’ oN wets 8 a . * . . By itecee $ : . ey oa ’ ‘ ‘ ’ : ye ; : A ‘ us , \ - wy * i GPs hs ry ‘ x aa ' ‘ ye . . ‘ ’ ’ et vs tay ‘ ‘ s 4 ‘ ree ee a ' yerct et A ‘ ‘ ‘ "9 8260SS/0 LOLI € iM VARTHMORE COLLEGE A SAE. UB Mo. i 1894 yf | A a C J Ladtetey DEL (pa): 22) LASS j BOOK. VOL a” Cn ap iy oe > - i ¢ ° . v ¢ , Le a ae | ‘ 7 . ' o : ; O > . « A ’ * ’ > i Ag do — aan \, 0 oa + Ld ‘ s r ¢ . 4 . J k 4 h : “ oo 7 ’ . ; ‘ r > ‘ Fa “a a 2 . 4 ’ ‘ ley . . o . * b> 7 “7 ra , i ‘~=e~ i a Pag = 82 d,. _ 7 e ‘ I —~ BAKE, \" ¢ "i - y 7 < ¥ Ps 7 € x6 >. 4 > » FRONTISPIECE. i eS x MU cw LUKANIN ROOKE RY, SAINT PAUL ISLAND. A WAITING BEACH-MASTER, Drawn from life by Bristow Adams. ji SG PUR SEALS AND FUR-SEAL ISLANDS OF THE NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN. DAVID STARR JORDAN, President of Leland Stanford Jr. University, COMMISSIONER IN CHARGE OF FUR-SEAL INVESTIGATIONS OF 1896-97. WITH THE FOLLOWING OFFICIAL ASSOCIATES: LEONHARD STEJNEGER and FREDERIC Of the WU. s. National Museum. ALEUCAS, JEFFERSON F. MOSER, Lieutenant-Commander, U.S. N., In Command of the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross. CHARLES H. TOWNSEND, COMP Gs 26m Sy Fein Commission, GEORGE A. CLARK, Secretary and Stenographer. JOSEPH MURRAY, Special Agent. WITH SPECIAL PAPERS BY OTHER CONTRIBUTORS. TAGE iTes Ab WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1898. CONTRIBUTORS OF PAPERS ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS. - z ee WILLIAM H. ASHMEAD, NATHAN BANKS, Oo. FULLER cooK, DANIEL W. COQOUILLET, WILLIAM H. DALL, WILLIAM R. DUDLEY, HARRISON G.- DYAR, ELMER E. FARMER, PIERRE A. FISH, CHARLES H. GILBERT, ALBERT HASSALL, MARTIN LINNELL, JAMES M. MACOUN, YG \ % G7 ont ERSITY ne 10 08 857054 JENNIE C. MILLER, WALTER MILLER, WILLIAM PALMER, MARY J. RATHBUN, WILLIAM E. RITTER, JOSEPH N. ROSE, EUGENE A. SCHWARZ, ROBERT E. SNODGRASS, WILLIAM A. SNOW, CHARLES W. STILES, WILBUR W. THOBURN, FREDERICK W. TRUE. PAS f 1. THE HISTORY, CONDITION, AND NEEDS OF THE HERD OF FUR SEALS RESORTING TO THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. . DAVID STARR JORDAN AND GEORGE, ARCHIBALD CLARK, ILLUSTRATED BY PHOTOGRAPHS, AND BY DRAWINGS FROM NATURE BY BRISTOW ADAMS. 15184—_1 ’ gr | a bal s i=} ES a rae 2 5 ao) BA [= * oa isio Di n of Special Agents. a) FEBRUARY 24, 1898. Sir: [have the honor to submit herewith my final report as commissioner in charge of fur-seal investigations for the seasons of 1896 and 1897. Very respectfully, yours, DAVID STARR JORDAN, Commissioner. Hon. LyMAN J. GAGE, Secretary of the Treasury, Washington, D. C. 4 CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER TABLE OF CONTENTS. IEUNI RID Ie I.—INTRODUCTION: The occasion of the ink The act of Congress -- The commission ...--. Itinerary, 1897 ...-..- II.—HIisrorRIcaL SKETCH: (tb eet on OES EGR EDe pm: adda rGAbe Hemoncinee coenmeeoc Discovery andkexploration---2 shes ce cesses cose seta -see SES R ast ener OTN PSISECOUCE OVAL Otis ares eer ere seat oma sae ere eae Discovery of Commander and Pribilof islands. ................-..--.-.-- hevRussian-AmernicaniCompany.-ses-= sss seeose 2222 .ceciecsieces sae seco Its organization -.-..-.. The ukase of 1821 -_.-- sEhercomipany,s mana cement ieee seater see seer ee Injurious methods. --- The interregnum --.-. Professor Dall’s notes. Mr. Howes’s notes ..-- The trading companies The work of sealing -- Methods of driving - -- Russian methods -..-- helkwlin en OtaNdiscrimiiibe sae es = eer eee sess et eee eee eee ee American management The Alaska Commercial Company.-......-..-..----- esas castes seceetee The first lease ........ The North American Commercial Company-.-.---...-..-...-..-------.---- The present lease. ...-. ihherdeclinennatheypachelomherdme-s-s-sceeee ee eee eee seen eae aoe sere Land and sea killing - heextension ofsealin eto) Detine. Setae-= o-ae se ae seeiioe seen ee acieee Lheurni pon OteAT DILEAUION.2- Cpe sae eae ecin ce loos oats eee aes Sone itheyettectiottheshegwlations oes = fo sea sels las se ose a Saas e =< sees Ill.—Tnr Home or THE Fur SEALs: A. The Pribilof Islands. Their geography St. Paul Island -. St. George Island Otter Island. ..-- 19 bo rag St or OF Le Te TS So SO So ST ST ST No a) DeEAMAAINNWAARDAAA< ? 32 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER Ill.—THre Home or THE FuR Seats—Continued. A. The Pribilof Islands—Continued. Page. Sivutoh (Rock. 255 eyes ee ie iota ae ea i eateries eee eee 32 Theselimate ce -i2-o--2 oe ee ee ee eee tats am ot Dereon reer arenes 32 INO eX MERA NOW sesso casted cose Good Soodce nes SoN sscces Secs oSeaa2 32 Vegetation: 22): -2csen cea en ne sere ale eae tomins foci nisi ee aioe 33 The-mamm~als\= «25222222 2 asec Se a eee eee eecieeae oD The birds: .: ic cece cee enemas aeeeee eae cos oe ae een ee ee Semen 33 Inhabitan'ts 2.2 2scseies sancie aoe ese eee pee eee ee eee 33 Conditions in Russia daysso--=s—sse eee ee ee pee eee 34 ConditionsimvAmericanidays)ssseeeeee ese ee eee eee eee eeeeeeee 34 The handling of theiseals: < 2-3-5 seen oS eee eee 34 The supportiof the Allents)/ 2222-92. eee ee eee 35 The Governmentiagents<2- cece - oes eee eee ee ee eee eee 35 B. he fur-seal’rookeriesi= ae ere eee eae et eee 36 The breeding! rounds eee a= see eee eee ee ee ae ee 36 Thejhaulingyerounds eee. - eee eee Pe eee eee eee eee ee 36 The St. Paul rookeries: =: .-< 2.42 -se-eeseiose ooo eee eee eee 36 Vostochni © «os So. cece ee eee eae On eee eee 36 NG at) PURAABESMBR eas cope odacne ce can Pencmscmoe saogo She aaa 37 Polovina: «222 52. e a pcleee ede ee yee ae a ee ae Stade le 37 Didkanin 2.5.2 25: dee eee ee ee eee cae eee 38 Kitovi Vac. eet vege See ee EE tenet eee eee 38 Reef... ks weeks weee Ree eee ne nee eee a eee eee 38 Sivutch Rock 222.222 Fi eeisosetecs 2s s see see oe eee 38 Gorbateh. 22. 25 Ses he5 eet eseeisaech eens ers a= ee eee 39 PW Ib pee Ee DABS Ss oScooce Base Cn ec culasea bone MoReSoed mec cneTS 39 Spill es eee ee eee eee er ee eee eee 40 IWEKRO NY eo eseos shes sos ccesed Seca cman coed osonem adacabaosoes cece 40 Tolstol’. i. . 2.0.2 225 224 oes een cee osemece a= oe seis Ree eee eee 40 Zapadni = - 2. 2.).2.2 se. se3 scenes eae eee Se peee ee eee 40 Inttle: Zapadni, -.2.==2-- oes 3. eee Cee eee Sees 40 Lap ad RCCL. aisle =) -1releee ie > eee eee eee eee eae eee 41 Marunichen. 22.2 ices an csed oe ce se eps oe Oe eC e eee 41 The St. George rookeries:).-- 222 scan 2. sence ee ee ee ee eee eee eee 41 FapadDi = cesses sos see eek Veet e we 52 ce eee eee eee ee eee 41 StarayavAntel err see-ee eee eee ae Seat 2/2 cle ss clo See eee 41 North. : 222... So 2eiccisseer'siteee =a ee ote Cee 42 Little Bast. 2222. cin-ne.s Soe see ose eee oe ee eee eee 42 Bast) sicisis-is ec. clnolee oe ae ate = ae ORE ee Se See ae 42 CuAPTER IV.—TuHE Fur SEAL OR SEA BEAR: Its relatives . 224-2. ..23-2.45sseecseseeies decisis = saamietie es Gee eee Eee 43 The'sea bear‘and true seal... 5.-\.- 2222 -cc-vs-mie on oe et eee 43 The fur‘seals' of theyAntarnctic® soa. -4- see aeons ae eee eee 43 The:fur‘seals of the NorthyPacitics:-----s25s04)-4-52.- =e ee eee 44 Steller's account: 224. 22 ssf. om osies cee pee gee Gace oe ene ee 44 The-three herds: 2 5)2- scree ona ties sae Se oe eee eee 44 The Pribilof herdz:225.25 s2e ese =O eee ore ae eet eae OE 44 The Komandorski herd) 22h. J ace.2 ses eee neice eos = eee ee eee 44 The Robben Island\herd’. 3222.22 oa. «2 essen ee 45 Three distinct'species =: 25-0. 52 2 2o ese 3-2 pe eee eee ee 45 Callorhinus alascanus:.-- o.-/- cc .02< 52-10-2252) See ee poe EE eee 45 Callorhinus:ursinuss..j.<-=)-22-2. 22-5562 ~~~ Senn OE EE eee 45 Caflorhinus) curilensis).: -2 52. Ss... 52-22. eee eee 45 Themomenclature/of the fur'seal 2225. -2-e eee eee eee eee e eee eee 46 The ‘categories .of séals 220.2 22.3.2 22. < cee eciee ee e eeee 46 The males: ---ssccace- eS em caaaseose sooo booS acc 46 TABLE OF CONTEN'S. CHAPTER IV.—THE Fur SEAL oR SEA BEAR—Continnued. The categories of seals—Continued. TG TE he, he oe aoe pen era SOCE COU OC O.CROO50 DADORNCSOA DOCH OOOeeEe iheral fyb ml sete Saye aiecaiia oe an tee eae Sees osm sn eebene eicasess Thelidlevball): 622 S25 2322 522 see ess sees ses dssac-25 sea -eeeeees = Whejyeanlinws andaviPONsen aa — aalememie essen aias sak saan < esas eee THIGW DN oee SSR en eee SESE O CO en ORs ORES a Senet eG Sap ee eee be Mhemilorations!of theiseals)-- =e. sow enesc se scsscn sc sleae none oe Their summer movenients..-......-.-...--.--.--- Mier imMits oti eT At ONE pease = asemieee ne eee ee sects anes Eta CONTSEANG CULM ONY eis sere ets aos eee eo ae cee ee ae eee ae CHAPTER V.—THE DaiLy LIFE OF THE ROOKERIES: Mherarnivaltatiheislandstees s+ serosa. eae see ce acto sacle es won ea ccienie SONG) LEOINGUGT ES a0 ong 59 deo see Soden tedige GORD SOAS Ree anne see SURES Oe Tet oe gee Soot be SSeS SNE CO SRE SOO 4 oe4= SeBeieaee Berinnineofiihe sealing S6aASON we. -o. soe ene ae an ecw es ena an los ‘Rheariivallols The COWS =e See senso teen ee en ae ee eects nine ae Their incoming gradual Their arrival not the occasion of fighting .....--....--..-.---------.- Tne wnCHiCE! OF SNCS S Senso Gooccebeecocsensnog ses. seeboe SAeSes5ec Massed rookery formation. =< == 5-42 o- -secessescacce-seses cee cenesseee IDEN ARLES (HOS 32 2 = eee ros snononar cee ee Aco neore Seen SSD Seuaeoe Sumops1s of Kitovil LOOKOBY fa. emma asses ale aaa inte ora ee nee DG INS hy OP ENG ECE SON in cence Ag neereeedee aU E ESE BBE Sear Aeeenene ose Hinciuanoniol populablony ssa. = seme ene sae ela aia ee eter Am pbhithe aterion Kato wall eer area see as rina =nieiian = ae tes eal Inerenso. ott amM ilies are eee eae ee a aia lear ora ae bora What the height of the season means....-.-----------.-------------- The period currently misunderstood. .......--..-.------..----------- hey PIG HVO Lethe PUP pes scam ee rae ae eta ae ee itr rie = me er eer TVG TeGGiNS OF NG TON cewecs sdécdscs oopoas SpoaceanSe ee EE eo aes cece Shy SEEUS o-oe osc mec cocconeaseco cone cose ceaa ces esnanios scnaetee The seal digests its food in the water. .---......-.------------..---- Mhetewid ence otscuerpupsiet asec ee aeons aaa a eee TAG CAYO UNO EM Pea cccoce cochedccccop Senn eEe Sosa et OMeeES THN UE WG 2.22 cco cowses tose coScooteccoc ecen eran -serempeeecs HoEeee (LET WRENS ae oe coo a coe coe ae eos bets coadacee ctaces sossnoeerses ese = [SIDNEY ADEs sess nec Boosts eae nee Ss Gere ned sod ooDE es sanSee see sor Harem Giserpline se cease ae Sate ee eee = a ees een sci e mia Mherdepatture OtstNe COW Be tae = ecmeme eee eee aie a ie Methodsiot discipline ssa. 24 saete erat anya ina ee a ear TIGRE OH WG MIRE ee a So eee eo oees oe Sees soee ss The early fighting overestimated--...-.-.---...---.---.-----.-.----- IM@)sikel mis Ohara NY (CONT 8 She one oom one apse =n ape see Seco eaee Fighting influenced by sexual instinct..---.-.---.-.----------------- WIGSTNGT OE TVE TNT eo em ear cmos Dame eh Boon ce See SOE eREe el ECE OESeE LG) (AMS. coos che cee nepede na eae Coeson Seca an aera Ee eee cioc er oe Un pserT en NE ANS GD Wiha ade ebook ace Sens cao ee eae eee s eer ose See Mienwoundsiomib ne Ont Seales assent an onal a = a lsae lel GS ISTHE Tere TE De ee oe, pote ene sae SSCS meee secea aeons cose Phe OIselO hat AIC OO KOGICS ree ease ee ee ate nlnlans a rn ne HON AGA Nine CEO. 2056 hec dees +6 co ese nen DAC ASOD Sn pero ae ss eoseac 49 Ot OT OT St Ot ot ot ot al a — a) or St Mo Oo to bh lo rs ot Or Ot St ~ Ps 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER V.—Tur DaiLty Lire ov THe RooKuertES—Continued. Page. The arrival at the islands—Continued. Their attitudes. ..---------- ---- «2-2-0 s--- eee nen ~~ 3 = one wwe - == 64 The coloration... sos] see == eee ee eee eo 64 The pelage . .... ---- ---- ---- +--+ +0 - 22 222 ee ee eee eee 65 The stavy season ...,------. ---- -- +--+ 2-2 - = == =~ -- == =~ == oe wee 65 The arrival of the younger seals...-------------.------------------- 66 The breaking up of the breeding season. ..---.-----------.---------- 67 Theicondition of thelbullpeeeee see ee ee eee 67 The food and feeding eToundSsee eas manera a eee a= eee 68 Theace of the fur sealSeeses= secs eee ee ee ee 68 he for sealpupes-se sees see eee ee eee 68 The swimming of the pups -------.-.+-+------++-------------------: 69 Theiexcursions of the pups see ss aee eee ae ae eee 69 Mortality among the seals ...--..---.-22-----------------+ ------~=--= 70 Deathio£ pups ee se sere e eae ae eae eee eee eee 70 The parasite, Uncinaria ..... ---. ---- 25 25-2250 == 2-2 ena 70 The count.of dead pups, 1896.---— -— -eseeer amar ele te = ii 70 Comparative counts ..---.---.-------------------------------------- 71 The departure of the seals..--...----..---.------------------------+---- 71 Theenemies of the Seal S\ooe eee eee le ee 71 The Great Kallenc. o.oo. eee nee eee var The departure of the bachelors and bulls.-.--..--------------------- 72 The swimMine, of) the seal Smerets cer eee te eet ea re ete 72 Mhe\rate ob Gravel sem seein 72 Habits of the southern fur seals cena ere oa 73 Their movements: o-- 2 sees eae sae ee ae eee 73 They do not migrate... . ..-. -- 2 2. ee eo em w= ne we 73 Breeding Wabits) 2s. o--.-\o se = eee eee ae ee eee 73 Breeding: grounds) .-~--4 0s -]w= 222 ee et el aie 7A The fichtine of thesbulllss-see eee se eee ee 7A Difference in time of birth 22-5. ss-mee ere eee ell 74 CHAPTER VI.—Tur CoNbITION OF THE FUR SEAL HERD: Aw Past conditions sss-ee--os- seen eee eee eee eee eee 75 Acreage measurements ..--.--------.------------------------------ 75 Their difficulityssassceee eres eee ete le ee 7) Aibsence of reliableisniveys: sees see eee ee ee ee eee 76 The irregular nature of the ground .....----------------.-----.---- 76 Chiefly guesswork. .--. -=-- ---2\-2 << 2-2 - = ee enn men nn 76 Magnitude of) jhesproblembes- sess eee sees e eee 76 Early estimates .-..-.----------..-- = 2 Se 77 Captain Bryant's estimate --..---=e-eee eee == == eee V7 The beginning of acreage measurements ---..----.----------------- WZ Elliotts estimate of 1872-74 2 2— eee see ete a= ee ee V7 Important assumptions........-....--.-.-----------------+-------- 78 The law, of, distributions: -]--64-40-2 seer eee e eee ee eee eee 78 Assumptions in COrTre Cheese stay msit= se ee ee eee te 738 The' true law of distribution] ---.ces- eee eee eee eee 78 Stability of rookery conditions only apparent...-.--..--------.---- 78 Results of Elliott's enumeration). = 2...) 22-22 eee ee eee tf) The fivuresiunreasonableieee.---- 2-2 = see eke eee eee 79 The methods/of enumeration) --=----- 22 =- ee ee ee 79 The surveys can not be verified|..-- ----2--- some --e =e oe === = 80 The efiect of inaccurate SULVeYS sooo. cere eee ee eee 80 Inadequate unit of space\--..0.-- ----se eee eee ee ee 80 Amore rational Unit... ccc. cone = 2assqje= 205 le aos ss Seseeec cd sess. Contrast of estimates for 1895: —..2--5 Sse o25 5225 <2 oe52 yen 2 2 ones Contrast of acreage measurements. .....-..-.---.------.----------- Snmmary Of past cOndibiONs8---24~ 95s eee eee sane sa boas es ok eee A reconstruction of earlier estimates. ............:.-.-------------- Mheearlierand jater quotas. 2. s2-.--< = 2 2 bent sos sa ceae abe ces nene The quota dependent upon the breeding herd....-..-........-.--.. Hstimates/of mon-breeding seals =-. .-- 2-5-2 o50---- secs 5 - seo The reconstruction still only an estimate. ...........-..-------.---- Completed estimate - -- B. Present conditions. ......-- Mhe census’: -=5¢—6 <2-< Resi@iinenl tyne ea sa eae aes we eee ese oe aeeisens= swan ease. Actnal counts. .......- Kitovi rookery, taken as\typical.. 222222205. ssc0- -<00-025-2525----< Census of harems and ¢ Wis ee es ce ec eh ose Sei areal pense aS ch Original’counts for/St. George . ---< = = 2552. 5252 5 S22 ose an ence ens 32 etimate for/St. Geore'--.-- 2. eS 2=- 22st2—2s sees ese ssencsensae snes This estimate unsatisfactory. .....-- PSR CEO SE BOE ERO DORE A= oan noe Whe ereatiexcess' of Pups a. a-.2 2-5 s2- 5255 eae ees pees aes seesese= Count of pups ...--.-.- Correction fon absent cowse= 220 -osen<+ a acs erest ocr ecta ean sane see Summary of breeding séalas--5=52-4- 6-2 =ss-22-2=c2--<5 s2os-s5-55-~ Revisionof census:0f 18965 2. - 22232 32 sseeg cats cosa aces cance WoxrrectiOnsiOnint.)| GORE Gee =e seee aie ee ae Corrections on St. Paul SSE ILOE Its OC ha eaeiatte a etn eee ee Ec mnie ee Menus. acco The important error in the census of 1896.......-.------.-----.---- Revised census of 1896 The census of 1897 .__. RHGLCOUM nC EMP AE L OS Ugne= tae ae anna ecient see cacao Comparison of counts of cows.and pups-----.---:..--------.---+---- PLOPOLMOM OM COWSEON DUP Sia» = nto eae aioe ae ieee clean eaicoes Joes Avera ce haremvotMLO uns non sate aoe so ote s sie ccwoceeccneaase Census of 1897 .......- 86 86 10 CHAPTER CHAPTER VI.— VIl.— TABLE OF CONTENTS. Tur CONDITION OF THE FuR SEAL Herp—Continued, Page B. Present conditions—Continued. Ine) Wrap acoossagueoCecte Cacmce soda ceor Sp SceccoReessS soso eesoCCO2 97 The enumeration of nonbreeding seals ---...--.-.----.-------------- 98 Tdlevand haifa nl see ieeteteraeee eeae 98 Mhe yachelors: se oe apts eee ea ee 98 Rejected seals !s- == eee eee eee eee eee eet eet 98 The one and two year old females..----..-.--.......--..- See ees 99 The losses among the young seals ..-...-...-....-----.---.---------- 99 The estimates: of nonbreeding seals---25------. -.---- --_--. ---- .----- 99 The completed estimate for animals of all classes.......--.-----.---- 100 Animal sipresent; BeaSOnl Of 1S Oi ae meine ete ele oeeteteeee 100 Deductions for losses ese ae eee sete = eee eee eee eae 100 Animals’ dead season (ole 89ifaee = see ae eee aa eee a ieee 100 Thervalneor thelestimates soos e=s=see= a ete eee ee ee eee 101 The true basis Of enumeration. se sees eee eee een eee eae 101 THE DECLINE OF THE HERD: Russian management -......-.-.--..------------ ------ +--+ --+++----+---- 102 Gradual improvement in methods - ....-...---..:---.-------------------- 102 The equilibrium of the herd....-..--..------- os Pees ceadeonaecsoccSs-< 102 Mhesbeginming Of Gee] ime ee epee raat ae ee ele eee 102 MhofadlureoL He quo tie ere te este te ele ee ee 103 Thejbreedinpyherd>--2-eeessse = meee eee eee ene ee eee eee 103 Phe quota since S90 see eae eee ee eee eee 103 (AhiconryCone aks) Eee y eS ae note no ess oda cocussccosco Somes oOsaacodessoe Ss 103 Mhevevidencelot declines --seess=- eee eee eee ee setae eee eee 104 Abandoned grounds) 2 - ose aay tenia te ee oe aml 104 Theirextemts (<= os eee sae eee a ee eee ae ater ote te ate eres 104 GEAGS= OO WIN ALC WS oe eres ee are tee eee teeta lade 104 Time necessary to establish these areas .......--.--..-.---.----.---- 105 Photographs = .- oes eee ee eee een ee eee eee ee ee ee 105 Between successive seasons inadequate ....-----..----.-------------- 105 Their value covering long periods: ~~ 2222 cece. . -- aes == =e ee eee 105 Their record of the abandonment of territory ....-...----.---------- 106 Their limitations] 22s -sascn- se ee ee eee eae eee eee 106 Their relations to daily rookery counts...-....-.---.------- Sse 106 The true value of photographs: s.-.. ee -5 =2o =e ee ae 107 Mownsen Gis CrosseBie meee aerate ae eee ee eae ets 107 Shrinkage of breeding areals=---ses- ese a= ee ee eee 107 Tolstoi‘sand Hat; Ardiguen) ete ose esses se een eee eee eee 107 Decrease of ‘dead pupss2s----6- eee tence a= see ee eee Ce eee eee 108 Dead pups; S969 eee ae reece te eater alte eer 108 Increased mortality among the cows....-..---..-----.----. -2-ss--ee- 108 The diminished ‘quotas —2 55 s.- =.= ee ee eee eel see eee eee 108 The decline between 1896 and 1897 Sieh awison eineree eae asl eeeee 109 Comparative cCountts\ier canis sees em = ele eee ae eee 109 Actual counts) -=...2 2s san ds ce asta cones ee ena eee eee 109 Summary of percentagess---- 45-22 -5-+=eeee ee eee eee eee oe 110 Decrease in. the averaged sizeof harem.-~..-.--..=--.- 25) ose een 110 The count/of cows: -2. .... -s-.s-- esc eee see eee eee ee eee 110 The count of pups an absolute measure .........---.---.-----.------ 110 Lagoon rookery <=. 5:2: sscssie2=\- -=22==52 eee Eee eee eee eee eee 111 Theiquotasiof 1896 andWs9re.- o-2-- as eee eee ee ee eee eee 111 The quota of 1896 fixed’ ::-- .- = <2... --o- =e ee eee eee ee eee eee 111 The quota of 1897 indefinite .............-..--- Secitee s ses ecK eee iil Killings for the quota, 1896-97-22. - see eee eee eee eee eeeeeeee 112-118 TABLE OF CONTENTS. iB | CHAPTER VII.—TuHE DECLINE OF THE HERD—Continned. Page. The evidence of decline—Continued. aiherquobaiot, So 7harder to Pets ——- eae ones os Sea eee nen sowon 114 The quota a direct measure of breeding herd -............--.------- 114 The quota of 1897 and the Paris regulations. ...............--.-.---- 114 Phe soalderlmeaiaine Nerden ene esate ee ate res ere 1l4 CHAPTER VIII.—THE CAUSE OF THE DECLINE: Jointenoreament Ofe1 892" -2-2-.ssosc ses Sane 8 a ae Naas aac wases con es. eae 115 Noicompoetent natural cause: 322-5 so5ss55-sa-ceseeeeae oock coke nsec sccese 115 Natural causes of mortality constant. .-:-...<. 222-2. ..222+.--<2--222=--- 115 he real cause an artificial one =o 922-229. os Sosa seca eas oes mnes nee eee 116 iarrels and ise a eli pee ees a sey micas tone oars ae nee er are wre ee ees 116 A band illine—itemechodsissese25 ssc e- Sose asec enone esos sescsccees 116 Animals Killed Sarcoma ae ete a ee nae eee ewe sae aaa 116 Kalin sessonie = some een see naan es ea Seniesa cinco oesee oe 116 Mhe drivin gyre sae ae ae a ee etek eee = Sones acest seas 116 Mhe\ vive san sanyo aa a eee tne ae se seeeaeaadecie oe ene sceaace- 117 Rhein pes hace as aa eee serene eet Sa set ecm escessene2 118 MherAleuteye eae eae ee eee one see ea aes nnn a we ceeeeue ase 118 Mheskinnine, ofsthe pealss-- ato 26 ee2 2252 oss. 2 woh. csecesenss 2119 Divintonto tela DOR sees ee ee rsas ea om Ao ae soa eee Soe se 119 Hreatmentiof-the Skins\s2.4 == 5222 ee eee pao sso eng eset c el caseee 119 Rheseitecisioin ands killin ge ees eet ee oa ee eae sae ae 119 Remoyal of superfluous male life beneficial -.-.-.-----..--------- 120 IRossibilityot overkillinge-2 202 ose2 eae seo! Fae sete wo cess geese 120 Achy potheticalcase: = 3222522222 s2ss02 232 Sa b222 2SacS2 acts ce cece 120 Suchekalnonat practicable essa s2 ae es ee = Ae cea eee 121 Otter Island not driven ..--.- eae ese ee eee aes eon eee 121 WETECUIVGIS INSEE Ne eee etn ale es eros 121 Overkilling of males has not occurred -.........--....----------- 121 DSLAM UPS C27) NG RCE eo RE ee ee ae 122 mandkillin o1810297) Gass ee oo een Skee Ne aca w see ass 122 Voluntary reduction of quota, 1876-17 ..-.-.:--..---.-------.---- 122 Voluntary reduction; 1882-83 * ..- 2225222 2s222 e222 52-2 sss secsee 122 iNoideanth) of maledife (--- = 5532 52-55 Sse seen oct sessss =e 122 Killing of males not a factor in decline -.--..=.-.---------------- 123 Premature kilia eis a oeee sore aa ae ee os ans eee yeas ease 123 Antler patio Of quia sno =e een ae loans eee nn ee ae 123 Table showing date of filling quota, ete -.....-...----.--.-------- 123 The: killineof undersized'seals: 2. o--- sos 225-8 ane nos aee Jane 124 Such killing did not affect the herd ............------------------ 124 Premature killing wasteful but not injurious -....-..-....--.---- 124 Kallingof pups wastefal 5-22 2.1.22 - SS sac ame none asec ae sane 124 Absence/oL injury) tothe herd=2--< 2 2225 tee sone nee oa nsoeee 125 Methods on the Commander Islands.-.-....-...--.-.----.-------- 125 Dr Sto necers OUseLyaiNONS eases ets aaa Sean renee eee 125 ' The dearth of male life on Bering Island.--...----.--.--.---.---- 125 CHAPTER IX.—THE THEORY OF OVERDRIVING: Driving and its supposed results -------------------..---..-----.-------- 126 Mhesprocess(oh Grivan ys == ps2 oe= S= Soe ee PO aos 126 3 iG ama TRV OR ae oo oso ace eee oS = eee eee emcee wee m el anniwees 127 (iene ray TE ee oe ee oe re oon ea= see ees cee ae 127 Mas Taya Opi a SST = oe eee Cee oe ee ee eee eeeeian= 127 hie a riven au GLOUV GW Ay A bse tet ooo mites c aceon enjees wel soancomer amor 128 12 CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX.—Tur THEORY OF OVE oRDRIVING—Continued. The Russian drives ........-.---- ------ ---- 2+ -- +--+ eo cen e conn ce ceee cones The drive from Northeast Point..-.-----.-...--..----------.--.---..---- The American Grives --= s-) eons ee eee eine eee eee ie ale The drives greatly Reef driveway --- Shortened eee ee see ee eee ene eee The character of the route sce--- eee = Boaces bea! Sonze The length of the Reno g Sane AOA AAS USSnGS Sangha jodeao acarmOsSoSES Comparison of drives...-----.----.---+----------+----++-+-+-+++---+---- The Commander drivewaySee- tess se eee ee = eee Zapadni-.... -. Palatat--oe--- No evil results from, these*drives\--> ~-)- -- eee sane ee eel ee ore ee Gare exercised imi Grivam gee eee ate mele em ae lee eile The fur seal not ill The “‘carcass-strewn” driveways -.- ---------------------------------- Fatalities on the d Injuries to bachelo sadapted to land: tramele= = = memes eietoniin ole beh {seine acoo oociscobo degen S adecosdeonscnecaséescHeceoss rs could not aftect herd geeer .en 6 ss eee The impossibility of sexual injury .-.-.-.----------------------------+---- Voluntary movements of the males.--------------------------------+----- Driving not a factor in the decline .....----------------------------+---- X.—ALLEGED PossIBLE CHANGE OF Habits: Migration to Commander Islands--...-.-.--------------------------------- The fixity of habit SS... eee ee ee ee ne we wane ee ee ns eee ewe we wee The seal’s low intelligence .......-.. -.---------- ---- ---- ---=-- --=----=-- Contact with man has had noteffecticc22esae-e ee ee Alteration lof conditions) ce. ==] s> oe eee eee ea eee The bachelors of Bering Island Arbitrary selection of males Theieffectiof declineme=s4--er-\-=- ee eee eee ere Possibility of driving the seals elsewhere The abandonment of Spilki The presence of the village not the cause Exposed condition The real cause of t Origin of Lagoon : Abandonment of Marunichen Elliott’s theory for Sivutch overlooked in 1872-1874 The notions of the These notions shared by Government agents The policy of seclusion detrimental Intelligent inspection not wanton invasion Inspection not harmful Relations of man have not affected the seals XI.—PELAGIC SEALING, OR The nature of pela The hunting of the Indians Introduction of wl The expansion of the industry of, Lagoon rookeryieeee ese see= = eee eee eee he abandonment und Spilki SlvutCh roo ken yest ete eee ee ee Aleuitis socc eels een eee eee ee ees eee KILLING AT SEA: gicisealingcer asses ae lec es heres ston eet eee eee hite menandsyesselseee eee Sees dahon The usecof firearms|....-- ce a--ncee. cece’. coe oe ee ee ee The modus vivendi The regulations of The sealing vessels Methods of sealing The seals as found the. Paris‘award 2.222 22. = G28 eee eee eee Methods of captnre—the spear..--......------------- TABLE OF CONTENTS. 13 CHAPTER XI.—PELAGIC SEALING, OR KILLING at SEA—Continued. Page. Mhewhooun por the seals. -s- 2.22 ssccecbaee cea ceecceeeecccacccss. 144 Moss resultin ey trom ShooviNng: 32-s-2s=b bosses eke ese cineca: eoee cosa 145 mhespeawlesst-wasterwhs: sa 0. sess es Seecies sae s- ae as 20 ve eeios aoleececene 145 Warthweat Coast sealing =.-- 5. cc.-nice st cee e wise towns oon neneeae basses 146 Bering Seasealing..-.--. seooheotenas cod sopesss Coot (206 285 Sete Son ck Ate 146 Poelamicicateh 222 25 a s< soos oneness sceecane osenl- seinen cleans coc eneeuss 146 Noesnotinclude seala killed; butlost...2-- .-2-22-0-- - 2-2-0 se ne edna enn 147 Early sealing confined to Pribilof herd... .........--.-----..-2.-.---2-.- 147 Sospensromoty landikillin pe -2 oe eae poo eens ae ean ee aaanree mene 147 Modus vivendi transferred sealing to Asiatic side...........---.-----.--- 147 IDO VG OF TIOGEIAN. - 56 0s57 on 508 bose Caen Se Cer Sens pee aHCSEA Herc OD eee 148 Unfavorable weather not the cause......-.....-.-.--..---..-..---------- 148 Pelagic killing and land killing compared. .-...--....-..---------------- 148 Statistics regarding land and sea killing............-..----.---..------- 149 (nae enn! iim ey Ale Bee ee os eR ee See See ee eae Been Besse 149 CERN UN OL IOV CT (= = <= eece cee cS HES nnd SSE ESSE coe as ese cen anes 149 Relation of gains and losses in the herd_-...-.-.--...--.---.------------ 149 IRerin gl) SMOSCHUCND CONS Se erate aaa eee seem elas ewe ce = erica 150 Expansion of pelagic; decrease of land sealing...-..-....----.----------- 150 Cause of decline to be sought in breeding herd..-...........-...-------- 150 hie wepinnin got the declines see=ees=ote assess === >-eieaes een ociese ene eee 151 Harly: pelagic sealing a mere check -<-.--- --2---<--- ----2ecee-eew -eeee- 151 fore pulan Quota SINGS 1800) ee ema a ona we wee en ene neon 1 Pelagic sealing and the Commander herd.--------.-..----..------------- 152 Interrelation of pelagic and land catches..........-.--.----.------------ 153 CuarreR XII.—Tue Errecr oF PELAGIC SEALING: Pelaric/sealing killa femiles= = 2-2-2 - nam owe nnn ee eon enw owen 153 Pelagic sealing and the sealing of the South Seas ---.-----...----.-.---- 153 Methodsion somthern Sealine one ane nee oo a eee ene aa oe a ae 153 CONG yen re CGS Nae Goes See se noe Bese. Cce OOOO Enon Sab eHe 154 The preponderance of females --..------..---.-------------------------. 154 The sealing captains’ record of sexes taken.....-.-.----.---.------------ 154 Customs-house examination by experts..-.-...-------------------------- 155 (Gontreaahiof Sesser tnUnsse aan ae eae et one ea 155 The sex of salted skins easily determined. .-.-.--....-------.------------ 155 Investigations of Alexander and Halkett.----. Fe ee een ene aoe 155 Bemales more easily taken” ------ 2-7 ---- - =.= o2ecns ooo oe = wn a == 156 The capture of males not important. .----.---.-------------------------- 156 Possibility of equilibrium. .----.-------- eees Sos wo ec SSCe See coco 156 Equilibrium a theoretical fact .--.--.----.-------------------------++---- 157 Death trom plage Gse=ae aes oe = oa ae ae See ae a an ole animal 157 A hypothetical case......-..---.------------------------+-----+ +--+ +--+: 157 Possible abstraction of females. -.-..-..---.------------------------------ 157 Secondary loss of pups .-------------------------------- -------+---+---- 158 Pelagic catch still involves 16 per cent... -----.------------------------ 158 Pelagic catch must still fall to one-third before equilibrium. ....-------. 158 The equilibrium could not be maintained. .--..--...---.---------------- 159 Equilibrium exists only far below commercial ruin---..------------------ 159 Destruction of unborn pups. .------------------------------------------- 160 Females pregnant and nursing-----.------------------------------------- 160 Pelagic sealing takes compound interest .------.------------------------- 160 Destruction of nursing pups---.---------------------------------+++---- 160 Pups dependent upon milk until December-. ---------------------------- 160) Mho absence Ohexerement =) =-o.-2 5-2 222-2 se ee ew == --==' === mmm) OL The supposed nonfeeding of females. ..-.-.---.-------------++++--+-++--- 161 14 CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI1.—Tur Errecr or PELaAGic SEALING—Continned. Absence of food in stomachs..--..-. ---. ~~. 22-- -- 0 <2 - woe oo --- 2 oe --- The seal digests its food in the water ........-.--..--.--.---------------- Absurd theory of indiscriminate nursing... .--.---- pesaeoqoSnos cogs beso Fur-sealmotherand pups -seasieee eee eee eee ener nele = GoDaODeO Saas AS5 Mistakenlobserwattous a=. sesis aaa ae ee ere tele ola t= tet tint ol stale] = ote Supposed/self-feedin eyo yo wpe ea seam areca a lle The absurdity of the stliconyeans ese eee eee eee ae eat ee Determination of the matter by killing pups .. .-......-....--..---.------ Pups absolutely dependent upon mothers’ milk-.........-..-.-.---------- XIIJ.—Tue STARVATION OF PUPS: The count) ofstaryed pupsecme a] eee sea eee eee aaa eee eee Be SUMMING S (Oty SCAT VA UOT see ete atm lee ele ae ae al NOU COM ebb YaST ON sis seen soc copercHae. Sdessocrbe coco cass cos5 basse NDNA Ay nose seep odueSoLoe toa doascuScScotunbeacSS Sabeeosscco: Mhebreakin g do We eee to= =o eee eee eee eee The death of the starveling. ©. <2. - 2 -cee es sosaie ee eeieee = a aie le Difficulty of distinguishing early dead pups -.---...----..-----.--------- Many early dead pups disappear..---..------.....-2.. =~ - 8 ee ST Ay bViR) ON Nsn6 Ge 56 peso coud maps Sancod osor 2osS Sash nad bat Seescosseseser + Mheswork of thesfOxes es soc ae = oe me teeta ee eee eee Mead pups) St.George Us] aim Cle ees eta eter teeta at eae oe aaa Reconstruction of St. George estimates .........-........-....-...-.---- The detailed estimate. -.-. BEE ASPB A oa Es cacia Qoucmaece Hs moaedesnedacac Pupistatisticsis. smaste> = ose see teen ee ee eee eae te Theicountof/starved/jpupsiin 189 (tec mens eee ieee era eee The removal/of thejearly dead) ss. oes eae este ee ees Hstimate/of starved pups tor 189 lea eee seee eae ete eee Importance of thesesfipures: < o-oo ase eee ee ee ee eee Destructive effects of pelagic sealing established.......-......-.---.---- The cumulative: effect... 22 2322258226 ae) 2 see eee eas eee eee Total effect of pelagic sealing2 2-2 oa- sas ese eeee eae eee eee Theeffect since l883 - 25. ses sectesie = sigae oe aie tee ete eee ele The effect under the Parisiregulationse---- =- 4-25 ese ee eieeie ee eeeee XIV.—Errecr or PELAGIC SEALING ON THE SEAL SKIN INDUSTRY: Internationaliinterestiin: the) fur sealssen-s.eee ose. eee eee Wnited States interests): 22. Sa. ee cee se Soe eee eee ale ee eee Russian interests)-\.----seeee ee eee eee easter ees ae eee The interest:of (Great Britain. see ase eee ae ene Canadian pelagic sealing interests .---------- 202 =<. one eee ee Valuation of the fleet... ---- ee aces le eine cee eae ce anlar meine ace eee Pelagic sealing suicidal: -<. 225.222 sececseeseseeseceee eee sete eee Effect of the declining catche.--e. seseseeee eee =a eieee =] eee eee ae Legality of pelagic sealing’... 22-55-22 s<-2sese eee ee = = eee Prohibition to: Americans .2:.)--- 1) - sae. nesses eee eee eee ssa eee eee Distinetly ‘a Canadian industry, 922-2. ~ ee eee eee eee eee XV.—THE RESULTS OF THE PARIS AWARD: A. The-arbitration ......- 2.052 22 eos ee a eee neces eerie bee eee The origin of the fur seal question! 5-s-. --- == ~e> = - =) The seizure of vessels... ...-222cceen oseev cscs Sees eee eee Efforts to secure international action .-..-.--.-.5--------2--. sees Proposed measures|of protection) 7-)-je. ose eee eee eee Objection by Canada .--....c22..0 0-5 te lee ee eee eee eee ee eee Renewal of negotiations’... .: ---- --ceeeee Pee eee esse eee eee The counter proposition unsatisfactory...--...-.-.-----=.--------.- Proposals for arbitration .«.....\.2:/..-ssstessneacee a eeeel esas eee eee TABLE OF CONTENTS. 15 CHAPTER XV.—TuHe Resucts OF THE Paris Awarp—Continued. Page A. The arbitration—Continued. MUG MHOMNSLVIVONM 4o- cou waa oe cone me ees on Soop ab a sean secs oe 179 Hheyoint commMiIsaion) OMinquiry.— - -~=- -. ssw s assackew--s5e22e2- 179 eh etin una) ese tenawon = aaeaeeene seer eee ane. wen uon aes seas 179 Theyoint report of the/commission,.-55-. 242-525-322 e5 senses ase os 179 EHOrAiNerican, CONTONUOW se mace ness eae e ate ae aise toon eee 180 heilbrisishycoutvention-- 5-20-55 522 esses eee sae eenas anes sees ccs. 180 Their comparative merits .......-. ets ae a ga ee 180 Be Lhewrerul ationg === esse sas os eae er. 3 eo sees a elstesocisess aes 180 Mheiminor’ provisions:.. ---- = sss aasioss sees eas vee eemeaeee = 180 Dheistaty-milesZOne wenss ees eee = ceete soe see se scab be ae seen see aae soe 181 Rhelclose season! =. ache 2 = -tso2 ss gee sess en ce ceeasee se. epee boas 181 Regulations adapted to work of sealers. ....-........-..-..---.--.. 181 The cost of enforcing the regulations.................-....---- 182 The failure of the regulations ..-2..2-- <= 22s so. ocnes sancne nee 182 The redeeming feature of the regulations.............----..-.- 182 The purpose of arbitrators --.....--..-- oO esos aaa ee SE BARC e 183 The obligation to protect and preserve ............-....2..-------- 183 CuarTER XVI.—SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS: SHOUDITGMNIS) GE TG te oeceoestbcedos 6 ans eed SCS O SS SR AS SEE DHSS E SaSE BOLE 184-186 CuHarpTeR XVII,.—TuE REMEDY FOR THE DECLINE OF THE HED: Revision of the regulations not adequate -.-.....-. ----..-....2..----.--- 187 Pelagic sealing can not exist withont the killing of females.......2..-.-.. 187 Total prohibition of pelagic sealing the only remedy...-................- 187 CHAPTER XVIII.—THE FUTURE OF THE HERD: AL FECONBIdeFabloN Of GHE QUeAGION = coe escsc~e sence secse nlp sses seee. cesses 188 A basis for the reopening of the subject ..........------.--:.+--.---.---. 188 Hindings\of tact—the declines) < 5 ROS Eae BeObbn Mee Seaseacer 193 Questions which require continuous study ---..----...---.-----.---.---- 193 Avfixediquota not desitable 2. - = = .22- 22-5 L228 s2e525 cones seaseccess ccs. 194 Lhe proporhionjot males needed’. +... ..-). --2--25-.coeescsceesiasc=ese-- 194 WTO! (ECCT. ..cdec 6c Sde eater Sete Ree CE EERE Sens aE ee eee aac 194 The herd should be placed in charge of a naturalist--.--...-..----.-.-.-- 194 PED Rae Lah CB) eels ona eee ere iene ae aris 2 Sos ede sean aticdes cseeisezaecsc use: * 19% AS) OGG iad SU MSs oc aso atc oc osc ebeS COME CD BECO OE HoT REC RE OE EE ESE o SEE ieee 197-207 SME ALY) OLA LAIRY Sonam eee een ocian eee Nec os onre. Jose sacecesncseceacene 207 16 TABLE OF CONTENTS. APPENDIX 1,—Statistics—Continued. : Page. Killings, Northwest Point-Zapadni ----------- -- 0. - csecee cnc. cons cece ns snenne 207 Total'seals killed—accepted)irejected| 22. -- soe ee ee at ee 208-209 Killings, 1896 ~~ <<<. <0 noe oni ain im aw mmm elie =| slam ie ella 209 Kalin os 89 i) sae = Mi nde sso Sse SSasenoo 24 soda osescosscesacsspesnNSeno 210 Statistics of Jand:and:sea killing.23=-es-ee- eee eee eee eee ee ee eter eeee eee 211 Daily counts\of (COWS) --). <6 oer eee eee see ee eee eee en eee eee 212 Comparative Consus <= ~ ' re ae THE SKIN OF A COW TORN AND BITTEN TO DEATH BY HER BULL ON LUKANIN ROOKERY, SAINT PAUL ISLAND, JULY, 1897. ¢ = SLEEP OF THE FUR SEALS. 63 elders. By twos they are striking for the foreflipper or dodging the blow, bracing and pushing and struggling with each other. They pant and strain, rest for a time, and then resume the contest. This same thing is true of the little pups. As soon as they are able to play at anything it is bull fighting. The little black head of the 2-weeks-old pup strikes out for his neighbor’s foreflipper, which involuntarily tucks itself under the body, and the little yellow teeth close on the fur of the neck and pull and tug until their owner has put to rout its antagonist or been routed. In each case, while it is plainly play, it is such dreadfully earnest play that one can only distinguish it from the fighting of the bulls by its results. THE NOISE OF THE ROOKERIES. To appreciate fully this picture of the animated life of the fur-seal rookery one must take into account the medley of sound that accompanies it. The bulls are giving vent at intervals to their savage roars of defiance. In their more subdued efforts to maintain discipline in the harem they are constantly whistling, chuckling, and scolding in various notes. Mingled with all this is the shrill bleat of the female and the answering call of the pup, which correspond to the voice of the sheep and the lamb, though greater in volume. When it is understood that thousands of these animals are calling and answering all the time, some idea of the uproar and confusion incident to rookery life is possible. Nor is the din and noise peculiar to the day. It can be heard at all hours of the night; in fact, the activity is, if anything, greater at that time. THE SLEEPING OF THE SEALS. In the early days of the breeding season all the animals sleep much of the time. The cows, as they come in from their long journey, spend most of the first ten days they are constantly on land in sleeping. It is with the height of the season, when the cows are ianding in large numbers from their trips to the feeding grounds, that the noise and confusion becomes so marked. But even then through it all a large proportion of the animals are comfortably asleep. A harem may be seen in which, for the time being, every animal from the old bull down to the pups is sound asleep. Beside it may be a harem which is all confusion, every animal up and stirring, and most of them calling. Still another harem has part of its occupants awake and active, the rest asleep. On the hauling grounds, among the pups and among the idle bulls, it is the same. The seals sleep very soundly at certain times. In counting the live pups it frequently happened that a pod of 50 or 100 pups would be driven over a space on which a half dozen or more pups slept undisturbed by the shuffling feet of their companions. To the seal’s habit of sleeping soundly in the water the success of pelagic sealing is largely due. The pelagic sealer, taking advantage of the habit, is able to row close up to the sleeping animal and throw his spear into it or fill it with buckshot. The attitude of the seal thus sleeping in the water is interesting. It lies on its back in a bowed position, the nose just peering above the surface, and, it is said, always to the leeward. The hind flippers are raised aloft as a windbreak to keep the animal in this definite position. In this attitude the seal can apparently sleep with 64. THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. the greatest comfort, rocked by the gentle swell. In such calm days as occur during the months of September and October the water off the rookery fronts and sand beaches is literally black with the swimming and sleeping pups. Occasionally older seals at this time, and more frequently earlier in the season, are to be seen in the same position. THEIR ATTITUDES. An interesting feature about the fur seal in its naps on the rookery is the variety of attitudes which it assumes. The sleeping animals assume every conceivable shape and position. One animal is stretched out at full length on its back, another on its side, still another on its stomach. Again, the hind flippers may be tucked up under the body, the foreflippers outstretched. These conditions may be exactly reversed. Or the hind flippers may be waving lazily in the air like a fan. On a> day when the sun shines for a few minutes the seal lies prone upon the ground with its flippers in the air. The sight of thousands upon thousands of the animals thus stretched out, almost gasping for breath and with every hind flipper waving in the effort to keep cool, is a most interesting one. The seals enjoy the rocks. They do not care for a smooth and even bed. The body has a wonderful power of adaptation to its rocky bed of water-worn bowlders. One cow finds a flat rock on which she curls up and lets her head hang over the side at a most reckless angle. Another lies with her head elevated upon a rock, as though on a pillow. A favorite position among the animals is to sleep sitting up with the head thrown back and the body wavering with the respirations as if it would fal!. On rookeries where perpendicular cliffs form the back ground the animals are to be found stowed away on little shelves and in little angles where it is a wonder they can keep their positions at all. THE COLORATION. There is more or less diversity in the coloration of the various animals, which lends interest to the picture of rookery life. The little pups are at birth shiny black with a white spot in the axil. Some of them show a brownish shade along the throat and belly. In September they shed their black coats and don coats of gray, which, under the action of the weather, soon change into the brownish or combination brown and silvery color of the adults. On her first landing the adult female is dark, slightly olivaceous, gray. Under exposure to the weather, and especially the sunshine, she turns to a rusty reddish brown, somewhat darker on the back, lighter on the throat and belly. The great uniformity of this coloration, as seen among the cows during June of 1897 before they had begun to go to sea, confirms the belief that these darker colors, as a rule, go with the older animals. About the middle of July, the time at which the younger bachelors begin to appear in greatest number, the rookeries also show large numbers of animals’ which in their silvery throats and bellies contrast sharply with the animals already present. Their backs present the same dark-brown shade, but the silvery gray underneath the body is entirely different. Their small size, the black whiskers, and the lateness of their arrival proclaim them to be younger animals. But not all the younger animals are of this sort, as two virgin females killed side by side were each of a distinet type THE FUR OF THE FUR SEAL. 65 of coloration. ‘This makes it possible only to say that the older seals are more uniform and darker in color, while among the younger seals there is more diversity. It seems likely that the lighter colors in the young seals correspond to the brownish bellied black pups. Among the bachelors the colors seem more uniform, though the younger males show again a preponderance of the lighter shades. The greatest diversity exists among the bulls. Among the harem masters there are two general types, oue almost black, the other reddish-brown. Both styles of coloration are associated with the older animals, but which is the older of the two is not apparent. The younger bulls are, as a rule, gray. But these three are only general types. There is the greatest individual varia- tion among the bulls of all classes, and almost any combination of shades or mingling of shades can be found. Much of the individual variation is due to the length of time the animals have been out of the water; in other words, to the influence of exposure. In the water and when wet there is but little difference in the coloration. In rainy weather the animals are all of one shade. THE PELAGE, The diversity of color in the fur seal is confined chiefly to the outer or water hairs, which project beyond the fur. The fur itself is fairly uniform. In the pups the water hair is glossy black at birth and is replaced in two to three months by hair of gray. In the females the water hair is more or less uniform in length, and the same is true of the males until after the third year. From this time on the hair on the neck of the male becomes longer and coarser, developing with the growth of the bull into stiff bristles, constituting the mane, or ‘‘ wig,” as it is called. Beneath this water hair is the short, thick fur of the seal. In the preparation of the seal skins these hairs are carefully removed, leaving only the short, thick fur. It has been asserted that the pup is born without fur, having only the black hair, and that it does not attain its full pelage until the second year. Thisis not the case. The pup at birth has short fuzzy fur, which grows rapidly, and is of considerable length when the animal begins to swim. By the time it is ready for the sea in the fall its fur differs in length and thickness from that of the older seals only as the size of the animal varies. THE STAGY SEASON. Between the middle of August and the middle of October the adult animals shed their hair and get a new coat. During this season the skins of the seals are said to be stagy, and they are not taken on land. The fact, however, that one of the most important catches at sea is taken in August and September has led tosome confusion. It has been held by those interested that no stagy seals were found at sea, and from this, by inference at least, it has been suggested that these animals are, for some reason, a different class. In his report for 1896, the Canadian commissioner, Mr. Andrew Halkett, quotes the statements of a large number of sealers to the effect that they had never known a stagy seal at sea and had seen very few in poor condition as to fur. Mr. Halkett expresses his own opinion as follows: I have simply to say that nothing resembling a seal in poor condition, either as to hair or fur, was seen by me, although some 800 passed through my hands. 15154 3) 66 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. He adds the remark: I haye no difficulty to decide as to a bird in a molting condition or in full breeding plumage, or a mammal when casting its hair, so that I cannot understand why it should be so difficult to tell a stagy seal. The trouble here arises from a misunderstanding of what is meant by “‘staginess.” It does not designate any marked difference in quantity of the fur. It has chiefly to do with the condition of the water hair. During the months of August, September, and October the water hairs are gradually replaced by a new growth. While this new hair is growing and before it has attained its full length it sticks tightly, and is very difficult to remove in unhairing the skin in the process of dressing.’ The practical impossibility of removing all the short hairs depreciates the value of the skins. When the seals are taken on the islands in June and July the skins are approaching the time when these hairs are ready to fall out, and they are consequently more easily removed. As a large part of the value of the skin is the result of the labor put upon it in preparation, anything which tends to increase this labor decreases the value of the pelt in the raw state. To the eye of the casual or untrained observer the skin of the seal taken in August or September does not show staginess. If the fur is parted, however, the short hair can be seen among the fur and hidden by it. Under these conditions it is not strange that sealers and others do not recognize the seals as stagy. Staginess is a condition fully recognized and appreciated only by the furrier. In deference to his wishes, the seals on the islands are not taken while they are in this condition. As a result, for this reason among others, the island catch is regarded as superior to the catch taken at sea. The pelagic sealer does not respect the stagy season, and declares that he takes no stagy seals, but the price he obtains for his skins clearly indicates that the furrier does not agree with him. THE ARRIVAL OF THE YOUNGER SEALS. There remains yet to be recorded the arrival of the young 1 and 2 year old females. Their brothers, we found, arrive at the islands about the middle of July and spend their time on the hauling grounds. Whether the young females come with them to the vicinity of the islands or are associated with them on the migrations is not known. But they do not associate with them to any great extent on the islands. The 2-year-olds come to the rookeries about the first of August. They take up their places in the old harems or in new and temporary ones in charge of young bulls on the water front and in the rear of the regular breeding grounds. Here they are served by the bulls and return to the water. 'The difticulties in the way of treating stagy skins are well put in the following extract from a letter by Mr. Isaac Liebes, of the firm of H. Liebes & Co., furriers, of San Francisco, Cal. : “The short or water hair (in stagy skins) can never be entirely removed, and in attempting to do so a great deal of the wool is pulled out with the hair, which of course deteriorates the quality. Then again, the stumps of the hair being left in the leather (as they cannot be pulled out, but are cut off), makes the pelt stiff and harsh, so that after it is prepared the stagy skin can be clearly indicated by the color and texture of the leather. The water hairs can never be removed from the thin sides of the animal, where the fur is shorter than in the back, and in the process of machining, which these skins undergo, the wool is separated so as to expose the stiff hairs, which are then cut out, but the sides, being so short in fur, the machine cannot successfully separate the hair from the wool.” CLOSE OF THE BREEDING SEASON. 67 The yearling females doubtless come to the islands in company with the 2-year olds, but do not put in an appearance on the rookeries much before September, at the time when the pups of the year are able to swim well and begin to make their first excursions about the islands. For the rest of the season these young seals spend their time playing among the pups and ranging like privileged characters over the rookeries. That they do not, as has been supposed, frequent the hauling grounds with the males is doubtless due to the fact that these would annoy them, for the instinct of rounding up a harem and lording it over others is early developed in the young male. A young yearling male may frequently be seen rounding up a pod of sleeping or resting pups with all the gusto of an adult. The pups themselves not infrequently attempt the same thing with their fellows. THE BREAKING UP OF THE BREEDING SEASON. As has already been said, about the 25th of July the old harem bulls, that have fasted since the first of May, begin to leave and seek the feeding grounds. As they withdraw, their places are taken by the idle bulls. This class of males does not locate definitely on the breeding grounds much before the arrival of the cows. They have, therefore, fasted a shorter period and are able to remain out the season. By the 5th to the 10th of August all the able-bodied adult bulls have gone, and the younger bulls, together with the bachelors, flock over the breeding grounds, The bachelors have, during the breeding season, been strictly excluded from the rook- eries, but with the departure of the bulls they take advantage of their new freedom, and mingling with the cows and pups, they round up mimic harems and make them- selves generally at home. In a few weeks, however, the novelty of the situation wears off, and the bachelors return to their favorite lounging places on the sand beaches. THE CONDITION OF THE BULLS. Much has been said of the wasted and broken condition of the harem masters as they leave the islands after their long fast. It is true that they become reduced in condition from their earlier state, but they are by no means so reduced or broken in spirit as they are reported. During the season of 1597, in counting the pups on the several rookeries it was necessary to enter them late in July or early in August and turn off the adults into the water. These so-called weak and emaciated bulls were found not only able but willing to fight us or one another to the last. In many cases they could not be moved at all any more than in the height of the season. This was at a time when these animals must many of them have been without food or water for at least two months. Our experience taught us that so long as an adult bull is on the breeding ground there is fight and courage enough in him to make him master of the situation; it is when the breeding season is over and he has removed to the sand beaches that he becomes tame and tractable. The harem bulls on their first departure seek the feeding grounds and by the first of September return, some of them to their former places on the rookeries, where they plainly show their rejuvenation by their renewed combativeness, and also by their efforts to round up and monopolize such cows as still remain about. Most of them, however, haul out on the great beaches along North Shore, English Bay, and Lukanin, to sleep during the rest of the season, going to and coming from the feeding grounds as they feel like it. 68 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. THE FOOD AND FEEDING GROUNDS. The feeding grounds of the fur seals in Bering Sea lie to the south and west of the Pribilof Islands, just off the 100-fathom curve, at a distance of from 100 to 200 miles, In the migrations the seals seem to follow in a general way this same curve The food taken by the seals in Bering Sea consists mainly of squid, pollock, and a small smelt-like fish known only through the bones found in the stomachs of the seals. Ou the migrations along the coast squid is again the chief diet, though occasional salmon, herring, and rockfish are taken. This subject is more fully treated by Mr. Lueas in Part II. THE AGE OF THE SEALS, Of the age of the fur seals we know practically nothing, but one striking thing about the fur-seal rookeries is the absence of any animals which seem to be aged or decrepit. On certain sand beaches and out-of-the-way places animals in poor condi- tion were seen, which at first glance seemed to correspond to the class of aged and infirm among other animals, but on dissection they were found without exception to show injuries which fully accounted for their condition. Some had dislocated joints, broken bones, injuries to the spine, buckshot wounds, and like troubles, None were suffering from old age. Nor is this a thing to be wondered at. The severest strain which the fur seal undergoes is the winter migration in Bering Sea and the North Pacific. An animal weak or broken down from old age or injuries of oue sort or another would succumb first to the hardships of the sea and would not return. To the breeding rookeries and | hauling grounds are returned each spring only those animals which have possessed the hardihood and strength to survive the adverse conditions of the winter. These may be relied upon, unless overcome by accidents, to maintain themselves during the summer, to be again sifted out in the struggle for existence which the ensuing winter renews. THE FUR-SEAL PUP. Of all the different classes of animals the pups are the most conspicuous and interesting. For the first two months of their lives they are always present on the rookeries where they are born. Their black coats contrast sharply with the gray stones and with the brown fur of their mothers. For a few days after the pup is born it is watched over by the mother with a moderate show of interest, which manifests itself chiefly in supplying it with nourishment and keeping it out of the way of the clumsy bull. But before long the little fellow grows independent and leaves the family cirele, seeking the lee of a sheltering rock at a distance from the harems. There it spends its time sleeping and playing with its companions. Whether this “podding” of the pups is a matter of choice or the outgrowth of the instinet of self-preservation, the result is good, for it keeps the little fellows out of the way of the fighting and trampling bulls. From the time when the pup joins the pod it receives no attention from the mother except on her return from the sea, when she feeds it. Her absences are at first brief, but as the pup grows older they lengthen out. The pup gorges itself with milk while the mother is on laud and goes hungry until her return. THE SWIMMING PUPS. 69 When it is about a month old the pup seeks the water’s edge, and after paddling about for a time in the tide pools gradually learns to swim. This art, in which it becomes wonderfully expert, it finds evident difficulty in acquiring. THE SWIMMING OF THE PUPS. Many accounts have been given of the way in which various classes of animals are supposed to assist the pups in learning to swim. If these have any foundation whatever it arises from a misinterpretation of the fact that the young bachelors, and probably the yearling cows as well, play with and tease the pups in their first attempts to swim. Bachelors were thus often seen to shove the little pups off the rocks into the water, or even to attempt to catch and duck them. But the purpose was not to assist the pups. What first starts the pup to the water is not clear, though why any other reason than the mere fact that it must eventually learn to swim and that the water is at hand, should be necessary, is not clear. It may be that the first pups seek the water following the example of the departing cows. But, once a single pup has made the experiment, every pup in its section of the rookery soon follows the example. The pup seeks first the secluded and protected tide pools, of which numbers can be found along the rookery fronts. Here it paddles about, gradually seeking the open water, but keeping close to the shore. Ilts chief difticulty at the outset is to keep its disproportionately large head above water. In a very short time it becomes perfectly at home in the water and spends most of the daytime in it. As the pups are accus- tomed to play on shore, so they play in the water, rolling over and over each other, diving for shells, shaking strips of kelp, pieces of sticks, feathers, or anything that comes to hand, just as young dogs might. THE EXCURSIONS OF THE PUPS. By the middle of September, when the pups have learned to swim well, they sud- denly develop a roving spirit and pass back and forth between neighboring rookeries, and there is a continuous band of pups coming and going between them. Thus, such a belt of pups was found in the early part of September to extend from Kitovi rookery past Hast Landing to Reef rookery, nearly a mile distant. Another followed around the cliffs back of the village connecting Gorbatch with Lagoon. Lagoon was in like manner connected with Tolstoi head, and a band of pups stretched on along the water front of English Bay, uniting Tolstoi and t!e Zapadnis. At certain points intermediate between these terminals, the pups hauled out in groups of varying sizes and slept on the rocks, apparently remaining there for days and days atatime. But after the pups were branded on Kitoyi rookery, observa- tions on a pod of these pups hauled out under Black Bluff showed that while the number in these distant places remained nearly constant, the individuals came and went regularly. The pups doubtless returned to the rookery to meet their mothers, timing their visits with her return. Toward the close of the month of September these excursions of the pups ceased as suddenly as they began, and the pups remained about their respective rookeries and in the waters adjacent to them, sleeping on shore when hungry, sleeping and playing in the water when full of milk. 70 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. MORTALITY AMONG THE SEALS,! On the rookeries but a slight mortality occurs among the adult seals. A few of the cows are killed in various ways, chiefly in the struggles of the bulls for their possession. See page 54. * Elliott, Monograph of Fur-Seal Islands, 1881, p. 61. 80 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. fur-seal rookeries. The surveys of the rookeries themselves can not be verified, for the conditions have changed with the reduction of the herd, and no permanent land- marks were left. Not even of the survey of 1890 is there left a single recognizable stake or stone to show that it ever existed. All that is left of either survey is the unsatisfactory estimate of the seals based upon it. These surveys should have formed the basis for subsequent comparisons of the condition of the rookeries. As such they would have been extremely valuable, but all traces of them have disappeared. THE SURVEYS CAN NOT BE VERIFIED. It is therefore not possible for us to verify Mr. Elliott’s surveys of the rookeries, but his maps giving the shore lne of the islands are available as a measure of his work as a surveyor. Of these maps Captain Moser, in his hydrographic report! on the islands in 1896, made certain tests. Of Mr. Elliott’s shore line he says: “It was a bad misfit * * * and rarely stood the test of an instrumental angle.” He further says of the topography of the maps that ‘it is so vague and indefinite that it is next thing to impossible to do anything with them; I should call them sketches.” if this is true of the fixed and permanent shore line, it is not to be supposed that the changing rookery margins, which were necessarily noted from a distance in the summer and measured in winter, after they had melted away, were more correctly located. THE EFFECT OF INACCURATE SURVEYS. The correctness of the survey of the rookeries is of vital importance to the accuracy of this enumeration. This importance does not lie in ascertaining the mere length of a given rookery. This can be easily obtained, and in any event a mistake of a few feet or of a hundred feet in the length is comparatively insignificant; but the width of the rookery is another matter. To each one of seven of the ten rookeries of St. Paul Island, Mr. Elliott ascribes an even average width of 150 feet. Two of the remaining breeding grounds have a width of 100 feet each, and the third 40 feet. Therefore, for the 40,000 feet of rookery shore line on this island, 55,000 have an average width of 150 feet.2, Suppose there is an error of but 1 foot in this average width, it is multiplied throughout the entire distance. According to the method of the computation involved this would mean the addition or subtraction of 17,500 animals, depending upon the side upon which the error falls. Again, suppose the average width was 140 or 160 feet, this would mean a difference of 175,000 seals one way or the other, as the case might be. AN INADEQUATE UNIT OF SPACE. But aside from the question of accuracy in the surveys themselves, Mr. Elliott has assigned an impossible space to each individual seal. His unit of space is 2 square feet to each animal, young or old, or 4 square feet for the cows, ignoring the ' Hydrographic Notes, Captaim Moser, Part IIT. 2 Whatever the average width of each rookery may have been, it is certain that it was not the . same for all. Neither now nor at any past time have Tolstoi, Polovina, Vostochni, the Reef, Kitovi, Lukanin, and Zapadni had the same ‘‘average width.” The 150 feet is a guess, and that only. ESTIMATES OF NUMBERS. sl pups. The average adult female is 4 feet long, and measures an equal distance from tip to tip of her outstretched fore-flippers. In a standing position she would need at least 3 square feet, but as the cows are constantly moving about, and coming and going to and from the sea, it is impossible to limit one to such a space. A MORE RATIONAL UNIT OF SPACE. During the past two seasons an effort was made to test the unit of space which the average seal occupies. A count of 650 closely crowded dead bodies on Polovina killing ground showed that each body occupied a space of 134 square feet. The arrangement and proximity of these bodies corresponded very nearly to the condition of the massed rookery where the animals are stretched out sleeping. On Ardiguen rookery a harem containing thirty three sleeping cows and pups was observed ona flat space circumscribed by stones in such a way that its boundaries could be definitely located. Later in the season, when the seals had abandoned the spot, it was measured and found to give 8 square feet to each animal, old and young. This may be regarded as an example of extreme massing, as the animals could not have been packed closer together. The great sand flat of Tolstoi, the most densely massed rookery ground on the islands, was roughly measured late in the season of 1896 and found to contain about 140,000 square feet. Each of the 11,000 animals estimated for this area would therefore have a space of about 13 square feet. Messrs. True and Townsend, in 1895, found the average space for each individual adult seal in unmassed areas, as on Lagoon or Tolstoi cliffs, to be 46 square feet. For the massed areas a space one-half as great, or 23 square feet, was arbitrarily assumed. It is true that Mr. Elliott justifies, in part, his small unit of space by certain references to the coming and going of the animals. He asserts that after the pups are born the individual cows are not on ‘their allotted space one-fourth of the time,” and that the females ‘“‘almost double their number on the rookery ground without expanding its original limits.” But Mr. Elliott failed to grasp what this really meant. He sees in it only justification for the unit of space which he has assigned to the individual animals. It should have called his attention to the fact that the breeding seals which he saw before him, and which he was attempting to enumerate, were but a part and not the whole of the rookery population. THE ESTIMATE FOR KITOVI AND LUKANIN ROOKERIES. When we leave the general features of this estimate and come to consider its details we find still less reason to be satisfied with it. Of all the rookeries Kitovi and Lukanin have been most minutely studied and counted during the seasons of 1896 and 1897. Their present conditions are absolutely known. They may be taken as typical examples. To these two rookeries in 1874 Mr. Eliott ascribes a total population of 335,000 “breeding seals and young,” or 158,000 breeding females, and, using his estimate of 15 cows to an average harem, 10,000 active bulls. At present there are 318 bulls, or less than one-thirtieth the former number, and 9,000 breeding females, less than one-seventeenth the former number. To anyone who understands the situation of these rookeries this is simply absurd. It would be impossible to plat 10,000 harems on the space they occupy at present or 151546 82 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. which they occupied at any time past. Mr. Elliott’s own maps show, when compared with present conditions, that no such reduction has occurred. His average width of 150 feet for these rookeries proves the same thing. With such figures nothing can be dene. Mr. Elliott must have been wholly devoid of mathematical sense or else must have failed to appreciate what his figures really meant. No other hypothesis will account for them. A MEASURE OF ELLIOTI’S OVERESTIMATE. It happeus that in the log of St. Paul are two references to these rookeries which throw light on their early condition and help us to penetrate the haze of exaggeration which Mr. Elliott has thrown about them. Under date of May 24, 1880, Mr. J. W. Beaman, then agent on St. Paul, records in the log! of that island that he made ‘‘an inspection of Kitovi and Lukanin rook- eries; 112 bulls were counted on Kitovi and 142 on Lukanin, with a possible error in the count of 25 to 50.” On the 24th of May by no means all of the bulls were in place, but a reasonable proportion of them may be supposed to have been. Mr. Elliott tells us himself that all the bulls were located by the Ist of June. This, however, the observations of the season of 1897 disprove. A count of North rookery of St. George on June 7 gave 180 bulls, where about 200 harems existed in 1896 and where 196 were found a month later in 1897. Hyven on the 12th of June a count of bulls on Kitovi rookery gave only 156, where 182 harems had been in 1896 and where later, in 1897, 179 harems were found. THE COUNT OF MR. BEAMAN. These recent counts justify us in assuming that a large proportion at least of the bulls were on the ground by the 24th of May, and although we can not say just what proportion the bulls counted by Mr. Beaman bore to the whole number on this rookery for the season of 1880, we may rest assured that had there been any such number as 10,000, or even 5,000, taking the average harem, which recent observations show to be correct, there would have been at least between 1,000 and 2,000 of them in place on that date. Referring again to the log, we find that in 1879, the preceding season, bulls began to arrive on Lukanin rookery on May 2, and on May 17 there were 60 of them. This number is not greatly out of proportion to the 142 found a week later the following season, and argues still more strongly against the supposition that bulls by the thousand would occupy that rookery in June. CAPTAIN BRYANT’S NOTE. In this connection another note in the log of St. Paul Island has significance. In the fall of the year 1876 difficulty was experienced in securing the normal quota of pup seals for food. Captain Bryant, commenting on this, says: ‘‘Ordinarily Kitovi rookery alone would have supplied the necessary pups”’—four or five thousand. As only males were killed, and as a liberal allowance must be made on account of the swimming of the pups for the impossibility of reaching all the males, the inference ' Extracts from the log of St. Paul, Pt. II, date of May 24, 1880, *Ibid., date of November 23, 1876, SSTIMATES OF NUMBERS. 85 plainly to be drawn from this is that at the time in question Kitovi rookery by a most liberal estimate had about 20,000 breeding cows. Mr. Elliott would have us believe it had nearly 160,000. SPILKI AND POLOVINA. Two more examples may be cited in this connection. Mr. Elliott ascribes to Spilki rookery a population of 8,000 cows and pups in 1874 and something like 260 bulls. This was a small rookery under the hill behind the village of St. Paul, afterwards abandoned. It is recorded by Agent Beaman in the log for the year 1879! that this rookery on June 20 (a date at which all the harem bulls must have been in place) had 23 bulls. - This is less than one-tenth of Mr. Elliott’s estimate. In the same year Mr. Beaman records, under date of June 10, that there were “a couple of thousand bulls” on Polovina rookeries, where Mr. ElJiott estimates fully 10,000 in 1874. While these entries do not give us definite proof as to the early condition of these rookeries, yet they clearly and conclusively show that Mr. Elliott’s figures are grossly exaggerated. PERSONAL. ESTIMATES DIFFER. To sum the whole matter up, we are unable to accept Mr. Elliott’s estimate as representing anything more than an individual opinion greatly overdrawn by a too- vivid imagination. The value of individual opinions in matters of this kind is well shown by a comparison of the estimate of Mr. Elliott with that of Lieut. Washburn Maynard, who was on the islands in 1874, with him. Lieutenant Maynard estimates the total population of the rookeries at 6,000,000, as against Mr. Elliott’s figures of 4,700,000. A difference of a million one way or another seemed to be a matter of no moment. LOOSE USE OF FIGURES. That Mr. Elliott himself did not originally attach close and definite meaning to his own estimate is evident from the discrepancy already referred to, whereby he assumes in his total of 3,193,420 ‘breeding seals and young” that only 1,000,000 are pups. Further, on the basis of this birthrate, which is an understatement of his own estimate, he finds that after making due allowance for an “extreme estimate of loss sustained at sea” there will still be left ‘‘180,000 seals in good condition that can safely be killed every year.” The quota never exceeded 100,000, and the turning back annually of 80,000 young males to grow up as bulls would by 1880 have given the island a stock of approximately 800,000 bulls. This, of course, never occurred, for the simple reason that no such number of males in excess of the quota ever existed on the islands. In making the above criticisms of Mr. Elliott’s census, it has not been our purpose simply to tear down and condemn work which in many respects under the circum- stances deserves commendation; but a disposition has of late been manifested to insist upon the absolute correctness of these figures, and in setting them aside it becomes necessary for us to give reasons for such action. ' Extracts from log of St. Paul, Pt. II, date of June 20, 1879. 84 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. MR. TINGLE’S ESTIMATE. The next estimate of the seals was made in the year 1886 by Mr. George R. Tingle, then Treasury agent on St. Paul Island. Mr. Tingle purported to measure the breeding areas in the early spring when unoccupied, and then to compare them with the ground occupied in the summer to make the necessary corrections. He found a rookery space of 12,715,500 square feet, with a population of 6,357,750 breeding seals and young. Mr. Elliott’s rookery space had been 6,386,840 square feet, with a population of 3,193,420 breeding seals and young. Mr. Tingle, however, took exception to the estimate of space assigned to the individual animals, believing it too small. He therefore reduced his estimate by one-fourth, or to 4,768,430, still an increase of 1,574,900 over Mr. Elliott’s figures. THE ESTIMATE INCORRECT, The absurdity of this estimate makes it hardly worth considering. At the time it was made the herd was well on the way of decline. One element in the estimate. may perhaps be cited as indicative of its value as a whole. The rocky beach at the foot of the cliffs, between the termination of Gorbatch rookery and the angle of Zottoi sands, was made a separate rookery, with a population of 11,000 seals. The ground has never been occupied as breeding territory. Whatever may have been the purpose of this enumeration, it certainly did not give the facts in the case. ELLIOTT’S 1890 ESTIMATE, In the year 1890 Mr. Elliott again visited the fur-seal islands and made another estimate of their population. He employed the same methods used in 1872-1874, He found the seals occupying breeding territory to the extent of 1,918,786 square feet.!. In his former estimate the ground occupied contained 6,386,840 square feet. Applying his original space unit to the area of 1890, Mr. Elliott found a population of 959,393 “breeding seals and young.” THE 1890 ESTIMATE UNSATISFACTORY. For this second estimate we can only say that it is as bad, if not worse, than the first. All that we have said regarding the census of 1872-1874 applies with equal force to the census of 1890, for, as Mr. Elliott tells us, “it is made in precisely the same time and method.” We may call attention specially to the fact that notwith- standing Lagoon rookery is found to be reduced from 37,000 animals to 9,000, the shore front of the rookery had been doubled in length, being 750 feet long in 1872-1874 and 1,500 in 1890. No explanation is offered or suggested for this extension. On the island of St. George, which has at the best only a limited extent of breeding territory, and this probably fully occupied in 1872-1874, Mr. Elliott in 1890 more than doubles the length of all its rookeries. On East rookery alone he expands the water front from 900 feet in 1872-1874 to 3,240 in 1890. Asaresult of this expansion he finds that though the seals have become reduced to one-fourth on St. Paul Island, on St. George the reduction has only been to one-half. ' Elliott’s estimate for 1890 is 500,000 square feet less in extent than that of Messrs. True and Townsend for 1895. Dealing with the more accurate maps and when the herd was at least a half smaller, they found 2,616,063 square feet of rookery space as against his 1,918,786. ESTIMATES MADE BY TRUE AND TOWNSEND. 8) It is not possible for us to suggest any explanation or justification for the vagaries which these estimates of Mr. Elliott show, and they need not be further discussed here. In an appendix to the recent republication,’ by order of Congress, of reports of agents and others connected with the fur-seal islands, they have been considered at length in connection with the subject-matter of the reports of which they are a part. THE TRUE AND TOWNSEND ESTIMATE FOR 1895. The most recent computation of the seals by acreage measurements is that made by Messrs. True and Townsend in 1895. In this a decided improvement was made in securing the space unit occupied by the individual seal. Instead of using an arbitrary estimate, a count of the cows was made on Kitovi and Lagoon rookeries and on parts of Lukanin and Tolstoi. The area of the counted districts was then taken from the current maps, and the average space occupied by the individual seals found. For the 4,110 cows counted, this average was found to be 46 square feet, ranging from 65 square feet on Lagoon rookery to 29 on Tolstoi. As the spaces counted were all of the scattered or “‘unmassed” sort, an arbitrary reduction to one-half of this space, or 23 square feet, was made for the crowded or “ massed” breeding grounds. Taking these averages and applying them to the acreage extent of the breeding grounds as obtained from the current maps of the rookeries, an estimate of the popu- lation of all the rookeries was arrived at. The total number so obtained was about 75,000 adult breeding seals. To make it comparable with the former estimates of Mr. Elliott we may add the 70,000 pups, making a total of 145,000 “breeding seals and young.” THE ESTIMATE MUST BE DOUBLED, In this enumeration it was assumed that, at the time the census was made, all, or practically all, the animals were present, including the yearling and 2-year-old females. The effect of this assumption we have already alluded to in connection with Mr. Elliott’s estimate. The fact is that at no time during the season are more than half the cows present. The estimate must therefore be doubled at least to make it represent actual conditions. IT ANTICIPATED THE SEASON. But as a matter of fact, for the estimate of 1895 this will not be sufficient. The counts on which the estimate is based were made before the real maximum of popula- tion on the rookeries was reached. The counting was done between the Sth and 10th of July, whereas the investigations of 1896 and 1897 show that the maximum of population is probably not reached until about the 15th of the month. Mr. Townsend himself, in referring to the estimate of 1895, remarks that “the rookeries may not have (as yet) reached their breeding height.” ARBITRARY REDUCTION FOR MASSED AREAS. Another weakness in this estimate lies in the arbitrary reduction to one-half in obtairing the space for the massed rookeries. Our investigations on this point seem 1 «Seal and Salmon Fisheries, and General Resources of Alaska,” vol. 3. 86 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. to indicate that the space unit for massed breeding grounds should be smaller. But for the underestimate which may therefore be involved on this account we can ofter no correction. For the underestimate due to the early date at which the count was made we can make a rough estimate. The daily count on Lukanin rookery for the season of 1897 shows that between the 8th and 15th of July there was an increase of 15 per cent in rookery population. This would increase the figures for 1895 as originally given to about 80,000, and after doubling for absentees the corrected total would be about 160,000 breeding females. The inclusion of the yearlings and 2-year-old females does not affect the total, as they were not present, and no allowance need be made for them. THE ESTIMATE REVISED. This total of 160,000 females, or giving to each female a pup and adding the estimated number of breeding bulls, making 325,000 “breeding seals and young,” is probably within 10,000 of the facts for the season of 1895. That it comes thus near the truth, however, is the result of accident rather than good management. The corrections which, in the light of subsequent experience, we have been able to make, are vital to its truth and change the results radically. The original results could not have been trusted alone, and were wholly misleading. THE IMPORTANT FEATURE OF THE ESTIMATE. The really important feature in the estimate of 1895 is the count of cows in which- it originates. This was a distinct step in advance, in that it approached a rational basis. In the application of the unit of space to the rookeries not counted the method was unfortunate. The area of breeding ground was taken from maps in themselves imperfect, on which the rookery outlines were sketched by the aid of the eye. The rookery boundaries, as we have shown, are constantly changing as the season advances, and there being no definite landmarks to guide the observer, it is impos- sible that the outlines should be correctly located. The enumeration is therefore carried into the region of pure speculation and has only the value of the individual judgment of the person tracing the maps. It is fair to say, however, that nothing definite and exact was claimed for the census of 1895, as Mr. True’s own words, in commenting upon it, will show. He says: “J do not think that any estimate can be made which will approximate the truth more than remotely,” and he continues to say that the chief use of such calculations is “the elimination of fanciful estimates of the number of seals.” MR. CROWLEY’S ESTIMATES FOR 1895. In leaving the estimates of 1895 it is necessary to refer to two other calculations of rookery population made for the same year on a different basis. One of these is by Mr. J. B. Crowley, chief agent in charge of these islands. He finds, as he says, by actual count, a total of 99,936 breeding cows and 5,552 breeding bulls. When we make the necessary doubling of this estimate of cows and add the pups we have a total of about 505,552 ‘breeding seals and young.” Of the methods or details of this ESTIMATES OF NUMBERS. 87 enumeration we know nothing beyond Mr. Crowley’s statement! that “the breeding seal herd has been reduced to such proportions that it can now be counted with comparative accuracy.” COLONEL MURRAY’S ESTIMATE. The other calculation is one given by Colonel Joseph Murray.2 He finds 5,000 bulls and 200,000 cows. Here again we have no details and only know that his method of enumeration was to count the breeding bulls and then to apply to each an average harem of 40 cows. This average size of harem is so large as to make it unnecessary to double for the absentee cows. We have, therefore, simply to add the necessary 200,000 pups and we have a total of 405,000 “breeding seals and young.” DEFECTS OF THIS ESTIMATE. That Colonel Murray’s count of bulls is more than a rough approximation its author has never claimed. That in greater part it is incorrect is clear from the fact that, while it was begun about July 18 it was not completed before August 21. Our investigations show that a count of harems after July 25 can give no idea of actual conditions. In examining the count, as given, moreover, our attention is attracted to the fact that on Lagoon rookery he finds only 50 harems, whereas Mr. True and Mr. Townsend, counting separately, found between 115 and 120 harems in the same season. While having manifestly suffered additional decline, it still had in 1897 115 harems. On the other hand, for a total of about 300 harems on Kitovi and Lukanin rookeries, counted by Messrs. True and Townsend, Colonel Murray records 500. These differ- ences tend to show that the latter’s count is made in round numbers, ne account of anything less than 50 being taken. CONTRAST OF ESTIMATES FOR 1895. To give an idea of the nature of these various estimates for 1895, it is worth while to contrast them in tabular form: Estimates, season of 1895. | 3ulls. Cows. | =e <1. UNA 2 Lt - PUTT OLANOSTOWNECNG 6. = 2cccanene a aeeaseccacecsececccccecee a 4, 402 70, 422 Misra wiley sesso me goes eee 5,552 | 99, 936 5,000 | 200, 000 | Colonel Murray It is not a gracious task to call attention to these widely variant and conflicting estimates put forward by authorized agents of the Government, and published simul- taneously; but as they have been used by the British Commission to weaken the force of the more accurate and conclusive statistics of 1896, they must be shown in their true light as rough efforts at approximation, not corrected by other data. CONTRAST OF ACREAGE MEASUREMENTS. In leaving the subject of acreage measurements it will serve our purpose, as showing the unsatisfactory nature of the results thus obtained, to compare for a ' Sen. Doe. 137, Pt. I, p. 35. 2Sen. Doc. 137, Pt. I, p. 372. 88 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. moment the various estimates that have been made on this basis. They are as follows: Acreage estimates of fur seals, Pribilof Islands. By whom made. Area. Animals. . Remarks. Square feet. Bryant (1869) ........-- 23,328,000 | 1,728, 000 Breeding seals. Elliott (1872-1874) ------ 6, 386, 840 3, 193, 420 sreeding seals and young. Tingle (1886)...-..-.--- 12,715,500 | 4,768,430 Do. | Elliott (1890)....-.----- 1, 918, 786 959, 393 Do. | True and Townsend | (1895) heeeeeee sass 2. 616, 063 70, 423 Cows only, including one | and two year olds. SUMMARY OF PAST CONDITIONS. To sum up this discussion of past conditions, we may conclude that the estimate of 1869 by Captain Bryant is only a rough approximation, and gives but little idea of the real condition of the herd. Mr. Elliott’s estimate of 1872-1874 is scarcely less unsatisfactory, being, as we now know, nearly twice too great. His 1890 estimate, through the arbitrary curtailment of the breeding territory occupied, is nearer the truth, but still far from it. The estimate of Mr. Tingle is wholly untrustworthy. The estimate of Messrs. True and Townsend for 1895, when subjected to the obvious corrections and additions, which later observations show to be necessary, is very near the facts. A RECONSTRUCTION OF EARLIER ESTIMATES. In view of what has just been said, it becomes evident that the early estimates, made shortly after the herd came into the possession of the United States, can not be relied upon. There is abundant proof that the estimates are grossly exaggerated, but data is wanting to enable us to determine the real facts. Some estimate of these early conditious is, however, necessary, and no better method for obtaining it is available than a theoretical reconstruction of the herd on the basis of the present known condition of its breeding seals. To assist in this we have the record of the bachelor herd, as indicated in the history of the quota for the first twenty years of American coutrol. THE EARLIER AND LATER QUOTAS. From 1871 to 1889, inelusive, the hauling grounds of the Pribilof Islands yielded 100,000 skins annually. The seals for the greater part of this period were obtained before the 20th of July. Itis the testimony of those connected with the work that there were always killable seals left at the close of the season, and we know that the rookeries never lacked the necessary supply of male life. During the present season a quota of slightly more than 20,000 seals was cniawen after continuing the driving until the 10th of August and killing closer than ever before. In other words, at the present time the hauling grounds are not capable under like conditions of supplying one-fifth the number of killable seals to-day that they were able without difficulty to furnish for 15 years prior to 1884. THE QUOTA DEPENDENT UPON THE BREEDING HERD. The bachelor herd is directly dependent upon the breeding herd. It is nominally taken from the surviving 3-year-old males and is directly related to the birthrate of three years prior to its taking. Three years ago, or in 1894, therefore, the birthrate ESTIMATES OF NUMBERS. 89 of pups was between one-fifth and one-sixth of what it was in the period from 1871 to 1880. The breeding herds of the same years bear the same relation to each other. The present total of breeding females on the islands is about 130,000. We may infer, therefore, that in the period 1871-1880 there were about five times as many, or in the neighborhood of 600,000 breeding females. ESTIMATE OF NONBREEDING SEALS. Of the bachelors or nonbreeding seals no satisfactory estimate has been or can be made, but it is evident from the data now available that about one half the seals are lost in the first migration at sea, while the number is still further reduced to one- third, possibly to less, before the age of 3 years is reached. From this we can in a rough way calculate that in connection with the quota of 20,000 bachelors we have a total of approximately 400,000 animals, including breeding females, their young, and all other classes. This is a ratio of 20 to 1 between the entire herd and the herd of killable seals, and would, when applied to the herd of 1871-1880, give a total of about 2,000,000 animals of all classes. THE RECONSTRUCTION STILL ONLY AN ESTIMATE. In putting forward this reconstruction of past conditions we are well aware that it is still only an estimate. We have, however, in making it the advantage of definitely known premises to start from, and the results harmonize fully with the conditions of our problem. COMPLETED ESTIMATE. Assuming the figures we have arrived at, we find that they work out in harmony with the recorded facts of the quota for this period. Thus, with a birthrate of 600,000 pups, we may assume one-half, or 300,000, to survive to the age of 1 year, and 200,000 to the age of 3 years. One-half of these were males and were killed to fill the quota. We know, of course, that not all the surviving males were killed, and therefore that either the birthrate of pups was greater by 25,000 to 50,000 than the one assumed, or that the ratio of loss was slightly less than one-half and one-third. The computation is not intended to be exact, and can not be made so, but it is sufficient to show the direction in which the truth lies, and is conclusive enough to show that during the time of the herd’s greatest expansion its breeding females numbered about 600,000, a figure sufficiently exact for all practical purposes. ; Adding an equal number of pups annually and 20,000 breeding bulls, we havea total of 1,400,000 “breeding seals and young,” for the period in which Mr. Elliott estimates 3,193,420.! 1 We must insist that the caleulations in the preceding paragraphs are intended merely as rough approximations to show the early condition of the herd. Such discrepancies as exist between these figures and those tentatively put forth in our Preliminary Report for 1896 are the result of more mature deliberation. The attempt of the British Colonial Office (see letter of Mr. Wingfield to Foreign Office, Corr. on Seal Fisheries, Brit. Blue Book, No. 4, September, 1897, p. 121) to make capita out of them is wholly unwarranted. The statements both here and in the former report are couchec in sufficiently guarded language to leave no doubt in the mind of the candid reader. We merely wish to show that since the herd formerly yielded 100,000 skins annually and now yields but 20,000, it must once have been approximately five times as large as now. On the other hand we infer that it could not under the circumstances have been seven or ten times as large. These figures represent a attempt, more or less imperfect, owing to the complexity of the problem, to give concrete expressioz to this undeniable fact. 90 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. B. THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE HERD. THE CENSUS. In the work of the present investigation of the fur-seal herd the most important consideration was the making of as accurate an enumeration as possible of the number of animals. This has always formed an important part of every investigation in the past. But, as we have seen, the results have been anything but satisfactory. The great multitude of the animals, when the herd was five times as great as at present, may have left no other result possible. At the present time, even with the herd so greatly reduced, the task of making a complete census of all the rookeries is by no means an easy one, as the details of our work, which will be found in the Daily Journal, will indicate. ITS DIFFICULTY. Without going into detail here, we may mention among the difficulties of the problem the fringe of idle bulls, savage and immovable, that skirts each rookery, the danger of stampeding the rookeries themselves, the broken and irregular nature of the ground, and, finally, the constantly shifting nature of the rookery population. These are some of the merely mechanical difficulties. But more serious for us than any of these was the fact that at the outset the conditions of the problem before us were not at all understood. It had been currently accepted that during a period between the 10th and 20th of July the breeding rookeries were at their height and practically all the animals present. Upon this supposition all previous estimates had been based. With this idea in mind we began our work, only to find as we advanced that the supposition was unfounded. For the smaller rookeries of St. George, and such rookeries as Kitovi, Lagoon, Zapadui Reef, and the cliff portions of Polovina and Tolstoi, it was found possible to make a count of the individual animals by harems. This was accordingly done. On the greater rookeries, as those of Northeast Point, Reef, and Zapadni, no count of individuals was possible, and for these rookeries only harems were enumerated. ACTUAL COUNTS. Our count of individual cows in 1896 covered about one-fifth of the rookery space on St. Paul Island, embracing 1,245 harems, with a total population of 16,679 cows, or an average of 13.4 cows to each harem at the height of the season. The average harem of the individual rookeries and parts of rookeries counted ranged from 11 in the lowest to 17.5 in the highest. The lower averages represented thin and scattered portions of rocky breeding ground, and none of the counted area contained any of the massed conditions characteristic of portions of the larger rookeries. The highest average belonged to Kitovi rookery, the largest continuous rookery space counted. It contained 3,152 cows in 182 harems, an average of 17.3 cows to the harem. The conditions of this rookery as a whole being more typical of the general conditions prevailing on the larger rookeries, its average was taken as a basis for computing the population of those rookeries on which only harems could be counted. The appropri- ateness of this average was the more apparent as on North rookery of St. George the 129 harems accurately counted gave an average of 17 cows to the harem. CENSUS OF ROOKERIES IN 1896. 91 KITOVI ROOKERY TAKEN AS TYPICAL. Applying then the average of Kitovi to the rookeries of St. Paul on which indi- vidual counts could not be made, we obtained the following tentative census for this island: { Census of harems and cows, St. Paul. = A Se —_ = =—==== Rookery. Eas Harems.| Cows. | [UAT o Seige OOS SOC CaS IASC HROCOO ROA aAAn Assess July 13 182 | JUTE 7 gee Ae ee ee Pee BOee July 20 147 IDEVEO NIN (77 = 2+ eee sniidccone “econ aEEececi-Coceneesnes July 13 120 SOIRTOIN (NAT) Seen nee ene coe neice cae cece cases July 14 389 ROISLOM( Chiiis hemes eran te cone e on san pace’ July 14 108 | HSU UNY | =, ee Eg ES ae eS ar a ae eee | July 14 583 UAW) ADEN some SRA co ce sep CE CEO OE a aoe Seen eeaseee July 14 210 ZACTETO EA TCI) i eee a July 14 176 | OHSU poe seo Bgl cgooet enone seine aes emma nee July 16 302 | AAIG UGH 5-35 o2eS7 or eBOSdE BE Ser CONES SaSsDeSeed July 16 27 ISG G ins oo ne cose Cone REO Cee CE CR HEIDE EDO ESEE CPE EERE July 16 504 SVREC DP ROC Kee acee aie is se ariaee ccs ceeccnccecmes Aug. 12 63 OLE VAT BAUMAN Meee een eos ane cee nce | July 23 138 Let) Anne’ (UTE Nios nese pep sanean ea eeon See ner eee July 15 86 PolovaN aA (UGE) cease os a oee cede eee =c cee coeeece July 23 45 \WOEROCIININ osc cSge Hes HEdcOSe Ap SqC ODE CO URED AEenC ee July 16 975 | MOTOS Orccoreccce nccaccwcescccsccucceseesescoces | July 16 293 Tic ccocecde ds Soe Ree a nee eee | ee 4,348 | 70,361 | | a Cows and harems counted. 6 Cows and harems counted in part only. All other rookeries were counted only by harems. ORIGINAL COUNTS OF ST. GEORGE UNSATISFACTORY. The rookeries of St. George had been counted on the 8th, 9th, and 11th of July before the counts on St. Paul were made. Later experiences led us to doubt the trustworthiness of these earlier counts, and, furthermore, the condition of the rookeries of St. Paul being different from that witnessed on St. George, it seemed likely that at the time of our first landing on the latter island, the season had not yet reached its height. This view was strengthened by the fact that while the original count gave to St. George only one-tenth as many seals as were found on St. Paul, the former island had furnished more than one-fifth of the quota of killable seals. In the latter part of July we made a more careful count of bulls on Zapadni and North rookeries, which gave a much higher number of families than were shown on the original estimates. Finally, when live pups were counted on Little East Rookery, they were found to exceed the cows counted on the 9th of July by 4 to 1. ESTIMATE FOR ST. GEORGE. Having these matters in mind, in preparing the estimate for St. George Island last season, a compromise was reached in which all these elements had a share. This estimate was as follows: Census of cows and harems, St. George. Rookery. Harems. Cows. 92 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. THIS ESTIMATE ALSO UNSATISFACTORY. In the light of our experience of the present season, however, this estimate for St. George still proves unsatisfactory. It was found that in the first hasty view of Little East rookery on July 9, 1896, a considerable portion of the breeding ground was hidden from view by the cliffs, because the most advantageous observation point was not selected. The proportion of killable seals furnished by St. George in 1896 proved wholly misleading because in 1897 the island furnished only one-ninth of the quota. The observations of the present season also show'that a count of harems after the 25th of July gives no idea of the real condition of the rookeries at the height of the season. On rookery ground under inspection during 1897 for this purpose it was found that between the 15th and 25th of July, while the number of cows diminished one-third the number of families had been increased one-seventh through the ingress of young and idle bulls following the breaking up of the harem system. - But this information was not at hand when the census of 1896 was prepared on August 1, and the estimate seemed to represent as nearly as possible the actual condition of the breeding herd at the time known as the height of the season. THE GREAT EXCESS OF PUPS. As our observations on St. Paul continued, and especially when we came to enter the rookeries to count the dead pups, our attention was attracted to the fact that the pups seemed to be much more numerous than the estimates of cows in the height of the season would warrant. This was particularly noticeable on the sand flat of Tolstoi. To test the matter a careful count of the live pups on Kitoyi rookery was made on August 15. This rookery had been taken as the typical one in making up the census and the most accurate count of cows was made upon it. ceopoosobencsas 365 - July iWihose 209 Food skins- duly 17 .-- CM pecoocer ES UE = ee ce Ee -.| July 19 ..- - 104 | -13 Kast, North, and Staraya --| duly 22 ....- E 391 | .18 Food skins -.| July 24-31 -. - FLOW Peay ase IO Ries ge eo ace ee eae August 2... 179 | 16 | North and Staraya Artel - August 4 153 | 16 Food skins August 5-9 (i+ bacetsoacs East, North, and Staraya Artel August 10 .. 207 12 TDiayaral Ta sce a oe a SS August 11 17 =: TUE odinc cae tehoeenbe ds oeahade des case rab] JUS Besa San OS] PaeE EE BaaDEaacenecise | PAB) [Ese sssboss 15184——_3 114 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. THE QUOTA OF 1897 HARDER TO GET. It must be evident from a study of these figures that the quota of 1896 was in every way easier to procure than that for 1897. In the latter year the driving was continued ten days longer on St. Paul Island and sixteen days longer on St. George. The lowest percentage of animals killed in any drive on St. Paul in 1896 was 35; in 1897 it was lowered to 15 per cent. On St. George the lowest point reached in 1896 was 17 per cent; in 1897 it was 12 per cent. The reduction in the percentage of seals killed marks the degree of exhaustion of the hauling grounds. THE QUOTA A DIRECT MEASURE OF THE BREEDING HERD. This comparison of the bachelor herd of 1896 and 1897 is a direct measure of the condition of the breeding herd in the years 1893 and 1894 when these killable seals were born. It is not a measure of the condition of the breeding herd of 1896 and 1897. To understand why the loss in the breeding herd for the season of 1894 as compared with that for 1893 was nearly 30 per cent, while the present rate of decrease is but 15 per cent, it is only necessary to consider that in 1894 pelagic sealing was resumed in Bering Sea after the modus vivendi and the herd that year suffered its greatest loss, amounting to 60,000 seals, whereas in 1893 its loss was only 30,000. This fully accounts for the great difference between the decrease for the season of 1897 in the fur-seal herd as measured by the product of its hauling grounds and as measured by its birth rate for the same season. The pelagic catch which atfected the breeding herd between 1896 and 1897 was about one-half as great as that which affected the breeding herd between 1893 and 1894. In other words, the pelagic catch of 1894 was double that of 1893, while the catch of 1897 was about one-half that of 1896.! : THE QUOTA OF 1897 AND THE PARIS REGULATIONS. Not only does this marked decrease in the quota emphasize the fact of decline in the herd, but it fixes more clearly than ever the responsibility upon pelagic sealing, and forcibly condemns the regulations of the Paris Award, in the opening year of the operation of which the loss which it indicates was sustained. THE TOTAL DECLINE IN THE HERD. In this comparison of the quota of killable seals with the breeding herd of the year in which its individuals were born, we find the necessary basis for an estimate of the total decline which the herd has suffered. The killable seals found in 1897 bear a direct relation to the breeding herd of 1894. In like manner the quota of 100,000 skins taken in 1880, for example, bears a direct, and we may suppose, proportionate rela- tion to the breeding herd of 1897, The breeding herd which could without diffieulty furnish 100,000 killable seals in 1880 must have been at least five times as great as the herd which ean to-day with difficulty furnish 20,000. And when we take into account the increased effort required to secure the latter quota, we may assume that the total decline in the herd really lies between four-fifths and five-sixths of its maximum size. 'This fact is overlooked by Professor Thompson when he asserts ‘‘that the ratio of the catch (quota) of 1897 to that of 1896 is not a fair proportionate measure of, but is largely in excess of the actual diminution of the general herd.” (Report of 1897, p. 11.) CHAPTER VILL. THE CAUSE OF THE DECLINE. JOINT AGREEMENT OF 1892. At the joint meeting of American and British investigators in 1892, preceding the Paris Arbitration, an agreement was reached that “since the Alaska purehase a marked diminution in the number of seals” on the Pribilof Islands had taken place, and that this diminution was “the result of excessive killing by man.” But when an attempt was made to analyze what was meant by “excessive killing” each commission took a different view. The commission for the United States claimed that it was the slaughter at sea of female seals that was responsible; the commissioners for Great Britain held that land killing was chiefly, if not wholly, responsible. As has already been shown, the decline admitted in 1892 has continued to the present time and is still going on. It only remains for us now to locate if possible the cause of the decline, to distinguish between land and pelagic killing. NO NATURAL CAUSE COMPETENT TO EXPLAIN THE DECLINE. It may be remarked at the outset that the investigations of the past two seasons have brought to light no natural cause of injury to the herd which can be connected with its decline. The subject of mortality among the fur seals is discussed in detail in Part ILL of this report. It is only necessary here to say that among the adult seals no mortality was found which was not due, directly or indirectly, to contests among the bulls, or to rough treatment of the cows by the bulls. In the case of the very young pups an hitherto unknown but apparently customary cause of death, due to the ravages of a parasitic worm infesting crowded and sandy breeding areas, was found to be responsible for a large number of deaths. Im the case of very young pups a certain number are also trampled to death by the bulls. The number dead from these causes in 1896 as counted amounted to 11,000. Doubtless a considerable number were overlooked. NATURAL CAUSES OF MORTALITY CONSTANT. It may be said, however, that both these causes of death are as old as the herd itself, and were more active when the herd was in its prime. They are directly related to the crowded condition of the rookeries and are, therefore, to-day, at a minimum. The photographs! taken by the British commissioners in 1891 and 1892 show that the 'A photograph taken in 1891 by Dr. George M. Dawson shows a part of the sandy northern end of Tolstoi rookery thickly strewn with dead pups, evidently killed by the worm. The photograph will be found among the illustrations in Appendix III. In the following year Mr. Macoun reports finding by actual count 4,000 dead pups on the sand flat of this rookery. These facts, tending to show the presence of breeding seals and their young in territory far beyond the present confines of Tolstoi rookery, are also yaluable as proving the great shrinkage of this rookery since 1891. 115 116 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. deaths from Uncinaria were greater then in proportion as the herd was greater. The whitened bones of pups on Tolstoi sands, in areas not occupied in 1891, show plainly that it antedates even that time, and there is no reason to suppose that it did not exist throughout the period when the herd was inits prime. It was probably the determining check which prevented the herd’s indefinite increase. We may infer from the fighting and struggling of the limited number of bulls at present on the rookeries that in a state of nature, when the males were practically equal to the females, the destruction from such fighting among all classes of seals must have been enormous. THE REAL CAUSE OF DECLINE AN ARTIFICIAL ONE. We may therefore assume that the cause or causes which have lead to the decline of the herd are not inherent in the herd itself. In short, we may come at once to the conelusion arrived at in 1892 that interference by man, and that alone, is chargeable with the decline. LAND AND SEA KILLING. There are two ways and two only by which the acts of man have come to affect the fur-seal herd. These are (1) by killing on land, which has been practiced ever since the islands were discovered in 1786, and for the last half century, at least, without change; and (2) killing at sea, which has been practiced to a limited extent by the Indians off the west coast of America from a very early date, but which since about 1880 has been greatly extended by the introduction of sailing vessels under the management and direction of white men. We may consider first the operations of land killing and their effect on the herd. A. LAND KILLING—ITS METHODS. ANIMALS KILLED. Land killing on the Pribilof Islands has since about the year 1835 been confined strictly to the removal of a definite number of young males, chiefly 3-year-olds, with occasional “long” 2-year-olds and ‘‘short” 4-year-olds, which approximate the 3-year-olds in size. At times the average size of seals killed has varied from this standard, leaning to the larger seals and again to the smaller animals, as the demands of the market or the condition of the hauling grounds have dictated. KILLING SEASON, The regular killing season on the islands lies between the Ist of June and the Ist of August. During the period from about the middle of August until about the middle of October the skins of the seals are not in prime condition, being stagy, as it is called, owing to the shedding of the hair. After the middle of October killing is resumed to a limited extent to furnish meat for the natives. In like manner the seals are killed for food as soon as they arrive in the spring, usually early in May. These food skins are accepted as part of the quota and are included with those taken in the regular killing season. THE DRIVING OF THE SEALS. The young bachelor seals, which are the class taken for their skins, haul out on the sand beaches or in the rear of the rookeries and at a distance from them. In the A DRIVE FROM THE REEF. 117 early morning the natives visit such hauling grounds as have been selected, and, surrounding the animals, drive them inland to the point where they may conveniently be slaughtered. As illustrating this process of driving, we may quote the following record taken from the field notes of the commission: THE DRIVE. The drive from Gorbatch and Reef rookeries this morning (July 15) was witnessed by Dr. Jordan, Professor Thompson, Dr. Stejneger, Mr. Lucas, and Mr, Clark. Captain Moser and Lieutenant Garrett, of the Albatross, were also present. Mr. Crowley, Treasury agent, conducted the movements of the visitors. Fifteen Aleuts made up the driving party. We left the village at 2 o’clock in the morning. It was then light enough to make one’s way without difficulty. After a few minutes’ walk we reached Zoltoi sands, a beach about one-fourth of a mile from the village, at the angle of which the bachelors from Gorbatch rookery hanl out to reach the rocky slope above. The drivers ran in quickly between the seals and the sea and soon had the animals rounded up in a large pod. From a similar hanling ground on the shore just across the neck of the peninsula another pod was in like manner rounded up. The two pods combined were left in charge of three men to be driven across the sands to the village killing ground a few hundred yards beyond. We then proceeded to the extreme point of the Reef peninsula. The hauling ground of Reef rookery lies in the rear of the breeding ground and has four well-marked runways connecting it with the sea, on which no harems are located. A line of idle bulls keeps clear a considerable space between the hauling ground and the rookery. From the head of the various runways and in the intervening space pods of sleeping bachelors were rounded up, the Aleuts passing between the idle bulls and the bachelors and turning the latter up the bank to the flat parade ground back of the hanling ground. Here the pods were all united in one large group and the drive started on its way. It was 3 o’clock when we reached the point, and by 3.30 the drive was in motion. After passing over a short space of ground, scattered at wide intervals with irregular bowlders and having a gentle slope, the drive came into the level grassy plain of the parade ground. Here the herd, which numbered about 1,500 bachelors, was separated into two parts for greater ease and safety in driving. While one pod was allowed to rest the other was driven slowly forward in the direction of the village. Three men were now assigned to each pod, and the rest of the drivers allowed to return to the village to make ready for the killing. We followed the first herd. Over the green turf of the parade ground the drive moved along quietly and without difficulty. The drivers took their positions one on each flank to repress any lateral movements, and the third brought up the rear. There was no noise or confusion. In general the seals were allowed to take their own time and go at their own pace. ‘Those in the advance acted as leaders, and the rest of the flock followed naturally after them. At the beginning the seals showed some reluctance in leaving their hauling grounds, and made ineffectual attempts to break away. But after the drive was under way they moved forward apparently as a matter of course. When the leaders showed an inclination to take the wrong course the men on the flank simply stood up and raised a hand, which was sufticient to turn them back into the Way. For the most part the men kept out of sight of the seals. The seals on the drive do not keep up a continuous motion, They take ten or a dozen steps and then sit down like dogs to rest and pant, resuming their way when they find that their companions have gone on. ‘The leaders set the example, and as they are rested by the time the rear members of the herd have come to a standstill, they move on and are ready to stop by the time the rear guard have started. ‘The result is that some part of the herd is moving all the time and the progression is continuous. There is a tendency on the part of the young seals to go faster than the older ones, of which a large number were included. By a gradual sifting process the old fellows fell to the rear, and on several occasions pods of from a dozen to twenty were cut off and allowed to return to the sea. All the seals and especially the larger ones showed signs of fatigue. They appeared to be hot and excited, and a cloud of steam rose constantly from the moving animals. This steam had a strong musky smell. When the herd stopped, individual seals would often sprawl out on the ground, raising their hind flippers and waving them fan-like evidently in an effort to cool off. After resting a 118 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. moment the seals were ready to move on apparently refreshed. Continuous exertion is evidently hard on them, but they quickly recover from exhaustion. As soon as the flock comes to rest for a few monients’ breathing, they begin to bite one another and push in an unconcerned fashion until they are reminded by the absence of their companions that they must keep moving. The seals were not urged forward, but were allowed to take their own time. When the herd was brought to rest for a few minutes, the rear driver started them on by clapping his hands or by rattling a stick on a rock. Our presence evidently urged the seals, and made the drive really harder than it would ordinarily have been. The Aleuts seem to have a way of handling the seals that they understand. A short distance brought us to the end of the grassy plain and into an area of ground filled with embedded bowlders. These were for the most part flat and worn smooth. It looked like hard ground for the seals, but in reality they seem to get over it better than the flat ground. On the flat there was constant crowding, while here the rocks kept the seals apart. The animals are really more familiar with the rocky ground, their breeding rookeries with few exceptions being on the rocky beaches. After passing over aslight ridge, where the passageway became narrowed by projecting cliffs and where there was a good deal of crowding and scrambling, the drive left the bowlder-strewn path and passed into a valley overgrown with tall Elymus grass and lying between rows of sand dunes also grass-grown. ‘The seals seem to be refreshed by the moisture of the grass, which was wet with dew and rain. This grassy plain led into the top of the bowlder-set slope above Zoltoi sands, from which the earlier seals were driven. The seals passed down this slope without difficulty and came into the level sand flat. Here the first really hard work of the drive began. ‘Theseals seemed to find their greatest difficulty in walking on the yielding sand. Their flippers take hold of the rocks like rubber, but slip back in the sand. No rocks prevented the animals from crowding. They stepped on each other’s flippers, became much excited, and seemed generally worried. 3ut in a few minutes the sands were passed and the herd emerged into the grass-grown killing ground. As soon as the seals came to a standstill, they seemed to forget their troubles. At once they began biting, snarling, and blowing at one another as though nothing had happened. They were then turned into the little lake beside the killing ground to cool oft, and were herded up on the bank to rest until their turn came to be killed. It was 5 minutes after 5 when the first herd reached the killing ground. The second arrived three-quarters of an hour afterwards, having taken more time on the way. THE KILLING, After the seals have sufliciently rested and cooled off the killing is begun. The large drove of animals is put in motion in the direction of the spot where the killing is to begin. Two men close in ou the moving animals and cut off a small pod of from twenty-five to fifty, turning the main body back. This small group is driven up within reach of a number of nen armed with clubs. These “eull” out the “killable” seals (3-year-olds, large 2-year-olds, and small 4-year-olds) by striking them on the head, allowing the nonkillable seals (yearlings, small 2-year-olds, and all ‘“wigged” seals) to escape and make their way back to the sea. As soon as one pod is knocked down, a second is cut out and driven up. This process is continued until the drove is exhausted. THE ALEUTS. The operations of the killing ground are carried out by the Aleuts, under the immediate direction of the native chief, who is in turn subject to the direction of the agent of the lessees. The latter supervises the clubbing and indicates the proper grade of animals to be selected. The drives are authorized by the agent of the Government, and he is required to be present on the killing grounds to look after the interests of the Government as the owner of the herd. CLUBBING, AND DRIVING OFF REJECTED SEALS. isan. "NMOG G3xXOONy ISN SIv3S 4O ,.dOd,, ¥ = 35 3 4 < a a ; i _ Ra j 4 F i s : *HOWSS SHL OL ONINHYNL3EY SIV3S G3LORraY !SIV3S .. ONIMOILS,, 5 teat TIS, Ghd ; ; < Ws Ul] “MYOM LV ONVS ONINNIXS SHL ) “el “SASSVOYUVO SHL WOYS LNO ONISG LV3W GOO4 ‘G3AOWSY SNIMS EFFECTS OF LAND KILLING. 119 With the knocking down of the killable seals and the release of those not suitable, the work of handling the seals on land ceases to have any effect on the life of the herd. The processes of taking and curing the skins have been so well described by Mr. Elliott and others that it is hardly necessary to redescribe them, but for the sake of completeness a brief summary may be given. SKINNING THE SEALS, As the animals are clubbed they are stretched out in order, with space for the skinners to work about them. The skull of the fur seal is its weakest point, and the blow of the club renders the animal instantly unconscious, if it does not kill it outright. It is immediately stuck to the heart with a knife, which serves the double purpose of insuring death and bleeding the animal. THE DIVISION OF LABOR ON THE KILLING FIELD. The Aleuts, by whom the various operations are carried on, follow at present a systematic division of labor, working in four sections, the operations of “clubbing,” “sticking,” “flippering,” and “skinning” going on simultaneously. The clubbing and skinning are done by the most skillful and experienced of the men. The beginners do the sticking and flippering. This last process involves the cutting of the skin loose from about the nose, tail, and flippers, and slitting it through the median line of the belly. When this is done the animal passes into the hands of the skinner, who removes the pelt with a few quick strokes of the knife, spreading it out flesh side downward on the grass to cool. THE TREATMENT OF THE SKINS. The skins are gathered up in wagons and counted into the salt house, where they are salted in tiers, with the flesh side up, layers of salt alternating with the skins. After lying thus for five or six days they are taken out and resalted in reverse order. They remain in this salt for about ten days or two weeks, when the process of curing is complete, and they are taken out, wrapped in neat bundles, each containing two skins, and tied securely, ready for shipment. The skins are then counted into the bidara, which is to lighter them to the ship, and are counted for a third time into the hold of the vessel. At San Francisco they are placed in easks and shipped te London, where they are dressed and dyed and finally distributed to be manufactured into garments. THE EFFECTS OF LAND KILLING. Owing to the polygamous habit of the fur seals, the greater part of the male life born is superfluous for breeding purposes. For the 130,000 breeding cows found on the rookeries of St. Paul and St. George islands in the season of 1897, 4,418 bulls were adequate, or at least out of fully 10,000 adult bulls ready and willing to serve harems, only this number were able to obtain them. Therefore only 1 bull in 30 is absolutely necessary under present conditions. That this limit could be materially lowered without positive danger to the herd is conclusively shown by the history of the Russian herd on Bering Island, where the observations of the past three years, as detailed by Dr. Stejneger, show that a male fur seal is capable of attending to the wants of between 100 and 200 cows. ! ' Stejneger, Prel. Report, 1897, p. 11. 120 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. REMOVAL OF SUPERFLUOUS MALE LIFE BENEFICIAL. Moreover, the removal of this superfluous male life is not only possible, but is really beneficial to the herd. As already indicated, the only deaths among adult bulls and cows discovered upon the rookeries of the islands resulted from the strug- gles of the bulls among themselves or to obtain possession of the cows. In the death of young pups also this fighting and struggling of the bulls is a small but by no means insignificant cause of loss. In 1896 the great early mortality among nursing pups was wrongly ascribed to the trampling of the fighting bulls. But while the more complete and satisfactory investigation of 1897 shows another and more important cause, there still remains a considerable loss from this source. This loss is now insignificant compared with what it was in the wild state of the herd. When the number of adult males and females was practically equal, the destraction both among the cows and among the pups must have been enormous. It undoubtedly rivaled the ravages of the worm Unecinaria in its destructive work and combined with it to offset the natural increase of the herd. POSSIBILITY OF OVERKILLING. While as a general principle the removal of these superfluous males is beneficial to the herd, excessive removal would undoubtedly lead to disastrous results. The percentage of males required for the needs of propagation is small, but it is essential, and if reduced too low or cut off entirely the effect must be injurious. Such excessive killing would be felt in the scarcity of bulls, from which cause, through inadequate service, the usual increase of pups would not be born and the herd must ultimately begin to fail. It is on this ground that land killmg becomes a possible source of danger to the herd. A HYPOTHETICAL CASE, To understand how such killing would aet, let us take a hypothetical case. If in any given year absolutely every 3-year-old male was killed to fill the quota, this would involve the absence of representatives of this class of seals from the reserve of bulls for the replenishment of the rookeries in subsequent years. It would not affect the breeding bulls, nor the reserves of four, five, and six years. These latter would supply the deficiency in the breeding stock caused by old age for at least ten years, and it would take that period at least to show the effect of the close killing. If it was not repeated, no influence would be felt. The 7-year-old bull of the following year would simply enter the rookeries as a 6-year-old. 3ut suppose the killing was continued through a series of years, every 3-year- old being killed, the reserve would in time be cut off and the stock of breeding bulls would die out. It is impossible to say how long it would take to produce this effect, because we do not know the length of the life of the bull. We may infer, however, that it is not less than fifteen years, and therefore the injurious effects of this exces- sive killing begun in any given year and continued indefinitely would not be seen within ten years at least. This is only a hypothetical case, but it shows what is meant by too close killing of males in filling the quota. The killing of males, which would produce immediate and disastrous results, must strike at the adult males. To destroy this class or any considerable number of them would at once weaken the herd, But there would be no object in such killing, and it has never been thought of. NO OVERKILLING OF MALES. 121 SUCH KILLING NOT PRACTICABLE. In the hypothetical case above cited we have supposed that every male of a given age could be taken. While in theory this is possible, in practice it could probably never be done. There are certain hauling grounds, such as Lagoon, Zapadni Head, Otter Island, Sivutch Rock, and Southwest Point, from which the seals are not and have never been driven. The young inales frequenting these are left undisturbed, and it is safe to suppose that the majority of them pass killable age before the sexual instinct draws them to the vicinity of the rookeries from which seals are driven. Furthermore, there are always little pods of bachelors in the turns and corners of the rookeries which either can not be reached or are too insignificant in number to be followed up. ; OTTER ISLAND NOT DRIVEN. Otter Island, one of these hauling grounds from which seals are never killed, must have been a source of reserve male life throughout the history of the herd. From the records in the log of St. Paul of the days when a guard was stationed there to prevent raids, we know that anywhere from two to ten thousand bachelors hauled out there regularly. During the past summer at least 1,000 young males were found at the time the island was visited. There were also from 500 to 800 males of this sort on Sivutch Rock at the time of its inspection in 1897. These young males are not disturbed, and from these hauling grounds alone an adequate supply of reserve male life might be expected to-day if none whatever escaped otherwise. In the earlier days when the herd was larger their yield was also larger. DEFECTIVE SKINS. One other matter in this connection is worth mentioning. From the killing field at every killing a considerable number of young males, otherwise strong and vigorous, are rejected because of some defect in the skin, chietly bites or scars of imperfectly healed wounds. These males go to swell the quota of reserve male life. OVERKILLING OF MALES HAS NOT OCCURRED. So far we have considered the possibility of too close killing of males. Let us examine the facts in the case. At the time the herd came into the possession of the United States it was in a prosperous condition, probably increasing, and it main- tained a maximum condition of expansion for a number of years. We need therefore not go back of the transfer of the rookeries to the United States in considering the causes of decline. From the year 1871 a nominal quota of 100,000 male seals was taken each year to and including 1889. Since 1889 the quota has fluctuated as a result of various causes. To and including the year 1890 there were killed, in addition to the normal quota each year for food for the natives, from 3,000 to 5,000 male pups. There was further a large killing of males for food in the stagy season and of animals too young to furnish skins of the desired grade for the quota. Since 1890 the killing of pups has been stopped, as also the killing of stagy seals. 122 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. STATISTICS OF THE QUOTA. The annual killing of male life on the fur-seal islands during the period of the first lease we find has averaged about 105,000 per year. The following table gives the total killings of males for all purposes whatsoever for the period in question: Land killing, 1870-1889. Land killing. Land | =A | Tani killing. Year. | Land 1885......| 105,024 | Roel 104591 105, 760 | 103, 304 | 102, 617 VOLUNTARY REDUCTION OF QUOTA IN 1876-77. From an examination of this table we find that between the years 1871 and 1875, inclusive, an average of 107,500 male seals were annually killed on the islands. In 1876-77 this average was reduced to 88,500. Some question had been raised by Cap- tain Bryant,! then agent in charge of the islands, as to the effect of the killing of this full quota. He had even recommended that it be redneed. This may have influenced the contraction in the quota, but it was not insisted upon by the Government and was voluntary on the part of the lessees. The fact that in 1878 killing was resumed and continued at an average of 105,000 for four years shows clearly enough that the alarm about the quota felt by Captain Bryant was without foundation. The temporary reduction for the two years could not have influenced the herd. But in these two years we have a right to assume that at least 38,000 young males of the age of 3 years were allowed to escape and grow up as an addition to the reserve of bulls. VOLUNTARY REDUCTION IN 1882-83. In 1882 and 1883 we find a similar reduction to 88,700 of the quota of male life from the preceding average of 105,000. This contraction was, as we know, purely vol- untary on the part of the lessees and due to the overstocked condition of the seal-skin market. That it was not due to any scarcity of seals is clearly enough shown by the fact that the killing was in 1884 resumed and continued at an average of 104,400 until the year 1889. The point we wish to make clear is that the 38,000 males in this first extraordinary reservation made in 1876-77, 3 years old at the time, were 7 years old, or ready for harem duty in 1880-81, and 10 years of age, or in their breeding prime in 1885-86, when the decline in the herd was well begun. Likewise, the second reservation of 32,800 young bulls was ready to replenish the rookeries in 1886-87, and they were still in their prime in 1889 and subsequent years when the decline was in the height. NO DEARTH OF MALE LIFE. That the young male life represented by these annual killings from 1871 to 1889 should have been produced upon these rookeries is in itself abundant proof that there was no dearth of breeding males. In its prime 25,000 bulls were ample for the ! See extracts from the log of St. Paul, Pt. II, under date of June 10, July 25, August 4, ete., 1875. ANTICIPATION OF THE QUOTA. 123 needs of the heard. By the extraordinary reservations of male life which we have just noted more than sufficient bulls were supplied to the rookeries from and after 1880 to meet their needs. This was in addition to the regular reservations which were made from year to year and, further, in addition to those which escaped naturally on hauling grounds not driven. In the history of this period, as recorded in the log of St. Paul Island, there is nothing to show that the breeding grounds were not amply stocked with bulls, and on the killing grounds systematic provision was made for the necessary reserve of male life. KILLING OF MALES NOT A FACTOR IN DECLINE. When we consider all these things in connection with the difficulties which we have shown to stand in the way even of a deliberate attempt to kill too closely, we believe ourselves fully justified in asserting that land killmg has not, through too close killing of the males, been a factor in the decline of the herd. PREMATURE KILLING. It remains to be noted that there is another class of close killing which, while it does not injuriously affect the herd as a whole, produces effects which are unfortunate and which may appear to be harmful although they are not so. We have said that from 1884 to 1889 an average of 104,400 male seals were killed on the islands each year. This would seem to indicate a normal condition of the herd, while as a matter of fact we know that during this period the herd was rapidly declining, and the immediate drop from 100,000 skins in 1889 to 21,000 in 1890 proves it. ANTICIPATION OF QUOTA. To understand how this killing could be thus maintained it is only necessary to remember that the quota of killable, or nominally 3-year-old seals, is culled from a herd of bachelors which contains also the quota of two subsequent years as 2-year-olds and yearlings. When in 1885 the killable seals began to gradually become scarce upon the hauling grounds, it at first became necessary to drive oftener, to include more hauling grounds, and finally to increase the period of driving. This matter can be made clear by the following table: Table showing date of filling quota, number of hauling grounds and drives, St. Paul Island, Date Hauling | Number Year. quota grounds of filled.! driven.?| drives.? July 17 78 38 -| July 20 99 34 ---| July 20 86 36 -| July 19 81 39 ---| July 21 101 42 July 27 106 63 July 26 117 74 July 24 101 66 July 27 102 73 July 31 110 74 1 Date at which last regular drive for the quota was made. ees. at 2Several hauling grounds are included in a single driye; as, for example, Tolstoi, Middle Hill, and English Bay are regularly included in one drive. 124 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. THE KILLING OF UNDERSIZED SEALS. For a time these more vigorous methods had the desired effect, but the scarcity of bachelors as a result of the decreasing birth rate made it necessary finally to lower the age for killable seals so as to include first the 2-year-olds and in the end many of the larger yearlings,! in order to secure the requisite 100,000 skins. By these methods it happened, in 1889, that practically the whole bachelor herd of four years and under, down to the yearlings, was wiped out. The result was the abnormal drop to 21,000 in the quota of 1890. SUCH KILLING DID NOT INJURE THE HERD. It is evident, however, that this sort of killing is not inimical to the breeding herd. It simply destroys the superfluous bachelors through premature killing. It is an anticipation in the quota of one year of the product of the next. That even the close killing of 1889 did not endanger the herd is clearly shown in that it was possible to secure, in 1890, 21,000 seals of killable age. This fact alone shows that in the nature of things it is impossible to get all the males of a certain age in any given year. That there were 21,000 seals which were of killable age in 1890 may be taken as showing, indirectly at least, that, in like manner, other older bachelors escaped, which, in the interval between 1889 and 1890, had passed to the ‘“‘wigged” stage, where they were no longer suitable for the quota. Of this class Mr. Elliott records in his 1890 report the turning back of 1,112 from a part of the killings of that year. PREMATURE KILLING WASTEFUL, BUT NOT INJURIOUS. It is not the intention here to justify the methods of killing employed in the closing years of the lease of the Alaska Commercial Company. Such killing ought never to have been allowed. It would not have occurred had not the termination of the lease been approaching, as it would have been wholly against the interest of the lessees. But it is not conceivable that such killing could ever affect the life of the herd, as it would necessarily bring to ruin the business of taking seal skins on land long before it could produce any effect on the breeding herd. KILLING OF PUPS WASTEFUL. Nor can the wasteful practice of killing pups for food and killing seals when stagy, which unnecessarily augmented the draft on the male life of the herd, be passed over without condemnation, The magnitude of this waste may be inferred trom the following synopsis taken from the records :* Seals killed whose skins were wasted, 1871-1890. Leva) (GHP IR Ngo soos soscsSonceas cess Hoonee Sasso ono So esESSussrcartosagenesosscce 95, 628 Mooduskanse (ey ected) leet ate tetra tate as aaa atm lal ee ete tat eee 27, 790 Bachelorsskins' (rejected). 22 --wetieos dos: seins ssste cele to eee eee eee ee 30, 798 ‘Letter of Dr. MeIntyre, Senate Doc. 137, Pt. I, p. 345. See Appendix I. METHODS ON THE COMMANDER ISLANDS. 125 ABSENCE OF INJURY TO THE HERD. This condemnation, however, must rest solely on the basis of the waste involved. It resulted in no injury to the herd because there were still enough males, and to spare. In spite of the unnecessary draft on its male life, and in spite of the prema- ture gathering of its product in the closing years of the old lease, the male life needed for the breeding herd never failed. The breeding grounds are to-day grossly over- stocked with adult breeding bulls which can not be less than 8 years of age, and many of them must be older, their birth dating from the very period when the closest killing took place. In addition to these the rookeries are being flooded by a swarm of younger bulls as a result of the partial suspension of killing under the modus vivendi of 1891-93. ; METHODS ON THE COMMANDER ISLANDS. Over the whole subject of land killing, as conducted on the Pribilof Islands, a flood of light is thrown by a comparison with the methods in vogue on the Commander Islands. On Bering Island, for some years past, no killable bachelors have been spared, and the proportionate number of bulls is very far below what it has been under the closest killing on St. Paul and St. George. On Poludinnoye (South) rookery, Bering Island, for example, there were in 1895 five bulls, in 1896 three bulls, for between 500 and 1,000 females. Yet this number, assisted, doubtless, by immature bulls, has been shown to be entirely adequate for the impregnation of all the females. According to Mr. Barrett-Hamilton of the British commission, so far as could be seen, every cow on this rookery had a pup in 1896. This observation was confirmed by Dr. Stejneger and Captain Moser, who yisited the rookery at about the same time. DR. STEJNEGER’S OBSERVATIONS. In his report for 1895,! Dr. Stejneger observes: On that rookery (Poludinnoye) the disproportion between the two sexes was excessive in 1895. According to reliable information, the number of bulls on the whole reokery did not exceed five. Judging from what I saw of this rookery during two visits, I should place the number of breeding females at about 600, possibly only 500.2 It would be a comparatively easy matter to observe this year (1896) whether the number of pups born be yery markedly small in proportion to the number of females hauling out. THE DEARTH OF MALE LIFE ON BERING ISLAND. For the three bulls which had charge of the 600 or more cows on South rookery, Bering Island, in 1896, Dr. Stejneger found in 1897, by actual count, 526 pups. Considering the proportion of seals which must have died during the winter of old age, and those which were taken by pelagic sealers, this birth rate shofs clearly enough the capacity of the three bulls. For this rookery, which in 1597 contained at least 526 cows, there were but two adult bulls and a young half bull. Such reckless killing as that practiced on the Commander rookeries is by no means to be commended nor to be imitated, but in the face of the absence of injurious results from it, it becomes impossible to charge against the more moderate and conservative killing of the Pribilof Islands any share of responsibility for the decline of the herd breeding upon their shores. 1 Russian Fur Seal Islands, 1895, p. 64. 2 Dr. Stejneger’s estimate of 500 to 600 cows was made under the supposition that the cows seen on the rookery represented practically all belonging to it. It was not until 1896 that it was discovered that not over half the cows are present at one time. CHAPTER IX. THE THEORY OF OVERDRIVING. DRIVING AND ITS SUPPOSED RESULTS. From the foregoing it must be clear that land killing has never produced a scarcity of male life for breeding purposes, and has not therefore been a factor in the decline of the herd. This would naturally end the matter, were it not for the prominence which certain absurd theories have received. These we must consider in some detail. It is to Mr. Henry W. Elliott, who was sent in 1890 to investigate the condition of the fur-seal herd, that we are indebted for the theory that overdriving is a cause of injury to the herd. In his report Mr. Elliott has elaborated this theory at great length. It is plainly not the outgrowth of his investigations, but their guiding hypothesis from the beginning to the end. Mr. Elliott, instead of seeking in the breeding herd the cause of its decline, impressed by the great diminution of the bachelor herds, confined his attention solely to them. The condition of this class of animals is only an incident to the life of the herd. The causes affecting it necessarily originate in the breeding herd. He found, what is undoubtedly true and has been from the first, that the young males began a course of driving from the hauling grounds to the killing grounds at the age of 1 year, They were rejected because too small. The following year they appeared in the drives again as 2-year-olds, and were again rejected for the same reason. In the third year they were, so far as driven, killed. The fourth and subsequent years found those which escaped as 5-year-olds unsuitable for killing on account of the incipient wig, and they were accordingly again rejected, as certainly as they appeared in the drives. This course of driving resulted, according to Mr. Elliott, in the death of practically all the animals released, or else the impairment of virility in those which survived. The only recruits which the breeding males received therefore was an insignificant number of debilitated males, whose sexual powers were lost. In this way the herd had been destroyed, This, in brief, is the theory of overdriving. THE PROCESS OF DRIVING. Let us examine for a moment this process of driving and the animal which has to undergo it. As we know, very few of the yearlings get into the drives till after the middle of July, when the sealing season is nearly over; therefore, not many of the seals are driven at this age. In the second and subsequent years they come earlier and are driven more frequently. The seals on each hauling ground are gathered up about six times in a season; but as in each drive new killable seals are found which certainly have not been driven before during the season in question, we may assume that the rejected seals themselves are not all driven each time. In fact, we must assume that in the years immediately subsequent to 1890 the seals of the age of 3 years that escaped to grow up were not driven at all; otherwise they could not have survived. 126 ALLEGED EVILS OF DRIVING, 1 ~! THE ANIMAL DRIVEN. If we suppose that any rejected seal is driven fifteen times in five years we have made a liberal estimate. This means an average of 15 miles of land travel for each animal, for the drives on the islands do not average more than a mile in length. The seals, as we have already seen in the description of the drive, are allowed to take their own time and rest frequently on the journey. The animal, moreover, is not ill adapted to land travel. It is not a fish, but a bear which has become adapted to life in the water. It can and does voluntarily climb cliffs which a man would find difficulty in scaling. It makes considerable journeys of its own accord. When on its hauling grounds, it is constantly in motion, pitted against its fellows in contests requiring violent exertion., On its migrations it is capable of swimming thousands upon thousands of miles and buffeting the storms of an unusually tempestuous sea. Such is the animal which is supposed to be fatally, or at least permanently, injured by an average of 3 miles of land travel annually in five years. The conclusion is preposterous. THE THEORY INTANGIBLE. When we come to scrutinize Mr. Elliott’s theory, we can not find a tangible bit of evidence to support it. There was no dearth of bulls in 1890. He found 12,000 bulls on the rookeries, with more to spare idle on the sand beaches. This was a number entirely adequate to the needs of the herd. The presence of idle bulls showed there were more than enough. It is true he asserts that the bulls were impotent. Why they should seek the rookeries in this condition is not explained. Furthermore, Mr. Elliott has not, in support of this charge of impotency, recorded the dissection of a single animal, the only way by which the fact of impotency could be ascertained. Mr. Elliott declares that no fresh male life existed in reserve to replenish this wornout stock. In the face of this statement he records, however, in his data for the killings he witnessed, the rejection of more than 1,100 young half bulls, which are just the class he says does not exist. He lays great stress upon the strain and exertion which the few miles of land travel produces in the driven seal, and asserts that practically none of them survive it. Of the thousands rejected under his eyes on the killing grounds in 1890, he records but a single instance of death resulting from this cause, and inasmuch as no autopsy examination is recorded, we have only his opinion in the matter and must dissent from if. When we attempt to fit this theory of overdriving to the conditions during the period prior to 1890, we meet with no great success. That the driving in these years did not kill the 2 and 1 year old animals driven is shown by the fact that these - seals appeared each year as 3-year-olds to be driven. From the younger males so released each year and from these alone could the killable seals of subsequent years come. That the bulls serving the rookeries in these years were not impotent is shown by the number of young males which the hauling grounds were able to supply. The thousands of yearlings which he has recorded as turned back from the killing grounds in 1890 show clearly enough that the bulls were not impotent in 1888. Subsequent events show as clearly that the bulls he saw in 1890 were not impotent. ITS LOGICAL CONCLUSION. This contention as to the effects of overdriving, pushed to its logical conclusion, weans that animals are killed by it which persist in appearing afterwards distinetly 128 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. alive; others are rendered impotent which are yet able to fill the rookeries with pups. The whole matter is too absurd for serious consideration, and might be passed by with the silent contempt it deserves were it not for the fact that it was accepted by the British commissioners in 1891 and made the chief foundation of the British contention before the Paris Tribunal of Arbitration. In view of this fact, it has seemed necessary to give more attention to the theory than it deserves. THE DRIVES AND DRIVEWAYS. As other effects than those contemplated by Mr. Elliott’s theory, for example, the driving of the animals away from their breeding haunts, the stampeding of the breeding rookeries, etc., have been associated with the methods of handling the seals on land, it will be useful for us to consider the subject in detail as it came under our observation during the past two seasons. We have already given an account of the process of driving. At the outset it is well to contrast the driving of the present time with that of the past. THE RUSSIAN DRIVES. In the early Russian days the drives were all long and tedious. On St. Paul, everything was brought to the village, at the extreme southern end of the island. Thus the seals from Northeast Point had to travel a distance of about 12 miles; those from Polovina and Zapadni, respectively, 5 and 6 miles. On St. George Island the seals were driven over the rocky ridge from Zapadni, a distance of about 6 miles. Days and nights were oceupied in these long drives. The seals were allowed to take their own time, resting frequently, the natives watching and guarding them in relays. Of the time taken by the drives from Northeast Point in the Russian days we have no record, but in the year 1888, in January, according to the log of St. Paul Island,'! a food drive of 500 seals was made to the village from this point, and it gives us some idea of what such a drive meant. THE DRIVE FROM NORTHEAST POINT. The seals were driven in in two sections, the time on the road being, respectively, eighty-two and one hundred hours. No deaths are reported to have occurred. The instructions to the men were to be “careful and go slow, if it took a week, and to kill and bring in all that perished on the way.” The seals are reported as arriving in good condition. Drives of sea lions have in recent years also been brought from Northeast Point to the village. THE AMERICAN DRIVES. Under American control the long drives were done away with. Salt houses were established at Northeast Point, at Polovina, at Zapadni of St. Paul, and one had already been established at Zapadni of St. George in 1868. The seals on these rookeries are to-day killed near the hauling grounds, and their skins are salted and cared for there. From Northeast Point the skins are loaded directly on the vessel. From Zapadni of St. George they are packed across the island by the natives on their backs. ' See extracts from the log, Pt. II, date of January 20, 1888. CHARACTER OF THE REEF DRIVEWAY. LS THE DRIVES GREATLY SHORTENED. The drives have been still further shortened by the location of new killing grounds still nearer to the rookeries, and to-day the longest drive on St. Paul is not over a mile in length, while several are less than half a mile. On St. George, except in the case of Zapadni, the drives are the same as in the old days, everything being brought to the village. North rookery, however, is within half a mile of the village killing ground, and this is the largest of the rookeries. From Staraya Artel and from East rookeries the drives follow a course upward of 24 miles in length in opposite directions from the village. On these driveways there are marshy places and occasional ponds of fresh water in which the seals are allowed to cool off. These drives, therefore, though long, are easier than shorter drives would be under ordinary conditions. REEF DRIVEWAY. The Reef drive on St. Paul, though only about a mile in length, is in fact the hardest of the drives. It contains all the different conditions to be met with on any of the drives, and therefore a detailed description of its course will answer for the rest. Reef drive begins at the very point of Reef peninsula. The hauling ground of Reef rookery lies in the rear of the central portion of the breeding ground in a hollow between two rocky ridges, one dividing it from the rookery itself and the other leading up to the flat ground of the “parade ground.” The hauling ground has four runways connecting it with the sea. From the heads of these runways and from the central portion of the hauling ground the straggling bands of bachelors are gathered up and driven to the flat of the parade ground above. Here on the level the different groups are united in one great pod. THE CHARACTER OF THE ROUTE. After the drive is formed the first 90 yards of its course lies over practically level ground, sloping very gradually toward the east, the direction to be taken. Toward the end of this first section the ground becomes strewn with large bowlders, suffi- ciently far apart, however, to offer no obstructions to the seals. The course then leads out into a level, grassy plain, 325 yards in length, with a scarcely perceptible slope to the east. The ground is level, free from stones, and the damp seal grass makes going easy. In this plain the larger drove of seals is usually divided into two smaller ones for convenience in driving. Beyond the grassy plain is a bowlder-covered area, the rocks imbedded in the soil, flat and worn smooth. This area was once hauling ground, perhaps breeding territory in the palmy days of the herd. Between the stones are patches of yellow seal grass. At the ridge, about midway in this rocky stretch, the course is narrowed by piles of rocks, traces of the original cliff which formed the ridge. In this narrowed passage there is a tendency to crowd, due to the desire of the seals to go in a mass wherever they go. The whole length of this rocky area is about 262 yards. From the rocks the driveway leads up a gentle sand slope to a plain lying between two rows of grass-grown sand dunes. This plain is 400 yards in length and furnishes very easy going for the seals. Its surface is covered with a heavy growth of rye grass, which is always wet with rain or dew, and serves to cool off the seals. 15184—_9 130 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. At the end of the grassy plain the course drops down over a short ledge of rocks, some 3 feet in height, to a bowlder-covered area of about 200 yardsin extent. This area at first level falls in a gentle slope at the end to the level of Zoltoi sands. The bowlders are large, smooth, and flat, and the interspaces are filled with lava sand. Along the 400 yards of level sand beach is the hardest part of the drive. The seals slip and sink in the loose sand. They do not mind the rocky and grass-grown areas, but the sand worries them. This sandy area leads by a narrow passage, lined on either side by sand dunes, to the grassy plain between East Landing and the little pond at the foot of the village. This is the village killing ground. THE LENGTH OF THE DRIVE. The total length of Reef drive as paced off is about 5,031 feet. Its greatest elevation is not over 75 feet, and the slopes are very gentle. The drive is usually made in about two hours. In the preceding pages is given a detailed account of a drive over this course witnessed on July 15. On none of the other drives of Pribilof Islands are there rocky areas such as those described on the Reef. On Tolstoi and Middle Hill are short stretches of sand, but they are of limited extent. With these exceptions, the driveways on St. Paul are comparatively level and grassy throughout. The same is true for the long drives of St. George. COMPARISON OF DRIVES. It is only necessary to contrast this drive from Reef, the longest and hardest on St. Paul Island, though less than a mile in length, with the 12 miles which the seals were forced to travel from Northeast Point in Russian times, or with the 5 and 6 miles of travel from Zapadni and Polovina of St. Paw, and Zapadni of St.George. That no injury resulted to the seals from these early drives is clear from the condition in which the herd was when it came into the possession of the United States. THE COMMANDER DRIVEWAYS. To appreciate the ease of the Pribilof Islands drives it is only necessary to contrast them with those of the Commander Jslands. The following description of the driveways of Medni Island is quoted from Dr, Jordaw’s record in the Journal for August 25, 1896: Zapadni driveway.—The drive from Zapadni goes up trom the stony beach between two towers of rocks, climbing the gorge of a little brook which cuts into the bowlders and clay of the hillside, an excessively hard, rough little gully, very difficult for a man to climb, there being small cascades and wet clay in its course. The way ismarked by road skeletons. After an ascent over ground of this sort for 300 or 400 feet, more or less, the drive goes up through steep, grassy slopes, some of them of soft clay, somewhat cut into rough steps by men’s boots. The general character of the ground is unre- lieved, although more or less broken by cross gullies and ridges. The final ridge is 760 feet above the sea. On the Glinka side is a long slope, at first quite steep, everywhere grassy, and rather easy, but marked with road skeletons, as it is very long. ‘The rye grass grows rather longer below, and a little stream has deep depressions, which serve as death traps, as the skeletons show, when the seals fail in piles one over another. Above Glinka is a steep slide of yellow clay, from which the village is said to have received its name. This shde must be a hard place for the seals. The seals (few in number) that are released because too young or too old are allowed to go down to the sea, whence they go back to the west again. THE PALATA DRIVEWAY. 131 Palata driveway.—The drive from Palata is now rarely made, as the seals have grown so few. They are killed all along the beach, and the myriads of flies about the decaying carcasses must be the source of great annoyance to the breeding seals. The drive ascends from the parade ground on the top of the landslide. This was formerly occupied by bachelors, but there are no separate droves of bachelors now. They are scattered in little clumps about and between the rookeries. The drive then for about 100 feet ascends a grassy cliff so steep that steps have been dug in it to facilitate climbing. Then follows some 700 feet of irregular but very steep slope, in which the easiest depressions are sought, though the hillis everywhere about as steep as a man can climb, and one who goes up it must cling to the grass. Above this slope the drive reaches the back of the knife-like ridge that separates Palata from Zapalata. This widens out into an easy, level plateau for about 20 rods, marked with road skeletons. The elevation is about 850 feet by Dr. Stejneger’s map. Then follows a steep climb up gravel and clay, with scanty grass and heather, worn into steps, the driveway bounded on the southwest by a slanting precipice that lies above Sabatcha Dira. A steep shoulder of heather and small plants is followed by a final climb into the clouds to the summit of the pass, 1,220 feet above the sea. From the summit an abrupt descent leads down a distance of about 500 feet by a Zigzag trail as steep as a horse could pass over, strewn with gravel and covered with low flowers, to the bed of a swift little brook. This stream flows down into a grassy basin, the slopes becoming less and less steep, the rye grass and putchki growing taller. At the junction of this stream, flowing into the little brook from the west, the drive merges into the one from Zapadni. ‘The drive from Palata is not in any place so difficult as the gully just above Zapadni, but it is half higher and twice as long, a trip one could not take on horseback, nor would it be easy to lead a horse over it. Comparing it with conditions on St. Paul, the Palata Pass is as steep as the cone of Bogoslof, twice as high, and is without water. Compared with the severest drive on St. Paul, it would stand as the ascent of Mount Blane to a walk in the park. It isa very fatiguing trip for a man. It took me, walking rapidly, thirty-eight minutes (deducting stops) from Palata to the grassy level, 860 feet; thence twenty-eight minutes to the top, 1,220 feet; fifteen minutes down the upper slope, and fifteen more to Glinka. NO EVIL RESULTS FROM THESE DRIVES. And yet, notwithstanding the severity of the drives of the Commander Islands, no harm has resulted to the breeding herds of these islands which can be traced to this cause. CARE EXERCISED IN DRIVING. Many drives were witnessed during the past two summers on St. Paul Island. Tn connection with none of them was seen warrant for the harrowing tales of animals dying of exhaustion and fright by the wayside or smothering under the feet of their terrified companions. In the drive of July 15, numbering 1,500 seals, from the Reef not a seal fell by the way or showed signs of dangerous exhaustion. Many were plainly fatigued by the journey, and when allowed to rest sprawled out panting on the ground. But after resting, when the drive was ready to move on, they were ready and able to go with it. THE FUR SEAL NOT ILL ADAPTED TO LAND TRAVEL. The fur seal’s only difficulty in land traveling is the inconvenience occasioned by its thick blanket of blubber. In the water and in a moist cool atmosphere this does not trouble it. But under the action of dry hot air it experiences great difficulty in making the least exertion. Combined with all this is the fact that the great oar-like feet of the seal make it clumsy, and undoubtedly its muscles become tired quickly under the unwonted exercise of walking instead of swimming. When a seal becomes exhausted and is unable to continue the journey it is killed on the spot. This is not because the animal is necessarily permanently injured, If 132 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. left to recover it would doubtless make its way to the sea. But to save time and avoid possible loss of the skin the animal is at once killed and skinned, the pelt being brought in by the drivers. These skins are called ‘‘road” skins and the carcasses left to be eaten by the foxes soon become the “road skeletons” of which so much has been said. THE ‘“CARCASS-STREWN” DRIVEWAYS. So much had been said about the carcass-strewn driveways that it seemed worth while to verify or disprove the matter by personal observation. Accordingly, after the killing season of 1896 was over, each and every one of the driveways of St. Paul Island were traversed and closely inspected. Two skeletons were found on the Reef; two others were found in the course of a small food drive, brought over from Lukanin to the salt house at the foot of the cove. This laiter drive was evidently carelessly made, as its small size and the short distance made any casualties unnecessary. The deaths on Reef driveway each occurred on separate drives, and neither occurred on the drive witnessed on July 15. On none of the other driveways were skeletons found. Scattered bones were found here and there, but these were common to all parts of the islands in the vicinity of killing grounds, having been carried away by the foxes. Four deaths are therefore known to have occurred on the drives of St. Paul Island during the season of 1896, which aggregated 24,000 animals killed, besides many driven up but rejected as of unsuitable age. It is safe to say that in the handling of no similar body of animals, of no matter what kind, would a smaller percentage of deaths by accident occur. Moreover in the few cases involved the animals were at once relieved from suffering, aud their skins were saved. FATALITIES ON THE DRIVES. During the season of 1897 a much. greater proportion of accidents occurred on the drives, the number of seals dying probably reaching a total of 25 out of about 20,000. This was due in large measure to the unfavorable weather of this season, At times the sun came out warm and occasioned considerable suffering among the animals driven. In the books of the islands is kept a record of the skins of animals dying on the drives. The list is a small one. Of the 21,000 seals killed on the two islands in the year 1890, only 11 are recorded as dying by the wayside. This moreover is the year and the driving on which Mr. Elliott has based his theory of the evil ettects of overdriving. INJURIES TO BACHELORS COULD NOT AFFECT THE HERD. But even if the young males were driven to death on the driveways it would not aftect the herd of fur seals any more than the slaughter of steers would affect a herd of cattle. It would be cruel and inhuman to do it, but the responsibility would rest with the person doing the driving, and the evil effect would end with the life of the animal so tortured. If the animal as a result of the ordeal of driving goes back weakened in physical strength and vigor, it either recovers from such injury or dies, if not at once, then in the next migration. No seal physically injured in any serious manner survives the harsh sifting process of the northern winter, which sends back only those perfect in every way and fit to survive. We may therefore assume that if a seal returns to the hauling grounds the next spring, he has fully recovered and is physically able to repeat his experiences. DRIVING NOT A FACTOR IN THE DECLINE. 133 THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF SEXUAL INJURY. There remains, then, but one further point, namely, the possibility of the male seal becoming sexually injured as a result of driving while still retaining his physical vigor. The organs of generation in the male fur seal are earried like those of the dog or similar animals, and owing to the peculiar character of the hind legs of the seal they appear to be in an exposed and dangerous position. It would seem as if the testes must come in actual contact with the ground when the animal is in motion. A hasty observation might lead to the supposition that to force an animal in this condition to travel several miles over rocks and stones would produce direct injury to these organs. Whether or not this is the source of Mr. Elliott’s theory of the impairment of the virility of the bulls through overdriving we do not know, but if this did not suggest the theory itis hard to understand what did. VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS OF THE MALES. The violent voluntary movements of the adult bulls on the rocky floors of their breeding grounds would be sufficient answer to this contention. No efforts required of the seals on the drives are any harder than those they undergo of their own accord. But without relying upon this, the investigations of the past two seasons show that the testes of the male seal are under direct control of the animal, and when he is in motion are drawn up into the body, where they are absolutely protected.' Thus there is no possibility for direct injury to the generative organs of the male from driving. DRIVING NOT A FACTOR IN THE DECLINE. Therefore, after a full consideration of the subject of driving in all its bearings, we are inevitably brought to the conclusion that it is not and has not been a factor in the decline of the herd. It would be possible under thoughtless or unfeeling management to make the operation the source of great physical suffering to the animals concerned, and the driving should be, as it evidently is, always under humane ana intelligent supervision. The interests of the herd, however, are not concerned in the presence or absence of such care. The treatment of the bachelors on the drives and killing grounds of St. Paul Island no more affects the breeding rookeries than would inhuman treatment of horses on the street-car lines of San Francisco affect the breeding herd of the Palo Alto stock farm. It is not necessary for us to consider certain alleged sources of injury to the herd through stampedes occasioned by fright on the rookeries or through raids by seal poachers. These and many other more or less imaginary causes of injury to the herd were used to support and strengthen the main contention of the British ease before the Paris Arbitration that land killing was the cause of decline. But these causes, if they ever actually existed, could produce only temporary results, as they were themselves necessarily temporary in their nature and action. The decline of the herd, to whatever it may be due, has been constant, and for it must be sought a permanent cause. 1 See observations in the Daily Journal under date of October 11 and 19, 1897. CHAPTER X. ALLEGED POSSIBLE CHANGE OF HABITS. MIGRATION TO COMMANDER ISLANDS. It may be worth while here to note certain supposed possible changes of habits on the part of the fur seals as a result of the interference of man. Much has been said at the Paris Tribunal and elsewhere regarding the danger of driving the seals from their haunts on the Pribilof Islands to seek other shores. There is no such possibility. It has been a tradition in the history of the fur seals that the Commander Islands were originally oceupied by seals which had abandoned the Pribilof Islands. This tradition has not the slighest foundation. Doubtless all came centuries ago from one parent stock, but as the two herds exist to-day they are distinct races or species and do not intermingle in any way. Notwithstanding this, it has within recent times been thought possible that under exceptional circumstances we might expect an exodus of seals from the Pribilof Islands to the Russian islands. Even so late as the present year it has been asserted that Pribilof seals were taken on the Asiatic side, the alleged cause of their going there being the fact that they had been branded on their native rookeries. These stories are all very absurd and rest upon no basis of fact or knowledge, but, in view of the persistency with which they have been urged, it will not be out of place to consider the habits of the animals in the light of such possible results. THE FIXED HABITS OF THE SEALS. The habits of the fur seal are strongly fixed. From the natural ruthless destruction of all seals in which the geographical instinct or the instincts of feeding and reproduction are defective results the extreme perfection of the few instincts which the animal possesses. The life processes of the fur seal are as perfect as clockwork, but its grade of intelligence is low. Its range of choice in action is very slight. It is a wonderful automaton, and the stress of the migrations will always keep it so. THE SEAL’S LOW INTELLIGENCE. By intellect or intelligence in this sense is meant the power to choose among different possible courses of action. External influences and internal impulses produce certain impressions on the nervous system of the animal. By the automatic instinet the response which follows is directly related to the cause, and there is no choice among responses. So much influence, so much rebound. By the operations of instinct each individual in given conditions will act just as any other individual will. Intellect, however, implies individuality. One animal will choose to do this, another that, adapting action to certain needs and circumstances. A fur seal will do what its ancestors have had to do to perfection. If he is forced to do anything else he is dazed and stupid. 134 EFFECTS OF CONTACT WITH MAN. 135 As a result of all this the habits of the fur seal are fixed and immutable. No better illustration of this can be cited than the fact that after having been driven from their hauling ground, culled over, and subjected to the excitement of the killing grounds, bachelors have been known to return quietly and take up their places on these same hauling grounds as if nothing had happened. During the past two seasons seals have been repeatedly watched as they were released from the killing ground at the village, swim away directly through Zoltoi Bay, round Reef Point, and haul out on the hauling ground of Reef rookery from which they had been driven perhaps three hours before. And this thing goes on throughout the season and has been going on for half a century. The seals have no remembrance of past events. Once in the water they are solely governed by the instinct which leads them to haul out at the particular point where they are accustomed to rest. That they have been so recently disturbed there is merely an incident of which they remember nothing. CONTACT WITH MAN HAS HAD NO EFFECT. The fur seals on the Pribilof Islands have been constantly in contact with men during more than a century. At times, in its early history, the herd has come near annihilation as a result of man’s rapacity and improvidence. But neither this nor the more systematic and reasonable treatment which has been accorded them in recent years has affected in the least the habits of the animals. So far as we know, the fur seals of a century and a half ago did exactly what their descendants of to-day are doing. There is nothing in present conditions nor in the conditions of the past to warrant the assumption that in the future they will cease to do the same thing. At the approach of winter they depart on their migrations. With the returning spring they unfailingly arrive class by class and go through the routine of their daily life. There is no evidence that any phase of their life activity has changed since man found them. None have been found to seek other shores. It is probably not possible for man to drive them from their breeding haunts. Their rookeries are their home, and to them they will return so long as they live. ALTERATION OF CONDITIONS. Some slight alteration in the conditions of life among the fur seals have neces- sarily resulted from the interference of man. Land killing has lessened the number of bulls, reducing their turbulence. In the natural state of the animals, when the adult males were practically equal in number to the females the fighting among them must have been something terrific. To-day, when the adult bulls are only about one-thirtieth of the number of females, the amount of fighting indulged in is sufficient to show that the male fur seal has lost none of his belligerent qualities. THE BACHELORS OF BERING ISLAND. From the excessively close killing of the males on the Russian islands, a curious result has been brought about. On North rookery of Bering Island, for a number of years, every male that could be found had been killed. As a result, there were in 1895 not more than 6 adult bulls to a herd of about 1,000 breeding females. On this rookery the bachelors were found to occupy places among the breeding seals instead of hauling by themselves, as under normal conditions. In this, however, we are not to assume a change of habit. It is the instinct of the male to seek the breeding 136 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. ground. On his return as a yearling force of habit draws him there. As he grows older sexual instinct exerts its influence. Eventually, if he is not killed, he arrives at the age when his strength enables him to win a place and rule a harem of his own, It may therefore be said that the natural habit of the bachelor is to get on the breeding ground or as near it as possible, the fear of the bull alone keeping him away. And he has good reason to stand in dread of the harem master. At the clese of the breeding season, as soon as the old males go away to feed, the bachelors scatter over the rookeries and enjoy their new found freedom until the bulls return. If the bulls were allowed to increase on Bering Island, they would certainly drive out the bachelors and restore the normal conditions. ARBITRARY SELECTION OF MALES. There is not the slightest evidence that the race of fur seals as a whole has been in any way affected by the arbitrary selection of males for killing. Only strong, vigorous males can maintain themselves on the rookeries, and those allowed to live are neither more nor less vigorous than the others would have been. Lffects resulting from variations in the character of the breeding males can not be great, and would not, if they existed, make their appearances for many generations, perhaps not for centuries. Careful supervision might possibly make effective artificial selection of males, and such experiments, whether leading to practical results or not, are worth trying. But whatever may be done in the future, it is certain that the character of the herd has not been changed by the action of man in removing its superfluous male life. It must be remembered, in this connection, that a strong selective influence is exercised by the migrations in the sea. Only the vigorous members of the herd survive the experience of winter. No decrepit individuals have been known to come back in the spring. The rough sea of the north tells no tales, and it sends back to the islands only those fit to survive. THE EFFECT OF DECLINE. The decline which the fur-seal herd has suffered within the past decade has so diminished its stock of breeding females that the rookeries have contracted in area and at the same time become more sparsely populated. The harems are more isolated and distinct. The bulls have more room and are farther removed from their neighbors or the idle bulls. These alterations, however, represent mere adaptation to changing conditions and are not indication of changes in the habits of life. THE POSSIBILITY OF DRIVING THE SEALS ELSEWHERE. Most of the dire evils charged to man’s interference are vague and intangible. Before the Paris Tribunal much was urged by the British representatives about the danger of the methods of land killing driving the seals to seek other breeding haunts. But no proof was adduced of such result. Perhaps the best illustration of this class of vague possibilities is found in Mr, Elliott’s monograph.! The subject of how best to manage the fur-seal islands had been under discussion. In objection to the plan of the Government itself controlling the taking and selling of the seal skins Mr. Elliott, assuming that such a course would involve the sailing of ! Seal Islands of Alaska, 1881, p. 27. ABANDONMENT OF SPILKI ROOKERY. 137 “a thousand ships to be present at the sale,” exclaims that “the rattling of their anchor chains and the scraping of their keels on the beaches of the two little islands would alone drive every seal away and over to the Russian grounds in a remarkably short space of time.” The quality of seamanship implied in the second feature of this dire calamity is a fair indication of the-value of the prophecy as a whole. THE ABANDONMENT OF SPILKI ROOKERY. There are, however, a few of the alleged injurious effects of contact with man which can be located and considered. One of these is the abandonment of the small breeding ground formerly occupied by seals under the cliffs behind St. Paul village. This breeding ground, though ont of sight of the village, is very close to it. The claim is made by Mr. Elliott that the children and idlers from the village, by playing with the fur-seal pups and teasing them, gradually brought about the abandonment of the rookery. The abandonment of Spilki was gradual and finally culminated in 1886. The old bulls came and took up their places, but finding no cows they withdrew. In 1872-1874 Mr. Elliott reports this breeding ground, in common with all the others, in good condition and full of seals. In 1890 he found it deserted. His conclusion was that the seals, under the annoyance of the natives, had withdrawn elsewhere. THE PRESENCE OF THE VILLAGE NOT THE CAUSE. It is sufficient answer to this theory to say that the village of St. Paul has existed on its present site, and consequently in the same proximity to Spilki rookery, ever since 1524. For fifty years, therefore, according to Mr. Elliott’s own testimony, no ill effects on the seals had been produced by the presence of the villagers. MORE EXPOSED CONDITION OF LAGOON ROOKERY. In further opposition of this theory we may mention the example of Lagoon rookery, which lies just across the little cove from Spilki. It is in plain sight of the village and but little farther away from it. All the traffic of loading and unloading the ships passes before it. Moreover, this rookery existed undisturbed for years and years with the operations of the great cominon killing ground of the island going on within plain sight of its inmates and only a few yards away. For atime all the seals on the island of St. Paul were slaughtered on the flat beside the narrow channel of water, about one hundred feet in width, separating Lagoon rookery from the killing ground. No clearer proof could possibly be asked than the example this rookery shows, of the utter disregard for the presence and actions of man manifested by the fur seal. THE REAL CAUSE OF THE ABANDONMENT. When we come to seek a more rational cause for the abandonment of Spilki rookery, it is not hard to find. The rookery was but a small one at best, as the ground it occupied was limited. Mr. Elliott ascribed to it in 1872-1874 about 275 harems and about 4,000 breeding cows. We know that asa matter of fact this estimate is largely exaggerated. The log of St. Paul Island shows that in 1879 its breeding families numbered 29. There was at that time no hint given of abandonment or unusual diminution of the rookery. With the decline of the herd, which began a few years later, and may have been begun earlier, this rookery suffered diminution with the 138 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. others. In 1890 Mr. Elliott found that the herd on St. Paul had diminished to about one-fourth. A proportionate reduction for Spilki would have diminished it to less than a dozen families. To one who understands the gregarious nature of the fur seal there is no surprise excited by the abandonment of so small a rookery as this. The conclusion is inevi- table that when reduced to a mere handful of harems, the animals moved over to the larger Lagoon breeding ground across the cove. ORIGIN OF LAGOON AND SPILKI. We do not know which of these two rookeries was first established, but it is reasonable to suppose that the one originated as an overtlow of the other, as both are limited in extent. As the rocky spit on which Lagoon rookery is established appears to be of recent formation, it may be that Spilki was the original breeding ground. But in any case the simple explanation of the abandonment of Spilki is found in its small size originally, the known fact of decrease in the herd, and the gregarious instinct of the animals. When the remnant became too small to exist as a unit, its individuals moved over to the Lagoon, to be with the crowd. THE ABANDONMENT OF MARUNICHEN. In further support of this, we may cite the only other example of absolute abandon- ment of breeding territory on the islands. On the north shore of St. Paul formerly existed a small rookery which has long since disappeared. [Even the oldest inhabitant (Kerick Artimanof) merely remembers it was talked of in his childhood. His expla- nation that it was a small rookery and never looked upon as important gives the key to the situation. Its breeding seals abandoned their isolated position to be with the crowds on the shores of Northeast Point or Zapadni. Interference on the part of man can not be offered as a reason for its abandonment, for there is no more isolated and inaccessible place on the island. ELLIOTT’S THEORY FOR SIVUTCH ROOKERY. In his 1890 report Mr. Elliott explains the presence of a breeding rookery on Sivutch Rock by saying that the seals had been so harassed by the severe methods of driving employed on Reef rookery that they had sought on its surface a place where they might rest in peace. He says that prior to the beginning of the severe driving in 1882 the seals had instinctively avoided this place because of its exposed position and the probable destruction of the young by the storms which sweep over it. In short, he assumes a few seals had chosen to waive the instinct of self-preservation and to locate themselves in a dangerous position simply because of temporary annoyance. We have already spoken of the strong instinct of the fur seal and its lack of reasoning powers. Such an explanation as this is wholly inconsistent with both. If the animal possessed any such powers of discrimination as here assumed, there would never be a second drive made from any hauling ground on the islands. SIVUTCH OVERLOOKED IN 1872-1874. We are inclined to believe that Mr. Elliott in 1872-1874 simply overlooked the presence of this rookery. He says nothing about it in his earlier report. In 1890 he NOTIONS REGARDING THE SEALS. 13 says it did not exist then at the earlier date.!. Inspection of this rock on several occasions during the seasons of 1896 and 1897 shows that it has probably always been occupied as a breeding ground. It is certainly well adapted as such. It is not wind swept or dangerous to breeding seals. The high ridge of Reef peninsula protects it from the northern and western storms, while Otter Island breaks the force of the storms from the southwest. Furthermore the drowning of pups by storms is one of the rarests of accidents. The occurrence of a breeding ground on Sivutch Rock is perfectly natural. The ground is adapted for rookery purposes. It is within a few hundred yards of the shores of Reef rookery, and lies directly in the line followed by the seals in approaching it. There is no need of seeking a more complex explanation. It would be a matter of greater surprise if it did not contain a rookery. THE NOTIONS OF THE ALEUTS. Most of the absurd notions current regarding the seals have their origin in the minds of the Aleuts themselves. At least they possess such notions now, though originally they may have adopted them from the earlier restrictions which were once in vogue on the Pribilof Islands, and some of which are still enforced on the Com- mander Islands. Some of these rules are the following: The prohibition of the use of tobacco on the rookeries, of the wearing of hobnailed shoes, or of the lighting of fires when the wind was in such a direction as to carry the smoke into the vicinity of a rookery. The Aleuts may be excused for their beliefs. Their training and experience is limited. They have had nothing to do with domestic animals, and have never had opportunity to test the theories they hold regarding the seals. It was plainly the belief of these people that direful results would follow our work of the past two seasons on the islands. One intelligent native declared that the scarcity of the seals was due to the tramping of investigators about the rookeries in recent years. Another complacently declared that the rookeries were all right, because the old bulls came back regularly and in large numbers. THESE NOTIONS SHARED BY GOVERNMENT AGENTS. That the fears of the natives have been shared in to a certain extent, at least, in the past and are still held by the agents in charge of the islands, is evident. Thus, we find recorded in the Jog of St. Paul Island, under date of June 11, 1891, the opinion that the “constant and persistent running over the rookeries of Elliott last year at this time may be charged with a large part of the falling off of seals driven.” Again, under date of November 11, 1895, the opinion is recorded that the ‘daily scientific and photographic investigations” of the summer have demoralized the rookeries. During the season of 1897 serious objections were made to the experiments in electrical branding as conducted in the vicinity of the rookeries because of supposed injurious effects which might result from the noise of the gasoline engine, yet the animals themselves paid not the slightest attention to the engines or to the branding operations. Most of them have not even yet noted the existence of man. 1 See extract from log of St. Panl, Pt. II, under date of August 18, when Captain Bryant reports many seals hauled ont there. 140 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. As aresult of this spirit which has pervaded the management of the rookeries the policy of the past has been virtually to keep the fur seal herd in a wild state, it being shut out from all sight or contact with man except in so far as it was necessary to disturb it to secure the product of the herd. THE POLICY OF SECLUSION DETRIMENTAL. This mistaken policy bore its fruit. From the time of Mr. Elliott’s investigation in 1872-1874 until the collapse of the herd in 1890 the history of the rookeries is a blank, so far as any real knowledge is concerned. What was needed was a thorough and systematic study each year of the condition of the breeding herd. It is safe to say that had this been done, the error, falsehood, and confusion which so effectually stifled the truth before the Paris Tribunal of Arbitration, and caused that bewildered court to legalize pelagic sealing, would not have been possible. Under this policy of seclusion the herd melted away to one-half of its size before it was known that any danger threatened it. Year by year thousands of the young (lied and rotted on the rookeries as the result of the ravages of a dangerous parasite, which should have been recognized and measures taken, if possible, to suppress it. Others of the young died of starvation on the rookeries, proclaiming not only the fact but the cause of the decline of the herd, but they were unnoticed. Had the fur-seal herd been treated as any valuable herd of animals are and should be treated, its habits, needs, possibilities, and limitations studied from year to year from the beginning, it is safe to say that there would now be no fur-seal question, For the difficu'ties of the situation to-day the policy which deferred to these groundless fears of what might result from examination and disturbance of the animals is in a measure, at least, responsible. INTELLIGENT INSPECTION NOT WANTON INVASION. It is, of course, not contended that the precautions taken against wanton invasion of the rookeries by the natives and by casual visitors are not wise and necessary. They should never be wanting, but they should never include or influence the officers in charge of the herd. We make a clear distinction between mere disturbance and intelligent inspection and supervision. It is possible to visit the rookeries daily and study them closely, to count their families and to photograph them, without disturbing the breeding seals in the least. After the breeding season is over and the harems have broken up, the rookeries can be entered, the animals driven off, and their grounds inspected without harm. INSPECTION NOT HARMFUL. In the work of the past two seasons it was assumed that the herd could be inspected and disturbed to any extent necessary. Whatever would throw light on its condition was unhesitatingly carried out. The breeding grounds were under constant inspection from the beginning to the end of the breeding season and until almost the departure of the animals from the islands in the fall. On all the rookeries the seals were twice driven off into the sea. They returned immediately to their places and resumed their usual routine as if never disturbed. On the rookeries most frequently visited the animals came apparently to ignore our inspection. They were manifestly less troubled by our presence than on rookeries seldom visited. EFFECTS OF CONTACT WITH MAN. 141 RELATIONS OF MAN HAVE NOT AFFECTED SEALS. In short, our experience leads us to believe that not only has contact with maw produced no injurious effect on the herd, but, on the contrary, more intimate and constant contact under intelligent direction would tend to render the seals more tractable, and certainly open the way to the improvement of their condition. It will never be possible to house and feed the fur seals, but their breeding grounds can be drained of the filth which now breeds death to the young. These breeding grounds can be extended and improved. An exact enumeration of their number can be made. The males to serve the breeding grounds can be selected and more closely limited, thus obviating loss of revenue on the one hand and injury to the herd on the other. In other words, much if not all that can be done with other animals is possible with the fur seal. To sum up this matter of the relations of man to the animals on the islands: We find that the killing of males as carried on, at least since the islands were transferred to the United States, has not been so great as to endanger the breeding stock; that the methods of handling the seals on the drives and killing grounds has not been such as to permanently injure those surviving them. In a word, the interference and operations of man have in no way contributed to alteration of the life habits of the fur seal and are in no way responsible for its decline and threatened extermination. CHAPTER XI. PELAGIC SEALING, OR KILLING AT SEA. THE NATURE OF PELAGIC SEALING. We may now pass to a consideration of the second way in which man has come in contact with the fur seals, namely, by hunting and killing them at sea. Pelagic sealing, as it is called, means the taking of seals at sea, either on their migrations or on their food excursions to and from their breeding grounds. It is necessarily indiscrim- inate in its character, animals of both sexes and every age and condition being taken. The animals are killed both by the spear and with firearms. THE HUNTING OF THE INDIANS. From the earliest times the natives in the vicinity of Cape Flattery and Vancouver Island have been accustomed to hunt the fur seal in their dugout canoes, going out from shore for this purpose a distance of 10 to 30 miles. It is probable that this hunting has existed as long as Indians have occupied these regions and fur seals have annually passed their shores. The taking of the fur seals was at first doubtless asso- ciated with the hunting of the sea otter, and it has been suggested that the flesh of the seal rather than its fur was the original object of its capture. With the decline of the sea otter and the various land furs, the skin of the fur seal came to have a value and found its way into the markets through the hands of the traders. In time the taking of fur seals became the object of special attention, and the plan was developed of transporting the Indians and their canoes to the sealing grounds by means of sailing vessels, thus enabling them to carry on their operations consecutively and over a wider area. THE INTRODUCTION OF VESSELS. This first use of vessels in hunting the fur seals dates from about the year 1872, and for several years the number employed was small, probably not exceeding five or six before 1879. By their means the hunters were able to reach a distance of from 75 to 100 miles from shore and to follow the herd on its northward journey to the breeding grounds. From 1879 onward the number of vessels engaged in pelagic sealing increased rapidly. In 1880 the fleet numbered 16 vessels, making another bound to 34 vessels in 1586, this second increase being due to the opening up of Bering Sea in 1883,' when the schooner City of San Diego took a catch of between 2,000 and 3,000 skins there. THE EXPANSION OF THE INDUSTRY. After the introduction of vessels there was a steady expausion of the territory covered by sealing operations. The fleet gradually began to go south of Cape Flattery ' Since this was written there has come into the possession of Mr. Charles H. Townsend the log of the schooner San Diego (often confused with the City of San Diego, another vessel), which shows that she took a catch of seals in Bering Sea in 1880. See Mr. Townsend’s paper on Pelagic Sealing, in Part III. 142 METHODS OF PELAGIC SEALING. 143 to meet the herd before it reached that point, and the hunters followed its course from the mouth of the Columbia River to the passes of the Aleutian Islands, finally entering Bering Sea, and continuing their operations on the summer feeding grounds of the animals. THE USE OF FIREARMS. Before the year 1886 Indian hunters were used exclusively, and the primitive methods of the spear and the canoe were employed. But with the great increase of the fleet it was necessary to employ white hunters, and as these could not compete with the Indians in the use of the spear, firearms were introduced, the rifle first, and afterwards the shotgun loaded with buckshot. The use of the rifle resulted in a great loss by sinking of the seals killed. The shotgun proved more eftective, though many seals were still lost, especially at first, before the hunters had learned to avoid piercing the lungs. The development of pelagic sealing in Bering Sea after 1886 was a steady growth, though the number of vessels fluctuated on account of seizures by the American authorities. In 1891 the fleet numbered 115 vessels. THE MODUS VIVENDI. In this year a modus vivendi was declared, closing the waters of Bering Sea to pelagic sealing. The measure was put into force too late in the season of 1891 to prevent the fleet from entering upon its work. It had, therefore, at best only a deterrent effect. As a result of being warned out of the sea, certain vessels crossed over to the Asiatic side and obtained seals there. On this account, notwithstanding the fact that the modus vivendi was renewed in 1892 and made effective, the pelagic fleet in that year was increased to 122 vessels. More vessels engaged in sealing on the Asiatic side, and in 1893, still under the modus vivendi, the bulk of the sealing was transferred to the Commander herd, 66,000 skins in all being taken from Asiatic waters. THE REGULATIONS OF THE PARIS AWARD. Bering Sea was opened again in 1894 under the regulations of the Paris Tribunal and the largest catch ever made in these waters was taken. Since this date sealing has continued under certain limitations, the chief of which are a closed zone of 60 miles about the islands and a closed season from the 1st of May to the Ist of August. The decline in the herd has effected a decline in pelagic sealing itself. During the season of 1897 less than half the vessels engaged in sealing in 1896 entered the sea and the catch from all sources for that season was but little more than one-half. From a fleet of nearly 100 vessels in 1894 the sealing vessels have diminished to less than 30 in 1897. THE SEALING VESSELS. The vessels comprising the pelagic fleet are sailing schooners ranging in size from 25 to 125 tons burden. Each vessel carries a crew of from ten to fifty men with from half a dozen to twenty boats or canoes. Boats are used where white hunters are employed. The Indians use their own canoes. Each boat is manned by three men, two hunters, armed with rifles or shotguns or both, and a rower to manage the boat. The Indians hunt with two men in a canoe, one a steerer to manage the craft and the other the hunter to throw the spear. 144 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. METHODS OF SEALING. When the schooner comes into sealing territory and the weather is favorable, her boats or canoes are lowered and sent in search of seals. They go to the windward and at slightly different angles; the vessel follows under slow sail trying to keep in sight of the boats. Night or the approach of bad weather drives in the boats with their catch of the day whatever it may be. THE SEALS AS FOUND. Seals at sea are designated in three different classes. When found in motion they are called “travelers.” When at rest they are called “sleepers.” Sometimes resting seals are awake, but listlessly floating on the water, and from the movement of their flippers they are said to be “finning.” METHODS OF CAPTURE. THE SPEAR. In favorable weather seals are found sleeping between the hours from 9 o’clock in the morning until 5 or 6 in theevening. In stormy weather the seals can not rest and so sleep more soundly in the first good weather after a storm. Sleeping seals are as a rule taken with the spear. Mr. A. B. Alexander has given us the following graphic account of the operation: ! At the end of an hour we saw our first seal about a quarter of a mile ahead. The canoe was kept off under its lee, the sail taken in, and everything put in readiness for action. Cautiously we paddled toward the prey, care being taken not to make the slightest noise. We approached within about 40 feet when the seal began to grow restless, as if it was dreaming of danger. The hunter stood braced, spear in hand, and with true aim he hurled it with all his force at the sleeping object. In an instant the scene of repose was changed into one of intense excitement and pain. Witha jump the seal instantly disappeared below the surface, but not to escape, for when once a spear becomes fastened to an object it seldom pulls out. Soon it came up to breathe and renew its desperate struggle for liberty. It stood in the water facing us, with its body half exposed as if taking in the situation, and with a kind of low piteous growl, as though it realized its end was near, it renewed the contest. It fought madly, diving, jumping, and swimming with great speed, first in one direction, then in another, sometimes on one side of the canoe and then on the other, the Indian all the time holding the spear rope, trying to draw the seal near the canoe so as to strike it on the head with the killing club. In its frantic efforts to escape, it bit at the line several times, but soon abandoned the idea of gaining its freedom in such a manner and again resorted to jumping and diving. The loss of blood soon caused it to grow weak, and after a fight, which lasted perhaps five minutes, it ceased to struggle altogether and was hauled to the side of the canoe and dispatched with the club, THE SHOOTING OF SEALS. Traveling seals are taken by shooting. Sleeping seals are of course shot also, but with these animals the spear is more effective since they are frequently found sleeping in groups. ‘To shoot into one of these groups means the taking of but one animal, and the report startles all the other seals in the vicinity. With the spear but little noise is made. Where the traveling seal is jumping clear of the water, “breaching,” as it is called, the rifle is used, as the shot must be made at longer range. Where the seal is within close range or can be approached, as when it is asleep, the shotgun discharging buck- shot is used. The aim is for the head or breast of the animal. ! Proc. Fur Seal Arb., Vol. 9, p. 346. SHOTGUN AND SPEAR. 145 The following description of the methods of taking seals is given by Lieutenant Quinan,' of the revenue-cutter Coricin, in relating his experience in a canoe with Indian hunters off Sitka Sound, May 1, 1892. We had pulled several miles without seeing anything, when suddenly the steersman gave the canoe a shake and pointed in silence to a seal 75 yards distant. *~ * * The bowman took in his oars and substituted the paddle, and the canve glided noiselessly toward the unconscions seal. When within 40 yards of it the after paddle alone was used and the bowman stood ready with the shotgun. * * * During all this time not a word was spoken, and so noiselessly did the canoe glide that we got within 10 yards of it and the hunter firec, pouring a charge of buckshot into its breast. The seal, to my great astonishment, was not killed, but gave us a surprised look, and instantly dived out of sight. It rose again 50 yards off, gave us another look, and asecond time disappeared. ‘Then followed a chase to windward, the Indians dexterously applying their paddles in that direction. Three times it disappeared and reappeared before it was finally shot and captured. Even then it was necessary to use the club to killit. One hook with the gaff, a sudden pull, and the unfortunate seal was in the eanoe. LOSS RESULTING FROM SHOOTING, It is plain that by the method of shooting a certain percentage of loss results from the wounding of animals and also from the sinking of animals before they can be recovered. That many of the wounded animals escape is shown by the consid- erable number of bachelors on the hauling grounds which carry buckshot in their bodies. At each killing the natives gather up a collection of slugs. That other animals escape only to die later on may reasonably be inferred. In the summer of 1896 several seals wounded by shooting were known to die after coming ashore on the rookeries.”. What the percentage of loss may be which thus results can not be determined. The hunters themselves can not tell what effect their shots produce, where the animal is not recovered. It may escape unhurt, may have been slightly wounded and thus likely to recover, or so seriously injured as to cause it to give up later on and die. The greatest loss probably results from the use of the rifle. Where the range is considerable and the animal is killed instantly it sinks out of reach before the boat can get it. With the shotgun the same result is likely to occur, but the range being shorter not so many animals are lost. Of late years the loss of shot seals has been greatly diminished, because it has been found that when the animal is shot in the head or neck and the lungs left full of air the body does not sink so rapidly. THE SPEAR LEAST WASTEFUL. With the spear the loss must be very slight. Where the animal escapes by the tearing out of the spearhead it doubtless recovers, but these instances are rare. That some animals escape through the breaking of the line attached to the spear- head is shown by the number of these weapons picked up on the rookeries. Two spearheads with the lines attached were found fastened in the rocks on Zapadni rookery of St. Paul in 1896. The lines had become fast and the animals had torn themselves loose. During the past season a cow came ashore on St. Paul with a spearhead through her back which, while it did not kill her, left her crippled and useless. * ? Proc. Fur Seal Arb., vol. 9, p. 351. *See Daily Journal, Part II, date of July 25, 1896. *See Daily Journal, Part II, date of August 15, 1897. 15184——_10 146 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. Ot the two methods of killing the seals at sea the spear is the surest and results in the least waste. Both methods have their special fields, however, and the regulations under which pelagic sealing is now carried on, as if designed expressly for the pelagie sealer, recognizes them clearly. Thus, when the seals are on their inigrations and consequently alternately traveling and resting both firearms and spears are allowed. For the traveling seal the gun can be used; for the sleeping seal the spear. On the feeding grounds in Bering Sea only the spear is allowed. There the animals are found almost exclusively sleeping or feeding. The noise of the eun would be a positive disadvantage, as it would startle all the seals in the vicinity. From the point of view of the herd both methods are deadly, the difference being merely one of degree. NORTHWEST COAST SEALING. Pelagic sealing is carried on in two distinct areas and at two distinct seasons. While the seals are on their return migration along the American shore they are met by the pelagic fleet off the coast of California at about the latitude of Point Conception. From here northward to the vicinity of Middleton Island the herd is followed by the pelagie fleet. Formerly seals were also taken along the coast of the Alaskan peninsula to the passes by which they entered Bering Sea. At present the closed season begining in May shuts off this catch. BERING SEA SEALING. In Bering Sea sealing is carried on in the summer feeding grounds of the fur seals. These grounds are located from 100 to 200 miles distant from the islands and lie chiefly to the westward and southward in the deep water off the 100-fathom curve. They are frequented chietly by the female seals which leave the rookeries at regular intervals during the summer to feed, returning to nourish their offspring. It is not necessary here to go into greater detail regarding these matters nor to mention the sealing grounds of the Commander Island herd. These matters are all taken up in detail by Mr. Townsend in a special paper which appears elsewhere in Part II] of this report. THE PELAGIC CATCH. In the statistical appendix to the present volume will be found a detailed table of the pelagic catch from the various hunting grounds. From this table we may here give the following summary: Total pelagie catch in all waters, 1SGS-1897. Pribilof herd: Northiavest coast 2 3/2. 2 scenic ce aes aan eee eines aan eee ie ee ee ae eee 395, 880 SOLIN EBON oe oss 2b ie aie slewiczate eases wie es nar Dew mee Shere een oy ice 636, 788 Commander herd: Japan and Russian coasts --..:--. ..-.----------------=--- =-=-) 200,209 otal ore cree te mise are eee oe teeta ie ie eee Se eee ee 893, 047 EFFECT OF MODUS VIVENDI. 147 In addition to this total there are 95,000 skins which have been taken, but for which the definite locality of capture has not been determined, making a grand total of 988,047 animals, or approximately 1,000,000 seals, known to have been killed at sea from the combined Russian and American herds. THIS DOES NOT INCLUDE SEALS KILLED BUT LOST. The figures just given inelude only animals actually secured and whose skins were brought to market. No attempt has been made to form any estimaie of the number of animals which escaped to die of their wounds, or of those killed outright, whose bodies sank before they could be secured. The loss arising from these sources is considerable even at the present time, where firearms are used, and in the early days of their use it must have been very great. EARLY SEALING CONFINED TO PRIBILOF HERD. Until the year 1891 all pelagic sealing was confined to the Pribilof herd, and prior to the year 1883 all the seals were taken off the Northwest coast. After 1883 sealing in Bering Sea was added. In 1891 a modus vivendi was declared on June 15, designed to close Bering Sea.' This measure was renewed in the two succeeding years, pending the results of the Arbitration Tribunal. It may be remarked in this connection that the importance of this modus vivendi of 1891-1893, in its relation to the herd, was-not great. Its promulgation in 1891 was too late to make it effective, as the fact that the herd lost 19,000 more seals at sea in that year than in 1890 abundantly shows. In 1892 it merely checked the increase of the catch, leaving it still 6,000 more than it was before the measure was put into effect. In 1895, when the catch fell to 30,000, which was but 10,000 less than the catch of 1890, the herd derived some benefit. Of course, if we take into account what the herd might have lost through the increase of the eateh in this period, the benefit to the herd was greater. But it was at best only a postponement of the loss, as in 1594 the catch rose immediately to 61,000—double that of 1893—and was in 1895 still 16,000 greater than the catch of 1890; its decline since that time has been due to the diminishing herd. THE SUSPENSION OF LAND KILLING. On the other hand the suspension of killing on land only released young males to grow up which are now, as idle and superfluous bulls, a menace to the rookeries. In the case of the pelagic sealers the measure only postponed the time of taking the seals, as the females which escape in one season are still avaiiable the next, while on land the young males released were irrevocably lost to the Government and the lessees, because before normal conditions were resumed they had taken on the wig of the half bull, and their skins became of no value. The suspension of land and sea killing, therefore, during the modus vivendi, was at best of very doubtful value. MODUS VIVENDI TRANSFERRED SEALING TO ASIATIC SIDE. The modus vivendi, however, had this effect: It influenced a certain number of sealing vessels to try their luck on the Asiatic side of the Pacific Ocean. These, in ‘See footnote to page 144 of this volume. 148 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. 1891, took a small catch of 8,000 seals from the Commander herd. In 1892, when the modus vivendi was renewed and made effective, a larger number of vessels crossed over at the close of the spring sealing off the Northwest Coast; and in 1893, Bering Sea being again closed, the greater part of the sealing was transferred to the Asiatic side. The growth of the catch from the Commander Island herd was very rapid. Beginning with 8,000 skins in 1891, it numbered 66,000 skins in 1893. THE DECLINE OF THE CATCH. During the period from 1868 to 1880 the pelagic catch was merely nominal, ranging from four to five thousand skins yearly. With the year 1881 it increased steadily until 1894, when the maximum was reached in a catch of 141,143 skins. Since that year it has rapidly declined to a total of about 39,900 skins in the season of 1897. The following table will make clear the fact of this decline: Pribilof Commander Year. herd. herd. | 1s0t 61, 838 79,305 | i Cree or Je 56, 291 37, 035 1ROG: ween genera 43, 917 24.191 190 7ho ae ote 24) 321 13, 801 UNFAVORABLE WEATHER NOT THE CAUSE OF DECLINE. The decline in the pelagic catch has been explained by the sealers as due to unfavorable weather! and ill luck in locating the animals rather than to any lack of seals. It is unnecessary here to discuss the matter at length. Reference to Mr. Townsend’s notes and tables of daily catches, published in Part III of this report, will show clearly enough that no marked difference has existed between the weather conditions of recent seasons and those of earlier ones. The real cause of the decline in the pelagic catch, of course, is the depleted condition of the herd. With a herd reduced to less than one-fifth its original size it could not be reasonably expected that the usual number of animals could be found at sea. PELAGIC KILLING AND LAND KILLING COMPARED. It will help us to arrive at a just appreciation of the relation of pelagic sealing to the history of the fur-seal herd if we compare its catch with that taken on the islands. In the following table we have this comparison fully set forth. There is given, in addition to the total number of males killed for all purposes, the date at which the quota was each year filled, the number of hauling grounds which it was necessary to drive from, and the number of drives required. These are taken from the records of the islands. The statistics of the pelagic catch are taken from the official data of the Treasury Department, which is given in full in Appendix I. ' Ber, Sea Quest., Dept. Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa, 1896, Venning, p. 16. STATISTICS OF LAND AND SEA KILLING. 149 Statistics regarding land and seu killing, 1871-1897. Date Hanling Number Year. quota grounds of Killed on | Killed filled.' driven.' drives.! land.? AGES 46 43 102, 970 43 30 108, 819 51 37 109, 177 61 41 110, 585 55 37 106, 460 } 36 30 94, 657 | 44 32 84, 310 54 35 109, 323 } 71 | 26 110, 411 78 38 105, 718 99 b4 105, 063 86 | 36 99, 812 81 39 79, 509 101 42 105, 434 106 63 105, 024 | 117 74 104, 521 101 66 105, 760 102 73 | 103, 304 110 74 | 102, 617 87 55 | 28, 059 (°) (6) 12, 040 8) (®) 7,511 (°) (°) 7, 396 5 £2 | ssseesose: sscd-ssess 16, 270 AI Rye ee ens bericcpesee 14, 846 July 27 31 21 30, 654 Aug. 7 42 27 19, 200 THE PERIOD FROM 1871-1882. For purposes of study we may divide this record into two sections, the first covering the period to and including 1882. During this time we find that the number of animals taken on land as well as at sea was each year relatively constant, the former being maintained at a maximum, the latter ata minimum. We find that from 1874 to the close of this period the requisite number of killable seals could be procured at such an early date as to clearly indicate that no difficulty was experienced in filling the quota. During the whole of this time the number of drives and hauling grounds driven from was uniform and normal. In short, all the evidence goes to show that the herd was in a state of practical equilibrium, neither increasing nor diminishing to any marked degree. The reduction of the number of animals killed on land in the last year of this period has already been discussed in its appropriate place. It has no significance here. THE GROWTH OF THE CATCH. It will be seen, however, in the record of pelagic sealing that from a normal catch of slightly over 5,000, covering a period of eight years, it advanced to 5,000 in 1880 and to 15,000 the closing year of the period. This latter fact is significant. RELATION OF GAINS AND LOSSES IN THE HERD. We have already shown that the condition of the fur-seal herd is determined by the relation of its gains and losses. Its losses are of two kinds, natural and artificial. We may class as natural those losses arising from old age, accidents of the sea, or the 150 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. struggles on the rookeries. The sole artificial loss to which the herd has been sub- jected is that resulting from pelagic sealing. We may assume that the natural losses of the herd were in these early days, as now, constant and uniform. With the small added loss resulting from pelagic sealing they balanced the gain of the herd due to the influx of young breeders. It may be that the loss entailed by the pelagic catch was the final determining check on the herd’s increase. As we have seen, in the last year of the period we are considering, this pelagic catch was trebled. PERIOD SUBSEQUENT TO 1882. If now we take into consideration the period subsequent to 1882 we find that this increase in the pelagic catch was maintained and steadily augmented until at its maximum in the year 1894 it exceeded by twelve times the normal size of the catch in the former period of equilibrium. On the other hand, we find the land catch which was maintained at its normal rate until the year 1889, suddenly fell to one-fifth its size in 1890, and has remained there since. EXPANSION OF PELAGIC, DECREASE OF LAND SEALING. From a study of these statistics two important facts are made clear: First, that there has been since 1880 an enormons expansion of pelagic sealing; second, that there has been in the same period a marked decrease in the product of land sealing. From what we know of the nature of the two industries and their effect on the herd we are prepared to find these two facts related to each other as cause and effect. We need not repeat here the proof that land killing has had nothing to do with the decline of the herd. It must be pointed out, however, that land killing is strictly dependent upon the condition of the breeding herd. The quota of any given year represents the male animals which survive to the age of three years from a given birthrate. As the quota of males is, so will be the increment of young breeders which the herd receives. A diminished quota therefore means a diminished gain to the breeding herd for the same year. CAUSE OF DECREASE TO BE SOUGHT IN THE BREEDING HERD. Naturally, the cause of any diminution in the supply of killable seals must be sought for in the condition of the breeding herd three years previous. From this fact it becomes apparent that for the cause of the enormous reduction in the bachelor herd seen in the quota of 1890 we must look back to the year 1887, and inasmuch as the decline in the bachelor herd was great and alarming in 1890, the depletion of the breeding herd in 1887, when the seals for this quota were born, must have been equally great and striking. The date of the decline in the herd must, therefore, fall prior to the year 1887. From what has been said about the relation of the bachelor herd to the breeding herd it must also be plain that no serious diminution had occurred in the birth rate prior to 1882, else it would not have been possible to maintain, as was done until 1889, by any possible means the killing of 100,000 animals of no matter what age or size. THE BEGINNING OF THE DECLINE. We may therefore assume that the decrease in the breeding herd began some- where between 1880 and 1887. It is impossible to locate the exact date. We have EFFECTS OF PELAGIC KILLING. 151 assumed the years 1582-1885 as the approximate date, because in the latter year it was necessary to greatly increase the number of drives and the number of hauling grounds driven from to get the regular quota. This will be apparent from an inspec- tion of the preceding table. The cause of this scarcity of killable seals must neces- sarily date back three years, or to 1882. Moreover, within this period occurred the extension of the operations of pelagic sealing into Bering Sea. Again, in the year 1882, the pelagic catch was trebled in size and thereafter continued to increase, while from the steady retardation of the date at which the quota could be filled and the increased number of drives necessary, the bachelor herd as steadily declined. PELAGIC SEALING AS A CHECK FROM 1871-1880. During the long period from 1871 to 1880, we may infer that the pelagic catch had no influence on the herd except perhaps with other causes to neutralize possible increase. With the rise of the catch to 15,000 in 1882, we may assume that the strain was too great and that the equilibrium was broken. The further increase to 24,000 in 1885 intensified the decline, and when in 1887 the pelagic catch reached 46,000 it became serious. In estimating the influence of the pelagic catch in these early days it must always be borne in mind that the catch as recorded is only a part of the loss which the herd sustained through pelagic sealing. It will never be possible to estimate the loss, due to the killing of animals which were not recovered, but that it was great we have no reason to doubt, and it must not be left out of the account. IRREGULAR QUOTA SINCE 1890. Since the year 1890 the results of land killing can not be taken as an index of the condition of the herd from year to year. In the years 1891-1893 land killing was arbitrarily contracted under the modus vivendi. The quotas of 1894 and 1895 were influenced by the changed methods of driving practiced in these years, and by the heavy pelagic catches of 1890 and 1891 resulting in the starvation of pups in these years. The quotas of 1896 and 1897 have been in turn slightly influenced by the protection afforded by the modus vivendi, which reduced in a measure the pelagic catch of 1892 and 1893, thus saving pups from starvation. The results of the heavy pelagic catches of 1895 and 1896 have yet to show themselves in the coming quotas of 1898 and 1899. PELAGIC SEALING AND THE COMMANDER HERD. We may here, for the sake of illustration, compare similarly the land and sea catches from the Commander herd. Pelagic sealing began on this herd in 1891. As the fleet was a large one, its results haye been more rapid and disastrous than in connection with the Pribilof herd. The following are the comparative figures: Pelagic catch of Commander herd, 1891-1897. Sea Land RAY Sea Land Year. killing. killing killing. | killing. Year. 36, 815 37, 039 17,719 31, 244 24,191 13, 516 32, 786 13, 801 11, 335 152 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. THE INTERRELATION OF PELAGIC AND LAND CATCHES. The relation of the pelagic catch to the land catch is here well illustrated. The catch in 1891 was small. Its effect on the bachelor herd was slight and together with the larger catch of 1892 accounts for the reduction from 56,000 to 31,000 in the land catch. Bearing in mind the fact that the really important effect of the pelagic catch of any year is only seen in the herd of killable seals after three years, we are prepared to find the first marked reduction in 1895, and are not disappointed. The quota of 1895 is less than half the quota of 1891. Since 1894 the pelagic catch from the Commander herd has rapidly declined, showing how pelagic sealing has exhausted its own resources. Its catch of 1897 on the Asiatic side is about one-sixth the size of its cateh for 1894. In the case of the Pribilof herd the result has not been so striking. As against 61,838 seals taken in 1894 we have 24,321 taken in 1897. But the results of the modus vivendi, the closed zone and the closed season are seen in this herd. The Commander herd has had no modus vivendi or closed season, and the protected zone has been but one-half as great as that of the Pribilof herd. The example of the Commander herd strengthens the evidence in the case of the Pribilof. With the former, as with the latter, the decline of the herd and the expansion of pelagic sealing practically go together. If no other proof was available than what these figures adduce we must be forced to the conclusion that pelagic sealing has been the cause of the decline. CHAP IER Sen, THE EFFECT OF PELAGIC SEALING. PELAGIC SEALING INVOLVES THE KILLING OF FEMALES. In the foregoing discussion we have assumed for the time being that pelagic sealing has been the cause of the decline in the fur-seal herd. The relation of the land catch to the sea catch is such as to lead inevitably to this conclusion. But there remain other and better reasons for holding pelagic sealing responsible for the decline. As has been already shown, only males are killed on land; the females are not disturbed. On the other hand, at sea animals of every age and condition, and of both sexes, are taken. In the water it is impossible to distinguish the sexes, and all animals seen are killed if possible. On land the habits of the animals are such that the males can be readily separated and handled without disturbance to the females. PELAGIC SEALING AND THE SEALING OF THE SOUTH SEAS. With the above contrast between land and sea killing in mind, we may pause for a moment to consider the strange proposition put forward in the British contention before the Paris Tribunal, that ‘“‘the methods practiced on the Pribilof Islands and those practiced in the southern hemisphere” were parallel in results. This was in answer to the contention by the United States that pelagic sealing was essentially the same as the sealing which destroyed herds of the Antarctic. On the contrary, say the British commissioners in 1891, the history of the rookeries of the south seas proves incontestably that “excessive slaughter on shore in the entire absence of pelagic sealing results in commercial extermination.” ' The absence of pelagic sealing in the southern hemisphere has nothing to do with the matter. 1t would be absurd to expect pelagic sealing there when there was nothing to prevent the sealers from landing and directly invading the rookeries. It is safe to say that there would have been no pelagic sealing in the northern hemisphere had it been possible for any who might choose to do so to land and kill females on shore. METHODS OF SOUTHERN SEALING. In the case of the rookeries of the southern hemisphere, men armed with clubs or firearms were landed on the rookeries, who killed all the animals they could secure, making no distinctions as to sex, age, or condition. In a day or a week they returned to complete the work of destruction if it was not complete at the first trial. It must appear from a candid contrast of such slaughter that it has nothing in common with land killing on the Pribilof Islands beyond, perhaps, the fact that in both cases the killing is done on shore and with a club. ! Rep. of Brit. Comm., Fur Seal Arb., vol. 6, p. 217. 154 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS Suppose that a crew of 25 or 30 men were landed in July on Reet rookery of St. Paul; that these men entered the breeding grounds and slaughtered every animal they could reach, keeping up the operation day after day as new animals came ashore or until no more were found, returning the following season to pick up any remnant which might be left. This would be the method of slaughter in the southern hemisphere transferred to the northern. “INDISCRIMINATE,” NOT ‘ EXCESSIVE.” The trouble with the contention of the British commissioners lies in the use of “excessive” for “indiscriminate.” It was not the contention of the United States that the land killing of the south seas was identical in method with open-sea killing in the north, but rather that the results were identical. Both were indiscriminate killing, and, as a result, it was to be expected that the fate of the southern rookeries would overtake those of the north if such slaughter were continued. That the herds of the north have lasted longer than those of the south is simply the results of their protection on land. Were it possible for the pelagic sealers to land on the Pribilof and Commander islands, they could accomplish in one season what it has taken a dozen years to accomplish contending with the uncertainties of the sea. PREPONDERANCE OF FEMALES. Before the Paris Tribunal, and even subsequent to it, the claim has been made that land killing was excessive in its reduction of male life, and had been in large measure, if not wholly, responsible for the decline. We have already discussed the latter part of this contention and shown its untenable character. The fact, however, is freely admitted that the killing on land had greatly reduced the male life of the herd. The investigations of the past season, showing that about twenty-nine males out of thirty born are destined to be superfluous, indicate how this has been possible without affecting the herd. Since the islands came into the possession of the United States nearly 3,000,000 male seals have been taken on land, while no females whatever have been killed. The point we wish to make clear is, that with such an abstraction of male life it naturally results that the herd as a whole under normal conditions must show a large excess of females. Notwithstanding this self-evident fact, it has been persistently contended by those interested in pelagic sealing that the pelagic catch contained no preponderance of females; that in fact the sexes as found and taken at sea were practically equal. THE SEALING CAPTAINS’ RECORD OF SEXES TAKEN. To illustrate this, we may say that under the regulations of the Paris award it was made obligatory on the captains of sealing vessels to keep a record of the sexes of all animals taken. It was manifestly absurd to suppose that men engaged in a business like pelagic sealing would take the trouble to report accurately facts which must injure their business. The result has been that whenever the sex returns haye been supplied by the sealers themselves the sexes have been reported so nearly equal that the proportion of females has on the average rarely exceeded 55 per cent. What we have said regarding the relation of land killing to the proportion of the sexes is sufficient proof of the falsity of these returns. But we also note that during the THE SEX OF PELAGIC SKINS. 155 period covered by these returus by the sealers, showing an excess of no more than 5 per cent of females, it was possible to secure only 81,000 males on land, whereas 187,000 animals, males and females, were taken at sea. That 45 per cent of this latter number should have been males is simply out of the question. CUSTOM-HOUSE EXAMINATION BY EXPERTS. Fortunately, however, we are not forced to rely merely upon inference or upon the reports of interested parties for our information in this matter. For the past four seasons the United States Government has provided for the examination, by experts, of the pelagic catches of American vessels in the custom-houses on their landing. These returus are as follows for the seasons 1894-1897 : Experts’ sex returns for American catch. 1894. Per cent. 1896. Per cent. NING ENT COASbLs -5-.- - 22> =~ cee co ccce Son iNorthwest Cogsts. =: <3 eset. Bone 93 IDOE GS). 6a aoe se ooo 698) (Bering Sea oia5 2. se.Se spank esses - Se 75 1895. 1897 Northwest (coast. -...---.--s2-5-5-.---5 VASP NOLLD ONL ICOAS beso s= 250s ot. cia oe es 93 SETS SUR: chet on osee teas Soe seeioese 73 CONTRAST OF SEX RETURNS. With these figures may be compared the percentages furnished by the logs of the captains of the Canadian sealing fleet, which we are forced to use, as Great Britain has refused to permit the inspection of the Canadian catch in port. No returns for these vessels are available for the Northwest catch until the spring of 1896, when the percentage of females is given as 40. With it may be compared the expert report of 93 per cent for the American vessels on the same grounds in the same season. For the three seasons, 1894-1896, the Canadian reports for the Bering Sea catch are respectively 55, 55, and 61 per cent females. The vessels of the American fleet were engaged during the same time and side by side with the Canadian vessels. The latter average 52 per cent of females and the former 80 per cent. Comment is not necessary. This high proportion of females in the pelagic catch is borne out by the expert examinations of furriers in London. See affidavits in Appendix II. THE SEX OF SALTED SKINS EASILY DETERMINED. It may be remarked that it is entirely feasible to determine the sex of the salted skin, as reference to Mr. Townsend’s paper on this subject published in Part III will show. There is, therefore, no donbt of the accuracy of the results of the custom-house examinations. THE INVESTIGATIONS OF ALEXANDER AND HALKETT With a view to studying the operations of pelagic sealing in 1895, Mr. A. B. Alexander was detailed to make the cruise on one of the pelagic sealing vessels.! The results of his observations are published elsewhere in this report and contain the most complete account of the methods and operations of pelagic sealing yet obtained. * Mr. Alexander found in the catch of the Dora Sieward, numbering about 1,500 seals, 62 ‘A complete account of the ernise will be found in Part ITI of this report. 156 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. per cent of females. The following year Mr. Andrew Halkett, making a similar investigation for the Canadian government, found in the catch of the same vessel also in Bering Sea the percentage of females to be 84.! The difference between the results of these two investigations shows that the proportion of the sexes may vary considerably from season to season and between different vessels. It must not be forgotten, however, that these reports are based on the catches of individual vessels. The returns for the fleet of 18 American vessels in 1895 gives the percentage of females as 73, while for the fleet of 13 vessels in 1896 it is 75 per cent. It is probably not possible to determine more definitely the exact proportion of females, but these figures are sufficient with the known preponderance of the female sex to show that the proportion is large. THE FEMALES MORE EASILY TAKEN. It may be noted that the habits of the animals are such as to make it prebable that were the sexes equally numerous at sea the females would be taken in greater numbers. In the spring of the year off the Northwest Coast the female is heavy with young, and consequently more sluggish than the young males. In Bering Sea it is the mother driven by the necessity of nourishing her offspring that is found constantly on the feeding grounds. In either case her necessities and habits leave her the easy victim of the pelagic hunter. THE CAPTURE OF MALES NOT IMPORTANT. We have not taken into account the fact that a certain number of males are necessarily taken by the pelagic sealers. It is unnecessary todo so. With the males taken in this way we have no concern. Their capture decreases the profits of the lessees of the islands and the revenue of the Government, but does not affect the herd any more than does the killing of males on land. It is for this reason that they may be left out of consideration in this discussion. The important matter is that of the animals taken at sea by the pelagic sealers from 62 to 84 per cent are females. It may be remarked here that we are not con- cerned to make this percentage of females high. Were it a fact that among the animals taken at sea the males were in the excess of the females, the difference would be merely one of degree. So long as females in any number are taken, the herd is injured, and the injury is greater in proportion as the number killed is greater. POSSIBILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM UNDER PELAGIC SEALING. Much has been said of late by those interested in the retention of pelagic sealing about the tendency to equilibrium which is to be found in the rapid falling off of the pelagic catch. In 1896 Professor Thompson of the British Commission professed to believe that this equilibrium had then been reached, and that we might under present conditions hope for a perpetuation of the numbers of the herd as found in that year.’ The investigation of 1897, showing a marked decrease from the condition of 1897, demonstrated clearly that this was a mistake, a fact which Professor Thompson admits in his 1897 report. ‘See Halkett MSS., Report 1896, *?Thompson, Mission to Bering Sea, 1896, p. 35. THE EQUILIBRIUM THEORY. ai THE EQUILIBRIUM A THEORETICAL FACT. There is, however, a certain amount of truth in this idea of equilibrium, and we may inquire what it is and what will be the condition of the herd and of the industry of pelagic sealing when it is reached. As already indicated, the condition of the fur-seal herd is determined by the relation of its various losses to its single source of gain, the yearly accession of young 3-year-old breeders. Irom the history of the herd in the period trom 1871 to 1880 we know that the various losses which the herd suffered about balanced its gain, and there was neither increase nor diminution. From the nature of the losses which the herd is subject, to we may infer that in its less crowded condition within the past few years, they have been somewhat mitigated. This would be especially true of the loss through the parasitic worm and through fights and struggles on the breeding grounds. Under normal conditions in its present state, the herd might be expected to increase by a slight margin each year. That it does not so increase is due to the action of pelagic sealing. The measure of this possible increase in the herd is the margin of difference between the number of 3-year-old females which enter the breeding grounds in any season and the total number of deaths resulting to the adult breeding herd from old age and the incidents of the sea. DEATH FROM OLD AGE. If we assume for the breeding female an average life of thirteen years, this would give a breeding life of ten years, and the death rate from old age must each year amount to about 10 per cent of the breeding herd. On the other hand, it is clear from the proportion between the breeding herd of 130,000 and the quota of 20,000 for the present year that the proportion of pups which survive from any birth rate to the age of 3 years is about one-third to one-fourth of the total number. The quota of the present time is therefore roughly a measure of the gain of the herd, as an approximately equal number of young females must survive. A HYPOTHETICAL CASE. As an illustration, let us assume for any given year a total breeding herd of 180,000 cows. Of these 150,000 would be adults and 30,000 young cows coming into the herd for the first time as breeders and representing the normal gain of the herd. Assuming that, as a result of storms at sea, old age, and attacks of enemies, 10 per cent of the herd are lost in the winter migration, this would mean the absence of 18,000 animals for the sueceeding season, to cover which and provide for continued inerease the herd receives a gain of 30,000 young animals. The net gain to the herd is, therefore, 12,000 breeding females. This is a liberal estimate of gain, THE POSSIBLE ABSTRACTION OF FEMALES. If the killing of female seals produced only the direct loss entailed by their absence, this removal of 12,000 females from the hypothetical stock of 180 000 breeders would leave the herd in a state of equilibrium. But for each life thus lost results the death of an unborn pup, and with such part of the 12,000 females as are taken in Bering Sea nursing pups die also. This secondary loss is felt later in a 158 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. diminished accession of breeding 3-year-olds. In other words, the yearly increment of 30,000 could not be maintained, and as a matter of fact the taking of 12,000 females would cause the herd to decline. THE SECONDARY LOSS OF PUPS. We can estimate approximately this secondary loss. For the 12,000 females killed an equal number of unborn young are destroyed, and if one-half of them are killed during the summer, 6,000 additional young will starve; in all, 18,000 young are lost. But as only one-third of them would naturally survive to the age of 3 years, and but one-half of these would be breeders, the total loss would be about 3,000. This, at least, must be deducted from the 12,000, leaving 9,000 females which can be taken from the herd and still leave it in a state of equilibrium. The abstraction of females, therefore, which the herd of 180,000 breeding females can stand without declining, is not to exceed 5 per cent. We do not put this percentage forward as absolute. Its value rests solely upon the percentage of young which survive to the age of 3 years. We have assumed that one-third so survive, and this is probably a maximum, but for the purposes of the calculation it will answer. To determine whether or not the effect of pelagic sealing is such as to warrant the supposition that a state of equilibrium bas been or is likely to be reached soon, we have only to refer to the pelagic catch for the year 1896. The summer catch of 1896 in Bering Sea numbered 29,500, of which 84 per cent were females. The spring catch of the same year was 14,400, of which 93 per cent were females, making in all 38,000 females from a herd of about 160,000, approximately 24 per cent, with additional loss to appear in 1899 from the destruction of young life. PELAGIC CATCH STILL INVOLVES 16 PER CENT OF ALL FEMALES. In view of the heavy falling off which pelagic sealing has undergone in 1897, we may carry out the computation for this season also. There were taken in the spring of 1897 oft the northwest coast 7,857, of which 93 per cent, or 7,300, were females. In Bering Sea 16,454 were taken, of which, using the percentage of 1896, which is low, 84 per cent, or 13,800 were females, making in all for 1897 21,000 females. This for a herd of 130,000 is 16 per cent. It is evident that pelagic sealing must still fall considerably before equilibrium is reached. IT MUST FALL TO ONE-THIRD BEFORE EQUILIBRIUM COMES. In short it would appear that the pelagic catch must fall to about one-third its present size before the decline in the herd ceases. It is doubtful whether such a reduction will result. The haunts of the seals are too convenient. The same vessels may not go out each year. but enough will be ready to risk the chance of «a remuner- ative catch to keep the herd on the down grade. The very reduction of the fleet in one season will stimulate the business for the next, each vessel hoping that its neighbors will drop out, thus leaving a clear field. It is probable that so long as the herd exists there will be a sufficient number of adventurous spirits to prey upon it and continue its decline. The history of the repeated unsuccessful attempts to secure seals on the rookeries of the south seas fully illustrate what may be expected in the north. If the spirit of adventure is sufliciently strong to lead to the fitting out of a schooner, as was done in 1897, to visit the Galapagos Islands on the possibility of EQUILIBRIUM MEANS COMMERCIAL RUIN. 159 taking seals there, we nay not expect that the more accessible haunts of the seals of the North Pacitic will be abandoned. THE EQUILIBRIUM COULD NOT BE MAINTAINED. In a theoretical sense there is a state of equilibrium of the herd which is com- patible with a limited amouut of pelagic sealing. The condition of this equilibrium we have just discussed. We know it must be too low to leave any profit either in pelagic sealing or in land sealing. Pelagic sealing, already unprofitable, must be reduced to less than one-third its present extent before this state of equilibrium is reached. No manner of protection could enforce the necessary limits to such pelagic sealing and they are not self-adjustable. Furthermore, the herd under such conditions would not be worth protecting on land. Any such protection must be maintained at a loss to the United States. ‘lo remove it from the herd even for a short period of time would leave the breeding haunts of the animals open to invasion, and the destruction so vigorously begun at sea would be speedily completed on land. EQUILIBRIUM EXISTS ONLY FAR BELOW COMMERCIAL RUIN. Thus, while an equilibrium is possible, it must not be forgotten that it exists only far below the point of commercial profit, and must prove unsatisfactory either to the interests of the United States or to those of the pelagic sealer.' !'This equilibrium of the fur-seal herd is a mere figure of speech, a juggling with words for diplomatic purposes. In the conclusions of the recent conference of experts at Washington the possibility of this theoretical equilibrium was acknowledged by both sides, because self-evident whatever the conditions. But the fact was not considered in any way pertinent, as ‘‘equilibrinm” in this sense is only another name for commercial destruction. This admission that pelagic sealing tends to cease as the herd dies out has however been used by the Canadian Government as a pretext for declining to take immediate action in the fur-seal matter. (See Senate Doc. 40, Fifty-fifth Congress, second session, 1897, p. 69.) This theory of equilibrinm has received an attention wholly undeserved. In his report for 1896 Professor Thompson suggested that the equilibrium was then reached. He was forced in the investigatious of 1897 to admit that the herd had suffered a measurable decline since 1896. Not- withstanding this fact we find the following statement in the concluding paragraph of his report for 1897: ‘A remedy has already been automatically applied in the reduction of the pelagic fleet to less than one-half its numbers of a year ago. The tendency is to equilibrium. The total pelagic catch for this year is not likely to exceed 20,000, against 36,000 last year, and it may be that witha catch so greatly diminished the point of equilibrium has at length been attained.” It is certainly remarkable that Professor Thompson should speak of commercial destruction as a “remedy” for zoological destruction. This is another way of saying that “death cnres all ills;” but that mode of cure does not satisfy the friends of the patient. It is, moreover, not true that the point of equilibrium is reached, nor can it be reached until the catch at sea falls to less than one-twentieth of the actual number of breeding females. Pelagic sealing must therefore decline to one-third its present catch before the equilibrium is reached. The British Government is not unaware of these facts, but to give them due recognition in action would interfere with the national policy in this matter, This is to permit the Canadian sealers to get out of the fur-seal herd everything they can before the failure of the herd forces the alleged industry wholly out of existence. In other words, one chief function of British Imperialism is to serve as a “‘ fence” for greedy colonies over whose actions she has no control. We find no more fitting words to characterize the attitude of Great Britain toward this fur-seal question than the words of Professor Nicholson, of Edinburgh: ‘There can be no question, in the light of history, that the political instinct of the English people—or to adopt the popular language of the moment, the original sin of the nation—is to covet everything of its neighbors worth coveting, and it is not content until the sin is complete.” 160 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. THE DESTRUCTION OF UNBORN PUPS. Hitherto we have considered only the direct loss to the breeding herd resulting from the killing of females. There is, however, an important secondary loss resulting from the destruction of the young. Not only is the adult female, with the possibility of future increase through her, lost-to the herd, but the times and seasons of her slaughter are such that her unborn and her dependent offspring must alike die with her. PREGNANT AND NURSING FEMALES. The investigations of the commission as to the condition of female seals taken in Bering Sea are given in detail in a special paper on the breeding habits of the seals, by. Mr. Lueas, in Part III of this report. We may here quote a brief summary of the results : A total of 176 females taken during the seasons of 1895 and 1896 between August 10 and September 3 were examined, and may be considered as fairly representing the age and condition of seals taken at sea. Of these 176 there were 14 yearlings, sixteen 2-year-olds, and 146 over 2 years old. All over 2 years old had brought forth young the season in which they were taken, and 151 of those 2 years old and upward were pregnant. The total number of seals examined whose condition was at all uncertain was 11, and 7 of these were 2-year-olds examined before August 22, which might have been impregnated later in the season. PELAGIC SEALING TAKES COMPOUND INTEREST. Thus pelagie sealing eats into the life of the herd at compound interest. The rookeries in 1897 showed a direct diminution from the loss of females killed during August and September of 1896 and the spring of 1897. This direct loss was supple- mented by the aftereffects of the premature destruction of the young born in 1894, which manifested itself in the diminished quota of killable seals and in the eorrespondingly diminished increment of young breeders. In like manner the future will show the continued effects of the destructive industry. For the pups starved to death in 1896 and those starved in 1897 the rookeries must suffer in 1900 and 1901 whether pelagic sealing continues or not. DESTRUCTION OF NURSING PUPS. As the starvation of pups has been the source of a great deal of discussion, it will be necessary to consider the matter in some detail. It was strongly contended in the British case before the Paris Tribunal that no such result as the starvation of the pup followed from the killing of the mother at sea. The claim of the United States that the pups were left to die of hunger was denominated in the same connection as “a contention wholly novel.” It was further asserted that “it is not known that the breeding females go to sea for food while their pups are dependent upon them.”! PUPS DEPENDENT ON MILK UNTIL DECEMBER. In the investigations of the season of 1896 these subjects received special attention. It was found that the pups continued to nurse their mothers as late as the 5th of December, being up to that time wholly dependent upon milk for nourishment. 1 British Counter Case, Fur Seal Arb., Vol. 9, pp. 179 and 183. FEEDING OF THE SEALS. 161 Of pups killed for examination during September and October some were found to contain from one to two quarts of rich milk, the result in each case of a single meal. That the mother seal, an animal averaging 70 pounds in weight, should continue for upward of four months to nourish her young in this manner without feeding is sufti- ciently absurd on the face of it. But the results of Mr. Townsend’s and Mr. Lueas’s examination of adult females taken on the feeding grounds in Bering Sea, proves absolutely that the nursing females go to sea to feed. THE ABSENCE OF EXCREMENT. In support of the theory that the females do not leave the rookeries to feed while their pups are dependent upon them, the British commissioners of 1891-92 cited the “absence of all excrement on the breeding places.” What the investigators of 1891-92 did or did not see we do not know, but during the past two seasons excrement was seen in quantities both on the breeding grounds and on the hauling grounds, as were also spewings containing the bones and flesh of fish. It is true that the aggregate amount of excrement seen is small in proportion to the number of animals, but this is due in all probability to the fact that the fur seal digests its food for the most part, if not wholly, before coming ashore, and as a natural result most of the excrement is voided in the water. THE SUPPOSED NONFEEDING OF FEMALES. A second proof adduced in support of the nonfeeding of the females was that no food had been found in the stomachs of the limited number of these animals examined up to that time. It was known that the stomachs of the bachelors were found to be empty at all times during the season. It was further absolutely known that the adult bulls fasted during the breeding season. From analogy to the bulls and from the absence of food in their stomachs it was assumed in a general way that the bachelors also fasted, and by carrying the chain of analogy one step farther it was assumed that the cows fasted also. THE ABSENCE OF FOOD IN STOMACHS. It is true that the stomachs of adult animals of all classes are wholly devoid of food when examined on land. Investigations on this score were made in 1896 and 1897 on a large number of bachelors and many cows. Some of the latter were killed immediately on coming ashore expressly to throw light on the question. But no food was found, not even in the stomach of a cow found choked to death on a fish bone. These facts, however, can not be expected to weigh against the conclusive evidence of the stomachs of both females and bachelors taken on the feeding grounds in August. That the fur-seal bull should fast is necessary. He comes on land in the spring loaded down with blubber in preparation for it, and grows excessively thin betore the season is over. The cows and bachelors show no suck provision. They maintain an even and moderate condition throughout the season. They could not do so if they fasted. ; 15184——11 162 fHE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. THE SEAL DIGESTS ITS FOOD IN THE WATER. For the absence of food in the stomachs of the seals we must find a simpler explanation, and this seems to be that they remain in the water to digest their food. If it is not fully digested when the animal reaches the islands on returning from the feeding grounds, it loiters offshore swimming about, sleeping, or playing until digestion is completed. This assumption also explains other things. lor example, the band of idle seals hovering off the rookery fronts; the fact that the cows are not seen to come directly in from the sea; and the fact that pups killed in the water, sleeping and sporting’ in the same way, were found full of milk, while those killed on land were, as arule, empty. THE ABSURD THEORY OF INDISCRIMINATE NURSING. But not coutent with establishing the fact that the mother seals did not leave the rookeries while their pups were dependent upon them, the British commissioners went on to show that if they did go away and were killed the pups did not necessarily starve, because they could obtain nourishment from other cows. In short, it was contended that the female fur seals in contrast to all other animals, nursed their young in common. This theory was supported by a series of ostensibly minute but faulty observations, which gave an air of plausibility to it. FUR-SEAL MOTHER AND PUP. The fur-seal mother displays little affection for her own young, but she displays less for her neighbors’. When she wants her pup, she calls lustily for it, and, finding it, lies down and nurses it without further ceremony. The pup when satisfied goes off and does not seek its mother until it is again hungry. As the majority of the mothers are absent at sea, the majority of the pups are always hungry. They are willing and ready to flock about the calling cow, who has difficulty among so many in attracting the attention of her own pup. The savage treatment she accords these strange pups makes them keep at a safe distance, and is clear enough proof of her unwillingness to care for them. MISTAKEN OBSERVATIONS. The mistakes that have been made in this matter have resulted from a misunder- standing ora misinterpretation of very simple actions. When the cow lands, she is likely to be met at the shore by half a dozen hungry pups waiting for their mothers. They flock about her and she snaps and snarls at them, calling her pup in the intervals. In due time it responds and joins the crowd of expectant pups. The mother recognizes it for a brief instant by shaking her head and smelling over it. This is all the attention it receives. She at once sets out to find a suitable place in which to rest. She may travel back the full length of the rookery, taking up her place in one of the rear harems. The pups may all follow her for a short distance, but gradually give up and return to the water front, all but her own pup, which persists, and in the end is allowed to nurse. To omit from the observation the brief and simple recognition of the pup by the mother destroys its accuracy. This is exactly what the Canadian commissioner in his observations of 1892 did. He then tried to prove that a cow would nurse any pup if it was only persistent enough. His interpretation of an incident like the one cited above was that the pup which ultimately succeeded in nursing was a strange pup, whose persistency was finally rewarded, THE FOOD OF THE PUPS. 163 It is not necessary to go into greater detail. In the daily journal are recorded the observations of the commission in this matter. It is not a matter of great moment, but from the prominence which this absurd proposition was given it has been necessary to diseuss it. THE SUPPOSED SELF-FEEDING OF PUPS. But not content with proving that the mother did not leave the pup, and that if she did, the pup could easily find a foster mother, the British commissioners insisted that the pup could shift for itself and gain sustenance independent of any mother. This theory has been thus stated by Mr. Macoun: From the time the pups first go into the water, they are to be seen with pieces of seaweed in their mouths, and there is no reason for doubting that from this time until they leave the islands a considerable portion of their food is composed of seaweed, picked up along the shore or in the water adjacent to it. THE ABSURDITY OF THE THEORY. What nourishment an animal, whose natural diet for the time being is milk, and which is destined ultimately to feed on fish, could find in seaweed is not readily apparent. But this objection seemingly offered no difficulty. It may be observed that this theory rests again on a misinterpretation of very simple facts. The pup fur seal, like a young dog, loves to play with anything it finds at hand. It is a common sight, therefore, to see a pup Swimming about witha yard or more of kelp streaming from its mouth. If observed closely, other pups will be found tossing dead shells, pieces of sticks, or €ven pebbles. A pup was observed to play for an hour with a small feather. It is as reasonable to suppose that the pup feeds on the feather or the shell as on the seaweed. They are all objects of play; nothing more. This theory naturally went a step further, and assumed that crustacea and other animal life in the waters about the rookeries was drawn upon to supplement the seaweed diet of the pups. The leathery tunicates which are found strewn in large quantities upon the sand beaches of St. Paul after a storm have been looked upon as palatable and nutritious food for pups. It is supposed that these are the “tender algoid sprouts” of which Mr. Elliott makes mention as serving as food for pups. DETERMINATION OF THE MATTER BY KILLING PUPS. There being but one way to settle such a question as this, namely, to kill and examine the stomachs of the pups themselves, this method was adopted and sake puekly carried out during the months of September, October, and November, in 1896. ‘Mr. Macoun, of the British. commission, was present while ‘these investig gations were made, an'l examined the stomacha of the pups killed. The stomachs in some cases pareained milk, in others none. Onestomach wellsupplied with milk contained two small amphipods; one had a small tunicate mixed with pebbles; another contained part of a soft-shelled crab; several had shreds of seaweed mixed with milk. All the stomachs contained the characteristic pebbles. This was the sum total of material aside from milk found in the stomachs of twenty pups killed from day to day and under cir- cumstances most favorable for determining whether they were feeding or not. Mr. Macoun on the spot agreed that the examinations were sufficient and that there was nothing found to warrant the supposition that the pups had begun to feed for themselves. Notwithstanding this, in discussing the matter in his 1896 report, he makes the following grossly misleading statement: “Tn addition to milk, it will be seen that the stomachs examined contained (1) seaweed, (2) ascidians, (3) small crustaceans, (4) soft-shell crab. That these were found with one exception only in stomachs which contained no milk, goes to show that the young seal when hungry avail themselves of the food that is to be found in abundance in the places most frequented by them.” (Macoun, 1896 Report, MSS.) 164 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. A score or more of pups were killed under circumstances specially fitted to throw | ligit on the subject, and their stomachs, with those of others dead from -starvation and other causes, were found to be devoid of ali food except milk.' Pups killed as late as the 5th of December were found full of milk, and at that time the cows were nursing their pups as at earlier times in the season. Owing to the mild weather, this was nearly a month later than the usual time for the departure of the cows and their young, and the pups had evidently not yet been weaned. PUP ABSOLUTELY DEPENDENT UPON ITS MOTHER'S MILK. It would necessarily follow from these considerations that the fur-seal pup is dependent upon its mother’s milk for nourishment throughout the entire season and until its departure with her from the islands. This fact, taken in connection with the killing of nursing females at sea,is enough to settle the question of whether pups starve to death; but that there should be no mistake, the subject of starvation, as shown in its direct effect on the pups themselves, received special attention, and may CHAPTER XTIItr. THE STARVATION OF PUPS. THE COUNT OF STARVED PUPS. The fact of the death of pups by starvation has long been noted, and for several seasons prior to 1896 partial enumerations of deaths supposed to be from this cause have been made. In the light of the early mortality due to the ravages of Uncinaria, which was found to have occurred prior to August 1, and consequently prior to the beginning of pelagic sealing, these figures were unsatisfactory, as they plainly confused the two causes of death. The earlier mortality has already been referred to and is discussed in detail by Mr. Lucas in his treatment of the general subject of mortality among the seals.' At the time of the count of early dead pups between August 8 and 14 a few were found to have plainly starved. It is probable that some of these in the later days of the count were the first victims of pelagic sealing. A mother taken at sea on the Ist day of August might have been absent for some time, and her pup would naturally succumb within a shorter period than would be required for one more recently fed. The majority of the early deaths from starvation, however, were undoubtedly caused by separation of mother and pup by the wandering away of the latter when very young or by the death of the mother from accidental causes on the rookeries. A considerable number of dead cows were found on the rookeries, whose pups would naturally starve unless otherwise killed. THE BEGINNINGS OF STARVATION. The first direct evidence of the destructive work of pelagic sealing was seen in 1896, at the time of the count of live pups on Kitovi rookery, August 15. In counting the live pups they were separated into pods and allowed to run off in narrow lines to make counting possible. The weaklings naturally fell behind, and a group of from . three to six starving pups followed in the wake of each pod. The victims of starva- tion could from this time on be seen in increasing numbers as the rookeries were daily inspected. The following notes on the starvation of pups are extracted from the daily journal of the commission. NOTES ON STARVING PUPS. In the first stages of starvation the doomed pup was to be recognized by a growing thinness. The ordinary pup is plump and fat, and its sides stick out with milk while its mother is on land. A thin pup might, of course, mean only a hungry one, which would recover itself in a few days after its mother’s return. If the mother did not return the pup continued to grow thinner. A premature grayness began to show about the eyes and mouth. The eyes assumed a wide and staring look, giving the animal a hunted appearance. 1 Paper on ‘Causes of Mortality,” by Mr. Lucas. Part IIT. 165 166 THE FUR SEALS OF THE PRIBILOF ISLANDS. THE HUNGRY PUP. While the pup was merely hungry, it called frequently for its mother. It hung about the water’s edge as if awaiting her there. It would even follow a wet cow back for a distance from the water, but, on being repulsed, it would return to its position. In one or two instances starving pups were seen to attempt to nurse sleeping cows, but never with success. While their strength remained the starving pups played about as usual with their healthy companions; always, however, with an effort. They went into the water, and that they swam farther at times than their strength warranted was evident from the fact that occasionally they landed to die on the rocks at considerable distances from the rookeries to which they belonged. Thus two pups came ashore in the little cove across the neck from Zoltoi and died there in 1896. THE BREAKING DOWN. After the first stage of sharp hunger was passed the little animals seemed to weaken physically. They lay about on the rocks, sometimes sleeping, but always easily startled. When aroused, some would run away, crying in terror; others would turn at bay and bite savagely at the boots of the disturber, perhaps only to fall down helpless the next instant. In crossing the sand flat of Tolstoi, which was deserted by the living seals in September, a dozen or more of these gaunt little specters would start up from among the dead and stumble away, crying piteously. One day, on the “death-trap” gully of Zapadni, a little sleeping starveling was aroused with difficnlty. When it caught sight of the intruder it fell in a fit of terror, then stumbled off in a frantic manner, only to fall in convulsions, which ended in unconsciousness. This pup was about to die. It was as thin as a shadow. THE DEATH OF THE STARVELING. When undisturbed, the starving pups in the last stages showed little evidence of pain. They looked utterly miserable, but indifferent and stolid. Their healthy companions occasionally attempted to play with them, but they either resented the interference or else ignored it. For the most part they were left to themselves. Toward the end they slept most of the time. This sleep merged into unconsciousness and torpor, from which they could not be awakened. Death finally came after a brief period of convulsive shuddering and gasping, in which the animal bitthe ground and voided quantities of black, tarry fieces DIFFICULTY IN DISTINGUISHING EARLY DEAD PUPS. It was not possible at the time of the first count of dead pups in August to remove the bodies from the rookeries, and it was believed then that when the time came for counting the starved pups it would be possible to distinguish between the earlier and later dead. As the season advanced, however, it became evident that it would not be possible to make the distinction. Those dying in September could easily be separated from those which died in July, but no distinction could be drawn between those which died between the 1st of August and the 10th and those which died between the latter date and the 20th of August. When the count of starved pups was made about October 1 it was necessary, therefore, to count every carcass to be found at that date. From the total thus counted those dead before the middle of August were deducted to determine the number of additions which had resulted from starvation. Of the details of this count a full record will be found in the daily journal and need not be repeated here. = snes ec ens 190 international interest in...-.-.-------- 173 WormSealWor 86a DOAN .-+225<---25+---ce'-=-- 43 Fur-seal question, origin of..---...---.---- 177 MGnHre On the MOLd)..- 2-22-52 o<>--2-2=--5 188 Gains and losses of the herd....--..------- 149 Galapagos Islands ..--...--....----..----- 74 Gorbatehrookeryer- 2.222 - = ----22 22 c= == 5 39 Grass-prown areas. _.-.-.-.--------.-------- 104 Great Britain, interests of.......----.------ 174 Great killer the.>-----..--222 +2. Leena 71 III Page. Gressigrada, suborder of. ..---....--.-.----- 43 Growth of pelagic catch. .--.........---. 149, 150 Guadalupe Island «2:2... 222-2si222ss2.cessee 44 Halkett, An: -~ 2s22<- ness sssaceseneee 18, 65, 185 report on proportion of females........ 155 remarks on stagy skins.---...-.-..---- 65 Hamlin; Chas: S22: <2<2 =s25 32 Haremypinessoscs. - oe 8 ose es eee yeaee es See 57 Haremisizesossesis ess sees sta set sere ee aeee 58 Harems, count on amphitheater. .-...----.- 54 summary Of ssss2.----/2-04'-cs25255-=25 96, 97 Hamline enous ers = sae 2s ea a a 36 NOTAQTIV OD) ssc oese aa aa ee 121 number driven, 1871-1889 .......--.----. 123 Mistoricalisketch-s2---- =o 2.4. -=4-5~5-6- 23 Home of the fur seals...---..-. ..---.----- 31 Hooper, Capt, Ce

---3-- == eee 121 SUSPENSION Of Ko eee ene eee eee ee eas 147 | impracticability of...--...---.---.---- 121 Law prohibiting American sealers.-..-.----- 246 POssibUbyOf ssc cs ee 120 Liebes, Isaac, note on stagy skins...--.---. 66 | Palata drive'..c.3 222222262202 0-e eee 131 Little; Hastrookerye-< 2-2 += - sea eee 42 | Parade ground of reef ...--....---.-------- 38 Little Zapadni rookery...-....---.---.---- AQ) | Parasitesiof seals<- 5-2. 22-5 2e-- eee 70 Mobos Wsland!seals 2. (soso ersce re aeesaae 226) | Paris awantd. ence se cease eee ae eee 231 IDOE OG Haan Semciosedocasaces 18, 48, 109, 160, 165 | resultsiofs2: 22. os ceicoe- -ee eee eee 177 Dimkaniniroo key noosa ete eee 38 | Parrott & Co., expedition of. .-....--..._-. 26 COND OLS oso tata eee eee eae eee 51)212)| Patrol; costiof. 25-5 5242-5248 eee 182 Management: | Pelage of fur seals. -s------e2- = =e 65 American ..--..----..-------++-----+-- 28 | Pelagic fleet, value of.-......-..--------- 174, 226 Russian ..---.----.----+--++------- 2o5e 25 vessels sealing in award area ......-.-. 225 Wwastetul 2252s -e-jesees eee eee ass 124 | Pelagic catch: Macoun, James M...-..- sercesse 18, 109, 163, 168 | compared with land catch.........---- 148 Males, killed with impunity .-...---..--. 189, 243 | : = % - 5 Gis , s decline of ssss-(-- 3. 148, 175 Martin, Walter E., deposition of ......-...- 245 | From! Comilandon hen ae 148, 151 Men qn Ni NSeoaocs ones Seaciospecoessnonacs 41 | Pao . 9 abandonmenttio fete see ee ateeeeeeeL oS row Of sas iahe tics" sce aaa u Manéad cockeiias! = weno eee an 59 | relation to land catch teeter ceeee esses : 152 Maynard, Lieutenant......--..-.-------<-- 83 | percentage of females in -...-... 154, 155, 225 Melntyre; H. He... <2 eee 28,144 | ‘Statistics of ...-.-..---.--------------- 149 Middle Hill’... 2. ose) ae 10, 103 | summary of........---..----.----..- 146, 222 Miprations:--6 222sc ecb eee eee e ee 47 | summary, Since 18942-2522 ee = see 175 period and limits of.....-....:.-..-... 48 | Pelagic sealing.---..-----..--------------- 142 Modus vivendiass ==) sees see eee 143, 179, 227 Asiatic waters -...-.-.-----.-..-.-.- U7, 151 effectiofe iceccc cee a ee 147 a check ...- 5-05. sc0sseeso0 oon eee 151 LS} UUY fogbebpoDSU DobeIsobebbudeccacseasS 227 | a suicidal industry.----.------...scs=- 175 INDEX. Pelagic sealing—Continued. Page. miCanadian industry -=.--- -----...<=--- 176 yMUndtans poe ess east nesses aso =~) OU, 14a RveWILONMON 25 =. aloes = == = 30, 143 Gatch of, since 1894... ..-...----...- 215-221 cumulative effect of ...-..-...-....---- 171 | destruction of pups by-.-.-.-.----.-----. entry into Bering Sea ...--...--..-.-- 30, 142 CSUR TO GT pesecdsreees sanoes seeecere 150 Tin, yeni (See Se pe eeee Ses A CcOB es Baer Seer 30 LOGS UNAS Ol peat pescec psc Seo Ee ees caeaes 176 MARSBEEOITINTOLALo- - on 5.05 cee 2-25. -- 171 HORNIBINCE ISO! se -\-\-- onc ona ~ oon on = 171 loss under the regulations. ...-...-.--- 172 of northwest coast...........----.---- 146 possible equilibrium under -.--...----. 156 prohibited to Americans. ---.-.---...--- 176 prohibition necessary -.----..--------- 187 slaughter of females .----.....-.---- 187, 189 summary of statistics -.......-.....--. 222 vessels engaged in.....-..-.-..------ 143, 225 Period of equilibrium, 1871-1880. .-....---. 102 Personal estimates --.-...-....--...---.... 83 EB DOAINES IRD os anc einie lo soce\one= as2-s0 n\-= 44 Photographs: Simholspoluin 1891-22255 5255-- 2-55. 5--5 115 PRN LOUS Of(-\5 2-52 2--- 2-2-2 === ---5 106 relation to counts -..--......-.-------- 106 TEL Cl caSecereecco COED pe eSanOeS 105, 107 peti NOl.= seas =~ 3-2 aoe woe 43 Eoliey,of seclusion -----...--.--.---.-.---- 140 PGlovilatoGKOny 222. -,.-5--2.s2255 505 ---- 37 early estimates of ......----.-----.---- 82, 83 Polygamous habits of seals -...--..---.---- 119 Population of rookeries: difficulty of estimate.........-....---- 76 Pi MMOUNON a camo. cones o- 5 e--oc 54 Present condition of herd......-.....---- 90, 100 Promiscuous nursing of pups, theory of. -- 162 Proportion of bulls to cows.......-.....--- 119 Protection: proposed measures .....-..------------ 178 counter proposition ..........-...----- 178 Penney taGerragiM.2 22 .css. 5 s-2--- <<< see 23 LESTE 11 Gi ee eee 44 Pribilof Islands: PRNMGG) Oil cas ten Goc5 BA BOOB O SE OaS DESES aS 31 ENGR IO haere aaa pasa do cvcos os nt csc 33 GUIS ED « oRe S65 Shoe Sas Sr Oss SBEO OSB eSO= 32 BIRGOMEBY~O lian oer =s/= 22 -.c 2552 S---- 2-22. «sss 151 measure of breeding herd .-..---.--..- 114 OLAS T1889 eyes ae manee ss etee eee ose= 88 of 1890 and since2.-- =5=.=4--\2-5---<- 103 Ofs1 894Gb a welee ceria Sen anon ete see 103 Of 896 Oi anee eee ee 88, 111, 112, 113, 209, 210 relation to breeding herd.----..----..- 88 Recommendation. ----..---.-..---- seoeeece 191 Recounts of live pups..-. ----------..--<-- 109 Report, divisions of ............--..-.---.- 19 Reetidrivewayj-o<.= 2-2 eee sea ee ee 129 Reefrookery 2222\-22-.2s22-sosee enone sees 38 Regulations of Paris award.......--.---. 143, 234 adapted to work of sealers -....-..---- 181 effect of...-. Boceeccneseca ceesese fonss 30 LEM OOM Be oapooscacececcisce: cece = Sac 182 obligations Ofse==ssesas-2 aes =o 183 (DULDOSS Oltee em e= mee ieee 183 revision not adequate ..--....---.----- 187 niall PGLIOd: Of= 2 co caeite eaten a= rae 182 Rejected seals..............-....-.------.- 98 GIS) soc doncae Hood cocaacoseasesseces: 124 Remedy for decline........---..----.------ 187 TPG ieGI Cece ce oced oreo Sore Seceeosece 43 Revised census of 1896.-...---...----------- 95 Revision of early estimates: ay iy Pa bey po epee en cane ee occas scc 88, 89 Git IGUT ceeks ceo chose odo ccesotsces 86 VI INDEX. Page. | Sex returns—Continued. Page. Rice, George, deposition of...---.--------- 244 Halkettis reports = -=-e- seca ee eee 156 Robben Island herd=--- eee eae eee 45 sealing captains?/=-5- ¢- =.) -t-c)--esieeeeee 154 Rookeries, theese ease eee eerie een ei 36 Customs expertsy so- sees sees eee eee eee 155 determination of boundaries....-..---- 76 | Shooting, loss through. .----.--.--.--.----- 145 formationiQte=-oe- == eee ease eee 52 | Shrinkage of breeding area........---.--.- 107 inspection Ofes=s ea ase ea eee eee 139 Ardiguen) =22=. =. 226 5. se s2 ee ese eee 107 hifelon te sees ees eee eee eae 49 Tolstoi'sand flat; .-2--222ac5-4 = eee eee 107 MAINES) Olea ne ele eee eee eRe ee eae 36. | ‘StvutchwRoek 25-20 .<:s2e0- 25 ae eee 32, 38 MONG a) O Patios cea cp omen en SboRotsa5o QS02 63 @StiMAt) Obs oo. ae a ee 94 obstructed by ces. e eee eat 49 | Sivutch rookery, cause of occupation....-- 138 unstable population of -.....---------- 78 | Skins: Russia, interests of.....-----.------ A eaeee 174 defective: 2.522 ...02<6 -222 5. ee eee 121 Russian-American Company -------- 23, 24, 25, 26 MP OCLE = <2. se wee = oe eee 124 Salashurya lords =e =) eee eee see 178 treatment of;----.. -- --o-=- see eee 119 Styl DIG, Wty anonocdesseoceos ceeedoeeec 12 Stagy :.-2\.4.- 2256s = senses ene Sealing season, beginning of ..--....----- 50,116 | Slaughter of the seals. .-....--..-....-..-. 190 Sealtow assesses eee ane ee eee eae 33, 104 | Southern fur seals, habits of---..---.------ 73 Seals *speclos|Ohers-tecera-e es -aeae= a 45 South rookery, Bering -.-.---.- Peete. is aDilGy Own aAVeles see eee etree eea 127. 131 | Spearheads on rookeries. ....--.---..------ 145 PYG) Menpeet daeror ease d-eecserosso5 ore 68 | Spilki, abandonment of.-...-..--......--2- 137 arrivaltOl===s2e oes cee seco eso e ee 49 | GOMNAO)E Pecoocusce sossss ences sc0e cess 83 AlMMUKS Ol cognes togaahoanoce ssascrecd 64 | St. Paul: COhrede DN Pe seen se eee eee eens 144 count Of COWS! -2-)--2 --- a -=eeee sisters 91 Catepories Ofme-e eee nee eee eae 46 | count’ of harems::-----------seeeeeeee 91 colorationiof*--scss--6 ese eecesee Eee oe 64 | description of---- = -- 4. 31 doparturelof ees eaee =e == == a eee nee 71 rookeries of.....---.------------------ 36 @nomMies Of eset oe Soe beet et Aenea ee 71 | St. George, description of....-.-----...---- : 31 fastin piotee= ses see eee aoe ees 57 Tookeries Of ~~~ ~~ - =~ - = eee 41 fixeddhabitsiof eres ees eee eee nara ee 134 | Stagy season...-..-----.-------------+---- 65 finn in oe oe ae ee ence eee eee ee 144 | Starvation of pups.......-..--.--...-2---- 165 individual space occupied ....-.------- 80, 81 | Starved pups, count of..--.---.---------- 166, 169 MPM AND cog sodaapescecaseereccoseec 68 estimate for 1897 2. -22ce ae eee 169, 170 Jawaoh distribution esc. = eee ee 78 | Starving pups, notes on -.-.-.----....... 166, 167 low intelligence of --.....--..--.-----: 134 | Steller, George Wilhelm -..---.--..---.--.. 44 MiPTAtiONs Ole. -ce2s2 2 eee Aes 47 | Stejneger, Dr. L-------- -------- sees 17, 119, 125 mortality amon py == seen e eee eeee 70 | Summary of killings....-----...---. 207, 208, 209 mortality among young ..---..--..---- 99 Superfluous males.--.--..--...------------ 120 not affected by man.-...--...-...... 135,141 | Texts: Nomenclature:Ofieec ce eee eee 46 afidavits of furriers) —-- -444s5-e eee 244 DALASILOSO fener see eee ee eee eee 70 Alaska Commercial Company’s lease... 236 possibility of driving elsewhere... --- 136 | arbitration treaty: = o> see 228 Tate lor travels es eeee sane = ete 72 | declarations of tribunal.--...---------- 236 ShHoovn 2 Oba ee one ee noe eee 144 joint conclusions of experts ..--------- 240 “sleepers” -- = : aescccne, UT law prohibiting sealing .......-.-..-.. 246 sleeping of-.-.---.-- eee apo eee 63 | modus| Vivendi -.-~ 222-5 - == === 227 spearing,Ot--=---<- --- 52 sea = al 144 North American Commercial Company’s staginess, meaning of.----..-----.----- 66 leasé’. <2. 2520s nee eee 238 SWAMI P00 feettaree leet ieee eer 72 Paris/award) -2 5225-2222 eee 231 PRUDAVO LOTS a lapel anoint 144 Tecnlations; ther. 92 --2ee- eae eee 234 WOU NUENG) he ocereccoe osseao essassee esse 62 | Theory of overdriving -----2-2=2-=-s=eeee5 126 Sealskin industry, demoralized condition. 173,175 | Thompson, Prof. D’Arcy W ...--- 18, 107, 109, 114, Sealing of the South Seas .-.-.......-.-..- 153 156, 159, 168 Seizure of vessels <-- 22. e--eele ete s= 30,177 | Tingle; estimate of 1886 .....--.-.-..-.-... 84 Sex of salted sking3. 2 .s22~ sseshea-ee ten 155: |) Tolstoi rookery ------ ---=- 2-5 se eee 40 Sex returns: photoyraph of, 1891: --- =~ 2 SSeS eeeene 115 Alexander's report ---.c-s- esse 155» |) Downsends Cie eee eens 18, 48, 146, 148 INDEX. Page SROWTIBONGSICLOSSCH con caccascciceccececccee 107 Treaties: HSA Deen cine seteeietasivesecsciasoe)