use a knife to start the skin if it does not come off easily, but be careful not to cut the pelt. Skin so that as little flesh and fat adhere to the skin as possible. When the front legs are reached, skin around them near the body and then push them backward out of the skin—turn them inside out, as we might say. Skin out the legs to the paws in the case of mink, keeping them on the skin; for the other animals cut off the legs at the first joint. Skin care- fully around the head, pushing the skull back through the skin until the ears are reached; these should be cut off as near the skull as possible, so that they remain attached to the skin. Then care- fully skin around the eyes, not cutting the eyelids, and when the mouth and nose are reached use care also. Do not pull the skin off the head, but remove carefully, for the heads of some animals are used in manufacturing the furs, and all skins have a better ap- pearance if the head is skinned out with care.” Skunks and raccoons present some special problems. They fatten in the fall and go to their dens in cold weather. Therefore, those de- signed for slaughter must be segregated from the breeders before cold weather sets in or they cannot be captured without disturbing the nest. After skinning, also, a large quantity of fat adheres to the skin. This must be scraped off or it may heat and decompose the skin. Skunk fat should be kept and rendered into oil. In baled shipments, also, the grease of these skins is liable to injure other skins in the same pack. They should be specially wrapped in burlap and, because of their odour, it may be advisable to box the skunk skins separately. The flesh and fat are removed from skins by a dull knife or hatchet. The skin is slipped on a fleshing board with dulled corners, having one end in a grease pan and the other against the skinner’s chest. The fat is pushed off the skin towards the tail. Much scraping of the skin is injurious, it being necessary to remove only the fat and loose flesh. The tail may give trouble if it is not split and scraped. Sometimes salt is dropped into it to prevent decomposition, but in no case is salt, nor any other preservative, applied to any other part of the skin. Often the tip of the tail is cut off to allow circulation of air inside and to drain out the fat. Open skinning presents no difficulty. The legs are cut off at the first joint and split up the inside to the slit which is cut along the belly from the lower jaw to the vent. The tail is cut open to extract the bone. The cased skins are stretched on a wedge-shaped board, fur Stretching side inwards. The edges of the stretching board are along the sides of the pelt, the dorsal surface of the pelt being COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION MUSKRAT (cased) ce: Hl he( Achy BEAVER (stretched in hoop) MINK Nh " (cased) NY RACCOON (cased) ! T 1 7 | | —m—— ' 1 1 | i} i | i 1 \ 1 ' 1 I l ' \ bossa Weasel |6inches-—~— -! ' I eee | ees tant AMink= 30 inches. = == | ; : LSet ee Skink: A0linches= == =-== 5 eee Se eS eee Fax!-4-S)inches = = ee | [ee le a ee ee = Otter '6Olinches== —- === 2 ee Se rics l a Ts] Wom f i =~ s y | | | 2 12 a reese BOXES FOR CATCHING LIVE ANIMALS FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 99 wholly on one side of the board and the ventral on the other side. All skins except fox are marketed fur side inwards, fox being turned fur out after one day’s drying, when the front legs are still pliable. Skins should be dried without artificial heat. A cool, dry place away from the sun’s rays is best. Beaver skins are stretched within an elliptical hoop made of saplings. They are tied to the hoop with twine laced into the skin at intervals of two inches. Bear skins are usually laced simi- larly into a rectangular frame made from small sticks. Raccoon are nailed on a wall or board and stretched into a rectangular shape. The best nails are brass tacks or wire nails and they should be driven not more than two inches apart. Otter tails are always split and stretched by nailing to the stretch- ing board. Biveething Boards should be made of soft wood, like white pine, which Boards permits easy driving and withdrawal of nails. For smaller animals, the stretching board should be about three-eighths of an inch thick, and for the larger—otter and fox—about five-eighths or three-quarters of an inch. It should be nicely rounded on the edges. Wedges are sometimes inserted down the sides of the board with advan- tage. They permit the circulation of air on the inside. A steel wire has served well in stretching muskrat on many occasions. The best stretched skins are those that are extended very slightly in all directions. Mink and marten should be pulled slightly lengthwise and the lines of the sides should be only slightly converging. A stretch- ing board may be split and a wedge inserted between the two sides will adjust it to any size of skin. Mar kening Valuable pelts are sewed up in muslin and expressed to Skins destination. When shipped by express care should be taken to have the agent mark the full value of the skins on the receipt to ensure recovery of value if lost. When packing skins do not roll them; pack flat and then sew them up neatly in burlap. They should be wrapped in paper first. Label the package inside and out- side to make identification certain. Skins must be packed dry and must be kept dry. If all the pelts taken in Canada were prime and were properly stretched, dried and marketed, the increase in value would amount to millions. Nearly fifty per cent. of the pelts of some species are blue, or springy or with hair rubbed off or falling out. The competition be- tween trappers is producing more and more blue pelts, which cannot grade above No. 2. Conservation of fur would be achieved if it were illegal to kill except when the pelts are prime. It is probable, how- 100 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION ever, that only personal ownership of the fur-bearers would ensure nearly 100 per cent. of the pelts marketed being prime. The fur moth also causes immense losses. Modern refrigeration, however, has solved this problem by providing cold storage chambers for furs stored in the warm season. Bysing All seal and Persian lamb skins go through a process of of Furs dyeing. Seal skin, after the water hair is plucked, is of a drab colour, but expert English dyers make it a dark-brown- ish black. As German dye excels in fastness of colour and in leaving the skins supple after treatment, the Persian lamb skins are mostly dyed in Germany. The French are very skilful in ‘topping’ where the overhair is made to imitate sable. Latterly, the Germans have de- veloped a large trade in ‘ pointed fox,’ which is an ordinary cheap fox dyed black, and afterwards ‘ pointed’ by sewing in white hairs. The German dyed article is quite durable in colour, but it, again, is imi- tated by furriers in America, who colour with ordinary black dye and glue in badger hairs. In a few months the difference in the quality of the dye used is revealed. Good dyes—such as those developed in Eng- land for seals and in Germany for lambs—are likely to remain trade secrets. The dressing and dyeing of furs in Canada is nearly all performed by one firm which handles about 2,000,000 skins annually. The work- men and experts are largely German and other Europeans and have received their training in the old world. The dressing and dyeing of furs in America is steadily improving and the proportion shipped to Europe is decreasing. The natural colours must be of a certain quality to Esteemed Natural : : ‘ ‘ Colours be highly esteemed. Thus pure white ermine is cost- lier than the gray or yellowish-white kinds. With white furs, it is the purest and, with black furs, it is the densest that are most desired. A brownish colour in a silver fox is very objection- able (although common in most districts), while a bluish cast is de- cidedly to be preferred. In fact, it is almost axiomatic that a bluish cast, instead of a rusty or brownish, is preferred. It is the brown cast of Hudson Bay marten that makes it inferior to the Russian sable, which often has a bluish-brown colour. The predominance on the mar- ket of brown or rusty coloured skins can be readily accounted for when it is remembered that most ‘springy’ skins are brownish, no matter how blue-black, or blue-brown, or blue-gray they were when prime. The modern art of dressing and dyeing furs is a great im- Dressing \ : ; : Furs provement on pioneer methods, especially in dyeing and fin- ishing. For giving suppleness and durability, the primitive FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 101 methods are excellent; thus, the north American Indians and African Kaffirs are unrivalled dressers of leather. a The older method of dressing furs, used universally until the er . . . . ° E Methods introduction of machinery, is to “ place the skins in a lye of alkali; when the pelt has become soft, the skins are tubbed, and then shaved by passing them over a large knife and placed in an upright position; they are next buttered, and put in a large tub of saw- dust by men half naked, who tread on them for some time, the heat of their bodies rendering the leather soft and supple; they are then beaten out and finished.” pene Modern methods of dressing and dyeing are much different. Methods ‘The work is done in large factories where an expert handles every department and machinery does most of the tramping and beating. Invention has made possible the use of many commoner and cheaper skins which undergo many operations in the course of their preparation. They may be beamed, scraped, tramped, soaked, fleshed, tanned, dried, drummed, greased, kicked, drummed with saw- dust, dyed, caged, shaved, pared and foot-tubbed before they are ready for the manufacturer. Most of this work is done by machinery, and the large numbers of skins put through at one time makes the product uniform and the cost much lower per unit than by the old-fashioned hand-and-foot process. Besides the engine or motor which supplies the power, the Apparatus i é Used following apparatus is used: Washing tanks, which are made of wire mesh and revolve in a tank of water; Drying vats, which revolve very rapidly, to throw moisture out of the skins; Cleaning drums, which, with an exhaust air arrangement, removes the sawdust or corn starch from the skins; Polishing drums, which revolve the skins with sawdust to polish the fur and hair; Wooden tanks, for dyeing; Revolving stone cylinder, for beaming; Kicking machine, for pounding the skins; Sewing machine, built especially for joining fur; Clipping machines, for shearing the underfur even. There are chambers for drying skins, where the air is kept con- stantly in motion by exhaust fans, and many other tools or contrivances for hand work, such as crescent-shaped sharp knives, for fleshing, rope for roping, tubs for tramping, knives, combs, boards for stretching, etc. 102 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION As treatment varies so much, it is impossible to list the operations a given skin goes through. Marten, for instance, has a tender skin and has to be given hand treatment. Mink and fox are treated in a Cana- dian fur-dressing establishment about as follows: Fox Pounded Wet with wet sawdust Fleshed Salt water put on skin Dried Broke in foot-tub Buttered or greased Tubbed Cleaned with sawdust in drum Dried Polished in drum with sawdust MINK Pounded Soaked to soften head Fleshed Flesh pickled Dried Drummed with sawdust Greased and pounded Stretched Drummed (sawdust) Stretched Drummed (sawdust) The Process of Manufacture* Stretched and beaten Dyed “At the fur dresser’s the skins are first dampened on the flesh side with salt water and left all night to soften. The following morning they are placed in a tramping machine, where they are tramped for eight or ten hours. The machine works about 2,000 pelts at a time. “The pelts are next covered with a mixture of sawdust and salt water, and remain so overnight. The following morning they are cut open down the front and are then fleshed, one man being able to flesh 200 to 300 in a day. The skins are next stretched and hung up to dry. When thoroughly dry, they are again moistened with salt water on the leather side, remaining so overnight. They are next brushed on the flesh side with animal fat—butter or fish oil and tallow—and laid in pairs, with fur side out. After remain- ing overnight they are placed in tramping machines and worked for six or eight hours, or until thoroughly soft and pliable. They are then stretched in every direction. “The next process is cleaning. The skins, to the number of 300 or 400, are placed with sawdust in revolving drums exposed to steam heat. They are revolved for about three hours, when the sawdust will have completely absorbed the grease. The skins are next incased in a beating drum, where they are revolved for two or three hours. On removal, they are beaten with rattans, and the * An abridgment from Chas. H. Stevenson’s report in that of the United States Commission on Fish and Fisheries for 1902. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 103 fur is cleaned with a comb. The heavier pelts are fleshed down _ thin, thus completing the operation of dressing for the majority of skins.” Well-dressed furs afford a maximum of warmth for a Warmth and ve : : : Weight of Furs minimum weight, while their suppleness lends an ad- ditional advantage to them for clothing purposes. The warmest garments of manufactured material are made from the stiff old-fashioned box cloth and, even where warmly lined, afford only two- thirds as much protection from the cold as fur, while being more than four ounces per square foot heavier than raccoon. The following table furnishes an approximate estimate of comparative weight and dura- bility of the various furs when worn, fur outside, as body clothing: COMPARATIVE DURABILITY AND WEIGHT OF FURS Points of | Weight in Ounces Durability | Per Sq. Foot The Costly Furs—Standard, Sea-otter SISO LES) Dah UT Seale Ch a is ed Ge DVR 100 4h CE Se a ee pS Ee es eR A ERP TER 75 3 Sti] 6) FS ar grata ln Ba WS aR ee a 60 23 PUVETEOM OD LACIMOK caro. he ete ths utes we 40 3 Irene ee we ae ee ae St ah oa ee lL 25 1} Chinchillameerne ast sat coe Chine Tae 15 14 The Less Valuable Furs— Standard, Unplucked Otter WTLeUe(UBDINICKE) a meets oh chee wee oeiaeles Sas 100 4 UPS al ited 270 by RA a ee ie 95 3 15/16 IBBAMCLACBHESTEO)? panties cites coke otis heirs te ets 90 4 BEAVETA(DIUICKCG) in feria os se Bye. aenly sia oo 85 3 15/16 LE MSKOVa) a: SS ree cae ee Oe ROE oon eee nore 75 43 SUE ee ite BOY oe aU a lean 2 ey allie Ran Te 70 23 iirc wee Aer See eta ee LS es beta th 70 34 eratanwloamb st ues: ie canes ca tee atuc ke icia ss 65 33 Baum iviarten: (natural). cites tote ks ae eee cia 65 23 SINS marae eR aes ciel er siaccc te a Be ks neato eae hoor bais 55 24 RBiGNeG VIR EROI ec onocie Coclveus woxsscie Cras iat «lbosecsnets 40 24 Worthernslox (natural) s.c.8 . 1d cdanie cosas Webs 40 3 Muskrat (abu al) shire ndash sitar \ecamierteolns ences cc 37 34 OBA etre ene sits ce taste towien ce anie see iowhe 37 3 Muskrat (plucked, sheared and dyed)......... 33 3} MANUEL EUnet Rast ESE Poh a Sy va acats alate cuehe e huaee, chk sia ach ae 27 34 EVD EMTIG DURA) cette oe tara te Gucksnet cto nae « 25 22 PERMA LAER cis cu hd olde Calas « suds Shia s MAR Prin 25 13 CRA VOCUOLAGIC) 6 \ sai viit wi coh microns aiseeieliiie: o's «ste 25 3 IOVEIRITO VOC IDIGC ec otk suet euic ih eidke eos one os oe 20 23 Lives cal (olfetel}o} Ni (cp Me Ges he Renee ee ee ee gen 20 3 RSCOMOUMI Ret rine 2'5 cect caisy a ikae dd in oiacs ake 15 2} IMIETINOTCUECON Ga cote Sonic et haem pik ce ees 10 3 ita) Cr] fate to ea ae Le SR ee eee ae r¢ 13 PUMUESEU CRIA At rete te cate ties lela vst ks, o Rive d's Celts 5 13 PDELLDIO LL eto tee nacre Reais ec tit abe-wie cists lat oasis 5 2} V. The Commerce in Raw Furs HE raw furs of America are mostly collected by large companies having elaborate systems for gathering the skins from the trap- pers. The chief operators in Canada are the Hudson’s Bay Co. and Revillon Freres, and, in Labrador, the Harmony Co. During the past ten years a change has been taking place in marketing and many furs, particularly the more valuable ones, are consigned direct to Lon- don or to American fur houses. In the Old World, furs are collected at fairs at the following places: Town TIME OF FAIR Brankfort-on-the-Oder screwed s sete wie « January Drbitys Siete /«.216 blab deci othe ahaa ee February Leipzig; Germany: shieiist wink . feet ee ae Easter Nigni-Novgorod, RUSSIA. %\.).\-...5 5 - eee one Ne eee August Tehim USibeia (eee Se Re a. Coe aR aR December Many of the skins, particularly those of finer quality, are ulti- mately offered at the London sales where the majority of the world’s fine furs are sold. In recent years, however, Germany and the United States have been purchasing a larger proportion. muerte The total sales in London are generally utilized in estimat- of Skins ing the quantities of furs at the world’s disposal. Of the undressed skins not usually sold at London sales, there are the Persian lambs, broadtails and karakules, of which Thorer estimates that 2,900,000 come to Leipzig alone. A United States consular report of 1911 estimated that Russia produces 4,525,000 squirrels, whose raw pelts are valued at $2,000,000. Of squirrel tails, Russia, in 1911, produced twenty-one tons, valued at $5.50 per pound. Owing to the growing popularity of muskrat or ‘Hudson Bay seal’, the use of this skin has increased enormously and the sales now amount to over 9,000,000 an- nually, London selling 6,000,000, Leipzig, 1,000,000 and America re- taining 2,000,000. Two hundred thousand ermine pelts, valued at $350,000, are sold annually in Russia. About 83,000,000 rabbit skins are imported into Great Britain annually, while immense quantities of skins are used in the felting industry in Australia. Leipzig, Germany, is the most important city for the Centres of 3 i the Fur Trade dressing and manufacture of furs. Its raw supplies are drawn from all parts of the world but particularly from London and Moscow storehouses and the Nijni-Novgorod Fair. Mos- cow is the largest storehouse for Russian and Asiatic furs, while New York, St. Louis and Montreal are important American centres which are rapidly increasing their facilities for fur-dressing and fur-dyeing. London is the largest selling centre and is still of great importance in the dressing, dyeing and manufacturing of furs. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 105 THE LONDON Fur MARKET —lintemtiek Many skins are manufactured and used in the country Auction Sales Of their origin, but the bulk of the world’s fine furs are sold at auction in London. These sales are held in June, October, January and March, but most skins are sold at the winter sales, particularly the March sale, which attracts numerous buyers from all parts of the world. A large proportion of the pelts are purchased by brokers on a commission basis. The Hudson’s Bay Company’s auction sales are held first and, as no reserve bids are placed on the skins of- fered, the results are taken to represent the state of the market. Messrs. C. M. Lampson and Co., Messrs. A and W. Nesbitt, Frederick Huth and Co. and Henry Kiver and Co. are the chief firms selling American furs. LONDON FUR SALES FOR THE YEAR ENDING MARCH 3ist, 1906 Size in zs No. of || Size in . No. of inches Kind of Fur Pelts_ || Inches Kind of Fur Pelts ee eae | Badgers 2006. }.:. 28,634 || 27x 13] Lamb, Tibet....... 794,130 “ Japanese.... 6,026 Reoparde soe 42 3,574 Pee MON EXOT ies idee God ee Ike gay ol) aig <0 ah So eencin a aoe eee. 88,822 BOL CACTI.) Use casts: 80,514 || 18 x 12 | Marmot, linings and skins, equal to...| 1,600,600 9x41) Cat, civet.......... 157,915 || 16x 5 | Marten, Baum..... 4,573 18x 9 + AhOUSe Sens. Je) 126,703 || 16x 5 “ Japanese... 16,461 30 x 15 CO NALG oes ste 5 32,253 || 16x 5 . Stone...... 12,939 9x4 | Chinchilla, bastard. 43,578 || 16x 5 | Mink, American.... 299,254 aA AE ... «0% o.-eeeeet Ooeieene a tia 4.25 The geographical classification reveals the fact that in North Amer- ica the higher the altitude, or the lower the temperature, the heavier the pelt. Mink descends steadily in value from Labrador to Florida, Fastern Canada mink being quoted at $7.50 in Nov., 1912, and Florida at $4. A heavy pelt, if properly coloured, is eats the most valuable. Canada, therefore, produces the best fur in the New World as Russia does in the Old. It is quite possible, also, that the pelts of raccoon, opossum, * Fur News Magazine, November, 1912. + Fur Trade Review, December, 1912. COLLECTION OF 34 WILD SILVER-Fox SKINS, WORTH UPWARDS OF $21,000 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 111 skunk and other animals not now found in northern Canada could be improved by domestication in colder regions. Ranch-bred animals properly kept will develop as heavy pelts as wild specimens, and they can always be killed when prime. Pee th eek The average price for all silver fox skins sold in Lon- of Silver Fox Skins don, including the wild stock and ranch stock, are as follows: YEAR AVERAGE PRICE NG Oe e ey cva de rice Ue ecneten ste | pL AOcog POOG RA se aiceee eee erste te en ates 166.93 DO snes ley ceil: svete core: ot hausl sare ins fealil NOOB cates w wie el Sines: ered enectlois) ate 168.91 OOO arene a a aetan cate to Vic oe epiichs 244.12 ONO SMe ota sitardiee tt ov sbcie cieiatene ote 414.37 OTE eae aa, RYveceh ass) \ aay tel barat suey “ohe 290.01 The high average price obtained for silver fox skins in 1910 is ac- counted for by the better market. More than one-half of the skins sell- ing for £100 or more were from Prince Edward Island ranches. At the present time, the average price of wild silver fox skins in London is about $200 and, for ranch foxes such as are found with the best ranchers, $1,200. Wild silver fox are not always prime and they are frequently shot, chewed, mangled and poorly dressed, while ranched foxes are usually killed when their fur is in primest condition.. The highest price ever paid at the London sales for a silver fox skin was £580. It is said that this skin was sold by a Paris firm which had bought it at a previous sale for £390, and that it was from a ranched fox from Prince Edward Island. The next highest price was £540, and a half dozen have sold for £500 or more, all being from Prince Edward Island ranches. A rather remarkable sale was made in March, 1912, when a pelt from a fox that died in James Rayner’s ranch at Kildare, P.E.I., on October 12, 1911, brought the highest price, £410, although the skin would not have been fully prime before December. Sher It is a difficult matter to obtain authentic records of sales P.E.1.Skins of silver fox skins from Prince Edward Island; farmers, as a rule, do not give careful attention to correspondence and records. Many reports are alleged to have been lost and those ex- amined gave evidence of having been filed in an inside coat pocket for a considerable period. Documentary proof of sales made in London was also difficult to obtain. Below are reproduced the sales reports of Charles Dalton and J. S. Gordon for the year 1910: 112 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION C. M. Lampson & Co. 64 Queen Street, London, E.C., 7th April, 1910 Account sale of Furs received on consignment for account of C. DALTON, Esq., Tignish, Prince Edward Island. Invoice . €; p). Quantity Loe Skins £ s. d. 2105 1 Fox, Silver 310 2106 1 530 Mail 2107 1 210 5 pels. 2110 1 160 Dit 2120 1 46 S75 2149 1 280 Den 2150 1 540 2151 1 310 2152 2 220 | 440 2153 1 430 2166 2 125 | 250 2194 1 340 2195 1 340 2196 1 200 2197 1 370 2200 1 165 2230 ih 500 2231 1 270 2232 1 200 2233 1 280 2234 1 290 2242 i 210 | 420 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 113 C. M. Lampson & Co. 64 Queen Street, London, E.C., 7th April, 1910 Account sale of Furs received on consignment for account of J. S. Gorpon, Esq., Alberton, Prince Edward Island. Prompt 7th April, 1910. Invoice - J.S.GOuantity Lot | Skins £ s. id: 2109 1 Fox, Silver per 2156 1 mail = 1 pel. 2 2 114 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION A discount of 21% per cent. off these prices is given and the selling commission of 6 per cent. and the carriage and insurance charges bring the total cost of marketing furs in London up to about 9 per cent. of the selling price. Statistics for 1908 and 1909 are wholly lacking, the records being reported lost. Satisfactory proof was furnished that the following sales were made, although possibly not more than one-half the total quantity of skins sold in the period 1905-1912 are represented : SALES OF P. E. I. SILVER FOX SKINS, 1905-1912 Year No. of Skins Total Value Average Value 1905 11 $ 5937.33 $ 539.76 1906 8 9733.33 1216.67 1907 28 22892 .80 | 817.60 1910 27 36748 . 20 | 1361.05 1911 10 10852. 67 1085.27 1912 1 1995.33 1995.33 Total | 85 | $88159.66 | The average for the last seven years would probably be slightly lower if reports of all sales were available. On the other hand, the price has advanced since 1905, most noticeably so in 1910 and in 1912. On account of the demand for breeding animals, but few skins have been sold since 1910. No ranches other than those on Prince Edward Island have fur- nished proof of the prices obtained for skins produced by them. T. L. 3urrowman of Wyoming, Ont., offered no documentary proof of his sales. The highest price he claimed to have received for a silver fox skin was $1,050 and he admitted that the skin came from the vicinity of Labrador and hence belonged to the sub-species V. bangst. Mr. Johann Beetz, of the North shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, sold his breeders at a much lower price than the Prince Edward Island ranchers. Messrs. Holt, Renfrew & Co., of Quebec, are holding all their best stock and gelling only some inferior specimens to brokers or traders. They have made ne test of the business as a fur-raising propo- sition and have not invested capital as freely as such intelligent and enterprising furriers would be expected to do if they thought they could rear the silver fox profitably. The other experiments in Alaska, Yukon and elsewhere are too recent to produce results. APPENDICES I. Value of Wild Animals* BY C. D. RicHARDSON, WEST BROOKFIELD, MAss. HOSE beautiful wooded dells should be the haunts of the wild creatures, as when first discovered by the white man. Too long they, with their wild life, have been given over to the pot hunter and to him who would despoil them of their true charm. ‘There is a growing recognition that the strain of modern life can be best endured by often fleeing to the wilds, which calls at times to all, but louder to some than to others. All over this great country of ours there are vast stretches of waste land, with their variety of woods, swamps, and hillside, which yield but little profit to the owner. Let us look a little into the future. Suppose we make something of this land, fence it in, reforest it, and stock it with game. It will require little care and the average farmer may realize from it more than he now does from his tilled acres. The fence problem is practically solved in the use of woven wire, and a large tract may be enclosed at a comparatively small expense. The food problem, too, is a simple one, as grouse, pheasants, quail, ete., subsist almost wholly upon insects which, if unchecked, would destroy all vegetation, on noxious seeds, and on buds of unimportant trees, while the larger game animals, especially those of the deer family, feed almost wholly on twigs and leaves of vegetation which is of no veal value, if not a menace to the farmer. In fact, the finest grazing ground for such animals is an old brush pasture in which the ordinary domestic animals would starve, but which furnishes to the wild crea- {ures their most natural food. The question of vermin—the fox, weasels, skunk, cat, ete., the natural enemies of the bird—must be considered and a systematic war- fare waged against them. An English moor of from 100 to 500 acres often rents for £300 ($1,500) a season, just for the shooting privileges of the grouse alone. When the vermin is disposed of, the increase in bird life on such a tract is simply enormous. *From American Breeders’ Association Annual Report, 1911. 116 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION There is a growing demand, at increasingly high prices, for live game to supply zoological parks, and for game as food. The revenue which may be derived from shooting privileges and from camping parties who would steal away to enjoy a season wath nature, in all her fullness, may not be inconsiderable. The national parks, whose value to the country cannot be over- estimated, are too far away for the average citizen to enjoy, but he may have that which will give much pleasure and profit nearer home. A tract of waste land of from 100 to 1,000 acres may be obtained in almost any section of the country, and especially in the hilly and moun- tainous regions, at a price within the reach of every alert farmer. The cost of fencing need not exceed $1 a rod for an 8-foot fence, and the game for stocking—birds and small game will rapidly multiply under protection—can be procured at a price no greater than that paid for domestic animals. One of the secrets of the success of the English race is in the fact that they as a people have emphasized out-of-door life. The rugged physique and robust health of the average Englishman are due to the fact that he is able to dismiss all care and enjoy a day with rod or gun. His large landed estates, together with the climatic conditions, offer favorable opportunities for all out-door sports. While we believe that large landed estates are a menace to the best interests of any people, yet, with our large acreage of waste land and democratic ideals, there is no possible danger that we shall ever suffer by the establishment of game preserves in this country. ‘These game preserves may not only be centres from which the surrounding covers will be stocked, but they may be object lessons in forestry, of which this country stands in vital need, to say nothing of making rural life more beautiful and attractive. II. Experience in Raising Virginia Deer* BY C. H. Roseperry, STELLA, Mo. KNOW of no other branch of the live-stock industry that returns as great a profit in proportion to the time, labor and capital invested as that of deer raising. My experience is limited to the Virginia white-tailed deer (Cariacus virginianus) and covers a period of 19 years. Doubtless, the raising of elk or wapiti would be equally profitable—perhaps more so where raised for venison, owing to the greater size. A tract of 10, 20, or 40 acres of rough brush land, enclosed with a 6% or 7-foot woven wire fence, with provision for a constant supply of water, either natural or artificial, is the chief requisite. It is better if there be dense thickets of underbrush, coarse weeds, and trees of pin oak, white oak, pig hickory, chestnut, etc. The twigs, leaves, and mast of these afford an abundance of natural food as well as shelter and seclu- sion. It is also desirable to have a plat of three or four acres of tillable land on which to sow rye or wheat for winter pasture. As the underbrush is gradually killed out, as it will be as the herd increases in numbers, unless the range is quite extensive, white clover and orchard grass may be sown for summer forage. In the latitude of southwestern Missouri, feeding is not necessary between April 1 and November 1. For the rest of the year a stack of cowpea or clover hay to which the deer have free access, supplemented by a light ration of corn and bran or other mill feed in severe weather, is sufficient. Do not feed too heavily of shelled corn. If gorged with it, the results are often fatal. If it is desired to raise venison it is, of course, not necessary that the fawns be accustomed to handling while young in order to tame them. But if raised for sale as breeding stock, requiring that they be handled and shipped alive, it is necessary to take the fawns from the does when they are ten days old and raise them by hand on cow’s milk. This, of course, involves a great deal more trouble and expense than to let the fawn run with the doe; hence the price received for breeding stock is proportionately greater than that received for the venison car- cass. For example, a yearling dressed for market may weigh 60 pounds net, and could be profitably sold for 25 cents a pound, or $15; whereas *From the American Breeders’ Association Report, 1909. 118 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION the same raised by hand would be worth at least $30 for a buck, or $45 for a doe. My method of raising by hand is as follows: A tract of 3 or 4 acres, free of underbrush, in which the fawns might hide, is fenced off from the main park. Early in May the does that are to drop fawns are confined in this small lot. During fawning time the lot is carefully searched at intervals of two or three days, and when a fawn a day or two old is found it is at once tagged by tying about its neck a strip of cloth—red if it is a buck or white if it is a doe—and allowed to remain with the doe ten days, when it is taken from the park and confined in a 5 ft. by 10 ft. cage made of one-inch poultry netting, lined inside with cloth and bedded with clean straw. A 5 by 10 cage will accommodate 12 fawns. The bedding must be kept dry and frequently changed for cleanliness. The cloth lining is necessary to prevent injury. The youngster is exceed- ingly wild at first and dashes himself against the sides of the cage in frantic efforts to escape. If allowed to remain longer than ten days with the doe, it is often impossible to capture the fawn except by a chase or by strategy. The latter consists in biding your time until the fawn is found lying beside a log, stump, or clump of bushes, when it is very stealthily approached from the leeward to within springing distance and pounced upon before it can get to its feet. When other methods of capture fail, it may be run into a fish net in which it will become entangled. The fawns remain in the cage for two weeks, during which time they learn to drink fresh milk from a bottle and become quite tame. They are then allowed the freedom of an enclosure 20 by 100 feet for two weeks longer, when they are given a still wider range. But they must not be returned to the park, else they will become wild again. The adult Virginia buck, if raised by hand, often becomes vicious, especially during the rutting season, and should not be trusted until rendered comparatively harmless either by sawing off his antlers an inch above the burr or by bolting a 1 by 4 hardwood board 3 feet long across the tips of his antlers. The wild bucks never lose their fear of man sufficiently to attack him. I would not advise beginners with small means to go into the busi- ness of deer raising too heavily at first. It is better to begin on a small scale, say 10 acres, and a herd of vigorous stock and let the business increase along with the increase of knowledge gained by experience. Thousands of acres of rough land unsuited for cultivation that now brings its owner no returns for his investment may, by converting it into small deer farms, be made to yield the owners a handsome profit, as well as much pleasure. Ill. Selected Articles from the Annual Report of the American Breeders’ Association, 1908* OBJECTS OF BREEDING WILD MAMMALS XPERIMENTS in breeding wild mammals need not necessarily be for their domestication. They may be bred in inclosures giv- ing sufficient range and a habitat as nearly natural as circumstances will permit and the problem of ultimate domestication left for future determination. The chief objects to be sought by experiments in breed- ing wild animals are: (1) preserving species; (2) use in agriculture or transportation; (3) use for hides and fur; and (4) use as food. Perpetuating Species.—Extinction of species is a process of nature, and from an economic point of view is not necessarily a misfortune to the world. But when the rapacity of man is turned against a useful species until it is threatened with extermination, there is good reason for the intervention of organizations of men for its preservation. The imminence of extinction for the American bison, the African elephant, the eland, the walrus, the sea otter, and other species is not imaginary. Within recent times a considerable number of birds have been lost to the world. Of mammals, the quagga and the blaaubok (Hippotragus ‘leucophaeus), the latter a small relative of the roan antelope, have been exterminated from the South African fauna. Foresight might have pre- served them; and foresight accompanied by governmental intervention will be needed to prevent the loss of many of the large game mammals of the world. The preservation of the best of them is a sufficient reason for advocating the expenditure of money in experiments in breeding them. Agriculture and Transportation.—Our second object in breeding wild animals seems to be less important. ‘The horse will never be sur- passed in general usefulness and the other animals used in agriculture and transportation are excellent in their places. Two animals, how- *The Committee on Breeding Wild Mammals of the American Breeders’ Association is composed of the following members:— Dr. E. Lantz, Washington, D.C., Chairman. M. M. Boyd, Bobcaygeon, Ont. W. M. Irwin, Washington, D.C. R. H. Harris, Clarksville, Tex. C. J. Jones, Topeka, Kan. Emory E. Hoge, Baltimore, Md. C. D. Richardson, Worcester, Mass. Object: To investigate and report on the methods and technique of improving wild mammals; and to devise and suggest methods and plans of introducing, producing and improving such wild animals as may be useful for the production of food, skins, ete., or as aids to agriculture. 120 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION ever, both of the African fauna, are good subjects for experiment in breeding and domestication for these uses—the zebra and the elephant. The zebra is the only animal of its kind that is apparently immune to the fatal effects of being bitten by the tsetse fly. The zebra is easily domesticated, but seems to lack endurance. If it can be crossed with the horse so as to produce a hardy hybrid also immune to tsetse fly, the problem of African transport would be partly solved. The domestica- tion of the zebra and its improvement by judicious breeding are pro- jects that are well worth the expenditure of money upon them. The African elephants have been domesticated and trained like their Asiatic relatives and have proved to be equally docile under careful manage- ment. There is little doubt that they could be made equally useful. Breeding for Fur.—\nvestigation of the possibility of breeding fur- bearing animals profitably is especially desirable, in view of the failing supply of our better furs. As another committee has reported upon this subject, we do not take it up. Breeding for Food.—From an economic standpoint we regard this as an important reason for attempting to breed wild mammals. Game of all kinds is becoming scarcer from year to year, and sportsmen go farther and farther in search of it. Even after it is found, the laws upon the subject of sale and export of game often prevent the hunter from carrying to his home or disposing of game that has been lawfully killed. In our zeal to protect our vanishing game mammals and birds, we have, in some cases, carelessly passed laws which, if not modified, will prevent the one movement that would do more for game preserving than any other agency that can be contrived. We refer to game prop- agation carried on not by the State alone, but by private enterprise as well. EXOTIC SPECIES RECOMMENDED FOR BREEDING UNDER DOMESTICATION The breeding of exotic species of the deer family is a promising field for experiment. The red deer and fallow deer of Europe have been successfully acclimatized in many parts of the world. It has been shown that the small Chinese water deer and the Indian muntjac are both suited to European deer parks and no doubt both would thrive in Amer- ica. The water deer are noted for their fecundity, the female producing three or four young at a time. The muntjacs usually produce twins. The flesh of both is said to be excellent. ‘These small deer are less than 20 inches tall at the withers, and, if domesticated in our Southern States, would furnish farmers a much needed form of meat which could be provided fresh every day or two as needed. Aside from fowls, most FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 121 of our domestic animals are too large for immediate consumption by the ordinary farmer’s family; and there is a distinct demand for a food animal of smaller size than the sheep for farm use. Some of the smaller African antelopes, as the red duiker, might perhaps be made to supply the demand. In Africa there are nearly a hundred species of the antelope family, many of them hardy and some of them producing the best of venison. More than a dozen species would be promising subjects for experiments in acclimatizing and breeding in America. Some of them for instance, as the gazelle, undoubtedly would be found especially adapted for the arid range country of the Southwest and might be used to restock parts of the country from which the American antelope has disappeared. The eland is the largest of the antelope family and is threatened with extermination in South Africa. The average weight of this animal is from 800 to 1,100 pounds and old males sometimes attain 1,400 to 1,500 pounds. The eland has often been recommended for experiments in domestication. It was first introduced into Holland in 1783 by the Prince of Orange. It was acclimatized in England by the Earl of Derby in 1842 and was bred successfully in his parks. At his death his herd passed into the possession of the London Zoological Society in 1851, and continued to increase in numbers for many years. In 1879, the Duke of Bedford had a fine herd of 14 elands in his park at Woburn Abbey. The flesh of the eland is highly eulogized by Harris the African tra- veller in these words: “ Both in grain and colour it resembles beef, but it is far better tasted and more delicate, possessing a pure game flavour and exhibiting the most tempting looking layers of fat and lean, the surprising quantity of the former ingredient with which it is interlarded, exceeding that of any other game quadruped with which I am ac- quainted. The venison fairly melts in the mouth, and as for the brisket, that is absolutely a cut for a monarch.” Besides the eland, the sambar, the nilgai, and other foreign deer have given promising results when bred in enclosures. All told, there are perhaps 150 species of exotic ungulata useful for food, that might become promising subjects for experiments in acclimatizing and breed- ing in the Uited States. The cost of introducing and caring for ten or more of each species until acclimated would be small when compared with the important results that would follow success with even a very few species. For those who would engage in growing deer for profit, however, we can recommend in preference to exotic species our native elk, or wapiti, and the Virginia deer. They need no acclimatizing and are, without question, adapted for propagation in this country. 122 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION BREEDING OF THE WAPITI, OR AMERICAN ELK Although cur native wapiti is less prolific than the Virginia deer, and some other species that have been bred in parks, it makes up for this circumstance in hardiness and ease of management. It has been successfully acclimatized in England and on the continent, where it has been crossed with both the Altai wapiti of Asia and the red deer of Europe. Both crosses with the American species have improved the stock in size and general stamina. The wapiti has been successfully bred in many sections of the United States and affords one of the best subjects for experiments in breeding for profit. While the old males are apt to become dangerously vicious during the rutting season, making them somewhat undesirable for open parks, they are ordinarily docile and have often been trained to harness and driven in public. Under careful scientific management with possibly careful dehorning, the elk would in a very few generations develop into a gentle race of a true domesticity. Judge John D. Caton, of Illinois, who during his lifetime contri- buted much to our knowledge of the deer family and of their susceptibi- lity to domestication, was apparently unfortunate in having enclosures poorly adapted to deer. He believed that they contained some kind of vegetable food that was harmful to most of the species; but his herd of elk was always healthy. Writing in 1880, Judge Caton said: “My elk continue to do well and are so prolific that I have had repeatedly to reduce their numbers and would be glad now to dispose of at least thirty. I have on an average about one old buck a year killed in battle and sometimes another by some casualty, but all appear healthy. Mine grow very large and of all the cervidae they seem best adapted to domestication.” Your committee has recent reports from a number of breeders of elk, all of whom seem to confirm the opinion advanced by Judge Caton as to the success of breeding the elk in preserves. Joshua Hill, of Pontiac, Mich., has a preserve of 300 acres in which he has been breeding elk and buffalo. Although not breeding animals for commercial purposes, he is of the opinion that elk, on account of their superior hardiness, could be more profitably handled than deer. He has heard of elk meat bringing from 50 cents a pound upward, and thinks that the business of growing animals for market might be made to win if properly pushed. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 123 Isaac Bonine, of Niles, Mich., breeds both elk and Virginia deer, and has had thirty years’ experience. He prefers elk because they re- quire less care than deer. Elk winter well on hay and corn fodder with a small amount of grain and thrive in summer on blue-grass pasture. While deer do reasonably well on the same food, they thrive better when fed vegetables and in that latitude require some sort of winter shelter. An elk requires no shelter. While Judge Bonine has doubts as to the profit of growing deer and elk for the venison, he thinks that breeding them for park purposes can be made very remunerative. He has a number of elk for sale. G. W. Russ, of Eureka Springs, has a herd of 34 elk. They have abundant range in the Ozarks on rough lands covered with hardwood forest and abundant underbrush. He reports that the animals improve the forest by cleaning out a part of the thicket. Fully 90 per cent. of the females produce healthy young, and Mr. Russ thinks he could make the business of growing elk for market profitable, if, the law would permit him to kill and export domesticated elk. He has an offer of 40 cents a pound for the dressed carcasses in St. Louis. He thinks that large areas now unutilized in the Alleghanies and Ozarks might be economically adapted to produce venison for sale and he regards the elk as especially suited for forest grazing. They should have about twice as much range as the same number of cattle. J. W. Gilbert, of Friend, Neb., has been raising deer and elk for seventeen years. He has at present 30 deer and 16 elk on prairie pasture. He regards elk as the more profitable and has never had a barren cow elk. T. J. Wilson, of Lewisburg, Ohio, began raising deer and elk a few years ago, with three head of each at the start. He has not suc- ceeded so well with deer as with elk. Deer require a higher fence and more care. Elk do well on hay, corn fodder, and rough feed, and if they escape from an enclosure may be driven back like cattle. He originally paid $165 for two adult elk and a fawn. He has sold $300 worth of stock and has now a herd of 12, worth a thousand dollars. Your committee has the names and addresses of about a dozen other successful breeders of the American elk, but the time at our dis- posal did not permit our obtaining particulars of their experience. BREEDING THE VIRGINIA DEER Testimony as to the hardiness of the Virginia deer and the profits of breeding them is not so unanimous as it is concerning the wapiti; but the general opinion is that with suitable range, plenty of good water, and reasonable care in winter, the business of growing the animals for 124 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION stocking parks and for venison may be made as profitable as that of any other live-stock industry, and that untillable land may be utilized as preserves for the animals. Mr. R. H. Harris, a member of this committee, who resides at Clarksville, Texas, was requested to contribute his views upon the raising of deer as an industry. He writes as follows: “Having been actively engaged in this business for some years, I feel qualified to speak on the subject with clearness and conviction. 1 find that the Virginia deer is adapted to almost every section of the United States. It fawns in May or June of each year, each doe usually bringing two young. The young mature rapidly. Virginia deer are the most beautiful, graceful and healthful animals known. No _ other meat is equal to venison as a diet for the sick, it being easily digested and agreeing with the most delicate stomachs. The demand for both venison and skins is unlimited. The flesh, being in wide demand in cities, especially in restaurants and cafes, is very high-priced. “These deer are easily tamed; the wildest fawns, if taken from the herd when young, will in a few hours become as gentle as a pet dog. 1 have for several years been raising them in large numbers. They run at will in woodlands and fields, are never handled, but fed occasionally, and are as gentle as a herd of common cattle. They are easily and cheaply raised and seldom, if ever, die from natural causes. After years of practical experience, I unhesitatingly state that the raising of deer is in profitableness second only to the raising of cattle. “The cost of feeding deer averages about one-half cent each per day. They feed on all kinds of vegetables, buds, and leaves of trees, grow- ing wheat, clover, peas, barley, oats, etc. Cotton seed is also a very cheap and satisfactory food for them. They also eat corn, bran, fruits and, in fact, anything that man or beast will eat, except dry hay. They live from twenty to twenty-five years. They are easily confined by a woven wire or barbed wire fence 614 feet in height. “T strongly urge this Association to appeal to our government to protect and encourage the industry of deer raising, believing it to be one of the most profitable and practicable industries now in prospect for our people. It is unnecessary to urge the need of quick and ener- getic action, for this noble animal is fast disappearing and is without adequate protection. Its extinction would eliminate from our conti- nent what ought to be an industry equal in value to the raising of cattle, hogs, or sheep; and I would urge upon this Association the importance of securing legislation that will permit the marketing of domesticated venison at all seasons of the year..............0.000ee Mi FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 125 In conclusion your committee would again urge upon this Associ- ation such action by resolution as will give emphasis to our desire that State legislatures should so modify their laws as to permit the market- ing, under needed regulations, of venison or live deer reared in pre- serves stocked and maintained at private expense. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION ON BREEDING FUR-BEARING ANIMALS* WHAT HAS BEEN DONE The possibility of breeding many species for their fur has not been overlooked and spasmodic efforts along this line have been made in various parts of the country for generations. Almost every fur- bearing species has been the subject of experimentation. Fox and skunk farming have attracted most attention, but mink, marten, otter, beaver, and muskrat have come in for a fair share. The field has proved most alluring, as with pencil and paper any sanguine person can in a few minutes figure out a large fortune in fur at the market price and well known normal rate of increase of a given species of mammal. Again and again it has taken years of work and the expenditure of thousands of dollars to prove that important factors have been omitted in the computations. One well-organized company in Pennsylvania sank $25,000 in three years, only to prove that skunks would eat their young when in close confinement. Skunk farming, however, has, in some cases, proved a partial success, but “ Why raise one-dollar skunks in- stead of thirty-dollar marten?” is a question asked by Mr. E. T. Seton, a member of the present committee. The nearest approach to success in fur culture hag been on the native range of species, where, owing to favourable conditions, protec- tion could be afforded and the animals allowed to multiply until a profitable yield of fur was secured. This method has been especially applied to blue foxes, beavers, and muskrats, and with considerable success. It merits every possible encouragement, but in most cases there has been little attempt at domestication and nothing gained by way of permanent control of breeds of valuable fur bearers. In fact there seems to have been no systematic attempt to develop a domestic breed of fur-bearing animals. Most of the experiments have been in * Annual Report, 1898. The objects of this committee are: To inves- tigate and report on possibilities, methods and technique of breeding fur animals; and to encourage experiments in the production and breeding of fur animals. 126 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION raising wild animals for fur, and these have usually ceased while the animals were still wild. The fur crop has been expected at once and has usually been the sole object of the experiment.................. PROMISING SPECIES In spite of numerous failures there is no reason to doubt the en- tire practicability of successfully breeding in captivity almost any species of fur-bearing mammal. In most cases it will take considera- ble time to bring about the complete domestication and adaptation de- sirable, but the object is of ample importance to warrant the necessary expenditure of time and money. It is not necessary nor advisable to start on a large scale, as the requirements of each species must be studied and worked out slowly. In selecting species for breeding purposes the first important con- sideration should be to secure a permanently valuable fur. The fancy prices paid for sea otter and black and silver foxes, reaching $1,000 and even $2,000 for some choice skins, are based in part on the rarity of these animals, and would not be maintained if a large supply be- came available. Still these skins will doubtless always be among the most valuable. Owing to their pelagic habits, however, the sea otter and fur seal need not be considered in the present connection. The fur of each species varies greatly in colour, quality, and value in different parts of its range. The choicest natural strains should, if possible, be selected to start with, but these can doubtless be bred into later if a domestic breed be established. The North American species promising most valuable results in fur culture are as follows, in sequence of greater permanent fur value: (1) black and silver foxes; (2) blue or arctic fox; (3) otter; (4) marten, or American sable; (5) beaver; (6) mink; (7) fisher. Cheaper kinds of fur, such as skunk, muskrat, raccoon and opossum, may under special conditions yield paying returns, but need not be considered at present. Many exotic mammals are worthy of consideration, but in general they do not offer any advantages over our native species and have the dis- advantage of not being acclimated. BLACK AND SILVER FOXES The black and the silver foxes are merely melanistic and partially melanistic individuals of the red fox. Both owe their value in part to their rarity, but it will be long before artificial production will seriously affect the price. In habits and requirements they are iden- H 0) N Vv Y y e) Re] Mt Vv d IL N lv iS) N | Vv 19 ite] dt Vv d ssa e) N it] d ia} N Vv Mt H +9] nN Vv N N fe) e) Jd O a ya nN i@ ‘H ite AL \\ .\ WN i \ FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 127 tical with the red fox, of which they are in some cases the offspring. Still either the black or silver if mated together usually breed true. The cross fox is merely a dark form of the red with considerably more valuable fur. By selecting the darkest individuals to breed from and continuing the selection an increasingly valuable strain doubtless could be obtained. Foxes taken when young and carefully raised in captivity become tame and usually breed if properly paired. The red foxes as well as the Arctic or blue fox are evidently strictly monogamous............ BLUE OR ARCTIC FOXES Many of the islands in Alaska have been leased or taken possession of for fox farming. Some of these islands were already inhabited by blue foxes and others were stocked with them, mainly from St. George Island, where the best fur was found. As shown by the report of the Harriman Alaska Expedition, Vol. II., p. 357, 1901, and by a more recent account in Forest and Stream for July 26, 1906, by T. E. Hofer, these foxes are thriving and yield- ing considerable fur. On some islands they secure their own food and are merely guarded and trapped by those in charge. On most of the islands, however, they are fed for part or all of the year, but their wild life has undergone little or no change. They appear to be naturally rather tame and with proper care could doubtless be thoroughly domes- ticated. They breed when a year old, pair for breeding and have usually four to eight young at a litter. Prime skins are quoted at $20 to $25. OTTER Few wild animals thrive better in close confinement than otter. Given a small pen with a pool of water they seem comparatively con- tented and happy. They become very tame and are playful and in- telligent. ‘There are many accounts of their being so domesticated as to follow their master, come at his call and even catch fish and bring them out of the water for him. They are not easily trapped, and are quite able to hold their own against the encroachment of civilization. They probably are as common to-day near the District of Columbia as they are over most of their range, which reaches from Florida to Alaska. They can be readily enclosed by a simple wire-mesh fence taking in a sec- tion of a stream. They do not climb or burrow to any extent. Their 128 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION favourite food is fish and crustaceans, and suitable places could be se- lected where these could be procured in abundance. Prime otter skins from eastern Canada, where the fur is at its best, are quoted in the January, 1908, Fur Trade Review at $15 to $20. BEAVER In spite of more than three hundred years of persistent trapping a few beaver remain scattered here and there over a large part of the United States and Canada, probably enough, could they be adequately protected, to restock most of the streams. In many sections they are protected locally and are becoming abundant again. If unmolested for a few years they lose their fear of man, work on their dams and houses in the daytime and become comparatively tame. With such an animal further domestication seems unnecessary. ‘Given a suitable pond or stream they find abundance of food and are able to care for themselves in every way. They can be fenced in as readily as a flock of sheep and their enemies, except man, can be fenced out. Thousands of miles of forest marsh and stream, fit for no other purpose are lying idle and could be used to advantage as beaver farms. Prime beaver skins from the northern United States and Canada are quoted in the January, 1908, Fur Trade Review at $5 to $8. By selecting breeding stock from the region where the fur is the best and keeping only the choice individuals for breeding purposes, it would doubtless be possible to steadily improve the standard and value of the beaver fur. MARTEN The marten or American sable is a forest animal of the Boreal zone. It comes into the United States along the northern border and extends south in mountainous sections as far as New York, New Mex- ico, and central California. It is a beautiful, soft-furred little animal the size of a mink, but of much brighter appearance. It generally inhabits coniferous forests, is an expert climber, but avoids the water. Its food is mainly squirrels, rabbits, mice, birds, and such small game. In the wild state it has the savage disposition of its family, but in captivity is quiet and gentle. The most valuable marten skins come from Labrador and eastern Canada and are variously quoted at $20 to $40. MINK The mink is one of the most widely distributed fur bearers of North America and one of the few species able to hold its own against FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 129 persistent trapping. It is almost as common to-day in the thickly set- tied sections of the country as in the most remote wilderness. A half- hour’s run on a bicycle to the creeks in the suburbs of Washington will enable one to find mink tracks. Wild mink when taken young become perfectly tame and are gentle and affectionate pets. They breed readily in captivity, are hardy, easily enclosed and seem not to worry over confinement. They are fond of the water, are expert swimmers and divers and get much of their feod from streams and lakes in the form of fish, frogs, and crus- taceans. They also climb trees and are at home in the forest. There are numerous instances on record of “mink farms,” or “ minkeries,” that have proved successful, but the low price of mink fur for many years has discouraged the industry. A few years ago mink skins sold at $1 to $2, but they are now quoted at $5 to $8. As other choice furs decrease in abundance there seems every probability that mink fur will hereafter increase rather than decrease in value. With no other species is success in fur raising so simple and well tested. The value of mink fur varies greatly with different parts of the country, being least in the southern sections and greatest in the north- eastern States and eastern Canada. RULES FOR HANDLING FUR ANIMALS A few general rules apply equally well to all species. At first the animals should not be taken away from their native climatic conditions, at least not from their natural life zone. As a general rule the colder the climate the better the fur, and healthier the animals. This does not mean that all the fur raising should be in the far north. Mountain areas, extending south even into many of the Southern States, offer unusual advantages in the close proximity of sections with warm and cold climates. A thorough knowledge of the native food and breeding habits of a species should be made the basis of care in captivity. This is of the greatest importance at the start, though later on the animals may be able to adapt themselves to greatly modified conditions. Sufficient room is necessary for the animals to keep themselves clean and obtain exercise and healthy occupation. Quiet and freedom from excitement and nervous strain are essential. Also constant famil- iarity and association with one or more suitable keepers. CONCLUSION The committee believe (1) that any experiments to be of value must be continuous for sufficient length of time to establish permanent 130 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION and improved breeds of fur-bearing animals; (2) that under proper management such experiments should result in developing an industry of great practical value to the people of North America; (3) that to insure success those in charge of the experiments must be thoroughly familiar with the habits of wild animals, and the keepers, or those in daily intercourse with the animals, must have the rare quality of sympathetic understanding of animal natures. IV. Reindeer Progress in Alaska * BY LILLIAN E. ZEeH HE herding and breeding of domesticated reindeer, introduced as an experiment a number of years ago with animals imported from Siberia by the Government, has now become the most prominent fea- ture of the industrial education of the Eskimo and the main activity of many native villages of Arctic Alaska. The progress in civilization that has been made by lifting up the natives formerly living as savages, and eking out a precarious existence by hunting with no other domes- tic animal than the dog, to the estate of civilized, self-supporting herds- men, as accomplished through the reindeer industry, is a remarkable educational achievement. The Alaska Reindeer Service has now reached its most successful stage, as it marks the beginning of the period of full utilization of all the reindeer owned by the Government for the benefit of the native population. At the present time there is hardly a surplus Government rein- deer north of the Kuskokwim river. This has been made possible by the establishment of new reindeer stations, the employment of more natives as chief herders, by accepting the largest practical number of apprentices, and by transferring reindeer to both chief herders and apprentices in lieu of salary or supplies, the chief aim and fundamen- tal policy of the Government being to turn the reindeer over to the natives as rapidly as they learn the industry and appreciate its value. The total number of reindeer in Alaska at the last census was nearly 23,000, and of this number over 11,000 are owned by the natives. One of the most striking and gratifying features is the large income which the natives derive from the sale of reindeer products, their share for the past fiscal year having been over $18,000. This amount does not include the value of the reindeer skins used for clothing, nor that of the meat consumed as food. These material benefits and the very con- siderable income thus derived demonstrate the fact that the reindeer industry has become one of the most prominent factors in the economic life of the Eskimo. The total number of Alaskan reindeer is distributed in herds among twenty-eight stations, eighteen of these being owned by the Government and ten by church missions. The Lapps own over three thousand. The natives are very anxious to get deer and look upon them as a safe *American Forestry, January, 1913. 132 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION investment for their earnings, and usually take deer in preference to cash for services, when an opportunity is offered. The Government does not sell deer, this is done by natives and missions alone. The various missions are furnished a herd of one hundred deer on loan for a period of five years by the Government. At the end of this time the original number must be returned. ‘The mission keeps the increase of fawns, which amount to several hundred, derived from the Government loan. The Moravian mission of Bethel has one of the largest herds, nearly three thousand. Other missions having over one thousand deer, all in Arctic Alaska, north of the Yukon, are located at Colovin, Kotzebue, Shishmerof, and Cape Wales. At Point Barrow, latitude 71° 25’, the most northern point on the American continent, there is a herd of 300. The total population here is about 400, men, women and children. One native, “ Takpuk,” is considered the richest man of that region as he owns a herd of 137 reindeer. The missions support and educate a number of young apprentice herders. The native herders also take on apprentices and award them six deer a year in payment for their services. The Laplanders take a loan of deer for five years from the Government and give their services as instructors for that period. At the end of five years the Lapp returns the 100 deer and becomes an independent herder himself with the large increase of reindeer he has obtained from the herd. The Lapp herders are not interested in the extension of the reindeer among the natives. Some of the largest owners of deer are Lapps, some half dozen of these men having accumulated herds of from five to nearly eight hundred. In introducing the reindeer as a means to promote the industrial life and to provide a permanent livelihood for the Eskimo, it has been found necessary by the Government to put the young natives through a course of training. Those who get their deer directly from the Gov- ernment serve an apprenticeship of five years. There are several hun- dred of these at present. They are bound by a written contract, the strict terms of which they cannot violate without peril of losing their annual allotment of reindeer and suffering discharge from the service. This caring for, training, and breeding the deer is an education in it- self, and the best which the Government could give to the young natives. With careful training the Eskimo boys make excellent herders. They readily learn how to take care of the reindeer, to throw the lasso, to harness and drive the deer, and to watch the fawns. Siberian herders were first imported to teach them, but of late the more intelligent and efficient Laplanders, who have learned by centuries of experience the breeding of reindeer, were secured. The Eskimo boys take quickly to FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 133 some phases of the work, and in some respects excel the Lapps; they can lasso better than the Lapps, and many become expert in making harness and sleds. The minding of the herd requires constant vigi- lance, especially in the spring during the fawning season. Then the herders have to keep watch day and night by turns with rifle to pro- tect the herd from the ravages of the Arctic wolf and the dogs. In the ear of each Government deer a little aluminum button is fastened securely, and all private owners and herders have a mark which must be registered with a local Superintendent of the Reindeer Station and also at Washington. Besides being taught the art of deer- manship the apprentices are instructed in keeping accounts, the methods of marketing reindeer, and in other practical matters connected with the industry. No apprentice can become a-herder unless he is proficient in the branches of elementary reading, arithmetic, and writing. At the end of his apprenticeship the young Eskimo native is allotted a number of deer by the Government, and with the increase obtained during the interval of his five years service, each apprentice will have on an aver- age, a herd of fifty reindeer. As this herd will double itself every three years, the graduate apprentice will have a herd which will afford and assure a self-supporting income quite enough to satisfy the economic wants of himself and family in the future. He is thus established in business by the Government and is given free pasturage thereafter. The reindeer produces one fawn in the spring each year for ten years. Among the useful and profitable products of the reindeer are the skins for clothing. Of these pelts most varied use is made. From them are fashioned the tight-fitting trousers and that wonderful outer gar- ment, the ‘ parka,’ universally worn in winter by both male and female natives and by many whites. The ‘ parka’ extends to the knees and has a close-fitting hood, which keeps the head and shoulders comfortably warm even in the severest weather. These reindeer garments are re- markable for their excellent qualities of resisting moisture and cold. A close examination of the hair of reindeer furnishes an explanation of its peculiar value. The hair is not merely a hollow tubular structure, with a cavity extending throughout its entire length, but is divided, or par- titioned off, into exceedingly numerous cells, like watertight compart- ments. These are filled with air, and their walls are so elastic and at the same time of such strong resistance that they are not broken up either during the process of manufacture or by swelling when wet. The cells expand in water, and thus it happens that a person clad com- pletely in garments made of reindeer wool does not sink when in water, because he is buoyed up by the air contained in the hundreds of thou- sands of hair cells. 134 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION As a mineral industry continues to grow in Alaska the natives and graduate apprentices can earn high wages as teamsters hauling supplies and furnishing fresh reindeer meat to mining camps in the interior, at points remote from railway and steamboat transportation. Well trained sled deer have been used to carry the mail 650 miles from Point Barrow, south to Kotzebue. This is the most Northern mail route in the United States, and likewise the most perilous and desolate mail trip in the world. Two trips are made a year and $750 is paid for each journey. The average speed is about 40 to 50 miles per day, keeping up a steady trot. One of the latest and quite remarkable feats showing the capacity of the reindeer for sledge driving was that accomplished by Mr. W. T. Lopp, the Superintendent of the Government Reindeer Service. Dur- ing the recent winter’s tour of inspection, Mr. Lopp travelled more than 2,500 miles with a reindeer sled over the frozen tundra and ice- bound rivers of the lower Bering Sea region from the middle Yukon to the coast of the North Pacific. Part of this route for several hundred miles lay through a country which had been so little traversed that not even native trails had been made. The Alaska Reindeer Service is un- der the direction of the United States Bureau of Education. V. Canadian Legislation Respecting Fur-Farming NEW BRUNSWICK An Act RELATING To FoxES AND OTHER FuUR-BEARING ANIMALS KEPT IN CAPTIVITY HEREAS, certain persons in the Province of New Brunswick have engaged in the business of raising or breeding foxes and other fur-bearing animals kept in captivity, and it is desirable to pro- tect the said animals from being disturbed by strangers or persons other than the owner or keeper of said animals; Be it therefore enacted by the Lieutenant-Governor and Legislative Assembly, as follows: 1. Every one is guilty of an offence and liable to the penalty here- inafter provided who at any time hereafter, in any part of the Province, without the consent of the owner or caretaker of a ranch or enclosure where foxes or other fur-bearing animals are kept in captivity for breed- ing purposes, shall approach or enter upon the private grounds of the owner or owners of the said animals within a distance of twenty- five yards from the outer fence or enclosure within which the pens or dens of the said animals are located and upon which said fence, notices forbidding trespassing on the said premises are kept posted so as to be plainly discernible at the said distance of not less than twenty-five yards. 2. Any person convicted of an offence against Section 1 of this Act shall be liable to a fine of not exceeding $50-00, nor less than $5-00, and in default of payment of such fines to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three months, nor less than one month. 3. Every one is guilty of an offence and liable to the penalty hereinafter provided who at any time hereinafter, in any part of the Province, without the consent of the owner or caretaker of any enclosure within which foxes or other fur-bearing animals are kept for breeding purposes, and on the outer fence of which enclosure are kept posted notices forbidding trespassing on the premises where the said animals are kept, and plainly discernible at a distance of not less than twenty- five yards therefrom, shall pass within the said fence of such enclosure or climb over, break or cut through the same for the purpose of entering the said enclosure. 136 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION 4. Any person convicted of an offence against Section 3 of this Act shall be liable to a fine not exceeding $100-00 nor less than $50-00, and in default of payment of said fine to a penalty not exceed- ing six nor less than two months. 5. Any person may kill any dog which he finds lurking about any enclosure in which are kept foxes or other fur-bearing animals for breeding purposes, and annoying or terrifying said animals, or any dog giving tongue and terrifying the animals so kept enclosed, or any dog which he finds straying or being upon his or her property on which are kept enclosures of foxes or other fur-bearing animals of which he or she is the caretaker; provided, however, that no dog so straying, lurking or being on the premises above herein referred to, when muzzled or accompanied by the owner or person having charge or care of such dog, shall be so killed unless there is reason- able fear or apprehension that such dog, if not killed, is likely to annoy or terrify the said animals within the said enclosures. 6. The provisions of Chapter 123 of the Consolidated Statutes of New Brunswick, 1903, relating to Summary Convictions, shall so far as applicable and not inconsistent herewith, apply to all prosecu- tions and proceedings under this Act. QUEBEC An Act RELATING TO FoxES AND OTHER FUR-BEARING ANIMALS KEPT IN CAPTIVITY HEREAS certain persons in the Province of Quebec have engaged in the business of raising or breeding foxes and other fur-bear- ing animals kept in captivity; Whereas it is desirable to encourage this industry, as well because of the diminishing supply of our most valuable furs, as of the rich source of profit which this industry has proved itself to be in some of the sister provinces; Whereas it is essential to the successful breeding of these animals in captivity that they should be protected from disturbance by strangers, or persons other than the owner or keeper of the said animals; Therefore, His Majesty, with the advice and consent of the Legis- lative Council and of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec, enacts as follows: 1. Every one is guilty of an offence and liable to the penalty here- inafter provided who at any time hereafter, in any part of the Province, without the consent of the owner or caretaker of a ranch or enclosure where foxes or other fur-bearing animals are kept in captivity for breed- FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 137 ing purposes, shall approach or enter upon the private grounds of the owner or owners of the said animals within a distance of twenty-five yards from the outer fence or enclosure within which the pens or dens of the said animals are located, and upon which said fence or enclosure notices forbidding trespassing on the said premises are kept posted, so as to be plainly discernible at the said distance of not less than twenty- five yards. No offence will be committed, however, by any neighbour- ing proprietor or occupant who approaches within such distance in the execution of work recognized or imposed by law or by municipal by-laws. 2. Any person convicted of an offence against Section 1 of this Act, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding fifty dollars nor less than five dollars and in default of payment of such fine and the costs to imprison- ment for a term not exceeding three months nor less than one month. 3. Every one is guilty of an offence and liable to the penalty here- after provided who at any time hereafter, in any part of the Province, without the consent of the owner or caretaker of any enclosure within which foxes or other fur-bearing animals are kept for breeding purposes, and on the outer fence of which enclosure are kept posted notices for- bidding trespassing on the premises where the said animals are kept, and plainly discernible at a distance of not less than twenty-five yards therefrom, shall pass within the said fence or such enclosure or climb over, break or cut through the same for the purposes of entering the said enclosure, or for any other purpose whatever. 4. Any person convicted of an offence against Section 3 of this Act shall be liable to a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, nor less than fifty dollars and in default of payment of said fine and the costs to a penalty not exceeding six nor less than two months. 5. Any caretaker may kill any dog wandering in the neighbour- hood of any enclosure in which foxes or other fur-bearing animals are kept, and there giving tongue or otherwise terrifying such animals, provided, however, that the dog so killed is neither muzzled nor accom- panied by the owner or by a person having charge or care of such dog. 6. Every infringement of any of the provisions of this Act is pun- ishable summarily upon prosecution before a justice of the peace having jurisdiction in the district in which the offence was committed. 7. The provisions of Part XV of the Criminal Code respecting summary convictions shall, unless incompatible, apply to all prosecu- tions brought, tried and decided under this Section. 8. This Act shall come into force on the day of its sanction. VI. Statistics of Fur Production AVERAGE ANNUAL FUR PRODUCTION BY CONTINENTS * NortH AMERICA By E. Brass Jeymxs and Waldcatiin isla ruaarciolcbeaeleuaseteenttae 90,000 EVOUMSS CAVE arevatares hates Chavo apie nie tateletaerehe soba lneieterarars 80,000 ADIMDSTSMVVOLEE fae ce Nara crete tere siecstara ie tecetslmusreleve telere 8,000 Prarie \WVO ly CaN OR ian tas iodees steno sheratene siictatenereite 40,000 Rede SMOoxe najelecveye Halciccstoicts atis is loueucnrer cen oar her cter ate re 200,000 Sil Ver MO cis etoile. evapsue aks Sgetep ene ssreqone teva hone 4,000 GHOSSiBOX Ve cievetsle sa levebNireine tact a lavtheaals/ ive Mir skalatatay se a 15,000 AWARE S ROR een ie Woareue resis hers auialon cose onan gdh aya hdl ne 30,000 BLT yp ONIN Mile. ee es re uate BU aba nate! aie isiiererena et er ttcterte 6,000 Gaye BOK AIT ates hectare cherele wheretitersis hace eicvepia ererel 6 50,000 GTR, o> GaN PPE Peon RIL RATE) Nave Ie Un 4,000 Hudsont Bay, wManten ices) se caeeyae aklialerse iterate 120,000 1D) al ee CERO AORTA REIS OSS oobi Claes eae ete 10,000 Marre ai syahaleneyitsyaneiavelerate; Mezteteaes sr GRebeeUeeeUen EEL cv pe: eiieits 60,000 Weasel (Ermine): os cits musceys:< satereie nase aero leer 400,000 WiliVierene Fd | Ose ON a NL Se A a ae 3,000 BAAS Aha dete i Sh creMe ia oie bade sean esha tobe aie 30,000 Seva ve sc saipsriariers e's Rak cil Gen PUPS sae oe bcd Nei toke 1,500,000 Civetyi Gating sea tatirwicteya emesheneyaeicenetscane Creo 100,000 THOR ee ey eal ate Sie we toakel asta aeke oayaatade tha Nitecret hel alts 80,000 I ETE Lay oy a WERE Sen Alle le Scene US ROR, GENS UE ING RE ap rie) 600,000 Wihi te MB ear Wen iii iAas Wiktend Gue tae Malet oneilenmca teeta ate 400 BAC BeAr yes Si AOC Wea teney ela tcer an ct tale | oevalotene 20,000 FSBO WA WE CET ye sitet tie BEANS TSUN Rd mel oie A Or 3,000 GrIZZ Ve BOAT t ate Breverevercns ern er atere rots cha weksxaehe mers 1,200 ITA TI OGG Atos. cheohiire ore eorers ove auth OMe OOM shasie eta eta 30,000 TB CAVET: Fala misce te ahi es a ey gees ete eat era aba rc NEVA t W en a Rt 80,000 Muskratpor’Musquash ite cnee so eieenie ines 8,000,000 OPOSsUMO eM Harness te ee eh lecieontarenereheden ale 1,000,000 1a ot Mie cer iey Cache Wa Tiarel NRCLCNCE MEL eh MIC SITS Fi SUDO take AS 200,000 MSO iio lavas seeiecavonsec oho Umayel eietake tices rename rel oat ts 500 Average production, ADGUG 0... Sh sic cre atte selase'e $24,000,000 The average value of the fur produced annually in the other continents is estimated as follows: South «‘Amertea Waa eeaes se ole oer ae ee about $ 2,000,000 AMUSELAM AY RS. cfc de teen ore vet acter i 6,000,000 BUTO per Gas ite oko ate eine eee be ra ie “ 24,000,000 Africa) andi Ocea»nias ocr aeueereens 2,000,000 PAN STN ioc) wife lors cune yeas tay Oca un eee Seon tatemele Mi 26,000,000 * Estimated on the basis of production of the three years, 1907-1909 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 139 APPROXIMATE AVERAGE YEARLY PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD’S FURS IN THE THREE YEARS, 1907-1909 By E. Brass The value of the world’s production for each year amounts to 360,000,000 marks ($95,680,000), of which furs to the value of 160,000,000 marks come to Leipzig each year. Skins used by the natives and hunters for supplying their own requirements are not included. BEARS White bear: Polar regions, Asia and Europe, 600; America, 400. Grizzly bear: America, 1,200. Brown bear: America, 2,000; Asia, 6,000. Black bear: America, 20,000; Asia, 1,000. Common brown bear: Asia, 3,000; Europe 2,000. BEAVER America, 80,000; Asia, 1,000; Europe, a few skins. NUTRIA South America, 1,000,000. Muskrat or MusQuasH America, about 8,000,000; Russia, 3,000. CHINCHILLA Peru, 600. CHINCHILLONA Peru and Bolivia, 12,000. BASTARD CHINCHILLA Bolivia, 3,000; Chili, 25,000. BADGER Europe, 100,000; America, 30,000; Asia, Japan and China, 30,000. 140 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION SQUIRREL Siberia, 15,000,000; China, 500,000. SQUIRREL-TAILS Siberia, 73 tons; China, 2 tons. Fox Red fox: North America, 200,000; Siberia, 60,000; Russia, 150,000; Mon- golia, China and Japan, 50,000; Australia, 30,000; Western and Central Asia, 50,000; Norway, 25,000; Germany, 250,000; other European countries, 350,000. Karganer fox: Siberia and Central Asia, 150,000. Cross fox: America, 15,000; Siberia, 3,000. Gray fox: North America, 50,000. Kot fox: North America, 4,000; Central Asia, 60,000. White fox: Asia, 70,000; America, 30,000; Europe, 5,000. Blue fox: America, 6,000; Siberia, 4,000; Northern Europe, 1,000. Silver fox: America, 4,000; Siberia, 300. Japan fox (raccoon dog): Japan, 80,000; China, 150,000; Korea, 30,000. South American foxes: Pampas fox and Patagonian fox, total about 15,000. TLAMSTER Germany, 2,000,000; Austria Hungary, 250,000. HARES Polar hares: Siberia, about 5,000,000; North America, 200,000. WEASEL (Ermine) America, 400,000; Siberia, 700,000; Europe, 10,000. POLECAT Germany, 60,000; Russia and Siberia, 150,000; other European countries, 80,000. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 141 FisHer (Fr. Pekan) America, 10,000. RABBIT, CONEY France, 30,000,000; Belgium, 20,000,000; Germany, 500,000; Galicia and Russia, 1,000,000; Australia, 20,000,000. Cats Germany, 120,000; Holland, 200,000; Russia, 300,000; other European countries, 150,000; Asia, China and Japan, 150,000; America, 80,000. KOLINSKY Siberia, 150,000; Manchuria, 50,000; China (weasel) 500,000; Japan (mink) 200,000. Lynx, Gray WILDCAT America, 90,000; Asia, 30,000; Europe, 10,000. WILDOCAT South America, 10,000; Asia, 40,000; Europe and Western Asia, 10,000. MARTEN Baum marten: Europe, 180,000; Northern Asia, 30,000. Stone marten: Europe, 350,000; Northern Asia, 30,000. SABLE AND Hupson BAy MaArTEN America, 120,000; Siberia, 70,000; China, 20,000; Japan, 5,000. MARMOT Asia, 4,550,000; America, 30,000. MINK North America, 600,000; Russia and Siberia, about 40,000; Europe, a few. OTTER (LAND) America, 30,000; Asia, 55,000; Southern Asia, about 1,000; South America, about 5,000; Africa, about 500; Europe, 30,000. OPpossuM Australia, about 4,000,000; America, about 1,000,000. PERSIAN AND BLAck LAMBSKINS Central Asia, Persians 1,500,000, Broadtails 100,000; Russia and Central Asia, Astrachan 1,000,000; Crimean, 60,000; Schiras and salted skins, 200,000. 142 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Raccoon North America, 600,000. FUR-SEALS Alaska, northern waters and southern waters, 68,000. SEA-OTTER Northern Pacific, 400. SKUNK North America, 1,500,000; South America, 5,000. CIvET Cat North America, 100,000. WOLVERENE North America, 3,000; Siberia, 4,000; Europe, 1,000. WoLF America: timber wolf, 8,000; prairie wolf, 40,000; Asia: Siberia, 10,000; China, 5,000; Central Asia and Russia, 6,000; Europe, 1,000. AMERICAN AND CANADIAN FURS SOLD BY A.'& W. NESBITT AT PUBLIC AUCTION IN THE YEARS 1905-1912 Kind Raccoon... Ce ae Wolverene. Ermine.... Fox, Silver. Fox, Cross. Oposs.,Am. Fox, Gray. Sea-otter .. Musk-ox... Fox, Blue.. | 1905 | 1906 37,424| 26,833 3,720] 2,393 739,630] $10,817 124,357] 162,015 14,507] 10,968 919] 10,780 2,614} 2,203 1,382] 6,604 3,227| 2,750 8,614 12,548 1,164] 1,235 238 726 65 62 S77 7022 60 94 285 489 3,974 16,536 3'580| 8,388 30,596] 29,409 146,328] 292,231 9,966] 14,527 see eae 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 ss ee Oe eee 8.471 1,165 371,779 130,213 4,370 13,577 1,476 6,835 2,532 4,580 1,473 1,030 36 22, 362 243 49,990 1,264 551,081 190,298 4,786 3,724 1 60,028] 58,323 2.652| 3,934 548,228] 679,975 239,145] 239,573 4,978] 6,685 6,402] 6,122 3141] 2.496 475 462 1,321] 3,593 10,074] 19,223 2,297] 3,662 264 167 61 115 29,504] 33,276 111 102 255 362 9,612| 8,808 2'889| 4.003 18,069] 22,127 95,187] 77,507 3,151| 7,082 megs ui ay, 131 95 280 48,531 5,229 774,126 352,313 22.647 2,097 1,429 470 14,517 136,417 6,613 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 143 IMPORTATION OF FURS TO LONDON, 1855 By E. Brass ALASKA, OREGON, EASTERN ? FRoM THE Hupson’s AND SOUTHERN CANADA, Bay Co’s TERRITORY Kind ETC., ETC., Number Value Number Value Marten. os ease 136,513 £122,540 12,245 £11,540 id halle 8S Rene es alee 55,740 38,540 171,083 12,305 Sealers ss... 288 5,400 163 4,280 PROEWOEY 3 25 ge Aes 69,376 25,480 6,078 4,780 Muskrat... 45. Goa: 346,955 6,540 1,229,536 23,054 Withernsea... C.o ees 11,094 8,545 4,427 4,800 [ae 4,911 6,840 3.174 2.256 Silver SH Ox. hsss 3 480 6,840 218 4,580 CrOsstte (isan 1,749 4,838 920 2,740 Red Jar clea BAe 8,227 3,945 36,399 16,240 Blue oh Mes at on Sane 86 172 5,086 12,758 CGR 7, ET ss Bob (RR 0 15,826 1,825 Kit CTI Weeiaure 4,646 485 5,086 1,025 ie Cod le 4,646 1,248 354 120 VIG TIRE, ee EE Dey 2 15,392 A fom Wom cee ce Wolverene........... 1,124 840 180 130 Be A a BRAD ae 5,633 3,460 518 230 Waldcaticss 02.8208 374 120 6,989 2,005 RC AT Se ore tp One 8,961 22,480 3,206 8,425 TMMINCFs se5 .e Seet 1,500 34 500 10 SIKUIMES ays ie ee. 5,945 6,743 200 40 RCCOON As vaths te ete: 1,200 180 482,072 65,240 BAGGEr vac: cee eee 1,084 POET TA ARENA ea a) UU Maal in pi i aren see ee, oot. 83,757 1,025 2,095 50 SO) DS ITE CU AE aM Alec ok) Sa MR Bee 12,745 1,875 BEMILO! keene ls 5,800 GTO) SI pina decease GLAM, boa et ad bea APRS a AP yg). 4" 28,000 5,000 34,000 8,000 144 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION IMPORTATION OF FURS TO LONDON, 1875 By E. Brass From ALAasKA, EASTERN AND SouTHERN CANADA, OREGON From THE Hupson’s Bay AND THE NORTHWESTERN Co’s TERRITORY Unitep Sratses, Sotp BY é RETAILERS AND IN THE nD Kind Lonpon SALES Number Value Number Value & £ Mamtent: sac tsccete 131,154 173,500 37,712 38,563 Mankeas chau csc 72,400 73,840 39,245 33,642 Sea-ottera. te socack 223 5,480 3,653 102,580 Sea-Outers (Pup) stpe sce | ee tesitae een | Pil insatecote anes 520 3,280 Beavers (0 ocho edi 270,903 293,850 65,941 48 647 Miuskeart asec eciere: 416,833 32,542 2,126,465 145,362 Otters(@and) eee 13,580 38,762 8,725 24,460 Misheriycee rs Wek eee 3,558 11,200 1,868 3,780 SilvierHOxin ese 789 14,800 751 3,120 CrOossh, Meds eee 786 3,870 1,451 6,587 Red GHEE Geet 8,945 6,325 75,365 28,956 Bae sakes sree bree 169 460 2,215 6,084 ET Noes Saeed Aap ae on Fee et 25,602 6,850 Kit bal traee eu ey 5,860 530 9,245 1,640 WIRTEC ES pate erat: 6,026 2,100 2,072 850 Wioli ee a) aa Oe 3,056 208 4,481 2,180 Wolverene........... 1,349 1,580 1,248 960 1 Ot nee eee ae 13,242 11,480 2,504 1,800 IBGar ne hts haan 6,880 23,500 6,796 22,540 Ermine or Weasel 3,489 80 44,583 1,200 Shunkayer ce hea eee 2,789 1,860 275,943 81,540 RACCOONS vie ieee 7,154 1,240 341,077 58,650 Deere ath orient 15,005 SOO MT Bee ee Sha Co ee Badwerte., icwowseee 8,386 3,000 12,522 4,540 arena seis ie na 60,520 5,680 429,474 10,402 Musk-ox.. 23 50 10 Bufialosse ca see. 108 560 200 580 Banthers sa ney eee al hic sched tor mie asta 165 183 WHA Cate sic5 rato cette hy ieee ta Shanes MAI RP Neher hay (2 2,197 2,650 Sapaurreliwt, hal Parad, |) ees cate | LMAS Ree 8,146 100 OPOSSUM Eta error Iho he EC Pee nem A Miva 143,653 2,253 Ocherse case ae 53,000 18,000 86,000 22,000 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 145 IMPORTATIONS OF FUR-SEALS AND SEA-OTTER TO THE LONDON AUCTION SALES By E. Brass Year Fur-seals Sea-otter Year Fur-seals Sea-otter 1850 LASSE) by SA Ibe AP eae el 1882 189,694 5,680 1851 USO) le naa (oe Se at 1883 171,205 5,038 1852 OARS 1 ae ee ee i 1884 157,329 7,903 1853 TOMO SU es te awaene eae 1885 180,059 4,908 1854 en Dts Ol pees) eg ake hs oc 1886 217,704 4,804 1855 1 Bo) 212009 Sh ube ER at a A te 1887 226,370 4,413 1856 POAGIENE Wake So) eres re 2 1888 219,670 Salil 1857 DOI GATE el Geta en es a: 1889 214,577 Pie: 1858 DADS aia Se eee eres a 1890 182,653 2,392 1859 TATE LO etl eave eg Pe 1891 125,731 2,366 1860 SO ee lees! 8 cena te Se 1892 109,123 1,306 1861 DARGA em tei se ayaa 1893 147,047 1,590 1862 LOA O AS eer Oks Gy. 2 1894 112,253 1,434 1863 TAI SOM heals cee ne de wiaee 1895 102,759 122i 1864 UA PUAN as os fea hectts Si: 1896 70,579 1,059 1865 LAY) Ne RS ea 1897 5,567 e212 1866 ORG AAMI Ae Sweat 1898 61,776 956 1867 EOD Are VE eae co 1899 16,836 739 1868 Sa OO Talc e oaks oe 1900 22,800 584 1869 JAD SOS ee ferns Boise oherd 1901 64,201 422 1870 UBS to hy er aan 8 eae Ge 1$02 20,692 406 1871 154,959 3,824 1903 70,137 468 1872 168,672 4,307 1904 35,636 234 1873 170,679 5,095 1905 65,811 335 1874 161,291 4,920 1906 68,757 505 1875 174,107 4,964. 1907 49,104. 561 1876 167,141 5,059 1908 74,277 339 1877 142,631 5,420 1909 49,744 269 1878 169,497 D200 1910 44,608 307 1879 175,119 5,176 1880 205,240 5,583 1881 210,745 5,647 VII. Statistics of Fur Prices TYPICAL PRICES OF A FEW SKINS By E, Brass Australian Opossum, Adelaide prime blue, 1880, 16 cts.; 1900, 28 cts.; 1908, 73 cts.; 1909, 97 cts.; 1910, $1.95. Wallaby, 1880, 6 cts. to 10 cts.; 1900, 25 cts. to 75 cts.; 1910, 50 cts. to $1.70. Kangaroo, 1880, 4 cts. to 12 cts.; 1900, 37 cts. to 60 cts.; 1910, 75 cts. to $1.45. Wombats, 1880, 12 cts.; 1900, 36 cts.; 1910, 73 cts. Native Coats, 1880, 4 cts.; 1900, 24 cts.; 1910, 49 cts. Bastard Chinchilla, 1880, 73 cts.; 1890, 36 cts.; 1900, $2.92; 1905, $4.38; 1910, $9.73. Japan Mink, 1900, 12 cts.; 1905, 19 cts.; 1910, 60 cts. Chinese Weasel, 1900, 7 cts.; 1905, 16 cts.; 1910, 33 cts. Japan Marten, 1890, 35 cts. ; 1900, $1.43; 1905, $2.38; 1910, $3.81. Japan Fox, 1890, 83 cts.; 1900, $1.43; 1910, $4.05. Skunk, the best lot, 1900, $2.07; 1908, $3.30; 1909, $4.40; 1910, $7.06; 1911, $5.10. Raw Persian, 1890, $2.06; 1900, $3.09; 1905, $4.12; 1908, $4.64; 1909, $5.15; 1910, $6.70. Stone Marten, 1890, $1.43; 1895, $2.14; 1900, $2.86; 1905, $3.33; 1908, $5.23; 1909, $6.19; 1910, $6.66. Marmot, Orenburg, 1890, 10 cts.; 1900, 12 cts.; 1904, 19 cts.; 1905, 43 cts.; 1906, 33 cts.; 1907, 37 cts.; 1908, 33 cts.; 1909, 43 cts.; 1910, 90 cts. Black Fox, best skin, 1880, $632.70; 1890, $876.00; 1900, $2,822.66; 1905, $1,070.67; 1906, $1,557.33; 1907, $2,141.33; 1908, $2,238.67; 1909, $1,508.67; 1910, $2,628.00. Sea-otter, 1880, $584.00; 1890, $778.67; 1900, $1,362.67; 1905, $997.77; 1909, $1,849.33; 1910, $1,703.33. 147 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA TYPICAL PRICES OF A FEW STAPLE SKINS OF THE HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY ON THE LONDON FUR AUCTION By E. Brass Year Muskrat, Mink, Red Fox, Lynx, Yoel Nia yea YF, I, dark | YF, I, large ts oP het Ps cna 16 13 3.11 4.87 (CSE Beet an eae 15 97 2.75 6.09 CoS aoe A ae 16 1.16 2.75 7.31 NOR Kies oe bias § .12 .59 2.07 4.51 Means Sao ote. 3 fads ome 16 .93 2.56 8.72 LC ee ge 17 .89 2.60 4.70 BBO hth c/aee + ON 19 65 2.50 5.05 De oA Pec orcs bpd a 25 1.50 4.05 7.38 CA SR ee ee 22 1.03 2.92 5.7 ss Ape eR a et, 25 1.36 2.82 6.75 he err Gee es 15 1.74 2.92 8.70 oo eee eS eee ivi 2.92 2.92 6.70 1 ko 22 WS aI re el ea 18 1.42 2.75 4.13 LO So Sete See 19 1.58 4.20 4.39 1 CoE ROr a eM Nena 24 1.34 2.50 3.33 POE MN chsiata sot 22 1.46 2.50 2.87 EU ane ieee arg ee 18 1.89 2.66 3.23 (ho) 12) a ae ee 16 2.98 4.97 5.12 OMY cr aegtee Wea i ahs 16 2.58 9.00 10.80 1 Ce A 15 2.44 6.20 7.44 PANS, COUR aA a 13 2.58 8.27 13.38 Restores Creme) cine 22 2.70 8.03 22.40 ULL ego nak 9 eae 25 2.37 6.81 12.80 AP MUER eies dee alos S Sth 17 4.46 7.48 13.15 US woe eiatstars ts ce ee 27 4.54 7.67 13.38 112 Tues Boome ia a 31 6.58 8.07 12.50 MEMS eatin Gk: cid sks: 41 5.25 9.25 15.60 i i a 47 5.61 14.96 32.00 PO URS oo 2 87 6.34 16.55 39.85 9/F1 926'F ¢/ZT StF'b 9/8 Cind 1/8 SLI‘GT /O1 9ZZ'EZ xuA] I1/S |8/9T/0T ZS ‘ZI /9 cge‘s 8/¢ G08‘ ot/¢ 690'¢ 01/9 c6s‘s 9F I 4/9 LLS'T O1/F SO1'Z /L 666'F ITS‘O1 L18'T 0L0'F 996 Sh8 (e7ya) xO 2/Gl Z19 6IL'S ¢/p1/OT | /TT 88¢ ZOF'9 I1/t1/01| 6/6 Z89 Z8L‘L I1/F1 8/TI 990'T |268°8 G/ST/ZI | $/2T pooper T0'TT G1°19 |96°% 11/O/P Te Lt POUT = |S8P‘TT G/T1/OT| 1/8 090‘T |202‘6 OT/9T/9T| &/ST ZL0'T = ‘|9zG‘OL C19 P8E'L S69 928'8 068 GLI‘S 148 698'9 S16 G19'G 8ZS 189‘ 118 6SL'L (40a]Is) | (pe) xo A xO A 1/¥E £96'T /6& OF6'T /1t 8hZ'S OT/6¢ LOS /09 080'F OF 9T 8/99 Z86'S 9/gg ZLF‘S 9/62 9E2'S St6'T 062'T CLL LE 108° FoS'S 186'T $£0'S (sso19) xOJ oO cairo (onjq) xO] sys! 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Teoarlere L261 SEe'6z ‘ON TI6. 6/1 9/81 6/8 /sh er rea ag ee &/F ¢/1F vg L108 6F1'S S19'T LIG'T ee OOS 626'8% ‘ON OL6T 9E°¢ 8o'¢ 66° 68° vG FT €L° 08°89% |I8 ST 6." 18° G3 Los 92°83 (sre]]Op) apeoep JO; adeIOAY 11/62 £/02 1/9 Lie pe O/ Gmes| ee OO L/T 8/96Z ¥/FZ 1/&F wg €9L 898‘ 16¢‘T 992‘T ants = ane T¥I Soe era eee 3 G6T‘ZOS |Z0T LGS‘LT OF 9'SZ% ‘ON 606T oua (arey) (4nj) (eas) (purl) |yerysnyy| xo -IDAJOM | JOA yunys [e2S [eas uoossey| 1910 19339 [40 ysenb} -ysnyw | yu | uszreyy a1eq -snjl A ae iat fi f a i ‘ ~ a . \ 2 »’ * 4 s ' id vig s t ut Ue 4 Mu i Nee | ‘ ‘ 4 et i aS J a ou Sitiney 5 i ¥ Mh 7 Index A PAGE Alaska, blue foxes in............ 56 blue fox breeders in.......... 59 diseases among foxes in........ 45 ROINGOCINGE ots) e's ele) + ays lo 92, 131 BPN Sian ISRallichs Shih) ahivia.c.Aiceeterent ss 6 Alberton, black foxes near....... 53 Aleutian islands, blue foxes on... 58 American Breeders’ Association. . . 1 Se Nee ALO furs sold by Nesbitts, 1905-12.. 142 SSA Se SAS ee oe 78 Animals, wild, value of.......... 115 Antelope, breeding of........... 121 Anticosti island, fox breeding on. 14 Arctic fox—See Blue fox and Polar fox. PEAMIBPOPEALION 2 6. 00/-1)s, 255)» «) v0 92 IANStrAGHaNe Sic. Moers othe aah: 6 Athabaska river foxes.......... 24 Automobile, relation of, to de- MATIC PORMUTS. 40). sie seein ee) di 3 B Bailey, Vernon, on the otter..... 80 Rae IE a, 6s Lik ld seu ahs 6 Bateson, W., on fox breeding..... 18 PICA RSTUEE e's a5. ie eral dais nhs 6 ACCME Mee ae year cts nui p/5,'500) % Vieray ate 90, 128 PIKESELVES (ohn uhes care sa oi ster sfiels akesyt tans 91 BINS sPLIGES MON a tayecsiavt a ve aces) 91 MESES OLE Morn at ateoare hs chien atheists 90 Beetz, Johann, fox breeder....... 13 Black fox American Breeders’ Assoc. on.. 126 skins, number produced...109, 110 BANS A DLIGES Oli 6 uid.yns a's 2 PANNE skins, sola trom) PoB.. . 6,605 114 Blue fox—See Polar fox. SNCS aS Rah eRe SEA le I pe 56 American Breeders’ Assoc. on.. 127 breeders in Alaska........... 59 ype A Ae a ea 57, 66 RR MMNI SS Cap aah brs i3h5 550 Ro A's) Avi > 56 MEFOCUIL ON tag en ated) ai 5: waldi Seahvater star oe © 57 161 Blue fox (cont'd) PAGE of Pertatlaf islands?) i.e) 260 rate of increase of........... 57 selecting breeders............ 63 BKANS VALUE TOhs we weie else ele Si, Bowers, Geo. M., on parasitic fox Ciseasey |). hos santas ee aoe 45 Brass, E., estimate of number of beaver skins by... 2.0.2... 90 estimate of production of fox SkIBeHe re Mb YS). Fh 54, 109, 110 fur production by continents... 138 importation of furs to London 143, 145 estimate of number of mink Ska SH Viviaeriei teen tol ect areas 12 estimate of raccoon pelts by.... 70 statistics of fur prices......... 146 Breeding of foxes—See Fox breeding roaddtall ee ays cacy teucretatee rable tone 6, 9 Bruce, Cummings, McConnell, fox breedensee)oto ee boe see 13 Burrowman, T. L., fox breeder. . .13,14 cement fox kennels of.......... 35 Orchards ranchvOt.ve tae sere 28 price for fox skins received by.. 114 c Campbell, R. H., on reindeer in Canadas tse ee otaow oaks 92 Canadian furs sold by Nesbitt’s, POO SSA Ci ae ele ex Aree 142 legislation on fur-farming...... 135 mammals, three orders of..... 11 Carcross, Y. T., foxes near...... 53 GCArniVOrdel! ae ca oe ate ee aes see 10 Cased method of skinning....... 97 Castle, W. E., Prof., on fox breed- ENR asco Woe fhe teas Gea rsa 22 (Sat GOMESEICH oe Rite aist icteric ieee. 16.56 Caton, J. S., on breeding wapiti.. 122 Cement fox kennel.............. 35 Centreville, mink ranch at....... 76 Charlottetown, P.E.I., foxes near 53 Chaud, lac, mink ranch at....... 72 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA PAGE Chinehillayy race eis Senco 12 @hinese waterideens); so. .046 0.8 120 Clark, Rev. Geo., fox breeding DW? 3c eek th he Sei eke eas 13922 Classification, geographical, of furs 110 Close seasons 4) ) ities cee 3 Cocks, A. H., marten farmer...... 78 Colony plan of mink-ranching.... 74 Colour phases of red fox......... 17 Colours: natural, of furs; ee 100 Constipation in foxes........... 43 Commerce in raw furs.......... 104 Coneyied es aero asia die eae “6 Corporations for fox-farming.... 1 Cross foxes, breeding of......... 22, D Dalton, Chas., pioneer P. E. I. fox breeden rae suc cte colette 14, 24 sales of fox skins by, in 1910. 112 Davenport, Dr. Eugene, on Men- GelisMbawe san casas mori: 19 Deer sfallowee eae ses con noces cieke 120 Virginia, experiments with..... 117 Diarrhoea intioxess. eee. 2s. 43 Digestion, disorders of, in foxes.. 43 Diseases of foxes: CONS PATON eee ee nec 43 Cianrhoeanrnn cere ee ee 43 INGIVESHON Ay. ance misters Hae 43 MANGE a s,2is Seehalesete ieee eesleee 41 parasitic epidemic........:... 45 TICKELS Rocio eae ee 42 WOLMIS Panerai ck etree 43 Diseases of blue foxes........... 67 Domestication of fur-bearers..... 10 Domestic fur-bearers........... 6,9 Dress orhuirsry side sche ncaa ie 100 Durabilttycoh furs oe eis cwte tet: 103 DMveingiol hursacis see cata 100 Ofeiminks sles ees 2 oles nee 72 E Eland, domestication of ........ 121 Elk, American—See Wapiti. 12) Oa gb) 0 Spee naa arr em tes bath ea ale 71 ekimiordog rusts ace ctie tee 92 owners of reindeer........... 132 162 PAGE Exotic species, breeding of.. 6, 10, 120 F Fairs, European... 2. 024 se noe 104 Fences forranches)./% =. -4e ee 28 Financial aspects of fox-farming.. 48 Pusher.) seks Sse a eee ee eee 79 popularizing ihes-s sere eer 6 ileastonsioxess no. soe een Food for foxestiy. .). sont nents Forests, destruction of.......... 3 Fort Smith, reindeer near....... 95 Fox, attempts to domesticate.... 13 black, domesticating experiments nite CUPRA laren ata bu arcs "3 Ip 12 black, how to identify........ 18 black, prices of pelts of....... 1 red, colour phases of ......... 17, red rangeiob 4 «We ane a ceae 16 red, sub-species of ........... 16 silver—See Fox, black and Black fox. Fox-breeding, Prof. W. Batesonon 19 results of various matings ..... 17 to secure dark-coloured pelts .. Foxes in captivity, percentage of, Val coed Sep CPN MRR s 2 int Canadas Hiecmets coe coer 53 Fox fur, when primen..4. 2.2 se: 46 Fox-ranch: of Holt, Renfrew & Co........ 13 locationifiorn sachs ee aeoroe 25 of Paquet! Bros:assaccceteoee 13 of Revillon Piréress- e054. see 13 Fox-ranches, fencing of.......... 28 number of, in existence in 1909 15 im Wmited statesenr circa 54 Fox-ranchers, organizations among 55 Fox-ranching: life of) the‘ booms invitee sea. Bu catching and handling of foxes. 46 centres of the industry.. ...... 53 construction of kennel....... 35 construction of nest.... .. 35 construction of pens.......... NSS disease and hygiene.......... 41, 42 failure of early attemptsat.. .. 15 financial aspects... cele: 48 Index Fox ranching (cont'd) PAGE food and feeding........... 36, 38 necessity of experienced keeper 39 aR icyoclin Po ony) oe Sang 13 DIAGCLICEH Seer eRATe oes ed 25 Be OU C CMe ra el ar2, 5 aes 50.8 13 woodland site for ranch....... 26 Fox skins, final value of silver.... 54 OS ah oar 48 prodiietion of ....:.... 54, 109, 110 C PEIN SSG 2 aha em ae ae 52 EEC MIMICeS Of, se kcis selectors iat 23 iBloxes:) best furred)s j5/0,.). «. scj05. WS} Bisckysprices: Of! 025.0. akin 15 breeding of, to secure dark colour 18 diseases of 41 FATS LOMINCKEASCH I. ier lase eles 52, 54 mating and gestation......... 39 results of various matings ..... iif sales of, for breeding......... 49 APSO MAOM SEs 5 5 bse cess 6 49, 50 Frauds in selling furs........... 9 Fraser, Alfred, decreasing fursupply 4 increasing fur prices.......... 4 mPenen fUr DUVETS... 4. ).6.5. 6 2s 10 Biudsod s Bay Go: os sis iste cca g 104 auctions, fur pricesat......... 147 fur sales, 1850-1911.. ..... 148-159 HudsomeBay. cea os... sied ace cancers 6 Hunter-trapper age, passing of... 9 Hunting of fur-bearers, keenness of 3 Le Nigel ta etic Ofc Pepe nate We OU ane eee FUR-FARMING IN CANADA I PAGE Identification marks on foxes ... 45 [mitationsiol fuLses deuce aie a ofjsilven tox skins veer 52 Importations of blue foxes to Can- ro ARP COR Leos Ss es AL pe 56 of furs to London, 1855 and Lo fs ARE Te SEC Lana He OL 143, 144 Increase of foxes, rate of....... Sea Indigestion in foxes............. 43 Island site for fox ranch.......... 28 J Jackson, Dr. S., introduction of reindeer through............ 92 Judge, James, on blue foxes...... 60 K Gara kere 33) hintaan oe GAG evoke 9 Keeper, experienced, necessary in TOMMLAUG DIM GH AEs ie eeat ree 39 Kennel, fox, construction of..... 35 Killing foxes—See Slaughtering Killing of fur-bearers........... 97 iver wel GcNGo x 28, fe.) Hovovelatereions 105 L Labelle, Compagnie Zootechnique CG Pe IES Ra ee eae AU pp ateee aes i? Labrador, reindeer in........... 93 TORESH esses cred Me teneN ake cay sie eas 24 Lampson, CoN Min So Con oe ke 105 SAESLOLA tardiciersiiaioher cigs tretyetetsiers 108 Lantz, species of mammals on the Car tibet cabs. ainikienee 10 Laurentian plateau, expensive pelts LOM orisans ciclo eee stereos 71 Legislation, Canadian, ve fur- PATMUN PE eats earn cere a ee ak 135 Rethal chamberiy ic. seyscueoes 47 London, importation of furs to, 1855 and 1875.........143, 144 Chamber of Commerce, permis- sible fur descriptions........ 8 fur auction, typical prices...... 147 Pith ARIACREG. He ovo, ore gritel ese ok 105 Zoological Society............ i 164 PAGE Lopp, W. T., reindeer travel by.. 134 “Lynx, black Orie oan mica eee 6 M Mammals, wild, objects of breed- UN VOR re nis ache y aceee 119 in Canada, three orders of.... 11 Mange iniitoxesy nen eee 42 Manufacture of furs......... 96, 102 Maritime Provinces, foxes import- CAMEO aaa seme 1 Martens) eh U10 tea aIs ne te eaten 78, 128 baits obs Sy 0 eee eee 78 popularizing the... -/.6 Jes. os 6 skins, production of........... 79 Matingoffoxes: i. se aes 17,39 Meat) fox’ diet 2 oan. eemeiere oy Mendelisulawan iw cnc mace ae 19 Menier, M., fox breeder......... 14 UY So RR aE PN LO eta (aly, AS Mink-farmings */i tan wi cn et ots 72 Practicalshints mous see 77 Minksfoodivotenmnmemerdee pees 75 DEMS Hl uis Pea Ney eae os i 76 popularizing vote ns neiele 6 Mink-ranching, methods of...... 73 Misnaming iurseasnet setae rreaerer 7 Montague, P. E. I., foxes near... 53 Montmorency Falls, fox ranch at. 13 INTooses: 2) Ny Fir ieee na arse emer 95 Moravian mission reindeer...... 132 Mothsionwioxestrns sscecte taee 44 Mianityjaces ear oen WOm aire mean 120 Musk-ox, in London fur sales.... 3 IN UBS) ce gh AH ah Seder ea Ni dal siels bil 89 Muskrat-ranchino- term eter 90 Muskrat, rise of, in popularity... 6 Muskrat skins, prices of......... 89 N . Natural plan of mink-ranching... 73 INESbitbs Als ICN menue s Rue auener ee 105 fursisoldibyil 905212 nace cele 142 INests for fOxesie janine san see cre 35 New Brunswick, fur-farming legis- lationiOb ject eieiscoe ee 135 Newfoundland foxes............. 24 North American Commercial Co. 69 Northwest, reindeer in.......... 94 Index O PAGE Oliver, Hon. F., introduction of PEINGCED Yer 2 sed cas eines 94 Ontario, beaver supplied by Gov- CRRMICMENOR six wisi eee es s0 8 Scie 91 fox-ranching in..............13, 24 Open method of skinning........ 97 Cptinns OH TOXES, <0). 1.0% desea 49 QOiRKEES, Rat: SRA PSR eO bape OOO ona 127 eA coals hates aa at Shape 80 general characteristics of...... 81 STL y ASW 0) de SIP aR Re Oe ee 82 numbers not decreasing....... 81 G2 RFo rence ht Lal 50 |e eee ee 84 Otter skins, prices of........... 80, 82 Otter, the, as a fur-bearer....... 80 Oulton, Robert, pioneer P.E.I. fox [yeCera Cee Bi yee eae 14 Wyereruteee aati eretae sole 96 Olver Hales ey ery ee eiriere wh een 96 Ownership of escaped fox....... 45 Pp Paddock for fox ranches........ 34 Paquet Bros., fox ranch of...... 13 Parasitic fox disease............ 45 Parks, national, value of........ 116 Tie et Taree Seis 5, Saranac bes Sua a SCA Bs 79 Pelts—See Skins. Pelts, decreasing numbers of.... 4 increasing prices of.......... + Pennant martens... .o ie an. G4oe)s 79 Pens, fox, arrangement of....... 36 fox, construction of........... 33 ORStanrs asc =o jefe te i's, homes aise 6, 9 Piastre Baie, fox ranch at....... 13 PORES MEALS. . cise ate ts celta was 53 IBIM@KOOIGEING ah soles els as aise 4 4 97 Poisons for killing foxes......... 47 Polar fox—See Blue fox. HG IAGME CHE Cte ari Me oi csa le abe ale-E2l tas 56 Popitarinie Nira, oh... ee vee 6 Port Elgin, N.B., foxes near...... Oy Pripilof “islands. . 08 0 57, 58, 60 Price of black fox skins....... 2, 114 of black fox skins, average..... 111 of black fox skins, highest. ...51, 111 of black fox skins, lowest....... 52 165 Price of black fox skins (cont’d) | PAGE of black fox skins, ultimate..... 54 oft beaver skins|/ascnecerts cee 91 Offoxes), FISG)IMih ss eased eee 49 Ob furs, Statistics Obs 417) acer 146 of vmntnls Shans). 12sec ee oe 72 Ofsmusktat, skins’. .s5)2 4 tae 89 OWGtlEn SKINS oe). ke eee oe 82 otimed fox skins: 8 )s-co ce te clone 23 Homskunk skinsie sche ee ieee 85 Prices received by C. Dalton for FOX SKINS. ore ara ey soe 112 by J. S. Gordon for fox skins.. 113 Prime skins, how to detect...... 96 Prince Edward Island, climate of. 25 early fox breeders in.......... 15 importation of foxes into..... 24 price of fox skins from..... 111, 114 Ptomaine poisoning of foxes..... 44 Q Quarantine of foxes............ 55 Quebec, fox-ranching in......... 13 fur-farming legislation......... 135 Gity; foxes tearis.022 > sr