lu^ F&2 Biological Services Program FWS/OBS-82/20 July 1982 MARINE BIRDS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES AND GULF OF MEXICO Part II ANSERIFORMES / WHOI ( DOCUMENT \ COLLECTION Bureau of Land Management Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Department of the Interior The Biological Services Program was established within the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to supply scientific information and methodologies on key environmental issues that impact fish and wildlife resources and their supporting ecosystems. The mission of the program is as follows: • To strengthen the Fish and Wildlife Service in its role as a primary source of information on national fish and wild- life resources, particularly in respect to environmental impact assessment. • To gather, analyze, and present information that will aid decisionmakers in the identification and resolution of problems associated with major changes in land and water use. t To provide better ecological information and evaluation for Department of the Interior development programs, such as those relating to energy development. Information developed by the Biological Services Program is intended for use in the planning and decisionmaking process to prevent or minimize the impact of development on fish and wildlife. Research activities and technical assistance services are based on an analysis of the issues, a determination of the decisionmakers involved and their information needs, and an evaluation of the state of the art to identify information gaps and to determine priorities. This is a strategy that will ensure that the products produced and disseminated are timely and useful. Projects have been initiated in the following areas: coal extraction and conversion; power plants; geothermal , mineral and oil shale develop- ment; water resource analysis, including stream alterations and western water allocation; coastal ecosystems and Outer Continental Shelf develop- ment; and systems inventory, including National Wetland Inventory, habitat classification and analysis, and information transfer. The Biological Services Program consists of the Office of Biological Services in Washington, D.C., which is responsible for overall planning and management; National Teams, which provide the Program's central scientific and technical expertise and arrange for contracting bioloqical services studies with states, universities, consulting firms, and others; Regional Staffs, who provide a link to problems at the operating level; and staffs at certain Fish and Wildlife Service research facilities, who conduct in-house research studies. i- 51 I ru I =0 - m : en = o ■ r-^ i □ : rn □ FWS/OBS-82/20 July 1982 MARINE BIRDS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES AND GULF OF MEXICO PART II ANSERIFORMES by Roger B. Clapp, Deborah Morgan-Jacobs , and Richard C. Banks Museum Section United States Fish and Wildlife Service National Museum of Natural History Washington, D.C. 20560 Contract No. 14-16-0009-78-917 Project Officer Jill Parker National Coastal Ecosystems Team United States Fish and Wildlife Service NASA-SI idell Computer Complex 1010 Gause Boulevard Slidell, Louisiana 70458 This project was sponsored by the Bureau of Land Management Prepared for Coastal Ecosystems Project Office of Biological Services Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Department of the Interior Washington, D.C. 20240 Library of Congress Card Number 82-600553 This report should be cited as: Clapp, R. B. , D. Morgan-Jacobs, and R. C. Banks. 1982. Marine birds of the southeastern United States and Gulf of Mexico. Part II: Anseri formes . U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services, Washington, D.C. FWS/OBS-82/20. 492 pp. PREFACE Part II of the volumes Marine Birds of the Southeastern United States and Gulf of Mexico, published by the National Coastal Ecosystems Team, provides a synthesis and analysis of information about marine birds in this area. Accounts for 41 species include information on distribution, abundance, and suscepti- bility to oil pollution. More detailed information on distribution in the southeast and a summary of food habits and habitats utilized are presented for 17 species. Information on breeding ecology is summarized for 12 species that we think are most likely to be affected by oil pollution. Selected bib- liographies follow each species account and include additional sources of in- formation. Any suggestions or questions regarding this report should be directed to: Information Transfer Specialist National Coastal Ecosystems Team U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service NASA-SI idell Computer Complex 1010 Gause Boulevard Slidell, Louisiana 70458 iii ABSTRACT Information on the seasonal distribution and abundance of 41 species of waterfowl of the order Anseriformes that occur in the coastal southeastern United States has been compiled and mapped from the literature. In many in- stances this provides the first synthesis of knowledge about a species for this region. For the species we consider most important in coastal areas we also provide information on world-wide distribution, habitat, food, and vari- ous aspects of life history. This information was gathered in an attempt to assess the possible effects of offshore oil development on populations of marine birds in the southeast. The susceptibility of birds to oil depends not only on their juxtaposi- tion in time and space, but also on currents and climatic factors and on the stage of the life or annual cycle and the behavior of the species. Contamina- tion by oil may result in matting of the feathers with death following from chilling, starvation, and the ingestion of oil during preening. Among the birds covered by this report, the sea ducks and diving ducks are considered the most susceptible to oil pollution in the southeast. Most of the other ducks, geese, and swans covered in the report are relatively insusceptible to oil pollution because they are seldom found in areas where oiling is likely to occur. One of the conclusions reached by this report is that we know very little about the status and populations of some of the anatids that occur in the southeast. Some of these species (e.g., the scoters) are among those that may be expected to be most detrimentally affected by development of oil resources. In general, most species that are widely hunted are relatively well studied, but much is unknown of those that are not game birds. iv CONTENTS Page PREFACE iii ABSTRACT iv MAPS ix TABLES xi ABBREVIATIONS USED IN TEXT xii PURPOSE OF REPORT 1 STUDY AREA 1 Habitats 1 Climates 3 METHODS 4 ARRANGEMENT AND CONTENT OF SPECIES ACCOUNTS 7 Species Included 7 Scientific and Vernacular Names 8 General Distribution 9 Distribution in the Coastal Southeastern United States 10 Synopsis of Present Distribution and Abundance 10 Habitat 10 Food and Feeding Behavior 11 . Important Biological Parameters 11 Susceptibility to Oil Pollution 12 Species Bibliography 12 OIL POLLUTION AND MARINE BIRDS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES .... 13 Variability in Species* Susceptibility to Oil Pollution 14 Regional Differences in Oiling and Mortality of Beached Birds .... 14 Major Birdkills Following Oil Spills in the Southeastern U.S 17 Sources of Variation in Mortality from Oil Pollution 18 Effects of Oil on Contaminated Birds and Their Eggs 19 Potential Hazards to Marine Birds from Offshore Oil Production .... 20 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 21 Choice of Species for Future Research 21 Research Needed on Effects of Oil on Southeastern Marine Birds .... 24 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 26 Page ANSERIFORMES Anatidae Fulvous Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna bicolor) account . . bibliography Black-bellied Whistling Duck (Dendrocygna autumnalis). account . . bibliography Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) account . . bibliography Whistling Swan (Olor columbianus) account . . bibliography White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons) account . . bibliography Snow Goose (Chen caerulescens) account . . bibliography Ross1 Goose (Chen rossii) account . . bibliography Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) account . . bibliography Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis) account . . bibliography Brant (Branta bernicla) account . . bibliography Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) account . . bibliography Eurasian Wigeon (Anas penelope) account . . bibliography American Wigeon (Anas americana) account . . bibliography Gadwall (Anas strepera) account . . bibliography Green-winged Teal (Anas crecca) account . . bibliography Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) account . . bibliography vi 28 28 33 33 38 39 47 56 63 63 71 74 89 89 94 94 . 114 . 114 . 119 . 125 . 134 . 134 . 148 . 148 . 153 . 153 . 159 . 159 . 165 . 167 . 175 . 178 Page Mottled Duck (Anas fulvigula) account ... 202 bibliography . 208 Black Duck (Anas rubripes) account ... 211 bibliography . 219 Northern Pintail (Anas acuta) account ... 229 bibliography . 231 Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors) account ... 237 bibliography . 237 Cinnamon Teal (Anas cyanoptera) account . . . 245 bibliography . 245 Northern Shoveler (Anas clypeata) account ... 250 bibliography . 252 Canvasback (Aythya valisineria) account . . . 256 bibliography . 264 Redhead (Aythya americana) account . . . 270 bibliography . 277 Ring-necked Duck (Aythya collaris) account ... 284 bibliography . 286 Greater Scaup (Aythya marila) account . . . 290 bibliography . 297 Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis) account ... 301 bibliography . 310 Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) account . . . 315 bibliography . 319 King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) account ... 331 bibliography . 332 Harlequin Duck (Histrionicus histrionicus) account . . . 335 bibliography . 336 Oldsquaw (Clangula hyemalis) account ... 338 bibliography . 347 Black Scoter (Melanitta nigra) account ... 353 bibliography . 363 Surf Scoter (Melanitta perspicillata) account ... 368 bibliography . 374 vii Page White-winged Scoter (Melanitta fusca) account . . bibliography Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) account . . bibliography Buf flehead (Bucephala albeola) account . . bibliography Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) account . . bibliography Red-breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator) account . . bibliography Common Merganser (Mergus merganser) account . . bibliography Masked Duck (Oxyura dominica) account . . bibliography Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis) account . . bibliography 377 383 389 397 406 413 418 420 423 433 438 444 452 453 454 461 LITERATURE CITED 467 viii MAPS Number Page 1 Winter Distribution Map for the Whistling Swan 48 2 Winter Distribution Map for the White-fronted Goose 64 3 Winter Distribution Map for the White-raorph Snow Goose 72 4 Winter Distribution Map for the Blue-morph Snow Goose 73 5 Winter Distribution Map for the Canada Goose 95 6 Winter Distribution Map for the Brant 120 7 Winter Distribution Map for the Wood Duck 135 8 Winter Distribution Map for the American Wigeon 154 9 Winter Distribution Map for the Gadwall 160 10 Winter Distribution Map for the Green-winged Teal 166 11 Winter Distribution Map for the Mallard 176 12 Winter Distribution Map for the Mottled Duck 204 13 Winter Distribution Map for the Black Duck 213 14 Winter Distribution Map for the Northern Pintail 230 15 Winter Distribution Map for the Blue-winged Teal 238 16 Winter Distribution Map for the Cinnamon Teal 246 17 Winter Distribution Map for the Northern Shoveler 251 18 Winter Distribution Map for the Canvasback 258 19 Winter Distribution Map for the Redhead 274 20 Winter Distribution Map for the Ring-necked Duck 285 21 Winter Distribution Map for the Greater Scaup 292 22 Winter Distribution Map for the Lesser Scaup 303 23 Winter Distribution Map for the Common Eider 316 24 Winter Distribution Map for the Oldsquaw 340 ix Number Page 25 Winter Distribution Map for the Black Scoter 354 26 Winter Distribution Map for the Surf Scoter 370 27 Winter Distribution Map for the White-winged Scoter 378 28 Winter Distribution Map for the Common Goldeneye 392 29 Winter Distribution Map for the Bufflehead 408 30 Winter Distribution Map for the Hooded Merganser 419 31 Winter Distribution Map for the Red-breasted Merganser 424 32 Winter Distribution Map for the Ruddy Duck 458 TABLES Number PaSe 1 Number and percentage of beached birds examined and oiled 15 2 Comparison1 of regional and seasonal variation of beached bird mortality and incidence of oiling in the eastern United States ... 16 3 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Mallards found after major oiling incidents 177 4 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Black Ducks found after major oiling incidents 219 5 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Greater Scaup found after major oiling incidents 298 6 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Common Eiders found after major oiling incidents 317 7 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Oldsquaws found after major oiling incidents 345 8 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Black Scoters found after major oiling incidents 361 9 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Surf Scoters found after major oiling incidents 374 10 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead White-winged Scoters found after major oiling incidents 384 11 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Common Goldeneyes found after major oiling incidents 396 12 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Bufflehead found after major oiling incidents 414 13 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Red-breasted Mergansers found after major oiling incidents 431 14 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Common Mergansers found after major oiling incidents 443 15 Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Ruddy Ducks found after major oiling incidents 462 xi ABBREVIATIONS USED IN TEXT Most of the abbreviations used in the text are in standard use and will be known to the reader; a few may be less farailar. These are listed below with a brief indication of their interpretation. N, S, E, W, N. , S., E., ac ad. AOU BOU BLM ca CBC cf . coll. comp . Co. CSLP EBBA et. seq. ha IBBA imm. in litt. in prep. ns n Natl. Park Natl. Seasho nonad . NWR op. cit. Par. pers. coram. pers. observ photogr. prep. SD spec . sp./spp. St. Park subad . subseq . unpubl . USFWS WAGBI WMA (capitalized without period) W. (capitalized with period) re compass directions geographic site designation (e S. Padre Island) acre adult American Ornithologists' Union British Ornithologists' Union Bureau of Land Management (circa) about Christmas Bird Count (confer) compare/see collected compiler County Center for Short-lived Phenomena Eastern Bird Banding Association and the following hectare Inland Bird Banding Association immature in the letters (of) in preparation manuscript sample size National Park National Seashore nonadult National Wildlife Refuge (opere citato) in the work cited Parish personal communication personal observation photographed preparer Standard Deviation specimen species (sing./plu.) State Park subadult subsequent unpublished United States Fish and Wildlife Service Waterfowlers Association of Great Britain and Ireland Wildlife Management Area xii Units of measurement in the text are presented as they were in the source from which they were derived and are followed by parenthetical conversion to the metric or English systems, as appropriate. xiii PURPOSE OF REPORT The purpose of this report is to summarize the status of waterfowl in the southeastern United States and explore the potential effects on these species of the development of petroleum resources on the outer continental shelf (OCS). This entailed a review of available information in order to: 1) determine where and when waterfowl occur in marine areas to be developed for oil and gas production; 2) ascertain which species would be most at risk from oil and the development of oil resources; 3) evaluate the importance of populations in the southeastern United States in relation to the entire distribution and abundance of the species; 4) summarize information on the life history of species most likely to be ad- versely affected by development of oil resources. This material is presented in a form that enables the Bureau of Land Man- agement (BLM) to identify aspects of OCS development that might threaten popu- lations of marine birds. It provides information that will aid managers in making decisions that minimize damage to these populations during the develop- ment of energy resources. A corollary objective is to recommend topics for future research in areas for which information is particularly scarce. STUDY AREA The study area encompasses the coastal and offshore waters of the south- eastern United States, from the northern border of North Carolina to the Mexican border. A wide variety of coastal habitats occurs within this area: sandy bar- rier islands; fresh, salt, and brackish marshes; open beach; coastal bays; dredge spoil islands; mud-flats; and mangrove islands. The dominant habitats of sections of the coastline will be discussed below. HABITATS North Carolina is dominated by a series of fringing barrier beaches behind which lie large estuaries with extensive areas of shallow water and salt marsh. These fringing islands (the Outer Banks) are farther (30-50 km or 20-30 mi) from the mainland than are such islands along other areas of the Atlantic coast (Warinner et al. 1976). Extensive stands of salt marsh with deep tidal channels are found south of Cape Lookout, North Carolina, through South Carolina and Georgia. Almost three-quarters of the salt marsh acreage along the Atlantic seaboard is found in these three states. The largest areas of salt marsh on the Atlantic coast are in Georgia, which has 193,000 ha (477,000 ac) , North Carolina 1 (64,000 ha or 158,000 ac) , and South Carolina (176,000 ha or 435,000 ac)(West 1977). Barrier islands are also very important coastal habitat in these three states. The land areas of the barrier islands for each state are 120,000 ac (48,000 ha) in North Carolina, 124,000 ac (50,200 ha) in South Carolina, and 153,000 ac (62,000 ha) in Georgia (Warner 1976), for a total of about 397,000 ac (160,000 ha). The area of water behind these islands becomes smaller to the south (Warinner et al . 1976). These three states (North Carolina, South Caro- lina, and Georgia) respectively have about 266 mi (428 km), 199 mi (320 km), and 98 mi (158 km) of open beach along their barrier islands. In other parts of the study area (e.g., parts of the Florida Gulf coast), beaches are few or nonexistent (Woolfenden and Schreiber 1973). The east coast of Florida is dominated by a chain of barrier islands oc- casionally broken by tidal passes. Typically, these islands are sandy along their outer perimeters. Large areas of marsh and estuarine swamp lie landward of these islands (Warinner et al. 1976) and salt marshes gradually give way to mangrove swamp (Reimold 1977). Much of the Gulf coast of Florida is dominated by salt marshes and mangrove swamps (Wariner et al. 1976). Open beach is ex- tensive from Naples on the Florida peninsula north along the panhandle to Ala- bama (Woolfenden and Schreiber 1973). In Alabama, tidal salt marsh, sandy beaches, and offshore islands are common coastal landforms. Mississippi's Gulf coast consists almost entirely of barrier Islands that have salt marshes in their centers. The shoreline of Mississippi is extensively developed but still contains fresh, salt, and brackish marshes (Warinner et al. 1976). Only a lim- ited amount of salt marsh is found between northern Florida and Mississippi. Most marshes are small, disjunct, and in alluvial pockets protected by bay shores (West 1977) . Louisiana has more marsh and estuarine area than any of the other United States except Alaska (Warinner et al. 1976) and contains nearly half the total acreage of salt marsh in the contiguous United States. In some places the marshes extend inland as much as 40-50 km (25-30 mi)(West 1977). The coastline along the western third of the state is sandy, but the rest of the area is dom- inated by barrier islands and marsh that are strongly influenced by the enor- mous amounts of mud and silt deposited by the Mississippi River (Warinner et al . 1976). The Louisiana coast Is one of the most productive areas for marine birds in the continental United States and supports enormous wintering popula- tions of waterfowl. The coast of Texas makes up a large portion of the western shore of the Gulf of Mexico. Sandy beaches and offshore barrier islands are abundant. Two semi-landlocked lagoons, the Upper and Lower Laguna Madre, and a large low- salinity estuary, Sabine Lake, are areas of great importance to wintering water- fowl. An estimated 78% of the world's population of Redhead ducks winters in the Laguna Madre, and 13% of the world's shrimp harvest comes from Texas waters (Warinner et al. 1976). A limited amount of salt marsh is present in Texas along bay shores enclosed by offshore bars (West 1977). CLIMATES The climatic regime, like the landform, differs widely from one part of the study area to another. The northeastern portion is the coldest. The low- est midwinter temperatures along the coast of North Carolina are on the order of 20°F (-7°C) and the average daily maximum during midsummer along the extreme southern coast is only 86 °F (30°C), some 6°F less than is usually recorded in the interior. July is the wettest month and October the driest. Along the coast, snow and sleet usually fall only once or twice a year and are usually associated with northeasterly winds. Prevailing winds in North Carolina blow from the southwest most of the year and from the northeast in September and Oct- ober (Hardy 1974). The weather along the coast of South Carolina is similar to that in North Carolina with some variation. Average annual temperatures along the South Carolina coast are about 68°F (20°C), with an average daily maximum in July of 88°F (31°C) and average daily rainimums in January from 35°F (1.7°C) in the northeast to 42 °F (6°C) in the southeast. March is particularly rainy along the coast, and October and November are the driest months. Prevailing winds in South Carolina are from the southwest and south in spring and summer, predominantly from the northeast in autumn, and from the northeast and southwest in winter (Landers 1974). The climate in Georgia is characterized by short mild winters and warm hu- mid summers. The coastal area becomes progressively drier and warmer from north to south. Peak periods of precipitation occur in winter and early spring; the average annual rainfall ranges from 75 in (190 cm) in the extreme northeastern part of the state to 53 in (135 cm) along the lower east coast. Average summer temperatures range from 73 °F (23 °C) in the extreme north to 82 °F (28 °C) in parts of south Georgia; average temperature for the three winter months ranges from 41 °F (5°C) in the north to 56°F (13°C) on the lower east coast. Areas in north- ern Georgia have freezing temperatures during the day for almost a third of the year but the lower coast only has about ten days of freezing temperatures annu- ally (Carter 1974). Florida has a wider range of climate than any other state in the southeast . The climate ranges from temperate to subtropical in the north, to tropical in the Florida Keys. Summers are warm, humid, and long, and winters are mild and brief. Rainfall is abundant, especially from June to September. Mean annual temperatures range from the upper 60 ' s (F) in northern Florida to the mid-70' s in the south and reach nearly 78°F (26°C) at Key West. Rainfall varies widely from area to area and from year to year, with most areas usually receiving be- tween 50-65 in (127-165 cm). The drier Keys have an average annual rainfall of only about 40 in (100 cm). On the southern part of the peninsula, prevailing winds are from the southeast and east; elsewhere they are more erratic but tend to be from the north in winter and from the south in summer. Tropical storms frequently cause great damage; few years pass without a hurricane affecting part of the state (Bradley 1974). The Gulf has a maritime tropical climate with mean winter temperatures of about 70°F (21 °C) and mean summer temperatures of 84°F (29°C). Relative to sea- sons in other parts of the study area, both summer and winter are hot and humid; humidity is greatest during spring and summer and lowest during late fall and winter (BLM 1978a). Rain occurs fairly evenly throughout the year along the eastern and northern Gulf, with a peak, from June through August ( BLM 1978a). The peak tends to be later farther east and falls in August and September (BLM 1978b). The area becomes progressively wetter from the southwest to the north and central portions of the northern Gulf. The driest area of the Texas coast extends from Brownsville north to about Corpus Christi; the most humid area from Galveston to the Sabine River (Chaney et al. 1978). Average annual precipita- tion ranges from about 69 cm (27 in) at Brownsville to 137 cm (54 in) at New Orleans (BLM 1978a) and 170 cm (67 in) in Mobile (BLM 1978b). Tropical storms and hurricanes that often ravage coastal habitats are reg- ular during late summer and fall and enter the Gulf largely through the Yucatan Channel and Straits of Florida (BLM 1978a). Southeasterly winds predominate over the northern Gulf during the summer. Easterlies are more common during the winter, and prevailing winds from the west and southwest are rare at any time of year (BLM 1978a). METHODS Most of the information was obtained by a standard literature search. Ad- ditional information on oiling of individual species of birds and their distri- bution was obtained through examination of museum specimens and interviews , but these were not major sources. Several computerized information retrieval sys- tems were investigated but the data did not meet our needs. These sources were particularly weak on the local distribution of birds, much of which is to be found in regional journals not covered by computer services; the temporal cover- age was also inadequate for this study. Visual searches of periodicals "proved far more productive from the standpoint of both numbers of citations and thor- oughness of the search", as Bartonek and Lensink (1978) pointed out in a review and bibliography of the literature of marine birds of Alaska. We obtained literature citations primarily by scanning the literature and by consulting bibliographies in relevant papers. The primary sources for the journals, books, and papers were the libraries and reprint files of the Bird Divisions of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. and the American Mu- seum of Natural History, New York. Other major sources of information were the library of the Department of the Interior, the Library of Congress, and the Bird Library and reprint files of the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland. The Welder Wildlife Foundation, Sinton, Texas, and the library of government publications and reports maintained by the National Coastal Ecosys- tems Team, Slidell, Louisiana, were particularly rich sources of information otherwise difficult to obtain. Unpublished reports and papers were obtained from: the Florida Audubon Society, Vero Beach; the Florida Fish and Game Com- mission, Gainesville; and Everglades National Park, Homestead; and other indi- viduals listed in the acknowledgments. Several dozen valuable but unpublished theses were obtained from several educational institutions. Searches were made of several secondary sources of literature citations. Literature review sections of major ornithological journals, particularly The Auk, The Ibis, and Bird-Banding, were especially useful, as was Wildlife Review. We also made extensive use of Current Contents, Oil Pollution Abstracts, and Dissertation Abstracts. Biological Abstracts, Ecological Abstracts, and the Zoological Record were also consulted but were less efficient sources of infor- mation. All state bird journals dealing with the southeastern United States (see list below) were scanned; these journals, along with American Birds (Audu- bon Field Notes in earlier volumes) , provided much of the information on local distribution in each state. We placed considerable emphasis on recentness of information in the liter- ature search. A few journals (e.g., Wilson Bulletin, Bird-Banding) were exam- ined for at least 30 years into the past, The Auk from 1930 to the present. Many others, depending on the degree to which they yielded useful information, were scanned for only a few recent years. We covered the foreign literature as thoroughly as possible. Most of the species treated in this report have a wide geographic distribution, and much of what is known of their breeding biology is to be found only in foreign periodicals. The linguistic limitations of the authors, as well as the temporal and fiscal limitations involved in the produc- tion of this report, precluded full use of this material. Listed below are the serial publications covered extensively. Where appro- priate, those areas of the world that these journals cover most thoroughly are listed in parentheses. Acta Ornithologica (Poland, U.S.S.R. ) Alauda (France, French Africa) Animal Behavior Ardea (western Europe) Atoll Research Bulletin Auk (North America, world) Alabama Birds American Birds (Audubon Field Notes) (United States, Canada) Atlantic Naturalist (Delaware to Virginia) Australian Bird Watcher Behaviour Bird-Banding (Journal of Field Ornithology) (United States) Bird Study (Great Britain) British Birds Bulletin of the Kansas Ornithological Society Bulletin of the Texas Ornithological Society Biologia (Bratislava) (Seria B) ( Czechoslovakia) Biotropica Blue Jay (central Canada) Bulletin of the British Ornitholo- gists' Club (world) Bulletin of the Oklahoma Ornitholo- gical Society California Fish and Game Canadian Journal of Zoology Chesapeake Science (Estuaries) (U.S. Atlantic coast) Dansk Fugle (Denmark) Ecology Ekologia Polska (Poland) Canadian Field-Naturalist Chat (North and South Carolina) Condor (North America, neotropics) Corella (Austalian Bird-Bander) Dansk Ornithologisk Forenings Tids- skrift (Denmark) Elepaio (Hawaii) El Hornero (Argentina) Fauna (Oslo) (Norway) Florida Naturalist Gerfaut (western Europe, Africa) Emu (Australia, New Guinea) Florida Field Naturalist Florida Scientist Ibis (Old World, Africa) Jack-Pine Warbler (Michigan) Journal of Animal Ecology Journal of Applied Ecology Journal of Wildlife Management (N. America) Larus (Yugoslavia, eastern Europe) L°Oiseau et la Revue Francaise d°Ornithologie (France, world) Journal fur Ornithologie (Germany, world) Journal of Ecology Kingbird (New York) Limosa (Netherlands) Loon (Minnesota) Louisiana Ornithological Society News Marine Pollution Bulletin Mississippi Kite Murrelet (Pacific northwestra Alaska, western Canada) Notornis (New Zealand, Pacific islands) Oikos (Denmark, Scandinavia) Ornis Fennica (Finland, Baltic area) Der Ornithologische Beobachter (Switzerland, middle Europe) Ostrich (South Africa) Maryland Birdlife Mississippi Ornithological Society Newsletter Nos Oiseaux (France, western Europe) Oriole (Georgia) Ornis Scandinavica (Scandinavia, Finland) Ornithologische Mitteilungen (world) Proceedings of the Louisiana Academy of Science Revue Suisse de Zoologie (Switzerland, central Europe) Ring (Europe, world) Rivista Italiana di Ornithologia (Italy) Scottish Birds Southwestern Naturalist (southwestern U.S.) Suomen Riista (Finland, Baltic area) Texas Journal of Science Transactions of the North American Wild- life and Natural Resources Conference Die Vogelwarte (western and central Europe) Wilson Bulletin (North America, world) Zoologichesky Zhurnal (U.S.S.R.) Proceedings of the Annual Conference Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissioners (southeastern U.S.) Ringing & Migration (Great Britain, world) South Australian Ornithologist Soviet Journal of Ecology Sterna (Norway) Tori (Japan) Var Vagelvarld (Sweden) Vestnik Zoologi (U.S.S.R.) Western Birds (western U.S.) Wildfowl Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie The reprint files of several institutions were a particularly fertile source for some undistributed material. The most useful of these were the files of the National Fish and Wildlife Laboratory, the Bird Division of the National Museum of Natural History, the American Museum of Natural History, and the Bird Library of the Gabrielson Laboratory of Patuxent National Wildlife Research Center. In all, about 10,000 citations dealing directly with the species treated are included in the three parts of this report. Perhaps an additional 1,000 more general articles are listed in the Literature Cited sections at the end of the three volumes. ARRANGEMENT AND CONTENT OF SPECIES ACCOUNTS Waterfowl are among the most studied species of birds, and the technical and popular literature on this group is tremendous in volume and scope. Three major works (Johnsgard 1975; Bellrose 1976; Palmer 1976a, 1976b) on North Amer- ican waterfowl were published in the past decade. Each of these works provides information on life history, distribution, status of populations, and other as- pects of waterfowl biology. Each also approaches the study of waterfowl in a different way (Weller 1977) and to some extent is based on a different set of primary literature, although there is a great deal of overlap. Another source (Cramp et al. 1977) summarized what is known of waterfowl in waterfowl in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Many of the species covered by Cramp et al. also occur in North America. We relied heavily on these works in the prepara- tion of this report, both for their informational content and as a guide to the primary literature. However, we supplemented these summaries with literature that has appeared since their publication and that provides some kinds of infor- mation that none of these works fully explored. The accounts for the 41 species included in this section of the report vary considerably in length and in detail. Twenty-four of the species covered are either uncommon in the southeastern states or are found there primarily in fresh water. Because these species, for reasons of geographic distribution or habitat selection, form a very insignificant part of the marine avifauna of the south- east and because their populations would not be threatened by development of energy resources along the coast, their accounts are much abbreviated: we pre- sent only a short synopsis of the status and distribution of the species, with emphasis on the southeastern states, and a statement about the potential effects of development of petroleum resources offshore. We present a full bibliography for each of these species. Seventeen species of waterfowl treated herein are either important members of the fauna of the southeastern United States or are species (e.g., Oldsquaw [Clangula hyemalis] ) known to be highly susceptible to oil pollution elsewhere. For these species, we provide more detailed accounts. SPECIES INCLUDED None of the waterfowl treated here are truly pelagic in the sense of occur- ring primarily far offshore. Most of the species for which we provide full ac- counts are found primarily in the open sea or on large embayments while wintei- ing in the southeastern states or passing through on spring and fall migrations. Many sea ducks and diving ducks tend to congregate into large rafts when feeding or resting, making them vulnerable to oil pollution. Other species included here frequent inshore areas or coastal marshes primarily, where their vulnera- bility to contamination may be indirect, by contamination of food resources. Other species occur almost solely on fresh water in coastal areas and are quite unlikely to suffer any direct effect from oil pollution. This report includes accounts for 41 of the 53 species of ducks, geese, and swans that we know have been reported in the coastal southeastern states. Species that have been excluded occur only accidentally in the southeast. Re- cords for eight (West Indian Whistling Duck [Dendrocygna arborea] , Red-breasted Goose [Branta ruf icollis] , Ruddy Shelduck [Tadorna ferruginea] , Baikal Teal [Anas formosa] , Falcated Teal [Anas falcata] , Garganey [A. querquedula] , Man- darin Duck [ Aix galericulata] , Muscovy Duck [Cairina moschata] ) of the eleven species excluded are likely based on escaped captive birds. Two other species that we have not included stray into the southeast only rarely, one from the north (Barrow's Golden-eye [Bucephala islandica] ) and the other from the Carib- bean (White-cheeked Pintail [Anas bahamensis] ) . We have also excluded the Smew (Mergus albellus) because the record from Louisiana is believed to be unsatis- factory (Palmer 1976b). The remaining species excluded, the Trumpeter Swan (Cygnus buccinator) , formerly wintered along the Texas and Louisiana coasts but is no longer found there (Palmer 1976a). Nearly half the species treated here occur primarily in freshwater habi- tats in the southeast. Most of the rest occur primarily in marine and coastal areas or are found widely on both fresh and salt water in the southeast . Some of these, primarily freshwater species (e.g., Mallard [Anas platyrhynchos] , Common Pintail [Anas acuta] ) , occur in the southeast in extremely large numbers during winter and others (e.g., Lesser Scaup [Aythya aff inis] , Redhead [Aythya americana] ) are of considerable economic importance because they are major game bird species. Two species treated more fully (Black Duck [Anas rubripes] and Canvasback [Aythya valisinerla] ) are on the most recent Blue List (Tate 1981), a list that attempts to identify species declining in all or part of their range. The Black Duck is seriously threatened by genetic swamping by populations of Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) now breeding in the eastern United States (Tate 1981), and the Canvasback is a much hunted species whose harvest is being carefully regu- lated by the Fish and Wildlife Service. SCIENTIFIC AND VERNACULAR NAMES The species accounts are headed by the English and scientific names of the species, followed by vernacular names in other languages and alternative names in English. The primary English names and scientific names are based on those used by the American Ornithologists' Union Check-list (AOU 1957) and its sup- plements (AOU 1973, 1976). Footnotes explain recently adopted changes in sci- entific names. The arrangement of species within the family Anatidae follows the revised edition of Volume I of Peters' Check-list of Birds of the World (Johnsgard 1979). The primary source for most of the non-English vernacular names was the Nomina Avium Europaearum (Jorgensen 1958); other sources consulted included Dement ' ev and Gladkov (1952), Austin and Kuroda (1953), Edwards (1972), and Cramp et al. (1977). The abbreviations for the languages and other geographi- cal usages appearing in this section are as follows: PR: Portuguese RU: Russian SAf: South African DA: Danish IC: Icelandic DU: Dutch IT: Italian EN: English (Old World) JA: Japanese NW: Norwegian SP: Spanish NZ: New Zealand SW: Swedish PO: Polish US: United States FI: Finnish FR: French GE: German With few exceptions, the foreign language common names are those in the widest use in the ornithological literature of the countries indicated. In several instances we have included transliterated names from languages in which Roman characters are not used (Japanese, Russian). For Japanese names we have relied on Austin and Kuroda (1953) and for Russian names we have supplied the names used in translations of Dement 'ev and Gladkov (1952). A major reason for providing these alternative names is to assist future literature searches based on retrieval of citations by computer. In both the Old and New World literature, species treated in a paper are sometimes indicated in the title only by the vernacular names which are often used as keywords in computer retrieval systems. In addition, some of the English translations of foreign language names (which are those entered on computers) imply a different species than the name would normally suggest to a reader of English or cannot be readily associated with an English name. As a result, searches of computer literature systems by scientific name alone may fail to indicate important notes or papers that document recent changes in distribution. We supply alternative scientific names widely or recently in use as another aid to searches of literature compiled on computers. The Caspian Tern appears in recent literature as Sterna caspia, Sterna tschegrava, Hydroprogne tschegrava, and Hydroprogne caspia, as well as with caspius as a variant of the specific epithet. One computer search we made revealed no less than four different lists of titles when each scientific name was used as a keyword. Such differences in taxonomic usage might well cause confusion when computer-based retrieval of or- nithological information is attempted for a wide geographic area. On the other hand, when the translated foreign name is one of widespread use in English speak- ing countries we have not bothered to list it. In some instances we have listed more than one vernacular name for a for- eign language; this is particularly true for Spanish, in which vernacular names may vary considerably from area to area. The means by which this report was produced precluded a highly accurate rendering of foreign words which incorpo- rate characters or accents not available in our production process. As a re- sult, there are lapses in our orthography, particularly for Icelandic and the Scandinavian tongues. GENERAL DISTRIBUTION This section is divided into two parts, one giving occurrence in North Amer- ica, the other occurrence elsewhere in the world. Most of this information was taken from standard distributional works, but we supplemented this material where possible with more recent literature. Breeding and wintering ranges are emphasized in this section, with less information given on areas of occurrence during migration; material relating to North America is more detailed and more complete than for other areas of the world. DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES In this section we present more detailed remarks on distribution in the southeast. We incorporated as much recent information through 1979 as we were able to obtain. This section is based on the most recent state ornithological handbooks and check-lists, and includes information from a search through sea- sonal observations published in American Birds and state journals. It also includes information from a number of unpublished manuscripts dealing with dis- tribution in various sections of the southeast. This section also incorporates information on seasonal occurrence, breeding status and numbers, and occasion- ally brief remarks on habitats. The emphasis is on coastal areas, but in some cases remarks are also made about status elsewhere in the state. Available data for some species are unsatisfactory, incomplete, or extremely scanty. This is particularly true for transients whose numbers are seldom recorded. Information is given in order by state from North Carolina south and west to Texas; we did not list states in which a species has not been recorded. SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE This section in the species accounts summarizes information given in the previous sections, often with additional data on population levels in the coast- al southeastern United States. Some additional information on the world-wide status of the species may be included, depending on our present knowledge of the species. We show distribution of waterfowl wintering in coastal areas on a series of maps. Most of these maps are based on Bystrak (1974), whose report was based on an analysis of National Audubon Society Christmas Bird Counts (CBC) for one or more of the years from 1970 to 1972. We chose 45 of 58 coastal Christmas Bird Counts in the study area and compiled 5-year means for 1973-1977. In some instances fewer than five years of counts were available and the mean is for a shorter period. We picked the localities to show geographic variation in num- bers and to emphasize where the largest concentrations were found. These figures should not be construed as indicating the true size of local populations. The Christmas Bird Counts varied considerably in the amount of estuarine, coastal, and marine habitat covered, but we tried to allow for this by choosing counts that contained the most marine habitat. We realize that the numbers reported in any given year may not be precise because of the limitations of Christmas Bird Counts. We intend these maps to serve primarily as an index of where winter concentrations are likely to be found and to show how this dis- tribution varies throughout the southeast. HABITAT This section usually consists of brief remarks dealing with nesting, feed- ing, and winter habitats. As in other sections in the species accounts, the extent and detail of information reported depends on the relative importance of the species in the southeast. 10 FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Here again, the amount of information given varies depending on the rela- tive importance of the species in the southeastern marine avifauna and on the amount of information available. In all cases we gave at least a brief general statement on the types of foods eaten and the primary feeding methods. In some instances we included more detailed information on food habits, briefly abstract- ing recent studies and indicating proportions of different varieties of foods eaten. For a few species for which much recent information is available, we summarized food habits by geographic area. For species whose food habits have been well documented, we pointed out differences in food habits of adults and young, and commented on seasonal variation of food habits as well as difference in foods eaten in different habitats. We gave little specific data on food habits in southeastern waters because little or nothing is known of the diet in this area. IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS This section presents basic information to allow biologists to infer the effects of developing oil resources on populations and to help choose alternate courses of action in the planning of such developments. We include this infor- mation for only thirteen of the species discussed in this report because these species are those most likely to be affected by oil in southeastern waters. Much of the information is derived from studies conducted outside the southeast because only a few species of waterfowl breed in the southeast. The data in this section consist of brief summaries of the egg-laying peri- od, mean clutch size, incubation period, hatching success, fledging success, age at first breeding and at fledging, mortality of eggs and young (including infor- mation on renesting) , maximum natural longevity, and weight. Data on egg laying, incubation period, and age at fledging allow one to estimate when birds breeding within the study area are most vulnerable to disturbance. Information on mortal- ity and renesting describes factors that lower reproductive success and suggest the potential for recovery following a nesting failure. Data on clutch size and hatching and fledging success allow an estimate of productivity. Detailed life table data are unavailable for most of the species covered in these reports. Consequently, we have provided figures for known maximum natural longevity that will in some instances allow a crude comparison between species of the total re- productive potential. The maximum natural longevity is given in terms of "esti- mated minimum age" in years and months following Kennard (1975), and may list information based on banding in the United States and Canada and In the Old World. Finally, we include information on weights, since this and population data given elsewhere in the report will allow planners to compare species in terms of biomass affected as the result of any given oil-related activity. The quality and quantity of this information vary from species to species and from topic to topic. Many of the waterfowl treated in the second volume of this report are among the best-studied wild birds. For such species we make no attempt to give all the information available, but confine ourselves to brief summaries. For other species, particularly some of the seaducks , information is sparse or nonexistent. We have indicated this in each account. 11 SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Instances of oiling for a given species are documented to show the extent to which a species is known to be affected by oil. We stressed records from southeastern waters, but few data are available from this area. We report the number killed in major oiling incidents and the proportion this represented of the total number of all birds killed and identified to species. We may have missed reports of oiling for some species. Much of the Old World literature reports oiled birds only by species groups (e.g., gulls, divers, ducks). Some information may be found in Old World regional periodicals unavailable in the United States and not covered by computer-based literature retrieval systems. This section refers frequently to an oil-vulnerabity index for birds in the northeastern Pacific developed by King and Sanger (1979). That publication, while valuable, was used with caution since it refers to a different geographic area with a dissimilar environment and a different (but strongly overlapping) species complex. We included some of King and Sanger's index scores in this section, not to indicate the degree of vulnerability in the southeast (although we often think it is similar) , but rather to show the degree of vulnerability in another part of the range. The northeastern Pacific area is important to North American populations of a number of species of waterfowl that regularly occur in the southeast (e.g., Redhead, Canvasback, Lesser Scaup) and that are at risk from oil development activities in both areas. In addition, we estimated the overall potential effect of oil pollution and the development of oil resources on the species in the southeast, taking into account the known or suspected vulnerability of the species, its abundance in the southeast, and its abundance elsewhere. SPECIES BIBLIOGRAPHY At the end of each species account is a species bibliography that contains references to the distribution and biology of the species. Selected references to the species treated are also found in the species bibliography which follows the text in each account. The species bibliography also includes many other citations that provide additional data on the topics briefly covered in the text, as well as on various other aspects of the biology of the species. All citations used in the text are included in the bibliography at the end of this report . The species bibliographies are not exhaustive. In his account of the Can- ada Goose, Palmer (1976a) indicated he had seen over a thousand papers dealing with this species. To prepare complete or near-complete bibliographies for many of the species included in this volume would entail the publication of a series of books of many thousands of pages. The emphasis in our species bibliographies is placed on the ecology and behavior of the species. More general works and some distributional literature, are found in the terminal section of the Liter- ature Cited. Although some material on taxonomy, parasitology, hybrids, identi- fication, and disease may be included, we did not specifically search for this material. We covered the world literature because little is known of the biology of many of the waterfowl while they are in the coastal southeastern 12 United States and because most of the waterfowl breed only well north of the area under consideration. Our search of the literature also stressed recentness of information and each species bibliography should be relatively complete through mid-1980. Some important references published subsequently are included but these may not have been used in writing the account. The variety of recent papers covered is some- what greater than in Volume I because we attempted to provide a more complete listing of references that have appeared subsequent to recent handbooks. We have listed important papers dealing with the biology of the species going back to the early part of the century, but have been more complete with papers writ- ten in English. We include older references that are still major sources of information on the species. The species bibliographies are arranged from present to past with authors listed alphabetically under each year, rather than in the more conventional al- phabetical and chronological arrangement used in the Literature Cited. We did so to make it easier for the reader to find the most recent information on any topic covered by the bibliography. We have checked all references used in the text as well as a large propor- tion of the remaining references , but some citations from secondary sources re- main unverified. We estimate that the three volumes in this series will contain on the order of 10,000 references in the terminal species bibliographies, and our temporal and fiscal limitations were too great for us to undertake complete verification of all references included. OIL POLLUTION AND MARINE BIRDS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES With the possible exception of marine turtles, marine birds are the verte- brates most severely threatened by oil pollution and the development of oil re- sources. The work of Old World biologists presents clear evidence of severe and sub- stantial damage to several populations of marine birds. Specific, detailed in- formation on the effects of oiling and oil spills on wild birds and their popu- lations in the New World, let alone the southeastern United States, is very li- mited. Whether any given species has ever been oiled and what effect this may have had is unknown in many instances. Systematic gathering of data on the spe- cies composition of large seabird kills following oil spills has been done in- frequently in the New World and systematic surveys of beached birds have only recently begun in the United States. Furthermore, data on oiling of marine birds are scattered through a diverse body of literature. Many distributional notes reporting the first occurrence or first specimen of a species from a geo- graphic locality parenthetically note that the specimen was oiled. Other in- formation is scattered through regional distributional works, and yet more data, which we did not have time to explore fully, lies in the banding and recovery files of the Bird Banding Laboratory of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In Denmark, oil pollution kills thousands of seabirds each year. Most of 13 these are ducks, but many other species are also involved (Riisgard 1979). Oil has caused major losses in populations of Common Eiders in the Danish Waddensea (Joensen 1973), in breeding populations of Common Eiders and Black Scoters in Holland (Swennen and Spaans 1970) , and in populations of the Atlantic Puffin (Fratercula arctica) in France (Bourne 1976). Oil is also a major cause of death for Jackass Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) in South Africa (Randall et al. 1980). Other losses reported include the death of an estimated 25-50% of the Com- mon Loons wintering in Shetland, off Scotland, following the ESSO BERNICLA oil spill on 30 December 1978 (Stowe and Morgan 1979), and the loss of all Mallards, European Coots (Fulica atra) , and Moorhens (= Common Gallinule, Gallinula chlor- opus) following an oiling of the Amer River in the Netherlands; it was estimated that approximately 88% of the Greylag Geese (Anser anser) and about 71% of the Bewick's Swans (Cygnus columbianus bewickii) would ultimately be lost as well (Belterman 1972). Still other examples of major or significant reductions in avian populations due to oil pollution are given in reviews by Bourne (1968b, 1976), Croxall (1975), Vermeer and Vermeer (1975), and Food and Agricultural Or- ganization of the United Nations (1977). VARIABILITY IN SPECIES' SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Surveys of beached birds are biased indicators of what proportion of a pop- ulation is affected by oiling (Bourne 1976). However, the proportions of spe- cies found oiled gives some idea of differences in susceptibility between dif- ferent groups of birds and also suggests the magnitude of the oil pollution problem for a given area. Such surveys also provide data on seasonal variation in the incidence and extent of oil pollution. Table 1 gives the percentage of beached birds that were oiled in four different areas. Species such as loons, grebes, auks, and seaducks are most affected, whereas more aerial species such as gulls and terns are usually among the least affected. REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN OILING AND MORTALITY OF BEACHED BIRDS Although beached bird surveys in the eastern United States have been con- ducted for only a relatively short time, the extent of oiling in birds found dead along the southern Atlantic coast appears low compared with other areas in the United States and elsewhere. Only 4% of 400 birds found dead along the south Atlantic coast from January 1976 through August 1978 were oiled. In con- trast, oiling occurred in 82% of 667 birds found along the Polish Baltic coast from November 1974 to August 1975 (Gorski et al. 1977), in 26% of 162 found along Irish coasts from December 1977 to March 1978 (O'Keeffe 1978), in 79% of 3,431 found on the international beached bird surveys in Northwest Europe in January-March 1975 (Lloyd 1976), and in 18% of 2,420 found along the California coast in 1975 (Ainley 1976). Bird mortality per mile of beach also tends to be less in the southeastern United States than in other areas (Table 2). Mortality figures for a heavily polluted area, the Polish Baltic coast, (3.2 birds/km or 5.2/mi; Gorski et al. 1977) are considerably higher than for anywhere in the southeast. Other 14 Table 1. Number and percentage of beached birds examined and oiled (a). South- Oregon Great Atlanti .c Coast Washington California Kinds of Birds Britain United States Coast Coast Total % Total % Total % Total % found oiled found c »iled found oiled found oiled Loons (Divers) 152 94 114 4 3 33 175 10 Grebes 54 59 14 64 14 36 798 5 Albatross — — 0 — n — 8 0 Petrels (b) 337 17 0 — 2 50 0? - Northern Fulmar (c) — — 0 — 570 28 301 4 Shearwaters — — 14 0 0 -- 623 22 Storm-petrels — — 0 — 4 25 40 0 Gannets 182 50 6 17 -- -- -- — Cormorants 218 45 6 0 0 — 653 0.5 Brown Pelican — — 17 0 — -- 38 0 Wildfowl 1137 7b 51 4 26 92 296 7 Phalaropes — — 0 — -- — 119 3 Jaegers — — 1 0 0 — 8 0 Kittiwake — — 0 — 105 21 33 24 Gulls 2448 30 131 0 16 31 1197 2 Terns — — 37 0 0 -- -- — Skimmer — — 1 n — — — — Auks 6171 80 f) — ™ 104 94 2848 19 (a) Data for Great Britain, the south Atlantic coast of the United States, the Oregon-Washington coast, and the California coast are from Table 1 in Bourne (1976), Malcolm Simons (in litt.) , Table 2 jji Harrington-Tweit (1979), and Table 3 in Ainley (1976), respectively; the periods covered are 1968-1970, December 1977-August 1978, mid-winter 1976, and 1971-1975, respectively. Data for the southeastern coast through 1 December 1977 are based on surveys from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, to Cape Canaveral, Florida, thereafter south to Jensen Beach, Florida. (b) Although Bourne (1976) did not specifically so state, his term 'petrels' probably indicates all Procellariidae (petrels, shearwaters, fulmars, etc.), and may have included Hydrobatidae (storm-petrels) as well. His term 'gulls' probably indicates all Laridae (gulls and terns). For other material summarized here, 'petrels' refers to Pterodroma, 'shearwaters' to Puffinus, 'gulls' to Larus , and 'terns' to Sterninae. (c) Harrington-Tweit (1979) pointed out that fulmar mortality and at least half that of Black-legged Kittiwakes was not due to oil but that most wildfowl and alcid mortality was attributable to oil. 15 Table 2. Comparison of regional and seasonal variation of beached bird mortality and incidence of oiling in the eastern United States (a). Atlantic Coast Atlantic Coast N of Cape Hatteras S of Cape Hatteras Florida Gulf Coast Dead Dead Dead birds/ % birds/ % birds/ % Dates mile oiled mile oiled mile oiled SPRING Mar. -May 1979 51.4 20.0 0.0 Mar. -May 1978 66.8 (b) 1.58 0.0 Mar. -May 1977 2.50 5.5 0.95 0.0 0.75 0.0 SUMMER Jun.-Aug. 1979 4.40 1.2 0.38 5.6 0.53 0.0 Jun.-Aug. 1978 6.37 0.0 1.00 0.0 1.50 0.0 Jun.-Aug. 1977 6.81 0.9 0.14 0.0 FALL Sep. -Nov. 1979 0.98 13.4 1.43 0.0 0.59 0.0 Sep. -Nov. 1978 1.05 0.0 1.49 0.0 1.00 5.6 Sep. -Nov. 1977 0.24 0.0 0.60 0.0 1.25 0.0 WINTER Dec. -Feb. 1978-79 Dec. -Feb. 1977-78 Dec. -Feb. 1976-77 2.19 2.3 1.84 1.1 1.74 0.0 2.70 6.5 2.87 1.4 9.33 5.5 1.75 0.0 2.88 0.0 (a) This comparison is based on information provided by the Atlantic and Gulf Coast Beach Bird Survey Project. These data, while useful, have sometimes been based on surveys of so few miles of beach that the results obtained may not be adequately comparable from region to region. Dashes indicate that we lack data. (b) This high figure is the result of an oil spill in the Chesapeake Bay in February 1978. areas in northwestern Europe vary considerably in recorded mortality during beached bird surveys, but mortalities are usually greater than those found in the southeastern United States. Lloyd (1976) reported a range of 0.17/km (0.3/mi) in part of France to 4.06/km (6.5/mi) in West Germany during the win- ter of 1975. For Great Britain, 1968-70, the average was 1.3/km (2.1/mi) (Bourne 1976). Reported mortality along the California coast is also greater 16 than in the southeast; surveys there averaged 3.5 birds/mi (2.2/km) from 1971 to 1975 (Ainley 1976). The disparity in beached bird mortality rates between California and Europe and the southeast may result partly from differences in prevailing winds and currents. In parts of North America where prevailing winds blow offshore, most mortality is found around enclosed inlets. On islands off- shore in North America and in northwest Europe, where prevailing winds carry dying birds (and oil) to shore, both chronic oil pollution and the recorded mor- tality of marine birds is greater (Bourne 1976). MAJOR BIRD KILLS FOLLOWING OIL SPILLS IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES There are few records of large bird kills following oil spills in south- eastern waters, and the records that do exist are usually inadequate. A typical example occurred in late December 1968, when a barge spilled crude oil along the coast of Wakulla County, Florida. This resulted in "many ducks snipe and other birds so covered with oil that they were unable to fly. Smaller birds were unable to walk in the heavy oil" (Center for Short-Lived Phenomena 1969). We have found only a few instances of major oil spills in or near the study area for which there is even fair information on the number and species of birds killed. The first of these occurred in early February 1976 in the lower Chesa- peake Bay. About 250,000 gallons (950,000 1) of No. 6 fuel oil entered the bay following the sinking of a barge near the mouth of the Potomac River (Roland et al. 1977). Subsequent movement of the oil resulted in the widespread contami- nation of marshes and beaches. Roland et al. (1977) estimated that 20,000 to 50,000 birds were killed. Perry et al. (1979) made individual estimates for each species that died during this spill as well as for five spills that occur- red in the Delaware River and for another large spill that occurred in the Ches- apeake Bay. They estimated that 15,715 Oldsquaw, 14,571 Horned Grebes, and 12,665 Ruddy Ducks died as a result of these seven spills. A thousand or more each of Canvasbacks, Common Goldeneyes , and scaup were also killed, as well as lesser numbers of 15 other species of ducks, geese, and swans. These figures indicate that about five percent of the North American Ruddy Duck winter popu- lation may have been lost to these spills. The second major mortality following an oil spill in the southeast was in Tampa Bay on the Florida Gulf in mid-February 1970 (Sims 1970). Some 80-100 tons of Bunker C oil were spilled from the Greek tanker DELIAN APPOLON when it ran aground and ruptured its hull (Wallace 1970, Clark 1973). Winds and tides spread the oil to cover more than 100 sq mi (259 sq km) of Tampa Bay. Sims (1970) estimated that as many as 4,500 birds were handled at cleaning and rehab- ilitation stations following the spill, and Clark (1973) suggested that there may have been as many as 9,000 casualties. Sims (1970) indicated that the St. Petersburg Audubon Society handled "some 500 Common Loon, 200 Horned Grebe, 200 Red-breasted Merganser, 2500 Lesser Scaup and 100 other species including sev- eral cormorant, two Mallard, a White-winged Scoter, several heron, a kingfisher and many small shore birds." 17 SOURCES OF VARIATION IN MORTALITY FROM OIL POLLUTION A large number of factors are involved in determining the magnitude of det- rimental effects of oil pollution on marine birds. Birds oiled in cold weather and cold waters have a much higher fatality than do those in warm weather and warm waters. Even minimal amounts of oil may lead quickly to death under the stress of a cold environmental regime (Levy 1980), but birds in warmer areas may survive the same degree of oiling (R. Clapp, pers. observ.; C. Harrison, pers. comra.). Reports from Europe (Bourne and Bibby 1975, Riisgard 1979) indicate that mortality from oiling is greater during the winter months than during the summer. Oil spilled in cold water remains liquid longer than in warmer water and is likely to cause more damage as a result. It first forms a "chocolate mousse" water-in-oil emulsion and then becomes tar-balls. Although these forms of oil may present some hazard to birds (Bourne and Bibby 1975), the hazard of fresh oil is apparently much greater. Bourne (1976) summarized some of the changes in daily, annual, and life cycles of marine birds that may increase their vulnerability to oil pollution. Local currents and winds may bring drifting slicks into rafts of birds roosting on the water. Bourne and Devlin (1969) suggested that most mortality from oil- ing occurs when roosting or feeding birds are trapped by drifting slicks. Breeding populations are particularly susceptible to oil. The loss of one member of a pair may mean complete loss of their reproductive potential for that year. Depending on the number of offspring usually produced, this could mean that every breeding bird killed by oil represents a theoretical loss to the pop- ulation of two birds or more. Although this loss may be recouped in future gen- erations, most marine birds have relatively low productivity and their popula- tions may take many years to recover from one severe oiling incident. Oil in the vicinity of breeding colonies may also diminish reproductive success in other ways, by causing a decrease in the hatching success of contaminated eggs, and by disturbance to the colony resulting from attempts to control pollution (Bourne 1976). Bourne (1976) also pointed out that marine birds are particularly suscep- tible to damage from oil when they are molting. When birds lack their usual insulation, smaller than usual amounts of oil may lead to death from chilling, shock, and starvation. Some waterfowl perform a molt-migration in which large numbers gather away from the breeding ground to renew feathers prior to continu- ing migration. Some molt in late summer, others in the spring just prior to their migration north. Birds in such concentrations are more likely to die in large numbers than those of normal mobility. Few observations on the behavior of birds encountering oil have been re- ported. Information available indicates that differences in behavior between species may increase or decrease their vulnerability. According to the Inter- national Council for Bird Protection (1960), Long-tailed Ducks (Oldsquaw) will choose to land on oil slicks. If true, this may account for some of the very high oil-related mortalities that have been reported for this diving duck. On the other hand, Guillemots (Common Murres) dive to escape floating oil but 18 suffer the risk of emerging into it and thus becoming severely contaminated (Bourne 1968b). Other species may actively avoid oil; Hainard (1959) reported that some diving ducks (Tufted Duck [Aythya fuligula] and Pochard [A. ferina]) avoid patches of oil floating down a river. Other, more aerial species such as gulls (Bourne 1968b) and Manx Shearwaters (Puffinus puff inus) (Casement 1966) may also actively avoid at least the thicker, more noticeable oil slicks. Some of these birds evidently avoid oil when swimming as well; a Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) and a Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) that swam into a patch of floating oil immediately took flight (Bourne 1968b, Bourne and Devlin 1969). The number of birds that die following an oil spill is also related to the type of petroleum that was spilled and how long it has been in the environment. Crude oil is less toxic than refined oils (diesel oil, No. 2 fuel oil, Bunker "C")(Hay 1979), and fresh oil causes more damage than older, more weathered oils (Bourne and Bibby 1975). Some oils may be innocuous enough that oiled birds are not killed and are even capable of cleaning their plumage (Birkhead et al. 1973, Phillips 1974). The number of deaths from oiling following a spill is not necessarily re- lated to the amount of oil spilled; large spills may result in relatively few deaths, while smaller spills may cause large losses, particularly when substan- tial numbers of birds are concentrated in small areas (Croxall 1975, Salomonsen 1979). In addition, large catastrophic oil spills may cause no greater loss of marine birds than does chronic oil pollution of the environment (Nelson-Smith 1973, Croxall 1975, Holmes and Cronshaw 1977). EFFECTS OF OIL ON CONTAMINATED BIRDS AND THEIR EGGS The primary effect of oil on birds is to cause a loss of buoyancy and insu- lation when the feathers become matted (Szaro 1977). This increases the meta- bolic demand to maintain body heat and in cold weather quickly results in chil- ling. The increased physical effort to remain afloat also increases the demand on the body's resources, and death from exhaustion and exposure may ensue (Bourne 1976). McEwan and Koelink (1973) reported that heat loss of experimentally oiled Mallards and scaup was 1.7 and 2 times greater, respectively, than normal. Ingestion of oil as the contaminated bird tries to preen its feathers will usually cause further harm. A pioneer study by Hartung and Hunt (1966) showed that ingestion of oil by Mallards and Black Ducks could be followed by nervous disorders, enlargement of the adrenal cortex, lipid pneumonia, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal irritation. A considerable number of experimental studies con- ducted on marine birds in the United States were reviewed recently at length by Albers (1977), Holmes and Cronshaw (1977), Szaro (1977), Eastin and Hoffman (1978), Ohlendorf et al. (1978), and Stickel and Dieter (1979). Some of the findings that involve both primary and secondary effects of oiling are briefly summarized as follows: (1) Physiological effects that result from ingestion of oil include dehy- dration, enteritis, fatty changes in the liver, renal tubular nephro- sis, and reduction in the rates of sodium and water transfer across 19 intestinal mucosa (various authors in Ohlendorf et al. 1978); (2) A low mortality (under unstressed conditions) was found in adult Mal- lards fed small amounts of oil; ducklings were more adversely affected (Stickel and Dieter 1979); (3) Mallard hens laid half as many eggs as usual when fed diets containing 2.5% South Louisiana crude oil (Eastin and Hoffman 1978, Stickel and Dieter 1979); (4) Ducklings fed 5% South Louisiana crude oil grew more poorly than con- trols, did not develop normal flight feathers, and exhibited liver hy- pertrophy and splenic atrophy (Eastin and Hoffman 1978). Oil, even in miniscule amounts, will severely reduce the hatching success of duck, heron, gull, and tern eggs (Eastin and Hoffman 1978, Stickel and Dieter 1979). As little as 5 microliters of oil reduced hatching of Mallard eggs, by 26% (for Prudhoe Bay crude oil) to 90% (for South Louisiana crude oil; Stickel and Dieter 1979). Toxicity of these and other oils is greater for newer eggs than for those further along in incubation, and older, weathered oils are less toxic than fresh ones. Experimental oiling of the plumage of incubating gulls causes significant egg mortality when the oiled feathers come in contact with the eggs. Oiling of eggs also results in a significant number of deformed chicks: deformed bills, incompletely ossified wing or foot bones, abnormally small liver lobes, and stunting were the most common abnormalities found in these experimental studies (Stickel and Dieter 1979). POTENTIAL HAZARDS TO MARINE BIRDS FROM OFFSHORE OIL PRODUCTION About two-thirds of the oil in coastal waters is derived from runoff and effluent from terrestrial sources. Tanker operations account for about 26 times as much oil in marine waters of the United States as do offshore operations (Ohlendorf et al. 1978), but may account for a disproportionately large share of avian mortality to oil. Ohlendorf et al . (1978) suggested that, for the marine environment, it may be safer to produce oil offshore than to import it. It seems likely, however, that onshore habitat change and loss resulting from the development of facilities related to offshore oil production will, in the long run, have a more adverse effect on the waterbirds of the southeastern United States than will oil production itself. Longley and Jackson (1980) reviewed this problem for brackish marsh areas. They summarized activities related to oil production and their effects on the environment and suggested ameliorative measures that may be taken. Effects in- clude direct loss of vegetation and animals (e.g., by dredging, construction of pipelines and roads); addition of dissolved, particulate, and toxic materials to the environment; and changes in water flows. The authors considered changes in water flow the most damaging hazard, one that may result in complete conver- sion of a marsh ecosystem. Such an event could be accompanied by a reduction or elimination of the populations of marine birds that use the habitat for nest- ing or feeding. 20 Similar effects are likely when offshore barrier islands are affected by development of oil and gas resources. Changes in water flow due to dredging could easily change tidal and current patterns, resulting in the elimination of islands used for nesting. Terrestrial access to larger islands may result in the introduction of predators (e.g., foxes, raccoons) that could eliminate an entire bird colony in the space of a season or two. Disturbance engendered by construction might result in the mass desertion of a traditional breeding area by some species. Several recent reports reviewed aspects of human activities that are rele- vant to development of onshore oil facilities. These reports include Mulvihill et al.'s (1980) detailed review of the effects of shoreline structures on the coastal environment, Morton's (1976) review of the ecological effects of dred- ging, and Buckley and Buckley's (1976, 1977) reviews of the effects of human disturbance on colonially nesting birds. Burning of natural gas at elevated flares during oil production is another potential hazard because birds migrating at night sometimes fly into such lights. Considerable numbers have been killed at TV towers, lighthouses, and airport ceilometers (Howe et al. 1978), and it might be expected that the ele- vated flares would attract and incinerate passing birds. Bourne (1979) reported that there have been only about "half-a-dozen second hand" reports of death from this cause during the first 10 years of development in the North Sea, an area where foggy weather conditions should maximize the phenomenon. After commenting on several specific instances of relatively severe loss, including one in which "several hundred storm-petrels" purportedly died, Bourne concluded that "the losses are only an insignificant proportion of the millions of birds passing through the area...". RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH CHOICE OF SPECIES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Unlike most of the birds covered in Volumes I and III of this report, the family Anatidae is among the best known groups of birds. Palmer (1976a) pointed out that "At least in the Northern Hemisphere, they are also the most adminis- tered, in numerous ways are economically the most important, and continue to be the most studied. The upshot is that, even with present data retrieval methods, nobody, nor any agency, has convenient access to extant information." We agree thoroughly with Palmer's remarks. Our study revealed that there are many sources of information that our resources simply could not tap. The body of unpublished information is staggering in its extent and consists of theses, raw data, informal in-house and preliminary reports, and "gray literature", reports produced by governmental agencies that usually receive a limited distribution and that consequently are often unknown to the academic community. We examined a goodly amount of such material during the course of this study, but are aware that immense amounts remained unseen. The quality of the material varies drastically; some reports are of exceptionally poor academic quality, but others need little work for submission to an academic journal. 21 Some that are well done give little new Information on a species. However, even in reports of lesser quality there may be bits of information of substan- tial value. As Palmer (1976a) stated, "One needs to be cognizant of the fugi- tive stuff because some of it is valuable." Studies of the Anatidae have characteristically centered about the most hunted species, which are generally regarded as those of greatest economic worth. The Mallard — "the duck", hunted and killed in large numbers, in its domesticated form a major source of food, and widely used as an experimental animal in studies of physiology, toxicology, and other laboratory disciplines — is, with the possible exception of the chicken, probably the best studied spe- cies of bird. Other extensively hunted species like the Wood Duck and Canada Goose are also well studied. We think that for these waterfowl, as well as others that are widely hunted, searches for unpublished information on a partic- ular taxon or geographic area may have real value. For other groups and species of marine birds, knowledge of which is based on only a relatively small and manageable literature, funds might be more wisely applied to field research and survey. Although much is known about many of the species covered in this report, and although research is presently being conducted on many of them, there are a number of species of Anatidae about which we know very little. Bellrose (1976) stated that "In some species of waterfowl our lack of the simplest life history knowledge is scandalous. For example, much of the meager nesting infor- mation on the black and surf scoters dates back to the turn of the century." Bellrose (1976) considered that the latter species had the "dubious distinction of being the least studied" of North American ducks. The very short species bibliographies that we were able to assemble for these scoters attest to the continuing relevance of Bellrose 's remarks. Indeed, because we gave equal em- phasis to each species during the course of compiling the bibliographies, we suspect that the relative length of the bibliographies is it itself a good guide to which species need further research. The ten species with the shortest bib- liographies are American Wigeon, Mottled Duck, Cinnamon Teal, Greater Scaup, King Eider, Harlequin Duck, Surf Scoter, Bufflehead, Hooded Merganser, and Masked Duck. However, Erskine (1972) provided a comprehensive review of what is known of the Bufflehead, and reports dealing with diverse species of ducks make the American Wigeon and Hooded Merganser better known than our crude as- sessment might suggest. Most of the other seven ducks are genuinely poorly known for many aspects of their breeding biology and distribution. Much work has already been accomplished by the Fish and Wildlife Service in validating aerial surveys of wintering and breeding populations (reviews in Johnsgard 1975 and Bellrose 1976). Some species or species groups are much more visible from the air than others. Perhaps as many as 9 in 10 Green-winged Teal are not seen from the air during surveys of the breeding grounds but per- haps as many as 3 out of 4 scoters are seen. The breeding ground surveys, while valuable, do not cover much of eastern Canada or the northeastern United States. Consequently, the size of the breeding population for species known to breed or believed to breed largely within this area or that have large breeding popula- tions in this area are inadequately known. Species or forms in this report that are in this category include the Atlantic populations of the Snow Goose and Brant, Wood Ducks, Black Ducks, Common Eiders, Harlequin Ducks, Oldsquaw, Surf 22 Scotors, and Hooded Mergansers. Common Goldeneyes, Buffleheads, Red-breasted and Common Mergansers are species with wide-ranging northern distributions, whose total populations in North America are poorly known because relatively little is known of breeding populations in the eastern United States and Canada. Surveys of wintering waterfowl in the continental United States miss birds with the result that numbers seen are "considerably below the level of the ac- tual population of a given duck species" (Bellrose 1976). The difficulty in making adequate field identifications of some species has doubtless contributed to our lack of knowledge. The three species of scoters, the two scaup, the Com- mon and Red-breasted mergansers, the two goldeneyes, and the Common and King eiders are not distinguished from one another on the aerial surveys of the win- tering and the breeding grounds by the Fish and Wildlife Service. Since the scoters and the other species pairs are also difficult to distinguish on the ground, at least for some age and sex groups, information from bird-watchers is also of limited value. These species are all moderately to highly susceptible to oil pollution. We suggest that ground surveys be undertaken in various wintering areas along the southeastern coast. Such surveys should provide more information on the proportion of birds missed on aerial surveys. During such ground surveys more attention should be paid to determining the proportion of which species of "scaup", "merganser", "goldeneye" is present in any given area. These propor- tions, if taken over a wide enough area, and over diverse enough habitats, should allow one to better estimate the size of the populations of diving and seaducks wintering in the southeast. The economic value of the populations of wintering waterbirds often influ- ences which species of waterfowl are most extensively researched. Johnsgard (1975) estimated recreational values of waterfowl, basing these estimates on an analysis of Christmas Counts from 1954-1962. He concluded that the "five most important waterfowl in terms of recreational value to bird watchers are the mal- lard, pintail, Canada Goose, American wigeon, and black duck". These species are those found in the greatest numbers and are among those most important to hunters. We disagree, however, that these birds are those most important to bird-watchers, because bird-watchers are usually more interested in those spe- cies seen least often. Utilizing Johnsgard' s rarity index, the ten waterfowl most important to bird-watchers would be the Masked Duck, Emperor Goose ( Chen canagica) , Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri) , Eurasian Green-winged Teal (Anas c. crecca) , Black-bellied Whistling-Duck, Trumpeter Swan (Cygnus buccin- ator) , Fulvous Whistling-Duck, Ross' Goose, King Eider, and European (Eurasian) Wigeon. West (1979) recently completed a poll of bird-watchers to determine which species they would most like to see. Among ducks, geese, and swans, the ten that instilled the most interest were the Masked Duck, Spectacled Eider (Somateria spectabilis) , King Eider, Harlequin Duck, Trumpeter Swan, Emperor Goose, Ross' Goose, Steller's Eider, Smew (Mergus albellus) , and Barnacle Goose. The relatively close correspondence between West's list and Johnsgard' s rarity index suggests that Johnsgard 's estimate of the recreational values of various species of waterfowl may be distorted. It would appear that some of the rare species of waterfowl in the southeast are both among those least studied (e.g., Masked Duck, King Eider, Harlequin Duck) and those of most interest to bird- watchers. 23 Large numbers of waterfowl found in the southeast also winter in areas south of the U.S. border. Johnsgard (1975) pointed out that more than half of the total wintering populations of Northern Shovelers and Blue-winged and Cin- namon Teals winter in Mexican waters and indicated that important concentra- tions of the Brant, White-fronted Goose, Redhead, and Ruddy Duck were also found there. Winter surveys of wintering waterfowl south of the United States are often very incomplete and in some wintering grounds "have been surveyed either not at all or only once in a 25-year period." As stated previously (Clapp et al. 1982), international boundaries are biologically imaginary lines that tend to distort our knowledge of the distribution of birds. This is particularly true for the species covered in Volumes I and III of this report, but also ap- plies to many of the anatids covered in this report. Consequently, we feel that more effort should be expended in determining the status of waterfowl in Mexico and countries to the south so that managers may better evaluate the sig- nificance of events that occur while the waterfowl are off our shores. Cooper- ative international surveys of waterfowl wintering south of the United States could be combined with those documenting the status of other marine birds occur- ring in the area. Such surveys would supply a much better understanding of the overall status of the species involved and would permit far better insight into the consequences of local managerial decisions on a species throughout its range. Previous efforts along these lines, particularly with respect to Canada and waterfowl, have been highly effective in producing the information needed to manage anatid populations. Similar efforts with regard to other areas might also prove fruitful. RESEARCH NEEDED ON EFFECTS OF OIL ON SOUTHEASTERN MARINE BIRDS It is our firm opinion that attempted rehabilitation of oiled birds follow- ing a major pollution incident is largely a waste of time, money, and other re- sources. As Stanton (1977) of the Wildlife Rehabilitation Center put it, "The time has come for the public to realize that cleaning, rehabilitating, and re- turning oil-covered birds to the wild is often not the wisest investment of their tax dollar." The group working on ecological research on seabirds in Europe is evidently of the same opinion, stating that "since the results of at- tempts to rehabilitate oiled birds are so poor, it may be more profitable to expend efforts at preventing birds from becoming polluted" (National Environ- mental Research Council 1977). On the other hand, we consider it desirable to salvage these birds to find out precisely what birds were oiled and to obtain information that will allow for more prudent responses to future spills. Although there have been many major efforts to "save" oiled birds, these resulted in little information that would aid in planning responses to subsequent incidents. However, there have been exceedingly few instances in which any systematic attempt has been made to determine the full effects of a spill on local populations of marine birds. As Nelson (1977) stated, "documentation of the effects of the spill is a vital postspill responsibility"; consequently, we recommend that every attempt be made to determine what species were affected and how many of each species died. Obtaining this information is not easy. Even if some notion is obtained regarding which species were oiled by a given spill, counts of dead or contam- 24 inated birds (or both) may not indicate how severely a species was affected. One reason for this is that there is seldom adequate information on the number of birds that were present in an area prior to contamination. As a result, even a relatively accurate estimate of the number of birds killed will not re- veal how badly local populations were damaged. Assuming that the number of each species inhabiting an area that becomes oiled was known, it would still be difficult to predict how many birds were or may be affected. For example, the time of passage of an oil slick through an area may be critical in determining the degree of contamination and mortality experienced by each species. During the contamination of the Firth of Forth in February 1978, the oil apparently passed at night near the main feeding area for waterbirds; consequently, there was a proportionately greater loss of night- feeding Greater Scaup and Pochard (Aythya ferina) than there was of Common Gold- eneye and Common Eider, most of which had moved elsewhere to roost (Campbell et al. 1978). The proportion of birds found oiled or dead after a pollution incident may vary widely between species, depending on the habitats used and the habits of the birds. The probability of finding oiled birds that roost or loaf onshore near feeding areas offshore is certainly much greater than it is for those that spend all or most of their time offshore and that, following oiling, might sim- ply sink from sight never to be seen again. Furthermore, wind and current patterns offshore as well as movements by the birds themselves could take most of the victims of an oil spill far from where they were oiled long before anyone noticed their plight. Levy (1980) analyzed the sort of oil found on dead or moribund birds in the Atlantic off Canada and suggested that Herring and Great Black-backed gulls obtained near Sable Island, Nova Scotia, had been contaminated by oil from the ARGO MERCHANT spill on Nantucket Shoals, some 840 km (522 mi) away. In another instance a badly oiled Pochard (Aythya ferina) flew 7 km (4.3 mi) inland before becoming incapacitated (Campbell et al. 1978). In some parts of Europe and on the west coast of the United States prevail- ing winds bring victims of oiling to shore. On the Atlantic seaboard, winds take oiled birds out to sea. It is impossible to make a satisfactory comparison of the extent of damage from oil pollution incidents between these areas. Like- wise, estimates of mortality from beached bird surveys in Europe cannot be used to predict the incidence of mortality along the western coast of the Atlantic. At best, they only suggest that damage to wild birds from oil on the U.S. east coast may be underestimated. Despite all these difficulties in obtaining unbiased data, we recommend that a better effort be made to monitor and publish reports of the effects of oil spills on marine birds. Much of the information needed to answer questions relating to oil pollution and marine birds in the southeastern United States that this report attempts to provide would have been available previously had such efforts been made in the past. We also recommend that more attention be paid to monitoring the long term and background effects of oil pollution in the southeast. One of the better 25 and less expensive ways in which this may be accomplished would be a periodic censusing of birds found dead along the beaches. This lends some objective basis to speculations about the effects of oil pollution on marine birds, and also provides information about unusual or increasing mortality from other causes (e.g., pesticides). Over a period of time, this may serve as an early warning indicator of where serious problems in wildlife conservation might arise. Such surveys are being conducted presently in the eastern United States by the Atlantic and Gulf Coast Beached Bird Survey Project , but the area cov- ered in some regions (e.g., two miles of the Texas coast [Simons, pers. comm.]) is so small that the information obtained may have little importance. Many of the biases previously discussed above in regard to oil spills may also be applied to censuses of beached birds. In addition, increasing mortal- ity from another source, such as pesticides, might result in lower mortality from oil and obscure the true effect of the latter. Nonetheless, changes in the number of individuals of a species found dead and in the incidence and de- gree of oiling from year to year should provide far more needed information than is presently available. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people have contributed to this report in a variety of ways. Gene W. Blacklock allowed us to use his unpublished manuscript on the occurrence and status of the birds of Padre and Mustang islands and Herbert W. Kale, II sup- plied us with unpublished information on Florida birds. We are also grateful to Malcolm M. Simons, Jr., Director of the Atlantic and Gulf Coast Beached Bird Survey Project, who supplied us with unpublished data on incidence of oiling and mortality on birds along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. The library staff of the Smithsonian Natural History Museum was especially helpful in obtaining copies of most of the theses and many of the papers that comprise the files upon which this and the companion reports are based; Carolyn S. Hahn, Amy E. Levin, and Jack F. Marquardt were especially helpful in this regard. Agnes C. Nalley also aided us in finding and obtaining literature in the Bird Library of the Gabrielson Laboratory of Patuxent National Wildlife Re- search Center. Linda A. Hollenberg helped assemble species bibliographies and the litera- ture files and Jill Parker provided some useful and much-needed editing. Roger A. Luchenbach prepared some early versions of the species accounts and Wayne A. Hoffman made some comments on these. Initial versions of the maps were prepared by Martha B. Hays and completed by the staff of National Coastal Ecosystems Team, Slidell, Louisiana. Painstaking typing of preliminary and final draft material was accomplished by Gwynn S. Leonard and Helen L. Harbett. The il- lustrations interspersed in the text were prepared by Charlotte I. Adamson. We thank all for their efforts. Others supplied unpublished manuscripts or copies of papers, journals, or reports that would have otherwise been very difficult to obtain and often pro- vided insight into areas where additional information could be acquired. Yet 26 others read and made valuable comments on preliminary versions of the manu- script. For these and other services, we thank W. R. P. Bourne, Danny Bystrak, W. Frank Cobb, Jr., Jerome A. Jackson, Cherry Keller, M. Kathleen Klimkiewicz, Mary K. LeCroy, Storrs L. Olson, Ralph S. Palmer, Allan R. Phillips, Chandler S. Robbins, Larry R. Shanks, David M. Smith, George E. Watson, III; Donald W. Woodard, and Richard L. Zusi. 27 FULVOUS WHISTLING-DUCK (Dendrocygna bicolor) [FR: Dendrocygne a bee f auve , GE: Sichelpf eif gans , SP: Pato silbon, Pichici Col- orado, Pijia, Serrano; US: Fulvous Tree Duck] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Fulvous Whistling-Duck is essentially a bird of pantropical distribu- tion, occurring in a series of disjunct populations in Ceylon and India, Cen- tral Africa and Madagascar, in northern and southern South America, and from the southwestern United States to central Mexico. The latter population breeds from southern California, southwestern Arizona, central Texas and the Gulf coast of Louisiana south through Mexico to Nayarit , the Valley of Mexico, and Veracruz, and locally in southern Florida, Cuba, and Honduras (AOU 1957, Meyer de Schaunesee 1966, Bellrose 1976). The North American population winters in most of its breeding range, but in recent years increasing numbers have spent the winter in the southeastern United States from Virginia to Florida. Esti- mates of late summer numbers of Fulvous Whistling-Ducks in southwestern Louisi- ana and southeastern Texas indicated about 17,000 birds in 1975; some of the recent increase in both breeding and wintering populations in the southeast may be related to changing agricultural methods in that region (Flickinger et al. 1977). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION We have found no references to oiling of Fulvous Whistling-Ducks. As birds of vegetated coastal marshes that are seldom found in open water offshore, they are not likely to be affected except by a massive mishap. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Lambeth, D. 0. and G. S. Lambeth. 1980. Second record of Fulvous Whistling Duck for North Dakota. Prairie Nat. 12: 110. Rylander, M. K. , E. G. Bolen and R. E. McCamant. 1980. Evidence of incubation patches in Whistling Ducks. Southwest. Nat. 25: 126-128. 1979 Langley, C. H. 1979. A further breeding record for the Fulvous Whistling Duck from the Cape Peninsula. Ostrich 50: 62. 28 1978 Beaubrun, P., M. Thevenot and R. Leveque. 1978. Le Dendrocygne fauve Dendro- cygna bicolor au Maroc. [The Fulvous Whistling-Duck Dendrocygna bicolor in Morocco.] Alauda 46: 177-178. [In French.] Clark, A. 1978. Some aspects of the behaviour of whistling ducks in South Africa. Ostrich 49: 31-39. Vielliard, J. 1978. Le Dendrocygne fauve Dendrocygna bicolor dans le Pale- artique. [The Fulvous Whistling-Duck Dendrocygna bicolor in the Pale- arctic] Alauda 46: 178-180. [In French.] 1977 Flickinger, E. L. , D. S. Lobpries and H. A. Bateman. 1977. Fulvous Whistling Duck populations in Texas and Louisiana. Wilson Bull. 89: 329-331. 1976 Clark, A. 1976. Observations on the breeding of Whistling Ducks in southern Africa. Ostrich 47: 59-64. Landers, J. L. and A. S. Johnson. 1976. Foods of 6 Fulvous Whistling Ducks in coastal South Carolina. Wilson Bull. 88: 659-660. Rice, 0. 0. 1976. Fulvous Tree Duck at Marais des Cygnes Wildlife Refuge. Bull. Kansas Ornithol. Soc. 27: 9. 1975 Flickinger, E. L. 1975. Incubation by a male Fulvous Tree Duck. Wilson Bull. 87: 106-107. Ouellet, H. 1975. An additional record of the Fulvous Tree Duck in Quebec. Can. Field-Nat. 89: 74. 1974 Clark, A. 1974a. Hybrid Dendrocygna viduata X Dendrocygna bicolor. Ostrich 45: 255. . 1974b. The status of the Whistling Ducks in South Africa. Ostrich 45: 1-4. Neel, L. and R. L. Crawford. 1974. Fulvous Tree Ducks in Thomas County, Georgia and vicinity. Oriole 39: 27-28. 1973 Flickinger, E. L. , K. A. King and 0. Heyland. 1973. Pen-reared Fulvous Tree Ducks used in movement studies of wild populations. J. Wildl. Manage. 37: 171-175. 29 Milstein, P. le S. 1973. Maccoa Duck, parasitising Fulvous Duck nest. Bok- makiere 25: 74. 1970 Turcotte, W. H. 1970. Fulvous Tree Ducks. Miss. Ornithol. Soc. Newsl. 15: 8. 1969 Tanzer, E. C. 1969. A spring sighting of an aggregate of Fulvous Tree Ducks. Bull. Texas Ornithol. Soc. 3: 23. 1967 Munro, W. T. 1967. Occurrence of the Fulvous Tree Duck in Canada. Can. Field-Nat. 81: 151-152. Watson, G. E. 1967. Fulvous Tree Duck observed in the southern Sargasso Sea. Auk 84: 424. 1966 Jones, H. L. 1966. The Fulvous Tree Duck in the east: its past and present status. Chat 30: 4-7. Zimmerman, J. L. 1966. Records of the Fulvous Tree Duck in Kansas during 1965. Bull. Kansas Ornithol. Soc. 17: 9. 196 5 Hanes, R. P., Jr. 1965. Fulvous Tree Ducks taken in Currituck Sound, North Carolina. Chat 29: 23. Weighley, I. 1965. 101 Fulvous Tree Ducks (Dendrocygna bicolor). Fla. Nat. 38: 105. 1963 Hunt, G. S. 1963. Fulvous Tree Ducks in Michigan. Wilson Bull. 75: 198. McCartney, R. 1963a. The Fulvous Tree Duck in Louisiana. M.S. thesis, La. St. Univ. /Baton Rouge, LA. 56 pp. . 1963b. The Fulvous Tree Duck in Louisiana. La. Wildl. Fish. Commiss., New Orleans, LA. 1962 Kale, H. W., II. 1962. More Fulvous Tree Ducks in southeast Georgia. Oriole 27: 18-19. 3d McKay, A. K. 1962. History of the Fulvous Tree Duck in the Cove area. Texas Ornithol. Soc. Newsl. 11: 7-9. Squires, W. A. 1962. Fulvous Tree Duck in New Brunswick. Can. Field-Nat. 76: 120. 1961 Craig, A. M. and J. T. Craig. 1961. Fulvous Tree Duck and Glossy Ibis in southeast Georgia. Oriole 26: 45. Denton, J. F. 1961. A specimen of the Fulvous Tree Duck from Augusta, Georgia, Oriole 26: 53. Hoover, C. M. 1961. First Maryland record of Fulvous Tree Duck. Md. Birdlife 17: 67-68. Hoover, I. C. 1961. Fulvous Tree Duck at Ocean City, Md. Atl. Nat. 16: 253. Sykes, P. W., Jr. 1961. The Fulvous Tree Duck invasion into southeastern Virginia. Raven 32: 60-63. 1960 Chamberlain, B. R. 1960. Fulvous Tree Ducks at Wilmington. Chat 24: 22-23. Grey, J. H. 1960. Fulvous Tree Ducks at Williamsburg, Virginia. Raven 31: 104-105. Mellinger, E. 0. 1960. Fulvous Tree Ducks again on the Savannah Refuge. Chat 24: 22. 1959 Meanley, B. and A. G. Meanley. 1959. Observations on the Fulvous Tree Duck in Louisiana. Wilson Bull. 71: 33-45. 1958 Meanley, B. and A. G. Meanley. 1958. Post-copulatory display in Fulvous and Black-bellied tree ducks. Auk 75: 96. 1956 Meanley, B. 1956. The Fulvous Tree Duck.... a product of the rice fields. La. Conserv. 8: 22, 26. 1949 Robinson, F. H. 1949. Fulvous Tree-duck at Southern Pines, N.C. Chat 13: 49. 3] 1947 Friedmann, H. 1947. Geographic variations of the Black-bellied, Fulvous, and White-faced tree ducks. Condor 49: 189-195. 1944 Hasbrouck, E. M. 1944. Fulvous Tree-ducks in Louisiana. Auk 61: 305-306. 1943 Lynch, J. J. 1943. Fulvous Tree-duck in Louisiana. Auk 60: 100-102. 1940 Sprunt , A., Jr. 1940. Fulvous Tree-duck, an addition to the avifauna of Florida. Auk 57: 563. 1932 Carroll, J. J. 1932. A change in distribution of the Fulvous Tree Duck (Dendrocygna bicolor helva) in Texas. Auk 49: 343-344. 1931 Moyer, J. W. 1931. Black-bellied and Fulvous tree ducks in Illinois. Auk 48: 258. 1923 Dickey, D. R. and A. J. van Rossem. 1923. The Fulvous Tree Ducks of Buena Vista Lake. Condor 25: 39-50. 1901 Barnhart, F. S. 1901. Evolution in the breeding habits of the Fulvous Tree Duck. Condor 3: 67-68. 1899 Shields, A. M. 1899. Nesting of the Fulvous Tree Duck. Bull. Cooper Ornithol, Club 1: 9-11. J 2 BLACK-BELLIED WHISTLING-DUCK (Dendrocygna autumnalis) [FR: Dendrocygne a bee rouge, GE: Herbstpfeif gans , SP: Pato silbador pico rojo, Pichichi comun; US: Black-bellied Tree Duck, Red-billed Whistling-Duck, Black- bellied Wood Duck, Red-billed Tree Duck, Gray-breasted Tree Duck] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Black-bellied Whistling-Duck is primarily a bird of South and Central America, reaching the northern limit of its distribution in the southern United States. The only regular occurrence in the United States is in lower coastal Texas, where the species is a breeding resident (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976). Numbers fluctuate markedly from year to year, but the recent trend has been an increase, with an estimate for 1974 of 3,000 breeding birds (Oberholser 1974, Bellrose 1976). Records elsewhere in the southeastern United States include one from Georgia (Teulings 1977b), and several from Florida and Louisiana. Many of the records from these latter two states may have been of escaped captives or introduced birds (Kale 1974, 1978; Lowery 1974). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION We have no reports of oiled Black-bellied Whistling-Ducks. These are pri- marily birds of inland waters, and even in coastal areas do not venture fre- quently into the open ocean. Because of their habits and because only a small proportion of the total population occurs in the southeastern states, it is un- likely that development in that area would be of serious consequence to Black- bellied Whistling-Ducks. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Boyd, R. L., E. Schulenberg, J. Schulenberg and M. Schulenberg. 1980. Black- bellied Whistling Duck at Quivera National Wildlife Refuge. Bull. Kansas Ornithol. Soc. 31: 38. Rylander, M. K. , E. G. Bolen and R. E. McCamant. 1980. Evidence of incubation patches in Whistling Ducks. Southwest. Nat. 25: 126-128. 1979 Bolen, E. G. 1979. The Black-bellied whistling Duck in south Texas: a review. Pp. 175-185 In. D. L. Drawe (ed.) Proc . Symp. First Welder Wildlife Founda- tion, 14 October 1978, Corpus Christi, TX. 33 Bolen, E. G. and E. N. Smith. 1979. Notes on the incubation behavior of Black-bellied Whistling Ducks. Prairie Nat. 11: 119-123. Bourne, G. R. 1979. Weights and linear measurements of Black-bellied Whis- tling Ducks in Guyana. Pp. 186-188 in D. L. Drawe (ed.) Proc. Symp. First Welder Wildlife Foundation, 14 October 1978, Corpus Christi, TX. McCamant, R. E. and E. G. Bolen. 1979. A 12-year study of nest box utilization by Black-bellied Whistling Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. A3: 936-943. 1978 Banks, R. C. 1978. Nomenclature of the Black-bellied Whistling-Duck. Auk 95: 348-352. 1977 Barratt, B. 1977. Black-bellied Whistling Duck, a new species for Iowa. Iowa Bird Life 47: 104-106. Bolen, E. G. and R. E. McCamant. 1977. Mortality rates for Black-bellied Whistling Ducks. Bird-Banding 48: 350-353. McCamant, R. E. and E. G. Bolen. 1977. Response of incubating Black-bellied Whistling Ducks to loss of mates. Wilson Bull. 89: 621. 1976 Bourne, G. R. 1976. Black-bellied Whistling Duck utilization of a rice cul- ture habitat. M.S. thesis, Miami Univ. /Oxford , OH. 76 pp. Delnicki, D. and E. G. Bolen. 1976. Renesting by the Black-bellied Whistling Duck. Auk 93: 535-542. Delnicki, D. , E. G. Bolen and C. Cottam. 1976. An unusual clutch size of the Black-bellied Whistling Duck. Wilson Bull. 88: 347-348. 1975 Delnicki, D. and E. G. Bolen. 1975. Natural nest site availability for Black- bellied Whistling Ducks in south Texas. Southwest. Nat. 20: 371-378. George, R. R. and E. G. Bolen. 1975. Endoparasites of Black-bellied Whistling Ducks in south Texas. J. Wildl. Dis. 11: 17-22. 1974 Bolen, E. G. and M. K. Rylander. 1974. Foot adaptation in four species of Whistling-Duck Dendrocygna. Wildfowl 25: 81-83. V* Bourne, G. R. 1974 ms. Whistling Duck foraging and food habits during autumn rice crop sowing. Rept . in files of Guyana Rice Board and Ministry of Ag- riculture, Georgetown, Guyana. Hersloff, L. , P. N. Lehner , E. G. Bolen and M. K. Rylander. 1974. Visual sensitivity in the Black-bellied Tree Duck, a crepuscular species. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 86: 486-492. Rylander, M. K. and E. G. Bolen. 1974a. Feeding adaptations in Whistling- Ducks (Dendrocygna) . Auk 91: 86-94. . 1974b. Analysis and comparison of gaits in Whistling Ducks (Dendro- cygna). Wilson Bull. 86: 237-245. 1973 Bolen, E. G. and M. K. Rylander. 1973. Copulatory behavior in Dendrocygna. Southwest. Nat. 18: 348-350. Cain, B. W. 1973. Effect of temperature on energy requirements and northward distribution of the Black-bellied Tree Duck. Wilson Bull. 85: 308-317. 1972 Cain, B. W. 1972a. Biogenetics of Black-bellied Tree Ducks in relation to their growth and distribution. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Ill./Urbana, IL. 64 pp. . 1972b. Cold hardiness and the development of homeothermy in young Black-bellied Tree Ducks. Wilson Bull. 84: 483-485. 1971 Bolen, E. G. 1971. Pair bond tenure in Black-bellied Tree ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 35: 385-388. Johnson, A. R. and J. C. Barlow. 1971. Notes on the nesting of the Black- bellied Tree Duck near Phoenix, Arizona. Southwest. Nat. 15: 394-395. 1970 Bolen, E. G. 1970. Sex ratios in the Black-bellied Tree Duck. J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 68-73. Bolen, E. G. and J. J. Beecham. 1970. Notes on the foods of juvenile Black- bellied Tree Ducks. Wilson Bull. 82: 325-326. Cain, B. W. 1970. Growth and plumage development of the Black-bellied Tree Duck Dendrocygna autumnalis (Linnaeus). Texas A&I Univ. Stud. 3: 25-48. Rylander, M. K. and E. G. Bolen. 1970. Ecological and anatomical adaptations of North American Tree Ducks. Auk 87: 72-90. 35 1968 Bolen, E. G. and B. W. Cain. 1968. Mixed Wood Duck-Tree Duck clutch in Texas, Condor 70: 389-390. 1967 Bolen, E. G. 1967a. The ecology of the Black-bellied Tree Duck in southern Texas. Ph.D. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, UT. 138 pp. . 1967b. Nesting boxes for Black-bellied Tree Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 31: 794-797. Bolen, E. G. and B. J. Forsyth. 1967. Foods of the Black-bellied Tree Duck in south Texas. Wilson Bull. 79: 43-49. 1966 McDaniel, B., D. Tuff and E. G. Bolen. 1966. External parasites of the Black- bellied Tree Duck and other dendrocygnids. Wilson Bull. 78: 462-468. 1964 Bolen, E. G. 1964a. Tracers on tree ducks. Texas Game Fish 22: 21, 28. . 1964b. Weights and linear raeasurments of Black-bellied Tree Ducks. Texas J. Sci. 16: 257-260. Bolen, E. G., B. McDaniel and C. Cottam. 1964. Natural history of the Black- bellied Tree Duck (Dendrocygna autumnalis) in southern Texas. Southwest. Nat. 9: 78-88. 1962 Bolen, E. G. 1962. Nesting of Black-bellied Tree Ducks in south Texas. Aud . Field Notes 16: 482-485. 1958 Meanley, B. and A. G. Meanley. 1958a. Nesting habitat of the Black-bellied Tree Duck in Texas. Wilson Bull. 70: 94-95. . 1958b. Post-copulatory display in Fulvous and Black-bellied tree ducks. Auk 75: 96. 1957 Johnstone, S. 1957. On breeding whistling ducks. Avicult. Mag. 63: 23-25. 36 1947 Friedmann, H. 1947. Geographic variations of the Black-bellied, Fulvous, and White-faced tree ducks. Condor 49: 189-195. Haverschmidt , F. 1947. Field notes on the Black-bellied Tree Duck in Dutch Guiana. Wilson Bull. 59: 209. 1945 Vorhies, C. 1945. Black-bellied Tree Ducks in Arizona. Condor 47: 82. 1931 Mover, J. W. 1931. Black-bellied and Fulvous tree ducks in Illinois. Auk 48: 258. 1914 Bryant, H. 1914. Occurrence of Black-bellied Tree Ducks in California. Condor 16: 94. 1906 Brown, H. 1906. The Water Turkey and Tree Ducks near Tucson, Arizona. Auk 23: 217-218. 37 MUTE SWAN (Cygnus olor) [DA: Knopsvane, DU: Knobbelzwaan , EN: White Swan, Polish Swan; FI: Kyhmyjoutsen, FR: Cygne muet , GE: Hockerschwan, IC: Hnudsvanur, IT: Cigno reale, JA: Kobu hakucho, NW: Knoppsvane, PO: Labedz niemy, PR: Cisne bravo, RU: (Hissing Swan), SP: Cisne raudo , Cisne vulgar; SW: Knolsvan] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Mute Swan is a native of Eurasia. Feral populations have become es- tablished in several areas of North America after escape from captive or semi- captive flocks. It is most common in the northeast from New Hampshire to Ches- apeake Bay, but is also well established in Michigan, British Columbia, and western Washington (Bellrose 1976). There are six records of apparently wild birds in North Carolina since 1966 (Potter 1977, Teulings 1977a) but no recent records in South Carolina or Georgia. A seemingly wild bird was seen at Bis- cayne Bay, Florida, in December 1973 (Stevenson 1974); swans are common in cap- tivity in that state, and escapes are to be expected. There are records of oc- currence and occasional nesting in Alabama (Imhof 1976b), but the birds may not have been truly wild. Some idea of the spread and increase in numbers of North American Mute Swans can be obtained from the annual Audubon Christmas Counts. Between 1949 and 1969 the total number of Mute Swans counted increased from 374 to 1,644 birds (Johnsgard 1975). The 1972 Audubon Christmas Count gave a total of 2,135 Mute Swans along the Atlantic seaboard from New Hampshire to Maryland. On the Pacific coast, 1,449 were counted, and at Traverse Bay, Michigan (the only major concentration in the Midwest), 390 were counted (Bellrose 1976). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION According to Beer and Ogilvie (In Scott 1972), the Mute Swan is the only swan which has experienced severe losses to oil pollution. They noted that these swans were killed or contaminated by oil in at least ten British counties over a decade; in one instance 85 of a flock of 100 died. Oiling of Mute Swans has also been reported in Scotland (Dunnet 1974) and elsewhere in Europe; they have also been reported dying from oil in North America (records in the Bird Banding Laboratory, Patuxent , MD). Because Mute Swans occur in such small numbers in the southeast , resource development there should pose no hazard to this species. 38 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 McLeod, C. R. 1981. Mute Swan killing Bank Vole. Scott. Birds 11: 194. 1980 Bech, C. 1980. Body temperature, metabolic rate, and insulation in winter and summer acclimatized Mute Swans (Cygnus olor). J. Comp. Physiol. B. Bio- chem. Syst. Environ. Physiol. 136: 61-66. Bech, C. and K. Johansen. 1980. Ventilatory and circulatory responses to hyperthermia in the Mute Swan (Cygnus olor). J. Exp. Biol. 88: 195-204. Beven, G. 1980. Coot feeding on weed disturbed by Mute Swans. Brit. Birds 73: 219-220. Campbell, W. D. 1980. Posture of Mute Swan. Brit. Birds 73: 218. Cobb, J. S. and M. M. Harlin. 1980. Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) feeding and ter- ritoriality affects diversity and density of rooted aquatic plants. (Ab- stract only). Am. Zool. 20: 882. Eckert, K. R. 1980. Mute Swan influx in the Duluth area. Loon 52: 116-117. Krummholz, D. 1980. [Renewed mixed clutches of eggs of Mute Swan, Cygnus olor, and Grey Lag Goose, Anser anser. ] Beitr. Vogelkd. 26: 127. [In German.] Reese, J. G. 1980. Demography of European Mute Swans in Chesapeake Bay. Auk 97: 449-464. Renssen, Th. A. and R. M. Teixeira. 1980. Taxatie van het aantal knobbel- zwanen in Nederland. [Appraisal of Mute Swan counts in the Netherlands.] Watervogels 5: 18-24. [In Dutch with English summary.] Ruitenbeek, W. 1980. Verschillen tussen aantallen in de zomer en in de winter getelde knobbelzwanen (Cygnus olor) in Nederland. [Differences between summer and winter counts of Mute Swans (Cygnus olor) in the Netherlands.] Watervogels 5: 25-26. [In Dutch with English summary.] 1979 Coleman, A. E. and C. D. T. Minton. 1979. Pairing and breeding of Mute Swans in relation to natal area. Wildfowl 30: 27-30. DeJong, R. P. and P. J. Bacon. 1979. Variation in cohesion of a brood of Mute Swans. Wildfowl 30: 86-89. Feiler, M. 1979. Zu einingen Problemen der Bestandsentwicklung beim Hocker- schwan (Cygnus olor) in der DDR. [On some problems of the population de- velopment of Mute Swans Cygnus olor in G.D.R. ] Beitr. Vogelkd. 25: 27-32. [ In German . ] 39 Kumari, E. 1979. Moult and migration of waterfowl in Estonia. Wildfowl 30: 90-98. Lipsberg, Yu. K. 1979. [Number and distribution of the Mute Swan ( Cygnus olor). ] Ornitologiya 14: 126-123. [In Russian.] Nebrig, H. 1979. Kleine Beobachtungen am Hockerschwan , Cygnus olor. Beitr. Vogelkd. 25: 126-127. [In German.] Northcote, E. M. 1979. Determination of age and sex of long bones of Mute Swan Cygnus olor. Ibis 121: 74-80. Schmidt, R. , A. Seifke and H. Porner. 1979. Mitteleuropaische Subareale des Hockerschwans ( Cygnus olor) nach Beringungsergenissen aus dem Gebiet der DDR. [The central European distribution of the Mute Swan Cygnus olor based on East German ringing data.] Beitr. Vogelkd. 25: 50-64. [In German. ] Simpson, V. R. , A. E. Hunt and M. C. French. 1979. Chronic lead poisoning in a herd of Mute Swans. Environ. Pollut. 18: 187-202. 1978 Breucker, H. 1978. Macrophages, a normal component in seasonally involuting testes of the swan Cygnus olor. Cell Tissue Res. 193: 463-471. Elderud, C. 1978. Knolsvankull fotvander atta kilometer. [Long-distance walk by a brood of Mute Swans Cygnus olor. ] Var Fagelvarld 37: 136-137. [In Swedish with English summary.] MacDonald, J. W. , D. Lea and G. A. Hamilton. 1978. Parasitic worms causing deaths of Mute Swans. Brit. Birds 71: 358-359. Plant, C. W. 1978. Differing reactions of adult Mute Swans to intruding juvenile. Brit. Birds 71: 181. Ranftl, H. and H. Utschick. 1978. Sestand und reproduktion des Hoeckerschwans in Bayern. [Status and reproduction of the Mute Swan in Bavaria.] J. Ornithol. 119: 238-239. [In German.] Utschick, H. 1978. Der Bestandstrend des Hockerschwans (Cygnus olor) in Sud- bayern in Abhandgigkeit van der Stichprobengrosse . [Population trend of of the Mute Swan Cygnus olor in southern Bavaria independent of sample size.] J. Ornithol. 119: 191-196. [In German with English summary.] 1977 Norman, D. 0. 1977. A role for plumage color in Mute Swan ( Cygnus olor) par- ent-offspring interactions. Behaviour 62: 314-321. Potter, E. F. 1977. The Mute Swan in North Carolina. Chat 41: 95-96. 40 1976 Jenkins, D. , I. Newton and C. Brown. 1976. Structure and dynamics of a Mute Swan population. Wildfowl 27: 77-82. Jogi , A., J. Lipsberg and V. Nedzinskas. 1976. [Numbers and seasonal distri- bution of the East Baltic population of the Mute Swan.] Pp. 175-184 in E. Kumari (ed.) Bird migration. Tallinn. [In Russian with English sum- mary. ] Mathiasson, S. 1976. Some aspects on learned behaviour and tradition in the migratory habits of Mute Swan with special reference to Swedish swan popu- lation. Pp. 197-208 _in E. Kumari (ed.) Bird migration. Tallinn. Tenuovo, R. 1976. The Mute Swan Cygnus olor in Finland. Ornis Fenn. 53: 147-149. Zusman, I. N. , S. F. Lyashenko and V. S. Nedzinskas. 1976. [Morpho-ecologi- cal adaptations in early embryogenesis of Cygnus olor. ] Zool. Zh. 55: 255-266. [In Russian with English summary.] 1975 Owen, M. and C. J. Cadbury. 1975. The ecology and mortality of swans at the Ouse Washes, England. Wildfowl 26: 31-42. Reese, J. G. 1975. Productivity and management of feral Mute Swans in Chesa- peake Bay. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 280-286. 1974 Jensen, H. 1974. Mageskift og bigami hos Knopsvane (Cygnus olor Gm.). [Di- vorce and bigamy in the Mute Swan (Cygnus olor Gm.).] Dan. Fugle 8: 149- 160. [In Danish with English summary.] Lund, H. M.-K. 1974. Tidlig eggleggende Knoppsvane i Ostfold. [Early egg laying in the Mute Swan.] Fauna 27: 234. [In Norwegian with English summary. ] 1973 Forster, R. and G. Wagner. 1973. Der Hockerschwan Cygnus olor in der Nord- ostschweiz. Ornithol. Beob. 70: 67-80. [In German with French summary.] Mathiasson, S. 1973a. A moulting population of non-breeding Mute Swans with special reference to flight feather moult, feeding ecology and habitat selection. Wildfowl 24: 43-53. . 1973b. Moulting grounds of Mute Swans (Cygnus olor) in Sweden, their origin and relation to the population dynamics of Mute Swans in the Baltic area. Viltrevy 8: 399-452. 41 Nedzinskas, V. 1973. [A contribution to the ecology of the Lithuanian popula- tion of Cygnus olor. ] Zool. Zh. 52: 1360-1366. [In Russian with English summary. ] Nilsson, L. 1973. [The breeding population of the Mute Swan Cygnus olor in the provinces of Scania and Blekinge, south Sweden in 1972.] Var Fagel- varld 32: 115-119. [In Swedish with English summary.] Reichholf, J. 1973. Die Bestandsenwicklung des Hockerschwans Cygnus olor und seine Einordnung in das Okosystem der Innstauseen. Anz . Ornithol. Ges . Bayern 12: 15-46. [In German with English summary.] Trapp, J. L. 1973. Mute Swans entangled in fishing line. Jack-Pine Warbler 51: 91-92. 1972 Arnold, E. 1972. Mute Swan feeding in field. Atl. Nat. 27: 128. Bloch, D. and L. Kraul. 1972. Residues of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and organochlorine insecticides in eggs from Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) and Pochard (Aythya ferina). Acta Vet. Scand. 13: 588-590. Cramp, S. 1972. One hundred and fifty years of Mute Swans on the Thames. Wildfowl 23: 119-124. Reynolds, C. M. 1972. Mute Swan weights in relation to breeding performance. Wildfowl 23: 111-118. Willey, C. H. and B. F. Halla. 1972. Mute Swans of Rhode Island. Rhode Is- land Dept . Nat. Resourc. Wildl. Pamphl. No. 8. 47 pp. Wood, R. and W. L. Gelston. 1972. Preliminary report: the Mute Swans of Mich- igan's Grand Traverse Bay region. Mich. Dept. Nat. Resourc. Rept . No. 2683. 6 pp. 1971 Minton, C. D. T. 1971. Mute Swan flocks. Wildfowl 22: 71-88. 1970 Bloch, D. 1970. Knopsvanen (Cygnus olor) som kolonifugl i Danmark. [The Mute Swan Cygnus olor breeding in colony in Denmark.] Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 64: 152-161. [In Danish with English summary.] Brooke, M. de L. 1970. Some aspects of Mute Swan movement and mortality. Cambridge Bird Club Rept. 44: 44-47. Gelston, W. L. 1970 ms. A preliminary report on the Traverse City Mute Swan flock. Mich. Dept. Nat. Resourc, Lansing, MI. (Mimeo) . 42 Hald-Mortensen , P. 1970. Knopsvanen. [Mute Swans.] Feltornithologen 12: 73-76. [In Danish. ] 1969 Chang, P. W., M. C. Perry and V. Jasty. 1969. Fibroma in a Mute Swan. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 155: 1039. Kraus , M. and A. Gauckler. 1969. Zur Ausbreitung des Hockerschwans (Cygnus olor) in Nordbayern. [The breeding population of Mute Swans in northern Bavaria.] Anz. Ornithol. Ges. Bayern 8: 452-462. [In German with English summary. ] Perrins, C. M. 1969. Mute Swan's method of disposing of broken egg. Brit. Birds 62: 383. Reese, J. G. 1969. Mute Swans breeding in Talbot County, Maryland. Md. Bird- life 25: 14-16. Yates, V. J., L. T. Miller, V. Jasty, C. H. Willey and M. Holtzinger. 1969. Web necrosis in Mute Swans a report of an outbreak. Bull. Wildl. Dis. Assoc. 5: 33-34. 1968 Berndt , R. 1968. Der Hockerschwan (Cygnus olor) als Geleplundermr und Jung- vogelrauber. Intern. Rat Vogelschutz Sektion 8: 51-52. [In German.] Jogi, A. 1968. [The present distribution of the Mute Swan in the Estonian S.S.R. ] Communs. Baltic Commiss. Study Bird Migr. 5: 74-79. [In Russian with English summary.] Minton, C. D. T. 1968. Pairing and breeding of Mute Swans. Wildfowl 19: 41-60. Munro, R. E. , L. T. Smith and J. J. Kupa. 1968. The genetic basis of color differences observed in the Mute Swan (Cygnus olor). Auk 85: 504-505. Willey, C. H. 1968a. The ecology, distribution and abundance of the Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) in Rhode Island. M.S. thesis, Univ. Rhode Island/Kingston, RI. 93 pp. . 1968b. The ecological significance of the Mute Swan in Rhode Island. Proc. N.E. Fish & Wildl. Conf . 23 pp. 1967 Harrison, J. G. and M. A. Ogilvie. 1967. Immigrant Mute Swans in south-east England. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept . 18: 85-87. Jensen, F. 1967. Knopsvanen (Cygnus olor) som ynglefugl ved Bognaes . [The Mute Swan Cygnus olor breeding at Bognaes.] Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 61: 143-150. [In Danish with English summary.] 43 Ogilvie, M. A. 1967. Population changes and mortality of the Mute Swan in Britain. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 18: 64-73. Perrins, C. M. and C. M. Reynolds. 1967. A preliminary study of the Mute Swan Cygnus olor. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 18: 74-84. 1966 Eltringham, S. K. 1966. The survival of Mute Swan cygnets. Bird Study 13: 204-207. Halla, B. F. 1966. The Mute Swan in Rhode Island. Proc. N.E. Wildl. Conf., Boston, MA. 15 pp. Pantfil, J. 1966. Labedz niemy w wojewodztwie olstynskim. [The Mute Swan in the Olsztyn Voivodship. ] Chronm. Przyr. Ojczysta 22: 66-75, 119. [In Polish with English summary. ] Peck, G. K. 1966. First published breeding record of Mute Swan for Ontario. Ont. Field Biol. 20: 43. 1965 Boase, H. 1965. Movements of the Mute Swan in East Scotland. Scott. Birds 3: 301-310. Mathiasson, S. 1965. Preliminar rapport over ringmarkningsstudier av ruggande knopsvanar, Cygnus olor, i Sverige. Goteborg Nat. Hist. Mus . Yrbk. 1965: 24-29. [In Swedish with English summary. ] Reynolds, C. M. 1965. The survival of Mute Swan cygnets. Bird Study 12: 128-129. 1963 Berglund, B. E. , K. Curry-Lindahl , H. Luther, V. Ollson, W. Rodhe and G. Seller- berg. 1963. Ecological studies on the Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) in south- eastern Sweden. Acta Vert. 2: 161-288. Eltringham, S. K. 1963. The British population of the Mute Swan in 1961. Bird Study 10: 10-28. Ollson, V. 1963. Ecological studies on the Mute Swan. VIII. Nutritional biology of the Mute Swan in Valdemarsuiken in Smaland and Ostergotland. Acta Vert. 2: 256-264. 1962 King, B. 1962. Raw meat as a food for Mute Swans. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 13: 171. 44 1960 Bruun, B. 1960. De yngleende Knopenvaners (Cygnus olor Gm.) fordeling mellum Kysten og inlandet i Danmark 1935-1959. [Distribution of the Mute Swan (Cygnus olor (Gm.)) along the coast and in the interior of Denmark 1935- 1959.] Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 54: 77-84. [In Danish with English summary. ] Campbell, B. 1960. The Mute Swan census in England and Wales 1955-56. Bird Study 7: 208-223. Sokolowski, J. 1960. The Mute Swan in Poland. State Council Conservation Nature (Warsaw) 1: 1-28. 1959 Boase, H. 1959. Notes on the display, nesting and moult of the Mute Swan. Brit. Birds 52: 114-123. 1957 Ticehurst, N. F. 1957. The Mute Swan in England. Cleaver-Hume Press, London, xiv and 133 pp. Zajac, R. 1957. Z baden nad labedziem niemym (Cygnus olor Gmel.) w wojewod- ztwie szczecinskim. [Investigations on the Mute Swan (Cygnus olor Gmel.) in the Szczecin Voivodship.] Przyr. Pol. Zach. Is 139-146. [In Polish with English summary.] 1956 Gillham, M. E. 1956. Feeding habits and seasonal movements of Mute Swans on two South Devon estuaries. Bird Study 3: 205-212. Lawrence, L. de K. 1956. The following reaction in a brood of Mute Swans. Auk 73: 268. 1954 Staebler, A. E. 1954. Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) observed diving. Auk 71: 90. 1951 Harle, D. F. 1951. Mute Swans feeding on standing oats. Brit. Birds 44: 287-288. 1950 Ellis, J. C. S. 1950. Aggressive behaviour of a Mute Swan. Brit. Birds 43: 125-126. 4 5 Jones, N. G. B. and R. A. F. Gillmor. 1950. Greeting ceremony of Mute Swan. Brit. Birds 42: 303. Marshall, R. V. A. 1950. Large brood of Mute Swans. Brit. Birds 42: 19. Murphy, J. H. 1950. Bathing behaviour of Mute Swans. Brit. Birds 42: 303. 1949 Tebbutt, C. F. 1949. Mute Swan's method of breaking ice. Brit. Birds 42: 249. 1948 Hulme, D. C. 1948. Mute Swan eating dead fish. Brit. Birds 41: 121. Rayner, M. 1948. Relief display of Mute Swan. Brit. Birds 41: 389. 1947 Huxley, J. S. 1947. Display of the Mute Swan. Brit. Birds 40: 130-134. May, D. J. 1947. Notes on the winter territory of a pair of Mute Swans. Brit. Birds 40: 326-327. 1946 Thorn, A. S. 1946. Coition of Mute Swan on land. Brit. Birds 39: 182. 1944 Bourdillion, B. H. 1944. The coloration of Mute Swans. Ibis 86: 412. Irwin, M. J. W. 1944. Early nesting of the Mute Swan. Brit. Birds 38: 349-351. 1936 Dewar, J. M. 1936. Menage a trois in a Mute Swan. Brit. Birds 30: 178-179. 1935 Howard, W. J. H. 1935. Notes on the nesting of captive Mute Swans. Wilson Bull. 47: 237-238. Patrick, R. W. 1935. Mute Swans attacking bullock. Brit. Birds 29: 116. 1931 Watson, J. B. 1931. Mute Swans eating fish. Brit. Birds 24: 367-368. 1922 Crosby, M. S. 1922. Mute Swans on the Hudson. Auk 39: 100. 48 WHISTLING SWAN (Olor columblanus) [DA: Pibesvane, FR: Cygne siffleur, GE: Pfeifschwan, IT: Cigno rainore, PO: Labedz czarnodzioby , SP: Cisne silbador, Cisne chiflador, Ansar careto grande] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America Whistling Swans breed coastally in Alaska and eastward across northern Canada east to southwestern Baffin Island, islands in north- ern Hudson Bay, and the northeast coast of Hudson Bay. In the west they breed south as far as Kodiak Island off Alaska and in the east breed south as far as Belcher Island in southeastern Hudson Bay (Delacour 1954, AOU 1957, Heyland et al. 1970, Palmer 1976a). They winter chiefly along the Pacific coast from Brit- ish Columbia, Washington, and Oregon, and occasionally in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, south to California, and they occasionally reach northern Baja Califor- nia. Along the Atlantic seaboard (Map 1), they winter principally from Mary- land (Chesapeake Bay) south to North Carolina (Currituck Sound), and occur rarely north to the Maritimes, Maine, and Long Island, and south to Florida and the Gulf coasts of Texas and Louisiana. In migration they occur on large bodies of water throughout the interior states, including the Great Basin (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976a). World Distribution Whistling Swans breed entirely within Arctic tundra habitats of North America, although Kistchinski et al. (1975) reported breeding in Siberia. They have been reported from Anadyrland in western U.S.S.R. (Por- tenko 1939 in Palmer 1976a) and questionably from Scotland (AOU 1957). Winter stragglers have been reported from Mexico, Bermuda, Cuba, and Puerto Rico (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976a), Japan, and possibly England (Evans and Sladen 1980). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES In winter, Whistling Swans are very common on the northern edge of our area, and are uncommon to casual throughout the rest of the southeast (Map 1). Numbers and the wintering range may be increasing. Taxonomic note: The Whistling Swan is the North American member of a Holarctic, tundra-breeding superspecies of swans which includes the Palearctic Bewick's Swan, Olor bewickii. Palmer (1976a) and Cramp et al. (1977) took the view that these forms are conspecific. They also followed Delacour (1954) and Johnsgard (1975, 1978) in merging the genus Olor into Cygnus. We follow the AOU (1957) in retaining Olor and treating the Whistling Swan as a distinct North American spe- cies, although merging the two forms as a single species, the Tundra Swan, will probably be more generally accepted in the future. We have included a number of recent titles regarding the Palearctic swans in the bibliography since the data obtained on these birds may well be relevant to the North American swan. 47 48 North Carolina Whistling Swans are abundant winter residents of extreme northeastern North Carolina. They may arrive as early as early October, and an occasional bird will linger until May. The principal wintering areas are Lake Mattamuskeet , Hyde County, and Pea Island, Dare County. The population winter- ing at Lake Mattamuskeet increased from 10,500 in 1970-71 (Teulings 1971a) to over 25,000 in 1976-77 (Teulings 1977a). We do not know how much of this in- crease represented true population growth and how much was due to displacement of birds that previously wintered in Chesapeake Bay. Bellrose (1976) reported that an average of 14,000 wintered from Back Bay, Virginia, to Lake Mattamuskeet and Pamlico Sound in North Carolina. The winter survey of 1975 (Goldsberry et al. 1980) reported a wintering population of 26,900 in North Carolina; this re- presents about 22% of the total (ca. 120,900) recorded on the survey of North American waterfowl. Elsewhere in North Carolina, Whistling Swans are regular in small numbers along the coast and rare inland, although inland records are increasing. South Carolina Sprunt and Chamberlain (1949) called Whistling Swans rare winter residents that occur generally along the coast; they listed dates of oc- currence from 22 October to 2 April. Burton (1970) added five records from the 1960's. In 1971-72, several hundred moved south from North Carolina for the winter (Teulings 1972b) and since then these swans have been seen regularly in small but increasing numbers. Cely (1979) made aerial surveys of wintering populations in South Carolina during 1976-77 and 1977-78 and found about 100 birds each winter. Maximum con- centrations found were at Huntington Beach State Park (15 birds), South Island Refuge, Georgetown County (28), Bull's Island (30), and Savannah NWR (25). Cely noted that these swans also concentrate at Doe Hall Plantation, Charleston County. As many as 30 swans have been reported there. He also suggested that the wintering population in South Carolina might be as high as 120 birds if those overlooked during the survey and those from inland localities were in- cluded. We list below coastal records since 1970 from American Birds. 1971 2 Jan. individuals seen Charleston Teulings 1971b 1971 9 Jan. 1971- winter 72 1971- winter 72 1973 6-9 Nov 2 seen "many more than usual" "up to 75 present" 1 found Trenton Charleston Doe Hall Plantation, McClellanville Par Pond, Savannah Riv- er Atomic Reserv. , near Aiken (inland) Teulings 1971b Teulings 1972b Teulings 1972b Teulings 1974a 1977 21 Jan. individual seen Huntington Beach St. Park LeGrand 1977a 49 1977 15-19 Feb. 1978 12 Feb. individuals seen 15 seen Santee NWR Savannah NWR LeGrand 1977a LeGrand 1978 Georgia Burleigh (1958) regarded Whistling Swans as rare transients and winter visitors, listing but eight records. Denton et al. (1977) considered them rare winter visitors throughout Georgia and listed dates of occurrence from 13 November to 17 April. Since 1970 they have been regular in small num- bers inland and along the coast. 1971 2nd week. Jan . 2 seen 1974- winter "a few" 75 1975 30 Nov. 9 seen 1975- winter "some" 76 1979 6 Dec. 1 seen 1978- winter 7 seen 79 throughout 1979 Jan. -Feb. 1 seen Roswell Savannah, Dalton, and Macon Gainesville, Ga . (inland) Savannah, Sylvania, Thomaston, Atlanta Okefenokee NWR Augusta (inland) Eufaula (inland) Teulings 1971b Teulings 1975b Teulings 1976a Teulings 1976b LeGrand 1977a LeGrand 1979b LeGrand 1979b Florida Whistling Swans are rare on both coasts of Florida (Kale 1979 ms a, 1979 ms b). Of the 14 records of Whistling Swans in Florida listed through 1955 by Sprunt (1954, 1963), most are from the Gulf side of the state, and seven of them from St. Marks NWR. Since 1970 there have been several records involving one or a few birds; these records are mostly from the panhandle and northern peninsula. 1969 1972 1 Dec. 1969- winter 70 9 Jan. 1 seen 3 seen 1 seen 1973 21-23 Dec. 2 seen 1974 late Nov. 2 seen Panacea Tallahassee near Lanark near Titusville Mosquito Lagoon Stevenson 1970 Stevenson 1970 Stevenson 1972 Stevenson 1974 Edscorn 1975 50 1974 22 Dec. 1976 3 Dec. 1976 9 Dec. 1976 14-25 Dec. 1977 29 Jan.- 28 Feb. 1977- 31 Dec- 78 1 Jan. 1977- 12 Dec- 78 26 Feb. 2 seen 1 seen 1 seen 1 seen 1 seen 1 seen 1 seen Guana Lake Refuge, St. John's Co. near St. Mark's Light St. Joe St. Park McKay Bay Tarpon Springs near Lakeland near St. Mark's Light Stevenson 1975 Stevenson 1977 Hamilton 1977 Stevenson 1977 Stevenson 1977 Stevenson 1978 Stevenson 1978 Alabama The Whistling Swan is rare in winter and during migration in the Tennessee Valley region of Alabama (Imhof 1976b). These swans winter almost annually at Wheeler NWR, in Limestone and Morgan counties. At least 47 win- tered there in 1978-79 (Hamilton 1979). Whistling Swans are casual elsewhere in the state. Howell (1928) stated that swans, presumably this species, were rare winter visitors in Mississippi Sound. We know of only three coastal re- cords for which more detailed information is available. 1916 early Dec. 1 seen 1964 26 Dec. 1976 14-17 Dec. 1 seen 5 ad., 2 imm. seen Mobile Mobile CBC Foley, Baldwin Co. Imhof 1976b, Howell 1928 Imhof 1976b, Dorn 1965 Hamilton 1977 Dates of occurrence within Alabama range from 25 October to 25 March (Imhof 1976b). Mississippi Whistling Swans occur in Mississippi as rare and irregular winter visitors. Burleigh (1944) mentioned no records from the coast and only one of several recent sightings was coastal; according to Hamilton (1979), this was the first record from the coast of Mississippi. 1974- 12 Dec- 75 13 Jan., 26 Jan.- 9 Mar. 1976- 16 Dec- 77 22 Jan. 5, 3 seen 5 mi W Tunica Hamilton 1975 1 imm. seen Noxubee NWR Hamilton 1977 51 1976- 24 Mar.- 7 7 3 Apr. 1977 24 Nov. 2 seen 1 ad. seen Noxubee NWR Noxubee NWR Weber and Jack- son 1977 Weber and Jack- son 1978 1978 3 Jan. 1978 25 Nov. 1978 30 Dec, 1 seen 2 seen 4 seen Lake Washington Pearl River Waterfowl Refuge S. Hancock Co. CBC Jackson and Cooley 1978a Jackson and Cooley 1978a Hamilton 1979 Louisiana Lowery (1974) noted less than two dozen "positive" identifica- tions of Whistling Swans in Louisiana, and commented that these swans are rarer than in the past. There was an influx in the winter of 1976-77; nine individ- uals were reported at five localities (Hamilton 1977). Records extend from 15 November through mid-February (Lowery 1974). Texas Oberholser (1974) listed Whistling Swans as locally scarce to rare in Texas, occurring between September and April; extremes are August and 3 May, and there is a summer record for Dallas County. Prior to 1900, swans apparent- ly were common throughout the state. They are now locally scarce to rare both inland and along the coast (Oberholser 1974). Recent records are as follows: 1969 18 Dec. 4 seen in flight 1969 Dec. "a few" seen 1970 Jan. -Feb. up to 12 1970 28 Dec. 1 seen 1971- winter 4 seen 72 1975 14-28 Mar. 4 seen 1977 Nov. -Dec . 6 seen 1977 early Dec. 1 imm. seen Port Isabel Galveston Bay area Corpus Christi- Rockville area between Brownsville and Port Isabel Sheldon Reservoir, near Houston Holiday Beach, Rockport Chambers Co. Rancho Santa Margarita, Starr Co. (inland) Webster 1970 Webster 1970 Webster 1970 Webster 1971 Webster 1972 Webster 1975a Webster 1978b Webster 1978b SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding Whistling Swans breed in Arctic North America, from western Al- aska to Baffin Island. The breeding population consisted of about 90,000 adults 52 (60,000 in Alaska) in the early 1970's (Bellrose 1976). Winter The U.S. wintering population was believed to be about 123,000 birds (the 90,000 breeding birds, plus juveniles and subadults) during the ear- ly 1970's. About 55,000 of these wintered in the east, of which 40,000 were in Chesapeake Bay (Bellrose 1976). The 1975 winter waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980) reported about 120,900 Whistling Swans. About 45% of these were in the Pacific Flyway , and almost all the rest were found in the Atlantic Fly- way. The great preponderance of those wintering in the southeastern states were found in North Carolina, which harbored about one third of the population win- tering along the Atlantic seaboard. Only California (ca. 46,000) and Maryland (36,400) had larger wintering populations. Migration The Athabasca Delta is a major fall staging area for swans from western and northern Alaska and from much of the Canadian breeding range. From there, many birds move southwest through Montana and Utah to wintering areas in the west. Most of the birds wintering on the Atlantic coast also gather in the Athabasca Delta but fly east-southeast through Manitoba, North Dakota, and the Great Lakes States to the Chesapeake Bay area (Bellrose 1976). In Chesapeake Bay, fall migrants continue to arrive during December and reach peak numbers in January (Bellrose 1976). The spring departure for Whis- tling Swans wintering in the east begins in early or mid-March, and migration continues through April (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a). A few may depart as early as late February or as late as early May (Palmer 1976b). HABITAT Nesting Throughout its breeding range in North America the Whistling Swan is associated with Arctic tundra. Nest sites are typically widely dispersed over the tundra, and small islands in tundra pools are preferred nesting sites. Other nests are found elsewhere in the tundra, sometimes well removed from water (Palmer 1976a, Bellrose 1976). Lensink (in Bellrose 1976) estimated that about half the swan nests in coastal areas of the Yukon Delta were on the shores of lakes or ponds within 60 ft (18 m) of water. Some 30% of the remainder were on small islands or points in lakes; the rest were in a variety of situations, such as heath tundra, marshes, or tidal meadows. In the latter, the swans fre- quently nested on elevated hummocks, and nests were less common in level areas, whistling Swans are usually absent from the bare areas of the Pre-Cambrian Shield in central and eastern Canada (Johnsgard 1975). Feeding Detailed studies of feeding habitat, at least in the east, have not been made. Swans wintering in Chesapeake Bay prefer brackish estuarine bays, but they have been found feeding in California in both dry and flooded fields (Bellrose 1976). During the early 1970's, swans wintering in the Chesa- peake Bay area fed less in aquatic habitats and began to feed regularly in fields of waste corn (Zea). , soybeans (Glycine) , and shoots of winter wheat (Tri- ticum) on the Maryland Eastern Shore; they commonly flew as much as 10-15 mi (16-24 km) inland to feed there (Bellrose 1976). Winter Wintering birds prefer large, shallow expanses of fresh and brack- 53 ish water and occur infrequently in salt water (Palmer 1976a) . In Chesapeake Bay, these swans preferred open, extensive areas of brackish estuarine water no more than 5 ft (1.5 m) deep (Stewart and Manning 1958, Stewart 1962). During January, Whistling Swans used brackish estuarine bays 76% of the time, salt estuarine bays 9%, fresh estuarine bays 8%, and slightly brackish estuarine bays 6%. Other habitats (ca. 1%) used included coastal impoundments and fresh and estuarine marshes. Fresh-water areas were used primarily by early fall ar- rivals (Stewart 1962). FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR These swans normally dip their heads and necks into the water to feed on bottom vegetation; when feeding in deeper waters they may tip up to seize sub- merged foods (Bellrose 1976). In terrestrial situations Whistling Swans may both grub and graze (Palmer 1976a) and may browse on shore grasses (Gilmer 1974). Food habits on the breeding grounds are largely unknown, but in migration and on the wintering grounds Whistling Swans usually feed extensively on aqua- tic plants (Johnsgard 1975, 1978). Stewart and Manning (1958) analyzed 49 stom- achs of birds wintering on Chesapeake Bay. They found that 100% of the diet in fresh estuarine waters consisted of submerged aquatic plants. In brackish waters and estuarine marsh ponds these plants formed 60% and 49% of the diet, respectively. In the Chesapeake Bay region wild celery (Valisneria spiralis) was an "all-important" item of diet in fresh estuarine areas but widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima) , sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus) , and two bivalve mol- luscs (long clam [My a arenaria] and Baltic macoma [Macoma balthica] ) were the most important foods when all feeding habitats were considered (Stewart and Manning 1958). Other plants eaten in the east include foxtail grass (Alope- curus) , pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.), squarestem spikerush (Eleocharis quad- rangulata) , arrowhead (Sagittaria) and coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) (Palmer 1976a). We have found little information on the diet of birds wintering in the southeastern states. Presumably they feed on much the same foods as in Chesa- peake Bay. Cely (1979) suggested that the principal foods in South Carolina were widgeongrass and muskgrass (Chara sp.). In the winter of 1969-70, swans foraged in fields on the wintering grounds near Chesapeake Bay to a much greater extent than formerly; we do not know whether this trend continued nor how im- portant waste grain may be in the diet of Whistling Swans wintering in the southeast. Johnsgard (1975), Bellrose (1976), and Palmer (1976a) summarized what little is known of food habits elsewhere in North America. IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying Time of laying at any particular locality may vary consider- ably from year to year (Palmer 1976a) but is usually remarkably synchronous within any given season (Bellrose 1976). Egg laying usually begins in late May or early June (Johnsgard 1975, Palmer 1976a) and in some areas nests with eggs have been found as late as mid-July (Palmer 1976a) . 34 Mean Clutch Size Clutch size varies with the timing of the season; it is lower in late seasons. In a study of 354 nests from 1963-71 on the Yukon Delta, Alaska, Lensink (1973 Ln Bellrose 1976) found an average clutch size of 4.26 eggs. Average clutch size varied from 3.3 in a late season to about 5 in an early season. Incubation Period The most accurate figure for the incubation period of the Whistling Swan in the wild is based on a single instance in which the last egg of a clutch hatched after a 31-day interval. In another instance, incuba- tion took about 32 days (Lensink ijn Bellrose 1976). Hatching Success We found no precise figures for hatching success expres- sed as the proportion of eggs laid that hatched. Lensink (In Bellrose 1976) thought that nesting success — considered as the proportion of nests in which at least one egg hatches — was very high on the Yukon Delta; he believed that at least some eggs hatched in over 90% of the nests. Bellrose (1976) suggested that perhaps one egg of the average clutch fails to hatch, basing his remarks on average clutch size and the size of broods seen in June and July. Fledging Success No definite data are available. Bellrose (1976) pre- sented data indicating that production of young is low. On the other hand, adults accompanied by young tend to have two or more (Bellrose 1976), suggest- ing a high success for some clutches and the complete loss of others. Age at Fledging Bellrose (1976) suggested that most cygnets probably fly at 60 to 70 days, but noted that some might need 75 days. Age at First Breeding Lensink (Ln Bellrose 1976) suggested that few birds breed before their third summer, and that most probably first breed when older. Mortality of Eggs and Young Palmer (1976a) considered egg-gathering by Eskimos and Indians a significant mortality factor in some areas. Lensink (in Bellrose 1976) noted nest destruction by gulls and foxes. Early freezing of water in fall accounted for some 3-5% of pre-fledging mortality in young from the Mackenzie-Anderson River Delta area. In other areas, freezing was reported as an occasional source of major mortality (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a). Renesting Swans occasionally lay repeat clutches if nests are lost early in the nesting cycle, but the chances of northern swans doing this successfully in the wild are considered poor because of the short nesting season (Kear Ln Scott 1972). Maximum Natural Longevity A bird banded on the Anderson River Delta, Northwest Territories, attained an age of 16 years and 2 months (Clapp et al. in press) . Weight Mean weight of 42 adult males was about 16 lb (7,260 g) and 63 adult females averaged 13.9 lb (6,300 g). The mean weight of adults winter- ing in Utah was 17.3 lb (7,850 g) and that of immatures was 13.3 lb (6,030 g) (Bellrose 1976). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Wintering Whistling Swans normally rest on the water at night in protected inlets, estuaries, and lakes. They are very vulnerable to oiling in these wa- ters, and probably are more likely to be affected by spills at onshore support facilities than by offshore drilling accidents. Perry et al. (1979) estimated that 385 Whistling Swans died as a result of two oil spills in Chesapeake Bay in 1976 and 1978. King and Sanger's (1979) study of the vulnerability of marine birds in the northeastern Pacific suggested that there should be high concern for Whistling Swans regarding potential ill effects from development of petroleum resources. Among anatids only the sea-ducks, Black Brant, and Emperor Goose were consid- ered more vulnerable. Concern for the effects of oil on this species should also be high for populations wintering in North Carolina; so few birds winter elsewhere in the southeast that oil pollution elsewhere should have little ef- fect on the total population. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Bateson, P., W. Lotwick and D. K. Scott. 1980. Similarities between the faces of parents and offspring in Bewick's Swans and the differences between mates. J. Zool. (Lond.) 191: 61-74. Evans, M. E. 1980. The effects of experience and breeding status on the use of a wintering site by Bewick's Swans Cygnus columbianus bewickii. Ibis 122: 287-297. Evans, M. E. and W. J. L. Sladen. 1980. A comparative analysis of the bill markings of Whistling and Bewick's Swans and out-of-range occurrences of the two taxa. Auk 97: 697-703. 1979 Cely, J. H. 1979. A survey of Whistling Swans along the South Carolina coast, Chat 43: 93. Damare, J. M. , D. Hussong, R. M. Weiner and R. R. Colwell. 1979. Aerobic and facultatively anaerobic bacteria associated with the gut of Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) and Whistling Swans ( Cygnus columbianus columbianus) . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 38: 258-266. Evans, M. E. 1979a. Population composition, and return according to breeding status of Bewick's Swans wintering at Slimbridge, 1963 to 1976. Wildfowl 30: 118-128. . 1979b. Aspects of the life cycle of the Bewick's Swan, based on recog- nition of individuals at a wintering site. Bird Study 26: 149-162. 56 Evans, M. E. 1979c. The effects of weather on the wintering of Bewick's Swans Cygnus columbianus bewickii at Slirabridge, Gloucestershire, England. Ornis Scand. 10: 124-132. Hussong, D. , J. M. Daraare , R. J. Lirapert, J. L. Sladen, R. M. Weiner and R. R. Colwell. 1979. Microbial impact of Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) and Whistling Swans (Cygnus columbianus columbianus) on aquatic ecosystems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37: 14-20. 1978 Evans, M. E. 1978. Some factors influencing the use of a wintering site by Bewick's Swans, studies through individual recognition. M.S. thesis, Univ. of Wales/Cardiff, Wales. Evans, M. E. and J. Kear . 1978. Weights and measurements of Bewick's Swans during winter. Wildfowl 29: 118-122. Kappa, B. 1978. Whistling Swan in Sullivan County. Migrant 49: 82. Lina, P. H. C. and H. D. Van der Laan. 1978. Waarneraing van een Kleine Zwaan Cygnus bewickii met rode poten. [Observation of a Bewick's Swan Cygnus bewickii with red legs.] Limosa 51: 167. [In Dutch.] Seegar, W. S. 1978. Prevalence of heartworm, Sarconema eurycerca, Wehr , 1939, (Nematoda) , in Whistling Swan, Cygnus columbianus columbianus. Can. J. Zool. 56: 1500-1502. Scott, D. K. 1978. Social behaviour of wintering Bewick's Swans. Ph.D. the- sis, Univ. of Cambridge/Cambridge, England. 1977 Brown, J. and V. Lewis. 1977. A laboratory study of individual recognition using Bewick's Swan bill patterns. Wildfowl 28: 159-162. Evans, M. E. 1977a. Notes on the breeding behaviour of captive Whistling Swans. Wildfowl 28: 107-112. . 1977b. Recognizing individual Bewick's Swans by bill pattern. Wild- fowl 28: 153-158. Gaul, R. W. 1977. Aphrodite's Ghost. The Swan in North Carolina. Conclusion. Wildl. N.C. 41: 20-21. Merne, 0. J. 1977. The changing status and distribution of the Bewick's Swan in Ireland. Irish Birds 1: 3-15. Mullie, W. C. and E. P. R. Poorter. 1977. Aantallen, verspreiding en terrein- keus van de Kleine Zwaan bij vije landelijke tellingen in 1976 en 1977. [Census, distribution and habitat selection of Bewick's Swan in five country-wide censuses in 1976 and 1977.] Watervogels 2: 85-96. [In Dutch.] 57 Scott, D. 1977. Breeding behaviour of wild Whistling Swans. Wildfowl 28: 101-106. Seegar , W. S. 1977. The life cycle and epizootiology of the heartworm, Sarco- nema eurycerca, in the Whistling Swan. Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins Univ./ Baltimore, MD. Sladen, W. J. L. and A. A. Kistchinski. 1977. Some results from circumpolar marking programs on northern Swans and Snow Geese. Pp. 498-507 In Proc. 13th Congr. Game Biol., Atlanta, GA. 1976 Nelson, C. H. 1976. A key to downy cygnets with analysis of plumage charac- ters. Wilson Bull. 88: 4-15. 1975 Barry, T. W. and J. Kear. 1975. A bibliography of the swans. Can. Wildl. Serv. & Wildfowl Trust, ii and 181 pp. Evans, M. E. 1975. Breeding behaviour of captive Bewick's Swans. Wildfowl 26: 117-130. Irwin, J. C. 1975. Mortality factors in Whistling Swans at Lake St. Clair, Ontario. J. Wildl. Dis. 11: 8-12. Kistchinski, A. A., R. I. Zlotin and V. E. Flint. 1975. [The breeding of the Whistling Swan (Cygnus columbianus) in the U.S.S.R.] Zool. Zh. 54: 1525- 1528. [in Russian with English summary.] Lebret, T. and W. C. Mullie. 1975. De Kleine Zwaan Cygnus bewicki op Walcheren en elders in Zeeland. [The Bewick's Swan Cygnus bewicki on Walcheren and elsewhere in Zeeland.] Limosa 48: 50-59. [In Dutch with English summary.] Lumsden, H. G. 1975. The Whistling Swan in James Bay and the southern region of Hudson Bay. Arctic 28: 194-200. [In English with French and Russian summaries . ] Owen, M. and C. J. Cadbury. 1975. The ecology and mortality of swans at the Ouse Washes, England. Wildfowl 26: 31-42. 1974 Bailey, R. 0. and B. D. J. Batt. 1974. Hierarchy of waterfowl feeding with Whistling Swans. Auk 91: 488-493. Gauthraux, S. A., Jr. (ed.) 1974. Proceedings of a conference on the biologi- cal aspects of the bird/aircraft collision problem. 5-7 February 1974. Dept. of Zoology, Clemson Univ./Clemson, SC. 535 pp. (miraeo) . Gilmer, D. S. 1974. Swans resting on the surface of a dry lake. Prairie Nat. 6: 16. 58 Johnsgard, P. A. 1974. The taxonomy and relationships of the northern swans. Wildfowl 25: 155-161. Mary-Rousseliere , G. and J. E. Heland. 1974. The Whistling Swan nesting in northern Baffin Island, Northwest Territories. Can. Field-Nat. 88: 99. Ruttledge, R. F. 1974. Winter distribution of Whooper and Bewick's Swans in Ireland. Bird Study 21: 141-145. 1973 Evans, M. E. and T. LeBret. 1973. Leucistic Bewick's Swans. Wildfowl 24: 61-62. Evans, M. E. , N. A. Wood, and J. Rear. 1973. Lead shot in Bewick's Swans. Wildfowl 24: 56-60. Gunn, W. W. H. 1973. Environmental stress on the Whistling Swan. Wildfowl 24: 5-7. King, J. G. 1973. The use of small airplanes to gather swan data in Alaska. Wildfowl 24: 15-20. Lensink, C. J. 1973. Population structure and productivity of Whistling Swans on the Yukon Delta, Alaska. Wildfowl 24: 21-25. Sladen, W. J. L. 1973. A continental study of Whistling Swans using neck collars. Wildfowl 24: 8-14. 1970 Heyland, J. D. , E. B. Chamberlain, C. F. Kimball and D. H. Baldwin. 1970. Whistling Swans breeding on the northwest coast of New Quebec. Can. Field-Nat. 84: 398-399. 1969 Ogilvie, M. A. 1969. Bewick's Swans in Britain and Ireland during 1956-69. Brit. Birds 62: 505-522. Sladen, W. J. L. and W. W. Cochran. 1969. Studies of the Whistling Swan, 1967-68. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 34: 42-50. 1968 Dixon, N. B. 1968. Whistling Swans wintering in central Oklahoma. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc. 1: 10-11. Holden, B. L. and W. J. L. Sladen. 1968. Heart worm, Sarconema eurycerca, in- fection in whistling Swans, Cygnus columbianus , in the Chesapeake Bay. Bull. Wildl. Dis. Assoc. 4: 126-128. 59 Pakulak, A. S. and D. L. Littlef ield . 1968 ms. Breeding status of Whistling Swans in northern Manitoba. Manitoba Dept. Mines, Resourc, Environ. Manage. 1966 Scott, P. 1966. The Bewick's Swan at Slimbridge. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 17: 20-26. Tate, D. J. R. 1966. Morphoraetric age and sex variation in the Whistling Swan, Olor columbianus. M.S. thesis, Univ. Nebraska/Lincoln, NE. 1965 Bartonek, J. C. 1965. Some summer and migration observations on Whistling Swans in Manitoba. Can. Field-Nat. 79: 217-218. Nagel, J. 1965. Field feeding of Whistling Swans in northern Utah. Condor 67: 446-447. Post, W., Jr. 1965. Whistling Swan at Barnwell, South Carolina. Chat 29: 52, Trainer, P. 0. and R. A. Hunt. 1965. Lead poisoning of Whistling Swans in Wisconsin. Avian Dis. 9: 252-263. 1963 Geroudet, P. 1963. Retour des Cygnes de Bewick sur Le Leman. Nos Oiseaux 27: 181-182. Sermet, E. 1963. Des Cygnes de Bewick a Yverdon. Nos Oiseaux 27: 181. 1962 Geroudet, P. 1962. L'hivernage des Cygnus bewicki sur Le Leman Savoyard. Nos Oiseaux 26: 317-319. 1960 Nero, R. W. 1960. A record of flight altitude of Whistling Swans. Blue Jay 18: 159. Sherwood, G. A. 1960. The Whistling Swan in the west with particular refer- ence to Great Salt Lake Valley, Utah. Condor 62: 370-377. 1959 Sherwood, G. A. 1959. The Whistling Swan in the Great Salt Lake Valley of Utah. M.S. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, UT. 79 pp. 60 1958 Atkeson, T. Z. , Jr. 1958. Whistling Swan records from Wheeler Reservoir. Ala. Birdlife 6: 11-12. Stewart, R. E. and J. H. Manning. 1958. Distribution and ecology of Whistling Swans in the Chesapeake Bay region. Auk 75: 203-212. 1955 Nicholson, D. J. 1955. Whistling Swan, Cygnus columbianus , killed in Osceola County, Florida. Fla. Nat. 28: 59. 1946 Camp, C. L. 1946. Whistling Swans. Wood Thrush 1: 10. 1945 Cook, F. W. 1945. Whistling Swans winter on the St. Mark's Refuge. Fla. Field Nat. 19: 21. McCulloch, N. , Jr. 1945. Whistling Swans at Raleigh. Chat 9: 44. 1941 Kendall, J. B. 1941. The Whistling Swans on Green Bay. Passenger Pigeon 3: 21-23. 1936 Sprunt, A., Jr. 1936. The Whistling Swan in South Carolina. Auk 53: 204. 1932 Sprunt, A., Jr. 1932. Some notes from Cumberland Island, Georgia. Auk 49: 364. 1928 Cobb, S. 1928. Whistling Swan at Martha's Vineyard, Mass. Auk 45: 93-94. 1927 Bowen, W. W. and R. Boulton. 1927. Whistling Swan (Olor columbianus) at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N.Y. Auk 44: 245. 1926 Burtch, V. 1926. Whistling Swan wintering at Branchport , N.Y. Auk 43: 229-231. 61 1921 Urner, C. A. 1921. Whistling Swan— a correction. Auk 38: 273. Wayne, A. T. 1921. The Whistling Swan (Olor columbianus) on the coast of South Carolina. Auk 38: 272-273. 1908 Fleming, J. H. 1908. The destruction of Whistling Swans (Olor columbianus) at Niagara Falls. Auk 25: 306-309. 62 WHITE -FRONTED GOOSE (Anser alblfrons) [DA: Blisgas, DU: Kolgans, EN/US: Specklebelly, White-front, Tule Goose, Speck, Laughing Goose, Specklebelly Brant; PI: Isokiljuhanhi , FR: Oie rieuse, GE: Blassgans, IC: Blesgaes, IT: Oca lombardella , JA: Ma-gan, NW: Tundragas, PO: Ges bialoczelna, PR: Ganso , RU: (White Goose), SP: Ganso frente blanca, Oca sal- vaje, Ansar careto grande; SW: Blasgas] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION White-fronted Geese breed circumpolarly on tundra around the shores of the Arctic Ocean, the Bering Sea, and Baffin Bay. They nest from Kanin in the east- ern U.S.S.R. to the northwest coast of Hudson Bay and have an isolated breeding population in southwestern Greenland (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a, Cramp et al. 1977). About two-thirds of the North American breeding population of approxi- mately 100,000 birds (Bellrose 1976) is found in Alaska; most of the rest inha- bit north-central and northwestern Canada (Palmer 1976a). These geese occur in the southeastern states primarily as migrants and winter residents and reach their peak abundance there along the coasts of southwestern Lousiana and Texas (Map 2) where as many as 66,000 may winter (Bellrose 1976). These geese are rare to casual along the Atlantic seaboard and are scarcely more common along the shores of the eastern Gulf. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION There is little information on direct effects of oil pollution on White- fronted Geese. Most of some 2,000-2,500 geese soiled with fuel oil in the Hol- lands Diep, Netherlands, in the winter of 1970-71 were White-fronted Geese, but the number that died is unknown (Ouweneel 1971). Judging both from reports on the direct effects of oil on other closely related species and from the White- fronted Goose's preference for habitats inland (Palmer 1976a), we suspect that this species is not especially vulnerable to oiling. Areas of mud-flats and adjacent marsh areas that are used extensively for roosting and foraging and which are likely to be oiled are areas in which these geese will be most sus- ceptible. In such areas the result of oiling probably will be primarily in- direct mortality through loss of food resources rather than direct mortality. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1979 Krogman, B. D. 1979. A systematic study of Anser albifrons in California. Pp. 22-43 in R. L. Jarvis and J. C. Bartonek (eds.) Management and biol- ogy of Pacific Flyway geese. Oregon St. Univ. Bookstores, Inc., Corvallis, OR. fi3 64 Master, T. L. 1979. White-fronted Geese in eastern Pennsylvania. Cassinia 57: 53. Patterson, T. K. 1979. White-fronted Geese seen near Dublin. Oriole 44: 15. Phillippona, J. 1979. Het uiteenvallen van het familieverband bij de Kolgans. [Family disintegration in the White-fronted Goose.] Watervogels 4: 40-43. [In Dutch with English summary. ] Ruttledge, R. F. and M. A. Ogilvie. 1979. The past and current status of the Greenland White-fronted Goose in Ireland and Britain. Irish Birds 1: 293- 363. Timm, D. E. and C. P. Dau. 1979. Productivity, mortality, distribution and population status of Pacific Flyway White-fronted Geese. Pp. 280-298 Jji R. L. Jarvis and J. C. Bartonek (eds.) Management and biology of Pacific Flyway geese. Oregon St. Univ. Bookstores, Inc., Corvallis, OR. 1978 Gerdes, K. , D. Hess and H. Reepmeyer. 1978. Raumliche und zeitliche Verteil- ungsmuster der Ganse ( Anser fabalis, A. albif rons, und A. anser) ira Ber- eich des Dollart (1971-1977). Vogelwelt 99: 81-116. [In German with English summary. ] Krogman, B. 1978. The Tule Goose mystery — a problem in taxonomy. Am. Birds 32: 164-166. Kuyken, F. 1978. Overwinterende ganzen in Belgie in het seizoen 1975-76. [Over-wintering geese in Belgium in the 1975-76 season.] Watervogels 3: 10-12. [In Dutch with English summary.] Lazarus, J. 1978. Vigilance, flock size and domain of danger size in the White-fronted Goose. Wildfowl 29: 135-145. Sharp, R. S. 1978. The origins of spring migratory staging by Sandhill Cranes and White-fronted Geese. Trans. Nebraska Acad. Sci. 6: 141-144. Sterbetz, I. 1978. The feeding ecology of Anser albif rons, A. erythropus and A. fabalis in Hungary. Internatl. Waterfowl Res. Bur. No. 45: 9-16. 1977 Fitzner, R. E. 1977. A winter record of the White-fronted Goose in eastern Washington. Murrelet 58: 89. Lebret, T. 1977. Waarnemingen over de ann- en afwezigheid van Holganzen Anser albif rons in hun voedselgebied en or de slaapplaats in relatie tot manlicht, [Observations on the presence or absence of White-fronted Geese Anser albi- f rons on their feeding grounds and their roost in relation to the moon phase.] Watervogels 2: 152-158. [In Dutch with English summary.] 65 1976 Wierenga, H. K. 1976. Waarnemingen aan de ochtentrek van ganzen in Friesland: resultaten van een telaktie door leden van de N.O.U. op 23 February 1975. [Observations on the morning flight of White-fronted Geese in central Friesland.] Limosa 49: 293-302. [In Dutch with English summary.] 1975 Delacour, J. and S. D. Ripley. 1975. Description of a new subpsecies of the White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons. Am. Mus . Novit . 2565. 4 pp. 1974 Burke, G. N. 1974. Techniques for capture of White-fronted Geese on wintering grounds. Proc . 27th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 316-318. Kuyt , E. 1974. Golden Eagles attack White-fronted Geese. Blue Jay 32: 227- 228. van Troostwijk, W. J. D. 1974. Ringing data on White-fronted Geese Anser a. albifrons in the Netherlands, 1953-1968. Ardea 62: 98-110. 1973 Mickelson, P. G. 1973. Breeding biology of Cackling Geese (Branta canadensis minima Ridgeway) and associated species on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Ph.D. thesis., Univ. Mich. /Ann Arbor, MI. Young, W. F. 1973. Specimen of White-fronted Goose [from Belize] now in museum. Belize Audubon Soc. Bull. 5: 1. 1972 Owen, M. 1972a. Movements and feeding ecology of White-fronted Geese at the New Ground, Slimbridge. J. Appl. Ecol . 9: 385-398. . 1972b. Some factors affecting food intake and selection in White- fronted Geese. J. Anira. Ecol. 41: 79-92. Philippona, J. 1972. Die Blessgans. Wittenberg Lutherstadt : A. Ziemsen. Neue Brehm Bucheri 457. 135 pp. [In German.] 1971 Fog, M. 1971. Haunts in Denmark for White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons), Bean Goose (Anser fabalis non brachyrhynchus) and Pink-footed Goose (Anser fabulis brachyrhynchus.) Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 6: 1-12. Helmstaedt, K. W. , M. Muller and H. J. Seeger. 1971. Beraerkungen zum Zug der Blessgans Anser a. albifrons (Scop.). Beitr. Vogelkd. 17: 185-200. [In German. ] 66 Owen, M. 1971. The selection of feeding site by White-fronted Geese in win- ter. J. Appl. Ecol. 8: 905-917. 1970 Baird, J. C. 1970. A record of a White-fronted Goose in New Brunswick. Can. Field-Nat. 84: 59-60. Elgas, B. 1970. Breeding populations of Tule White-fronted Geese in north- western Canada. Wilson Bull. 82: 420-426. LeGrand, H. , Jr. and E. LeGrand. 1970. White-fronted Goose near Raleigh, N.C. Chat 34: 101-102. 1969 Atkeson, T. Z. , Jr. 1969. White-fronted Goose specimen from Alabama. Auk 86: 141. Kuyken , F. 1969. Grazing of wild geese on grasslands at Damme, Belgium. Wildfowl 20: 47-54. Lensink, C. J. 1969 ms. The distribution of recoveries from White-fronted Geese (Anser albifrons frontalis) banded in North America. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv.s Bethel, AK. Unpubl . Admin. Rept . 1968 Miller, H. W., A. Dzubin and J. T. Sweet. 1968. Distribution and mortality of Saskatchewan-banded White-fronted Geese. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resourc. Conf. 33: 101-119. Ogilvie, M. A. 1968. The numbers and distribution of the European White- fronted Goose in Britain. Bird Study 15: 2-15. Pollard, D. F. W. and P. Walters-Davies . 1968. A preliminary study of the feeding of the Greenland White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons f lavirostris in Cardiganshire. Wildfowl 19: 108-116. 1967 Carlson, C. W. 1967. White-fronted Goose at Chincoteague Refuge. Raven 38: 65. Olney, P. J. S. 1967. The WAGBI-Wildfowl Trust Experimental Reserve. II: The feeding ecology of local Mallard and other wildfowl. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 18: 47-55. Vertse, A. 1967. [Ecological problems of White-fronted Geese passing the win- ter in Hungary. Presence of White-fronted Geese in the last century.] Aquila 73-74: 11-32. [In Hungarian.] 67 1966 Barry, T. W. 1966. The geese of the Anderson River Delta, Northwest Terri- tories. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Alberta/Edmonton, AB. 181 pp. Kear, J. 1966 ms. Feeding behaviour of White-fronted Geese in the British Isles. Wildfowl Trust Unpubl . Rept . 1965 Miller, H. and A. Dzubin. 1965. Regrouping of family members of the White- fronted Goose (Anser albif rons) after individual release. Bird-Banding 36: 184-191. 1964 Dzubin, A. 1964. Two possible wild hybrids of the White-fronted Goose X Snow Goose. Blue Jay 22: 106-108. Dzubin, A., H. W. Miller and G. V. Schildman. 1964. White-fronts. Pp. 135- 143 In J. P. Linduska (ed.) Waterfowl tommorrow. U.S. Dept. Int., U.S. Fish. & Wildl. Serv., Washington, D.C. Kessel, B. , H. K. Springer and C. M. White. 1964. June birds of the Kolomak River Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Murrelet 45: 37-47. 1962 Kuyt, E. 1962. White-fronted Geese breeding in the Thelon Valley, N.W.T. Can. Field-Nat. 76: 224. Williams, L. E. , Jr. 1962. White-fronted Goose and Franklin Gull in Missis- sippi. Miss. Ornithol. Soc. Newsl. 7: 8. 1960 Philippona, J. and T. Mulder. 1960. Het vorkommen van de Europese Kolgans , Anser a. albif rons (Scop.) in het bijzonder in Nederland. [On the occur- rence of the European White-fronted Goose, especially in the Netherlands.] Limosa 33: 90-127. [In Dutch with English summary.] 1958 Boyd, H. 1958. The survival of White-fronted Geese (Anser albifrons flaviros- trls, Dalgety and Scott) ringed in Greenland. Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 52: 1-8. 1957 Atkeson, T. Z. , Jr. 1957. A White-fronted Goose record for Alabama. Ala. Birdlife 5: 24-25. 68 Boyd, H. 1957. Mortality and fertility of the White-fronted Goose. Bird Study 4: 80-93. 1956 Geroudet, P., R. Pricam, Y. Reverdin and F. Vuilleumier. 1956. Six Oies rieuses dans la rade de Geneve. Nos Oiseaux 23: 326. [In French.] Scott, P. 1956. Some photographic studies of White-fronted and Lesser White- fronted geese. Brit. Birds 49: 216-218. 1954 Boyd, H. 1954. White-fronted Goose statistics. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 6: 73-79. Goethe, F. 1954. Gronlandische Blassganse in Nordwestdeutschland. Vogel- warte 17: 209-211. [In German.] 1953 Boyd, H. 1953. On encounters between wild White-fronted Geese in winter flocks. Behaviour 5: 85-129. Cadman, W. A. 1953. The winter food and ecological distribution of Greenland White-fronted Geese in Britain. Brit. Birds 46: 374-375. 1950 Fencker, H. 1950. The Greenland White-fronted Goose and its breeding biology. Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 44: 61-65. 1948 Dalgety, C. T. and P. M. Scott. 1948. A new race of the White-fronted Goose. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 68: 109-121. Hewitt, 0. H. 1948. Quebec recovery of White-fronted Goose banded in Green- land. Bird-Banding 19: 124. Lebret, T. 1948. Waaremingen over leefti jdsgroepen bij Kolganzen, Anser a. albifrons (Scop.). Ardea 36: 198-200. [In Dutch with English summary.] 1946 Glazener, W. C. 1946. Food habits of wild geese on the coast of Texas. J. Wildl. Manage. 10: 322-329. Nichols, M. M. and C. K. Nichols. 1946a. The White-fronted Goose in New Jersey. Auk 63: 450. • 1946b. White-fronted Goose on the coasts of New York and New Jersey. Auk 63: 598-599. 69 1944 Davis, H. H. 1944. Bill-coloration of the immature White-fronted Goose. Brit. Birds 38: 37-38. 1928 Mackay, G. H. 1928. White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons gambeli) in South Carolina. Auk 45: 368-369. Wayne, A. T. 1928. The White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons gambeli) in South Carolina. Auk 45: 201. 1927 Griscom, L. 1927a. The White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons gambeli) in South Carolina. Auk 44: 559. . 1927b. The White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons gambeli) in New Jersey. Auk 44: 560. 1926 Urner, C. A. 1926. White-fronted Geese in Virginia. Auk 43: 229. 1924 Brimley, H. H. 1924. White-fronted Goose in North Carolina. Auk 41: 339-340. 1917 Swarth, H. S. and H. C. Bryant. 1917. A study of the races of the White- fronted Goose (Anser albifrons) occurring in California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 17: 209-222. 70 SNOW GOOSE (Chen caerulescens) [DA: Snegas, DU: Sneeuwgans , FI: Luraihanhi , FR: Oie des neiges, GE: Schneegans, IC: Snjogaes, IT: Oca iperborea, JA: Haku gan, NW: Snogas , PO: Ges sniezyca, RU: (White Goose), SP: Ansar hiperboreo, Ansar nival, Ansar real, Ansar azul; SW: Snogas, US: Blue Goose, Greater Snow Goose] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION Snow Geese breed in Arctic tundra from northeastern Siberia eastward across the North American Arctic to northwestern Greenland (Cramp et al. 1977). About 1,635,000 Lesser Snow Geese breed in the western and central North American Arctic. Large numbers winter in Louisiana (ca. 380,000 during the winters of 1972-73) and Texas (ca. 435,000) (Bellrose 1976; Maps 3, 4). In Alabama and Mississippi the Snow Goose may be abundant during migration (Burleigh 1944, Imhof 1976b) but the species is uncommon to rare elsewhere in the southeast. About 67,000 Greater Snow Geese nested in Greenland and the eastern Cana- dian Arctic in 1969 (Heyland In Palmer 1976a). These birds winter primarily along the Atlantic coast from New Jersey to North Carolina. The largest winter- ing concentration (ca. 30,000 birds) is found in Currituck and Pamlico sounds, North Carolina (Bellrose 1976). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION We believe that direct mortality of Snow Geese from oil spills will be slight, since few of their activities would bring them into contact with areas of spilled oil. The species would be most susceptibile on the north Atlantic coast, because of cold weather and a tendency to utilize marine habitats more than the birds that winter in Louisiana and Texas (Palmer 1976a). The most del- eterious effects in warmer areas would probably occur on marshy feeding grounds if an oil spill were severe enough to inundate these areas. Such an episode occurred when an oil spill in the Gulf of St. Lawrence penetrated into marshes used as a major staging area by the Greater Snow Goose. The disaster was averted by prompt cleanup of the area before the geese arrived (Eagles 1964). Taxonomic note: The AOU (1957) check-list assigned the Snow Goose to the genus Chen. Opinions differ regarding the status of Chen, and it is often lumped with genus Anser, following Delacour (1954) and Johnsgard (1975, 1978). Similarly, the AOU (1957) formerly listed the Snow and the Blue Goose as separate species. Evidence presented by Cooch (1961) and Cooke and Cooch (1968), however, con- firmed that the Blue and Snow Geese are color phases of the same race. Current- ly, the AOU (1973) recognizes two subspecies: the Lesser Snow Goose , Chen caer- ulescens caerulescens, and the Greater Snow Goose, C_. c^. atlantica , the former displaying two plumage phases: dark (or blue form), and light phase. 71 72 73 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 Abraham, K. F. 1981. Breeding site selection of Lesser Snow Geese. Ph.D. thesis, Queen's Univ. /Kingston , ON. Bellrose, F. C. and R. C. Crompton. 1981. Migration speeds of three water- fowl species. Wilson Bull. 93: 121-124. Campbell, R. R. , R. J. Etches and J. F. Leatherland. 1981. Seasonal changes in plasma prolactin concentration and carcass lipid levels in the Lesser Snow Goose (Anser caerulescens caerulescens) . Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Comp. Physiol. 68: 653-657. Flickinger, E. L. 1981. Weather conditions associated with beginning of north- ward migration departures of Snow Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 516-520. 1980 Ankney, C. D. 1980. Egg weight, survival, and growth of Lesser Snow Goose goslings. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 174-182. Blankert, J. J. 1980. Lesser Snow Goose from Canada in Netherlands. Dutch Birding 2: 52. Campbell, R. R. 1980. Ecophysiological studies in Lesser Snow Geese (Anser caerulescens caerulescens) of the La Perouse Bay colony. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Guelph/Guelph, ON. Campbell, R. R. and J. F. Leatherland. 1980a. Estimating body protein and fat from water content in Lesser Snow Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 438-446. . 1980b. Seasonal changes in thyroid activity in the Lesser Snow Goose (Anser caerulescens caerulescens) including reference to embryonic thyroid activity. Can. J. Zool . 58: 1144-1150. Healey, R. F., F. Cooke and P. W. Colgan. 1980. Demographic consequences of Snow Goose brood-rearing traditions. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 900-905. Prevett, J. P. and C. D. Maclnnes. 1980. Family and other social groups in Snow Geese. Wildl. Monogr. 71: 1-46. Sidle, J. G. and G. E. Erickson. 1980. Snow Geese breeding in North Dakota. Prairie Nat. 12: 103-104. Sulzbach, D. S. and F. Cooke. 1980. Demographic parameters of a nesting col- ony of Snow Geese. Condor 81: 232-235. Thomas, V. G. and J. P. Prevett. 1980. The nutritional value of arrow-grasses to geese at James Bay. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 830-836. 74 Yesou, P. 1980. L'Oie des neiges Anser caerulescens L. en France. [Snow Goose Anser caerulescens L. in France.] Alauda 48: 21-26. [In French with German and English summaries.] 1979 Ankney, C. D. 1979. Does the wing moult cause nutritional stress in Lesser Snow Geese? Auk 96: 68-72. Boothroyd, P. N. and P. L. Rakowski . 1979. Unsuccessful nesting attempt of the Snow Goose on the Red River at Winnipeg, Manitoba. Blue Jay 37: 224-226. Flickinger, E. L. and E. G. Bolen. 1979. Weights of Lesser Snow Geese taken on their winter range. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 531-533. Heagy, M. I. and F. Cooke. 1979. Vegetation characteristics of Snow Goose nest sites. Can. J. Bot. 57: 1502-1504. Kelsall, J. P. and R. Burton. 1979. Some problems in identification of ori- gins of Lesser Snow Geese by chemical profiles. Can. J. Zool. 57: 2292- 2302. Mineau, P. and F. Cooke. 1979a. Rape in the Lesser Snow Geese. Behaviour 70: 280-291. . 1979b. Territoriality in Snow Geese or the protection of parenthood — Ryder's and Inglis's hypotheses re-assessed. Wildfowl 30: 16-19. Prevett, J. P., I. F. Marshall and V. G. Thomas. 1979. Fall foods of Lesser Snow Geese in the James Bay region. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 736-742. Syroechkovskii, E. V. 1979. [The laying of eggs by Snow Geese into strange nests.] Zool. Zh. 58: 1033-1041. [In Russian with English summary.] van den Berg, A. B. , H. Blankert and J. Brinkman. 1979. Zeldzame ganzen in Nederland in de winter 1978/79. [Rare geese in the Netherlands in the winter of 1978/79.] Dutch Birding 1: 34-41. [In Dutch with English summary. ] West, L. D. and J. D. Newson. 1979. Lead and mercury in Lesser Snow Geese wintering in Louisiana. Proc. 31st Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 180-187. Wypkema, R. C. P. and C. D. Ankney. 1979. Nutrient reserve dynamics of Lesser Snow Geese at staging in James 3ay, Ontario. Can. J. Zool. 57: 213-219. 1978 Blokpoel, H. and W. J. Richardson. 1978. Weather and spring migration of Snow Geese across southern Manitoba. Oikos 30: 350-363. 75 Bolen, E. G. and M. K. Rylander. 1978. Feeding adaptation in the Lesser Snow Goose (Anser caerulescens) . Southwest. Nat. 23: 158-161. Burton, B. A. and R. J. Hudson. 1978. Activity budgets of Lesser Snow Geese wintering on the Fraser River Estuary, British Columbia. Wildfowl 29: 111-117. Campbell, R. R. and E. Boorman. 1978. Pintail parasitizing Snow Goose nest. Blue Jay 36: 116-117. Cooke, F. 1978. Early learning and its effect on population structure. Stud- ies of a wild population of Snow Geese. Z. Tierpsychol. 46: 344-358. Cooke, F. and D. S. Sulzbach. 1978. Mortality, emigration and separation of mated Snow Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 271-280. Finney, G. and F. Cooke. 1978. Reproductive habits in the Snow Goose: the in- fluence of female age. Condor 80: 147-158. Krechmar, A. V. and E. V. Syroechkovsky . 1978. [Ecology of incubation in Anser caerulescens on the Wrangel Island.] Zool. Zh. 57: 899-910. [In Russian with English summary.] Mineau, P. 1978. The breeding strategy of a male Snow Goose (Anser caerules- cens) . M.S. thesis, Queen's Univ. /Kingston, ON. 125 pp. Simon, D. 1978. Identification of Snow and Ross' geese. Birding 10: 289-291. Sulzbach, D. and F. Cooke. 1978. Elements of nonrandomness in mass-captured samples of Snow Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 437-441. Vermeer, K. and B. D. Davies. 1978. Comparison of the breeding of Canada and Snow geese at Westham Island, British Columbia. Wildfowl 29: 31-44. Voet, H., S. Lhoest and P. Devillers. 1978. L' observation d'Oies des neiges dans la region Anversoise en 1973-1974. [Observations of Snow Geese in the Antwerp Region during 1973-1974.] Gerfaut 68: 107-108. [In French with Dutch and English summaries.] Wingate , D. B. 1978. Blue Goose banded on Bermuda, recovered at Cape Hatteras, N.C. Chat 42: 80. 1977 Abraham, K. F. , P. Mineau and F. Cooke. 1977. Unusual predators of Snow Goose eggs. Can. Field-Nat. 91: 317-318. Ankney, C. D. 1977a. Feeding and digestive organ size in breeding Lesser Snow Geese. Auk 94: 275-282. . 1977b. Male size and mate selection in Lesser Snow Geese. Evol . Theory 3: 143-147. 76 Ankney, C. D. 1977c. The use of nutrient reserves by breeding male Lesser Snow Geese (Chen caerulescens caerulescens) . Can. J. Zool. 55: 1984-1987. Babcock, K. M. and E. L. Flickinger. 1977. Dieldrin mortality of Snow Geese in Missouri. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 100-103. Harwood, J. 1977. Grazing strategies of Blue Geese, Anser caerulescens. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 48-55. Kelsall, J. P. and R. Burton. 1977. Identification of origins of Lesser Snow Geese by X-ray spectrometry. Can. J. Zool. 55: 718-732. Macmillan, A. T. 1977. The status of Snow Geese in Scotland. Scott. Birds 9: 357. Rockwell, R. F. and F. Cooke. 1977. Gene flow and local adaptation in a col- onially nesting dimorphic bird: the Lesser Snow Goose (Anser caerulescens caerulescens) . Am. Nat. Ill: 91-97. Sladen, W. J. L. and A. A. Kistchinski. 1977. Some results from circumpolar marking programs on northern swans and Snow Geese. Internatl. Congr. Game Biol. 13: 498-507. Syroechkovski, E. V., A. V. Krechmar and A. I. Artyukhov. 1977. [Changes in number of nesting Snow Geese, Chen caerulescens, on Wrangel Island.] Ornitologiya 13: 212-213. [In Russian.] 1976 Ankney, C. D. and A. R. Bisset. 1976. An explanation of egg-weight variation in the Lesser Snow Goose. J. Wildl. Manage. 40: 729-734. Blokpoel H. and D. R. M. Hatch. 1976. Snow Geese, disturbed by aircraft, crash into powerlines. Can. Field-Nat. 90: 195. Boyd, H. 1976a. Mortality rates of Hudson Bay Snow Geese, 1967-74. Can. Wildl. Serv. Progrs. Notes 61: 1-4. . 1976b. Estimates of total numbers in the Hudson Bay population of Les- ter Snow Geese, 1964-1973. Can. Wildl. Serv. Progrs. Notes 63: 1-7. Cooke, F., G. H. Finney and R. F. Rockwell. 1976. Assortative mating in Les- ser Snow Geese (Anser caerulescens). Behav. Genet. 6: 127-140. Gauthier, M. C. , H. Blokpoel and S. G. Curtis. 1976. Observations on the spring migration of Snow Geese from southern Manitoba to James and Hudson bays. Can. Field-Nat. 90: 196-199. Hanson, H. C. and R. L. Jones. 1976. The biogeochemistry of Blue, Snow, and Ross1 Geese. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv., Spec. Publ . No. 1. S. 111. Univ. Press/Urbana, IL. 281 pp. 77 Kelsall, J. P. and W. J. Pannekoek. 1976. The mineral profile of plumage in captive Lesser Snow Geese. Can. J. Zool. 54: 301-305. Syroechkovsky , E. V. 1976. [Behavioural patterns of the Snow Geese ( Anser caerulescens) during the nesting period.] Zool. Zh. 55: 1495-1504. [In Russian with English summary.] 1975 Ankney, C. D. 1975a. Apparent breeding of a Greater Snow Goose at the McCon- nell River, Northwest Territories. Can. Field-Nat. 89: 185-186. 1975b. Neckbands contribute to starvation in female Lesser Snow Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 825-826. Blokpoel, H. and M. C. Gauthier. 1975. Migration of Lesser Snow and Blue Geese. Part 1. Influence of the weather and prediction of major flights. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. Ser. No. 32. 30 pp. Blokpoel, H., J. D. Heyland, J. Burton and N. Samson. 1975. Observations of the fall migration of Greater Snow Geese across southern Quebec. Can. Field-Nat. 89: 268-277. Chabreck, R. H. and J. D. Schroer. 1975. Effects of neck-collars on the reproduction of Snow Geese. Bird-Banding 46: 346-347. Cooke, F. 1975. The Snow Geese of La Perouse Bay. Dept. Mines, Resourc. and Environ. Manage., Prov. of Manitoba Inform. Ser. No. 3. 14 pp. Cooke, F. and C. M. McNally. 1975. Mate selection and colour preferences in Lesser Snow Geese. Behaviour 53: 151-170. Cooke, F., C. D. Maclnnes and J. P. Prevett. 1975. Gene flow between breeding populations of Lesser Snow Geese. Auk 92: 493-510. Dzubin, A., H. Boyd and W. J. D. Stephen. 1975. Blue and Snow Goose distribu- tion in the Mississippi and Central flyways, 1951-71. Can. Wildl. Serv. Progrs. Notes 54. 34 pp. Finney, G. H. 1975. Reproductive strategies of the Lesser Snow Goose, Anser caerulescens caerulescens. Ph.D. thesis, Queen's Univ. /Kingston, ON. 152 pp. Harwood , J. 1975. The feeding strategies of Blue Geese Anser caerulescens. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Western Ontario/London, ON. 187 pp. Kelsall, J. P., W. J. Pannekoek and R. Burton. 1975. Chemical variability in plumage of wild Lesser Snow Geese. Can. J. Zool. 53: 1369-1375. Kerbes, R. H. 1975. The nesting population of Lesser Snow Geese in the east- ern Canadian Arctic: a photographic inventory of June 1973. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. Ser. No. 35. 47 pp. 78 Lumsden, H. G. 1975. Differential migration in yearling and adult Lesser Snow Geese (Anser caerulescens) . Bird-Banding 46: 40-46. Lynch, J. J. 1975. Winter ecology of Snow Geese on the Gulf Coast, 1925 to 1975. Unpubl. paper presented at the 37th Midwest Wildl. Conf . , Toronto, ON. 45 pp. Schroer, J. D. and R. H. Chabreck. 1975. Dispersal and flock integrity of Snow Geese in Louisiana and Texas. Proc. 28th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Coramiss.: 468-4 74. Sulzbach, D. S. 1975. A study of the population dynamics of a nesting colony of the Lesser Snow Goose (Anser caerulescens caerulescens). M.S. thesis, Queen's Univ. /Kingston, ON. Syroechkovsky, E. V. 1975. [Egg weight and its effect upon mortality of nest- lings in Chen caerulescens on the Wrangel Island.] Zool. Zh. 54: 408-412. [In Russian with English summary.] 1974 Ankney, C. D. 1974. The importance of nutrient reserves to breeding Blue Geese (Anser caerulescens). Ph.D. thesis, Univ. W. Ontario/London, ON. 232 pp. Blokpoel, H. 1974a. Migration of Lesser Snow and Blue Geese in spring across southern Manitoba. Part I: distribution, chronology, directions, numbers, heights, and speeds. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept . Ser. No. 28. 29 pp. . 1974b. Recent changes in chronology of spring Snow Goose migration from southern Manitoba. Can. Field-Nat. 88: 67-71. Boag, P. T. 1974. A descriptive and functional analysis of post-hatch flock- ing in the Lesser Snow Goose. B.S. thesis, Queen's Univ. /Kingston, ON. Heyland, J. D., D. B. Wingate and N. N. Powe. 1974. Five Greater Snow Geese from northwestern Baffin Island winter in Bermuda. Bird-Banding 45: 217- 223. Smithey, D. A., R. H. Chabreck, F. W. Martin, E. T. Sipio and J. R. Walter. 1974. Social behavior and migration patterns of Blue and Snow geese win- tering in Louisiana and eastern Texas. Proc. 27th Annu. Conf. Southeast- ern Assoc. Game & Fish Coramiss.: 43-56. 1973 Bartlett, D. and J. Bartlett. 1973. Beyond the north wind with the Snow Goose. Natl. Geogr. 144: 822-847. Lieff , B. C. 1973. The summer feeding ecology of Blue and Canada geese at McConnell River, N.W.T. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. W. Ontario /London, ON. 230 pp. 79 Prevett, J. P. 1973. Family behavior and age-dependent breeding biology of the Blue Goose, Anser caerulescens. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. W. Ontario/Lon- don, ON. Prevett, J. P. and L. S. Prevett. 1973. Egg retrieval by Blue Geese. Auk. 90: 202-204. Smithey, D. 1973. Social organization, behavior, and movement of Blue and Snow geese wintering in Louisiana. M.S. thesis, La. St. Univ. /Baton Rouge, LA. 135 pp. 1972 Cooke, F. and P. J. Mirsky. 1972. A genetic analysis of Lesser Snow Goose families. Auk 89: 863-871. Cooke, F. , P. J. Mirsky and M. B. Seiger. 1972. Color preferences in the Les- ser Snow Goose and their possible role in mate selection. Can. J. Zool. 50: 529-536. Hanson, H. C. , H. G. Lumsden, J. J. Lynch and H. W. Norton. 1972. Population characteristics of three mainland colonies of the Blue and Lesser Snow Geese nesting in the southern Hudson Bay region. Ontario Minist . Nat. Resourc, Resch. Rept. (Wildl.) No. 92. 38 pp. Noble, M. D. 1972. Blue Geese observations in British Columbia. Murrelet 53: 13. Privette, A., Jr. 1972. Snow Geese seen in Wake County, N.C. Chat 36: 88. Schreiber, R. K. 1972. Recent sightings of Blue Geese in Washington. Murre- let 53: 36-37. Starkey, E. E. 1972. A case of interspecific homosexuality in geese. Auk 89: 456-457. Syroechkovsky , E. V. 1972. [Some peculiarities of interrelationships between the Snow Geese and the Arctic Foxes on the Wrangel Island.] Zool. Zh. 51: 1208-1213. [In Russian with English summary.] 1971 Bateman, H. 1971. Blue and Snow Geese short stopping. La. Conserv. 23: 4-9. Harvey, J. M. 1971. Factors affecting Blue Goose nesting success. Can. J. Zool. 49: 223-234. Ryder, J. P. 1971a-. Distribution and breeding biology of the Lesser Snow Goose in central arctic Canada. Wildfowl 22: 18-28. . 1971b. Size differences between Ross' and Snow goose eggs at Karrak Lake, Northwest Territories in 1968. Wilson Bull. 83: 438-439. 80 Trauger, D. L. , A. Dzubin and J. P. Ryder. 1971. White Geese intermediate be- tween Ross' Geese and Lesser Snow Geese. Auk 88: 856-875. 1970 Heyland, J. D. and H. Boyd. 1970. Greater Snow Geese (Anser caerulescens at- lanticus Kennard) in northwest Greenland. Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 64: 193-204. Nagel , J. E. 1970. Snow Goose migrations in the eastern segment of the Pacific Flyway. Proc . 50th Annu. Conf. Western Assoc. State Game & Fish Commiss.: 361-377. Peck, G. K. 1970. First Ontario nest records of Arctic Loon (Gavia arctica) and Snow Goose (Chen hyperborea) . Ont. Field Biol. 24: 25-28. Penczak, T. 1970. Ges sniezna, Anser caerulescens (L.) w Polsce. [Snow Goose, Anser caerulescens, in Poland.] Acta Ornithol. 12: 42. [In Polish with English summary.] 1969 Hanson, W. C. 1969. First sight records of Blue Geese in Washington. Murre- let 50: 24. Kerbes, R. H. 1969. Biology and distribution of nesting Blue Geese on Kouk- djuak Plain, Baffin Island, N.W.T. M.S. thesis, Univ. W. Ontario/London, ON. 122 pp. Nagel, J. E. 1969. Migration patterns and general habits of the Snow Goose in Utah. Utah Dept. Nat. Resourc. Publ. 69-6. 74 pp. Ryder, J. P. 1969. Egg-eating by wild Lesser Snow Geese. Avicult Mag. 75: 23-24. 1968 Cooke, F. and F. G. Cooch. 1968. The genetics of polymorphism in the goose, Anser caerulescens. Evolution 22: 289-300. Higgins, K. F. 1968. Evaluation of techniques for estimating fall age ratios of Canada and Snow geese. M.S. thesis, S. Dak. St. Univ. /Vermillion, SD. 1967 Lemieux, L. and J. Heyland. 1967. Fall migration of Blue Geese and Lesser Snow Geese from the Koukdjuak River, Baffin Island, Northwest Territories. Nat. Can. 94: 677-694. Lieff, B. C. 1967. Feeding behaviour of geese at McConnell River, N.W.T. M.S. thesis, Univ. W. Ontario/London, ON. 81 Uspenski, S. M. 1967. [Snow Geese in the Soviet Arctic] Problemy Severa 11: 224-228. [In Russian.] 1965 Rienecker, W. C. 1965. A summary of band returns from Lesser Snow Geese (Chen hyperborea) of the Pacific Flyway. Calif. Fish Game 51: 132-146. Sutherland, C. A. and D. S. McChesney. 1965. Sound production in two species of geese. Living Bird 4: 99-106. Uspenski, S. M. 1965. The geese of Wrangel Island. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 16: 126-129. 1964 Cooch, F. G. 1964. Snows and Blues. Pp. 125-133 jin J. P. Linduska (ed.) Waterfowl tommorrow. U.S. Dept . Int., U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Wash., D.C. Dzubin, A. 1964. Two possible wild hybrids of the White-fronted Goose X Snow Goose. Blue Jay 22: 106-108. Eagles, D. 1964. Oil pollution — a near disaster for the Greater Snow Goose. Can. Aud. 26: 37-39. 1963 Baillie, J. L. 1963. The 13 most recent Ontario nesting birds. Ont . Field Biol. 17: 15-26. Cooch, F. G. 1963. Recent changes in distribution of color phases of Chen c. caerulescens. Proc. XIII Internatl. Ornithol. Congr. : 1182-1194. 1962 Lawrence, L. de K. 1962. A noteworthy reverse migration of Snow Geese in central Ontario. Auk 79: 718. 1961 Angstadt, R. B. 1961. Predation by jaegers in a Blue Goose colony. M.S. thesis, Cornell Univ. /Ithaca , NY. 49 pp. Cooch, G. 1961. Ecological aspects of the Blue-Snow Goose complex. Auk 78: 72-89. Kebbe, C. E. 1961. Report from Russia on banded Snow Geese. Bull. Oregon State Game Commiss. 16: 45. HI 1960 Cooch, F. G., G. M. Stirrett and G. F. Boyer. 1960. Autumn weights of Blue Geese (Chen caerulescens) » Auk 77: 460-465. Goldstick, H. L. 1960. Blue Goose and shorebirds at Hunting Towers, Alexan- dria, Va. Atl. Nat. 15: 44. 1959 Cooch, F. G. and J. Beardmore. 1959. Assortative mating and reciprocal dif- ference in the Blue-Snow Goose complex. Nature 183: 1833-1834. Lemieux, L. 1959a. Histoire naturelle et amenagement de la Grande Oie blanche, Chen hyperborea atlantica. Nat. Can. 86: 133-192. [In French.] . 1959b. Histoire naturelle et amenagement de la Grande Oie blanche, Chen hyperborea atlantica. Ph.D. thesis, Laval Univ. /Quebec , PQ. . 1959c. The breeding biology of the Greater Snow Goose on Bylot Island, Northwest Territories. Can. Field-Nat. 73: 117-128. . 1959d. The breeding biology of the Greater Snow Goose (Chen hyperborea atlantica) on Bylot Island. (Abstract). Trans. N.E. Wildl. Conf. 1: 122. 1958 Cooch, F. G. 1958. The breeding biology and management of the Blue Goose Chen caerulescens. Ph.D. thesis, Cornell Univ. /Ithaca , NY. 235 pp. Lahrman, F. W. 1958. The Blue Goose in Saskatchewan. Blue Jay 16: 57-58. McEwen, E. H. 1958. Observations on the Lesser Snow Goose nesting grounds, Egg River Banks Island. Can. Field-Nat. 71: 122-127. 1957 Cooch, C. 1957. Mass ringing of flightless Blue and Lesser Snow geese in Canada's eastern Arctic. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept . 8: 58-67. Foster, J. B. 1957. Snow and Blue geese nesting in the southern Arctic. Ont. Field Biol. 11: 22. Labisky, R. F. 1957. Unusual flight behavior of Blue and Snow geese. Auk 74: 509. Lumsden, H. G. 1957. A Snow Goose breeding colony in Ontario. Can. Field- Nat. 71: 153-154. 83 1955 Baillie, J. L. 1955. On the spring flight of Blue and Snow geese across north- ern Ontario. Can. Field-Nat. 69: 135-139. Cooch, G. 1955. Observations on the autumn migration of Blue Geese. Wilson Bull. 67: 171-174. Lemieux, L. 1955. La Grande Oie blanche, Chen hyperborea atlantica. M.S. thesis, Laval Univ. /Quebec , PQ. 1954 Hohn, E. 0. 1954. In the home of the Snow Goose. Beaver 285: 8-11. Stirrett, G. M. 1954. Field observations of geese in James Bay, with special reference to the Blue Goose. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 19: 211-220. 1953 Cooch, F. G. 1953a. A preliminary study of the Blue and Lesser Snow geese on Southampton Island. M.S. thesis, Cornell Univ. /Ithaca , NY. 77 pp. . 1953b. A preliminary study of the Blue and Lesser Snow geese on Southampton Island. Arctic Circle 6: 14-17. Nicholson, D. J. 1953. The first recording of the (Lesser?) Snow Goose in Orange County, Florida. Fla. Nat. 26: 136-137. 1952 Hebard, F. V. 1952. Blue Geese in Glynn County. Oriole 17: 39. Morrison, A. 1952. The Greater Snow Goose. Bull. Mass. Audubon Soc . 36: 285-291. Nelson, H. K. 1952. Hybridization of Canada Geese with Blue Geese in the wild. Auk 69: 425-428. 1950 Hewitt, 0. H. 1950. Recent studies of Blue and Lesser Snow goose populations in James Bay. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 15: 304-309. 1949 Sibley, C. G. 1949. The incidence of hybrids in migrant Blue and Snow geese in Kansas. Condor 51: 274. Spinner, G. P. 1949. Observations on Greater Snow Geese in the Delaware Bay area. Auk 66: 197-198. 84 1948 Stiles, B. F. 1948. The Blue Goose: is it changing its migration through Iowa? Iowa Bird Life 18: 9-13. Stupka, A. 1948. Snow Goose in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Migrant 21: 80-82. 1946 Glazener, W. C. 1946. Food habits of wild geese on the Gulf Coast of Texas. J. Wildl. Manage. 10: 322-329. Soper, J. D. 1946. Supplementary data concerning the Blue Goose. Can. Field- Nat. 60: 110-113. 1945 Adams, I. S. 1945. Arrival and departure of Greater Snow Geese in Quebec. Bird-Banding 16: 36-37. 1944 Cahalane, V. H. and R. E. Griffith. 1944. Occurrences of the Blue Goose in New Mexico. Condor 46: 124-125. Lynch, J. J. 1944. Family life of the Snow Goose. Audubon 46: 2-8. 1943 DuMont, P. A. 1943. Blue Geese on National Wildlife Refuges of the Atlantic coast, winter of 1941-42. Auk 60: 110-111. Fleetwood, R. J. 1943. Blue Goose in eastern Tennessee. Migrant 14: 62. 1942 Adams, I. S. 1942. Blue Geese in South Carolina. Auk 59: 303-304. Fremont, C. , H. F. Lewis and F. C. Lincoln. 1942. Southward migration of Greater Snow Geese in 1940. Auk 59: 301-303. Manning, T. H. 1942. Blue and Snow geese on Southampton and Baffin islands. Auk 59: 158-175. Soper, J. D. 1942. Life history of the Blue Goose Chen caerulescens (Lin- naeus). Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 42: 121-225. Stoddard, H. L. 1942. The Blue Goose and the Lesser Snow Goose as migrants in Georgia. Oriole 7: 18-19. Tomkins, I. R. 1942. A Blue Goose on Blackbeard Island, Georgia. Oriole 7: 17-18. 85 1941 Saylor, L. W. 1941. Winter food of Snow and Blue geese In Delaware. Auk 58: 92. 1940 Howard, W. J. 1940. Wintering of the Greater Snow Geese. Auk 57: 523-531. 1938 Dery, A. 1938. Migration automnale de la Grande Oie Blanche. [Autumn move- ments of the Greater Snow Goose.] Provacher Soc . Nat. Hist. Can., Annu. Rept. 1938: 120-133. [In French.] 1937 White, E. F. G. and H. F. Lewis. 1937. The Greater Snow Goose in Canada. Auk 54: 440-444. 1936 Snyder, L. L. and T. M. Shortt. 1936. A summary of recent events pertaining to the Blue and Lesser Snow goose. Auk 53: 173-177. Sprunt, A., Jr. 1936. The Blue Goose again in coastal South Carolina. Auk 53: 75-76. 1935 Brimley, H. H. 1935. Blue Goose and Glaucous Gull in North Carolina. Auk 52: 443-444. Cottam, C. 1935. Blue and Snow geese in eastern United States in the winter of 1934-35 with notes on their food habits. Auk 52: 432-441. Tomkins, I. R. 1935a. A Blue Goose from Georgia. Auk 52: 78. . 1935b. Another Blue Goose from Georgia. Auk 52: 302. 1932 Brown, J. W. 1932. Lesser Snow Goose in South Carolina. Auk 49: 343. Mcllhenny, E. A. 1932. The Blue Goose in its winter home. Auk 49: 279-306. Tomkins, I. R. 1932. A Greater Snow Goose from Georgia. Auk 49: 213-214. 1931 Stone, W. 1931. Rare Geese on the North Carolina coast. Auk 48: 111. 86 Sutton, G. M. 1931. The Blue Goose and Lesser Snow Goose on Southampton Island, Hudson Bay. Auk 48: 335-364. 1930 Soper, J. D. 1930. The Blue Goose. An account of its breeding ground, migra- tion, eggs, nests, and general habits. Can. Dept. Int., Ottawa. 64 pp. 1929 Janvrin, E. R. P. 1929. Greater Snow Goose on Long Island, N.Y. Auk 46: 378-379. Langelier, G. A. 1929. Lesser Snow Goose (Chen hyperboreus hyperboreus) in Quebec. Auk 46: 103. Townsend, C. W. and C. L. Bull. 1929. The Blue Goose (Chen caerulescens) at Virginia Beach, Va. Auk 46: 103. 1928 Denmead, T. 1928. The Blue Goose in Maryland. Auk 45: 201. Harrold, C. G. 1928. Notes on the Lesser Snow and Blue geese observed at Whitewater Lake, Manitoba. Auk 45: 290-292. 1927 Gromme, 0. J. 1927. An unusual flight of Snow Geese in the Lake Winnebago area. Auk 44: 96. Kennard , F. H. 1927. The specific status of the Greater Snow Goose. Proc. New Engl. Zool. Club 9: 85-93. Williams, R. W. 1927. The Blue Goose at East Goose Creek, Florida. Auk 44: 244-245. 1926 Bull, C. L. 1926. Blue Goose (Chen caerulescens) in South Carolina. Auk 43: 228. Coles, R. R. 1926. Greater Snow Goose (Chen hyperboreus nivalis) at Sound Beach, Connecticut. Auk 43: 363-364. Townsend, C. W. 1926. A Blue Goose (Chen caerulescens) in Massachusetts. Auk 43: 228. 1925 Norton, A. H. 1925. Blue Goose (Chen caerulescens) in Maine. Auk 42: 265. 87 1923 Doolittle, E. 0. 1923. Blue Geese alighting in northern Ohio. Auk 40: 319. Kennard , F. H. 1923. Downy young of the Greater Snow Goose, a correction. Auk 40: 690. Smyth, T. 1923. Snow Goose in the Cayuga Lake Basin. Auk 40: 529. 1922 Bagg, A. C. 1922. The Greater Snow Goose in Massachusetts. Auk 39: 251. 1921 Lamb, C. R. 1921. Blue Goose (Chen caerulescens) in Massachusetts. Auk 38: 109. Lewis, H. F. 1921. The Blue Goose in the Province of Quebec. Auk 38: 270- 271. Phillips, J. C. 1921. Blue Geese (Chen caerulescens) in Massachusetts. Auk 38: 271. 88 ROSS ' GOOSE (Chen rossii) [FR: Oie de Ross, GE: Zwergschneegans, SP: Ansar de Ross, Ganso de Ross] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION Ross' Geese breed in North America primarily in the Perry River region south of Queen Maud Gulf in the Northwest Territories (Palmer 1976a, Johnsgard 1978). They have also been found breeding on the Boas River, Southampton Is- land and near the mouth of the McConnell River, N.W.T. (Bellrose 1976). Bell- rose (1976) reported that the average February population for the period 1956- 74 was 23,400. These geese winter chiefly in central California (Johnsgard 1978), with small but inceasing numbers wintering along the central Gulf in recent years. Prevett and Maclnnes (1972) estimated that the wintering population in Louisiana was 127, 178, and 167 in 1968, 1969, and 1970, respectively, and they believed that several hundred more wintered along the Texas Gulf coast. Elsewhere in the southeast, Ross' Goose is a very rare to accidental visitor and has been reported only in North Carolina. We know of five records from that state (Buckley 1969; Teulings 1971b, 1971c, 1972b, 1976b; E. K. LeGrand 1972) but these may not involve more than three individuals. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION We have found no records of specific instances of oiling of Ross' Goose, which is one of the least coastal geese in winter. It is probably one of the least vulnerable species in the southeastern area, because of its terrestrial habits and because of the small (but increasing) numbers that winter there. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Krehbiel, A. J. 1980. Ross's Goose in northeastern New Mexico. Bull. Okla . Ornithol. Soc . 13: 28-29. 1979 Kaufman, K., J. Witzman and E. Cook. 1979. Pinning down the Blue Ross' Goose, Continental Birdlife 1: 112-115. Taxonomic note: (1954). The genus Chen is often included in Anser , following Delacour 89 McLandress, M. R. 1979. Status of Ross Geese in California. Pp. 141-172 in R. L. Jarvis and J. C. Bartonek (eds.) Management and biology of Pacific Flyway geese. Oregon St. Univ. Bookstores, Inc., Corvallis, OR. McLandress, M. R. and I. McLandress. 1979. Blue-phase Ross' Geese and other blue-phase geese in western North America. Auk 96: 544-550. Shoffner, R. N., N. Wang, F. Lee, R. King and J. S. Otis. 1979. Chromosome homology between the Ross's and the Emperor Goose. J. Heredity 70: 395-400. 1978 Baker, B. W. and M. F. Passmore. 1978. First record of a Ross1 Goose in coastal Texas. Bull. Texas Ornithol. Soc . 11: 48-49. Haller, K. W. 1978. Ross's Goose in Grayson County, north-central Texas. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc. 11: 21-22. Hoffman, R. 1978. A Ross' Goose at Schoeneberg Marsh. Passenger Pigeon 40: 414-416. Simon, D. 1978. Identification of Snow and Ross' geese. Birding 10: 289-291. 1977 Klett, E. V. and C. C. Heflebower. 1977. Ross's Goose on Washita National Wildlife Refuge, west-central Oklahoma. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc. 10: 30-31. Prevett , J. P. and F. C. Johnson. 1977. Continued eastern expansion of breed- ing range of Ross' Goose. Condor 79: 121-123. 1976 Hanson, H. C. and R. C. Jones. 1976. The biogeochemistry of Blue, Snow, and Ross' Geese. S. 111. Univ. Press, Carbondale , IL. 281 pp. 1975 Reed, A. and L. S. Maltby-Prevett . 1975. Ross' Goose in Quebec. Can. Field- Nat. 89: 313. 1974 Hanson, H. C. and R. L. Jones. 1974. An inferred sex differential in copper metabolism in Ross' Geese (Anser rossii): biogeochemical and physiological considerations. Arctic 27: 111-120. 1973 Ryder, J. P. and F. Cooke. 1973. Ross' Geese nesting in Manitoba. Auk 90: 691-692. 9!) 1972 Furrer, R. K. 1972. A late spring sight record of Ross1 Goose in east-central Washington. Murrelet 53: 49-50. LeGrand, E. K. 1972. A second Ross1 Goose at Pea Island, N.C. ; verification of specific purity of these birds. Chat 36: 61-62. Prevett, J. P. and C. D. Maclnnes. 1972. The number of Ross' Geese in central North America. Condor 74: 431-438. Ryder, J. P. 1972. Biology of nesting Ross' Geese. Ardea 60: 185-215. 1971 Cooke, F. and J. P. Ryder. 1971. The genetics of polymorphism in the Ross' Goose (Anser rossii). Evolution 25: 483-496. Ryder, J. P. 1971. Size differences between Ross1 and Snow goose eggs at Karrak Lake, Northwest Territories in 1968. Wilson Bull. 83: 438-439. Trauger, D. L. , A. Dzubin and J. P. Ryder. 1971. White Geese intermediate be- tween Ross' Geese and Lesser Snow Geese. Auk 88: 856-875. Zahm, G. R. 1971. Ross's Goose in Johnston County, Oklahoma. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc. 4: 32-34. 1970 Lahrman, F. W. 1970. Unusually large numbers of Ross' Geese observed at Last Mountain Lake. Blue Jay 28: 169-170. Ryder, J. P. 1970. A possible factor in the evolution of clutch size in Ross' Goose. Wilson Bull. 82: 5-13. 1969 Buckley, P. A. 1969. Ross' Goose in North Carolina: first Atlantic seaboard occurrence. Auk 86: 551-552. Ryder, J. P. 1969a. Nesting colonies of Ross' Goose. Auk 86: 282-292. . 1969b. Timing and spacing of nests and breeding biology of Ross' Goose. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Saskatchewan/Saskatoon, SK. Schwilling, M. D. 1969. Ross Goose taken in Kansas. Bull. Kansas Ornithol. Soc. 20: 27. 1967 Ryder, J. P. 1967. The breeding biology of Ross' Goose in the Perry River region, Northwest Territories. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. Ser. No. 3. 55 pp. 91 1966 Sweet, J. T. and K. Robertson. 1966. Ross1 Geese in Nebraska. Nebr. Bird Rev. 34: 70-71. 1965 Dzubin, A. 1965. A study of migrating Ross Geese in western Saskatchewan. Condor 67: 511-534. 1964 Maclnnes, C. D. 1964. The status of Ross' Goose in 1962-63. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 15: 137-139. Ryder, J. P. 1964. A preliminary study of the breeding biology of Ross' Goose, Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 15: 127-137. 1963 Lumsden, H. G. 1963. Further records of the Ross' Goose in Ontario. Can. Field-Nat. 77: 174-175. Maclnnes, C. D. and F. G. Cooch. 1963. Additional eastern records of Ross* Goose (Chen rossii). Auk 80: 77-79. Niles, D. M. 1963. A Ross Goose in New Mexico. Condor 65: 166. 19bl Rusch, A. J. 1961. Ross1 Goose discovered in Wisconsin. Passenger Pigeon 23: 49-51. 1960 Smart, G. 1960. Ross' Goose taken at Horseshoe Lake, Illinois. Wilson Bull. 72: 288-289. 1958 Barry, T. W. and J. N. Eisenhart. 1958. Ross' Geese nesting at Southampton Island, N.W.T., Canada. Auk 75: 89-90. 1957 Williamson, M. H. 1957. Polymorphism in Ross' Goose, Anser rossii, and the detection of genetic dominance from field data. Ibis 99: 516-518. 1955 Buller, R. J. 1955. Ross's Goose in Texas. Auk 72: 298-299. 92 Cooch, F. G. 1955. Spring record of Ross1 Goose from James Bay, Ontario. Condor 57: 191. 1954 Cooch, G. 1954. Ross' Goose in the eastern Arctic. Condor 56: 307. Miller, F. W. 1954. Ross1 Goose in Texas. Condor 56: 312. O'Neill, E. J. 1954. Ross's Goose observations. Condor 56: 311. 1952 Dumont, P. A. 1952. Ross's Geese at the zoo. Atl. Nat. 7: 141. 1947 Shaw, W. T. 1947. Relative weights: Ross, Snow Goose and Mallard. Murrelet 28: 21. 1941 Cartwright, B. W. 1941. Discovered. The home of the Ross's Goose. Western Sportsman, Feb. 1941: 6, 18. Taverner , P. A. 1941. Breeding grounds of Ross' Goose at last discovered. Auk 58: 92. 1940 Cartwright, B. W. 1940. Where the Ross1 Geese nest: Part I. The Beaver (December): 6-8. Gavin, A. 1940. Where the Ross' Geese nest: Part II. The Beaver (December): 8-9. Taverner, P. A. 1940. The nesting of Ross's Goose, Chen rossi. Can. Field- Nat. 44: 127-130. 93 CANADA GOOSE (Branta canadensis) [DA: Kanadagas, DU: Canadese Gans, FI: Kanadan hanhi , FR: Bernache du Canada, GE: Kanadagans, IT: Oca del Canada, JA: Shljukara gan, NW: Canadgas , PO : Bern- lkla kanadyjska, SP: Barnacla canadiense, SW: Kanadagas] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Canada Goose is a widespread and abundant breeding bird across Canada and the northern United States. Its historical breeding range has been altered by the virtual extinction of some populations, notably in the north-central states, and the establishment or re-establishment of other populations. The total population has increased greatly in recent decades, and Bellrose (1976) estimated about 3 million birds at the beginning of the 1974 hunting season. In winter the Canada Goose is found almost throughout the United States in suit- able habitat. Management practices in recent years, particularly winter feed- ing and the development of artificial impoundments, have resulted in more birds wintering in northerly areas and fewer birds in the southern part of the range. Well-defined migration corridors are used by various subpopulations , but the species may occur almost anywhere in North America during migration. This goose is common in winter in the coastal southeastern United States, with some birds remaining to breed in the summer months. About 68,000 wintered in coastal North Carolina in the 1970-75 period (Bellrose 1976). Another 10,500 wintered on the South Carolina coast, 23,000 wintered in Alabama, and 40,000 wintered in coastal Texas marshes (Bellrose 1976). Smaller numbers were pre- sent in other southeastern states (Map 5). Numbers in the south were generally smaller than in past decades. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION The Canada Goose is susceptible to oil pollution. An estimated 300 died following two oil spills in the Chesapeake Bay in 1976 and 1978 (Perry et al . 1979). The Bird Banding Laboratory has received slightly over 20 bands returned from birds found oiled, including one from Texas. However, the bird's decreas- ing abundance in the southeastern states, in addition to its inland, fresh water or coastal marsh habitat suggest that oil contamination in this area would have little effect on the overall population. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 Bellrose, F. C. and R. C. Crompton. 1981. Migration speeds of three water- fowl species. Wilson Bull. 93: 121-124. 94 95 Craven, S. R. (comp.). 1981. The Canada Goose ( Branta canadensis) — an anno- tated bibliography. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept . — Wildl. No. 231 . 66 pp . Malecki , R. A., F. D. Caswell, R. A. Bishop, K. M. Babcock and M. M. Gillespie. 1981. A breeding-ground survey of EPP Canada Geese in northern Manitoba. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 46-53. Zicus , M. C. 1981. Molt migration of Canada Geese from Crex Meadows, Wiscon- sin. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 54-63. 1980 Akesson, T. R. 1980. Endocrine correlates of social behavior of Canada Geese. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Calif ./Davis . 157 pp. Allin, C. C. 1980. Canada Geese in Rhode Island. R.I. Div. Fish & Wildl., Wildl. Pamph . No. 12. v and 46 pp. Bishop, R. A., K. M. Reynolds and R. D. Andrews. 1980. Giant Canada Goose restoration project. Iowa Conserv. Commiss. Res. Bull. No. 29. v and 17 pp. Blokpoel, H. and M. C. Gauthier. 1980. Weather and the migration of Canada Geese across southeastern Ontario in spring 1975. Can. Field-Nat. 94: 293-299. Blus , L. J. and C. J. Henny. 1980. Canada Geese incubate eggs laid in previ- ous years. West. Birds 11: 112. Courtney, P. A. and H. Blokpoel. 1980. Canada Goose predation on eggs of Common Terns. Ont . Field Biol. 34: 40-42. Cox, W. R. 1980. Avian pox infection in a Canada Goose (Branta canadensis). J. Wildl. Dis. 16: 623-626. Douhan, B. 1980. Kanadgas forsvarer fastfrusen artfrande mot havsorn. [Can- ada Geese, Branta canadensis , defending a frozen companion against attack- ing Sea Eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla.] Var Fagelvarld 39: 102. [In Swed- ish with English summary. ] Garnett, M. G. H. 1980. Moorland breeding and moulting of Canada Geese in Yorkshire. Bird Study 27: 219-226. Giroux, J.-F. 1980. Overland travel by Canada Goose broods. Can. Field-Nat. 94: 461-462. Hoffman, R. H. 1980. Sandhill Cranes prey on Canada Goose eggs. Wilson Bull. 92: 122. Jelinski, D. E. 1980. Canada Goose and Mallard Duck nesting on a straw bale. Blue Jay 38: 122-123. 96 Karainski, R. M. 1980. Some anatomical characteristics of southeastern Michi- gan Canada Geese. Jack-Pine Warbler 58: 99-103. Krohn, W. B. and E. G. Bizeau. 1980. The Rocky Mountain population of the western Canada Goose: its distribution, habitats, and management. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept.— Wildl. No. 229. 93 pp. Lumsden, H. G. 1980. Eggless Canada Goose raises foster broods. Wilson Bull. 92: 415. Malecki, R. A., F. D. Caswell, K. M. Babcock, R. A. Bishop and R. K. Brace. 1980. Major nesting range of the eastern prairie population of Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 229-232. Nelson, R. C. and T. A. Bookhout. 1980. Counts of periosteal layers invalid for aging Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 518-521. Nigus, T. A. and J. J. Dinsmore. 1980. Productivity of Canada Geese in north- western Iowa. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 87: 56-61. Schroeder, C. H. 1980. Canada Goose nesting structures. N. Dak. Outdoors 42: 6-9. Tacha, T. C. , G. F. Martz and J. Parker. 1980. Harvest and mortality of Giant Canada Geese in southeastern Michigan. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 8: 40-45. Thomas, V. G. and J. P. Prevett. 1980. The nutritional value of arrow-grasses to geese at James Bay. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 830-836. Wheeler, W. E. 1980. A Canada Goose killed by a coyote. Passenger Pigeon 42: 42-44. 1979 Anderson, G. 1979. Geese in the treetops. Am. Forests 85: 34-36. Andreev, B. N. 1979. [The Canada Goose ( Branta canadensis) seen on the Vilyuy R. ] Ornitologiya 14: 185. [In Russian.] Arnold, K. A. 1979. Additional records of small subspecies of Canada Geese in Texas. Bull. Tex. Ornithol. Soc. 12: 54-55. Blus, L. J. 1979. Effects of heptachlor-treated grains on Canada Geese in the Columbia basin. Pp. 105-116 ^n R. L. Jarvis and J. C. Bartonek (eds.) Management and biology of Pacific Flyway geese: a symposium. Oregon State University Bookstores, Inc., Corvallis, OR. Gillespie, M. M. 1979. Canada Geese of the Hudson Bay lowlands. Manitoba Dept. Mines, Nat. Resources and Environ., Winnipeg, MB. 19 pp. Godin, P. R. and R. E. Joyner. 1979. A description of plumage aberrancy in two wild Canada Geese. Ont . Field Biol. 33: 46-52. 97 Goodwin, T. M. 1979. Two unusual nest sites for Canada Geese in Leon County, Florida. Fla. Field Nat. 7: 6-7. Heintzeltnan , D. and R. MacClay. 1979. Flock sizes of migrating Canada Geese in eastern Pennsylvania in autumn. Cassinia 57: 25. Hildebrand, B. W. 1979. Habitat requirements of molting Canada Geese at Lima Reservoir, Montana. M.S. thesis, Montana St. Univ./Bozeman, MT. 79 pp. Kaminski, R. M. , J. M. Parker and H. H. Prince. 1979. Reproductive biology of Giant Canada Geese re-established in southeastern Michigan. Jack-Pine Warbler 57: 59-69. Krohn, W. B. and E. G. Bizeau. 1979. Molt migration of the Rocky Mountain populations of the Western Canada Goose. Pp. 130-140 J_n R. L. Jarvis and J. C. Bartonek (eds.) Management and biology of Pacific Flyway geese: a symposium. Oregon State University Bookstores, Inc., Corvallis, OR. Lidicker, W. Z. , Jr. and F. C. McCollum. 1979. Canada Goose established as a breeding species in San Francisco Bay. West. Birds 10: 159-162. Marshall, A. 1979. A study of nesting Canada Geese at Condie Nature Refuge, Saskatchewan. Blue Jay 37: 158-162. Raveling, D. G. 1979a. The annual cycle of body composition of Canada Geese, with reference to control of reproduction. Auk 96: 234-252. . 1979b. Traditional use of migration and winter roost sites by Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 229-235. Thomas, C. B. 1979. Ring loss from Canada Geese. Bird Study 26: 270-271. van den Berg, A. B. , H. Blankert and J. Brinkman. 1979. Zeldzame ganzen in Nederland in de winter van 1978/79. [Rare geese in the Netherlands in the winter of 1978/79.] Dutch Birding 1: 34-41. [In Dutch with English sum- mary. ] 1978 Allen, G. T., S. E. Fast, B. J. Langstaff, D. W. Tomrdle and B. L. Troutman. 1978. Census of Canada Geese on the Palouse River, Washington, during the spring of 1977. Murrelet 59: 96-100. Cooper, J. A. 1978. The history and breeding biology of the Canada Geese of Marshy Point, Manitoba. Wildl. Monogr. No. 61. 87 pp. Fjetland, C. A. 1978. Giant Canada Goose incubates eggless nest. Wilson Bull. 90: 456-457. Hicks, L. L., D. R. Herter and M. Yamasaki . 1978. Bald Eagle preys on Canada Goose. Jack-Pine Warbler 56: 94. 98 Johnson, S. C. and J. E. Kennamner . 1978. Reproductive success of the resident Canada Goose flock at the Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge. Proc. 30th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 617-626. Knight, R. L. and A. W. Erickson. 1978. Canada Goose-Great Blue Heron-Great Horned Owl nesting associations. Wilson Bull. 90: 455-456. Manning, T. H. 1978. Measurements and weights of eggs of the Canada Goose, Branta canadensis, analyzed and compared with those of other species. Can. J. Zool. 56: 676-687. Mather, T. E. 1978. Canada Goose takes over Mallard nest. Wilson Bull. 90: 646-647. Mori, J. G. and J. C. George. 1978. Seasonal changes in serum levels of cer- tain metabolites , uric acid and calcium in the migratory Canada Goose (Branta canadensis interior). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B, Comp. Biochem. 59: 263-269. Ratti, J. R. , D. E. Timm and D. R. Anderson. 1978. Reevaluation of survival estimates for Vancouver Canada Geese: application of modern methods. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 6: 146-148. Raveling, D. G. 1978a. Morphology of the Cackling Canada Goose. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 897-900. . 1978b. Dynamics of distribution of Canada Geese in winter. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Natl. Resourc. Conf. 43: 206-225. Raveling, D. G. and H. G. Lumsden. 1978. Nesting ecology of Canada Geese in the Hudson Bay Lowlands of Ontario: evolution and population regulation. Ont. Ministry Nat. Resourc, Fish & Wildl. Res. Rept . 98: 77. Raveling, D. G. , M. Sifri and R. B. Knudsen. 1978. Seasonal variation of femur and tibiotarsus constituents in Canada Geese. Condor 80: 246-248. Tacha, T. C, R. L. Linder and T. L. Kuck. 1978. Analysis of aerial circling surveys for Canada Goose breeding populations. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 6: 42-44. Vermeer, K. and B. D. Davies. 1978. Comparison of the breeding of Canada and Snow geese at Westham Island, British Columbia. Wildfowl 29: 31-44. 1977 Buckalew, J. H. 1977. Distribution of Canada Geese. N. Am. Bird Bander 2: 58-60. Glasgow, W. M. 1977. Brood mixing behavior and population dynamics of Canada Geese at Dowling Lake, Alberta. M.S. thesis, Univ. Alberta/Edmonton, AB. 149 pp. 99 Kaminski , R. M. and H. H. Price. 1977. Nesting habitat of Canada Geese in southeastern Michigan. Wilson Bull. 89: 523-531. Knight, R. L. and A. W. Erickson. 1977. Objects incorporated within clutches of the Canada Goose. West. Birds 8: 108. Morgan, R. P., II, S. T. Sulkin and C. J. Henny. 1977. Serum proteins of Can- ada Goose (Branta canadensis) subspecies. Condor 79: 275-278. Mori, J. G. 1977. Certain ecophysiological aspects in the annual life cycle of the Canada Goose (Branta canadensis interior). Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Guelph/Guelph, ON. Ogilvie, M. A. 1977. The numbers of Canada Geese in Britain, 1976. Wildfowl 28: 27-34. Ratti, J. T. , D. E. Timm and F. C. Robards. 1977. Weights and measurements of Vancouver Canada Geese. Bird-Banding 48: 354-357. Raveling, D. G. 1977. Canada Geese of the Churchill River basin in northcen- tral Manitoba. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 35-47. Reed, A., G. Chapdelaine and P. Dupuis. 1977. Use of farmland in spring by migrating Canada Geese in the St. Lawrence Valley, Quebec. J. Appl. Ecol. 14: 667-680. Thomas, C. B. 1977. The mortality of Yorkshire Canada Geese. Wildfowl 28: 35-47. Wilkens, F. 1977. Brutvorkommen der Kanadagans (Branta canadensis) in Nieder- sachsen. Ornithol. Mitt. 29: 243. [In German.] 1976 Babcock, K. M. 1976. Study XII. Migration and mortality of Canada Geese. Missouri Dept . Conserv. Study Completion Rept., Fed. Aid Pro j . W-13-R-30. 76 pp. Bench, J., W. J. Rudersdorf and J. P. Harley. 1976. A preliminary method to determine sex in Canada Geese by skin transparency. IBBA News 48: 69-70. Bromley, R. G. 1976. Nesting and habitat studies of the Dusky Canada Goose on the Cooper River delta, Alaska. M.S. thesis, Univ. Alaska/Fairbanks, AK. 81 pp. Chabreck, R. H. and H. H. Dupuie . 1976. Alligator predation on Canada Goose nests. Copeia 1976: 404-405. Craven, S. R. 1976. History and ecology of Canada Geese wintering near Rock Prairie, Wisconsin. M.S. thesis, Univ. Wise. /Madison, WI. 72 pp. Glasrud, R. D. 1976. Canada Geese killed during lightning storm. Can. Field- Nat. 90: 503. 100 Hilley, J. D. 1976. Productivity of a resident Canada Goose flock in north- eastern South Dakota. M.S. thesis, S. Dakota St. Univ. /Vermillion, SD. 37 pp. McCabe, T. R. 1976. Productivity and nesting habitat of Great Basin Canada Geese: Umatilla Wildlife Reguge. M.S. thesis, Oregon St. Univ./Corvallis , OR. 82 pp. Malecki , R. A. 1976. The breeding biology of the eastern prairie population of Canada Geese. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Missouri/Columbia, MO. 150 pp. Nilsson, I. and S. Nilsson. 1976. Kanadagass Branta canadensis trampar sonder agg av Fisktarna Sterna hirundo. [Canada Goose, Branta canadensis, crush- ing eggs of the Common Tern, Sterna hirundo. ] Var Fagelvarld 35: 157. [ In Swedish. ] Pichner, J., M. R. Ryan and C. Zuckweiler. 1976. Fish-feeding behavior in Canada Geese. Loon 48: 37-38. Radesater, T. 1976a. Interactions between male and female during the triumph ceremony in the Canada Goose (Branta canadensis L.). Z. Tierpsychol. 39: 189-205. . 1976b. Individual sibling recognition in juvenile Canada Geese (Branta canadensis). Can. J. Zool. 54: 1069-1072. Raveling, D. G. 1976a. Migration reversal: a regular phenomenon of Canada Geese. Science 193: 153-154. . 1976b. Status of Giant Canada Geese nesting in southeast Manitoba. J. Wildl. Manage. 40: 214-226. Skinner, W. 1976. Canada Goose staging areas in western Newfoundland. Osprey 7: 17-19. Tautin, J. 1976. Population dynamics and harvest of Canada Geese in Utah. Ph.D. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, UT. 100 pp. Thomas, V. G. and J. C. George. 1976. Plasma and depot fatty acids in Canada Geese in relation to diet, migration, and reproduction. Physiol. Zool. 48: 157-167. 1975 Boyer, R. L. and M. J. Psujek. 1975. Canada Goose parasitizing Mallard nest. Wilson Bull. 87: 287. Heppner, F. H. and C. Willard. 1975. Inverted flight in Canada Geese. Condor 77: 478-480. Langvatn, R. and P. Krigsvoll. 1975. Havorn angriper Canadagas. [White-tail- ed Eagle attacking Canada Goose.] Sterna 14: 40-41. [In Norwegian with English summary. ] 101 Mickelson, P. G. 1975. Breeding biology of Cackling Geese and associated spe- cies on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Wildl. Monogr. 45. 35 pp. Radesater, T. 1975. Biting in the triumph display of the Canada Goose. Wil- son Bull. 87: 554-555. Zicus, M. C. 1975a. Loon predation on a Canada Goose gosling. Auk 92: 611— 612. . 1975b. Capturing nesting Canada Geese with mist nets. Bird-Banding 46: 168-169. 1974 Cooper, J. A. 1974. The history and nesting biology of the Canada Geese at Marshy Point, Manitoba. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Mass ./Amherst , MA. 395 pp. Cowan, P. J. 1974. Individual differences in alarm calls of Canada Geese leading broods. Auk 91: 189-191. Fabricius, E. , A. Bylin, A. Ferno and T. Radesater. 1974. Intra- and inter- specific territorialism in mixed colonies of the Canada Goose Branta can- adensis and the Greylag Goose Anser anser. Ornis Scand. 5: 25-35. Gould, L. L. and F. Heppner. 1974. The vee formation of Canada Geese. Auk 91: 494-506. Kennedy, D. D. and G. C. Arthur. 1974. Subf locks in Canada Geese of the Mis- sissippi Valley population. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 2: 8-12. Maclnnes, C. D. , R. A. Davis, R. N. Jones, B. C. Lieff and A. J. Pakulak. 1974. Reproductive efficiency of McConnell River small Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 38: 686-707. Radesater, T. 1974a. Form and sequential associations between the triumph ceremony and other behaviour patterns in the Canada Goose Branta canaden- sis L. Ornis Scand 5: 87-101. . 1974b. On the ontogeny of orienting movements in the triumph ceremony in two species of geese (Anser anser L. and Branta canadensis L.). Behav- iour 50: 1-15. Tangen, H. I. L. 1974. Forsok med Canadagas i Norge. [Introductions of Can- ada Geese in Norway.] Fauna 27: 166-176. [In Norwegian with English sum- mary] . Zicus, M. C. 1974. A study of the Giant Canada Geese (Branta canadensis max- ima) nest at Crex Meadows, Wisconsin. M.S. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/St. Paul, MN. 116 pp. 102 1973 Cowan, P. J. 1973. Parental calls and the approach behaviour of young Canada Geese: a laboratory study. Can. J. Zool. 51: 647-650. Kondla, N. G. 1973. Canada Goose goslings leaving cliff nest. Auk 90: 890. Lieff , B. C. 1973. Summer feeding ecology of Blue and Canada geese at McCon- nell River, N.W.T. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Western Ontario/London, ON. Mickelson, P. G. 1973. Breeding biology of Cackling Geese (Branta canadensis minima Ridgway) and associated species on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta, Al- aska. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Mich. /Ann Arbor, MI. 261 pp. Truett, E. A., Ill and J. A. Bailey. 1973. Observations at a nest of a Giant Canada Goose at Noxubee National Wildlife Refuge. Mississippi Kite 3: 6-11. 1972 Cooper, J. A. and J. R. Hickin. 1972. Chronology of hatching by laying se- quence in Canada Geese. Wilson Bull. 84: 90-92. Ewaschuk, E. and D. A. Boag. 1972. Factors affecting hatching success of densely nesting Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 1097-1106. Flath, D. L. 1972. Canada Goose-Osprey interactions. Auk 89: 446-447. Korhonen, S. 1972. Tuloksia kanadanhanhen istutuskokeilusta. [Experiment in introducing the Canada Goose.] Suomen Riista 24: 52-56. [In Finnish with English summary. ] Maclnnes, C. D. and R. K. Misra. 1972. Predation on Canada Goose nests at McConnell River, Northwest Territories. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 414-422. Raveling, D. G. , W. E. Crews and W. D. Klimstra. 1972. Activity patterns of Canada Geese during winter. Wilson Bull. 84: 278-295. Starkey, E. E. 1972. A case of interspecific homosexuality in geese. Auk 89: 456-457. Stephenson, J. D. and G. Smart. 1972. Egg measurements for three endangered species. Auk 89: 191-192. Yocum, C. F. 1972. Weights and measurements of Taverner's and Great Basin Canada Geese. Murrelet 53: 33-34. 1971 Crow, J. H. 1971. Earthquake-initiated changes in the nesting habitat of the Dusky Canada Goose. Pp. 130-136 _in K. B. Krauskopf (Chmn.) The great Al- aska earthquake of 1964. Biol. Natl. Res. Council, Washington, D.C. 103 Culbertson, J. L., L. C. Cadwell and I. 0. Buss. 1971. Nesting and movements of Canada Geese on the Snake River in Washington. Condor 73: 230-236. Hall, L. C. and F. B. McGilvrey. 1971. Nesting by a yearling Canada Goose. J. Wildl. Manage. 35: 835-836. Hanson, W. C. and L. L. Eberhard. 1971. A Columbia River Canada Goose popula- tion, 1950-1970. Wildl. Monogr. 28: 1-61. Imber, M. J. 1971. The identity of New Zealand's Canada Geese. Notornis 18: 253-261. Samson, F. B. 1971. Migration of resident and migrant Canada Geese banded at Necedah National Wildlife Refuge. Bird-Banding 42: 115-118. 1970 Chapman, J. A. 1970. Weights and measurements of Dusky Canada Geese wintering in Oregon. Murrelet 51: 34-37. Fabricius, E. 1970. Kanadensiska nybyggare. [Canadian settlers. A survey of the Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) in Sweden.] Zool. Revy. 32: 19-25. [In Swedish with English summary.] Grieb, J. R. 1970. The Shortgrass Prairie Canada Goose population. Wildl. Monogr. 22. 49 pp. Jones, R. N. and M. Obbard . 1970. Canada Goose killed by Arctic Loon and sub- sequent pairing of its mate. Auk 87: 370-371. Raveling, D. G. 1970a. Dominance relationships and agonistic behaviour of Canada Geese in winter. Behaviour 37: 291-319. . 1970b. Survival of Canada Geese unaffected by withdrawing blood samples, J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 941-943. Surrendi, D. C. 1970. The mortality, behavior and homing of transplanted juv- enile Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 719-733. Vermeer , K. 1970. A study of Canada Geese, Branta canadensis, nesting islands in southeastern Alberta. Can. J. Zool. 48: 235-240. Walker, A. F. G. 1970. The moult migration of Yorkshire Canada Geese. Wild- fowl 21: 99-104. Yocum, C. F. 1970a. The Giant Canada Goose in New Zealand. Auk 87: 812-814. . 1970b. Evidence of Canada Geese in Kashmir, India. Murrelet 51: 26. 104 1969 Chapman, J. A., C. J. Henny and H. M. Wight. 1969. The status, population dynamics and harvest of the Dusky Canada Goose. Wildl. Monogr. 18. 4 8 pp. Hanson, W. C. 1969. First sight records of Blue Geese in Washington. Murre- let 50: 24. Ogilvie, M. A. 1969. The status of the Canada Goose in Britain 1967-69. Wild- fowl 20: 79-85. Raveling, D. G. 1969a. Pref light and flight behaviour of Canada Geese. Auk 86: 671-681. . 1969b. Social classes of Canada Geese in winter. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 304-318. . 1969c. Roost sites and flight patterns of Canada Geese in winter. J. ~ Wildl. Manage. 33: 319-330. 1968 Cadwell, L. L. 1968. Behavioral study of Canada Geese in southeast Washington. M.S. thesis, Wash. St. Univ. /Pullman , WA. Crider, E. D. 1968. Canada Goose interceptions in the southeastern United States, with special reference to the Florida flock. Proc . 21st Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 145-155. Dimmick, R. W. 1968. Canada Geese of Jackson Hole, their ecology and manage- ment. Wyo. Game Fish Bull. No. 11. 86 pp. Hankla, D. J. and R. R. Rudolph. 1968. Changes in migration and wintering habits of Canada Geese in the lower portion of the Atlantic and Missis- sippi flyways — with special reference to National Wildlife Refuges. Proc. 21st Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 133-144. Higgins, K. F. 1968. Evaluation of techniques for estimating fall age ratios of Canada and Snow Geese. M.S. thesis, S. Dak. St. Univ. /Vermillion, SD. Imber, M. J. and G. R. Williams. 1968. Mortality rates of a Canada Goose population in New Zealand. J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 256-267. Klopman, R. B. 1968. The agonistic behaviour of the Canada Goose (Branta canadensis canadensis). I. Attack Behaviour. Behaviour 30: 287-319. McDougle, H. C. and R. W. Vaught . 1968. An epizootic of aspergillosis in Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 415-417. Raveling, D. G. 1968. Weights of Branta canadensis interior during winter. J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 412-414. 105 Weigand, J. P., M. J. Pollock and G. A. Petrides. 1968. Some aspects of re- production of captive Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 894-905. 1967 Culbertson, J. L. 1967. Behavior of Canada Geese on the Snake River in south- east Washington. M.S. thesis, Wash. St. Univ. /Pullman , WA. Henny, C. J. 1967. Population characteristics of the Dusky Canada Goose as determined from banding data. M.S. thesis, Oregon St. Univ. /Corvaliis , OR. Jarvis, R. L. and S. W. Harris. 1967. Canada Goose nest success and habitat use at Malheur Refuge. Murrelet 49: 6. Messinger, N. G. 1967. Two June records of the Canada Goose in Grand Canyon, Arizona. Condor 69: 319. Olney, P. J. S. 1967. The WAGBI-Wildfowl Trust Experimental Reserve. II: The feeding ecology of local Mallard and other wildfowl. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 18: 47-55. Raveling, D. G. 1967. Sociobiology and ecology of Canada Geese in winter. Ph.D. thesis, S. 111. Univ./Carbondale , IL. Reese, J. G. 1967. Branta canadensis hutchinsii in Maryland. Md. Birdlife 23: 45. Sherwood, G. A. 1967. Behavior of family groups of Canada Geese. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 32: 340-355. Szymczak, M. R. 1967. Breeding biology of Canada Geese of the Metro-Denver area. M.S. thesis, Colorado St. Univ. /Fort Collins, CO. Wise, G. A. 1967. Canada Goose mortality at Crab Orchard National Wildlife Refuge. M.A. thesis, S. 111. Univ./Carbondale, IL. 1966 Garcia, F. and 0. Garrido. 1966. Nuevo record ornitologico para Cuba. Mus. Felipe Poey Acad. Cienc . Cuba Trab. Divulg. 36. 3 pp. [In Spanish.] Houston, C. S. 1966. Breeding records of the Giant Canada Goose near Yorkton, Saskatchewan. Blue Jay 24: 71-72. Hunt, R. A. and L. R. Jahn. 1966. Canada Goose breeding populations in Wis- consin. Wise. Conserv. Dept . Techn. Bull. No. 38. 67 pp. Kuyt , E. 1966. Further observations on large Canada Geese moulting on the Thelon River, Northwest Territories. Can. Field-Nat. 80: 63-69. Maclnnes, C. D. 1966. Population behavior of eastern Arctic Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 30: 536-553. 106 Raveling, D. G. 1966. Factors affecting age ratios of samples of Canada Geese caught with cannon-nets. J. Wildl. Manage. 30: 682-691. Vaught , R. W. and L. M. Kirsch. 1966. Canada Geese of the Eastern Prairie population with special reference to the Swan Lake flock. Missouri Dept. Conserv. Tech. Bull. No. 3. xiii and 91 pp. Yocum, C. F. and S. W. Harris. 1966. Growth rates of Great Basin Canada Geese. Murrelet 47: 33-37. 1965 Brakhage , G. K. 1965. Biology and behavior of tubnesting Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 29: 751-771. Hanson, H. C. 1965. The Giant Canada Goose. S. 111. Univ. Press, Carbondale, IL. 226 pp. Vaught, R. W. and G. C. Arthur. 1965. Migration routes and mortality rates of Canada Geese banded in the Hudson Bay lowlands. J. Wildl. Manage. 29: 244-252. Williams, J. E. 1965. Energy requirements of the Canada Goose in relation to distribution and migration. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Ill./Urbana, IL. Wood, J. S. 1965. Some associations of behaviour to reproductive development in Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 29: 237-244. Yocum, C. F. 1965. Estimated populations of Great Basin Canada Geese over their breeding range in western Canada and western United States. Murre- let 46: 18-26. 1964 Craighead, J. J. and D. S. Stockstad. 1964. Breeding age of Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 28: 57-64. Day, N. H. 1964. Canada Goose production and population stability, Ogden Bay Waterfowl Area, Utah. M.S. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, UT. Dimmick, R. W. 1964. A population study of Canada Geese in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Wyoming/Laramie, WY. Hunt, J. H. 1964. Nesting record for the Canada Goose in Wake County, North Carolina. Chat 28: 133-135. Martin, F. R. 1964. Behavior and survival of Canada Geese in Utah. Utah Dept. Fish Game Bull. 64: 1-89. Nass, R. D. 1964. Sex- and age-ratio bias of cannon-netted geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 28: 522-527. 107 Olsen, D. L. 1964. The effects of weather on harvest and movements of the Canada Goose, Branta canadensis Interior. M.S. thesis, S. 111. Univ./ Carbondale, IL. Wood, J. S. 1964. Normal development and causes of reproductive failure in Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 28: 197-208. 1963 Martin, F. W. 1963. Breeding territorialisra , family organization, and popu- lation dynamics of the Canada Goose at the Ogden Bay Refuge, Utah. Ph.D. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, UT. Skinner, R. W. 1963. Albinism in a Canada Goose. Auk 80: 366. 1962 Hansen, H. A. 1962. Canada Geese of coastal Alaska. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resourc. Conf . 27: 301-320. Hanson, H. C. 1962a. The dynamics of conditioning factors in Canada Geese and their relation to seasonal stress. Arctic Inst. N. Am. Tech. Pap. No. 12. 68 pp. . 1962b. Characters of age, sex, and sexual maturity in Canada Geese. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes No. 49. Klopman, R. B. 1962. Sexual behavior in the Canada Goose. Living Bird 1: 123-129. Marquardt, R. E. 1962. The ecology and migration of winter flocks of the small White-checked Geese within the south-central United States. Ph.D. thesis, Okla. St. Univ. /Stillwater , OK. 1961 Craighead, J. J. and D. S. Stockstad. 1961. Evaluating the use of aerial nest- ing platforms by Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage 25: 363-372. Helm, L. G. 1961. Effects of Canada Geese on crops and soils in central Mis- souri. M.A. thesis, Univ. Missouri/Columbia, MO. Marquardt, R. E. 1961. Albinism in the small White-checked Geese. Auk 78: 99-100. 1960 Brenner, F. J. 1960. Canada Geese nesting on a beaver dam. Auk 77: 476. Jones, N. G. B. 1960. Experiments on the causation of the threat postures of Canada Geese. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 11: 46-52. 108 Munro , D. A. 1960. Factors affecting reproduction of the Canada Goose. Proc. Xllth Intern. Orntihol. Congr., Helsinki, 5-12 July, 1958: 542-560. Shepherd, P. E. K. 1960 ms. Mortality studies of western Canada Geese — Copper River Delta. Alaska Dept. Fish Game, Div. Game, Pittman-Robertson Proj. Rept. 2: 50-57. 1959 Atwater, M. G. 1959. A study of renesting in Canada Geese in Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 23: 91-97. Collias, N. E. and L. R. Jahn. 1959. Social behaviour and breeding success in Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) confined under semi-natural conditions. Auk 76: 478-509. Hanson, H. and R. Browning. 1959. Nesting studies of Canada Geese on the Han- ford Reservation, 1953-56. J. Wildl. Manage. 23: 129-137. Nelson, U. C. and H. A. Hansen. 1959. The Cackling Goose — its migration and management. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 24: 174-187. Yelverton, C. S. and T. L. Quay. 1959. Food habits of the Canada Goose at Lake Mattamuskeet , North Carolina. N.C. Wildl. Resourc. Commiss. 44 pp. 1958 Atwater, M. G. 1958. A two-year study of renesting in Canada Geese, Branta canadensis , in Phillips County, Montana. M.S. thesis, Montana St. Univ./ Bozeman, MT. Hanson, H. C. 1958. Studies of the physiology of wintering and of molting Canada Geese, Branta canadensis interior. Ph.D. thesis, S. 111. Univ./ Carbondale, IL. Klopman, R. B. 1958. The nesting of the Canada Goose at Dog Lake, Manitoba. Wilson Bull. 70: 168-173. Salter, R. L. 1958. Canada Goose nesting studies in Idaho. Idaho Wildl. Rev. 10: 7-9. 1957 Bell, R. Q. 1957. Food co-actions of Canada Geese, Branta canadensis interi- or (Todd), in southern Illinois. M.A. thesis, S. 111. Univ. /Carbondale , IL. Douville, C. H. and C. E. Friley, Jr. 1957. Records of longevity in Canada Geese. Auk 74: 510. 109 1956 Cowan, A. B. and C. M. Herman. 1956. Winter losses of Canada Geese at Pea Is- land, North Carolina. Proc . 9th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 172-174. Grice, G. D., Jr., E. L. Tyson and E. B. Chamberlain. 1956. An unexplained mortality of Canada Geese in north Florida. J. Wildl. Manage. 20: 330-331. Jones, N. G. 1956. Census of breeding Canada Geese 1953. Bird Study 3: 153- 170. Salter, R. L. 1956. Canada Goose nesting studies in Idaho. Proc. 36th Annu. Conf. Western Assoc. State Game & Fish Commiss.: 191-194. Yelverton, C. S. 1956. Food habits of the Canada Goose, Branta canadensis (Linnaeus), at Lake Mattamuskeet , North Carolina. M.S. thesis, N.C. St. Univ. /Raleigh, NC. 1954 Balham, R. W. 1954a. The behavior of the Canada Goose, Branta canadensis, in Manitoba. M.A. thesis, Univ. Missouri/Columbia, MO. 229 pp. . 1954b. The behavior of the Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) in Manitoba, Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Missouri/Columbia, MO. 244 pp. Barraclough-Geis , M. E. 1954. Biology of Canada Geese, Branta canadensis mof- f itti, in the Flathead Valley of Montana. M.S. thesis, Univ. Montana/ Missoula, MT. 91 pp. Collins, B. D. 1954. A nesting study of the Canada Goose at Tule Lake and Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuge. Proc. 33rd Annu. Conf. Western Assoc. State Game & Fish Commiss.: 172-176. Dumont, P. A. 1954. A new field mark for distinguishing Canada Geese. Atl. Nat. 9: 201. Naylor, A. E. and E. G. Hunt. 1954. A nesting study and population survey of Canada Geese on the Susan River, Lassen County, California. Calif. Fish Game 40: 5-16. Yancey, R. K. 1954. The future of Louisiana's Canada Goose. La. Conserv. 6: 10-11. 1953 Hanson, H. C. 1953. Inter-family dominance in Canada Geese. Auk 70: 11-16. Miller, A. W. and B. D. Collins. 1953. A nesting study of Canada Geese on Tule Lake and Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuges, Siskiyou County, California. Calif. Fish Game 39: 385-396. 110 1952 Hanson, H. C. and R. E. Griffith. 1952. Notes on the South Atlantic Canada Goose population. Bird-Banding 23: 1-22. Nelson, H. K. 1952. Hybridization of Canada Geese with Blue Geese in the wild. Auk 69: 425-428. Sykes, A. N. 1952. Canada Goose diving. Brit. Birds 45: 34. Virginia Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries. 1952. Canada Geese benefit winter wheat. Va. Commiss. Game & Inland Fisheries, Educ. Bull. 84: 1-2. 1951 Delacour, J. 1951. Preliminary note on the taxonomy of Canada Geese, Branta canadensis. Am. Mus. Novit . 1537. 10 pp. Helm, L. G. 1951. Effects of Canada Geese on crops and soils in central Mis- souri. M.A. thesis, Univ. Missouri/ Columbia , MO. 1950 Critcher, S. 1950. Renal coccidosis in Pea Island Canada Geese. Wildl. N.C. 14: 14-15. Hanson, H. C. and R. H. Smith. 1950. Canada Geese of the Mississippi Flyway, with special reference to an Illinois flock. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 25: 67-210. Kossack, C. W. 1950. Breeding habits of Canada Geese under refuge conditions. Am. Midi. Nat. 43: 627-649. Vine, A. E. 1950. Post-coitional display of Canada Goose. Brit. Birds 42: 227. 1949 Amundson, R. 1949. The Canada Goose. Wildl. N.C. 13: 4-7. Craighead, F. C. , Jr. and J. J. Craighead. 1949. Nesting Canada Geese on the Upper Snake River. J. Wildl. Manage. 13: 51-64. Hanson, H. C. 1949. Methods of determining age in Canada Geese and other waterfowl. J. Wildl. Manage. 13: 177-183. Jewett, S. G. 1949. The nesting population of the Canada Goose in the Pacific Northwest. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 14: 87-94. 1947 Kossack, C. W. 1947. Incubation temperatures of Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Man- age. 11: 119-126. Ill 1946 Aldrich, J. W. 1946. Speciation in the White-cheeked geese. Wilson Bull. 58: 94-103. Conway, A. E. 1946. Concerning the status of Hutchins' Goose on the Atlantic Coast. Auk 63: 261. Elder, W. H. 1946. Age and sex criteria and weights of Canada Geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 10: 93-111. Glazener, W. C. 1946a. Food habits of wild geese on the Gulf coast of Texas. J. Wildl. Manage. 10: 322-329. . 1946b. Food habits of wild geese on the Texas Gulf coast. Proc. & Trans. Texas Acad. Sci . 29: 227-234. Williams, C. S. 1946. Rare egg-laying date for the Canada Goose. Auk 63: 438. 1945 McAtee, W. L. 1945. Branta c. hutchinsi on the Atlantic coast. Auk 62: 461- 462. Mills, H. R. 1945. Report of Canada Goose at St. Petersburg, Florida. Fla. Nat. 19: 21. 1944 Lucas, A. R. 1944. Diving of Canada Geese. Brit. Birds 37: 199. 1943 Dow, J. S. 1943. A study of nesting Canada Geese in Honey Lake Valley, Calif- ornia. Calif. Fish Game 29: 3-18. Williams, C. S. and M. C. Nelson. 1943. Canada Goose nests and eggs. Auk 60: 341-345. 1938 Williams, C. S. and W. H. Marshall. 1938. Survival of Canada Goose goslings, Bear River Refuge, Utah, 1937. J. Wildl. Manage. 2: 17-19. 1934 Howard, W. J. 1934. Lead poisoning in Branta canadensis canadensis. Auk 51: 513-514. 1932 Lincoln, F. C. 1932. A longevity record for the Hutchinson's Goose. Bird- Banding 3: 114. 112 1931 Taverner, P. A. 1931. A study of Branta canadensis (Linnaeus), the Canada Goose. Annu. Rept. Nat. Mus . Canada 1929: 30-40. 1928 Mershon, W. B. 1928. Canada Goose migration at Saginaw, Mich. Auk 45: 93. 1926 Lincoln, F. C. 1926. The migration of the Cackling Goose. Condor 28: 153-157. 1925 Davison, D. W. 1925. Nesting of the Canada Goose in a tree. Can. Field-Nat. 39: 197-198. Canada Geese. Photograph by Tom Dwyer, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 113 BARNACLE GOOSE (Branta leucopsls) [DA: Bramgas, DU: Brandgans, FI: Valkoposkihanhi , FR: Bernache nonnette, GE: Weisswangengans , IC : Helsingi, IT: Oca facciabianca , NW: Kvitkinngas, PO: Bern- lkla bialolica, RU: (White-cheeked Goose), SP: Barnacla cariblanca, Ganso de collar; SW: Vitklndad gas] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Barnacle Goose is an Old World species, breeding in Greenland and on Spitsbergen and Novaya Zerayla in the Baerents Sea. It winters in northern Eu- rope (Salomonsen 1950, Cramp et al. 1977, Johnsgard 1978). The species is of only casual occurrence in North America (AOU 1957), and some of the records here may be of birds escaped from captivity. There are seven records for North Caro- lina, ranging from 1870 (Wray and Davis 1959) to 1972 (Grant 1972). There were two observations, of three birds, in Alabama in 1969 and 1970 (Imhof 1976b), and there are three reports from Texas, 1968-71 (Webster 1971a, Oberholser 1974). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Barnacle Geese have been recorded as affected by oil in at least one in- stance. About 200 oil-smeared Barnacle Geese (out of over 9,000) were found after the release of fuel oil into the Amer River in the Netherlands in Decem- ber 1970 (Ouweneel 1971). The proportion of oiled Barnacle Geese was consider- ably less than in other species of geese present. Due to the rarity of this bird in the southeastern United States, the effect of oil pollution in this area should be of little concern. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Brandt, H. 1980. Weiswanganganse , Branta leucopsis, auf den Kooser Wiesen. [Barnacle Goose Branta leucopsis at the Kooser Plain.] Beitr. Vogelkd. 26: 239. [In German. ] Butler, P. J. and A. J. Woakes. 1980. Heart rate, respiratory frequency and wing beat frequency of free flying Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis. J. Exper. Biol. 85: 213-226. Jukema, J., 0. Rijpma and D. Hollenga. 1980. In Friesland een waarschi jnli jke hybride van Roodhalsgans (Branta ruficollis) en Brandgas (Branta leucopsis. [A probable hybrid of Red-breasted Goose Branta ruficollis and Barnacle Goose Branta leucopsis in Friesland.] Watervogels 5: 38-39. [In Dutch with English summary.] 114 Mauer, K. 1980. Brandgans X Roodhalgans en Kolgans x Brandgans in 1979/80. [Barnacle X Red-breasted Goose and White-fronted x Barnacle Goose in 1979/80.] Dutch Birding 2: 53-54. [In Dutch with English summary.] 1979 Dittami, J., S. Kennedy and C. Thomforde. 1979. Observations on Barnacle Goose Branta leucopsis breeding in Spitsbergen 1975. J. Ornithol. 120: 188-195. Lessells, C. M. , R. M. Silby, M. Owen and S. Ellers. 1979. Weights of female Barnacle Geese during breeding. Wildfowl 30: 72-74. Lok, C. M. 1979. De relatie tussen de aard van de winter en het fourageren van de Brandgans Branta leucopsis in het Zuiderdiepgebied. [The relation between winter condition and forage with Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis in the Zuiderdiep area.] Watervogels 4: 212-221. [In Dutch with English summary. ] Owen, M. and M. A. Ogilvie. 1979. Wing molt and weights of Barnacle Geese in Spitsbergen. Condor 81: 42-52. Owen, M. and R. Wells. 1979. Territorial behaviour in breeding geese — a re- examination of Ryder's hypothesis. Wildfowl 30: 20-26. 1978 Lok, C. M. 1978. De Westplaat als fouregeergebied voor de Brandgans (Branta leucopsis) . [The Westplaat as a feeding ground for the Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis).] Watervogels 3: 192-198. [In Dutch with English sum- mary. ] Norderhaug, M. and M. Owen. 1978. Breeding success of Barnacle Geese (Branta leucopsis) in Svalbard in 1977. Nor. Polarinst. Arbok 1977: 259-264. Owen, M. , R. H. Drent , M. A. Ogilvie and T. M. van Spanje. 1978. Numbers, dis- tribution and catching of Barnacle Geese (Branta leucopsis) on the Norden- skioldkysten, Svalbard, in 1977. Nor. Polarinst. Arbok 1977: 247-248. 1977 Dittami, J., C. Thomforde and S. Kennedy. 1977. Preliminary observations on the nesting of Barnacle Geese in Spitsbergen. Wildfowl 28: 94-100. Drent, R. and R. Swierstra. 1977. Goose flocks and food finding: field exper- iments with Barnacle Geese in winter. Wildfowl 28: 15-20. Ebbinge, B. and D. Ebbinge-Dallraei jer . 1977. Barnacle Geese (Branta leucopsis) in the Arctic summer — a reconnaissance trip to Svalbard. Nor. Polarinst. Arbok 1975: 119-138. 115 Owen, M. and M. Norderhaug. 1977. Population dynamics of Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis breeding in Svalbard , 1948-1976. Ornis Scand. 8: 161-174. Owen, M. , M. Nugent and N. Davies. 1977. Discrimination between grass species and nitrogen-fertilized vegetation by young Barnacle Geese. Wildfowl 28: 21-26. 1976 Wolinski, R. A. and L. N. Fauver. 1976. First specimens of the Barnacle Goose for Michigan. Jack-Pine Warbler 53: 131-132. 1975 Ebbinge, B. , K. Canters and R. H. Drent. 1975. Foraging routines and estimated daily food intake of Barnacle Geese wintering in the northern Netherlands. Wildfowl 26: 5-19. Ferns, P. N. and G. H. Green. 1975. Observations of Pink-footed and Barnacle geese in the Kong Oscar Fjord region of northeast Greenland, 1974. Wild- fowl 26: 131-138. Ogilvie, M. A. and H. Boyd. 1975. Greenland Barnacle Geese in the British Isles. Wildfowl 26: 139-147. 1974 Dittberner, H. 1974. Die Weisswangengans . Falke 21: 178-179. [In German.] Holgersen, N. E. 1974. Barnacle Goose at Bombay Hook Refuge. Atl. Nat. 29: 133. Owen, M. 1974. Studies on Svalbard Branta leucopsis. Bull. Internat. Water- fowl Res. Bur. No. 37: 101-102. Owen, M. and C. R. G. Campbell. 1974. Recent studies on Barnacle Geese at Caerlaverock. Scott. Birds 8: 181-193. 1973 Cabot, D. and B. West. 1973. Population dynamics of Barnacle Geese, Branta leucopsis, in Ireland. Proc . R. Irish Acad. 73 (Sec. B) : 415-443. 1972 Abbott, J. M. 1972. Correcting the record on Barnacle Goose. Atl. Nat. 27: 194. Grant, G. S. 1972. Barnacle Goose in Currituck County, N.C. Chat 36: 88. Jemison, E. J. 1972. Barnacle Goose winters in southeastern Oklahoma. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc . 5: 27-28. 116 1971 Burford, F. C. 1971. Barnacle Goose at Pea Island, N.C. Chat 35: 52. Kumar i, E. 1971. Passage of the Barnacle Goose through the Baltic Area. Wild- fowl 22: 35-43. Owen, M. and R. H. Kerbes. 1971. On the autumn food of the Barnacle Goose at Caerlaverock National Nature Reserve. Wildfowl 22: 114-119. 1968 Boyd, H. 1968. Barnacle Geese in the west of Scotland, 1957-1967. Wildfowl 19: 96-107. Mooser, R. and L. Zwarts. 1968. De Brandgans op Schiermonnikoog. [Barnacle Geese on the Island of Schiermonnikoog.] Levende Nat. 71: 138-142. [In Dutch with English summary. ] 1967 Dumont , P. A. 1967. Barnacle Goose observations. Atl. Nat. 22: 40. 1966 Roberts, E. L. 1966. Movements and flock behaviour of Barnacle Geese on the Solway Firth. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept . 17: 36-45. 1964 Boyd, H. 1964. Barnacle Geese caught in Dumbriesshire in February 1963. Wild- fowl Trust Annu. Rept. 15: 75-76. Larsen, T. and M. Norderhaug. 1964. Resultater av Kvitkinngas-merkinger pa Svalbard. [Results from banding the Barnacle Goose in Svalbard. ] Sterna 6: 153-167. [In Norwegian with English summary.] Uspenski, S. M. 1964. Die Weisswangengans in der Sowjetunion. Falke 11: 7-10. [In German. ] 1963 Cabot, D. 1963. Barnacle Geese in Ireland. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 14: 104-106. Larsen, T. and M. Norderhaug. 1963. The ringing of Barnacle Geese in Spits- bergen, 1962. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 14: 98-104. Marris, R. 1963. Colour marked and leucistic Barnacle Geese. Brit. Birds 56: 423-424. 117 1962 Marris, R. and M. A. Ogilvie. 1962. The ringing of Barnacle Geese in Green- land in 1961. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept . 13: 53-64. Timraerman, A. 1962. De Brandgans (Branta leucopsis) in Nederland. [On the occurrence of the Barnacle Goose in the Netherlands.] Limosa 35: 199-218. [In Dutch with English summary.] 1961 Boyd, H. 1961. The number of Barnacle Geese in Europe in 1959-1960. Wild- fowl Trust Annu. Rept. 12: 1 1 6-1 24. Timmerman, A. 1961. Over de Brandganzen in Nederland Seizoen 1959/1960. Levende Nat. 64: 35-39. [In Dutch.] 1960 Morzer Bruijns, M. F. 1960. Over het bepalen van de verhouding van adulte en juveniele Brandganzen (Branta leucopsis) in het veld. [Age group ratio counts of Barnacle Geese (Branta leucopsis) in the field. ] Limosa 34: 29- 33. [In Dutch with English summary.] 1958 Boyd, H. and J. Radford. 1958. Barnacle Geese in western Scotland, February 1957. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 9: 42-46. 1951 Delacour, J. 1951. Queer behaviour of Barnacle Geese. Avic. Mag. 52: 173-180. 1949 Shaftesbury, A. D. 1949. Barnacle Goose at Gaddy's Pond, Ansonville, N.C. Chat 13: 75. 1926 Batchelder, C. F. 1926. The Barnacle Goose in North Carolina. Auk 43: 88. 1923 Willard, F. C. 1923. Occurrence of the Barnacle Goose on Long Island. Auk 40: 528. 1922 Jourdain, F. C. R. 1922. The breeding habits of the Barnacle Goose. Auk 39: 166-171. 118 BRANT (Branta bernicla) [DA: Knortegas, DU: Rotgans, EN: Brent Goose, Brent, Sea Goose, White-bellied Brant; FI: Sepelhanhi, FR: Bernache cravant , GE: Ringelgans, IC : Margaes , IT: Oca Colombaccio, JA: Koku gan , NW: Ringgas, PO: Bernikla obrozna, PR: Ganso- bravo, SP: Barnacla carinagra, Brantal; SW: Prutgas, US: Black Brant, American Brant, Atlantic Brant] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America Brant breed in the maritime Arctic regions of eastern North America west to about longitude 100° W, including the Parry Islands, Axel Heil- berg Island, northern Ellesmere Island, Southampton Island, the islands around the Gulf of Boothia, Prince Regent Inlet, Wellington Channel, and Baffin Island (AOU 1957). They winter chiefly along the Atlantic coast of the United States from Massachusetts south to North Carolina, rarely farther south, and less com- monly off western North America from southwestern British Columbia south to the coasts of Baja California and the mainland of western Mexico (Bellrose 1976). There are inland records from many of the eastern and mid-western states (AOU 1957). The western subspecies (Black Brant) breeds in eastern Asia, northern Alaska, and northwestern Canada east to about 110° W; eastern and western forms intergrade on the edges of their breeding ranges. Western birds winter on the Pacific coast of North America from British Columbia south to Baja California and the coast of mainland Mexico (Bellrose 1976), and on large inland western lakes. There are records from Hawaii, inland western states, and Atlantic coastal states (AOU 1957, Einarson 1965). World Distribution Brant breed in a circumpolar Arctic belt across North America and across Eurasia from northern Greenland (Salomonsen 1950), Spitsber- gen, and Franz Josef Land to eastern Siberia. They winter south to Japan and northern China and along the coasts of northwestern Europe and northern Russia (AOU 1957). These geese may stray in winter as far south as northern Africa (Delacour 1954, Cramp et al. 1977). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES Brant are common in winter in North Carolina and casual or rare elsewhere in the southeast (Map 6). Like most other geese, Brant are regularly kept in captivity and occurrences away from their normal marine habitat may not be nat- ural . Taxonomic note: The AOU (1957) believed American populations represented dis- tinct species, the Brant (B_. bernicla) in the east and the Black Brant (B. nig- ricans) in the west. More recently, the AOU (1976) has merged the forms into a single species, a treatment earlier adopted by many authorities (Johnsgard 1975, Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a). 119 120 North Carolina Pearson et al. (1942) listed Brant as common wintering birds. They are present from November to March or April and are rare south of Pamlico Sound (Potter et al. 1980). These Brant are usually restricted to salt- water areas like Pamlico Sound that have extensive areas of submerged sandbars and mudflats and abundant supplies of eelgrass (Zostera marina). Wray and Davis (1959) noted a great decrease in numbers in the 1930's when a blight attacked the eelgrass. Bellrose (1976) commented that fewer Brant reach North Carolina in winter now than in the past, and he mentioned that only a few hundred winter in Currituck and Pamlico sounds, where they used to be abundant. The 1975 Jan- uary waterfowl census reported only 400 Brant in North Carolina and none else- where in the southeast (Goldsberry et al. 1980). This figure represents only 0.5% of those counted in the Atlantic Flyway and only 0.2% of the total number of Brant counted. Larger numbers occasionally winter in North Carolina. During the severe winter of 1976-77 large numbers were found along the coast where the species is usually uncommon; a peak of 1,650 occurred at Pea Island on 15 February 1977 (LeGrand 1977a). South Carolina Bellrose (1976) commented that Brant are found only rarely and in small numbers as far south as South Carolina. Sprunt and Chamberlain (1949) called the Brant a rare winter resident in South Carolina; only one of their five records, between 30 November and 31 January, was of a flock. Burton (1970) summarized four additional records of only a few birds each. The most recent record is from well inland in 1974 (Teulings 1975a). Georgia There are but four records of Brant from Georgia over a period of 80 years (Denton et al. 1977); the latest is from Harris Neck NWR, 14 February 1971 (Teulings 1971b). Florida Sprunt (1954, 1963) called Brant accidental in Florida and cited only eight records. Kale (1979 ms a) regarded it as rare along the Atlantic coast, with no more than two or three birds seen at one time. Since 1970 there have been six reports, including a few birds that lingered well into spring (Stevenson 1971, 1974, 1978; Kale 1971; Edscorn 1976). Only a few of the re- cords are from the Gulf coast (Edscorn 1976). Alabama Imhof (1976b) listed only two records of Brant in Alabama, both inland. A third record is of a Brant that remained at Hoover Lake, near Bir- mingham, from 2 November 1975 until 1 May 1976 (Hamilton 1976, Imhof 1976a, Purrington 1976). Mississippi There are two records of Brant in Mississippi; the most recent was of a single bird seen off Ship Island on 1 July 1978 (Jackson and Cooley 1978b). The other record, a lone bird off Pass Christian in January 1961, was considered to be possibly the same bird seen in New Orleans two months earlier (Lowery 1974). Louisiana Lowery (1974) reported two records of eastern Brant for Louisi- ana, one in New Orleans from November 1960 to January 1961, and one in the Rock- efeller Refuge in Cameron Parish, January 1974. In addition, a Black Brant (the Pacific subspecies) was reported at the East Jetty, Cameron, Cameron Par- 121 ish, on 21 October 1972 (Purrington 1973a, Lowery 1974). Texas Oberholser (1974) listed 18 Texas records (including 4 of the Black Brant), that span nearly a century; most are from the Gulf coast counties. A more recent report is of one that was seen at Aransas Refuge, 2 January 1976 (Webster 1976). SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding The Brant breeds in the northern Holarctic between 83°N and 63°N. It nests circumpolarly on arctic islands and coasts ( BOU 1971) and is one of the northernmost breeding birds in the world (Bellrose 1976). The size of the breeding population in both the New and Old Worlds is poor- ly known. One of the largest known breeding populations occurs on the outer Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta; Bellrose (1976) thought it might contain about 75,000 breeding Brant. Winter Bellrose (1976) indicated that an average of about 217,000 Brant wintered in North America through the early 1970's; about 140,000 of them along the Pacific coast, the rest along the Atlantic. He also pointed out that the Brant along the Pacific coast were shifting their wintering range southward, re- sulting in a great increase in the number wintering on the mainland coast of Mexico. Bellrose reported that the number increased from 1,400 in 1949 to 41,300 in 1967. This trend apparently continued. The 1975 winter waterfowl survey found 115,340 (Goldsberry et al. 1980) wintering along the west coast of Mexico. This figure represents about 54% of all Brant counted on the January survey of North American waterfowl, and about 93% of those counted along the Pacific coast. About 146,470 wintered along the Pacific coast during the win- ter of 1976-77 (Ogilvie 1978). Another 100 winter in British Columbia (Bellrose 1976), and up to 5,000 may winter in Cold Bay and Izembeck Lagoon in Alaska (Palmer 1976a); both areas are north of those covered by the January survey (Bellrose 1976). Bellrose (1976) reported that most (150,000) of the average population win- tering in the Atlantic (177,000) wintered in New Jersey, with other substantial wintering populations present in the bays of Long Island, New York (25,000) and Virginia (8,000); only a few hundred winter in the states to the south. Atlantic Brant numbers fluctuate dramatically in response to varying weather conditions on the breeding grounds and availability of food in winter (Bellrose 1976). Populations in the Atlantic Flyway were about 87,600 in 1974 (Bellrose 1976) and about 88,500 in 1975 (Goldsberry et al. 1980). The 1976 winter survey (Larned et al. 1980) reported a larger wintering population (ca. 249,000), but the distribution of this population remained much the same. The largest numbers (122,100) wintered off Mexico, and the next two largest populations occurred in New Jersey (99,000) and New York (17,000). Virginia (6,900) and Washington (7,500) also had relatively large wintering populations. In the winter of 1976-1977, Atlantic Brant numbered about 115,400. The severe winter resulted in mass starvation and less than 40,000 survived into the spring (Ogilvie 1978). 122 Considerable numbers winter in the Old World. During the raid-1970's an av- erage of about 80,000 Brant wintered in northwestern Europe (Ogilvie 1978). A compilation of the most recent figures listed by Ogilvie indicates a wintering population on the order of 122,000 birds, with over 80,000 of them wintering in Britain and France. Small numbers also winter in the Far East. The January 1976 count in Japan revealed fewer than 100 birds, but Ogilvie (1978) guessed that the total population might contain as much as 10,000 Brant. Migration The primary migratory route followed by North American Brant wintering along the Pacific coast extends overwater to the west coast of Calif- ornia from Izembeck Bay in Alaska where a majority of this form (the Black Brant) may congregate. Birds wintering in the western Atlantic follow two routes. The principal one is overland from James and Hudson Bay to the St. Lawrence Estuary and then to Long Island Sound (Bellrose 1976) and/or New Jersey (Palmer 1976b). Some of the birds on the overland route follow the Susquehanna River to New Jer- sey and continue south along the east shore of Chincoteague Bay to Virginia and North Carolina (Palmer 1976a). The other primary migration route, one that Bellrose (1976) believed con- siderably less important, follows the coasts of New Brunswick and New England to Long Island; some of these birds proceed south along the coast to the south- eastern states. Further details of migratory routes and chronology of migration for New World Brant are provided by Bellrose (1976) and Palmer (1976a); the lat- ter, Cramp et al . (1977), and Ogilvie (1978) summarize this information for Old World populations. Brant may occur off the coast of California as early as mid-October but the peak flights usually occur in mid-November. Birds wintering in the west Atlan- tic may arrive in New Jersey as early as early October, but the peak occurs later in the month, with some moving as late as early November (Bellrose 1976). Concentrations at Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, have reached as many as 100,000 Brant in late October; most remain there until mid-May (Palmer 1976a). Most of the migration into the Chesapeake Bay region, just north of the study area, oc- curs between late October and early December (Stewart 1962); some may arrive as early as early September (Palmer 1976a) . The return migration peaks there be- tween late February and early April (Stewart 1962). HABITAT Breeding Brant breed in coastal tundra, usually just above high tide line. This makes the nesting grounds highly susceptible to flooding by storm tides (Johnsgard 1975, 1978; Ogilvie 1978). Cramp et al. (1977) indicated that this species is often colonial when nesting on small islands near the sea or in lakes. Nests elsewhere may be more dispersed but are usually within a few hundred meters of the tideline. Atlantic Brant prefer grassy tundra along river valleys or near seacoasts. Those nesting in the Yukon Delta are found either along the coast or along major estuaries flanked by tidal meadows. In these areas, nests are mostly found on small islets or along the shores of tidal ponds (Lensink in Bellrose 1976). On the Anderson Delta, nests are placed on grassy hummocks surrounded by tidal flats; the nests average only 3 to 7 in above the high water and in one year averaged only 20 ft from both standing water and snow 123 cover (Barry 1966 In Bellrose 1976). The great majority of those nesting on Southhampton Island are on low sites within a mile of shore or high tide. They often nest on flotsammed sea wrack and kelp driven ashore by storms (Palmer 1976a). Feeding Ogilvie (1978) indicated that the principal feeding habitat of Brant is estuarine mudflats and sheltered seacoasts. They also graze in salt- marshes and have been reported grazing on habitats as diverse as athletic fields and airports (Palmer 1976a). Fields of grass and winter wheat have also been used by foraging Brant in Europe (Cramp et al. 1977, Ogilvie 1978), and field feeding has been noted in North America as well (Bellrose 1976). Brant also frequent gravel bars and spits to ingest grit (Palmer 1976a). Winter and Offshore Along the Atlantic coast, Brant winter on shallow flats on salty coastal bays, particularly along the barrier-beach side of bays (Johnsgard 1975). They sometimes occur in areas of brackish water, but concen- trate in salt-water shallows where sea lettuce (Ulva) , eelgrass (Zostera) , or wigeon grass (Ruppia maritima) grow. Those wintering along the Pacific coast prefer large shallow areas, usually bays, covered with eelgrass (Zostera) (Johnsgard 1975). FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Feeding Brant are principally grazers that uproot the entire plant, eat the roots and lower stems, and discard the fronds; the latter are eaten later on the incoming tide, when dabbling is impossible (Oberholser 1974). When feeding in shallow areas with much eelgrass (Zostera spp.), such as Izembeck Bay, Alaska, these Brant may graze, tip up like puddle ducks, or submerge their heads and necks to pluck vegetation (Ogilvie 1978). With the loss of eelgrass in the 1930's, Brant began feeding in fields. In these areas, they feed in flocks much more compact than those formed by birds feeding on mudflats (Ogilvie 1978). In Britain, these geese have also been seen "pattering" on mud with their feet to bring worms to the surface; in a number of areas they have also been recorded "trampling" to obtain rhizomes of eelgrass. Brant also seize plants brought to the surface by diving ducks (Palmer 1976a). Brant feed largely by day (Palmer 1976a) but will also feed by moonlight (Cramp et al. 1977). Feeding inshore is closely related to the tidal cycle. Birds forage on mudflats during low tide (Palmer 1976a) and often rest at sea during high tide. The number of feeding peaks is dependent on the number of low tides occurring during the day (Ogilvie 1978). The diet of Brant is almost entirely vegetable (Palmer 1976a); the small amounts of animal food reported are apparently ingested only by accident (Ogil- vie 1978). Eelgrass (Zostera spp.) is usually the primary food, when available. In the western Atlantic, Zostera marina is the species eaten; Zostera marina and Z. nana are the most important species in Europe (Palmer 1976a). An alga, sea lettuce, (Ulva spp.) is also an important food in both the New World (U. lactua; Palmer 1976a) and in the Old (both U. lactua and _U. latissima; Cramp et al. 1977). Widgeongrass is an important food for Brant wintering off the western Atlantic coast. Other plants important in the diet in one area or another in- 124 elude other algae (especially Enteromorpha spp.), buds of Saxlfraga oppositi- folia, rockgrass (Phyllospadlx) , glasswort (Sallcornia) , saltgrass (Dlstlchlis spicata) , cordgrass (Spartina) , a grass (Pucclnella) , and sea-aster (Aster trip- oliura). Various grasses and domesticated plants obtained while feeding in fields may also be important in the diet, particularly in Europe. Brant in Den- mark have been noted feeding on grain-filled pellets ejected by Herring Gulls (Fog 1967 _in Cramp et al. 1977). Mosses, lichens, berries, and sedges are also consumed (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a, Cramp et al. 1977, and authors cited therein). These authors should be consulted for much more detailed lists of foods consumed in various parts of the range. Little is known of food habits in the southeastern United States, but the diet is presumably similar to that in other areas along the Atlantic seaboard. Cottam et al. (1944) reported the stomach contents of 11 Brant collected in North Carolina prior to the disappearance of eelgrass (Zostera marina) from the east in 1932. They contrasted these with the contents of 21 stomachs collected since 1932. The birds collected prior to 1932 fed almost solely on eelgrass and widgeongrass . The stomachs contained from 10 to 100% eelgrass (mean = 69.5%) and from 8 to 90% widgeongrass (mean = 28.2%). Stomachs collected since 1932 contained 24% Zostera and 60% Ruppia. Authors cited in Palmer (1976a) reported that a bird collected in South Carolina had eaten only sea lettuce. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Birds of the European subspecies of Brant have been victims of oil spills (Joensen and Hansen 1977). In 1966, Brant wintering populations decreased sig- nificantly following an oil spill in the Medway Estuary, Great Britain. How- ever, their numbers increased two years after the incident, indicating that am- ple food supplies had again become available (Harrison and Buck 1968). Because Brant rarely occur along the coast of the southeastern states (except in North Carolina), there is little threat to the population by the development of oil resources in that area. Should oil wash into shallow bays, however, potential feeding areas might be severely damaged. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Boyd, H. 1980. Importance of Ireland's Brent Geese. Brit. Birds 73: 363-364. Boyd, H. and L. S. Maltby. 1980. Weights and primary growth of Brent Geese Branta bernicla moulting in the Queen Elizabeth Islands, N.W.T., Canada, 1973-1975. Ornis Scand. 11: 135-141. 125 1979 Boyd, H. and L. S. Maltby. 1979. The Brant of the western Queen Elizabeth Is- lands, N.W.T. Pp. 5-21 in R. I. Jarvis and J. C. Bartonek (eds.) Manage- ment and biology of Pacific Flyway geese. Oregon St. Univ. Bookstores, Inc., Corvallis, OR. Haraer, F. 1979. Black Brant at Brigantine Beach. Cassinia 57: 44. Hubbard, J. 1979. Spring migration at Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska. (Abstract only). Pac. Seabird Group Bull. 6: 41. Kramer, G. W. , L. R. Rauen and S. W. Harris. 1979. Populations, hunting mor- tality and habitat use of Black Brant at San Quintin Bay, Baja California, Mexico. Pp. 176-188 In R. I. Jarvis and J. C. Bartonek (eds.) Management and biology of Pacific Flyway geese. Oregon St. Univ. Bookstores, Inc., Corvallis, OR. Lambeck, R. H. D. 1979. Rotganzen in het Deltagebied: de leefi jdsverhouding in het seizon 1977/78 en meer gegevens over hun status binnen de totale rotsgan-populatie . [Brent Geese in the Delta Area: the age-ratio in the season 1977/78 and more information about their status within the total Brent population.] Watervogels 4: 36-39. [In Dutch with English summary]. Stanley, P. I. and A. K. M. St. Joseph. 1979. Poisoning of Dark-bellied Brent Geese in Essex, February 1979. Wildfowl 30: 154. Weber, W. C. 1979. A Brant on East Ship Island: First record for Mississippi. Mississippi Kite 9: 10-11. Wiss, K. and G. Andersson. 1979. Prutgass Branta bernicla kolliderade med far- ja. [Brent Geese Branta bernicla collided with ferry.] Ornis Fenn. 56: 172. [In Finnish with English summary.] 1978 Boyd, H. 1978. Comments on identifying yearling female Atlantic Brant — Joseph M. Penkala. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 697-698. Cadbury, C. J. and A. K. M. St. Joseph. 1978. Brent Geese on the Wash in late spring. Brit. Birds 71: 268-269. Charman , C. and A. Macey. 1978. The winter grazing of saltmarsh vegetation by Dark-bellied Brent Geese. Wildfowl 29: 153-162. Eisenhauer, J. H. 1978. Nesting ecology and behavior of Pacific Brant in Al- aska. (Abstract). Proc. Mont. Acad. Sci. 37: 85. Inglis, I. R. and A. J. Issacson. 1978. The responses of Dark-bellied Brent Geese to models of geese in various postures. Anim. Behav. 26: 953-958. 126 Lambeck, R. H. D. 1978. Leef ti jdsverhoudingen en andere populatiegegevens van Rotganzen (Branta b. bernlcla L.) in het Oosterschelde/Veerse Meergebied in het seizoen 1976/1977. [Age-ratios and other population data of Brent Geese (Branta b. bernicla L.) in the eastern Scheldt/Lake Veere area dur- ing the season 1976/1977.] Watervogels 3: 3-9. [In Dutch with English summary. ] Nienhuis, P. H. and E. T. van Ierland. 1978. Consumption of eelgrass , Zostera marina, by birds and invertebrates in Lake Grevelingen (SW Netherlands). Netherlands J. Sea Res. 12: 180-194. Penkala, J. M. 1978. Response to comments by Hugh Boyd. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 699. Prokosch, P. 1978. Plaene zur eindeichung von nahrungshabitaten der Dunkel- baeuchigen Ringelgans (Branta bernicla bernicla) in Schleswig-Holstein. [Plans for reclamation of feeding habitat of Dark-bellied Brent Geese (Branta bernicla bernicla) in Schleswig-Holstein.] Ornithol. Mitt. 30: 3-12. [In German with English summary.] St. Joseph, A. K. M. 1978. Population levels of Branta bernicla in Europe. Internatl. Waterfowl Res. Bureau Bull. No. 45: 31-32. van der Bilt, E. and B. Helming. 1978. De winterecologies van de Rotgans Branta bernicla op Tershcelling. [The winter ecology of the Brent Goose Branta bernicla in Terschelling. ] Limosa 51: 31-40. [In Dutch with English summary. ] 1977 Babinski, A. and J. R. Taylor. 1977. Ostatnie obserwacje Bernikli obroznych (Branta bernicla) nad zatoka Gdanska. [The latest observations of Brent Geese (Branta bernicla) at the Gdansk Bay.] Notatki Ornitol. 18: 46-45. [In Polish with English summary.] Burk, S. A. and S. D. Burk. 1977. Brant in Johnston County, Oklahoma. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc. 10: 29-30. Lambeck, R. H. D. 1977. Het Vorkomen van Rotgans Branta bernicla ondersoorten in het Nederlandse Waddengebied Tijdens het voorjar van 1976. [The occur- rence of Brent Goose Branta bernicla subspecies in the Dutch Wadden Sea area during spring 1976.] Limosa 50: 92-97. [In Dutch with English sum- mary. ] Penkala, J. M. 1977a. A technique for identifying yearling female Atlantic Brant. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 585-587. . 1977b. Winter food habits and body weight of Atlantic Brant. Trans. NE Sect. Wildl. Soc. 32: 151-169. 127 Owczarek, A. 1977. Obserwacja bernikli obroznej (Branta bernicla). [Observa- tion of Brent Goose (Branta bernicla) in Koszalin District. ] Notatki Orni- tol. 18: 127. [In Polish with English summary.] Owens, N. W. 1977. Responses of wintering Brent Geese to human disturbance. Wildfowl 28: 5-14. Ruttledge, R. F. 1977. Further observations in Ireland of Brent Geese banded in the Canadian Arctic islands. Irish Birds 1: 65-67. 1976 Clough, T. R. 1976. The Little Sea Goose. Cape Nat. 5: 23-29. Hubbard, J. D. 1976. Black Brant migration from Alaska. J. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. Sci. 8: 72. Maheo, R. 1976. The Brent Geese of France, with special reference to the Golfe du Morbihan. Wildfowl 27: 55-62. Ogilvie, M. A. and A. K. M. St. Joseph. 1976. Dark-bellied Brent Geese in Britain and Europe, 1955-76. Brit. Birds 69: 422-439. Owens, N. W. 1976. Responses of wintering Brent Geese to human disturbance. Wildfowl 27: 152. Penkala, J. A. 1976. Winter food habits and body weights of Atlantic Brant. M.S. thesis, Rutgers Univ. /New Brunswick, NJ. St. Joseph, A. K. M. 1976. A study of the winter movements of the Dark-bellied Brent Goose. Wildfowl 27: 156. 1975 Abbott, J. M. 1975a. Brant in corn field. Atl. Nat. 30: 35. . 1975b. Brant in fields in England. Atl. Nat. 30: 83. Davis, T. H. 1975. Black Brant at Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge, Queens Co., New York. Kingbird 25: 27. Maltby-Prevett, L. S. , H. Boyd and J. D. Heyland. 1975. Observations in Ice- land and northwest Europe of Brant from the Queen Elizabeth Islands, N.W.T., Canada. Bird-Banding 46: 155-161. Neraasen, T. G. and J. C. Holmes. 1975. The circulation of cestodes among three species of geese nesting on the Anderson River Delta, Canada. Acta Parasitol. Pol. 23: 277-289. [In English with Polish summary.] Penkala, J. M. , J. E. Applegate and L. J. Wolgast . 1975. Management of Atlan- tic Brant: implications of existing data. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. & Nat. Re- sourc. Conf. 40: 325-333. 128 1974 Morehouse, K. A. 1974. Development, energetics, and nutrition of captive Pa- cific Brant ( Branta bernicla orientalis, Tougarinov) . Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Alaska/Fairbanks, AK. 134 pp. Norderhaug, M. 1974. Undersokelser av Ringgjess (Branta bernicla hrota) pa Tusenoyane. [Studies of Brent Geese (Branta bernicla hrota) on Tusenoyane , East Svalbard.] Nor. Polarinst . Arbok 1972: 89-98. [In Norwegian with Russian and English summaries.] 1973 Barnard, A. E. 1973. Occurrence of Black Brant moulting in Boundary Bay, Brit- ish Columbia. Murrelet 54: 12-13. 1970 Jones, R. D. 1970. Reproductive success and age distribution of Black Brant. J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 328-333. Sands, J. L. 1970. First record of the Black Brant (Branta nigricans) for New Mexico. Condor 72: 110. Smith, R. H. and G. H. Jensen. 1970. Black Brant on the mainland coast of Mex- ico. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 35: 227-241. 1969 Ogilvie, M. A. and G. V. T. Matthews. 1969. Brent Geese, mudflats, and man. Wildfowl 20: 119-125. 1968 Atkeson, T. Z., Jr. 1968. A Brant specimen from Alabama. Auk 85: 697. Morzer Bruyns, M. F. and A. Timmerman . 1968. Over het voorkomen van de Rot- gans Branta bernicla bernicla in Nederland. [On the occurrence of the Dark-breasted Brent Goose in the Netherlands.] Limosa 41: 90-106. [In Dutch with English summary.] Voisin, C. 1968. Les Bernaches Branta b. bernicla du golfe du Morbihan. Oiseau Rev. Fr. Ornithol. 38: 151-174, 225-248. [In French.] 1967 Fog, M. 1967. An investigation on the Brent Goose (Branta bernicla) in Den- mark. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 5: 1-40. Hout, J. L. 1967. Contribution toward a bibliography on Brant. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rept .— Wildl. No. 103. 15 pp. 129 Montgomery, R. A. 1967. Observation of Brant in southern Illinois. Wilson Bull. 79: 242. Wolff, W. J., P. De Koeijer, A. J. J. Sandee and L. De Wolf. 1967. De ver- spreiding van Rotganzen in het Deltagebied in relatie tot de verspreiding van hun voedsel. [The distribution of Brent Geese in the Delta-area in relation to the distribution of their food.] Liraosa 40: 163-174. [In Dutch with English summary.] 1966 Jones, R. D. , Jr. and D. M. Jones. 1966. The process of family disintegration in Black Brant. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept . 17: 75-78. 1965 Einarson, A. S. 1965. Black Brant, sea goose of the Pacific Ocean. Univ. Washington Press, Seattle, WA. 142 pp. Harris, S. W. and P. E. K. Shepherd. 1965. Age determination and notes on the breeding age of Black Brant. J. Wildl. Manage. 29: 643-645. 1964 Davis, H. T. 1964. Black Brant, a specimen for North Carolina. Chat 28: 45-46. 1963 Baillie, J. L. 1963. The 13 most recent Ontario nesting birds. Ont . Field Biol. 17: 15-26. Burton, P. J. K. and H. Boyd. 1963. The present status of the Brent Goose in Europe. Proc. 1st European Mtg . on Wildfowl Conservation: 73-75. 1962 Barry, T. W. 1962. Effects of late seasons on Atlantic Brant production. J. Wildl. Manage. 26: 257-262. Denson, E. P. and S. C. Murrell. 1962. Black Brant populations of Humboldt Bay, California. J. Wildl. Manage. 26: 257-262. 1960 Atkinson-Willes , Matthews, G. L. 0. and G. V. T. Matthews. 1960. The past status of the Brent Goose. Brit. Birds 53: 352-257. Barry, T. W. 1960a. Breeding history of the Atlantic Brant (Branta bernicla hrota). M.S. thesis, Cornell Univ. /Ithaca , NY. • 1960b. The Brent Goose and its food supply in Essex. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 12: 104-113. 130 Burton, P. J. K. 1960. Brent Goose population studies. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 11: 94-98. Henderson, J. C. 1960. A Texas record of the Black Brant. Auk 77: 227. Shepherd, P. E. K. 1960 ras. Distribution and abundance of the Black Brant in Alaska. Alaska Dept . Fish Game, Pittraan-Robertson Proj. Rept. 2: 58-60. Uspenski, S. M. 1960. [The Brent Goose (Branta bernicla L.) in the Soviet Union.] Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 11: 80-93. [English translation.] 1959 Murrell, S. L. 1959. The Eastern Brant at Humboldt Bay, California. Condor 61: 374. Ranwell, D. S. and B. M. Downing. 1959. Brent Goose (Branta bernicla L.) win- ter feeding pattern and Zostera resources at Scolt Head Island, Norfolk. Anim. Behav. 7: 42-56. 1958 Salomonsen, F. 1958. The present status of the Brent Goose (Branta bernicla (L.)) in western Europe. Vidensk. Medd. Dan. Naturh. Foren. 120: 43-80. 1957 Hansen, H. A. and U. C. Nelson. 1957. Brant of the Bering Sea — migration and mortality. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 22: 237-254. Salomonsen, F. 1957. Nissum Fjord og Knortegaessene (Branta bernicla (L.)). [Nissum Fjord and the Brent Geese Branta bernicla (L.).] Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 51: 119-131. [In Danish with English summary.] 1956 Barry, T. W. 1956. Observations of a nesting colony of American Brant. Auk 73: 193-202. 1955 Cade, T. J. 1955. Records of the Black Brant in the Yukon Basin and the ques- tion of a spring migration route. J. Wildl. Manage. 19: 321-324. Morzer Bruijns, M. F. and J. Tanis. 1955. De Rotganzen, Branta bernicla (L.) op Terschelling. [The Brent Goose (Branta bernicla) on Terschelling (Neth- erlands).] Ardea 43: 261-271. [In Dutch.] 1953 Leopold, A. S. and R. H. Smith. 1953. Numbers and winter distribution of Pacific Black Brant in North America. Calif. Fish Game 39: 95-101. 131 1952 Delacour, J. and J. T. Zimmer. 1952. The identity of Anser nigricans Lawrence 1846. Auk 69: 82-84. Ferguson-Lees, I. J. 1952. Studies of some species rarely photographed. XLVI: The Brent Goose. Brit. Birds 45: 457. 1951 von Viereck, H. 1951. Uber die Ursachen fur die Abnahme der Ringelgans (Branta bernicla) in den Winterquartieren. Vogelwarte 16: 18-22. [In German.] 1950 Lincoln, F. C. 1950. The American Brant — living bird of museum piece? Audubon Mag. 52: 282-287. Sciple, G. W. 1950. American Brant, Branta b. hrota, in Georgia. Auk 67: 383. 1949 Sheppard, R. W. 1949. The American Brant on the lower Great Lakes. Can. Field-Nat. 63: 99-100. 1948 Jewett, S. G. 1948. The Eastern Brant in Idaho. Condor 50: 93. 1946 Campbell, J. W. 1946. The food of the Widgeon and Brent Goose. Brit. Birds 39: 194-200, 226-232. 1944 Cottam, C, J. J. Lynch and A. L. Nelson. 1944. Food habits and management of American Sea Brant. J. Wildl. Manage. 8: 36-56. 1941 Moffitt, J. and C. Cottam. 1941. Eelgrass depletion on the Pacific coast and its effect upon Black Brant. U.S. Dept. Int., U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Wildl. Leafl. 204. 26 pp. 1937 Lewis, H. F. 1937. Migrations of the American Brant (Branta bernicla hrota). Auk 54: 73-95. 132 1936 Brouwer, G. A. 1936. Voedselschaarschte voor Branta bernicla (L.) door het verdwijen van het Zeegras (Zostera marina L.). Ardea 25: 173-174. [In Dutch. ] 1933 Sprunt, A., Jr. 1933. Third occurrence of the Brant (Branta bernicla hrota) in South Carolina. Auk 50: 209-210. 1932 Phillips, J. C. 1932. Fluctuation in numbers of the Eastern Brant Goose. Auk 49: 445-453. 1930 Sprunt, A., Jr. 1930. The Brant (Branta bernicla glaucogastra) on the South Carolina coast. Auk 47: 244. 1927 Mershon, W. B. 1927. Notes on the migration of Brant. Auk 44: 557-558. 1926 Jourdain, F. C. R. 1926. The Brent Goose of Spitsbergen and Greenland. Auk 43: 536-537. 1925 Chamberlain, E. B. 1925. The Brant (Branta bernicla glaucogastra) at Charles- ton, S.C. Auk 42: 265-266. 1875 Hapgood, W. 1875. Brant Geese (Anser bernicla Linn.): their habits, migration, breeding places. Forest & Stream 5: 49. 133 WOOD DUCK (Alx sponsa) [FR: Canard carolin, GE: Brautente , SP: Pato del bosque de Carolina, Huyoyo] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION An endemic North American species, the Wood Duck breeds primarily in east- ern North America with the western limits of this part of the range extending from central eastern Saskatchewan to southeast Manitoba thence south to north- eastern Nebraska, eastern Missouri, extreme southeastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas. They breed east through southern Ontario and Quebec to northern Maine, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island and south through the eastern United States to the Gulf coast, Florida, and Cuba. A disjunct population breeds in the Pacific Northwest from southern British Columbia to northern Idaho and Ore- gon and south through eastern Oregon and California to southern California (Palmer 1976b). In winter, only the southern parts of the range are occupied. Thus, the species is a common permanent resident in the southeastern states, and an influx of northern birds takes place in winter (Map 7). Estimated breeding populations in the states on the southeastern coast total 289,000 birds (Bell- rose 1976). The breeding habitat is primarily wooded bottomlands and swamps. Some birds occur in tidal estuaries and protected coastal marshes in winter (Palmer 1976b). Because of excessive hunting and habitat destruction, the Wood Duck popula- tion was greatly reduced at the turn of the century. A moratorium on hunting, following passage of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, and intensive management, including the placement of artificial nesting boxes, permitted the species to regain much of its former abundance (Bellrose 1976). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION There is no information available on the history of oiling in this species. However, since the Wood Duck is an interior species largely restricted to fresh- water situations with quiet water, it probably seldom encounters oiling from off- shore development. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 DiGiulio, R. T. and R. B. Hamilton. 1980. Utilization of agricultural wetlands in a Mississippi River bottomland by Wood Duck and Hooded Merganser broods. Proc. 33rd Annu. Conf . Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 81-87. Drobney, R. D. 1980. Reproductive bioenergetics of Wood Ducks. Auk 97: 480- 490. 134 135 Graham, B. J. 1980. Nest hole competition between Wood Ducks and Hooded Mergansers. Jack-Pine Warbler 58: 36. Huesmann, H. W., R. Bellville and R. G. Burrell. 1980. Further observations on dump nesting by Wood Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 908-915. Luckett, L. M. and J. D. Hair. 1980. Analysis of Wood Duck roost counts in northwest South Carolina. Proc. 33rd Annu. Conf . Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 96-103. Ridlehuber, K. T. 1980. Wood Duck production and habitat use. Ph.D. thesis, Texas A&M Univ. /College Station, TX. 52 pp. 1979 Bowers, E. F. and R. B. Hamilton. 1979. Derivation of northern Wood Ducks harvested in southern states of the Mississippi Flyway. Proc. 31st Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 90-98. Clawson, R. L. , G. W. Hartman and L. H. Fredrickson. 1979. Dump-nesting in a Missouri Wood Duck population. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 347-355. Clay, D. L., I. L. Brisbin, Jr. and K. A. Youngstrom. 1979. Age-specific changes in the major body components and caloric values of growing Wood Ducks. Auk 96: 296-305. Cottrell, S. D. 1979. Wood Duck brood use of an east Tennessee riverine hab- itat. M.S. thesis, Mich. State Univ. /East Lansing, MI. 63 pp. DiGiulio, R. T. 1979. Wood Duck nesting and brood utilization of agricultural field wetlands in a floodplain. (Abstract only). Va. J. Sci. 30: 47. Drobney, R. D. and L. H. Frederickson. 1979. Food selection by Wood Ducks in relation to breeding status. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 109-120. Fendley, T. T. 1979. Unusual pattern of nest initiations in a South Carolina Wood Duck population. (Abstract only). Bull. S.C. Acad. Sci. 41: 49. Hepp, G. R. and J. D. Hair. 1979. Wood Duck brood mobility and utilization of beaver pond habitats. Proc. 31st Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 216-225. Parr, D. E. , M. D. Scott and D. D. Kennedy. 1979. Autumn movements and hab- itat use by Wood Ducks in southern Illinois. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 102- 108. Perry, H. R. , Jr. 1979. Wood Duck roost utilization of northeastern North Carolina swamps. Proc. 31st Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 307-311. 136 Rothbart, P. 1979. Survival, habitat use, and movements of Wood Duck, broods in northern Louisiana. M.S. thesis, La. State Univ. /Baton Rouge, LA. xiv and 165 pp. Stewart, P. A. 1979. Radial dispersal of Wood Ducks after the nesting season and before fall migration. N. Am. Bird Bander 4: 1-3. 1978 Briggs, R. L. 1978. Wood Ducks gathering acorns. N. Am. Bird Bander 3: 102. Burke, C. J., S. M. Byers and R. A. Montgomery. 1978. A field guide to the aging of Wood Duck embryos. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 432-437. DiGiulio, R. T. 1978. Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) brood-usage of agricultural field wetlands in Concordia Parish, Louisiana. M.S. thesis, La. State Univ./ Baton Rouge, LA. 132 pp. Fendley, T. T. 1978. The ecology of Wood Ducks (Aix sponsa) utilizing a nu- clear production reactor stream. Ph.D. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, UT. 158 pp. Gilmer, D. S. , I. J. Ball, L. M. Cowardin, J. E. Mathisen and J. H. Riechman. 1978. Natural cavities used by Wood Ducks in north-central Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 288-298. Heusraann, H. W. , R. G. Burrell and R. Bellville. 1978. Automatic short-terra color marker for nesting Wood Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 429-432. Reran, D. C. 1978. Site selection for Wood Duck nest boxes. Loon 50: 191-194. Lingle, G. R. 1978. Factors influencing autumn dispersal and weight boosting of the Wood Duck in central Michigan. Jack-Pine Warbler 56: 122-127. Parr, D. E. and M. D. Scott. 1978. Analysis of roosting counts as an index to Wood Duck population size. Wilson Bull. 90: 423-437. Russell, R. P., Jr. 1978. First record of a Hooded Merganser-Wood Duck hybrid in the wild. Loon 50: 208-209. Scott, M. D. and D. E. Parr. 1978. Environmental factors affecting Wood Duck roosting flights in southern Illinois. Trans. 111. State Acad. Sci. 71: 72-80. Stewart, P. A. 1978. Association of individual Wood Ducks in movements away from their nesting grounds. I til. Bird Banding News 50: 132-133. Strader, R. W., R. T. DiGiulio and R. B. Hamilton. 1978. Egg carrying by Wood Duck. Wilson Bull. 90: 131-132. Strader, R. W. , R. E. Murry, H. R. Perry, Jr. and R. B. Hamilton. 1978. Hen Wood Duck calls brood from neighboring nest box. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 919-920. 137 Sutton, G. M. 1978. Wood Duck nesting in Norman , Oklahoma. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc. 11: 13-14. Titman, R. D. and G. A. Seaman. 1978. Quebec banded Wood Duck recovered in Saba, Netherlands Antilles. Bird-Banding 49: 77. 1977 Bowers, E. F. 1977. Population dynamics and distribution of the Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) in eastern North America. Ph.D. thesis, La. St. Univ. /Baton Rouge, LA. 2 93 pp. Cink, C. L. 1977. Wood Duck production in the Salt Creek watershed of eastern Nebraska. Trans. Nebr. Acad. Sci . 4: 53-56. Drobney, R. D. 1977. The feeding ecology, nutrition, and reproductive bioener- getics of Wood Ducks. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Missouri/Columbia, MO. 180 pp. Gilmer, D. S. , R. E. Kirby, I. J. Ball and J. H. Reichmann. 1977. Postbreed- ing activities of Mallards and Wood Ducks in north-central Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 345-359. Hepp, G. R. 1977. The ecology of Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) broods in the Pied- mont region of South Carolina. M.S. thesis, Clemson Univ./Clemson, SC. 113 pp. Landers, J. L. , T. T. Fendley and A. S. Johnson. 1977. Feeding ecology of Wood Ducks in South Carolina. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 118-127. Luckett , L. M. 1977. Ecology and management of the Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) , in the Piedmont region of South Carolina. M.S. thesis, Clemson Univ./Clemson, SC. 99 pp. Stewart, P. A. 1977a. A mortality table for Wood Ducks. Bird-Banding 48: 171. . 1977b. Radial dispersal and southward migration of Wood Ducks banded in Iowa. Iowa Bird Life 47: 48-50. . 1977c. Radial dispersal and southward migration of Wood Ducks banded in Iowa. Bird-Banding 48: 333-336. Zipko, S. J. and J. Kennington. 1977. A ground-nesting Wood Duck. Auk 94: 159. 1976 Korschen, C. E. and L. H. Fredrickson. 1976. Comparative displays of yearling and adult male Wood Ducks. Auk 93: 793-807. Landers, J. L., A. S. Johnson, P. H. Morgan and W. P. Baldwin. 1976. Duck foods in managed tidal impoundments in South Carolina. J. Wildl. Manage. 40: 721-728. 138 Miller, D. B. and G. Gottlelb. 1976. Acoustic features of Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) maternal calls. Behaviour 57: 260-280. 1975 Ball, I. J., D. S. Gilmer, L. M. Cowardin and J. H. Reichmann. 1975. Survival of Wood Duck and Mallard broods in north-central Minnesota. J. Wildl. Man- age. 39: 776-780. Clawson, R. L. 1975a. Wood Ducks trapped by predator guards. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 220. . 1975b. The ecology of dump nesting in Wood Ducks. M.S. thesis, Univ. Missouri/Columbia, MO. 122 pp. Haramis, G. M. 1975. Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) ecology and management within the green-timber impoundments at Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge. M.S. the- sis, Cornell Univ. /Ithaca , NY. 153 pp. 1974 Beshears, W. W., Jr. 1974. Wood Ducks in Alabama. Alabama Dept . Conserv. Nat. Re sour. Special Rept. No. 4. 4 5 pp. Bouvier, J. M. 1974. Breeding biology of the Hooded Merganser in southwestern Quebec, including interactions with Common Goldeneyes and Wood Ducks. Can. Field-Nat. 88: 323-330. Capen, D. E. , W. J. Crenshaw and M. W. Coulter. 1974. Establishing breeding populations of Wood Ducks by relocating wild broods. J. Wildl. Manage. 38: 253-256. Gottlieb, G. 1974. On the acoustic basis of species identification in Wood ducklings (Aix sponsa). J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 87: 1038-1048. Stewart, P. A. 1974. Mother Wood Ducks feeding away from their brood. Bird- Banding 45: 58. 1973 Brown, B. 1973. The Big Lake Wood Duck: a two year study of its pref light mor- tality, nesting population growth, and migration. Proc . 26th Annu. Conf . Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 195-202. Hester, F. E. and J. Dermid. 1973. The world of the Wood Duck. J. B. Lippin- cott, Co. Philadelphia, PA. 160 pp. 1972 Doty, H. A. 1972. Hatchability tests with eggs from captive Wood Ducks. Poultry Sci. 51: 849-853. 139 Doty, H. A. and A. D. Kruse . 1972. Techniques for establishing local breeding populations of Wood Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 428-435. Heaton, M. B. 1972. Prenatal auditory discrimination in the Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) . Anim. Behav. 20: 421-424. Heusraann, H. W. 1972. Survival of Wood Duck broods from dump nests. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 620-624. Kerwin, J. A. and L. G. Webb. 1972. Food of ducks wintering in coastal South Carolina, 1956-1957. Proc. 25th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 223-245. Kimball, C. F. 1972. Wood Duck band recovery data for 1971 and population trends in the eastern United States and Ontario, 1966-1971. Bur. Sport Fish. & Wildl., Admin. Rept . No. 219. 7 pp. McGilvrey, F. B. 1972. Increasing a Wood Duck nesting population by release of pen-reared birds. Proc. 25th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 202-206. Stewart, P. A. 1972. The plight of Wood Ducks in the Carolinas. Chat 36: 48- 55. Tabberer, D. K. , J. D. Newsom, P. E. Schilling and H. A. Bateman. 1972. The Wood Duck roost count as an index to Wood Duck abundance in Louisiana. Proc. 25th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 254-261. 1971 Baker, J. L. 1971. Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) production from nest boxes and brood studies on the Noxubee National Wildlife Refuge. Ph.D. thesis, Miss. St. Univ. /State College, MS. 48 pp. Ball, I. J., Jr. 1971. Movements, habitat use and behavior of Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) broods in north-central Minnesota as determined by radio tracking. M.S. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/St. Paul, MN. 56 pp. Carleton, G. 1971. Wood Duck presumed nesting in cliff. Kingbird 21: 212. Cringan, A. T. 1971. Status of the Wood Duck in Ontario. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. & Nat. Resour. Conf. 36: 296-312. Gilmer, D. S. 1971. Home range and habitat use of breeding Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and Wood Ducks (Aix sponsa) in north-central Minnesota as determined by radio-tracking. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/Minneapolis, MN. Herman, C. M. , J. 0. Knisley, Jr. and G. D. Knipling. 1971. Blood parasites of Wood Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 35: 119-122. 140 Hocutt, G. E. and R. W. Diramick. 1971. Summer food habits of juvenile Wood Ducks in east Tennessee. J. Wildl. Manage. 35: 286-292. Johnson, N. F. 1971. Effects of levels of dietary protein on Wood Duck growth. J. Wildl. Manage. 35: 798-802. McGilvrey, F. B. and F. M. Uhler. 1971. A starling-deterent Wood Duck nest box. J. Wildl. Manage. 35: 793-797. Odum, R. R. 1971. Nest box production and brood survival of Wood Ducks on the Piedmont National Wildlife Refuge, 1969. Proc. 24th Annu. Conf. Southeast- ern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 108-117. Stewart, P. A. 1971a. Egg turning by an incubating Wood Duck. Wilson Bull. 83: 97-99. . 1971b. Wood Ducks nesting in chimneys. Auk 88: 425. Strange, T. H., E. R. Cunningham and J. W. Goertz. 1971. Use of nest boxes by Wood Ducks in Mississippi. J. Wildl. Manage. 35: 786-793. 1970 Kimball, C. F. 1970. Wood Duck band recovery data for 1969 and population trends in the eastern United States and Ontario, 1964—1 969 . Bur. Sport Fish & Wildl., Admin. Rept. No. 188. 8 pp. 1969 Cunningham, E. R. 1969. A three year study of the Wood Duck on the Yazoo National Wildlife Refuge. Proc. 22nd Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 145-155. Larude, S. E. , Jr. 1969. Tree Duck/Wood Duck egg parasitism. Bull. Texas Ornithol. Soc. 3: 28. McGilvrey, F. B. 1969. Survival in Wood Duck broods. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 73-76. Morse, T. E. and H. M. Wight. 1969. Dump nesting and its effects on production in Wood Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 284-293. 1968 Barden, L. S. 1968. A population analysis of Maine-banded Wood Ducks. M.S. thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono, ME. 109 pp. Bolen, E. G. and B. W. Cain. 1968. Mixed Wood Duck/Tree Duck clutch in Texas. Condor 70: 389-390. 141 McGilvrey, F. B. (comp.). 1968. A guide to Wood Duck production habitat re- quirements. U.S. Bur. Sport Fish. & Wildl. Resourc. Publ. No. 60. iv and 32 pp. Prince, H. H. 1968. Nest sites used by Wood Ducks and Common Goldeneyes in New Brunswick. J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 489-500. Stewart, P. A. 1968. Hatching of Wood Duck ducklings. Bird-Banding 39: 130. 1967 Hollomon, J. L. 1967. Return of yearling female Wood Ducks, Aix sponsa, to their natal areas to nest. M.S. thesis, N. Carolina St. Univ. /Raleigh, NC. Jones, R. E. and A. S. Leopold. 1967. Nesting and interference in a dense population of Wood Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 31: 221-228. Lokemoen, J. T. 1967. Flight speed of the Wood Duck. Wilson Bull. 79: 238- 239. Rogers, J. P. and J. L. Hansen. 1967. Second broods in the Wood Duck. Bird- Banding 38: 234-235. Shake, W. F. 1967. Starling/Wood Duck relationships . M.S. thesis, W. Illinois Univ. /Macomb, IL. Stewart, P. A. 1967a. Wood Duck ducklings captured by bullfrogs. Wilson Bull. 79: 237-238. . 1967b. Disgorging of food by Wood Ducks. Wilson Bull. 79: 339-340. . 1967c. Diving Wood Duck ducklings entangled in filamentous algae. Con- dor 69: 531. 1966 Hein, D. and A. 0. Haugen. 1966a. Illumination and Wood Duck roosting flights. Wilson Bull. 78: 301-308. . 1966b. Autumn roosting flight counts as an index to Wood Duck abundance. J. Wildl. Manage. 30: 657-668. Jahn, L. R. (ed.). 1966. Wood Duck management and research: a symposium. Wildl. Manage. Instit., Washington, D.C. 212 pp. Leopold, F. 1966. Experience with home-grown Wood Ducks. Pp. 113-123 _in L. R. Jahn (ed.) Wood Duck mangeraent and research: a symposium. Wildl. Manage. Instit. and N. Central Sect, of the Wildl. Soc . Wildl. Manage. Instit., Washington, D.C. McGilvrey, F. B. 1966a. Fall food habits of Wood Ducks from Lake Marion, South Carolina. J. Wildl. Manage. 30: 193-195. 142 McGilvrey, F. B. 1966b. Second nestings of the Wood Duck. Auk 83: 303. 1965 Alraand , J. D. 1965. A contribution to the management requirements of the Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) in the Piedmont of Georgia. M.S. thesis., Univ. Georgia/ Athens, GA. 78 pp. Grice, D. and J. P. Rogers. 1965. The Wood Duck in Massachusetts. Mass. Div. Fish & Game, Pittman-Robertson Project W-19-R. Boston, MA. 96 pp. Hankla, D. J. and P. B. Smith. 1965. Wood Duck trapping techniques. Proc . 17th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 79-85. Hartowicz, E. 1965. Evening roosting habits of Wood Ducks in southeast Mis- souri. J. Wildl. Manage. 29: 399-401. Hein, D. 1965. Wood Duck roosting flight phenomena. Ph.D. thesis, Iowa St. Univ. /Ames, IA. Hester, F. E. 1965. Survival, renesting and return of adult Wood Ducks to pre- viously used nest boxes. Proc. 16th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 67-70. Prince, H. H. 1965. The breeding ecology of the Wood Duck (Aix sponsa L.) and Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula L.) in central New Brunswick. M.S. thesis. Univ. New Brunswick/Fredericton, NB. 109 pp. 1964 Bellrose, F. C. , K. L. Johnson and T. U. Meyers. 1964. Relative value of nat- ural cavities and nesting houses for Wood Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 28: 661-676. Jones, R. E. 1964. Reproduction of the Wood Duck, Aix sponsa, in the Sacra- mento Valley, California. M.S. thesis, Univ. Calif ./Berkeley , CA. Webster, L. G. and F. M. Uhler. 1964. Improved nest structures for Wood Ducks. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Leaflet No. 458. 1963 Gottlieb, G. 1963. A naturalistic study of imprinting in Wood ducklings (Aix sponsa) . J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 56: 86-91. Hardister, J. P., Jr. 1963. Movements of juvenile Wood Ducks as measured by web tagging. M.S. thesis, N. Carolina St. Univ. /Raleigh, NC. Hartowicz, E. L. 1963. Nesting of the Wood Duck in southeast Missouri. M.A. thesis, Univ. Missouri/Columbia, MO. 143 1962 Bolen, E. G. 1962. A mandibular abnormality in the Wood Duck. Auk 79: 712. Meyers, T. U. 1962. A Wood Duck nesting study in Mason County, Illinois. M.S. thesis, W. Illinois Univ. /Macomb, IL. Stewart, P. A. 1962. Nesting attentiveness and incubation period of a Wood Duck. Bird-Banding 33: 85-89. 1961 Hall, V. M. 1961. Observations of Wood Duck broods. Passenger Pigeon 23: 83- 85. Hein, D. 1961. Wood Duck roosting flights at Paint Creek, Iowa. Iowa Acad. Sci. 68: 264-270. Hester, F. E. and T. L. Quay. 1961. A three-year study of the fall migration and roosting flight habits of the Wood Duck in east central North Carolina. Proc. 15th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 55-60. Smith, M. M. 1961. Louisiana Wood Duck studies, final report July 1950-June 1961. Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission Technical Report. New Orleans. 26 pp. 1960 Martin, E. M. and A. 0. Haugen. 1960. Seasonal changes in Wood Duck roosting flight habits. Wilson Bull. 72: 238-243. Naylor, A. E. 1960. The Wood Duck in California, with special reference to the use of nest boxes. Calif. Fish Game 46: 241-269. Powell, M. 1960. Wood Duck-Mallard pair among wintering ducks in Ohio. Atl. Nat. 15: 262-263. 1959 Decker, E. 1959. A 4-year study of Wood Ducks on a Pennsylvania marsh. J. Wildl. Manage. 23: 310-315. Grayson, J. and W. Grayson. 1959. Raising Wood Ducks in captivity. Atl. Nat 14: 86-96. Hailman, J. P. 1959. Why is the male Wood Duck strikingly colorful? Am. Nat. 93: 383-384. Johnson, K. L. 1959. A study of Wood Duck nesting habits and nesting success in Mason County, Illinois. M.S. thesis, W. Illinois Univ. /Macomb, IL. 144 1958 Stewart, P. A. 1958. Local movements of Wood Ducks (Alx sponsa) . Auk. 75: 157-168. 1957 Coulter, M. W. 1957. Food of Wood Ducks in Maine. J. Wlldl. Manage. 21: 235-236. Rollin, N. 1957. Incubation by drake Wood Duck in the eclipse plumage. Con- dor 59: 263-265. Stewart, P. A. 1957. The Wood Duck, Aix sponsa (Linnaeus), and its management Ph.D. thesis, Ohio St. Univ. /Columbus , OH. 1956 Breckenridge, W. J. 1956. Nesting study of Wood Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 20: 16-21. 1955 Bellrose, F. C. 1955. Housing for Wood Ducks. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv., Circ. No. 45 (revised). Urbana , IL. 48 pp. Coulter, M. W. 1955. Spring food habits of surface-feeding ducks in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 19: 263-267. Hester, F. E. 1955. The Wood Duck in east-central North Carolina. M.S. the- sis, N. Carolina St. Univ. /Raleigh, NC. 65 pp. Klein, H. G. 1955. Wood Duck production and use of nest boxes on some small marshes in New York. N.Y. Fish Game J. 2: 68-83. Webster, C. G. 1955. Hatching Wood Duck eggs after abandonment. Wilson Bull. 67: 306. 1954 Dreis, R. E. 1954. A field observation method of aging broods of Wood Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 18: 280-281. Hanson, H. C. 1954. Criteria of age of incubated Mallard, Wood Duck, and Bob- white eggs. Auk 71: 267-272. 1952 Dreis, R. E. and G. 0. Hendrickson. 1952. Wood Duck production from nest-boxes and natural cavities on the Lake Odessa Area, Iowa, in 1951. Iowa Bird Life 22: 18-22. 145 Mumford, R. E. 1952. A study of Wood Duck populations on Indiana streams. M.S. thesis, Purdue Univ. /Lafayette , IN. 49 pp. 1951 Dreis, R. E. 1951. Productivity of the Wood Duck, Aix sponsa (L.), in eastern Louisa County, Iowa, 1951. M.S. thesis, Iowa St. Coll. /Ames, IA. Hansen, H. C. 1951. Notes on artificial propagation of Wood Duck. J. Wildl. Manage. 15: 68-72. Leopold, F. 1951. A study of nesting Wood Ducks in Iowa. Condor 53: 209-220. 1950 Stollberg, B. P. 1950. Food habits of shoal-water ducks on Horicon Marsh, Wisconsin. J. Wildl. Manage. 14: 214-217. 1948 Barnes, W. B. 1948. Unusual nesting behavior of a Wood Duck. Auk 65: 449. 1947 McCabe, R. A. 1947. The homing of transplanted young Wood Ducks. Wilson Bull. 59: 104-109. 1944 Nelson, A. L. 1944. A mouse eaten by a Wood Duck. Wilson Bull. 56: 170. 1943 Brown, L. G. and F. C. Bellrose, Jr. 1943. Use of nesting boxes for Wood Ducks by other wildlife. J. Wildl. Manage. 7: 298-306. 1941 Hawkins, A. S. and F. C. Bellrose, Jr. 1941. Wood Duck habitat management in Illinois. Trans N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 5: 392-395. 1938 Gigstead, G. 1938. Wood Ducks in the Illinois river bottoms. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 3: 603-610. 1928 Foster, F. B. 1928. Curious action of Wood Duck. Auk 45: 369. 146 1924 Dixon, J. 1924. Nesting of the Wood Duck in California. Condor 26: 41-66. 1916 Townsend, C. W. 1916. The courtship of the Merganser, Mallard, Black Duck, Bald pate, Wood Duck, and Bufflehead. Auk 33: 9-17. 1915 Grinnell, J. and H. C. Bryant. 1915. The Wood Duck in California. Calif. Fish Game 1: 1-14. 1910 Heinroth, 0. 1910. [Observations on a naturalization experiment with the Wood Duck.] J. Ornithol. 58: 101-156. [In German.] Wood Duck drake in breeding plumage. Photograph by Roger B. Clapp, 147 EURASIAN WIGEON (Anas penelope) [DA: Pibeand, DU: Smient, EN: Wigeon, FI: Haapana, FR: Canard siffleur, Siffleur d'Europe; GE: Pfeifente, IC: Raudhofdaond, IT: Fischione, JA: Hidorigarae, NW: Brunnakke, PO: Swistun, PR: Assobiadeira , Piadeira; SP: Pato europeo, Anade sil- bon; SW: Blasand, US: European Wigeon] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION As its name implies, the Eurasian Wigeon is an Old World species of duck, occurring as a breeding bird from Iceland across subarctic and northern Europe and Asia to the Bering Sea (AOU 1957, Cramp et al. 1977). In winter it moves to southern Europe and Asia and into northern and central Africa (Cramp et al . 1977). The species may breed in the Aleutians, where it is at least a casual visitor in summer (Kessel and Gibson 1978). The Eurasian Wigeon occurs irregul- arly as a migrant and winter visitor in much of the United States; most observa- tions are of single birds. Hasbrouck (1944) summarized early records. Observa- tions reported in American Birds over the past decade (compiled for this report) indicate occurrences in the southeastern states as follows: North Carolina, 6; South Carolina, 2; Georgia, 3; Florid?, 7; Alabama, 1; Texas, 1. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Buck and Harrison (1967) correlated decreased counts of birds in the Med- way Estuary in Great Britain with damage to food sources following oil pollu- tion and emulsifier treatment. The Eurasian Wigeon occurs primarily along the coasts in North America (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a) but is such an uncommon visitor in the southeastern United States that development of resources in that area is not likely to have any effect on the population of the species. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Danell, K. and K. Sjoberg. 1980. Foods of Wigeon, Teal, Mallard, and Pintail during the summer in a northern Swedish lake. Viltrevy 11: 141-167. Taxonoraic note: Until 1973 this species was regarded by the AOU as Mareca pen- elope, and is called the European Widgeon by the AOU Check-list (AOU 1957) and by Bellrose (1976). We prefer to list it as the Eurasian Wigeon, as did the American Birding Association (ABA 1975) and Palmer (1976a), because this common name better reflects the world distribution of this duck. 148 Dubois, P. 1980. Nidification possible du Canard pilet Anas acuta L. et du Canard siffleur Anas penelope L. dans le Cantal? Oiseau Rev. Fr. Ornithol.. 48: 282-283. [In French.] Wallace, D. I. M. 1980. Tertial patterns of Wigeon and American Wigeon. Brit. Birds 73: 218-219. 1979 Owen, M. and G. J. Thomas. 1979. The feeding ecology and conservation of Wigeon at the Ouse Washes, England. J. Appl. Ecol . 16: 795-809. 1978 Meadows, B. S. 1978. On the wintering of the Wigeon Anas penelope in the Ken- ya highlands. Scopus 2: 97. 1977 Halliday, K. C. R. 1977. Great Black-backed Gull killing Wigeon. Scott. Birds 9: 248. 1976 Owen, M. and G. Williams. 1976. Winter distribution and habitat requirements of Wigeon in Britain. Wildfowl 27: 83-90. 1974 Cadwalladr, D. A. and J. V. Morley. 1974. Further experiments on the manage- ment of salting pasture for Wigeon (Anas penelope L.) conservation at Bridgwater Bay National Nature Reserve, Somerset. J. Appl. Ecol. 11: 461- 466. Mason, C. N. 1974. European Widgeons in the District of Columbia. Atl. Nat. 29: 73. 1973 Cadwalladr, D. A. and J. V. Morley. 1973. Sheep grazing preferences on a salt- ing pasture and their significance for Wigeon Anas penelope L. conservation, J. Brit. Grassid Soc. 28: 235-242. Owen, M. 1973. The winter feeding ecology of Wigeon at Bridgwater Bay, Somer- set. Ibis 115: 227-243. 1972 Cadwalladr, D. A., M. Owen, J. V. Morley and R. S. Cook. 1972. Wigeon (Anas penelope L.) conservation and salting pasture management at Bridgwater Bay National Nature Reserve, Somerset. J. Appl. Ecol. 9: 417-425. 149 Tiussa, J. 1972. Sinsoraan, haapanan ja tavin ravlnnosta raetsastyskauden aikana. [The autumn food of Mallard, Wlgeon, and Teal during the hunting season.] Suomen Riista 24: 40-46. [In Finnish with English summary.] 1970 Watson, G. E. 1970. A presumed wild hybrid Baldpate X Eurasian Wigeon. Auk 87: 353-357. 1968 Heintzelman, D. S. 1968. An early unrecorded European Widgeon specimen from North Carolina. Chat 32: 76-77. 1967 Olney, P. J. S. 1967. The WAGBI-Wildfowl Trust Experimental Reserve. II: The feeding ecology of local Mallard and other wildfowl. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 18: 47-55. 1959 Donker, J. K. 1959. Migration and distribution of the Wigeon, Anas penelope L. , in Europe, based on ringing results. Ardea 47: 1-28. Lebret, T. 1959. De dagelijkse verplaatsingen tussen dagverblijf en nachte- lijk voedselgebied bij smienten, Anas penelope L., In einige terrfinen in het lage midden van Friesland. [The daily movements between day quarters and nocturnal feeding grounds of Widgeon, Anas penelope L., in the province of Friesland.] Ardea 47: 199-210. [In Dutch with English summary.] Loftin, H. 1959. European Widgeon (Mareca penelope) at St. Marks Refuge. Fla. Nat. 32: 146. 1957 Teplova, E. N. 1957. [Results of the ringing of Anas penelope in U.S.S.R. ] Trudy Biuro Kol'tsev 9: 144-152. [In Russian.] 1953 Lorenz, K. 1953. Comparative studies of the behavior of Anatinae. XVII. The Wigeon and the Chiloe Wigeon. Avicult. Mag. 59: 24-26. 1952 Lebret, T. 1952. Pre-moult migration of a female Gadwall (Anas strepera L. ) and two female Wigeon (Anas penelope L.). Ardea 40: 75-76. White, C. A. 1952. Wigeon summering in Middlesex. Brit. Birds 45: 419. 150 1951 Davis, E. G. 1951. European Widgeon at Roaches Run. Atl. Nat. 6: 175. 1950 Vleugel, D. A. 1950. Weather-movements in Wigeon (Anas penelope L.) in the Netherlands. Ardea 38: 237-238. 1947 Adams, B. G. 1947. Mating behavior of Wigeon and Red-breasted Merganser. Brit. Birds 40: 186-187. Harrison, J. and A. McLean. 1947. The effect of severe weather on Wigeon. Brit. Birds 40: 218. 1946 Campbell, J. W. 1946. The food of the Wigeon and Brent Goose. Brit. Birds 39: 194-200, 226-232. 1944 Hasbrouck, E. M. 1944. Apparent status of the European Widgeon in North Amer- ica. Auk 61: 93-104. Stevenson, H. M. 1944. European Widgeon in Alabama. Auk 61: 650. 1943 Glegg, W. E. 1943. The food of the Wigeon, Mareca penelope Linn. Ibis 85: 82-87. 1939 Lynch, J. J. 1939. Algae in food of Rhode Island waterfowl. Auk 56: 374-380. 1937 McClanahan, R. C. 1937. European Widgeon in Florida. Auk 54: 532-533. 1931 Huber, W. 1931. European Widgeon in Georgia. Auk 48: 256. Lincoln, F. C. 1931. Another banded European Widgeon. Bird-Banding 2: 126. 1925 Savage, J. 1925. European Widgeon, Mareca penelope, at Niagara Falls, N.Y. Auk 42: 263-264. 151 1924 Stone, W. 1924. European Widgeon in North Carolina. Auk 41: 338. 1922 Widmann, C. 1922. European Widgeon (Mareca penelope) at Corpus Christi, Texas. Auk 39: 250. 1919 Bailey, H. H. 1919. An interesting hybrid Mareca penelope (Widgon [sic]) and Mareca american (Baldpate). Wilson Bull. 31: 25. Eurasian Wigeon. Photograph by Roger B. Clapp. 152 AMERICAN WIGEON (Anas americana) [DA: Araerikansk Pibeand , DU: Araerikaanse Sraient, EN: Baldpate, American Widgeon; FR: Canard siffleur d'Amerique, GE: Nordamerikanische Pfiefente, IC: Ljoshofda- ond, IT: Fischione americano, JA: Amerika hidori , NW: Blesand, Araerikansk lyn- gand; PR: Pato, SP: Anade silbon americano, Pato americano, Pato lablanco, Pato cabecilargo, Moniblanco; SW: Amerikansk blasand] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The American Wigeon breeds across northern North America from the Bering Sea and interior Alaska to Hudson Bay, and south to northeastern California, Utah, Minnesota, and southern Manitoba (AOU 1957). In recent years there has been an apparent expansion of the breeding range to the east, with scattered re- ports of nesting from southern Ontario and Quebec, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Maine (Palmer 1976a, Spencer 1977). From 1955 to 1973, the average North American breeding population was about 3,139,000 birds, with an annual production of about 3,296,000 young (Bellrose 1976). In winter these ducks occur along the Pacific coast of North America from southern Alaska to Costa Rica and along the Atlantic seaboard from New England south through much of Mexico and the West Indies, sometimes reaching South America (AOU 1957, Bond 1971, Palmer 1976a). In winter the American Wigeon is a common bird along the southeastern coast (Map 8). Recent estimates (Bellrose 1976) suggest win- ter populations of 29,000 in Currituck Sound, North Carolina; 60,000 in the marshes of South Carolina; 20,000 in Florida; and up to 300,000 in the extensive coastal marshes of Louisiana, where even more are present in fall migration. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Although the American Wigeon occurs in coastal raarshes and estuaries, we have no records of oiling in southeastern waters. The species is one of the more terrestrial of the dabbling ducks (Palmer 1976a), and as a result, we be- lieve this species will not be severely affected by offshore development in the southeastern United States. They should be most adversely affected if oil were to inundate shoreline and marshy areas where most are found. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 Wishart, R. A. 1981. Wing-feather criteria for age separation of American Wigeon. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 230-235. Taxonomic note: Until 1973 this species was regarded by the AOU as Mareca americana. 153 154 1980 Ouwennel, G. L. 1980. Waarnemingen van een Amerikaase Smient. [Observations of an American Wigeon. ] Limosa 53: 70. [In Dutch with English summary.] Wallace, D. I. M. 1980. Tertial patterns of Wigeon and American Wigeon. Brit, Birds 73: 218-219. 1979 Wishart, R. A. 1979. Indices of structural size and condition of American Wigeon (Anas americana). Can. J. Zool. 57: 2369-2374. 1978 Knapton, R. W. and B. Knudsen. 1978. Food piracy by American Wigeons on Amer- ican Coots. Can. Field-Nat. 92: 403-404. 1977 Hellyer, D. T. 1977. Wigeon shakes down Coot. Pac. Search 11: 26-27. Spencer, H. E. , Jr. 1977. American Wigeon breeding in Maine. Auk 94: 790. Vermeer, K. and C. D. Levings. 1977. Populations, biomass and food habits of ducks on the Fraser Delta intertidal area, British Columbia. Wildfowl 28: 49-60. 1976 Reinecker, W. C. 1976. Distribution, harvest and survival of American Wigeons banded in California. Calif. Fish Game 62: 141-153. 1975 Fisher, B. M. 1975. American Wigeon steals food from muskrats. Can. Field- Nat. 89: 468. Lynch, G. M. and J. E. Toepfer. 1975. California Gulls attack waterfowl broods in Alberta. Auk 92: 159-160. 1973 Mareschal, M. 1973. Whiteness in an American Wigeon. Blue Jay 31: 232-233. Schwilling, M. D. 1973. First attempted nesting by American Wigeon in Kansas. Bull. Kansas Ornithol. Soc . 24: 36. Sugden, L. G. 1973. Feeding ecology of Pintail, Gadwall, American Wigeon, and Lesser Scaup ducklings in southern Alberta. Can. Wild. Serv. Rept. Ser. No. 24. 43 pp. 155 1972 Bartonek, J. C. 1972. Summer foods of American Wigeon, Mallards, and a Green- winged Teal near Great Slave Lake, N.W.T. Can. Field-Nat. 86: 373-376. Soutiere, E. C. , H. S. Myrick and E. G. Bolen. 1972. Chronology and behavior of American Wigeon wintering in Texas. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 752-758. 1971 Yarker, B. and G. L. Atkinson-Wilkes. 1971. The numerical distribution of some British breeding ducks. Wildfowl 22: 63-70. 1970 Watson, G. E. 1970. A presumed wild hybrid Baldpate X Eurasian Wigeon. Auk 87: 353-357. 1969 Gardaarsson, A. 1969. [The American Widgeon (Anas americana) in Iceland).] Natturufraedingurinn 38: 165-175. [In Icelandic with English summary.] 1964 Fuller, R. W. and N. E. King. 1964. American Widgeon and Shoveler breeding in Vermont. Auk 81: 86-87. 1960 Bartlett, C. 0. 1960. American Widgeon and Pintail in the Maritime Provinces. Can. Field-Nat. 74: 153-155. 1957 Beter, R. A. 1957. A comparative winter food habit study of dabbling ducks from the brackish Lake Borgne Marsh of St. Bernard Parish and the fresh marsh of Pass A Loutre (Miss. Delta) Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana. M.S. thesis, La. St. Univ. /Baton Rouge, LA. viii and 73 pp. 1956 Martin, F. R. 1956. Baldpate (Mareca americana) nesting in Minnesota. Auk 73: 287. 1955 Andrew, D. G. , G. Frazer, M. F. M. Meiklejohn, H. Mayer-Gross, R. W. T. Smith and C. Walker. 1955. Baldpate in Lanarkshire. Brit. Birds 48: 84-85. Bartlett, L. M. and G. Atwell. 1955. Apparent copulation of Baldpate in cen- tral Massachusetts. Auk 72: 297. 156 King, F. 1955. Baldpate in Dublin. Brit. Birds 48: 84. 1952 Boyd, A. W. 1952. American Wigeon in Cheshire. Brit. Birds 45: 34. Lebret, T. 1952. Pre-moult migration of a female Gadwall, Anas strepera L. , and two female Wigeon, Anas penelope L. Ardea 40: 75-76. Southwick, C. H. 1952. The duck called "poacher". Audubon 54: 44-47. 1949 Hambleton, J. 1949. Notes on the sexual behavior of the Baldpate. Auk 66: 198-199. Munro, J. A. 1949. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Baldpate. Can. J. Res. (Sect. D.) 27: 289-307. Zimmerman, F. R. 1949. Baldpate. Wise. Conserv. Bull. 14: 38-39. 1948 Hammond, M. C. 1948. Marsh Hawk kills Baldpate. Auk 65: 297-298. 1946 Campbell, J. W. 1946. The food of the Wigeon and Brent Goose. Brit. Birds 39: 194-200, 226-232. 1919 Bailey, H. H. 1919. An interesting hybrid Mareca penelope (Widgon [sic]) and Mareca americana. Wilson Bull. 31: 25. 1916 Townsend, C. W. 1916. The courtship of the Merganser, Mallard, Black Duck, Baldpate, Wood Duck, and Bufflehead. Auk 33: 9-17. 157 American Wigeon drake. Photograph by Roger B. Clapp, 158 GADWALL (Anas strepera) [DA: Knarand, DU: Krakeend , FI: Harmaasorsa , FR: Canard chipeau, GE: Schnatter- ente, IC : Gargond, IT: Canapiglia, JA: Oka yoshigamo, NW: Snadderand , PO: Krak- wa, PR: Frisada, RU: (Gray Duck), SP: Pato ruidosa , Anade friso; SW: Snatterand] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Gadwall breeds in southern Alaska, the southern Prairie Provinces of Canada, southern Ontario (AOU 1957, Godfrey 1966), and in the western and cen- tral United States (AOU 1957, Johnsgard 1975). In recent years there has been an increase in breeding in the eastern United States (Henny and Holgersen 1974), including all the coastal states to South Carolina. In winter Gadwalls occur throughout the southern half of the United States, most of Mexico, and the Car- ibbean islands (AOU 1957, Bond 1971). An Old World portion of the population breeds from Iceland across northern Eurasia and winters in southern Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East, China, and Japan (Delacour 1954, Johnsgard 1978). The North American breeding population has been estimated at about 1,615,000 birds in recent years (Bellrose 1976), with the most important breeding grounds in the Prairie Provinces of Canada and in the Dakotas. In winter the species is locally common in the southeastern United States (Map 9), but large concentra- tions are found in the coastal marshes of Louisiana. In recent years, popula- tion estimates in Louisiana ranged from 570,000 in 1972 to 938,000 in 1969 (Bellrose 1976). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Records in the banding office at Patuxent National Research Center indicate that at least two Gadwalls have died as a result of oiling, one in Texas and one in Louisiana. Death from oiling is evidently uncommon to rare in this species, for we found no other records. The Gadwall occurs primarily in fresh water and in brackish marshes and estuaries. Because of its inshore habits, this species is not likely to be particularly vulnerable to oil pollution. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Kennedy, R. S. and E. C. Dickinson. 1980. First record of the Gadwall from the Philippines. Auk 97: 902. Klein, H. P. 1980. Erster gesicherter Brutnachweis der Schnatterente (Anas strepera) in Nordrhein-Westf alen. [First confirmed sighting of breeding of Gadwall (Anas strepera) in North Rhine-Westphalia.] Charadrius 16: 88-90. 159 lh() 1979 Blohm, R. J. and P. Ward. 1979. Experience with a decoy trap for male Gad- walls. Bird-Banding 50: 45-48. Sedwitz, W. 1979. Gadwall mating display. Kingbird 29: 82-83. 1978 Blohm, R. J. 1978. Migrational homing of male Gadwalls to breeding grounds. Auk 95: 763-766. Briefe, B. 1978. Snatteranden (Anas strepera) pa Oland. [The Gadwall, Anas strepera) on Oland.] Calidris 77: 91-95. [In Swedish with English sum- mary. ] 1977 Blohm, R. J. 1977. A capture and age determination method for the Gadwall (Anas strepera). M.S. thesis, Univ. Wisconsin/Madison, WI. Johnson, R. E. , Jr. and L. M. Kirsch. 1977. Egg movement by a female Gadwall between nest bowls. Wilson Bull. 89: 331-332. 1976 Serie, J. R. and G. A. Swanson. 1976. Feeding ecology of breeding Gadwalls on saline wetlands. J. Wildl. Manage. 40: 69-81. 1975 Armistead, H. T. 1975. Breeding of Greater Black-backed Gull, Herring Gull, and Gadwall at Smith Island, Maryland. Md. Birdlife 31: 131-134. Daemon, F. and L. Deckx. 1975. Krakeend - Anas strepera. Wielewaal 41: 120. [In Dutch. ] Dwyer, T. J. 1975. Time budget of breeding Gadwalls. Wilson Bull. 87: 335- 343. 1974 Dibblee, R. and D. Guignion. 1974. Breeding records of Gadwall on Prince Ed- ward Island. Can. Field-Nat. 88: 365-366. Dwyer, T. J. 1974. Social behavior of breeding Gadwalls in North Dakota. Auk 91: 375-386. Florschutz, 0., Jr. 1974. Band recoveries from an isolated Gadwall colony in eastern North Carolina. Proc. 27th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 328-331. 161 Henny, C. J. and N. E. Holgersen. 1974. Range expansion and population in- crease of the Gadwall in eastern North America. Wildfowl 25: 95-101. Serie , J. R. 1974. The feeding ecology of breeding Gadwalls (Anas strepera) on saline wetlands. M.S. thesis, North Dakota St. Univ. /Fargo, ND. 56 pp. 1973 Sugden, L. G. 1973. Feeding ecology of Pintail, Gadwall, American Wigeon, and Lesser Scaup ducklings in southern Alberta. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept . Ser. No. 24. 43 pp. 1972 Child, K. N. 1972. A new distributional record for the Gadwall. Can. Field- Nat. 86: 291-292. 1971 Batt, B. D. J. 1971. Gadwall duck learns to fly after breaking a wing. Bird- Banding 42: 301-302. 1970 Emmons, J. 1970. Gadwalls revisited. Fla . Wildl. 24: 12-15. 1969 Oring, L. W. 1969. Summer biology of the Gadwall at Delta, Manitoba. Wilson Bull. 81: 44-54. 1968 Oring, L. W. 1968. Growth, moults, and plumages of the Gadwall. Auk 85: 355- 380. 1966 Borden, R. and H. A. Hochbaum. 1966. Gadwall seeding in New England. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 31: 79-88. Chabreck, R. H. 1966. Molting Gadwall (Anas stepera) in Louisiana. Auk 83: 664. Duebbert, H. F. 1966. Island nesting of the Gadwall in North Dakota. Wilson Bull. 78: 12-25. Oring, L. W. 1966. Breeding biology and molts of the Gadwall, Anas strepera (Linnaeus). Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Okla. /Norman, OK. 162 1965 Parnell, J. F. and T. L. Quay. 1965. The population, breeding biology and en- vironmental relations of the Black Duck, Gadwall, and Blue-winged Teal at Pea and Bodie islands, North Carolina. Proc. 16th Annu. Conf. Southeast- ern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 53-67. 1964 Delong, W. C. 1964. Gadwall nesting in Iowa. Iowa Bird Life 34: 72-73. 1963 Baillie, J. L. 1963. The 13 most recent Ontario nesting birds. Ont . Field Biol. 17: 15-26. Harrison, J. M. and J. G. Harrison. 1963. A Gadwall (Anas strepera) with a white neck ring and a review of plumage variants in wildfowl. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 83: 101-108. 1962 Gates, J. M. 1962. Breeding biology of the Gadwall in northern Utah. Wilson Bull. 74: 43-67. 1961 Dillon, 0. W., Jr. 1961. Recovery of a crippled Gadwall. Auk 78: 273-274. 1960 Chamberlain, B. R. 1960. Gadwall breeding at Bull's Island, South Carolina. Chat 24: 97. Hudson, M., T. G. Pierce and J. H. Taverner , Jr. 1960. Piracy by Gadwall. Brit. Birds 53: 271-272. Wust, W. 1960. Das Problem des Reihens der Enten, besonders von Anas strepera. [The problem of the display flight of ducks, especially of Anas strepera. Proc. Xllth Internatl. Ornithol. Congr., Helsinki 1958: 795-800. [In Ger- man with English summary. ] 1958 Duebbert, H. F. 1958. Island nesting of the Gadwall, Anas strepera, in North Dakota. M.A. thesis, Univ. Missouri/Columbia, M0. Gates, J. M. 1958a. Female Gadwall returns to nest site after loss of young. Condor 60: 337-338. . 1958b. A study of the breeding behavior of the Gadwall in northern Utah. M.S. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, UT. 124 pp. 163 Sedwitz, W. 1958. Six years (1947-1952) nesting of Gadwall (Anas strepera) on Jones Beach, Long Island, N.Y. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.Y. 66-70: 71-76. 1957 Beter, R. A. 1957. A comparative winter food habit study of dabbling ducks from the brackish Lake Borgne Marsh of St. Bernard Parish and the fresh marsh of Pass A Loutre (Miss. Delta), Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana. M.S. thesis, La. St. Univ. /Baton Rouge, LA. Gates, J. M. 1957. Autumn food habits of the Gadwall in Utah. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci. Arts, & Lett. 34: 69-71. Treous, V. D. 1957. [Seasonal movements and migrations of Anas strepera and A. clypeata as revealed by ringing methods.] Trudy Biuro Kol'tsev 9: T62-208. [In Russian.] 1952 Lebret, T. 1952. Pre-moult migration of a female Gadwall, Anas strepera L., and two female Wigeon , Anas penelope L. Ardea 40: 75-76. 1950 Springer, P. F. and R. E. Stewart. 1950. Gadwall nesting in Maryland. Auk 67: 234-235. 1949 Jensen, G. H. 1949. Migration of the Gadwall. Pp. 9-10 in Migration of some North American waterfowl. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept . — Wildl. No. 1. 48 pp. 1948 Sedwitz, W., I. Alperin and M. Jacobson. 1948. Gadwall breeding on Long Is- land, New York. Auk 65: 610-612. 1946 Griffith, R. E. 1946. Nesting of Gadwall and Shoveler on the Middle Atlantic coast. Auk 63: 436-438. 1944 Glegg, W. E. 1944. Gadwall diving. Brit. Birds 38: 38. 1932 Schimmelpenninck van der Oije, F. A. L. C. 1932. Second Dutch season of hiber- nating Gadwall-pair (Anas strepera L.). Ardea 21: 119. 164 GREEN-WINGED TEAL (Anas crecca) [DA: Krikand, DU: Wintertaling , EN: Teal, FI: Tavi, FR: Sarcelle d'hiver, GE: Krickente, IC: Urtond, IT: Alzavola, JA: Kogamo , NW: Krikkand , PO: Cyranoeczka, PR: Marreco, RU: (Whistling Teal), SP: Cerceta de alas verdes, Cerceta coraun; SW: Kricka, US: European Teal] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The North American subspecies of the Green-winged Teal (A. c_. carolinen- sis) breeds from northern Alaska and the western Mackenzie District east to the southern Hudson Bay region, northern Quebec, Labrador, and Newfoundland; south to California, the northern Great Basin, Colorado, central Nebraska, western Minnesota, and southern Ontario and Quebec, with small disjunct populations out- side this general range (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a). Scattered re- cords indicate Green-winged Teal formerly bred regularly in the northeastern United States. In winter the species occurs from southern British Columbia south through the southern two-thirds of the United States to the Atlantic sea- board, through Mexico and Central America to northern South America, and in the West Indies. A Eurasian subspecies breeds widely across northern Europe and Asia, wintering in southern Europe, northern Africa, and southeastern Asia (Cramp et al. 1977). A third subspecies is resident in the western Aleutians (AOU 1957). The Green-winged Teal is a common winter bird in all the southeastern states to central Florida (Map 10). Bellrose (1976) estimated that the 55,000 present in South Carolina represent about 70% of the birds wintering along the southern Atlantic coast. More than half the wintering birds in the United States may be found in the Mississippi Flyway, and some 600,000 of those util- ize the coastal marshes and ricefields of Louisiana (Bellrose 1976). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Although primarily a bird of fresh water and inland ponds and lakes, Green- winged Teal frequently winter in coastal marshes and estuarine areas in the southeastern United States, particularly along the Gulf shores of Louisiana and Texas. Chabreck (1973) documented oil spill damage to coastal ponds of the type used by this species in Louisiana, and showed that use of these ponds by water- fowl was significantly less than in un-oiled areas. In addition, Vereschagin (1946 in Vermeer and Vermeer 1974) reported that this teal (Anas c. crecca) is one of the most affected species inland in Azerbaidzhan. This suggests that serious damage to Green-winged Teal could occur if oiling in coastal marsh areas Taxonomic note: The American Green-winged Teal (Anas crecca carolinensis) was not regarded by the AOU as a full species (Anas carolinensis) until 1973. 165 166 were widespread. Oil spills in more marine areas and offshore will probably have little effect. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 Canaris, A. G., A. C. Mena and J. R. Bristol. 1981. Parasites of waterfowl from southwest Texas: III. The Green-winged Teal. J. Wildl. Dis. 17: 57-64. 1980 Danell, K. and K. Sjoberg. 1980. Foods of Wigeon, Teal, Mallard and Pintail during the summer in a northern Swedish lake. Viltrevy 11: 141-167. Meek, E. R. and B. Little. 1980. Unusual nest sites of Teal in Northumberland. Brit. Birds 73: 581. 1979 Laurie-Ahlberg, C. C. and F. McKinney. 1979. The nod-swim display of male Green-winged Teal (Anas crecca). Anim. Behav. 27: 165-172. McKinney, F. and S. Derrickson. 1979. Aerial scratching, leeches and nasal saddles in Green-winged Teal. Wildfowl 30: 151-153. Otnes, G. and M. Otnes. 1979. Green-winged Teal vs. Peregrine Falcon. Loon 51: 200. Sell, D. L. 1979. Fall foods of teal on the Texas high plains. Southwest. Nat. 24: 373-375. Triebl, R. 1979. Brutverdachte Krickente im Hansag. [Suspected breeding of teal in Hansag.] Egretta 22: 83. [In German.] Weber, M. 1979. Krickente (Anas crecca) brutet am Ulmener Jungferweiher/Eifel . [Teal Anas crecca breeds at Ulmen Jungferweiher/Eifel.] Charadrius 15: 135-136. [In German. ] 1978 Afton, A. D. 1978. Incubation rhythms and egg temperatures of an American Green-winged Teal and a renesting Pintail. Prairie Nat. 10: 115-119. Bennett, J. W. and E. G. Bolen. 1978. Stress response in wintering Green- winged Teal. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 81-86. 167 1977 Danell, K. and K. Sjoberg. 1977. Seasonal emergence of chironoraids in relation to egg- laying and hatching of ducks in a restored lake (northern Sweden). Wildfowl 28: 129-135. Khagher, L. J. 1977. Common Teal Anas crecca migrating across the Himalayas. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 391. Moller, A. P. 1977. Yngletidspunkt , kuldstorrelse og ungerproduktion hos nogle andefugle i Nordjylland. [Time of breeding, clutch size and nestling pro- duction in some species of Anatidae in northern Jutland, Denmark.] Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 71: 68-69. [In Danish with English summary.] Pachenko, V. G. 1977. [A hybrid between the Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos , and Teal, Anas crecca.] Ornitologiya 13: 209-210. [In Russian.] Vermeer, K. and C. D. Levings. 1977. Population, biomass and food habits of ducks on the Fraser Delta intertidal area, British Columbia. Wildfowl 28: 49-60. 1976 Tamisier, A. 1976. Diurnal activities of Green-winged Teal and Pintail winter- ing in Louisiana. Wildfowl 27: 19-32. Zwarts, L. 1976. Density-related processes in feeding dispersion and feeding activity of teal (Anas crecca) . Ardea 64: 192-209. 1975 Turner, B. C. and W. Threllfall. 1975. The raetazoan parasites of Green-winged Teal (Anas crecca L.) and Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors L.) from eastern Canada. Proc . Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 42: 157-169. 1974 Kortegaard, L. 1974. An ecological outline of a moulting area of teal, Vej- lerne, Denmark. Wildfowl 25: 134-142. Litvenenko, N. M. 1974. [Variations in the food composition of Anas acuta L. and Anas crecca L. caused by fluctuations in the water level in the Ili- staya River (southern Primorye Territory).] Trudy Dal'nevost. Nauch. Tsentralbiol . Pochv. Inst. 17: 197-200. [In Russian with English summary.] Reichholf, J. 1974. Der Einfluss des Nahrungsangebotes auf das Zugmuster der Krickente (Anas crecca L. ) . Egretta 17: 4-14. [In German.] Tamisier, A. 1974. Etho-ecological studies of teal wintering in the Camargue (Rhone Delta, France). Wildfowl 25: 123-133. 168 1972 Bartonek, J. C. 1972. Summer foods of American Wigeon, Mallards and a Green- winged Teal near Great Slave Lake, N.W.T. Can. Field-Nat. 86: 373-376. Fournier, 0. and F. Spitz. 1972. Quelques donnees sur les Sarcelles d'hiver (Anas crecca) dans le sud de la Vendee. Oiseau Rev. Fr. Ornithol. 42: 170-178"! [in French. ] Molodovski , A. V. 1972. [The breeding of the Common Teal Anas crecca in Gor- kovskii Reservoir.] Ornitologiya 10: 252-259. [In Russian.] Tamisier, A. 1972. Rythmes nycthemeraux des Sarcelles d'hiver pendant leur hivernage en Camargue. Alauda 40: 107-135, 235-256. [In French with English summary.] Tiussa, J. 1972. Sinsorsan , haapanan ja tavin ravinnosta metsastyskaudan aikana. [The autumn food of the Mallard, Wigeon, and Teal during the hunting season.] Suomen Riista 24: 40-46. [In Finnish with English sum- mary. ] 1971 Armistead, H. T. 1971. First Maryland breeding of the Green-winged Teal. Md. Birdlife 27: 111-114. Lebret T. 1971. Waarnemingen van Zwemeenden (Anatinae) in Vleugelui in het Getijmilieu van het biesbosch-Hollandsdiep-Haringvlietgebied. [Observa- tions of surface-feeding ducks (Anatinae) in wing moult in tidal habitat in the Biesbosch-Hollands Diep-Haringvliet-area. ] Limosa 44: 29-44. [In Dutch with English summary. ] Mazzucchi, L. 1971. Beitrag zur Nahrungsokologie in der Umgebung von Bern uberwinternder Krickenten Anas crecca L. Ornithol. Beob. 68: 161-178. [In German with French summary.] Molodovsky, A. V. 1971. [Feeding of Anas crecca and A. querquedula on the Gorsky Reservoir.] Biol. Nauki 1971: 20-25. [In Russian.] Tamisier, A. 1971a. Les biomasses de nourriture disponible pour les Sarcelles hiver Anas crecca crecca en Camargue. Terre Vie 23: 344-377. [In French with English summary.] . 1971b. Regime alimentaire des Sarcelles d'hiver Anas crecca L. en Cam- argue. Alauda 39: 261-311. [In French with English summary.] 1970 Nellis, C. H., J. J. Zohrer and D. W. Anderson. 1970. Mallard/Green-winged Teal associations in southern Wisconsin. Wilson Bull. 82: 461-462. 169 Tamisier, A. 1970. Signification du gregarisme diurne et de 1 ' alimentation nocturne des Sarcelles Anas crecca. Terre Vie 22: 511-562. [In French with English summary. ] Willi, P. 1970. Zugverhalten , Aktivitat, Nahrung, und Nahrungserwerb auf dem Klingnaur Strausse haufig auftretender Anatiden, insbesondere von Krickente, Tafelente, und Reiherente. Ornithol . Beob. 67: 141-217. [In German with English summary.] Wolff, W. J. 1970. Goal orientation versus one-direction orientation in Teal Anas c. crecca during autumn migration. Ardea 58: 131-141. 1969 Denny, R. B. 1969. Sight record of Common Teal in Oregon. Murrelet 50: 34. Nystrom, G. 1969. Sight record of Common Teal at Seattle, Washington. Murre- let 50: 36. Rollo, J. D. and E. G. Bolen. 1969. Ecological relationships of Blue and Green-winged teal on the high plains of Texas in early fall. Southwest. Nat. 14: 171-188. 1968 Schwilling, M. D. and D. L. Keer. 1968. Green-winged Teal nesting in Kansas. Bull. Kansas Ornithol. Soc . 19: 23. Threlfall, W. 1968. Atypical behavior of a Green-winged Teal. Wilson Bull. 80: 488 1967 Campbell, R. W. 1967. Common Teals wintering in southwestern British Colum- bia. Murrelet 48: 27. Moisan, G. , R. I. Smith and R. K. Martinson. 1967. The Green-winged Teal, its distribution, migration and population dynamics. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. , Spec. Sci. Rept.— Wildl. No. 100. Washington, D.C. 248 pp. Olney, P. J. S. 1967. The WAGBI-Wildfowl Trust Experimental Reserve. II: The feeding ecology of local Mallard and other wildfowl. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 18: 47-55. Rogers, J. P. 1967. Flightless Green-winged Teal in southeast Missouri. Wil- son Bull. 79: 339. 1966 Jarvis, R. L. 1966. Occurrence of European or Aleutian Green-winged Teal in western North America with a recent record. Murrelet 47: 15-18. 170 Moisan, G. 1966. The Green-winged Teal: its distribution, migration, and popu- lation dynamics. Ph.D. thesis, Laval Univ. /Quebec , PQ. Tamisier, A. 1966. Dispersion crepusculaire des sarcelles d'hiver Anas c. crecca en recherche de nourriture. Terre Vie 1966: 316-337. [In French.] Wolff, W. J. 1966. Migration of teal ringed in the Netherlands. Ardea 54: 230-270. 1965 McKinney, F. 1965. The displays of the American Green-winged Teal. Wilson Bull. 77: 112-121. 1964 McKinney, F. 1964. Effects of ionizing radiation on pair- format ion in the Green-winged Teal, Anas crecca carolinensis. In J. R. Tester Progress Rept., U.S. Atomic Energy Commiss., Contract A. T. (11-1) 1332, Univ. Minnesota/Minneapolis, MN. 1963 Olney, P. J. S. 1963. Food and feeding habits of teal Anas crecca crecca L. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 140: 169-210. 1962 Bardwell, J. L. 1962. Nutritional analyses of Pintail and Teal foods in south- ern Louisiana. M.S. thesis, La. State. Univ. /Baton Rouge, LA. Linkola, P. 1962. Havaintoja sorsalintujen lisaantymistuloksesta Keski- Hameessa. [Notes on the breeding success of ducks in Central Hime.] Suomen Riista 15: 157-174. [In Finnish with English summary.] Mason, C. R. 1962. Common Teal (Anas crecca). Fla. Nat. 32: 95. 1961 Kuroda, N. 1961. Examples of the occurrence of the Green-winged Teal of North America obtained in Japan. Bull. Biogeogr. Soc. Japan 21: 75-76. 1959 Frete, P. 1959. Capture au Maroc d'une Sarcelle d'hiver americaine Anas crecca carolinensis Gmelin. Alauda 27: 231-232. [In French.] Nero, R. W. 1959. Green-winged Teal/Mallard pair association. Blue Jay 17: 54. 171 1958 Lebret, T. 1958. The "jump-flight" of the Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos L. , the Teal, Anas crecca L., and the Shoveler , Spatula clypeata L.. Ardea 46: 68-72. 1957 Beter, R. A. 1957. A comparative winter food habit study of dabbling ducks from the brackish Lake Borgne Marsh of St. Bernard Parish and the fresh marsh of Pass A Loutre (Miss. Delta) Plaqumines Parish, Louisiana. M.S. thesis, La. St. Univ. /Baton Rouge, LA. Boyd, H. 1957. Mortality and kill amongst British-ringed teal Anas crecca. Ibis 99: 157-177. 1955 Coulter, M. W. 1955. Spring food habits of surface-feeding ducks in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 19: 263-267. 1954 Adams, R. G. 1954. Green-winged Teal in Devon. Brit. Birds 47: 83-84. Lee, R. W. M. 1954. Green-winged Teal in Warwickshire. Brit. Birds 47: 244, Watt, R. H. 1954. Green-winged Teal in Leix, Ireland. Brit. Birds 47: 244. 1952 Kuroda, N. 1952. Notes on the Green-winged Teals obtained in Japan. Nat. Sci. & Mus. 19: 85-87, 42. 1951 Kickey, J. J. 1951. Occurrence of European Teal on Long Island. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.Y. 58-62: 70-71. 1950 Brown, K. 1950. Green-winged Teal in Yorkshire. Brit. Birds 42: 190. King, B. 1950. Green-winged Teal in Somerset. Brit. Birds 42: 303-304. Sprunt, A., Jr. 1950. European Teal again in coastal South Carolina. Auk 67: 235. 1949 Blathwayt, F. L. 1949. Green-winged Teal in Dorset. Brit. Birds 42: 393. 172 Munro, J. A. 1949. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Green-winged Teal. Can. J. Res. 27: 149-178. Sprunt, A., Jr. 1949. European Teal in coastal South Carolina. Auk 66: 199, Whitlock, R. 1949. Display of teal. Brit. Birds 42: 249-250. 1948 Friedmann, H. 1948. The Green-winged Teal of the Aleutian Islands. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 61: 157-158. 1947 Lebret, T. 1947. The migration of the Teal, Anas crecca crecca L. , in western Europe. Ardea 35: 79-131. 1944 Peters, H. S. 1944. Green-winged Teal, banded in California, taken in Labra- dor. Bird-Banding 15: 72. 1937 Robinson, H. W. 1937. American Green-winged Teal in Westmorland. Brit. Birds 30: 378. 1934 Stone, W. 1934. European Teal in South Carolina. Auk 51: 22 7. 1927 Huber, W. 1927. European Teal in North Carolina. Auk 44: 95. 1925 Boase, H. 1925. The courtship of the Teal. Brit. Birds 19: 162-164. 173 Vagrant Mallard on French Frigate Shoals, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, November 1980. Photograph by Roger B. Clapp. 174 MALLARD (Anas platyrhynchos) [DA: Graand, DU: Wilde eend , PI: Heinasora, FR: Canard col-vert, GE: Stockente, IC: Stokkond, IT: Anitra selvatlca, Gerraano reale; JA: Magamo, NW: Stokkand, PO: Krzyzowka, PR: Pato-real, SP: Pato comun, Anade real; SW: Grassand] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION In North America, the Mallard breeds from Alaska and northern MacKenzie across Canada to the southern shore of Hudson Bay and southern Quebec, south to central California, central Nevada and Utah, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Missouri, Ohio, and Virginia, occasionally farther south (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976). In recent years Mallards have been released, intentionally or accidentally, in many areas south of the historic range; many of these have bred, and the natur- al range is difficult to determine. In southern Arizona and New Mexico and western Texas, typical green-headed Mallards intergrade with a monomorphic fe- male-plumaged population (A. £. diazi) which is resident in the central Mexican highlands (Hubbard 1977). In winter the Mallard occurs throughout most of the United States and in Mexico (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976a). Mallards are also wide- spread through Eurasia and there is a subspecies in coastal Greenland (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976a, Cramp et al. 1977). The North American estimated breeding population of the Mallard ranged from about 6.1 (1965) to 14.5 (1957) million birds between 1955 and 1969, with an av- erage of 9.6 million. The late summer population in North America during these years averaged about 19.5 million, and the harvest was about 3.5 million (Ander- son and Henny 1972). The species is common in all the southeastern states (Map 11). The Mississippi Flyway is an important corridor for the Mallard, and of the estimated 3.1 million birds (the average in 1960-1970) using it annually, about 400,000 wintered in the coastal Louisiana marshes. Many fewer birds use the Atlantic Flyway, but of those that do, about 110,000 winter in southeastern South Carolina and 40,000 in the Chesapeake Bay region (Bellrose 1976). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Mallards have suffered casualities from coastal oiling incidents (Smith 1973, Table 3). They are also prone to problems at inland oil-sumps (King 1953). In the Caspian Sea region, Mallards have been the inland species most affected Taxonomic note: In general, this account deals only with the "typical" green- headed Mallard, although the North American range includes the "Mexican Duck", Anas p. diazi , formerly recognized as a species. The Mottled (including Flor- ida) Duck, A. f ulvigula, although treated by some authors (Johnsgard 1975, Bell- rose 1976) as one or more subspecies of Mallard, is treated here as a distinct species, as are various insular populations, well outside the geographic scope of this report, that associate with the Mallard in some winters. 175 176 by marine oil pollution (Vereshchagin 1946). Artificial feeding of oil caused a reduction in mobility accompanied by diarrhea, loss of balance and coordination, and tremors (Hartung 1963). Ingested oil has also been demonstrated as inter- fering with egg- laying (Hartung 1963). In the southeastern United States, most Mallards frequent fresh water or brackish or estuarine bays and marshes. Few appear in salt water (Stewart 1962), In addition, the portion of the total population wintering in the southeastern states is small. The risk to Mallards of oil development in that area is there- fore relatively low. Table 3. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Mallards found after major oiling incidents. Area Dates Number Number of oiled of dead Percent- dead Mai- age of birds lards Mallards Source Poole Harbour, Dorset, England Medway Estuary, Kent, England Tay Estuary, Scotland N. Sealand, Denmark Northeast Britain Jan. 1961 Sept. 1966 Mar .-Apr . 1968 Feb. -Mar. 1969 Jan. -Feb. 1970 North-central Kat- Mar. 1972 tegat, Denmark Waddensea , Denmark Baltic sea coast , Poland Firth of Forth, southern Scotland Dec. 1972 1970-1974 Feb. 1978 433 (a,b) 2,748 (a) 1,168 (b) 2,376 (a) 10,992 (a,c) 4,759 (a) 9,151 (a) 3,867 (a,c) 680 (a) 36 0.46 Bourne 1968a 1.31 Bourne 1968a 0.09 Greenwood and Keddie 1968 0.08 Joensen 1972b 0.07 Greenwood et al. 1971 0.02 Joensen and Hansen 1977 0.03 Joensen and Hansen 1977 0.23 Gorski et al. 1976 0.14 Campbell et al. 1978 (a) Total includes only those birds identified to species, (b) Total includes both live and dead oiled birds. (c) Total includes some birds that were not oiled. 177 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 Bellrose, F. C. and R. C. Crompton. 1981. Migration speeds of three waterfowl species. Wilson Bull. 93: 121-124. Byers, S. M. and R. A. Montgomery. 1981. Stress response of captive Mallards to nasal saddles. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 498-501. Gatti, R. C. 1981. A comparison of two hand-reared Mallard release methods. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 9: 37-43. Trost, R. E. 1981. Dynamics of grit selection and retention in captive Mal- lards. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 64-73. Van Dyke, F. 1981. Mortality in crippled Mallards. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 444-453. Young, D. A. and D. A. Boag. 1981. A description of moult in male Mallards. Can. J. Zool. 58: 252-259. [In English with French summary.] 1980 Albers, P. H. 1980. Transfer of crude oil from contaminated water to bird eggs. Environ. Res. 22: 307-314. Baldasarre, G. A., R. J. Whyte and E. G. Bolen. 1980. Use of ultrasonic sound to estimate body fat deposits in the Mallard. Prairie Nat. 12: 79-86. Bingman, V. P. 1980. Novel rape avoidance in the Mallard. Wilson Bull. 92: 409. Burns, J. T., K. M. Cheng and F. McKinney. 1980. Forced copulation in captive Mallards. I. Fertilization of eggs. Auk 97: 875-879. Clark, G. W. 1980. Hematozoa of Mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) of the Pacific Flyway, Washington. J. Wildl. Dis. 16: 529-531. Danell, K. and K. Sjoberg. 1980. Foods of Wigeon, Teal, Mallard, and Pintail during the summer in a northern Swedish lake. Viltrevy 11: 141-167. Donham, R. S. 1980. The endocrinology of reproduction in the Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Washington/ Seattle, WA. 110 pp. Fiala, V. 1980. Veranderungen in den Winterbestanden der Stockente (Anas platy- rhynchos) in der Tschechischen Sozialistischen Republik 1970/71-1977/78. [Changes in winter numbers of the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) in the Czech Socialist Republic 1970/71 /-1977/78. ] Folia Zool. 29: 251-266. 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C. and W. E. Southern. 1972. Effects of solar cues on basic direc- ional preferences of young Mallards. Bird-Banding 43: 47-53. Slatick, E. R. 1972. A look at ducks. Penna. Game News 43: 24-27. Tiussa, J. 1972. Sinsoraan, haapanan ja tavin ravinnosta metsastyskauden aikana. [The autumn food of Mallard, Wigeon and Teal during the hunting season.] Suomen Riista 24: 40-46. [In Finnish with English summary.] 188 1971 Caldwell, P. J. 1971. Nest microclimate and nesting behavior in the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) at Delta, Manitoba. M.S. thesis, Univ. Florida/ Gainesville, FL. Fog, J. 1971. Survival and exploitation of Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) re- leased for shooting. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 6: 1-12. Gilmer, D. S. 1971. Home ranges and habitat-use of breeding Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and Wood Ducks (Aix sponsa) in north-central Minnesota as determined by radio-tracking. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/Minneapolis. Kelleher, J. V. and W. F. O'Malia. 1971. Golden Eagle attacks a Mallard. Auk 88: 186. Kiel, W. H. , Jr. 1971. A release of hand-reared Mallards in south Texas. Texas Agric. Exp. Station, College Station, TX. 11 pp. Lebret, T. 1971. [Observations of surface-feeding ducks (Anatinae) in wing moult in tidal habitat in the Bresbosch-Hollands Diep-Haringvliet-area. ] Limosa 44: 29-44. [In Dutch with English summary.] Lockner, F. R. , D. D. Donaldson and J. L. Tartaglia. 1971. Mallards nesting in trees. Calif. Birds 2: 102. Mathiason, S. 1971. [A study of a Mallard population in the non-breeding sea- son.] Goteborgs Nat. Hist. Mus . Arstryck: 13-36. [In Swedish with English summary. ] Nieman, D. J. 1971. Breeding biology and habitat relationships of Mallard and Canvas-back in the Peace-Athabaska Delta. M.S. thesis, Univ. Saskatchewan/ Saskatoon, SK. 78 pp. Ogilvie, M. A. and W. A. Cook. 1971. Differential migration of the sexes and other aspects of the recovery overseas of Mallard ringed at Borough Fen Decoy, Northamptonshire. Wildfowl 22: 89-97. Ramsay, A. 0. and E. H. Hess. 1971. Sensitive age parameters and other factors in conditioning to a danger call in Mallard ducklings. Z. Tierpsychol. 28: 164-174. Weidmann, U. and J. Darley. 1971. The role of the female in the social dis- play of Mallards. Anim. Behav. 19: 287-298. Whitten, A. J. 1971. A new behavioural method for further determination of olfaction in Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). J. Biol. Educ. 5: 291-294. 1970 Balat, F. 1970. On the wing-moult in the Mallard Anas platyrhynchos in Czechoslovakia. Zool . Listy 19: 135-144. 189 Barclay, J. S. 1970. Ecological aspects of defensive behavior in breeding Mallards and Black Ducks. Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State Univ. /Columbus , OH. 176 pp. Bellrose, F. C. and D. Crompton. 1970. Migration behavior of Mallard and Black Ducks as determined by banding. 111. Nat. Hist. Soc. Bull. 30: 167-234. Bishop, R. A. and R. Marratt. 1970. Use of artificial nest baskets by Mal- lard. J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 734-738. Bjarvall, A. 1970. Nest-site selection by the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) . Viltrevy 7: 151-182. Drewien, R. C. and L. F. Fredrickson. 1970. High density Mallard nesting on a South Dakota island. Wilson Bull. 82: 95-96. Ern, H. 1970. Nahrungsparasitismus und Futtertauchen bei der Stockente (Anas platyrhynchos) am Bodensee als Reaktion auf Veranderungen im Nahrungsange- bot. Vogelwarte 25: 334-336. [In German.] Jessen, R. L. 1970. Mallard population trends and hunting losses in Minne- sota. J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 93-105. Lamont, T. G. , G. E. Bagley and W. L. Reicher. 1970. Residues of DDD and o,p DDT in Brown Pelican eggs and Mallard ducks. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5: 231-236. Nellis, C. H. , J. J. Zohrer and D. W. Anderson. 1970. Mallard/Green-winged Teal associations in southern Wisconsin. Wilson Bull. 82: 461-462. Prince, H. H. , P. B. Siegel and G. W. Cornwell. 1970. Inheritance of egg product and juvenile growth in Mallards. Auk 87: 342-352. Snart, A. E. 1970. The effects of heat on Mallard embryos. M.S. thesis, Univ. Florida/Gainesville, FL. Zohrer, J. J. 1970. Observations on premigratory movements of hand-reared Mallards. Wilson Bull. 82: 323-324. 1969 Avitabile, A. 1969. Egg transportation by a female Mallard. Wilson Bull. 81: 331-332. Bjarvall, A. 1969. Unusual cases of re-nesting Mallards. Wilson Bull. 81: 94-96. Crichton, V. F. 1969. The helminths in the digestive tract of the Mallard and Pintail in southern Manitoba. M.S. thesis, Univ. Manitoba/Winnipeg, MB. 121 pp. 190 Geis, A. D. , R. K. Martinson and D. R. Anderson. 1969. Establishing hunting regulations and allowable harvest of Mallards in the United States. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 848-859. Greenwood, R. J. 1969. Mallard hatching from an egg cracked by freezing. Auk 86: 752-754. Heath, R. G. , J. W. Spaan and J. F. Kreitzer. 1969. Marked DDE impairment of Mallard reproduction in controlled studies. Nature 224: 47-48. Lehner, P. N. and A. Egbert. 1969. Dieldrin and eggshell thickness in ducks. Nature 224: 1218-1219. Lockner, F. R. and R. E. Phillips. 1969. A preliminary analysis of the de- crescendo call in female Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos L.). Behaviour 35: 281-287. Maley, M. J. 1969. Electrical stimulation of agnostic behaviour in the Mal- lard. Behaviour 34: 138-160. Post, W. 1969. Breeding birds of Williston Bay. Chat 33: 83-84. Prince, H. H., P. B. Siegel and G. W. Cornwell. 1969a. Incubation environment and the development of Mallard embryos. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 589-595. . 1969b. Hatchability , clutch position, and hatching sequence in Mallards. Auk 86: 762-763. 1968 Balat, F. 1968. Influence of repeated disturbance on the breeding success in the Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos Linn. Zool. Listy 18: 247-252. Bjarvall, A. 1968. The hatching and nest exodus behaviour of Mallard. Wild- fowl 19: 70-80. Coulter, M. and W. Miller. 1968. Nesting biology of Black Ducks and Mallards in northern New England. Vermont Fish Game Dept. Bull. No. 68-2. 74 pp. Dindal, D. L. and T. J. Peterle. 1968. Wing and body tissue relationships of DDT and metabolite residues in Mallard and Lesser Scaup ducks. Bull. En- viron. Contam. Toxicol. 3: 37-48. Duebbert, H. F. 1968. Two female Mallards incubating on one nest. Wilson Bull. 80: 102. Martinson, R. K. and A. S. Hawkins. 1968. Lack of association among duck brood-mates during migration and wintering. Auk 85: 684-686. Nickell, W. P. 1968. Mallards nest in trees and on walls. Jack-Pine Warbler 46: 28-30. 191 Oppenheimer, R. W. 1968. Colour preferences in the pecking response of newly hatched ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) . J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 66 (Monogr. Suppl.): 1-17. Post, W., Jr. 1968. Mallard breeding in Barnwell County, S.C. Chat 32: 100- 101. Prince, H. H. 1968. Inheritance of fecundity, and embryonic and juvenile growth in Mallard ducks. Ph.D. thesis, Virginia Poly. Inst ./Blacksburg, VA. Singleton, J. R. 1968. Texas' mistaken Mallards. Texas Parks & Wildl. 26: 8-11. Young, C. M. 1968. Island nesting of ducks in northern Ontario. Can. Field- Nat. 82: 209-212. 1967 Johnsgard, P. A. 1967. Sympatry changes and hybridization incidence in Mal- lards and Black Ducks. Am. Midi. Nat. 77: 51-63. Matthews, G. V. T. 1967. Some parameters of "nonsense" orientation in Mal- lard. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept . 18: 88-97. Olney, P. J. S. 1967. The WAGBI-Wildfowl Trust Experimental Reserve. II: The feeding ecology of local Mallard and other wildfowl. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 18: 47-55. Young, C. M. 1967. Overland migration of duck broods in a drought-free area. Can. J. Zool. 45: 249-251. 1966 Folk, C, K. Hudec and J. Toufar. 1966. The weight of the Mallard, Anas platy- rhynchos and its changes in the course of the year. Zool. Listy 15: 249- 260. Lippens, L. 1966. Essai d ' interpretation des observations et du baguage des canards colverts (Anas platyrhynchos) dans les reserves de Meetkerke (51° 14' N, 3°09'E) et de Knokke (51 "21 'N, 3°18'E), en Belgique de 1936 a 1966. Gerfaut 56: 315-373. [In French with English summary.] Malone, C. R. 1966. Regurgitation of food by Mallard ducks. Wilson Bull. 78: 227-228. Marcstrom, V. 1966. Mallard ducklings (Anas platyrhynchos L.) during the first days after hatching. Viltrevy 4: 343-370. Pirkola, M. K. 1966. Sinorsan ravinnosta maha-analyysien valossa. [On the feeding habits of the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) as revealed by crop and gizzard samples.] Suomen Riista 18: 67-81. [In Finnish with English sum- mary. ] 192 Rieck, C. A. 1966. Mallard introductions and ecological changes from fertili- zation on a beaver pond. Murrelet 47: 66-72. Rogers, J. P. 1966. Mallard predation by a Goshawk. Wilson Bull. 78: 317-318. Wheeler, R. J. 1966. An unusually long incubation period of the Mallard. Con- dor 68: 301. 1965 Bandy, L. W. 1965. Colonization of artificial nesting structures by wild Mal- lard and Black Ducks. M.S. thesis, Ohio State Univ. /Columbus , OH. 67 pp. Beck, W. H. 1965. Association of a Pintail drake and a Mallard pair. Blue Jay 23: 121. Boyd, H. and E. Fabricius. 1965. Observations on the influence of following of visual and auditory stimuli in naive Mallard ducklings (Anas platyrhyn- chos) . Behaviour 25: 1-15. Forsythe, B. 1965. December food habits of the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos Linn.) in the Grand Prairie of Arkansas. Proc. Ark. Acad. Sci . 19: 74-78. Gollop, J. B. 1965. Dispersal and annual survival of the Mallard, Anas platy- rhynchos. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Saskatchewan/ Saskatoon, SK. Rear, J. 1965. The internal food reserves of hatching Mallard ducklings. J. Wildl. Manage. 29: 523-528. Malone, C. R. 1965. Dispersal of plankton: rate of food pairage in Mallard Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 29: 529-533. 1964 Campbell, B. 1964. Mallards killing and eating house sparrows. Brit. Birds 57: 133-134. de Vos, A. 1964. Activities of a Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) brood after hatching. Auk 81: 442. Etienne, A. 1964. Der Einfluss von Testosteron auf Verhalten junger Stocken- ten (Anas platyrhynchos L.). Z. Tierpsychol. 21: 822-836. [In German.] Etienne, A. and H. Fischer. 1964. Untersuchungen uber das Verhalten kastrier- ter Stockenten (Anas platyrhynchos L.) und dessen Beeinf lussung durch Testosteron. Z. Tierpsychol. 21: 348-358. [In German.] Fog, J. 1964. Dispersal and survival of released Mallards (Anas platyrhyn- chos). Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 4: 1-57. 193 Krai, B. 1964. Variabilita pomeru pohlavi u kachny divoke, Anas platyrhynchos, v ziranim okdobi. [Variability of sex ratio of Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos at wintertime.] Zool. Listy 13: 9-14. [In Czechoslovakian with German summary. ] Lees, H. T. 1964. Immobility saving Mallard from dogs. Brit. Birds 57: 202. Ogilvie, M. A. 1964. A nesting study of Mallard in Berkeley New Decoy, Slim- bridge. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 15: 84-92. Raitasuo, K. 1964. Social behaviour of the Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos, in the course of the annual cycle. Finn. Game Resch. 24: 1-72. 1963 Chura, N. J. 1963. Diurnal feeding periodicity of juvenile Mallards. Wilson Bull. 75: 90. Gollop, J. B. 1963. The fall recoveries of young Mallards at Kindersley, Sas- katchewan. Blue Jay 21: 7-10. Manville, R. H. 1963. Altitude record for a Mallard. Wilson Bull. 75: 92. Pullainen, E. 1963. On the history, ecology, and ethology of the Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos L.) overwintering in Finland. Ornis Fenn. 40: 45-66. Stainton, J. M. 1963. Mallard killing and swallowing house sparrow. Brit. Birds 56: 339. 1962 Chura, N. J. 1962. Food availability and selective utilization by juvenile Mallards Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos , on the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge. Ph.D. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, UT. Dzubin, A. 1962. Saskatchewan banded Mallards recovered in eastern Siberia. Bird-Banding 33: 152-153. Glasgow, L. L. and H. A. Junca. 1962. Mallard foods in southwest Louisiana. Proc. La. Acad. Sci. 25: 63-74. Junca, H. 1962. A quantitative study of the nutrient content of food removed from the crops of wild Mallards in Louisiana. M.S. thesis, La. St. Univ./ Baton Rouge, LA. 94 pp. Junca, H. A., E. A. Epps and L. L. Glasgow. 1962. A quantitative study of nutrient content of food removed from the crops of wild Mallards in Louisi- ana. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resourc. Conf. 27: 114-121. Linkola, P. 1962. Havaintoja sorsalintujen lisaantymistuloksesta Keski- Hameessa. [Note on the breeding success of ducks in central Hame.] Suomen Riista 15: 157-174. [In Finnish with English summary.] 194 Ogilvie, M. A. 1962. A nesting study of Mallard In Berkeley New Decoy, Slim- bridge. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 13: 84-88. Olney, P. J. S. 1962. The food habits of a hand-reared Mallard population. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 13: 119-125. Perret, N. G. 1962. The spring and summer foods of the Common Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos (L.), in south central Manitoba. M.S. thesis, Univ. Brit. Columbia/Vancouver, BC. 1961 Chura, N. 1961. Food availability and preference of juvenile Mallards. Trans, N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 26: 121-134. Gillham, E. H. 1961. Mallard feeding from dead birds. Brit. Birds 54: 357- 359. Huey, W. S. 1961. Comparison of female Mallard with female New Mexican Duck. Auk 78: 428-431. Humphrey, P. S. and G. A. Clark. 1961. Pterylosis of the Mallard Duck. Con- dor 63: 365-385. Johnsgard, P. A. 1961a. Wintering distribution changes in Mallards and Black Ducks. Am. Midi. Nat. 66: 477-484. . 1961b. Evolutionary relationships among the North American Mallards. Auk 78: 3-43. Johnson, 0. W. 1961. Reproductive cycle of the Mallard Duck. Condor 63: 351 — 364. Kear, J. 1961. Early sexual maturity in Mallard. Brit. Birds 54: 427-428. Lebret, T. 1961. The pair formation in the annual cycle of the Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos L. Ardea 49: 97-158. Matthews, G. V. T. 1961. "Nonsense" orientation in Mallard Anas platyrhynchos and its relation to experiments on bird navigation. Ibis 103: 211-230. Wade, D. E. and D. R. Wade. 1961. Mallards do dive. Blue Jay 19: 16. Wright, T. W. 1961. Winter foods of Mallards in Arkansas. Proc. 13th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 291-298. 1960 Billik, M. 1960. Walka krzyzowki z kamionka. [A fight between a Mallard and a Stone Marten.] Lowiec Pol. 3: 15. [In Polish.] 195 Boyd, H. and B. King. 1960. A breeding population of Mallards. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 11: 137-143. Gollop, J. B. 1960. Mallard goes north after nesting. Blue Jay 18: 77. Hanson, C. L. 1960. A study of the factors influencing nest site selection in Mallard Ducks, Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos. M.S. thesis, Ohio St. Univ. /Columbus , OH. Johnsgard, P. A. 1960. A quantitative study of sexual behaviour of Mallards and Black Ducks. Wilson Bull. 72: 133-155. Winner, R. W. 1960. Fall and winter movements of Black and Mallard ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 24: 332-335. 1959 Balham, R. W. and K. H. Miers. 1959. Mortality and survival of Grey and Mal- lard Ducks banded in New Zealand. N. Zeal. Dept. Intern. Affairs Wildl. Publ. 5. Boyer, G. F. 1959. Hand-reared Mallard releases in the Maritime Provinces. Can. Field-Nat. 73: 1-5. Dillon, 0. W., Jr. 1959. Food habits of wild Mallard ducks in three Louisiana parishes. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 24: 374-382. Geyr von Scheppenburg , H. F. 1959. Zum Verhalten der Stockente. J. Ornithol. 100: 397-403. [In German.] Johnsgard, P. A. 1959. Evolutionary relationships among the North American Mallards. Ph.D. thesis, Cornell Univ. /Ithaca , NY. 153 pp. Winner, R. W. 1959. Field-feeding periodicity of Black and Mallard ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 23: 197-202. 1958 Bellrose, F. C. 1958. Celestial orientation by wild Mallards. Bird-Banding 29: 75-90. Fog, J. 1958. [Hand-reared Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) marked during 1950- 1955.] Dan. Vildtundersog 8: 1-32. [In Danish with English summary.] Hunt, R. A., L. R. Jahn , R. C. Hopkins and G. H. Amerlong. 1958. An evaluation of artificial Mallard propagation in Wisconsin. Wisconsin Conserv. Dept. Tech. Wildl. Bull. 16. 79 pp. LeBret, T. 1958. The "jump-flight" of the Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos L., the Teal, Anas crecca L. , and the Shoveler, Spatula clypeata L. Ardea 46: 68- 72. 196 Weidraan, U. 1958. Verhalensstudien an Stockende (Anas platyrhynchos L.). II, Versuch zur Auslosung und Pragung der Nachfogel und Anschlussreaktion. Z. Tierpsychol. 15: 277-300. [In German with English summary.] 1957 Atwood, E. L. 1957. Mallard breeding range density index map. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. 2 pp. Beter, R. A. 1957. A comparative winter food habit study of dabbling ducks from the brackish Lake Borgne Marsh of St. Bernard Parish and the fresh marsh of Pass a Loutre (Miss. Delta) Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana. M.S. thesis, La. St. Univ. /Baton Rouge, LA. viii and 73 pp. Boyd, H. 1957. Early sexual maturity of a female Mallard. Brit. Birds 50: 302-303. Dzubin, A. 1957. Pairing display and spring and summer flights of the Mal- lard. Blue Jay 15: 10-13. Eygenraam, J. A. 1957. The sex-ratio and the production of the Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos L. Ardea 45: 117-143. Peters, S. S. 1957. Brood capture involving conflict between two female Mal- lards. Wilson Bull. 69: 363-364. Winner, R. W. 1957. A study of local and migratory movements of Black and Mallard duck populations in central Ohio. Ph.D. thesis, Ohio St. Univ./ Columbus , OH. 1956 Goodwin, C. E. 1956. Black Duck and Mallard populations in the Toronto area. Ont. Field Biol. 10: 7-18. Hickey, J. J. 1956. Autumnal migration of ducks banded in eastern Wisconsin. Trans. Wise. Acad. Sci . , Arts, Letters 45: 59-76. Koskimies, J. 1956. [The age of the Mallard.] Suomen Riista 10: 102-104. [In Finnish with English summary.] Larionov, V. F. 1956. Changes in the term of breeding season in the Mallard. Zool. Zh. 31: 89-95. [In Russian with English summary.] Lebret, T. 1956. De Wilde Eend , Anas platyrhynchos L. als Nederlandse Stand- vogel. Ardea 44: 281-283. [In Dutch with English summary.] Weidmann, U. 1956. Verhaltensstudien an der Stockente (Anas platyrhynchos L.) I. Das Aktionssystem. Z. Tierpsychol. 13: 208-271. [In German.] 197 1955 Mayhew, W. W. 1955. Spring rainfall in relation to Mallard production in the Sacramento Valley, California. J. Wildl. Manage. 19: 36-47. Miskiraan, M. 1955. Meteorological and social factors in autumnal migration of ducks. Condor 57: 179-184. 1954 Boyd, H. 1954. Some results of recent British Mallard ringing. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept . 6: 90-99. Buechels, C. L. and D. Mosler. 1954. Close nesting of Mallard and Marsh Hawk. Murrelet 35: 10. Coulter, C. W. 1954. Some observations of Mallards in central Maine. Bull. Maine Audubon Soc. 10: 20-23. Elder, W. and M. Weller. 1954. Duration of fertility in the domestic Mallard hen after isolation from the drake. J. Wildl. Manage. 18: 495-502. Hanson, H. C. 1954. Criteria of age of incubated Mallard, Wood Duck, and Bob- white eggs. Auk 71: 267-272. Mylne, C. K. 1954. Mallard diving for food. Brit. Birds 47: 395. Szczepski, J. B. 1954. Najstarsza krzyzowka swiata. [The oldest Mallard in the world.] Lowiec . Pol. 11: 12. [In Polish.] 1953 Coulter, M. W. 1953. Mallard nesting in Maine. Auk 70: 490. Larionov, V. F. 1953. [Peculiarities of breeding and migration of the Mallard in connection with locality.] Zool. Zh. 32: 112-115. [In Russian.] Rainey, D. 1953. Feeding of Mallards prevented by crows. Wilson Bull. 65: 41. 1952 Balham, R. W. 1952. Grey and Mallard ducks in the Manawatu district, New Zea- land. Emu 52: 163-191. Johnson, C. D. 1952. Life history and ecology of the Mallard Duck (Anas platy- rhynchos platyrhynchos L. in Utah. M.S. thesis, Univ. Utah/Logan, UT. v and 126 pp. Singleton, J. R. 1952. His Majesty the Mallard. Texas Game Fish 10: 6-7. 198 1951 Hickey, J. J. 1951. Mortality records as indices of migration in the Mallard. Condor 53: 284-297. 1950 Bellrose, F. C. and E. B. Chase. 1950. Population losses in the Mallard, Black Duck, and Blue-winged Teal. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes No. 22: 1-27. Gillham, E. H. 1950. Unusual Mallard's nest on Saltings. Brit. Birds 42: 190. Goetz, C. J. 1950. A Mallard thirteen years old. Bird-Banding 21: 18. Gullion, G. W. 1950. Mallards "mobbing" Cooper Hawks. Condor 52: 138-139. Hickling, R. A. 0. 1950. Joint "injury-feigning" by Shoveler and Mallard. Brit. Birds 42: 304. Lebret, T. 1950. Vroeg begin van de rui naar het prachtkleed bij eerstejaars van de Wilde Eend, Anas platyrhynchos L. Ardea 38: 235-236. [In Dutch.] Szczepski, J. B. 1950. Z biologii kaczki krzyzowki. [On the biology of the Mallard.] Ochr. Przyr. Krakow 19: 185-199. [In Polish.] 1949 Blake, C. H. 1949. Mallard mortalities. Brit. Birds 42: 256. Hopkins, R. 1949. The fate of Mallards banded at Horicon. Wise. Conserv. Bull. 14: 10-12. Ludgater, S. J. 1949. Curlew and Mallard laying in the same nest. Brit. Birds 42: 362-363. Yocum, C. F. 1949. A study of sex ratios of Mallards in the state of Washing- ton. Condor 51: 222-227. 1948 Hohn, E. 0. 1948. Mortality of adult and young Mallards. Brit. Birds 41: 233-235. 1947 Nicholson, W. W. 1947. Coition of Mallard on land. Brit. Birds 40: 152-153. Shaw, W. T. 1947. Relative weights: Ross Snow Goose and Mallard. Murrelet 28: 21. 199 1946 Price, H. F. 1946. Mallard nesting in tree cavity. Auk 63: 441. 1944 Collins, J. A. 1944. Coot attacks young ducks. Auk 61: 299. Harrison, J. 1944. The races of Mallards. Bull. Brit. Ornithol . Club 64: 58-60. Stoudt, J. H. 1944. Food preferences of Mallards on the Chippewa National Forest, Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 8: 100-102. 1943 Munro, J. A. 1943. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Mallard. Can. J. Res. 21: 223-260. Wing, L. 1943. Relative distribution of Mallard and Black Duck in winter. Auk 60: 438-439. 1941 Girard, G. L. 1941. The Mallard: its management in western Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 5: 223-259. 1939 Benson, D. 1939. Survival studies of Mallards liberated in New York State. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 4: 411-415. 1937 Lloyd, B. 1937. On the behaviour of male Mallards with broods. Brit. Birds 30: 334-336. 1936 Munro, J. A. 1936. Food of the Common Mallard in the Lower Fraser Valley, British Columbia. Condor 38: 109-111. Christof ferson, K. 1936. Common Black Duck, Red-legged Black Duck and Mallard sex ratios. Bird-Banding 6: 138. 1934 Errington, P. L. 1934. Second broods in the Mallard Duck. Auk 51: 78-80. 1932 Knappen, P. 1932. Number of feathers on a duck. Auk 49: 461. 200 1931 Boase, H. 1931. The display of the Mallard. Brit. Birds 25: 12-17. Sprunt, A., Jr. 1931. Total albinism in the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) , Auk 48: 414. 1930 Buxton, R. J. 1930. Mallard killing house sparrow. Brit. Birds 23: 222-223. Lack, D. 1930. Mallard killing house sparrow. Brit. Birds 23: 255. 1929 Owen, J. H. 1929. Mallard laying in old crow's nest. Brit. Birds 23: 65-66. 1926 Lincoln, F. C. 1926. Lifting power of the Mallard. Proc . Biol. Soc. Wash. 39: 142. 1925 Bird, R. D. 1925. Mallard Duck nesting in a tree. Auk 42: 441-442. 1918 McAtee, W. L. 1918. Food habits of the Mallard Ducks of the United States. U.S. Dept. Agric. Bull. No. 720. 36 pp. 1916 Townsend, C. W. 1916. The courtship of the Merganser, Mallard, Black Duck, Baldpate, Wood Duck and Bufflehead. Auk 33: 9-17. 1914 Brock, S. E. 1914. The display of the Mallard in relation to pairing. Scott, Nat. 1914: 79-86. 201 MOTTLED DUCK (Anas f ulvlgula) [US: Mottled Mallard, Dusky Duck, Florida Duck, Florida Mallard] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America The Mottled Duck is a resident of peninsular Florida and the Gulf coast from Alabama (Imhof 1976b) and Mississippi (Hackney and Hackney 1976) south through coastal Tamaulipas at least to Tampico (Palmer 1976a). The west- ern race winters in the breeding range and south to the Alvarado marshes in Vera- cruz (Leopold 1959 _in Palmer 1976a); stragglers have been taken in Kansas, Okla- homa, and at two localities in Colorado (Palmer 1976a). Mottled Ducks bred on the Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Refuge, Barton County, Kansas, in 1963 (McHenry 1968). World Distribution The Mottled Duck is restricted to North America. DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES Georgia Burleigh (1958) listed this species as accidental in Georgia on the basis of a single specimen from Cumberland Island, taken 23 December 1902. Florida The Mottled Duck occurs throughout the year in peninsular Florida south of a line extending from Cedar Key to Gainesville to Daytona Beach, with about 60% of the population found in Hendry, Lee, Charlotte, and Glades counties (E. B. Chamberlain 1960 in Bellrose 1976). Early fall populations have been es- timated at 50,000 birds (Bellrose 1976). Kale (1979 ms a, 1979 ms b) considered it rare north of Merritt Island on the Atlantic coast and north of Chassahowitzka NWR on the Gulf. To the south, there are sight records from Key Largo (Palmer 1976a) , Summerland Key (Steven- son 1978), and Key West (Edscorn 1978). Alabama Imhof (1976b) considered the Mottled Duck an uncommon local resi- dent of the Alabama Gulf coast. Breeding birds have been found at Dauphin Is- land in May and at Gulf Shores in June. The Mottled Duck is more widespread outside the breeding season and has been recorded north to the head of Mobile Bay. Imhof (1976b) suggested that non-breeding birds in such areas are most often found in salt water and brackish marshes. Taxonomic note: Considered by Johnsgard (1975, 1978) as a subspecies of Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) , but only one form, A. fulvigula, is recognized by Palmer (1976a). Others (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976) have divided fulvigula into two races: A. i_. fulvigula, the Florida Duck; and A. _f. maculosa, the Mottled Duck or Mottled Mallard of the Gulf coast. 202 Mississippi Hackney and Hackney (1976) considered the Mottled Duck a resi- dent of Mississippi that breeds only in remote coastal marshes. Nests have been found at Claiborne, Lakeshore, and on the west side of Saint Louis Bay (all in Hancock County), where adults of the species are most frequently reported. Eggs have been found from 4 April through 1 July (Hackney and Hackney 1976). Louisiana Mottled Ducks breed in large numbers in the Louisiana coastal marshes. Although some birds are resident, others, sometimes most of the popu- lation, apparently move southward into Texas or Mexico to winter (Lowery 1974). Allen and Perry (1980) examined the gonads of 195 birds obtained in southwest- ern Louisiana and concluded that the peak reproductive activity of females oc- curred about 23 April, two weeks later than males. Bateman (_in Bellrose 1976) estimated that 39% of the Louisiana population breeds in freshwater marsh, 32% in marsh intermediate between fresh and brackish water, 10% in brackish and sa- line marshes, and 9% on agricultural land. Early fall populations are thought to contain 75,000 to 120,000 birds. Texas The Mottled Duck is a resident along the Texas coast where it is locally common to uncommon; a few breeding records are also known from farther inland. Breeding has been recorded from mid-March to August (Oberholser 1974). Maximum breeding densities occur between Sabine Lake and Galveston Bay (Single- ton 1953). Stuzenbaker (iji Bellrose 1976) estimated that early fall populations contain 60,000 to 100,000 birds. SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding/ Winter This species is a year-round resident in central and southern Florida, which harbors about one-fifth to one-sixth of the total popu- lation of the species (Bellrose 1976); it is uncommon in the coastal marshes of Alabama and Mississippi, but locally common in coastal Louisiana and Texas where most of the rest of the species breeds. It also breeds south to Tampico and Tamaulipas. Data given in Bellrose (1976) indicate that the total breeding population is 140,000 to 200,000 birds and that early fall populations are about 250,000 to 300,000 birds. Palmer (1976a), on the other hand, reported mid-winter inventories for the conterminous United States of 66,000 to 81,200 birds for the period 1968-1970. In winter some birds move farther south into Mexico to as far south as Veracruz; within the United States they reach their peak abundance along the Texas coast (Map 12). Migration Most Florida Mottled Ducks are essentially non-migratory but some disperse short distances. Fifty-one (63.0%) of 81 birds banded at vari- ous sites in Florida were recovered 10-270 mi (16-434 km) from the banding site, but most (71.4%) were recovered within 49 mi (79 km) of where they were released (Fogarty and LaHart 1972). Palmer (1976a) noted that thousands of the western race winter in Mexico. Other non-breeding birds in Texas wander inland (Oberholser 1974) and eastward into Louisiana (Bellrose 1976). HABITAT Nesting Stieglitz and Wilson (1968) reported that Mottled Duck nests on 203 204 spoil islets in and near Merritt Island NWR on the east coast of Florida were located 6-79 ft (2-24 m) from the water (mean = 27.8 ft, or 8.47 m) , but most (78.9%, n = 114) were found 10-40 ft (3.1-12.2 ra) from water. Excluding cover for nests under Australian pines (Casuarina equisetif olia) , which Steiglitz and Wilson considered atypical, height of cover ranged from 0.5 to 8 ft (0.15-2.4 m) . In favored nesting sites, however, the cover was typically 1.25-2 ft (0.38-0.61 m) tall. Ducks in this study area preferred to nest in pure stands of seashore pas- palum (Paspalum vaginatum); broomsedge (Andropogon sp.) was also commonly used. A few nests were also found among or under wax myrtle shrubs ( Cerothamnus ceri- f erus) , red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) , scrub palmetto (Sabal etonia) , or Aus- tralian pine. Birds nesting along the Texas coast preferred to nest on slight ridges in heavy stands of saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens) ♦ In inland areas, pre- ferred sites were in tall cover in abandoned fields, on road sides, and on levees (Singleton 1953). Feeding and Offshore Mottled Ducks feed in or near the areas in which they nest. We know of no records of their occurring offshore. FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR The Mottled Duck has a relatively varied diet for a dabbling duck and eats more animal foods than do most of the ducks in the genus Anas. A few studies have reported in some detail the foods consumed. We have summarized these for Florida and Texas below. According to Palmer (1976a), much the same foods are eaten along the Louisiana coast and his work should be consulted for a list of these, as well as for other foods not mentioned here. Florida Beckwith and Hosford (1956, 1957) reported the contents of 144 gizzards collected from October 1953 through November 1954 in the vicinity of Lake Okeechobee in Glades County. On the basis of identified material only, these birds consumed an average of 87.2% plant material and 12.8% animal matter. Foods utilized varied from season to season, with the diet composed of as much as 100% plant food (fall, 1953 and 1954; winter 1953-54) or as little as 61% (summer, 1954). Seventy-seven species of plants of 51 genera were consumed. Fall plant foods making up more than 3% (by volume) of the diet in any given year were ragweed (Ambrosia elatior - 30.7%), dotted smartweed (Polygonum punc- tatum - 28.3%), a Panicum (agrostoides? - 17.4%), a Paspalum (cilatifolium? - 12.4%), and ovateleaved marsh- pennywort (Centella asiatica - 3.6%). Major foods during one or the other winters were gulfcoast spikerush (Eleocharis cellulosa - 14.6%), the marsh-pennywort (12.2%), Carolina fanwort ( Cabomba carol -tnjana - 11.8%), ragweed (8.6%), guava (Psidium guajava - 6.4%), dotted smartweed (3.8 to 4.1%), and a beakrush (Rhynchospora sp. - 3.4%). The principal plant foods taken during the spring of 1954 were dotted smartweed (23.4%) and Puerto Rico smartweed (Persicaria portoricensis - 10.4%), while the major plant foods eaten that summer were Bartow panicgrass (Panicum bartowense - 23.8%), dotted smart- weed (5.1%), and mudbank paspalum (Paspalum dissectum - 4.5%). Animal foods eaten were not as adequately identified by Beckwith and Hosford, but consisted largely of insects, particularly aquatic beetles, and snails. In a subsequent study, Stieglitz (1972) compared food habits at inland 205 Loxahatchee NWR with those of a coastal marsh area (Merritt Island NWR). Forty- five gizzards were obtained at Loxahatchee and 40 at Merritt Island. Overall, 89.9% of the food (by volume) was plant matter and 10.0% was animal, but the proportion of plant to animal food and species consumed varied from area to area. At Loxahatchee, 97.3% of the food was vegetable in origin; the most im- portant plants were Tracy's beakrush (Rhynchospora traceyi - 32.8%), dotted smartweed (29.4%), swamp smartweed (Polygonum hydropiperoides - 18.2%), and saw- grass (Cladium jaimaicensis) . At Merritt Island, only 81.1% of the diet was vegetable. The most important plants here were spiny naiad (Naias marina - 49.2%), shoalgrass (Diplanthera wrightii - 10.6%), and muskgrass (Chara sp. - 7.3%). Gastropods (6.5%), pelecypods (6.9%), and adult and larval insects (4.6%) were the most important of the animal foods eaten at Merritt Island. Scorched mussel (Mytilus exustus - 2.9% of all food from both localities), com- mon Atlantic marginella (Prunum apicinum - 1.5%), and dragonfly nymphs (Libell- ulinae - 1.2%) were the most important individual animal foods (Stieglitz 1972). Texas Singleton (1953) reported the contents of 25 stomachs that were col- lected from spring through fall in a rice-marsh area in Chambers County. These birds had consumed 41.8% (by volume) plant matter and 52.8% animal matter. In- sects (32.9%), jungle rice (Echinochloa colona - 23.8%), and fish (16.2%) were the primary foods taken. The only other foods forming more than 3% of the diet in this sample were gastropods (7.5%), cultivated rice (Oryza sativa - 6.3%), and wild millet (Echinochloa crusgalli - 4.8%). Stomachs collected elsewhere in Texas showed a wide variety of foods. Two stomachs collected in a saline habitat in Aransas County were 90% full of widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima) , and four stomachs collected from February through April in Cameron County contained 50% insects, 35% minute snails, and 7% vegetation. The stomach of another bird taken in Calhoun County was almost entirely full of squarestem spikerush (Eleo- charis quadrangulata) . Feeding techniques and many other aspects of Mottled Duck feeding behavior have not been studied. IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying Stieglitz and Wilson (1968) studied breeding Mottled Ducks for two seasons at the Merritt Island NWR in Florida. In 1966, the first egg was laid on 6 March, the last on 25 June. In 1967, the first egg was laid on 1 1 February and the last on 1 7 July. Peak nesting periods were 16-31 March in 1966 and 1—15 April in 1967. In both years nest initiation declined in May, and nests found after late May may have been replacement efforts. In Texas, Ober— holser (1974) reported egg dates from 18 March to 21 July; Singleton (1953) stated that nesting occasionally occurred as early as February, but usually be- gan in March, with a peak of nesting in April. Mean Clutch Size In their Merritt Island (Florida) study, Stieglitz and Wilson (1968) had data for 78 complete clutches. Clutch size ranged from 5 to 13 eggs, with a mean of 9.4; the most frequent clutch size was 10 (22 nests). Clutch size decreased as the nesting season progressed. In a study near Lake Okeechobee, Florida, Beckwith and Hosford (1957) found 8 eggs to be the largest and most frequent number found (4 of 5 nests). Singleton (1953) reported that 206 the complete clutch size for 108 Mottled Duck nests in Texas ranged from 7 to 14 eggs, and averaged 10.4. Incubation Period Stieglitz and Wilson (1968) found that incubation of eggs in the wild took 25-26 days; incubation was defined as the period from the laying of the last egg to the emergence of the last duckling. Singleton (1953) reported that Texas birds incubated from 25 to 27 days. Hatching Success In 1966 and 1967 at Merritt Island, 93.6% of the 612 eggs in successful nests hatched (Stieglitz and Wilson 1968). However, 21 of 117 nests were not successful. Beckwith and Hosford (1957) reported that 15 of 16 eggs (94%) in two successful nests hatched, but 3 nests containing 21 eggs were destroyed; thus, about 40% of the eggs laid hatched. Singleton (1953) reported a hatching success of 96.2% for Mottled Ducks in Texas, but this may have been only for successful nests. Fledging Success Data are not available. Age at Fledging Definite information is not available but Palmer (1976a) estimated the age at first flight to be from 54 to 60 days. Age at First Breeding Mottled Ducks probably breed in their first year. Weeks (1969) noted that in Louisiana, immature birds pair by mid-winter of their first winter; nearly 90% of all ducks he observed during mid-winter were paired. Mortality of Eggs and Young Twenty-six of 78 (33%) nests that failed in Texas were lost to predation by domestic dogs (Singleton 1953). Other major sources of nest loss were human disturbances (15%) and burning (14%). Exceedingly little is known of the factors causing mortality in young birds. Singleton (1953) saw but one instance of predation; in this instance a juvenile was killed by a domestic dog. Renesting Singleton (1953) stated that the species is single-brooded and reported an observation of one pair renesting five times before eggs were hatch- ed; he also noted several instances of three nesting attempts. Maximum Natural Longevity An adult male banded in Texas was recovered in the same state at a minimum age of 13 years, 5 months (Clapp et al. in press). Weight Beckwith and Hosford (1957) reported the mean weight of 30 adult males as 1,030 g (2.27 lb); the mean weight of 11 adult females was 968 g (2.13 lb). Maxima were 1,280 g (2.82 lb) for males, 1,131 g (2.49 lb) for fe- males. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION No reports of oiled birds are available. Oil washed into coastal marshes by wave or wind action could affect nests or feeding grounds. 207 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Allen, J. A. and H. R. Perry. 1980. Breeding chronology of Louisiana Mottled Ducks as indicated by gonads. Proc . 33rd Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 159-164. Nelson, D. A. 1980. A Mallard X Mottled Duck hybrid. Wilson Bull. 92: 527- 529. 1976 Hackney, C. T. and 0. Hackney. 1976. Nesting of the Mottled Duck in Missis- sippi. Mississippi Kite 6: 5. 1974 Johnson, T. W. 1974. A study of Mottled Duck broods in the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge. Wilson Bull. 86: 68-70. 1973 Johnson, T. W. 1973. The wing molt of the Florida Duck. Wilson Bull. 85: 77-78. 1972 Fogarty, M. J. and D. E. LaHart. 1972. Florida Duck movements. Proc. 2 5th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 191-202. Stieglitz, W. 0. 1972. Food habits of the Florida Duck. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 422-428. 1971 LaHart, D. E. and G. W. Cornwell. 1971. Habitat preference and survival of Florida Duck broods. Proc. 24th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 117-121. Sutton, G. M. 1971. A new bird for Oklahoma: Mottled Duck. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc. 4: 29-31. 1970 LaHart, D. E. 1970. The ecology and population parameters of the Florida Duck, Anas platyrhynchos fulvigula, Ridgway. M.S. thesis, Univ. Florida/Gaines- ville, FL. 208 1969 Lotter, C. F. 1969. Habitat requirements and procedures for measuring various population parameters of the Florida Duck, Anas platyrhynchos fulvigula, Ridgway. M.S. thesis, Univ. Florida/Gainesville, FL. 153 pp.~ Weeks, J. L. 1969. Breeding behavior of Mottled Ducks in Louisiana. M.S. the- sis, La. St. Univ. /Baton Rouge, LA. 7 9 pp. 1968 Johnson, T. W. 1968. The survival and ecology of Florida Duck broods with notes on Florida Duck molting. M.S. thesis, Tennessee Tech. Univ./Cooke- ville, TN. 55 pp. McHenry, M. G. 1968. Mottled Ducks in Kansas. Wilson Bull. 80: 229-230. Singleton, J. R. 1968. Texas' mistaken Mallards. Texas Parks & Wildl. 26: 8-11. Stieglitz, W. 0. and C. T. Wilson. 1968. Breeding biology of the Florida Duck. J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 921-934. 1961 Summerour, C. W., III. 1961. Mottled Duck. Ala. Birdlife 9: 27. 1957 Beckwith, S. L. and H. J. Hosford. 1957. Report on seasonal food habits and life history notes of the Florida Duck in the vicinity of Lake Okeechobee, Glades County, Florida. Am. Midi. Nat. 57: 461-473. 1956 Beckwith, S. L. and H. J. Hosford. 1956. The Florida Duck in the vicinity of Lake Okeechobee, Glades County, Florida. Proc . 9th Annu. Conf. Southeast- ern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 188-201. 1951 Engeling, G. A. 1951. Mottled Duck movements in Texas. Texas Game Fish 9: 2-4. 1950 Engeling, G. A. 1950. The nesting habits of the Mottled Duck in Wharton, Fort Bend, and Brazoria counties, Texas, with notes on molting and movements. M.S. thesis, Texas A&M Univ. /College Station, TX. 137 pp. 209 1949 Engeling, G. A. 1949. The Mottled Duck — a determined nester. Texas Game Fish 7: 6-7, 19. 1947 Bailey, A. M. 1947. Black and Mottled ducks in Colorado. Condor 49: 209. 1924 Henderson, J. 1924. Status of the Black and Mottled ducks in Colorado. Auk 41: 471. 210 BLACK DUCK (Anas rubrlpes) [FR: Canard obscur, GE: Dunkelente , SP: Pato negro, US: Black Mallard] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America The Black Duck breeds primarily in the northeastern part of North America and only nests sporadically elsewhere (range maps i_n Palmer 1976a, Bellrose 1976). Breeding ranges delineated by Palmer and Bellrose vary some, but both authors agree that the northern limits of regular breeding occur from northeastern Manitoba east along the southern shores of Hudson Bay through Que- bec and all but the northwestern part of New Brunswick, thence southeast through- out Newfoundland. Western limits of regular breeding extend from eastern Minne- sota south to northeastern Iowa. From northeastern Iowa they breed eastward through northern Illinois, northern Indiana, northern Ohio, and northern Penn- sylvania. Palmer (1976a) indicated that this species regularly breeds through- out much of Pennsylvania south into northern West Virginia and northeastern Vir- ginia; Bellrose (1976) did not. Both authors agreed that the species breeds regularly along the Atlantic coast to the Cape Hatteras area of North Carolina. Black Ducks breed or have bred sporadically or locally in small numbers in Alberta, Saskatchewan, North Dakota, Kansas, Tennessee, southern and western Virginia, coastal South Carolina and Georgia, and northern Alabama (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a). Black Ducks winter in the southern portion of this range, largely within the United States, south to the Gulf coast in extreme eastern Texas and east to central and northern Florida (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a). World Distribution These ducks occasionally straggle to the Old World where they have been recorded in Ireland, England, the Azores (Palmer 1976a), Sweden (Jonsson 1975), and South Africa (Brooke and Sinclair 1976). They occur regularly in Bermuda in fall and are sometimes seen there in winter (Palmer 1976a). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina Black Ducks are common winter residents of North Carolina and breed in small numbers (Pearson et al. 1942). They rarely breed in the in- terior (Palmer 1976a, LeGrand 1977b) and are most abundant as breeding birds along the coast (Florschutz 1962), where moderate numbers may be found (LeGrand 1979d). More Black Ducks winter along the coast of North Carolina than in any other coastal area in the southeast. Winter surveys (1950-1960) indicated an average of 18,300 birds along the coast of North Carolina, with most (17,700) in the northern half of the state (Geis et al. 1971). The 1975 winter survey reported 211 a wintering population of 23,400 birds (Goldsberry et al. 1980). South Carolina Sprunt and Chamberlain (1949) considered the Black Duck a common winter resident along the coast from 31 August through 1 May, and a much less common visitor inland. Peak numbers are reached in coastal areas during the winter (Map 13). Winter surveys taken in the 1950 's indicated that an average of 15,700 birds wintered along the South Carolina coast. The South and North Carolina coasts are the only major concentration of wintering Black Ducks in the south- east (Geis et al. 1971). The most recent count (winter 1975) reported 9,700 birds on the South Carolina coast (Goldsberry et al. 1980), a considerable de- crease from earlier figures. In a very few instances this duck has been found breeding along the south- eastern coast (Palmer 1976a); one of these breeding localities was near McClel- lanville (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949). Georgia Denton et al. (1977) considered this species uncommon, a transient and winter visitor throughout the state, and suggested that it may rarely breed in the Piedmont. We have found no certain indication of breeding, but a map in Palmer (1976a) clearly indicates that there are one or more extralimital breed- ing records from the northeastern coast. During the 1950 's, winter counts averaged 2,800 birds (Geis et al. 1971); only 400 were reported during the winter of 1975 (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Florida Sprunt (1954) regarded the Black Duck as an abundant winter resi- dent in the northern portion of Florida but as uncommon in central and southern areas of the state; he noted that any occurrence south of Lake Okeechobee was unusual. Most Black Ducks are seen in the state from early October to early April, although a few sometimes remain until late spring. Howell (1932) indi- cated that the duck occurs most commonly in coastal marshes and tidal creeks but is also on interior freshwater marshes. Kale (1979 ms a) considered the Black Duck uncommon on the Atlantic coast, where winter surveys in the 1950 's revealed an average of 2,900 birds (Geis et al. 1971). Recent figures for birds wintering at Merritt Island NWR range from 10 to 150 birds (Kale 1979 ms a). This duck is considered common in winter on the upper Gulf coast south to Chas-, sahowitzka NWR (Kale 1979 ms b, Map 13). Winter counts during the 1950 's aver- aged 9,200 birds (Geis et al. 1971), but the actual number present in this area was probably somewhat greater. The average number present in two winters (1975- 76 and 1976-77) at two important wintering areas (St. Marks NWR and Chassahow- itzka NWR) on this coast was about 20,000 birds (Kale 1979 ms b) . In contrast, only 600 were reported on the 1975 winter waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Mississippi The Black Duck is an uncommon to common winter resident in Mississippi; it is most common in the western part of the state (Geis et al. 1971). Recent peak concentrations in winter have been of about 50-65 birds (Jackson and Weber 1977, Jackson and Cooley 1978a). Surveys of coastal areas from 1950-60 indicated average winter populations of about 5,000 birds (Geis et al . 1971); the most recent survey (January 1975) reported 400 (Goldsberry et al. 1980). 212 iU D0© 213 Black Ducks may linger until early June (Jackson and Cooley 1978a) and a few individuals may summer in the state. Burleigh (1944) noted that preferred habitat was salt water along the coast. Alabama About a dozen pairs of Black Ducks breed at Wheeler NWR in the northern part of Alabama, but the species occurs in the state primarily as a common to abundant migrant and winter resident. Along the coast, the Black Duck has been recorded from late October through mid-April, and a pair has sum- mered there (Imhof 1976b). Winter surveys from 1950-1960 gave an average count of some 700 birds, but the counts from the Tennessee Valley area averaged 4,000 (Geis et al. 1971). Recent winter populations at Wheeler Refuge are of about 2,500 birds but have peaked at 8,000 (Imhof 1976b). Goldsberry et al. (1980) reported 7,200 on the 1975 winter waterfowl survey. Louisiana The Black Duck winters in Louisiana only in small numbers. Low- ery (1974) noted that it arrives in early October and remains until late March. From 1950 to 1960, an average of 6,200 was seen on winter surveys in the south- ern portion of the state (Geis et al. 1971). Wintering populations in Louisi- ana have evidently declined drastically, as none were reported on the 1975 win- ter waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Texas Black Ducks winter in Texas from September to May and are uncommon to rare in the eastern part of the state; they were formerly more common (Ober- holser 1974). Winter surveys (1950-1960) indicated an average of about 3,000 birds in the extreme northeastern part of the state (Geis et al. 1971). None were reported on the 1975 winter waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding Black Ducks breed in northeastern North America from northeastern Minnesota east to New Brunswick and Newfoundland, south to northeastern Iowa, and then east to northern Ohio and Pennsylvania and south along the coast to central North Carolina. The greatest breeding densities in Canada are in the forested areas of the Great Lakes, St. Lawrence, and Acadian areas (Reed 1968 in Bellrose 1976); in the United States these ducks breed primarily in the coastal marshes (Bellrose 1976). Average pre-hunting season populations of the Black Duck, in 1952-1960, were estimated at 3,740,000 birds, 1,551,000 of which were adults (Geis et al. 1971). More recent information is unavailable. Winter Black Ducks winter primarily from eastern Minnesota south to the northeastern coast of Texas, thence east to Nova Scotia and northern Florida (Geis et al. 1971, Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a). The January 1976 winter water- fowl survey indicated that a majority (64.5%) of the U.S. winter population of about 429,000 birds was along the Atlantic Flyway; almost all the rest wintered in the Mississippi Flyway (Larned et al. 1980). States harboring the largest wintering populations in January 1975 were New Jersey (81,910 counted), Ohio (41,000), Tennessee (34,300), and Maine (30,770) (Goldsberry et al. 1980). The total number killed in the United States during the 1975-76 hunting season was estimated to be about 361,000 birds (Larned et al. 1980). 214 According to the 1975 waterfowl count, 11.7% of the wintering population was found in the southeast. Among the 41,600 birds counted there, North Caro- lina's wintering population of 23,400 comprised by far the largest proportion (56.3%). In the remaining states, 23.3% were found in South Carolina, 17.3% in Alabama, 1.4% in Florida, 1.0% in Georgia, and 0.7% in Mississippi. None were reported on the Texas and Louisiana counts (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Black Duck, populations have been steadily declining, so much so that the species is now on the Blue List (Arbib 1979), a list that attempts to indicate species becoming threatened or endangered. Winter surveys from 1955 to 1974 showed a decline in winter populations of slightly over 40% (Bellrose 1976). The number recorded in the Atlantic Flyway during the 1975 mid-winter survey (ca. 239,000) was the lowest on record (Goldsberry et al. 1980). The reasons for this steady decrease are not adequately known but Bellrose (1976) believes it is not due to loss of breeding habitat. Recent mid-winter counts show a slight Increase in numbers wintering in the Mississippi Flyway (Goldsberry et al. 1980, Larned et al . 1980). Migration Black Ducks are less migratory than many other North American ducks, and some winter within their breeding range. The longest migrations are made by northern interior populations that may winter even farther south than the southern breeding populations (Palmer 1976a). Many postbreeding Black Ducks have a premigratory movement westward into Manitoba and eastern Saskatchewan and northward into Hudson Bay (Bellrose 1976). Bellrose (1976) considered migration corridors poorly defined, with the most important one along the Atlantic coast from the Maritime Provinces to Florida. Palmer (1976a) noted that southward de- partures from a given area often follow two or more clearly distinct pathways. More detailed information on migration routes may be found in Bellrose (1976) and Palmer (1976a) . HABITAT Nesting Palmer (1976a), summarizing many authors, noted that breeding habitats and nest sites were extremely diverse, with presence of water the only characteristic in common. He also noted that this species is largely a resi- dent of the boreal forest zone in summer. Black Ducks nest in bogs, marshes, swamps, on grassy or woodland hillsides, on the tops of rotted stumps and in the crotches of trees in flooded areas, on rocky offshore islets, in diked hay meadows, in large cavities in old trees, in abandoned nests of other birds, along lakes and streams (Palmer 1976a), on dikes and muskrat houses, in old duck blinds, and in rock crevices (authors cited _in Bellrose 1976). Palmer (1976a) also noted that they prefer to nest on high patches in dead cordgrass along the middle Atlantic coast. Feeding Feeding habitat is usually in water deep enough for the birds to float, provided that one or more staples of diet are readily available (Palmer 1976a). These birds may be found feeding in terrestrial situations on mud flats, in stubble fields, and on upland barrens (Palmer 1976a). Bellrose (1976) noted that these birds could be found as easily in fresh, brackish, and salt- water marshes along the coast as on inland marshes, lakes, impoundments, beaver ponds, and rivers. 215 Winter and Offshore Black Ducks are usually found in salt-water habitats in winter. Along the Middle Atlantic coast (where most winter) they are found primarily in brackish marshes near bays and estuaries. Other habitats used in this area include a variety of freshwater areas as well as old ricefields. Along the coast to the north, the Black Duck is more strictly marine and feeds on tidal flats, salt meadows, and in floating beds of aquatic plants. FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Black Ducks feed primarily by "tipping-up" in shallow waters, although on occasion they also graze (Johnsgard 1975). They may dive when foraging in deep- er water (Bourget and Chapdelaine 1975) and have been known to dive as deep as 10 ft (3.0 m) (Palmer 1976a). The diet of the Black Duck varies so much from habitat to habitat that Pal- mer (1976a) remarked that tables of composite diet were of limited use. He noted that one or two staples usually comprise most of the diet and that plant foods are consumed more in freshwater and brackish habitats; animal foods are more important in maritime habitats. Detailed information on foods eaten at specific localities within the south- east is summarized by state below. For an extensive listing of foods eaten in other parts of the range see Palmer (1976a). North Carolina Twenty-two wintering Black Ducks collected on Curri- tuck Sound ate a wider variety of foods than the other species of ducks examined (Quay and Critcher 1965). Virtually all the food (99.8% by volume) was of vege- table origin. The most important items in the diet were the seeds and vegeta- tive parts of smartweed (Polygonum sp. - 35.8%), the seeds of bulrush (Scirpus sp. - 13.0%), and the seeds and vegetative parts of widgeongrass (Ruppia mari- t ima - 12.3%). Other identified foods making up more than 3% of the diet were the vegetative parts of southern naiad (Naias guadalupensis - 6.7%), wax-myrtle (Myrica - 4.1%), and spikerush (Eleocharis - 3.0%). South Carolina Conrad (1965) reported the winter food habits of 23 Black Ducks collected in the vicinity of the lower Pee Dee and Waccamaw rivers near the coast in northeastern South Carolina. These ducks had consumed 97.6% vegetable food and 2.4% animal food; a third of the diet (by volume) consisted of swamp smartweed (Polygonum hydropiperoides) . Other plant foods significant in the diet were aneileraa ( Aneilema keisak - 16.7%), squarestem spikerush (Eleo- charis quadrangulata - 14.4%), softstera bulrush (Scirpus validus - 9.1%), the berries of arrow alum (Peltandra virginica - 6.2%), and wild rice (Zizania aquatica - 5.8%). The only animal food consumed to any extent was small fiddler crabs (2.0%). Conrad commented that the Black Duck ate more wild rice and more animal food than any of the other ducks studied. McGilvrey (1966) reported foods eaten in November and December by 32 Black Ducks from Lake Marion, the most important inland wintering area for waterfowl in South Carolina. The diet was again largely vegetable (97.2%), with corn ( Zea mays - 13.0%), seeds of sweet gum (Liquidambar styracif lua - 11.1%), and swamp smartweed (8.1%) consumed in the largest amounts. Other items making up 216 3% or more of the diet were green hawthorne (Craetaegus viridis - 7.3%), south- ern smartweed (Polygonum densiflorum - 4.3%), the seeds of buttonbush (Cephalan- thus occidentalis - 6.4%), a sedge (Cyperus - 7.3%), and watergrass (Hydrochloa carolinensis - 5.8%). The food habits of another 63 ducks wintering in coastal South Carolina were reported by Kerwin and Webb (1972). Again, these birds had fed largely on plants (98.4%). Of the foods identified, pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata - 13.1%) and northern jointed spikerush (Eleocharis equisetoides - 10.5%) were the most important. Other species found in significant amounts were swamp smartweed (6.1%), saltmarsh bulrush (Scirpus robustus - 6.0%), dotted smartweed (Polygonum punctatum - 5.7%), wax-myrtle (Myrica cerifera - 4.9%), arrowleaf tearthumb (Polygonum sagittatum - 4.8%), bigleaf tearthumb (Polygonum ari- f olium - 4.7%), softstem bulrush (4.0%), a flat sedge (Cyperus odoratus - 3.6%), and widgeongrass (3.1%). Landers et al. (1976) reported the foods eaten by 36 Black Ducks collected during the hunting seasons in 1972-73 and 1973-74 from managed tidal impound- ments. The majority of the food (93.8% vegetable) consisted of dotted smart- weed (33.0%) and saltmarsh bulrush (34.1%). Only three other plants made up more than 3% of the diet: saltmarsh cockspurgrass (Echinocloa walteri - 8.4%), redroot (Lachnanthes caroliniana - 3.8%), and a flat sedge (Cyperus polysta- chos - 3.5%). Finally, Prevost et al. (1979) reported that six Black Ducks collected dur- ing the 1976-77 hunting season in Georgetown County had fed almost entirely on saltmarsh bulrush (89.7%) and widgeongrass (10.3%). IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying Black Ducks nesting at Pea Island, North Carolina, had a hatch- ing peak in the first half of June, suggesting a peak of laying about a month earlier (Palmer 1976a). In Maryland, a short distance farther north, peak lay- ing occurred from mid- to late April. More northern populations nest later (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a), but terminate laying at about the same time. Mean Clutch Size Summarizing many studies that total more than 1,100 nests, Bellrose (1976) placed the average clutch size at 9.3 eggs; most clutches contain between 7 and 11 eggs. Incubation Period The incubation period varies considerably depending on ambient temperatures and the attentiveness of the hen. Averages in two studies ranged from 23 to 29 days (Bellrose 1976). Extremes of 23-33 days are given by Palmer (1976a), who noted that the mean incubation period was 26.2 days (mode 25) in Maryland, compared with a mean of 29.3 days (mode 27) for cooler Quebec. Hatching Success Overall, nest success of the Black Duck averages about 42%. About 6% of the eggs in successful nests failed to hatch in a Maryland study (Bellrose 1976). Palmer (1976a) remarked that hatching success varies from year to year throughout the range. He reported a range of hatching suc- cess from 51.4% to 83.3% over a five-year period in Quebec. 217 Fledging Success There is about a 23% reduction in brood size through the period of development (Bellrose 1976), but we have no figures for fledging suc- cess as this term is usually applied. Age at Fledging Black Ducks become capable of flight at an age of 58-63 days (Gollop and Marshall 1954 In Bellrose 1976). Palmer (1976a) reported that young birds usually fly in their 8th week. Age at First Breeding Both males and females are capable of breeding in their first year. A large proportion of the females do so, but many males may not breed until the second year or later (Palmer 1976a). In at least one area, about 6-10% of the females did not breed in their first year; these may have been birds that hatched late the preceding summer (Stotts In Bellrose 1976). Mortality of Eggs and Young Raccoons are the most important predator on Black Duck nests in the southern portion of the range. In other areas crows and gulls may destroy a large proportion of the nests. Tidal flooding and hu- man activities are other sources of nest failure (Bellrose 1976). As for many other precocial birds, little quantitative information is available on the sources of mortality of Black ducklings, but the factors are probably the same as for other dabbling ducks, i.e., predation and failure to reach water. Renesting Renesting is frequent in the Black Duck and in some areas these nesting attempts may account for a large share of the young produced (Bellrose 1976). Only rarely is a third clutch initiated after the loss of a second. Various studies have reported a range of 5-26 days between nestings after loss of a clutch. Older hens are more likely to renest than younger ones. In one study, 14% of the yearlings and 49% of older hens renested (various authors cited jji Bellrose 1976). Maximum Natural Longevity A banded bird recovered in Delaware had reached an estimated minimum age of 26 years and 5 months (Clapp et al . in press). Weight Bellrose (1976) gave the average weights of 346 adult males and 224 adult females as about 2.76 lb (1,250 g) and 2.45 lb (1,100 g) , respectively. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION The Black Duck is a known victim of oiling. In the winter of 1942, oil penetrated inland along coastal New Jersey, killing hundreds of Black Ducks (Peterson 1942). Estimated mortality of Black Ducks killed in seven spills along the Delaware River and in the Chesapeake Bay, 1973-1978 was about 525 birds, or about 0.1% of all birds killed (Perry et al. 1979). No other dab- bling duck except the Mallard was as strongly affected. Data from other oil- ing incidents are shown in Table 4. A few experimental studies have produced information on the effects of oil on this species. Black Ducks experimentally painted with oil on the breast were shown to ingest significant amounts following preening (Hartung 1963); those experimentally fed cutting or diesel oil developed an inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity that resulted in incoordination, ataxia, tremors, 218 and constricted pupils (Hartung and Hunt 1966). Black Ducks are more likely to occur on salt water than most dabbling ducks, and thus are more likely to become victims of oil spills. However, only a small proportion of the winter population occurs in coastal waters of the southeastern states. The species is most likely to be at hazard in North Carolina, where over half the Black Ducks wintering in the southeast are found and where the cooler winters will promote greater mortality from oiling. Table 4. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Black Ducks found after major oiling incidents. Area Dates Number Number Percent- of oiled of dead age of dead Black Black birds Ducks Ducks Source Island Beach, New Jersey Jan. 1945 92 (a) 1.09 Kramer and Kramer 1945 Off eastern Canada Feb. -Apr. 1,276 (b,c) 1 1970 0.08 Brown et al. 1973 Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Feb. 1976 8,385 (b) 12 0.14 Roland et al. 1977 (a) Total includes some birds that were not oiled. (b) Total includes only those birds identified to species. (c) Total includes both live and dead oiled birds. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Eastin, W. C. , Jr., S. D. Haseltine and H. C. Murray. 1980. Intestinal ab- sorption of 5 chromium compounds in young Black Ducks (Anas rubripes). Toxicol. Letters 6: 193-197. Reinecke, K. J. and R. B. Owen, Jr. 1980. Food use and nutrition of Black Ducks nesting in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 549-558. Ringelman, J. K. 1980. The breeding ecology of the Black Duck in south-central Maine. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono, ME. 101 pp. Ringelman, J. K. and J. R. Longcore. 1980. Computer simulation models as tools for identifying research needs: a Black Duck population model. Trans. N.E. Sec. Wildl. Soc. 37: 182-193. 219 1979 Mehrle, P. M., M. T. Finley, J. L. Ludke, F. L. Mayer and T. E. Kaiser. 1979. Bone development in Black Ducks as affected by dietary toxaphene. Pest. Biochem. Physiol. 10: 168-173. Reinecke, K. J. 1979. Feeding ecology and development of juvenile Black Ducks in Maine. Auk 96: 737-745. Ringelmen, J. K. and J. R. Longcore. 1979. Rockets, radios, and research or bugging the Black Duck. Maine Fish Wildl. 21: 25-27. Seymour, N. R. and R. D. Titman. 1979. Behaviour of unpaired male Black Ducks (Anas rubripes) during the breeding season in a Nova Scotia tidal marsh. Can. J. Zool. 57: 2421-2428. White, D. H. 1979. Nationwide residues of organochlorine compounds in wings of adult Mallard and Black ducks, 1976-77. Pest. Monit. J. 13: 12-16. 1978 Finley, M. T. and R. C. Stendall. 1978. Survival and reproductive success of Black Ducks fed methyl mercury. Environ. Pollut . 16: 51-64. Heinz, G. H. and M. T. Finley. 1978. Toxaphene does not affect avoidance be- havior of young Black Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 408-409. Mahoney, S. P. and W. Threlfall. 1978. Digenea, Nematoda, and Acanthocephala of two species of ducks from Ontario and eastern Canada. Can. J. Zool. 56: 436-439. Ranta , W. B. , F. D. Toraassini and E. Nieboer . 1978. Elevation of copper and nickel levels in primaries from Black and Mallard ducks collected in the Sudbury District, Ontario. Can. J. Zool. 56: 581-586. Seymour, N. R. and R. D. Titman. 1978. Changes in activity patterns, agon- istic behavior, and territoriality of Black Ducks (Anas rubripes) during the breeding season in a Nova Scotia tidal marsh. Can. J. Zool. 56: 1773-1785. Wooley, J. B. , Jr. and R. B. Owen, Jr. 1978. Energy costs of activity and daily energy expenditure in the Black Duck. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 739- 745. 1977 Longcore, J. R. and R. C. Stendell. 1977. Shell thinning and reproductive im- pairment in Black Ducks after cessation of DDE dosage. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 6: 293-304. Reinecke, K. J. 1977. Invertebrate feeding by Black Ducks in Maine wetlands. Trans. N.E. Sec. Wildl. Soc. 32: 170-182. 220 Seymour, N. R. 1977. Social aspects of reproductive behaviour in the Black Duck (Anas rubripes) in eastern Nova Scotia. Ph.D. thesis, McGill Univ./ Montreal, PQ. Wooley, J. B. , Jr. and R. B. Owen, Jr. 1977. Metabolic rates and heart rate metabolism in the Black Duck (Anas rubripes). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 57(3A): 363-367. 1976 Alison, R. M. 1976. History of the Black Duck in Ontario. Ont . Field Biol. 30: 27-34. Brooke, R. K. and J. C. Sinclair. 1976. An American Black Duck in Durban. Ostrich 47: 67-68. Daniels, B. A. and R. S. Freeman. 1976. Corrigia obscura sp. n. (Tremetoda: Dicrocoeliidae) from the North American Black Duck. J. Parasitol. 62: 59-62. Johnsgard, P. A. and R. DiSilvestro. 1976. Seventy-five years of changes in Mallard/ Black Duck ratios in eastern North America. Am. Birds 30: 905- 908. White, D. H. and R. G. Heath. 1976. Nationwide residues of organochlorines in wings of adult Mallards and Black Ducks, 1972-73. Pest. Monit. J. 9: 176-185. 1975 Jonsson, P. E. 1975. [First record of Black Duck Anas rubripes in Sweden.] Var Fagelvarld 34: 53-55. [In Swedish with English summary.] Reed, A. 1975. Reproductive output of Black Ducks in the St. Lawrence estuary. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 243-255. 1974 Anon. 1974. Le canard noir. Faune Quebec 5: 1-8. Heath, R. G. and S. A. Hill. 1974. Nationwide organochlorine and mercury res- idues in wings of adult Mallards and Black Ducks during the 1969-70 hunt- ing season. Pest. Monit. J. 7: 153-164. Heusmann, H. W. 1974. Mallard-Black Duck relationships in the northeast. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 2: 171-177. 1973 Longcore, J. R. and B. M. Mulhern. 1973. Organochlorine pesticides and poly- chlorinated biphenyls in Black Duck eggs from the United States and Canada, 1971. Pest. Monit. J. 7: 62-66. 221 Longcore, J. R. and F. B. Samson. 1973. Eggshell breakage by Incubating Black Ducks fed DDE. J. Wlldl . Manage. 37: 390-394. McLaughlin, J. D. and M. D. B. Burt. 1973. Changes in the cestode fauna of the Black Duck, Anas rubripes (Brewster). Can. J. Zool. 51: 1001-1006. 1972 Grandy, J. W. 1972. Digestion and passage of blue mussels eaten by Black Ducks. Auk 89: 189-190. 1971 Berger, M. , J. S. Hart and 0. Z. Roy. 1971. Respiratory water and heat loss of the Black Duck during flight at different ambient temperatures. Can. J. Zool. 49: 767-774. Geis, A. D., R. I. Smith and J. P. Rogers. 1971. Black Duck distribution, har- vest characteristics, and survival. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 139. xxii and 241 pp. Longcore, J. R. , F. B. Samson and T. W. Whittendale. 1971. DDE thins eggshells and lowers reproductive success of captive Black Ducks. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 6: 485-490. 1970 Barclay, J. S. 1970. Ecological aspects of defensive behavior in breeding Mallards and Black Ducks. Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State Univ. / Col umbus , OH. 176 pp. Bellrose, F. C. and R. D. Crompton. 1970. Migration behavior of Mallard and Black ducks as determined from banding. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 30: 167-234. Penney, J. G. and E. D. Bailey. 1970. Comparison of the energy requirements of fledgling Black Ducks and American Coots. J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 105- 114. 1968 Coulter, M. W. and W. R. Miller. 1968. Nesting biology of Black Ducks and Mal- lards in northern New England. Vermont Fish Game Dept . Bull. No. 68-2. 74 pp. Martinson, R. K. , A. D. Geis and R. I. Smith. 1968. Black Duck harvest and population dynamics in eastern Canada and the Atlantic flyway. Pp. 21- 52 ±n P. Barske (ed.) The Black Duck: evaluation, management, and research. Brew Printing Co. Reichel, W. L. and C. E. Addy. 1968. A survey of chlorinated pesticide res- idues in Black Duck eggs. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 3: 174-179. 222 Young, C. M. 1968. Island nesting of ducks in northern Ontario. Can. Field- Nat. 82: 209-212. 1967 Johnsgard, P. A. 1967. Sympatry changes and hybridization incidence in Mal- lards and Black Ducks. Am. Midi. Nat. 77: 51-63. Young, C. M. 1967. Overland migration of duck broods in a drought-free area. Can. J. Zool. 45: 249-251. 1966 Kaestner, P. 1966. Red-necked Grebe and albino Black Duck at Loch Raven. Md. Birdlife 22: 107. 1965 Bandy, L. W. 1965. Colonization of artificial nesting structures by wild Mal- lard and Black Ducks. M.S. thesis, Ohio State Univ. /Columbus , OH. 67 pp. Parnell, J. F. and T. L. Quay. 1965. The populations, breeding biology, and environmental relations of the Black Duck, Gadwall, and Blue-winged Teal at Pea and Bodie islands, North Carolina. Proc. 16th Annu. Conf. South- eastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 53-67. 1964 Leitch, W. G. 1964. Black Duck breeding record for Alberta. Can. Field-Nat. 78: 199. Reed, A. F. 1964. A nesting study of the Black Duck, Anas rubripes, at Ile- aux-Pommes , Quebec. M.S. thesis, Laval Univ. /Quebec , PQ. 1963 Hartman, F. E. 1963. Estuarine wintering habitat for Black Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 27: 339-347. 1962 Florschutz, 0., Jr. 1962. The Black Duck in North Carolina. Wildl. N.C. 26: 14-15. 1961 Cadbury, C. J. 1961. Black Duck in Co. Wexford. Brit. Birds 54: 324-325. Johnsgard, P. A. 1961. Wintering distribution changes in Mallards and Black Ducks. Am. Midi. Nat. 66: 477-484. 223 ! 96i ) Hartman, F. E. 1960. Ecology of Black Ducks wintering in the Penobscot Estu- ary. M.S. thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono, ME. 142 pp. Johnsgard, P. A. 1960. A quantitative study of sexual behavior of Mallards and Black Ducks. Wilson Bull. 72: 133-155. Stotts, V. D. and D. E. Davis. 1960. The Black Duck in the Chesapeake Bay of Maryland: breeding behavior and biology. Chesapeake Sci. 1: 127-154. Winner, R. W. 1960. Fall and winter movements of Black and Mallard ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 24: 332-335. 1959 Lemieux, L. and G. Moisan. 1959. The migration, mortality rate and recovery rate of the Quebec Black Duck. Trans. N.E. Wildl. Conf. 1: 124-148. Stotts, V. D. 1959. Black Duck studies: final report. Md. Pittman-Robertson Project W-30-R-7. 241 pp (typewritten). Winner, R. W. 1959. Field-feeding periodicity of Black and Mallard ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 23: 197-202. 1958 Murray, L. H. 1958. The Black Duck in Saskatchewan. Blue Jay 16: 109-111. Stewart, R. E. 1958. Distribution of the Black Duck. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Circ. No. 51. ii and 8 pp. Stotts, V. D. 1958a. The time of formation of pairs in Black Ducks. Md. Con- serv. 35: 11-15. . 1958b. The time of formation of pairs in Black Ducks. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 23: 192-197. 1957 Benson, D. 1957. Studies in the ecology of the Black Duck, Anas rubripes Brew- ster. M.S. thesis, Cornell Univ. /Ithaca , NY. Stotts, V. D. 1957a. Banding Black Ducks in Maryland. Md. Conserv. 34: 16-20. . 1957b. The Black Duck (Anas rubripes) in the upper Chesapeake Bay. Proc. 10th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss. : 234-242. Winner, R. W. 1957. A study of local and migratory movements of Black and Mallard duck populations in central Ohio. Ph.D. thesis, Ohio St. Univ./ Columbus , OH. 224 1956 Goodwin, C. E. 1956. Black Duck and Mallard populations in the Toronto area. Ont. Field Biol. 10: 7-18. McCormick, J. M. 1956. Black Ducks eat stunned fish. Wilson Bull. 68: 320. 1955 Coulter, M. W. 1955. Spring food habits of surface- feeding ducks in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 19: 263-267. Kennedy, P. G. 1955. Black Duck in Co. Kilkenny: a bird new to Ireland and Britain. Brit. Birds 48: 341. Miskiraan, M. 1955. Meteorological and social factors in autumnal migration of ducks. Condor 57: 179-184. Scott, P. 1955. Notes on the Black Duck. Brit. Birds 48: 342. Stotts, V. D. 1955. Black Duck breeding study ends in the Kent Island area. Md. Tidewater News 12: 1-4. 1954 Lee, J. A. 1954. Recent studies on the fall migration of Black Ducks in New Hampshire. New Hampshire Fish Game Dept . 6 pp. Wright, B. S. 1954. High tide and an east wind. The story of the Black Duck. Stackpole & Wildl. Manage. Instit. xiii and 162 pp. 1953 Addy, C. E. 1953. Fall migration of the Black Duck. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 19. 63 pp. 1950 Bellrose, F. C. and E. B. Chase. 1950. Population losses in the Mallard, Black Duck, and Blue-winged Teal. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv . Biol. Notes No. 22: 1- 27. Hammond, M. C. and E. J. Smith, Jr. 1950. The Black Duck, Anas rubripes, in North Dakota. Auk 67: 510-512. 1949 Mendall, H. L. 1949. Food habits in relation to Black Duck management in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 13: 64-101. 225 Wright, B. S. 1948. Black Ducks in the Maritime Provinces and Canada. Proc. N.E. Game Conf . 1948: 72. 1947 Bailey, A. M. 1947. Black and Mottled ducks in Colorado. Condor 49: 209. Trautman, M. E. 1947. Courtship behavior of the Black Duck. Wilson Bull. 59: 26-35. Wright, B. S. 1947. The Black Duck in eastern Canada, a study of the breeding ecology. M.S. thesis, Univ. Wisconsin/Madison, WI. 1946 Addy, C. E. 1946. Food habits of the Black Duck on the Essex County salt marshes. Bull. Mass. Audubon Soc. 30: 3-10. Griscom, L. 1946. The Black Duck — a tribute and a plea. Bull. Mass. Audubon Soc. 29: 305-307. Hagar, J. A. 1946. Black Duck bandings at the Austin Ornithological Research Station on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Bird-Banding 17: 97-124, 18: 17-26. 1945 Addy, C. E. 1945a. A preliminary report on food habits of the Black Duck in Massachusetts. Mass. Dept . Conserv. Resch. Bull. 6. iii and 11 pp. . 1945b. Great Black-backed Gull kills adult Black Duck. Auk 62: 142- 143. 1945c. Massachusetts waterfowl survey. Mass. Dept. Conserv., Div. _ Wildl. Resch. & Manage., Resch. Bull. No. 7. 21 pp. Gross, A. 0. 1945. The Black Duck nesting on the outer coastal islands of Maine. Auk 62: 620-622. 1943 Shortt, T. M. 1943. Correlation of bill and foot coloring with age and sea- son in the Black Duck. Wilson Bull. 55: 3-7. Trautman, M. B. 1943. Normal flight of a Black Duck after healing of wing fractures. Wilson Bull. 55: 126. Wing, L. 1943. Relative distribution of Mallard and Black Duck in winter. Auk 60: 438-439. 1940 Kutz, H. L. 1940. The diving ability of the Black Duck. J. Wildl. Manage, 4: 19-20. 226 1939 Lynch, J. J. 1939. Marine algae in food of Rhode Island waterfowl. Auk 56: 374-380. 1937 Benson, D. 1937. Studies in the ecology of the Black Duck, Anas rubripes (Brewster). M.A. thesis, Cornell Univ. /Ithaca , NY. 1935 Christofferson, K. 1935. Common Black Duck, Red-legged Black Duck and Mallard sex ratios. Bird-Banding 6: 138. 1932 van Huizen, P. J. 1932 ms. Report on the Black Duck nests on the Blackwater Migratory Bird Refuge, Cambridge, MD. Ms filed in Biol. Survey, Washing- ton, D.C. 1931 Pirnie, M. D. 1931. Fall migration of the Black Duck from northern Michigan. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts & Letters 15: 485-490. 1924 Bergtold, W. H. 1924. The Black Duck in Colorado. Auk 41: 338. Henderson, J. 1924. Status of the Black and Mottled ducks in Colorado. Auk 41: 471. 1922 Phillips, J. C. 1922. Is the Black Duck extending its range? Bull. Am. Game Protective Assoc. 11: 12-13. 1920 Phillips, J. C. 1920. Habits of the two Black Ducks, Anas rubripes rubripes and Anas rubripes tristis. Auk 37: 289-291. 1918 McAtee, W. L. 1918. Food habits of the Mallard Ducks of the United States. U.S. Dept. Agric. Bull. No. 720. 1916 Townsend, C. W. 1916. The courtship of the Merganser, Mallard, Black Duck, Baldpate, Wood Duck, and Bufflehead. Auk 33: 9-17. 227 1909 Sawyer, E. J. 1909. The courtship of Black Ducks. Bird Lore 11: 195-196. 1902 Brewster, W. L. 1902. An undescribed form of the Black Duck (Anas obscura) Auk 19: 183-188. 228 NORTHERN PINTAIL (Anas acuta) [DA: Spidsand, DU: Pijlstaart, FI: Jouhisorsa, FR: Canard pilet, GE: Spiessente, IC: Grafond, IT: Codone , JA: Onagagamo , NW: Stjertand, PO: Rozeniec, PR: Arrabio, RU: (Awltail), SP: Pato cola-puntiaguda comun, Pato pescuecilargo, Anade rabudo; SW: Stjartand, US: Common Pintail, Sprig] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION One of the most widespread of the North American waterfowl, the Northern Pintail breeds from the Aleutian Islands and Alaska east across northern Canada to the Ungava Peninsula, and south to central California, northwestern New Mex- ico, Kansas, Iowa, the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence River, and Newfoundland. Isolated nesting occasionally takes place south of these general boundaries (AOU 1957, Johnsgard 1975, Palmer 1976a). The species winters from southern Alaska and coastal British Columbia through the western states, and on the Atlantic coastal plain from New York to the Gulf of Mexico, through Mexico and Central America, and in the Greater Antilles (AOU 1957, Bond 1971, Palmer 1976a). The species also breeds across most of Europe and northern Asia, wintering south to sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia (Dement ' ev and Gladkov 1952, Cramp et al . 1977). The Northern Pintail is a common winter bird in the coastal southeastern United States (Map 14). Large proportions of the birds using the Atlantic Fly- way winter in North Carolina (35,000) and South Carolina (87,000), where they frequent rice fields, open ponds, and cypress lagoons (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949, Bellrose 1976). Large numbers also winter in northern Florida (Bellrose 1976, Kale 1979 ms b). Birds from the Mississippi Flyway are concentrated in the coastal marshes of Louisiana (est. 720,000) and coastal Texas (Bellrose 1976). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Pintails may be badly affected by oil. In inland areas of the Caspian Sea they have been the most frequent victims of oiling (Vereshchagin 1946). Others have suffered heavy mortality due to oil sumps in Wyoming (King 1953). At least one Pintail was affected by the 1971 oil spill in San Francisco Bay (Smail et al. 1972). Large numbers winter in and around the coastal marshes of the south- east, and an oiling incident affecting shallow water areas could have an impact on the North American population. However, they will probably be little affect- ed by offshore oil production or by oil spills occurring at sea. Taxonomic note: The AOU Check-list (1957) gives the English name of this spe- cies simply as Pintail. We prefer to call it the Northern Pintail following Johnsgard (1975) and Palmer (1976a) to reduce confusion with other species re- ferred to as Pintails (e.g., Bahama or White-cheeked Pintail, Anas bahamensis). 229 £ tl it 58 S 1 X I i •* o i \. \ ' i * T 1 \ Jfe ___— 6 i -k i -k -] — 1 ° o ui pip \ / 8©Vj) Ml o > \ ft) JL — ~~-ZLXL*l i f i/ 1° > ■ — V— ~\ iH*k T^ (5S (v)i ■! r 1 \ X; / rrrt | \ V si^V*^ j «2 i?~(°) •i i^ J i ^UH * o IL -1 O 1 ■ —Tt— r^3y ^ ■^ ( 3 r> =.■"3 8 8:;S § s *■= t c § , °e ! ] 11 2 - * 7 e! 18- * * £ r^4 ^X „.s~- ^_- ~tc < ¥> 8 IB •e? « r-i n r s «■ =» o s iULI. II- ill®©© 111 tX-^S *1 X 111 / fe i 1 230 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Baldassarre, G. A., R. J. Whyte and E. G. Bolen. 1980. Patagial tags for Pin- tails wintering on the southern high plains of Texas. Inl . Bird-Banding 52: 13-18. Connelly, D. P. and D. L. Chesenore. 1980. Food habits of Pintails, Anas acuta, wintering on seasonally flooded wetlands in the northern San Joa- quin Valley, California. Calif. Fish Game 66: 233-237. Danell, K. and K. Sjoberg. 1980. Foods of Wigeon, Teal, Mallard and Pintail during the summer in a northern Swedish lake. Viltrevy 11: 141-167. Derksen, D. V. and W. D. Eldridge. 1980. Drought-displacement of Pintails to the Arctic coastal plain, Alaska. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 224-229. Dubois, P. 1980. Nidification possible du Canard pilet Anas acuta L. et du Canard siffleur Anas penelope L. dans le Cantal? Oiseau Rev. Fr . Ornithol . 48: 282-283. [In French.] 1979 Ebenhard, N. T. 1979. First record in the Seychelles of Northern Pintail Anas acuta acuta. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 99: 39-40. 1978 Afton, A. D. 1978. Incubation rhythms and egg temperatures of an American Green-winged Teal and a renesting Pintail. Prairie Nat. 10: 115-119. Campbell, R. R. and E. Boorman. 1978. Pintail parasitizing Snow Goose nest. Blue Jay 36: 116-117. Derrickson, S. R. 1978. The mobility of breeding Pintails. Auk 95: 104-114. Hochbaum, G. and G. Ball. 1978. An aggressive encounter between a Pintail with a brood and a "Franklin Gull. Wilson Bull. 90: 455. Nudds, T. D. 1978. Comments on Calverley and Boag' s (1977) hypothesis on dis- placed ducks and an evolutionary alternative. Can. J. Zool. 56: 2239-2241. Wishart, R. A. and R. W. Knapton. 1978. Male Pintails defending females from rape. Auk 95: 186-187. 1977 Alford, J. R., Ill and E. G. Bolen. 1977a. Influence of winter temperatures on Pintail sex ratios in Texas. Southwest. Nat. 21: 554-556. 231 Alford, J. R. , III and E. G. Bolen. 1977b. Differential responses of male and female Pintail Ducks to decoys. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 657-661. Calverley, B. K. and D. A. Boag. 1977. Reproductive potentials in parkland- and arctic-nesting populations of Mallards and Pintails (Anatidae) . Can. J. Zool. 55: 1242-1251. Clark, A. 1977. Review of the records of three Palearctic ducks in southern Africa. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 97: 107-114. Danell, K. and K. Sjoberg. 1977. Seasonal emergence of chironomids in rela- tion to egg-laying and hatching of ducks in a restored lake (northern Sweden). Wildfowl 28: 129-135. Derrickson, S. R. 1977. Aspects of breeding behavior in the Pintail (Anas acuta) . Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/Minneapolis, MN. 122 pp. Krapu, G. L. 1977. Pintail reproduction hampered by snowfall and agriculture. Wilson Bull. 89: 154-157. Krapu, G. L. and G. A. Swanson. 1977. Foods of juvenile, brood hen, and post- breeding Pintails in North Dakota. Condor 79: 504-507. Kuroda, N. 1977. [Examples of masculinized female Pintails Anas acuta.] Misc. Rep. Yamashina Inst. Ornithol. 8: 282-283. [In Japanese with English sum- mary. ] Moller, A. P. 1977. Yngletidspunkt , kuldstorrelse og ungerproduktion hos nogle andefugle i Nordjylland. [Time of breeding, clutch size, and nestling pro- duction in some species of Anatidae in northern Jutland, Denmark.] Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 71: 68-69. [In Danish with English summary.] Rettig, K. 1977. Zum Vorkommen der Speissente (Anas acuta) and der nieder- sachsischen Nordseekuste . Vogelkdl. Ber . Nieders. 9: 1-3. Smith, F. W. 1977. Records of molting in the Pintail (Anas acuta) and the Northern Shoveler (Anas clypeata) on the Texas Gulf Coast. Southwest. Nat. 21: 558. Williams, N. A., B. K. Calverley and J. L. Mahrt. 1977. Blood parasites of Mallard and Pintail ducks from central Alberta and the Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories. J. Wildl. Dis. 13: 226-229. 1976 Tamisier, A. 1976. Diurnal activities of Green-winged Teal and Pintail win- tering in Louisiana. Wildfowl 27: 19-32. 1975 Bourget, A. and G. Chapdelaine. 1975. Diving by wintering puddle ducks. Wild- fowl 26: 55-57. 232 Coates, B. 1975. Notes on a Pintail seen at Ndeke Settling Ponds, Kitwe. Bull. Zarabian Ornithol. Soc. 6: 22-23. Krapu, G. L. and G. A. Swanson. 1975. Some nutritional aspects of reproduc- tion in prairie nesting Pintails. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 156-162. 1974 Coolidge, H. W. 1974. Early fall observations of Pintails and Common Mergan- ser. Oriole 39: 48. Irwin, M. P. S. 1974. The Pintail Anas acuta in Rhodesia. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 94: 56-57. Krapu, G. L. 1974a Feeding ecology of Pintail hens during reproduction. Auk 91: 278-290. . 1974b. Foods of breeding Pintails in North Dakota. J. Wildl. Manage. 38: 408-417. Litvenenko, N. M. 1974. [Variations in the food composition of Anas acuta L. and Anas crecca L. caused by fluctuations in the water level in the Ilis- taya River (southern Primorye Territory).] Trudy Dal'nevost. Nauch. Tsen- tralbiol. Pochy. Inst. 17: 197-200. [In Russian with English summary.] Swift, J. 1974. Pintail: a project assessing the release of hand-reared birds, WAGBI Annu. Rept. 1973-74: 55-58. 1973 Buckalew, J. H. 1973. Distribution of Pintails. EBBA News 36 (Suppl.): 44-52, Henny, C. J. 1973. Drought displaced movement of North American Pintails into Siberia. J. Wildl. Manage. 37: 23-29. Krapu, G. L., G. A. Swanson and H. K. Nelson. 1973. Mercury residues in Pin- tails breeding in North Dakota. J. Wildl. Manage. 37: 395-399. Sugden, L. G. 1973. Feeding ecology of Pintail, Gadwall , American Wigeon, and Lesser Scaup ducklings in southern Alberta. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. Ser . No. 24. 45 pp. 1972 Asbirk, S. 1972. Spidsoender. Feltornithologen 14: 148-149. Hochbaum, G. S. and E. F. Bossenmaier. 1972. Response of Pintails to improved breeding habitat in southern Manitoba. Can. Field-Nat. 86: 79-91. Krapu, G. L. 1972. Feeding ecology of the Pintail (Anas acuta) in North Dak- ota. Ph.D. thesis, Iowa St. Univ. /Ames, IA. 91 pp. 233 Worthen, G. L. 1972. An anomalous bill in a Pintail. Bull. Kansas Ornithol. Soc. 23: 9-10. 1971 Baysinger, E. B. and R. D. Bauer. 1971. A documented instance of reverse mi- gration in the Pintail. Auk 88: 438. 1969 Crichton, V. F. 1969. The helminths in the digestive tract of the Mallard and Pintail in southern Manitoba. M.S. thesis, Univ. Manitoba/Winnipeg, MB. 121 pp. 1968 Maher, W. J. and D. N. Nettleship. 1968. The Pintail (Anas acuta) breeding at latitude 82° N of Ellesmere Island, N.W.T. , Canada. Auk 85: 320-321. Smith, R. I. 1968. The social aspects of reproductive behavior in the Pintail. Auk 85: 381-396. 1966 Sterling, R. T. 1966. Dispersal and mortality of adult drake Pintails Anas acuta. M.S. thesis, Univ. Saskatchewan/Saskatoon, SK. 57 pp. 1965 Bardwell, J. L. , L. L. Glasgow and E. A. Epps , Jr. 1965. Nutritional analyses of foods eaten by Pintail and Teal in south Louisiana. Proc. 16th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 209-217. Beck, W. H. 1965. Association of a Pintail drake and a Mallard pair. Blue Jay 23: 121. Swanson, C. V. and R. G. Jeffrey. 1965. Pintail duck breeding records in west- ern Washington. Murrelet 46: 12-14. 1964 Oring, L. W. 1964. Egg moving by incubating ducks. Auk 81: 88-89. 1963 Smith, R. I. 1963. The social aspects of reproductive behavior in the Pin- tail, Anas acuta acuta (L.). Ph.D. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, UT. 1962 Hamilton, W. J., III. 1962. Initial orientation and homing of inexperienced Pintails. Bird-Banding 33: 61-69. 234 Phillips, R. and A. van Tienhoven. 1962. Some physiological correlates of Pintail reproductive behavior. Condor 64: 291-299. 1960 Bartlett, C. 0. 1960. American Wigeon and Pintail in the Maritime Provinces, Can. Field-Nat. 74: 153-155. Keith, L. B. and R. P. Stanislawski . 1960. Stomach contents and weights of some flightless adult Pintails. J. Wildl. Manage. 24: 95-96. 1959 Chapman, S., B. King and N. Webb. 1959. Pintails diving. Brit. Birds 52: 60. 1957 Yocum, C. F. 1957. Breeding record of Pintail in Humboldt County, California. Condor 59: 340-341. 1956 Turcotte, W. H. 1956. A California-banded Pintail found in Mississippi. Miss Ornithol. Soc . Newsl. 1: 6. 1955 Erickson, J. G. 1955. Pintails harassing a Short-eared Owl. Auk 72: 431. 1954 Oglesby, C. V. and F. A. Glover. 1954. Body temperatures of botulistic Pin- tails. Condor 56: 162-163. Wrakestraw, G. F. 1954. Pintail migration patterns. Wyo. Wildl. 18: 16-18. Wrakestraw, G. F. and R. M. Ballou. 1954. Migration patterns of Wyoming Pin- tails. Proc. 34th Conf. Western Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 276-278. Yocum, C. F. 1954. American Pintail (Anas acuta tzitzihoa) on Crater Lake. Murrelet 35: 9. 1953 Fuller, R. W. 1953. Studies in the life history and ecology of the American Pintail, (Anas acuta tzitzihoa Viellot) , in Utah. M.S. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, UT. 181 pp. Parkes, K. C. 1953. Evidence for the suppression of the American race of the Pintail. Condor 55: 275-276. 235 1952 Cooch, G. 1952. Unusual foot colouration in Pintails (Anas acuta) and note on European recoveries. Can. Field-Nat. 66: 111. Pease, H. and E. W. Flaxman. 1952. Distraction display of Pintail. Brit. Birds 45: 73. 1950 Hamilton, R. D. 1950. Food of young Pintail Duck, Anas acuta, in Alaska. Auk 67: 383. Leach, E. P. 1950. Trans-Atlantic flight of ringed Pintail. Brit. Birds 43: 191. 1949 Krutzsch, P. H. 1949. An extension of the altitudinal nesting range of the Pintail in California. Condor 51: 232-233. Reeve, A. J. 1949. Pintail migrates to Europe. Bird-Banding 20: 149-150. 1946 Kutz, H. L. and D. G. Allen. 1946. The American Pintail breeding in New York. Auk 63: 596. 1944 Munro, J. A. 1944. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia: Pintail. Can. J. Res. 22: 60-86. 1943 Lincoln, F. C. 1943. American Pintail on Palmyra Island. Condor 45: 232. 1933 Lewis, H. F. 1933. Banding provides the first certain record of the Eurasian Pintail (Dafila acuta acuta L.) in North America. Bird-Banding 4: 112-113. 1927 Lincoln, F. C. 1927. A note on the longevity of the Pintail. Condor 29: 115. 236 BLUE -WINGED TEAL (Anas discors) [DA: Blavinget And, DU: Blauwvleugeltaling , FI: Sinisiipitavi , FR: Sarcell sou- crourou, GR: Blauf lugelente , IT: Marzaiola americana, PO: Kaczka raodroskrzydia , PR: Pato, SP: Cerceta aliazul, Cerceta de alas azules; SW: Amerikansk arta] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Blue-winged Teal is a breeding bird from southeastern Alaska and Brit- ish Columbia across the Prairie Provinces of Canada to southern Ontario and Nova Scotia. The range extends southward to California, the Great Basin, central Texas and Louisiana, northern Missouri, Tennessee, and the central Atlantic Sea- board (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976). Occasional nesting takes place in the south- eastern states. In winter the Blue-winged Teal occurs from southern California, northern Mexico, coastal Texas and the Gulf coast to South Carolina, south through Mexico and Central America to northern South America, occasionally as far south as Argentina and Chile (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976a). This teal is most common as a spring and fall migrant in the coastal south- east, although moderate numbers winter there (Map 15) and a few remain to breed. Some estimated wintering populations are 5,000 in South Carolina, 11,000 in Florida, 190,000 in Louisiana, and 8,000-9,000 in coastal Texas (Bellrose 1976). Preferred habitats are freshwater or brackish marshes and shallow inland ponds (Palmer 1976a; Johnsgard 1975, 1978). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION The Blue-winged Teal rated a score of only 1 of a possible 100 on King and Sanger's (1979) Oil Vulnerability Index based on birds of the northeast Pacific, where the species is uncommon. King (1953) reported this species as a victim of oil sumps in inland localities. Although the species both nests and winters in coastal marshes in the southeastern United States, only a very small propor- tion of the population is involved. Many birds remain inland on fresh water, and most winter well south of the area. Danger to this species by development in the southeast would be slight. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Ringelman, J. K. and L. D. Flake. 1980. Diurnal visibility and activity of Blue-winged Teal and Mallard broods. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 822-829. Stewart, G. R. and R. D. Titraan. 1980. Territorial behaviour by prairie pot- hole Blue-winged Teal. Can. J. Zool . 58: 639-649. 237 238 1979 Bolen, E. G. 1979. Blue-winged X Cinnamon Teal hybrid from Oklahoma. Wilson Bull. 91: 367-370. Sell, D. L. 1979. Fall foods of teal on the Texas high plains. Southwest. Nat. 24: 373-375. Weller, M. W. 1979. Density and habitat relationships of Blue-winged Teal nesting in northwestern Iowa. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 367-374. Weseloh, D. V. and L. M. Weseloh. 1979. Probable hybrids of Cinnamon X Blue- winged Teal from southern Alberta. Can. Field-Nat. 93: 316-317. 1978 Bailey, R. 0., N. R. Seymour and G. R. Stewart. 1978. Rape behavior in Blue- winged Teal. Auk 95: 188-190. Bolen, E. G. 1978. Notes on Blue-winged Teal X Cinnamon Teal hybrids. South- west. Nat. 23: 692-696. Connelly, J. W. , Jr. 1978. Trends in Blue-winged and Cinnamon teal populations of eastern Washington. Murrelet 59: 2-6. Taylor, T. S. 1978. Spring foods of migrating Blue-winged Teals on seasonally flooded impoundments. J. Wildl. Manage. 42: 900-903. 1977 Briggs, R. L. 1977. Blue-winged Teal banding project Panama Canal Zone. N. Am. Bird Bander 2: 104-105. Connelly, J. W., Jr. 1977. A comparative study of Blue-winged and Cinnamon teal breeding in eastern Washington. M.S. thesis, Washington St. Univ./ Pullman, WA. Swanson, G. A. and M. I. Meyer. 1977. Impact of fluctuating water levels on feeding ecology of breeding Blue-winged Teal. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 426- 433. Wallace, D. I. M. and M. A. Ogilvie. 1977. Distinguishing Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teals. Brit. Birds 70: 290-294. 1976 Dwyer, G. L. 1976. Competition and hostile behaviors of Blue-winged and Cin- namon teal in western Montana. M.A. thesis, Univ. Montana/Missoula , MT. Miller, K. J. 1976. Activity patterns, vocalizations, and site selection in nesting Blue-winged Teal. Wildfowl 27: 33-43. Trauger, D. L. 1976. Plumage aberrancy in Blue-winged Teal. Auk 93: 646-650. 239 1975 Fernandez-Cruz, M. 1975. Primera captura en Espana de cerceta aliazul (Anas discors). Ardeola 20: 336-337. [In Spanish.] Turner, B. C. and W. Threlfall. 1975. The metazoan parasites of Green-winged Teal (Anas crecca L.) and Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors L.) from eastern Canada. Proc. Helminthol. Soc . Wash. 42: 157-169. 1974 Gore, J. F. and D. D. Foss. 1974. Observations and implications of Blue- winged Teal nesting in southern Illinois. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 2: 70-71. Swanson, G. A., M. I. Meyer and J. R. Serie. 1974. Feeding ecology of breed- ing Blue-winged Teals. J. Wildl. Manage. 38: 396-407. 1973 Greij, E. D. 1973. Effects of sex hormones on plumages of the Blue-winged Teal. Auk 90: 533-551. 1972 Grant, G. S. 1972. Breeding range extension of the Blue-winged Teal into southeastern North Carolina. Chat 36: 31-32. 1971 Heiser, N. G. 1971. Nest site selection by Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors) in northwest Iowa. M.S. thesis, Iowa St. Univ. /Ames, IA. 29 pp. 1970 Harris, H. J. 1970. Evidence of stress response in breeding Blue-winged Teal. J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 747-755. Haverschmidt , F. 1970. Die Blauf lugel-Ente (Anas discors) im nordlichen Sud- amerika nebst Beringungs-Ergebnissen aus Surinam. Vogelwarte 25: 229-233. [In German with English summary.] Owen, R. B. , Jr. 1970. The bioenergetics of captive Blue-winged Teal under controlled and outdoor conditions. Condor 72: 220. Swanson, G. A. and J. C. Bartonek. 1970. Bias associated with food analysis in gizzards of Blue-winged Teal. J. Wildl. Manage. 34: 739-746. 1969 Dirschl, H. J. 1969. Foods of Lesser Scaup and Blue-winged Teal in the Sas- katchewan River delta. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 77-87. 240 Drewien, R. C. and P. F. Springer. 1969. Ecological relationships of breeding Blue-winged Teal to prairie potholes. Pp. 102-115 in Saskatoon wetlands seminar. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. Ser. No. 6. Owen, R. B. , Jr. 1969. Heart rate, a measure of metabolism in Blue-winged Teal. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 31: 431-436. Rollo, J. D. and E. G. Bolen. 1969. Ecological relationships of Blue- and Green-winged teal on the high plains of Texas in early fall. Southwest. Nat. 14: 171-188. 1968 Dane, C. W. 1968. Age determination of Blue-winged Teal. J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 267-274. Drewien, R. C. 1968. Ecological relationships of breeding Blue-winged Teal to prairie potholes. M.S. thesis, S. Dak. St. Univ. / Brookings , SD. Owen, R. B. , Jr. 1968. Premigratory behavior and orientation in Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors). Auk 85: 617-632. 1967 Strohmeyer, D. L. V. 1967. The biology of renesting by the Blue-winged Teal, Anas discors, in northwest Iowa. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/Minneap- olis, MN. 135 pp. 1966 Dane, C. 1966. Some aspects of breeding biology of the Blue-winged Teal. Auk 83: 389-402. Philippi, R. A. 1966. El pato de ala azul, Anas discors, capturado por primera vez en Chile. Bol. Mus. Nac. Hist. Nat., Santiago 29: 45-47. 1965 Bardwell, J. L., L. L. Glascow and E. A. Epps . 1965. Nutritional analyses of foods eaten by pintail and teal in south Louisiana. Proc . 16th Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 209-217. Burgess, H. H. , H. H. Prince and D. L. Trauger. 1965. Blue-winged Teal nest- ing success as related to land use. J. Wildl. Manage. 29: 89-95. Chamberlain, E. B. 1965. Blue-winged Teal breeding in North Carolina. Chat 29: 23-24. Dane, C. W. 1965. The influence of age on the development and reproductive capability of the Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors Linnaeus). Ph.D. thesis, Purdue Univ./LaFayette , IN. 171 pp. 241 McKinney, F. 1965. The displays of the Shoveler , Blue-winged Teal, and Cin- namon Teal. M.S. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/Minneapolis, MN. 23 pp. Parnell, J. F. and T. L. Quay. 1965. The populations, breeding biology, and environmental relations of the Black Duck, Gadwall , and Blue-winged Teal at Pea and Bodie islands, North Carolina. Proc. 16th Annu. Conf . South- eastern Assoc. Game & Fish Commiss.: 53-67. Wheeler, R. J. 1965. Pioneering of Blue-winged Teal in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Murrelet 46: 40-42. 1964 Navas, J. R. 1964. El pato de ala azul, Anas discors, capturado en la Argen- tina. Neotropica 7: 58. [In Spanish.] Vaught , R. W. 1964. Results of transplanting flightless young Blue-winged Teal. J. Wildl. Manage. 13: 359-376. 1963 Meitzen, T. C. 1963. Additions to the known breeding ranges of several spe- cies in south Texas. Auk 80: 368-369. 1961 Storer, R. W. and F. B. Gill. 1961. El pato de ala azul, Anas discors, obser- vado en la provincia de Buenos Aires. Neotropica 7: 92. [In Spanish.] 1956 Glover, F. A. 1956. Nesting and production of the Blue-winged Teal (Anas dis- cors Linnaeus) in northwest Iowa. J. Wildl. Manage. 20: 28-46. Stewart, R. E. and J. W. Aldrich. 1956. Distinction of maritime and prairie populations of Blue-winged Teal. Proc. Biol. Soc . Wash. 69: 29-34. Yocum, C. F. and W. A. Wooten. 1956. Blue-winged Teal in Del Norte County, California. Calif. Fish Game 42: 81. 1952 Childs, H. E., Jr. 1952. Hybrid between a Shoveler and a Blue-winged Teal. Condor 54: 67-68. Glover, F. A. 1952. Nesting and production of waterfowl in northwest Iowa: with special reference to the Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors Linnaeus). Iowa St. Coll. J. Sci. 25: 227-229. Moltoni, E. 1952. Seconda cattura della Marzaiola americana - Anas discors L. - in Italia. Riv. Ital . Ornitol. 22: 69-71. [In Italian.] 242 1950 Bellrose, F. C. and E. B. Chase. 1950. Population losses In the Mallard, Black Duck, and Blue-winged Teal. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes No. 22: 1-27. 1949 Glover, F. A. 1949. Nesting and production of waterfowl in northwest Iowa: with special reference to the Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors Linnaeus). Ph.D. thesis, Iowa State College/Ames, IA. Mann, G. 1949. Notes from a study of the Blue-winged Teal. Flicker 21: 1-6. Stoudt, J. H. 1949. Migration of the Blue-winged Teal. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept . Wildl. No. 1: 19-20. Zimmerman, F. R. 1949. Blue-winged Teal. Wise. Conserv. Bull. 14: 31-32. 1944 Wetmore, A. 1944. The Blue-winged Teal at sea. Auk 61: 473. 1938 Bennett, L. J. 1938. The Blue-winged Teal, its ecology and management. Col- legiate Press, Ames, IA. xiv and 144 pp. 1937 Bennett, L. J. 1937. The ecology and management of the Blue-winged Teal, Querquedula discors. Ph.D. thesis, Iowa St. Univ. /Ames, IA. 1932 Austin, 0. L., Jr. 1932. The breeding of the Blue-winged Teal in Maryland. Md. Conserv., summer issue: 11-13. 1930 0'Mahony, E. 1930. American Blue-winged Teal in Ireland. Brit. Birds 24: 195. 1924 Latham, R. 1924a. Blue-winged Teal breeding on Long Island, N.Y. Auk 41: 338-339. . 1924b. Blue-winged Teal breeding on Long Island — supplement. Auk 41 471-472. 243 1919 Kennard, F. H. 1919. Notes on a new subspecies of Blue-winged Teal. Auk. 36: 455-460. Blue-winged Teal. Photograph by Roger B. Clapp. 244 CINNAMON TEAL (Anas cyanoptera) [FR: Sarcelle cannelle, GE: Zlrapente , SP: Pato Colorado] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Cinnamon Teal Is primarily a South American species, with one subspe- cies extending into North America. This subspecies breeds from southern Brit- ish Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan south through the Pacific coastal and inter-mountain states generally west of the Rocky Mountains, but also in the western Great Plains through western Texas to northern Mexico. In winter these birds occur in the southern portions of the western states from California to Texas, southward through Mexico and Central America to Colombia (AOU 1957; Johnsgard 1975, 1978). Cinnamon Teal have been reported as stragglers in several eastern states and provinces, from Ontario and New York to Louisiana and Florida (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976a) . There are only a few records from most of the southeastern coastal states, most of them based on observations (Map 16). Actual occurrences may be more numerous, because females of this species are not distinguishable from the more abundant Blue-winged Teal. Records accumulated from American Birds and other sources for this study indicate four records in North Carolina (1935-74), four in South Carolina (1933-1962), three in Georgia (1977-79), sev- eral older records and 14 recent ones (1961-78) from Florida (the latter repre- senting probably no more than 12 birds), and two records from Alabama (1961-78). Lowery (1974) summarized some two dozen records from Louisiana; there are two more recent (1974-76) reports. The species occurs regularly in small numbers on migration and in winter along the southern Texas coast (Oberholser 1974, Bellrose 1976). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Cinnamon Teal rarely die from oiling; the banding office at Patuxent , Mary- land, has only two records of Cinnamon Teal whose deaths were attributed to this cause. As a bird that occurs primarily on inland ponds and marshes, and of only incidental occurrence in the southeastern United States, the species is not likely to be adversely affected by development in that area. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 French, L. and J. French. 1980. A Cinnamon Teal in Pipestone County. Loon 52: 113. Hegdahl, J. 1980. Cinnamon Teal at the Fulda sewage ponds. Loon 52: 114-115, 245 246 1979 Bolen, E. G. 1979. Blue-winged X Cinnamon Teal hybrid from Oklahoma. Wilson Bull. 91: 367-370. Sell, D. L. 1979. Fall foods of teal on the Texas high plains. Southwest. Nat. 24: 373-375. Weseloh, D. V. and L. M. Weseloh. 1979. Probable hybrids of Cinnamon X Blue- winged Teal from southern Alberta. Can. Field-Nat. 93: 316-317. 1978 Bolen, E. G. 1978. Notes on Blue-winged Teal X Cinnamon Teal hybrids. South- west. Nat. 23: 692-696. Connelly, J. W., Jr. 1978. Trends in Blue-winged and Cinnamon teal populations in eastern Washington. Murrelet 59: 2-6. 1977 Connelly, J. W. , Jr. 1977. A comparative study of Blue-winged and Cinnamon teal breeding in eastern Washington. M.S. thesis, Washington St. Univ./ Pullman, WA. Wallace, D. I. M. and M. A. Ogilvie. 1977. Distinguishing Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teals. Brit. Birds 70: 290-294. Wilkinson, J. N. , A. G. Canaris and D. Broderson. 1977. Parasites of water- fowl from southwest Texas: I. The Northern Cinnamon Teal Anas cyanoptera septentrionalium. J. Wildl. Dis. 13: 62-63. 1976 Dwyer, G. L. 1976. Competition and hostile behaviors of Blue-winged and Cin- namon teal in western Montana. M.A. thesis, Univ. Montana/Missoula , MT. 77 pp. 1975 Kosh, K. and P. M. Hunt. 1975. Cinnamon Teal at Wilmington, N.C. Chat 39: 91. Snyder, D. H. 1975. Second record of Cinnamon Teal in Tennessee. Migrant 45: 94. 1974 Haramis, G. M. 1974. Cinnamon Teal sighted at Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge [New York]. Kingbird 24: 172-173. 247 1973 Alexander, G. E. 1973. Cinnamon Teal reported. Miss. Ornithol. Soc. Newsl. 18: 13. 1970 Cole, D. D. 1970. Winter record of Cinnamon Teal in Oklahoma. Bull. Okla . Ornithol. Soc. 3: 29. Davis, W. M. 1970. Cinnamon Teal in Oklahoma in winter. Bull. Okla. Ornithol, Soc. 3: 29. 1969 Schwilling, M. D. and E. Martinez. 1969. Cinnamon Teal brood at Cheyenne Bot- toms. Bull. Kansas Ornithol. Soc. 20: 27. 1968 Klett, A. T. and J. T. Lokemoen. 1968. Cinnamon Teal observations in North Dakota. Prairie Nat. 1: 15. 1965 McKinney, F. 1965. The displays of the Shoveler, Blue-winged Teal, and Cin- namon Teal. M.S. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/Minneapolis, MN. 23 pp. 1953 Spencer, H. E. 1953. The Cinnamon Teal, Anas cyanoptera (Viellot) : its life history, ecology, and management . M.S. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, UT. 184 pp. 1952 Dollahite, N. and M. P. Anderson, Jr. 1952. A new nesting record for the Cin- namon Teal in Humboldt County, California. Condor 54: 320. Spencer, H. E., Jr. 1952. The Cinnamon Teal. Utah Fish Game Bull. 9: 3, 6. 1951 Snyder, L. L. and H. G. Lumsdon. 1951. Variation in Anas cyanoptera. Occas . Pap. R. Ont. Mus. Zool . 10: 1-18. 1933 Sprunt, A., Jr. 1933. The Cinnamon Teal: a new bird for South Carolina. Auk 50: 210. 248 1928 Lawrence, R. B. 1928. Cinnamon Teal (Querguedula cyanoptera) in Texas. Auk 45: 201. 1918 Oberholser, H. C. 1918. Cinnamon Teal (Querguedula cyanoptera) in North Dakota. Auk 35: 476. 249 NORTHERN SHOVELER (Anas clypeata) [DA: Skeand, DU: Slobeend; EN: Shoveler, FI: Lapasorsa , FR: Canard souchet, Souchet ordinaire; GE: Loffelen, IC: Skeidond, IT: Mestolone, JA: Hashibiro- gamo, NW: Skjeand, PO: Plaskonos, PR: Pato-trombeteiro , RU: (Broad-nosed Duck), SP: Pato cuchara, Cuchareta; SW: Skedand] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Northern Shoveler breeds in North America in shallow open marshes from western Alaska and northwestern Mackenzie south to central California, Utah, Nebraska, and eastern Manitoba (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976a). There are many records of nesting beyond that general range that may represent former breeding popula- tions or newly established ones. The average North American breeding population is nearly 2 million birds, centered in the mixed prairie association of the Dak- otas and the Canadian Prairie Provinces (Bellrose 1976). An Old World popula- tion breeds from the British Isles across Europe to subarctic Asia (Cramp et al. 1977). In winter the Northern Shoveler occurs along the Pacific coast , through the southern states, and along the Atlantic seaboard from Chesapeake Bay and North Carolina's Currituck Sound southward (Map 17) into Mexico and the West Indies (AOU 1957). They are locally common in the southeastern states in winter, but are more abundant in fall and spring migrations. Large southeastern wintering populations are found in Louisiana (235,000), South Carolina (15,000), and coastal Texas (Bellrose 1976). Most wintering birds prefer fresh water (Johns- gard 1975) but some are found in brackish lagoons and marshes subject to tidal influence, where aquatic invertebrates are plentiful (Stewart 1962, Palmer 1976a). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Although Northern Shovelers have seldom been reported as victims in marine oiling incidents (Joensen 1972b), they have suffered from oiling from inland oil-sumps in Wyoming (King 1953). Northern Shovelers are not birds of open ma- rine situations, and thus would not be vulnerable to most spills. Should oil drift into shallow estuarine marsh areas, these birds might be vulnerable because of their feeding methods. Taxonomic note: Until 1973 this species was regarded by the AOU as Spatula clypeata. 250 251 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Afton, A. D. 1980. Factors affecting incubation rhythms of Northern Shovelers , Condor 82: 132-137. Mihelsons, H. 1980. Study of population ecology of ducks by ringing. Acta Ornithol. 17: 45-62. 1979 Afton, A. D. 1979a. Incubation temperatures of the Northern Shoveler. Can. J. Zool. 57: 1052-1056. . 1979b. Time budget of breeding Northern Shovelers. Wilson Bull. 91: 42-49. Weatherhead, P. J. 1979. Behavioral implications of the defense of a Shoveler brood by Common Eiders. Condor 81: 427. 1977 Afton, A. D. 1977. Aspects of reproductive behavior in the Northern Shoveler. M.S. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/Minneapolis, MN. 65 pp. Broderson, D., A. G. Canaris and J. R. Bristol. 1977. Parasites of waterfowl from southwest Texas: II. The Shoveler, Anas clypeata. J. Wildl. Dis. 13: 435-439. Clark, A. 1977. Review of the records of three Palearctic ducks in southern Africa. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 97: 107-114. Smith, F. W. 1977. Records of molting in the Pintail (Anas acuta) and the Northern Shoveler (Anas clypeata) on the Texas Gulf Coast. Southwest. Nat. 21: 558. 1974 Poston, J. H. 1974. Home range and breeding biology of the Shoveler. Can. Fish Wildl. Serv. Rept . Ser . No. 25. 49 pp. Seymour, N. R. 1974a. Aerial pursuit flights in the Shoveler. Can. J. Zool. 52: 1473-1480. . 1974b. Site attachment in the Northern Shoveler. Auk 91: 423-427. 1974c. Territorial behaviour of wild Shovelers at Delta, Manitoba, "Wildfowl 25: 49-55. 252 1972 Molodovsky, A. V. 1972. [On reproduction of Anas clypeata L. in the Gorky Reservoir.] Vestn. Zool . 1972: 55-61. [In Russian with English summary.] Schlenker, R. 1972. Sommerliche Rast — und Mauserplatze der Loffelente, Anas clypeata, in Schleswig-Holstein. Corax 4: 52-56. [In German.] 1971 Seymour, N. 1971. Territorial behaviour of the Shoveler, Anas clypeata, at Delta, Manitoba. M.S. thesis, Univ. Manitoba/Winnipeg, MB. 87 pp. Yarker, B. and G. L. Atkinson-Wilkes. 1971. The numerical distribution of some British breeding ducks. Wildfowl 22: 63-70. 1969 Harrison, J. 1969. The altitude of a migrating Shoveler. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 89: 72. 1968 Swennen, C. 1968. Nest protection of Eiderducks and Shovelers by means of faeces. Ardea 56: 248-258. 1967 Dorn, Fr. J. L. (comp.). 1967. Mobile, Ala. 67th Christmas Bird Count. Aud. Field Notes 21: 236-237. McKinney, F. 1967. Breeding behaviour of captive Shovelers. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 18: 108-121. 1965 McKinney, F. 1965. The displays of the Shoveler, Blue-winged Teal, and Cin- namon Teal. M.S. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/Minneapolis, MN. 23 pp. 1964 Fuller, R. W. and N. E. King. 1964. American Widgeon and Shovel pr breeding in Vermont. Auk 81: 86-87. Havlin, J. 1964. [Die Brutdauer bei der Loffelente (Anas clypeata L.).] Folia Zool. 13: 178-180. [In Czechoslovakian with German summary.] 1959 Harrison, J. M. and J. G. Harrison. 1959. Evolutionary significance of cer- tain plumage sequences in Northern Shoveler. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 79: 135-142. 2 53 1958 Lebret, T. 1958. The "jump-flight" of the Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos L. , the Teal, Anas crecca L., and the Shoveler, Spatula clypeata L. Ardea 46: 68-72. 1957 Stewart, P. A. 1957. Nesting of the Shoveller (Spatula clypeata) in central Ohio. Wilson Bull. 69: 280. Treous, V. D. 1957. [Seasonal movements and migrations of Anas strepera and A. clypeata as revealed by ringing methods.] Trudy Biuro Kol'stev. 9: 162-208. [In Russian.] 1952 Childs, H. E., Jr. 1952. Hybrid between a Shoveler and a Blue-winged Teal. Condor 54: 67-68. 1950 Dean, M. 1950. Diving of Shovelers. Brit. Birds 42: 19. Hickling, R. A. 0. 1950. Joint "injury-feigning" by Shoveler and Mallard, Brit. Birds 42: 304. 1949 Boyer, G. F. 1949. Breeding of the Shoveler in New Brunswick. Auk 66: 199-200. 1948 Henderson, M. 1948. Calls of the Shoveler with young. Brit. Birds 41: 25. 1947 Lebret, T. 1947. Verandering van de terreinkeuze bij de doortrekkende Slob- eenden Spatula clypeata, aan het Hollandische Diep. Ardea 35: 246-247. [In Dutch. ] 1946 Griffith, R. E. 1946. Nesting of Gadwall and Shoveller on the middle Atlantic coast. Auk 63: 436-438. 1945 Cottam, C. 1945. Diving habits of the Shoveller Duck. Condor 47: 39. 254 1944 Noll, H. 1944. Die Loffelente, Spatula clypeata L. , als Brutvogel im Kalt- brunner Ried . Ornithol. Beob. 41: 113-119. [In German.] 1939 Girard, G. L. 1939. Notes on the life history of the Shoveller. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 4: 364-371. 1938 Cahn, A. R. and P. Bryan. 1938. Shoveller breeding in northern Alabama. Auk 55: 271-272. 1935 Temperley, G. W. 1935. Diving of the Shoveler. Brit. Birds 28: 241. 1934 Lloyd, B. 1934. Diving of the Shoveler. Brit. Birds 28: 207-208. 1922 Griscom, L. and E. R. P. Janvrin. 1922. Shoveller in Bergen Co., New Jersey, in spring. Auk 39: 100. McAtee, W. L. 1922. Notes on the food habits of the Shoveller or Spoonbill Duck (Spatula clypeata). Auk 39: 380-386. 255 CANVASBACK (Aythya valisineria) [FR: Milouin aux yeux rouges, GE: Riesentafelente , JA: 0- hoshi-ha jiro , SP: Pato lorao cruzada] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America The primary breeding range of the Canvasback in North Amer- ica extends in the west from northwestern and central Alaska south through cen- tral and eastern British Columbia to southern British Columbia, and south from northwestern and southeastern Alberta to northeastern Montana, central South Dakota, northeastern Nebraska, and northwestern Iowa. To the east the regular breeding range includes the northern Yukon, eastern Northwest Territories, northwestern and southern Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba south through western Minnesota (Palmer 1976b). Outside the main breeding range Canvasbacks breed at scattered localities apparently because of destruction and drainage of requisite marsh nesting hab- itat (Johnsgard 1975). To the south and west they breed in Washington, south- ern Oregon, at Tule Lake in California, in southern Idaho, southern Nevada, northern Utah, northern Arizona, Wyoming, and northern Colorado. To the south and east breeding has been reported from Kansas, Ontario, Wisconsin, on the Montezuma marshes of New York, and at least once in Illinois (Johnsgard 1975, Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). The winter range of the Canvasback partially overlaps the breeding range and large numbers winter both inland and along the coast (Palmer 1976b). In western North America the primary winter range extends from southwestern coast- al British Columbia south along the coasts of Oregon and Washington to northern Baja California and south inland from north-central California to northeastern Baja California, southeastern New Mexico, and northwestern Sonora. In eastern North America the primary wintering range east of the Appalachians extends south from Rhode Island and southern Massachusetts through Florida. To the west of the Appalachians, Canvasbacks winter from the Great Lakes south to the Gulf coast and eastern, central, and western-central Mexico, west to northeastern Kansas, central Oklahoma, southeastern Arizona, western Texas, and southwest to the Pacific coast of Mexico (Palmer 1976b). Bellrose (1976) indicated that the regular winter range in the east extends from Vermont south to Lake Okeechobee, Florida. World Distribution Canvasbacks are native to North America and are found elsewhere only as stragglers. They have wandered to Bermuda, Cuba, the Hawaiian Islands, and Japan (Palmer 1976b). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina Pearson et al. (1942) noted that the Canvasback is chiefly 256 a coastal species in the winter in North Carolina (Map 18). Formerly, the spe- cies was abundant and was a prized game duck. In the 1930 's, populations were seriously depleted by overshooting, loss of breeding habitat, and botulism (Pearson et al. 1942, Geis 1974). As a result of hunting closures and various other measures, Canvasback numbers have increased, but not to the former abun- dance. The primary wintering area in North Carolina is in Currituck Sound (Bellrose 1976). The 1975 winter waterfowl survey found 19,800 Canvasbacks in North Caro- lina (Goldsberry et al. 1980), making this state second only to Maryland in im- portance as a wintering ground along the Atlantic Coast and second only to Texas in the southeast. Recent concentrations at Pea Island NWR have numbered as many as 7,000 in late November 1975 (Teulings 1976a) and 3,475 in early December 1976 (LeGrand 1977a). South Carolina Sprunt and Chamberlain (1949) regarded the Canvasback as a common winter resident in the state from late November to raid-April. These ducks occur in both salt and freshwater habitats; they usually feed in fresh water and move to the sea at night. At the turn of the century, these ducks were considered rare in the state. Sprunt and Chamberlain (1949), however, noted that Canvasbacks have long been regular winter visitors. Bellrose (1976) indicated a wintering population of about 3,600 birds, but only 700 were count- ed on the 1975 winter survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Georgia Burleigh (1958) listed the Canvasback as a fairly common winter resident along the coast but uncommon and irregular in the interior of the state. Denton et al. (1977) listed dates of occurrence from November to May. Bellrose (1976) indicated that about 1,000 winter in Georgia; the January 1975 survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980) found 800 wintering there. Florida Howell (1932) noted that these ducks are uncommon local visitors in Florida. They have been recorded from all regions, but are apparently most numerous in the northern and central portions of the state. Generally present from late October or early November, they remain until late March. Sprunt (1954) found Canvasbacks to be more common in the south-central portions of the state since Howell's time. Kale (1979 ms a, 1979 ms b) considered the Canvas- back uncommon throughout the state, but he noted that large populations winter at Merritt Island and Chassahowitzka National Wildlife Refuges. Bellrose (1976) remarked that most Canvasbacks winter inland in Florida and indicated a population of about 7,500. The 1975 winter survey found only 300 (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Another estimate for the Florida population that year indicated that 3,000 were present (Gasaway et al. 1979). Two years later, 9,500 Canvasbacks were recorded (Gasaway et al. 1979). Alabama Imhof (1976b) regarded the Canvasback to be common in winter and on migration in Alabama, particularly along the coast. Preferred habitats in Alabama include the wide expanses of shallow waters in the Tennessee River and Mobile Bay, but Canvasbacks are also found on small ponds and lakes. They usu- ally occur in small flocks. Along the Gulf coast they have been recorded at Cochrane Causeway from 4 October to 21 April, and a maximum of 7,600 was re- corded on 7 January 1955. Imhof (1976b) noted that Canvasback numbers have 257 258 recently declined along the Gulf coast . Bellrose (1976) reported winter populations for the state of about 2,300, most of them on Mobile Bay; the most recent count available (1975) found only 200 birds (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Mississippi Burleigh (1944) saw small flocks of Canvasbacks only in Octo- ber and November along the Mississippi coast, but there are a few records of late migrants and summering birds for the period for April through July as well (Imhof 1973, 1975; Jackson and Cooley 1978b). Information provided by Bellrose (1976) indicated some 4,400 winter in Mississippi, mostly at Sardis Lake (in- land) and on the coastal bays. More recently, mid-winter rafts of 1,600 (1977) and 1,000 (1978) have been reported at Lake Washington, in the interior portion of the state (Jackson and Weber 1977, Jackson and Cooley 1978a). The January 1975 waterfowl count found few birds in Mississippi. Louisiana The Canvasback is a regular winter resident in Louisiana, usu- ally arriving in the state in late October and departing during April (Lowery 1974). Bellrose (1976) reported that 15,000 winter there, most of them near Morgan City on Six Mile and Wax lakes. The 1975 winter survey reported only 1,000 birds (Goldsberry et al. 1980). The survey of Louisiana was incomplete, however, and it seems likely that a number of birds were overlooked. Texas Oberholser (1974) noted that the Canvasback is irregularly very com- mon on the Texas coast. It is most numerous in the northern half of the state in spring and fall. These ducks generally are seen from mid-October to early May. Bellrose (1976) indicated wintering populations of about 9,400, half in- land and half on the coast. The January 1975 survey listed 25,810 (Goldsberry et al. 1980). SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding Canvasbacks nest only in North America. Most breeding occurs from northwestern Alaska south to south-central British Columbia, and southeast to southern Manitoba, western Minnesota, and eastern South Dakota. The heart of the breeding range is in the southern portions of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Of approximately 678,000 counted on the breeding grounds during the 1976 survey, 76% were found in these provinces (Larned et al. 1980). In recent years there has been considerable concern about the status of the Canvasback. Numbers fluctuate widely from year to year and Bellrose (1976) con- sidered it even more threatened than the Redhead. Declines in the population have led to restrictive hunting regulations, both in the 1930' s and more recent- ly. Poor nesting success has been attributed to high mortality rates, habitat and range reduction, and increased nest predation (Trauger 1974 Ln White et al. 1979). Even now this species is still on the Blue-list (Arbib 1979), a list that attempts to indicate species whose populations have declined so seriously that they may become threatened or endangered. Johnsgard (1978) remarked that unbalanced sex ratios, declining breeding habitat, sensitivity to oil and other pollutants on the wintering grounds, and vulnerability to hunting make the fu- ture of the Canvasback most uncertain. 259 Winter Wintering Canvasbacks are found primarily along the Atlantic, Pa- cific, and Gulf coasts of the United States and Mexico, but substantial numbers also winter inland. The Chesapeake Bay is the largest wintering ground, har- boring some 92,000 birds; the next largest concentration, 60,000 birds, winters in San Francisco Bay (Bellrose 1976). Bellrose (1976) summarized winter water- fowl surveys for 1960-1971 and indicated that about half the average North Am- erican winter population of 290,000 wintered along the Atlantic Flyway, most of them just north of North Carolina. The figures provided by Bellrose show that the southeastern states are an important wintering ground for the Canvasback. Twenty percent of the total winter population is found there; 26% of these oc- curred in North Carolina, 6% in South Carolina, a few in Georgia, 13% in Flor- ida, 4% in Alabama, 8% in Mississippi, 26% in Louisiana, and 16% in Texas. Figures provided by the 1975 winter waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980) suggest a somewhat different distribution that can probably be attributed both to annual variation in wintering areas and to incomplete coverage by the survey. Approximately 291,000 birds were found on the January survey, about 17% (48,610) of which were in the southeast. North Carolina accounted for 41% of the Canvasbacks occurring in southeastern waters, and Texas harbored another 53%. No other state reported more than 1,000 birds. Migration Bellrose (1976) summarized migratory pathways of the Canvasback, noting that most Canvasbacks move toward either the Atlantic or Pacific coasts from their breeding grounds and staging areas. Those migrating toward the Ches- apeake Bay move from southeastern Saskatchewan southeast and then east along two paths, one through the Great Lakes area and then to the southeast, and the other from the Mississipi River between Fort Madison and Keokuk due east. Most of the Canvasbacks arriving in the Chesapeake Bay winter there, but a substantial num- ber move south to Currituck Sound in North Carolina. Relatively few continue on south to Florida (Bellrose 1976). Other birds from the Fort Madison/Keokuk area move directly south and southeast to Louisiana, Alabama, and Florida. Most of the birds wintering in Texas migrate directly south (Bellrose 1976). HABITAT Nesting Canvasbacks nest in small, shallow ponds usually less than an acre in size and bordered by cattails, bulrushes, and other emergent vegetation. Most of their feeding, resting, and courting takes place on larger, deeper, per- manent ponds (Trauger and Stoudt 1974 Ln Bellrose 1976). Others may breed in village ponds, farmyard sloughs, large marshes, and potholes (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Nests are usually built over water, occasionally on muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) houses and seldom on dry land (Palmer 1976b). Authors cit- ed in Bellrose (1976) indicated that cattails are most used for nest sites in prairie potholes and that willows, bulrush, sedges, and phragmites cane are ex- tensively used in other areas. Feeding Most feeding on the breeding grounds occurs near the nesting areas on larger, more permanent ponds than those used for nesting (Trauger and Stoudt 1974 in Bellrose 1976). Those nesting in a prairie pothole region in southern 260 Manitoba tended to forage in open water near the center of ponds (Siegfried 1976b). Young birds usually feed on well-vegetated ponds intermediate in size between those used for nesting and those used for resting (Trauger and Stoudt 1974 in Bellrose 1976). In addition, they often feed on open water far from the nest site (Palmer 1976b). Migrants gather on large freshwater lakes and marshes where aquatic plants are abundant (Johnsgard 1978). Winter and Offshore Johnsgard (1978) reported that preferred winter hab- itat consisted of brackish estuarine bays rather than either salt or fresh water. Palmer (1976b) noted that Canvasbacks regularly feed in shallow water after flying in from roosting areas on open bays and lakes. These roosting areas are usually well offshore, but Canvasbacks may come to shore when encount- ering heavy winds. FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Canvasbacks dive for food using their feet for propulsion; they feed most- ly in the early morning and evening. In deeper water they dive for periods of 10-20 sec (Palmer 1976b). When diving, both this species and the Redhead lift up the front of their body, arch their necks, and submerge vertically; they sub- sequently rise to the water's surface near where they dove (Siegfried 1976b). Siegfried (1976b) recorded mean diving times of 17.6 and 15.6 sec for males and females, respectively, foraging on ponds in Manitoba. At coastal impoundments in South Carolina, mean diving times varied from 13.1 to 15.3 sec in relation to the depth of the water; there was no significant difference in diving times between the sexes (Alexander and Hair 1979). Foraging rates (dives per 5 min- utes) in the impoundments varied with depth of water and ranged from 1.7 to 10.0. Alexander and Hair (1979) noted that the Canvasbacks established and de- fended individual foraging sites. In very shallow water this duck will also "puddle" with its feet and then dip its bill to feed. Canvasbacks also seize insects from the water's surface and from the air (Palmer 1976b). Summaries of Canvasback food habits by Bartonek and Hickey (1969a), Bell- rose (1976), and Palmer (1976b) indicate that these ducks primarily feed on plants but are not averse to feeding on animals. The extent to which plants are utilized may vary considerably. Authors cited in Palmer (1976b) indicated a consumption of 65% plant matter in Illinois, 74% at Reelfoot Lake in Tennes- see, 95% in Missouri, and 80% over a large portion of the range. Pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.), wild celery (Vallisneria spiralis), and wid- geongrass (Ruppia maritima) are among the more important plant foods. Bartonek and Hickey (1969a) believed that Potamogeton may be more important in the diet than Vallisneria because the former occurs more widely within the range of the Canvasback (this duck's specific name is derived from a supposed predilection for Vallisneria) ♦ Animal foods consist largely of various molluscs and aquatic insects; crustaceans and fish may also be taken. Caddisfly larvae and cases and midge (Chironomidae) larvae are among the insects frequently reported. Some Canvasbacks on the breeding grounds eat a much higher proportion of 261 animal matter than is suggested by the studies indicated above. Bartonek and Hickey (1969a) reported that esophogeal contents of juveniles and adult females in Manitoba were 87% and 92% animal matter, respectively. Adult males had con- sumed only 2% animal matter. Their principal food was tubers of Potamogeton (95%). Food habits in the southeast have been little studied, and we have found but one detailed report on food habits in this area. Quay and Critcher (1965) reported foods eaten by 62 Canvasbacks collected in Currituck Sound during win- ters from 1947 to 1952. They found that the Canvasbacks had subsisted almost entirely on vegetable matter, primarily the vegetative parts of pondweeds (Potamogeton spp. - 21.0% by volume) and their seeds (38.2%). The vegetative parts and seeds of widgeongrass (12.3%) and southern naiad (Najas guadalupensis - 4.6%) were also important. No other identified plant material formed as much as two percent of the diet. In both South Carolina and Georgia, banana waterlily (Nymphaea mexicana) was a preferred food item (Cely 1980b). At Merritt Island NWR, Florida, where this plant occurred but was unavailable to Canvasbacks, these ducks fed largely on widgeongrass, muskgrass, raanateegrass (Syringodium f iligormis) , and inverte- brates (Cely 1980b). McAtee reported that this plant was found in over 70% of the Canvasbacks collected at Lake Surprise, Texas, but at Laguna Atascosa NWR, where this plant did not occur, Canvasbacks fed primarily on widgeongrass (Cely 1980b). In Louisiana Canvasbacks eat acorns (Lowery 1931 i_n Palmer 1976b); tubers of delta duck potato (Sagittaria platyphylla) were reported as an Impor- tant food in the Mississippi Delta (McAtee 1917 i_n Bartonek and Hickey 1969a, Palmer 1976b). Bartonek and Hickey (1969a), Palmer (1976b), and Bellrose (1976) give fur- ther information on foods eaten in other portions of the range. IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying Throughout its range, the Canvasback begins nesting at about the same time, late April to mid-May. Nest initiation peaks around 10-25 May in the heart of the range (Bellrose 1976). Mean Clutch Size Redheads (Aythya americana) frequently parasitize nests of Canvasbacks, which depresses the number of eggs laid by the host species. In studies involving more than 500 nests, both parasitized and unparasitized, the average clutch size for Canvasbacks was 7.9 eggs. In nests that are not parasitized, the average is about 9.5 eggs with a range of about 7 to 12 (Bell- rose 1976). Incubation Period Incubation takes 24-29 days (mean = 25)(Erickson 1948a). Hatching Success Nesting success varies dramatically from year to year and place to place. In studies totalling 1,715 nests, 46.2% were successful in pro- ducing young. Reports cited in Bellrose (1976) indicate that eggs may hatch in as few as 2.7% of the nests in poor years. About 7.3 eggs hatch in the average unparasitized nest, but only 6.0 hatch in parasitized ones (Bellrose 1976). 262 Fledging Success Survival to fledging of the young in a brood is approxi- mately 75%, or about 5.3 young per brood. The overall annual production is about 1 young bird per adult (Bellrose 1976). Age at Fledging Flight is first achieved at 54 to 84 days; Palmer (1976b) believed that most first fly when 60-70 days old. Age at First Breeding Most Canvasbacks breed in the first year, except when habitat conditions are adverse (Bellrose 1976). Mortality of Eggs and Young Raccoons are major predators of Canvasback nests, particularly with their increasing abundance in the prairie pothole country. Skunks, crows, magpies, and ravens also prey on Canvasback nests. Many female Canvasbacks desert nests because of flooding or intrusion by para- sitic Redheads (Bellrose 1976). Renesting There is a considerable amount of renesting by hens that lose clutches, the proportion depending on a variety of extrinsic factors (Bellrose 1976). Maximum Natural Longevity A bird banded and recovered in New York attain- ed a minimum age of 18 years and 9 months (Clapp et al . in press). Weight Bellrose (1976) gave the average weight of 191 males as 2.76 lb (1,250 g) and of 54 adult females as 2.55 lb (1,160 g) . SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Canvasbacks are known to be victims of oiling. In one month in 1948, an estimated 10,000 wintering ducks (mostly Canvasbacks) died following an oil and yellow phosphorous spill in the lower Detroit River in Michigan (Miller and Whitlock 1948). Most of these ducks froze to death when their natural insula- tion was destroyed by the oil. Eight Canvasbacks were killed by an oil spill in San Francisco Bay, California, in January 1971 (Smail et al. 1972). Mortal- ity following seven oil spills (1973-78) in the Chesapeake Bay and on the lower Delaware River amounted to 815 birds (Perry et al. 1979). Stout and Cornwell (1976) reported that 20% of bands recovered from oiled waterfowl were Canvas- backs, a figure second only to that attained by scaup (Aythya spp.). Most of the Atlantic Canvasback population winters in bays and rivers along the coast north of North Carolina or on large# bodies of water inland. However, the Canvasback is frequently found in large rafts in open water offshore. In such locations an oiling incident could affect many individuals, particularly since one of the two largest concentrations in the southeast is found in Curri- tuck Sound where colder waters would magnify the effects of oiling. In a spe- cies already subject to population fluctuations, accidental oiling could have a significant impact. 263 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 Fleming, W. J. 1981. Environmental metal residues in tissues of Canvasbacks. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 508-511. Nichols, J. D. and G. M. Haramis. 1981. Sex-specific differences in winter distribution patterns of Canvasbacks. Condor 82: 406-416. Sugden, L. A. 1981. Parasitism of Canvasback nests by Redheads. J. Field Ornithol. 51: 361-364. 1980 Alexander, W. C. 1980. Aggressive displays in nonbreeding Canvasbacks. Auk 97: 198-201. Cely, J. E. 1980a. Distribution and feeding ecology of Canvasback Ducks along the South Carolina coast. M.S. thesis, Clemson Univ./Clemson, SC. 59 pp. . 1980b. The ecology and distribution of banana waterlily and its utili- zation by Canvasback ducks. Proc. 33rd Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 43-47. Nichols, J. D. and G. M. Haramis. 1980. Inferences regarding survival and re- covery rates of winter-banded Canvasbacks. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 164-173. Nudds, T. D. 1980. Canvasback tolerance of Redhead parasitism: an observation and an hypothesis. Wilson Bull. 92: 414. Perry, M. C. and P. H. Geissler. 1980. Incidence of embedded shot in Canvas- backs. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 888-894. Sugden, L. G. and G. Butler. 1980. Estimating densities of breeding Canvas- backs and Redheads. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 814-821. 1979 Alexander, W. C. and J. D. Hair. 1979. Winter foraging behavior and aggression of diving ducks in South Carolina. Proc. 31st Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 226-232. Haramis, G. M. and J. D. Nichols. 1979. Sex-specific differences in winter distribution patterns of Canvasbacks. (Abstract only). Bull. Ecol. Soc. Amer. 60: 100. Jessen, R. and C. Henderson. 1979. Canvasback breeding in Minnesota. Loon 51: 46. Welling, C. H. and W. J. L. Sladen. 1979. Canvasback sex ratios on Rhode and West rivers, Chesapeake Bay, 1972-78. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 811-813. 264 White, D. H. , R. C. Stendall and B. M. Mulhern. 1979. Relations of wintering Canvasbacks to environmental pollutants — Chesapeake Bay, Maryland. Wilson Bull. 91: 279-287. 1978 Dieter, M. P. 1978. Use of the ALAD blood enzyme bioassay to monitor lead contamination in the Canvasback population. Proc . Internatl. Symp. Patho- biol. Environ. Poll. C-227-C-229. Sugden, L. G. 1978. Canvasback habitat use and production in Saskatchewan parklands. Can. Wildl. Serv. Occas. Pap. No. 34. 32 pp. 1977 Stendell, R. C. , E. Cromartie, S. N. Wiemeyer and J. R. Longcore. 1977. Organ- ochlorine and mercury residues in Canvasback Duck eggs, 1972-73. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 453-457. 1976 Dieter, M. P., M. C. Perry and B. M. Mulhern. 1976. Lead and PCB's in Canvas- back Ducks: relationships between enzyme levels and residues in blood. Arch. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 5: 1-13. Enders, F. A. 1976. Where do New York City Canvasbacks feed? Linn. Newsl. 30: 1. Kocan, R. M. and M. C. Perry. 1976. Infection and mortality in captive wild- trapped Canvasback Ducks. J. Wildl. Dis. 12: 30-33. Kocan, R. M. and S. M. Pitts. 1976. Blood values of the Canvasback by age, sex and season. J. Wildl. Dis. 12: 341-346. Siegfried, W. R. 1976b. Segregation in feeding behaviour of four diving ducks in southern Manitoba. Can. J. Zool. 54: 730-736. Sugden, L. G. 1976. Experimental release of Canvasbacks on breeding habitat. J. Wildl. Manage. 40: 716-720. 1975 Featherstone , J. D. 1975. Aspects of nest site selection in three species of ducks. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Toronto/Toronto, ON. Kovacs, S. 1975. An entangled Canvasback. Jack-Pine Warbler 53: 159-160. 1974 Anon. 1974. Canvasbacks marked in migration study. Atl. Nat. 29: 149. 265 Geis, A. D. 1974. Breeding and wintering areas of Canvasbacks harvested in various states and provinces. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 185. iv and 78 pp. Perry, M. C. 1974. Looking out for the Canvasback. Part IV. Ducks Unlimited 38: 21-22, 25-27. Trauger, D. L. 1974. Looking out for the Canvasback. Part I. Ducks Unlimited 38: 12-15. Trauger, D. L. and J. H. Stoudt. 1974. Looking out for the Canvasback. Part II. Ducks Unlimited 38: 30-31, 42, 44-45, 48, 60. 1973 Anon. 1973. Color-coded Canvasbacks. Atl. Nat. 29: 4. Bergman, R. D. 1973. Use of southern boreal lakes by postbreeding Canvasbacks and Redheads. J. Wildl. Manage. 37: 160-170. Mattson, M. E. 1973. Host-parasite relations of Canvasback and Redhead duck- lings. M.S. thesis, Utah State Univ. /Logan, UT. 62 pp. Trauger, D. L. 1973. Project report: special Canvasback project, 1973. North- ern Prairie Wildl. Res. Cntr., Jamestown, ND. 3 pp. 1972 Slatick, E. R. 1972. A look at ducks. Penna. Game News 43: 24-27. 1971 Nieman, D. J. 1971. Breeding biology and habitat relationships of Mallard and Canvasbacks in the Peace-Athabaska Delta. M.S. thesis, Univ. Saskatchewan/ Saskatoon, SK. 78 pp. 1970 Kocan, R. M. and J. 0. Knisley. 1970. Incidence of malaria in a wintering population of Canvasbacks (Aythya valisineria) in Chesapeake Bay. J. Wildl. Dis. 6: 441-442. 1969 Bartonek, J. C. 1969. Build-up of grit in three pochard species in Manitoba. Wilson Bull. 81: 96-97. Bartonek, J. C. and J. J. Hickey. 1969a. Food habits of Canvasbacks, Redheads, and Lesser Scaup in Manitoba. Condor 71: 280-290. 266 Bartonek, J. C. and J. J. Hickey. 1969b. Selective feeding by juvenile diving ducks in summer. Auk 86: 443-457. Campbell, J. M. 1969. The Canvasback, Common Goldeneye, and Bufflehead in Arctic Alaska. Condor 71: 80. Geis, A. D. and W. F. Crissey. 1969. Effect of restrictive hunting regula- tions on Canvasback and Redhead harvest rates and survival. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 860-866. 1968 Kocan, R. M. 1968. The Canvasback Duck (Aythya valisineria) ; a new host re- cord for Plasmodium. Bull. Wildl. Dis. Assoc. 4: 86-87. Martinson, R. K. and A. S. Hawkins. 1968. Lack of association among duck brood-mates during migration and wintering. Auk 85: 684-686. 1967 Timken, R. L. 1967. Canvasback male participating in a Redhead courtship party. Auk 84: 588. 1965 Olson, D. 1965. Differential vulnerability of male and female Canvasbacks to hunting. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 30: 121-135. Stoudt, J. H. 1965. Project report on habitat requirements of the Canvasback during the breeding season. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Proj. A-8. 6 pp. 1964 Longcore, J. R. and G. W. Cornwell. 1964. The consumption of natural foods by captive Canvasbacks and Lesser Scaups. J. Wildl. Manage. 28: 527-531. Olson, D. P. 1964. A study of Canvasback and Redhead breeding populations, nesting habitats and productivity. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/Minne- apolis, MN. 100 pp. 1963 Cornwell, G. W. and A. B. Cowan. 1963. Helminth populations of the Canvas- back (Aythya valisineria) and host-parasite-environmental inter-relation- ships. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. & Nat. Resources Conf. 28: 173-199. Longcore, J. R. 1963. Consumption of natural foods and effects of starvation on Canvasbacks and Lesser Scaups. M.S. thesis, Univ. Michigan/ Ann Arbor, MI. 267 1961 DeGraff, L. W., D. D. Foley and D. Benson. 1961. Distribution and mortality of Canvasbacks banded in New York. N.Y. Fish Game J. 8: 69-87. 1960 Benson, D. , D. D. Foley and L. W. DeGraff. 1960. Canvasback abundance in New York. N.Y. State Fish Game J. 7: 48-59. Hochbaum, H. 1960. The brood season/brief care and early desertion are Can- vasback duckling* s lot. Nat. Hist. 69: 54-61. 1959 Dzubin, A. 1959. Growth and plumage development of wild-trapped juvenile Can- vasback (Aythya valisineria) . J. Wildl. Manage. 23: 279-290. Geis, A. D. 1959. Annual and shooting mortality estimates for the Canvasback. J. Wildl. Manage. 23: 253-261. Hochbaum, H. 1959. The Canvasback on a prairie marsh. Stackpole Co., Harris- burg, PA., & the Wildl. Manage. Instit., Washington, D.C. xii and 207 pp. 1958 Stewart, R. E., A. D. Geis and C. D. Evans. 1958. Distribution of populations and hunting kill of the Canvasback. J. Wildl. Manage. 22: 333-370. 1948 Erickson, R. C. 1948a. Life history and ecology of the Canvasback, Nyroca val- isineria (Wilson), in southeastern Oregon. Ph.D. thesis, Iowa St. Coll./ Ames, IA. 324 pp. . 1948b. Life history and ecology of the Canvasback, Nyroca valisineria (Wilson) in southeastern Oregon. Iowa St. Coll. J. Sci. 23: 30-32. 1946 Smith, J. D. 1946. The Canvasback in Minnesota. Auk 63: 73-81. 1944 Hochbaum, H. A. 1944a. The Canvasback on a prairie marsh. M.S. thesis, Univ. Wisconsin/Madison, WI. . 1944b. The Canvasback on a prairie marsh. Am. Wildl. Inst, xii and 201 pp. 268 1942 Erickson, R. C. 1942. Breeding habits of the Canvasback, Nyroca valisineria (Wilson), on the Malheur Wildlife Refuge, Oregon. M.S. thesis, Iowa St. Coll. /Ames , IA. 118 pp. 1931 Allen, A. A. 1931. The Canvasback. Bird-Lore 33: 347-360. 1927 Beck, H. H. and C. Marburger. 1927. Canvasback in Pennsylvania in summer. Auk 44: 557. Canvasback Duck. Photograph by Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 269 REDHEAD (Aythya americana) [FR: Milouin americain, GE: Rotkopf ente , SP: Cabeza roja] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America Redheads breed in North America from central British Colum- bia, northern Alberta, southern Mackenzie, southern Saskatchewan, southern Man- itoba, and northwestern Minnesota south through central and eastern Washington and Oregon to central California (Small 1974), northwestern Nevada, north-cen- tral Arizona, southeriy-Colorado , central Nebraska, northwestern Iowa, and less commonly in Wisconsin, Michigan, and the Lake Erie marshes to northwestern Penn- sylvania and western New York (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Since the late 1950 's, the Redhead has expanded its breeding range to Alaska and several south- ern and eastern states and provinces, including Maine and New Brunswick (Weller 1964). It has been introduced into New York (Benson and Browne 1969) and iso- lated breeding records have been reported in Kansas (Palmer 1976b), Texas (Rhodes 1979), and Jalisco, Mexico (Williams 1975). In the winter, Redheads occur from southern British Columbia, Idaho, south- western Wyoming, southwestern Colorado, northern Texas, southern Arkansas, south- ern Illinois, the Great Lakes, central New York, and Connecticut south through the United States and Mexico. They reach their southern limits in Guatemala and on islands in the Caribbean (AOU 1957, Weller 1964, Bond 1971, Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). World Distribution The Redhead breeds exclusively in North America; it oc- curs casually in Bermuda (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b), and has straggled to Hawaii (Berger 1972), Greenland, the New Siberian Archipelago (Palmer 1976b), and Swe- den (Bauer et al. 1980). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina The Redhead is a common winter resident in North Carolina. It is found chiefly on the salt and brackish waters of the coast, and rarely inland (Pearson et al. 1942). Bellrose (1976) noted a concentration of 6,000 in Currituck and Albemarle sounds, and Potter et al. (1980) remarked that it is fairly common in most years in Core and Pamlico sounds. The January 1975 win- ter waterfowl survey recorded 6,700 birds (Goldsberry et al. 1980), making North Carolina the third most important wintering ground for Redheads along the Atlan- tic coast (behind Rhode Island and Florida). At Pea Island NWR, 7,000 were counted in late November 1975 (Teulings 1976a) and 3,000 were there in December 1976 (Teulings 1976b, LeGrand 1977a). South Carolina Sprunt and Chamberlain (1949) considered the Redhead an uncommon and erratic winter visitor throughout the state, occurring most fre- quently in coastal areas. Single birds are most commonly seen, although pairs 270 or small groups may also be observed. The species Is much less common here than in North Carolina and only a very few birds were seen on the 1975 waterfowl sur- vey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Redheads are generally present in the state from late October to late March (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949). Georgia Denton et al. (1977) regarded the Redhead as an uncommon winter resident on the coast; it is a rare winter resident inland. Data given by Bell- rose (1976) from winter waterfowl surveys support this status. Dates of occur- rence are from 28 October (LeGrand 1979a) to 29 April (Denton et al. 1977). Usually only small flocks or individuals are seen, in fresh or salt water (Bur- leigh 1958). Florida The Redhead is locally abundant as a winter resident in Florida. The Gulf coast of Florida harbors the second largest wintering population in the United States. The January 1975 waterfowl survey recorded 91,000 birds for the state (Goldsberry et al. 1980); it should be remembered that these counts often underestimate the actual number present. Florida - Atlantic Coast Sprunt (1954) considered the Redhead an uncommon winter visitor in northern Florida, perhaps more abundant in former times. However, he reported it as far south as the Lake Okeechobee area. Kale (1979 ms a) considered it uncommon on most of the coast but abundant at Merritt Island MR, where 1,000 to 16,000 birds winter. Bellrose (1976) indicated that Cape Canaveral had the second largest concentration (15,000 birds) along the Atlantic coast. Florida - Gulf Coast St. Marks NWR is the most important wintering area of the Redhead in this part of Florida. This species is the most abundant wintering duck on the refuge, but it is uncommon elsewhere and rare south of Tampa Bay (Kale 1979 ms b) . Redheads occur in Florida from early November to (exceptionally) late June and July (Howell 1932; Sprunt 1954; Ogden 1970, 1973); exceptionally early birds have been seen on 26 September (St. Marks Light) (Edscorn 1979). Bellrose (1976) gave figures of 15,000 wintering in the Florida panhandle, and 50,000 at Apalachee Bay. An unusually large concentration of 56,000 birds was seen along the coast west of Gainesville in January 1975 (Goldsberry et al. 1980), and about 60,000 were seen near St. Marks Light on 21 November 1978 (Edscorn 1979). Alabama Imhof (1976b) noted that Redheads are uncommon in winter and on migration in most of the state, but may be locally abundant on the Gulf coast. These ducks are found on deep lakes, rivers, and bays in fresh, brackish, and salt water. Along the Gulf coast, Redheads have been recorded from 26 September to 19 May; a maximum concentration of 3,000 was reported from Mississippi Sound, 19 January 1956 (Imhof 1976b). Bellrose (1976) reported an average of 700 Red- heads wintering in Mobile Bay; the 1975 winter survey reported 200 (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Mississippi Burleigh (1944) had few records of Redheads from coastal Mis- sissippi, and these were mostly of single birds. Dates of occurrence were from mid-October to mid-March. Bellrose (1976) reported up to 20,000 off the west- 271 ern Mississippi and eastern Louisiana coasts. Judging from the 1975 waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980), most of these birds occurred in Louisiana wa- ters. Hamilton (1978) considered a concentration of 500 near Horn Island in January 1978 unusually large. Louisiana Lowery (1974) stated that Redheads are uncommon winter residents on inland lakes, but are occasionally observed forming rafts of several thousand on the coast. Arriving in the state around the first week, of October, they re- main until late April. Large numbers may winter along the eastern coast (Bell- rose 1976). An incomplete survey in January 1975 found 1,000 Redheads in Loui- siana (Goldsberry et. al. 1980). Texas From mid-October to mid-May, Redheads are locally abundant to com- mon on the lower and central coasts, and irregularly common to uncommon else- where in the state (Oberholser 1974). During the spring and fall, they are most numerous in the northern two-thirds of the state. Bellrose (1976) considered both the south Texas coast and that of adjacent Mexico important wintering areas for this species. Large concentrations were found at the Laguna Madre of Texas (300,000) and Mexico (60,000), and at Matagorda and San Antonio bays (20,000). Goldsberry et al. (1980) reported that 438,290 were found on the January 1975 waterfowl survey. This figure represents 62.4% of all wintering Redheads count- ed in the contiguous United States and Mexico, making Texas by far the most im- portant wintering ground for the species. Sporadic nesting by a very few Redheads has been reported from inland Castro, Medina, and Lubbock counties. These records consisted of unfledged young seen in the months of August (3 of 5 records), November, and December (Oberholser 1974, Rhodes 1979). SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding Redheads breed solely in North America, most of them in an area extending from southern Mackenzie and central and southern British Columbia southeast to western Minnestota , northern Nebraska, and central Colorado, and southwest to northwestern Nevada and central California (Small 1974, Palmer 1976b). Breeding populations on the principal prairie breeding grounds ranged from 387,000 in 1963 to 927,000 during the period 1955-74, and averaged 649,000 (Bellrose 1976). The 1976 waterfowl breeding ground survey indicated a breeding population of at least 963,000 birds, the majority (67.3%) in southern Alberta and southern Saskatchewan (Larned et al. 1980). This survey evidently did not cover several states in which the Redhead is known to breed. Among these is Utah, which contains the greatest concentration of nesting Redheads in North America in the marshes near Great Salt Lake. According to figures provided by Bellrose (1976), this area has more breeding Redheads (130,000) than all of the rest of the western United States put together. Weller (1964) mapped densities throughout the breeding range of the Red- head, finding that extreme drought in the primary nesting range of both the Redhead and the Canvasback severely reduced the quantity and quality of breed- 272 ing habitat from 1958 to 1963; Low production rates caused population declines. Winter Redheads winter from southern British Columbia in the west and southern New York in the east to southern Mexico and Guatemala and the Gulf Coast States (Map 19), with a few in the Caribbean (Palmer 1976b). However, a substantial majority of the winter population is found along the western Gulf coast in Texas and Mexico. Texas and the east coast of Mexico combined held 77.8% of the approximately 703,000 Redheads counted on the January 1975 winter waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). During the 1976 survey, approxi- mately 718,000 birds were found (Larned et al. 1980). The next largest wintering concentration (ca. 50,000 birds) occurs in Apal- achee Bay on the Gulf coast of Florida (Palmer 1976b). Smaller, but also im- portant, concentrations occur in North Carolina and on the north-central Atlan- tic coast of Florida (Map 19). Migration The principal migration corridors are overland from breeding grounds in Idaho, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba to the southern Gulf coast of Texas and Mexico. Most of the Pacific coast wintering birds originate in the west. Some birds from the northern prairies move eastward to the Great Lakes and south to Chesapeake Bay or the Gulf coast of Florida. Migration is discus- sed in detail by Lincoln (1934), Weller (1964) and Bellrose (1976). HABITAT Nesting The Redhead nests in dense stands of plants, preferring bulrushes, cattails, or sedges on and around marshes and potholes of the prairies and park- lands. Redheads prefer extensive marshes with shallow water openings (Palmer 1976b); hardstem bulrush (Scirpus acutus) is the preferred nesting cover over much of the range (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Nest sites are usually over water, but some are on islands or on land near water (Bellrose 1976). Feeding Redheads feed more in shallow marshes and ponds than do many of the diving ducks (Bellrose 1976). During migration they are often found on shallow, slow-moving rivers and lakes (Palmer 1976b), and on fresh and slightly brackish estuarine bays with much submerged aquatic vegetation (Johnsgard 1975). Winter and Offshore Redheads winter primarily on either saline waters that are rich in plant foods , such as coastal bays and lagoons , or large inland lakes and reservoirs (Palmer 1976b). Weller (i_n Johnsgard 1975) indicated that win- ter habitat was typically well protected, fairly shallow, brackish or highly sa- line waters along the coast. Migrants and wintering birds are often found in compact rafts (Palmer 1976b) that may contain large numbers of birds. Rafts in Florida contain from 5,000 to 20,000 ducks; as many as 80,000-90,000 have been observed off Cedar Key, usually 5-15 mi (8-24 km) offshore. A raft in Texas held some 76,000 birds. During windy weather on the lower Laguna Madre, these birds may congregate in water so shallow they barely float (Palmer 1976b and authors cited therein). Redheads wintering in the lower Laguna Madre clearly preferred areas of shallow water over hard sand vegetated solely with shoalgrass (Halodule beaudetti) . Areas with more luxuriant stands of shoalgrass in deeper (1-2 m = 3.3-6.6 ft) water were rarely visited (Cornelius 1977). 273 274 FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Redheads feed in marshes, sloughs, and ponds that are often only a meter or so deep. When in deeper waters they dive for food, but in the shallows they either "tip-up" or forage from the surface (Bellrose 1976). Alexander and Hair (1979) reported some elements of foraging behavior on coastal impoundments in South Carolina. Redheads usually foraged in small groups of 4-6 birds. At Huntington Beach, they dove for an average of 15 sec and moved underwater an average of about three body lengths. The mean foraging rate (defined as the number of dives or tip-ups per 5-minute interval) varied from 4.2 at one local- ity to 13.9 at another; no difference in foraging rate between the sexes was noted . Redheads feed largely on vegetable food; studies cited by Palmer (1976b) and Bellrose (1976) indicated that between 78% and 94% of the diet may consist of plant material in transient and wintering areas. On the breeding grounds in Manitoba, however, Redheads ate considerably more animal food (Bartonek and Hickey 1969a) . The principal animal food consumed in this area was the larvae of caddisflies (Trichoptera) . We give below a state-by-state summary of the principal foods eaten in the southeast; more detailed information on specific foods consumed in other parts of the range may be found in Palmer (1976b) and Bellrose (1976). North Carolina The food eaten by 44 Redheads wintering in Currituck Sound was similar to that ingested by Canvasbacks in the same area but incorpo- rated a larger proportion of southern naiad (Najas guadalupensis) and a smaller proportion of pondweed (Potamogeton spp.)(Quay and Critcher 1965). Pondweeds accounted for 41.1% (by volume) of the food, southern naiad 21.9%, and widgeon- grass (Ruppia maritima) , 12.9%. These three plant genera made up about 76% of the food identified. Unidentified animals and plants made up 2.2% and 19.0%, respectively, of the total material examined. Florida Stieglitz (1967) reported the foods consumed by 10 Redheads wintering at Apalachee Bay, St. Marks NWR, on the Florida Gulf coast. Shoal- grass (Diplanthera wrightii) was the principal food eaten, making up 85.3% of the diet; the only other plant eaten was manateegrass (Cymodocea manatorum - 0.7%), and it was found in only one Redhead. The rest of the food consisted of molluscs, principally Olivella mutica (9.2%), Prunum apicinum (2.0%), Nassarius ambiguus (1.0%), and Anachis avara (1.0%). Texas McMahan (1970) reported on the foods of 104 Redheads collected from November through December on the Lower Laguna Madre. As in Florida, shoal- grass was the principal food eaten and comprised almost an identical proportion of the diet (84.2%). Widgeongrass (9.8%) was the only other plant eaten. Ani- mal food consisted of snails (2.0%) and clams (0.1%). McMahan pointed out that many of the snails were fossils that presumably had been picked up for grit and suggested that Redheads probably fed to a greater extent on widgeongrass than was indicated by his analysis of stomach contents. During the winter of 1974-75, Cornelius (1977) conducted another study of the food habits of Redheads on the Lower Laguna Madre, following a decreased 275 use of this wintering area. Rhizomes of shoalgrass (Halodule beaudettei) ac- counted for 71% of the diet of 19 Redheads; three molluscs, Anachis avara, Neritina virginea, and Cerithidea pliculosa were the animal foods eaten most often, but they comprised only 9.5% of the diet. IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying The Redhead is noted for the practice of laying eggs in nests of other birds, either of its own or of other species (Weller 1959). In Iowa in 1938, the peak of the nest-building and egg-laying period was 19-25 June, when one-third of the observed nests were constructed (Low 1940). In Alberta, the mean date of nest initiation over a five-year study period was between 7 and 26 May (Keith 1961). Nests were begun in late April or early May in Mon- tana, with first nest establishment completed by 10 June (Lokemoen 1966). Mean Clutch Size The parasitic or semiparasitic habits of the Redhead make determination of clutch size somewhat difficult (Weller 1959). Laying by sever- al females in one nest has resulted in "clutches" of as many as 87 eggs (Weller 1959). Various studies (cited In Bellrose 1976 and Palmer 1976b) have reported average clutch sizes varying from 8.9 to 13.5 eggs, and Bellrose reported an overall average of 11.1. Weller (1959) reported that unparasitized clutches contained from 5 to 9 eggs in studies conducted at Delta Marsh, Manitoba, and Knudtson Marsh, Utah. The average clutch size was 7.4 (n = 17). Weller also reported that parasitic females laid an average of 10.8 eggs. Palmer (1976b) believed that the true clutch size was 9 eggs in most instances. Incubation Period Incubation periods in studies cited by Palmer (1976b) and Bellrose (1976) range from 23-29 days. Palmer (1976b) stated that the in- cubation period is usually 24 days. Hatching Success In a two-year study in western Montana, Lokemoen (1966) found that eggs hatched in 15.2% of 138 clutches. However, only 9.9% of the eggs in these clutches hatched. Hatching success was greater than nest success because some nests lost eggs by interference from other birds or contained late eggs laid by parasites. In a summary of studies, Bellrose (1976) noted overall that some eggs hatched in 52% of the nests observed, but that an unusually large number of unhatched eggs were left in successful nests. Fledging Success No precise data are available. Bellrose (1976) calcul- ated that the production of young per hen may vary from 1.3 to 2.7. Age at Fledging Palmer (1976b) reported that most young fly at 60-65 days and noted that a range of 56-84 days had been reported. Age at First Breeding Female Redheads may breed as yearlings, but the pro- portion that do so is unknown (Bellrose 1976). Mortality of Eggs and Young Many nests in which eggs fail to hatch were deserted because of the intrusion of parasitic females. This is prevalent enough that it led Bellrose (1976) to remark "The redhead appears to be its own worst enemy". Mammalian (skunks and racoons) and avian (crows, magpies, and 276 gulls) predators account for a large proportion of destroyed nests, and many others are flooded by sudden increases in water level. Nests may also be de- serted in time of drought or low water (Bellrose 1976). Renesting Alliston (1979b) first documented renesting in Redheads. He found that 86.4% of 22 females whose clutches were removed later renested. Clutch size in first nests averaged 10.5 (n =8), versus 10.3 for second nests, a statistically insignificant difference. Maximum Natural Longevity A bird banded in Maryland after its second year was recovered in Michigan at a minimum age of 21 years and 5 months (Clapp et al . in press) . Weight Males (n = 1,157) in spring migration averaged 1,100 g (2.43 lb) and females (n = 485) averaged 990 g (2.18 lb). Thirty-two summer males aver- aged 940 g (2.07 lb) and 71 females averaged 900 g (1.98 lb). During fall mi- gration, 40 males had a mean weight of 990 g (2.18 lb) and 52 females averaged 900 g (1.98 lb) (Weller 1957 in Palmer 1976b). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION At least five Redheads were included among more than 8,400 birds killed by an oil spill in Chesapeake Bay (Roland et al. 1977). A very large proportion of the entire species population winters in the southeast, often in large aggre- gations in habitats susceptible to oiling. This duck also belongs to a group of diving ducks ( Aythya) whose feeding habits make thera especially vulnerable to the effects of oil. Consequently, we regard this species as one potentially at high risk from oil pollution in the southeast. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 Cable, T. T. 1981. Nest of Redhead Duck in Newton Co.: first state nesting record. Indiana Audubon Q. 59: 4-5. Sugden, L. A. 1981. Parasitism of Canvasback nests by Redheads. J. Field Ornithol. 51: 361-364. 1980 Bauer, C.-A., S. Christiansson and G. Rudebeck. 1980. Amerikansk brunand , Aythya americana, en ny art for Euro pa , funnen i Malmo. [Redhead, Aythya americana, a species new to Europe, found in Malmo, Sweden.] Var Fagel- varld 39: 275-276. Nudds, T. D. 1980. Canvasback tolerance of Redhead parasitism: an observation and an hypothesis. Wilson Bull. 92: 414. 277 Sugden, L. G. and G. Butler. 1980. Estimating densities of breeding Canvas- backs and Redheads. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 814-821. 1979 Alexander, W. C. and J. D. Hair. 1979. Winter foraging behavior and aggres- sion of diving ducks in South Carolina. Proc . 31st Annu. Conf . Southeast- ern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 226-232. Alliston, W. G. 1979a. The population ecology of an isolated population of Redhead Ducks (Aythya americana). Ph.D. thesis, Cornell Univ. /Ithaca, NY. . 1979b. Renesting by the Redhead Duck. Wildfowl 30: 40-44. Bailey, R. 0. 1979. Methods of estimating total lipid content in the Redhead Duck (Aythya americana) and an evaluation of condition indices. Can. J. Zool. 57: 1830-1833. Michot, T. C. , J. B. Low and D. R. Anderson. 1979. Decline of Redhead Duck nesting on Knudson Marsh, Utah. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 224-229. Rhodes, M. J. 1979. Redheads breeding in the Texas Panhandle. Southwest. Nat. 24: 691-692. 1977 Cornelius, S. E. 1977. Food and resource utilization by wintering Redheads on Lower Laguna Madre. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 374-385. 1976 Joyner, D. E. 1976. Effects of interspecific nest parasitism by Redheads and Ruddy Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 40: 33-38. Michot, T. C. 1976. Nesting ecology of the Redhead Duck on Knudson Marsh, Utah. M.S. thesis, Utah St. Univ. /Logan, Ut . 62 pp. 1975 Alliston, W. G. 1975. Web-tagging ducklings in pipped eggs. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 625-628. Cornelius, S. E. 1975. Food choice of wintering Redhead Ducks and utilization of available food resources in Lower Laguna Madre, Texas. M.S. thesis, Texas A&M Univ. /College Station, TX. 121 pp. Dane, C. W. and D. H. Johnson. 1975. Age determination of female Redhead ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 256-263. Featherstone , J. D. 1975. Aspects of nest site selection in three species of ducks. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Toronto/Toronto, ON. 278 Single, E. 1975. Bald Eagle attacks Redhead (Sullivan Co.). Linn. Newsl. 29: 4. Williams, S. 0., III. 1975. Redhead breeding in the state of Jalisco, Mexico. Auk 92: 152-153. 1974 McKnight, D. E. 1974. Dry-land nesting by Redheads and Ruddy Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 38: 112-119. 1973 Lokemoen, J. T. and H. F. Duebbert. 1973. An upland nest of the Redhead far from water. Wilson Bull. 85: 468. Mattson, M. E. 1973. Host-parasite relations of Canvasback and Redhead duck- lings. M.S. thesis, Univ. Manitoba/Winnipeg, MB. 97 pp. 1972 Benson, D. and S. D. Browne. 1972. Establishing breeding colonies of Redheads in New York by releasing hand-reared birds. N.Y. Fish Game J. 19: 59-72. Stone, W. B. 1972. Fishing lines trap waterfowl. N.Y. State Conserv. 27: 38. 1970 Weller, M. W. 1970. Additional notes on the plumages of the Redhead (Aythya americana. Wilson Bull. 82: 320-323. 1969 Bartonek, J. C. 1969. Build-up of grit in three pochard species in Manitoba. Wilson Bull. 81: 96-97. Bartonek, J. C. and J. J. Hickey. 1969a. Food habits of Canvasbacks , Redheads, and Lesser Scaup in Manitoba. Condor 71: 280-290. . 1969b. Selective feeding by juvenile diving ducks in summer. Auk 86: 443-457. Benson, D. and S. D. Browne. 1969. Releasing hand-reared Redheads to establish breeding colonies in New York. Trans. N.E. Sect. Wildl. Soc, 26th NE Fish and Wildl. Conf . , 9-12 Feb. 1969: 91-110. Geis, A. D. and W. F. Crissey. 1969. Effect of restrictive hunting regulations on Canvasback and Redhead harvest rates and survival. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 860-866. 279 1968 Fatora, J. R. 1968. Present status of the Redhead on the Atomic Energy Com- mission Savannah River Plant area of South Carolina. Chat 32: 101-102. Reinecker, W. C. 1968. A summary of band recoveries from Redheads (Aythya americana) banded in northeastern California. Calif. Fish Game 54: 17-26. 1967 Timken, R. L. 1967. Canvasback male participating in a Redhead courtship party. Auk 84: 588. Weller, M. W. 1967. Courtship of the Redhead (Aythya americana). Auk 84: 544-559. 1966 Lokemoen, J. T. 1966. Breeding ecology of the Redhead Duck in western Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 30: 668-681. 1965 Miller, J. B. 1965. An upland Redhead nest. Auk 82: 280. Sealy, S. G. 1965. Redhead parasitizing the nest of the American Bittern. Blue Jay 23: 172. Smart, G. 1965. Development and maturation of primary feathers of Redhead ducklings. J. Wildl. Manage. 29: 533-536. Weller, M. W. 1965. Chronology of pair formation in some nearctic Aythya (Anatidae). Auk 82: 227-235. Yocum, C. F. 1965. Breeding record for Redhead in Alaska. Auk 82: 103. 1964 Olson, D. P. 1964. A study of the Canvasback and Redhead breeding populations, nesting habitats and productivity. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/Minnea- polis, MN. 100 pp. Weller, M. W. 1964. Distribution and migration of the Redhead. J. Wildl. Manage. 28: 64-103. 1962 Lokemoen, J. T. 1962. The productivity of the Redhead, Aythya americana, in the Flathead Valley, Montana. M.S. thesis, Univ. Montana/Missoula , MT. Smart, G. M. 1962. Biological problems in the restocking of Redhead Ducks, Aythya americana. M.A. thesis, Univ. Missouri/Columbia, MO. 115 pp. 280 1959 Weller, M. W. 1959. Parasitic egg laying in the Redhead (Aythya americana) and other North American Anatidae . Ecol . Monogr. 29: 333-365. Weller, M. W. and P. Ward. 1959. Migration and mortality of hand-reared Red- heads (Aythya americana). J. Wildl. Manage. 23: 427-433. 1957 Rate, H. 1957. Redheads killed by a downdraft. Auk 74: 391. Weller, M. W. 1957. Growth, weights, and plumages of the Redhead, Aythya amer- icana. Wilson Bull. 69: 5-38. 1956 Weller, M. W. 1956. Parasitic egg laying in the Redhead (Aythya americana) and other North American Anatidae. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Missouri/Columbia, MO. 160 pp. 1955 Ferrell, H. W. 1955. Redheads of the Laguna Madre. Texas Game Fish 14: 7, 31. 1954 Kenaga, E. E. 1954. Summer records of Redheads in a Michigan inland marsh. Wilson Bull. 66: 151. McKinney, D. F. 1954. An observation of Redhead parasitism. Wilson Bull. 66: 146-148. Weller, M. W. 1954. Growth rate and plumage development of the Redhead Duck, Aythya americana. M.A. thesis, Univ. Missouri/ Columbia, MO. 1953 Jennings, W. S. and J. R. Singleton. 1953. Redheads ... .acres of 'em. Texas Game Fish 11: 10-11, 27. 1949 Robbins, C. S. 1949. Migration of the Redhead i_n Migration of some North Am- erican waterfowl. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Spec. Sci. Rept . Wildl. No. 1. 48 pp. 1946 Baillie, J. L. , Jr. 1946. The Redhead as a breeding bird of Michigan and Ontario. Wilson Bull. 58: 111-112. 281 Hochbaum, H. A. 1946. Status of the Redhead in southern Manitoba. Wilson Bull. 58: 62-65. 1945 Low, J. B. 1945. Ecology and management of the Redhead (Nyroca americana) in Iowa. Ecol. Monogr. 15: 35-69. Mendall, H. L. 1945. Redhead breeding in New Brunswick. Auk 62: 465. 1944 Williams, C. S. 1944. Migration of the Redhead from the Utah breeding grounds. Auk 61: 251-259. 1943 Low, J. B. 1943. A deformed Redhead duckling. Condor 45: 234-235. 1941 Low, J. B. 1941a. The ecology and management of the Redhead, Nyroca americana, in Iowa. Ph.D thesis, Iowa St. Univ. /Ames, IA. . 1941b. The ecology and management of the Redhead, Nyroca americana (Eyton) , in Iowa. Iowa St. Coll. J. Sci. 16: 90-92. . 1941c. Nesting of the Ruddy Duck in Iowa. Auk 58: 506-517. 1940 Low, J. B. 1940. Production of the Redhead (Nyroca americana) in Iowa. Wil- son Bull. 52: 153-164. 1938 Bennett, L. J. 1938. Redheads and Ruddy Ducks nesting in Iowa. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 3: 647-650. 1936 Todd, W. E. C. 1936. The Redhead and Ring-necked Duck breeding at Pymatuning Lake, Pennsylvania. Auk 53: 440. 1934 Lincoln, F. C. 1934. Distribution and migration of the Redhead. Pp. 280-287 in Trans. 20th Am. Game Conf., Hotel Pennsylvania, New York, New York, 22-24 January 1934. vi and 424 pp. 282 1933 Weydemeyer, W. 1933. Occurrence and nesting of the Redhead in Montana. 50: 210-211. Auk Redhead Duck. Photograph by Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 283 RING-NECKED DUCK (Aythya collarls) [FR: Morillon a collier, GE: Halsringente , NW: Ringand, Halsringand, SP: Pato de collar, Pato negro, Pato del medio cavezon] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Ring-necked Duck breeds from the Mackenzie District and British Colum- bia east across Canada to Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and as far south as northeastern Washington, northern North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, Vermont, Maine, and Massachusetts (Mendall 1938, Chandler 1953, AOU 1957). Recent northward extension of the breeding range into Labrador has also been noted (Gillespie and Wetmore 1974). To the south of this general breeding distribution, local irregular breeding has been reported from Oregon, Califor- nia, Nevada, Montana, Colorado, Nebraska, South Dakota, Illinois, Indiana, and Pennsylvania (AOU 1957, Mendall 1958). The principal breeding ground is the closed boreal forest of northwestern Canada (Bellrose 1976). In winter, the Ring-necked Duck can be found from Massachusetts southward along the Atlantic coast to Florida, the West Indies, Gulf coast states, and Mexico (AOU 1957, Bond 1971). In the southeast, it may occur inland as far as Tennessee and Arkansas (Johnsgard 1975). Along the Pacific coast, these ducks winter from southern British Columbia to Baja California, in most of Mexico, and in Central America as far south as Panama (AOU 1957, Mendall 1958). Ring-necked Ducks winter along the Pacific coast from British Columbia south to Baja California, in Mexico and Central America to Guatemala, and along the Atlantic coast (Map 20) from Massachusetts south to Florida, the West In- dies, the Gulf coast states, Mexico, and Central America (AOU 1957, Mendall 1958). January waterfowl inventories indicate that between 240,000 and 300,000 Ring-necked Ducks winter in North America. Over half of the birds in the At- lantic Flyway winter in Florida (Bellrose 1976). Large concentrations have also been noted in Cuba (15,000) and in the Dominican Republic (5,500) (Crissey in Bellrose 1976). Two-thirds of the birds wintering in the Mississippi Flyway occur in Louisiana (about 73,000), and slightly over 10,000 Ring-necked Ducks winter from east Texas to Yucatan on the Gulf coast. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Three Ring-necked Ducks were among more than 3,200 oiled dead birds found after a spill in San Francisco Bay, California, in 1971 (Smail et al. 1972). Because of its preference for fresh water, the Ring-necked Duck is much less vulnerable to marine oiling than other diving ducks. 284 285 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Goodwin, T. M. 1980. Ring-necked Ducks breeding in a north-central Florida lake. Fla. Field Nat. 8: 18. 1979 Maire, M. 1979. De nouveau un Fuligule a bee cercle, Aythya collaris, sur le Leman. [Ring-necked Duck Aythya collaris new for lake of Geneva.] Nos Oiseaux 35: 181-183. [In French.] 1978 Noseworthy, S. M. and W. Threlfall. 1978. Some raetazoan parasites of Ring- necked Ducks, Aythya collaris (Donovan), from Canada. J. Parasitol. 64: 365-367. 1977 Fredriksson, R. 1977. Ringand Aythya collaris antraffad i Sverige. [First record of Ring-necked Duck in Sweden.] Var Fagelvarld 36: 45-47. [In Swedish with English summary.] Fukuda, M. 1977. [First record of the Ring-necked Duck Aythya collaris in Japan.] Tori 26: 95-96. [In Japanese with English summary.] 1976 Titman, R. D. and N. R. Seymour. 1976. Unusual intensity of fighting in Ring- necked Ducks. Wilson Bull. 88: 507-508. 1974 Gillespie, D. I. and S. P. Wetmore. 1974. Range extension of the Ring-necked Duck, Aythya collaris , into Labrador. Can. Field-Nat. 88: 75-76. 1972 Erskine, A. J. 1972. Postbreeding assemblies of Ring-necked Ducks in eastern Nova Scotia. Auk 89: 449-450. Kury, C. R. 1972. Ring-necked Duck and Ruddy Turnstones wintering at Sitka. Murrelet 53: 11. 1971 Adams, R. and J. Eastman. 1971. First breeding record of Ring-necked Ducks in Kalamazoo County. Jack-Pine Warbler 49: 130. 286 1970 Anderson, B. W. 1970. Psuedo-sleeplng attitude in Lesser Scaup and Ring- necked ducks. Condor 72: 370-371. 1969 Anderson, B. W. and D. W. Warner. 1969. A morphological analysis of a large sample of Lesser Scaup and Ring-necked Ducks. Bird-Banding 40: 85-94. Anderson, B. W., T. P. Ketola and D. W. Warner. 1969. Spring sex and age ratios of Lesser Scaup and Ring-necked ducks in Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 209-212. Laperle, M. 1969. Breeding records of the Ring-necked Duck in Gaspe South County, Quebec. Can. Field-Nat. 83: 280-281. 1966 Reed, A. 1966. Breeding records of the Ring-necked Duck (Aythya collaris) in Riviere-du-Loup and Rimouski counties, Quebec. Can. Field-Nat. 80: 182. 1965 Marshall, D. B. and H. F. Duebbert. 1965. Nesting of the Ring-necked Duck in Oregon in 1963 and 1964. Murrelet 46: 43. 1963 Ripley, S. D. 1963. Courtship in the Ring-necked Duck. Wilson Bull. 75: 373-375. 1961 Ennis, T. 1961. Ring-necked Duck in Co. Armagh. Brit. Birds 54: 72-73. 1958 Mendall, H. L. 1958. The Ring-necked Duck in the northeast. Univ. Maine Stud. No. 73. 317 pp. 1957 Goodwin, A. B. 1957. A study of Ring-necked Duck nesting in the pothole region of Mahnomen County, Minn. Flicker 29: 22-29. 1955 Cooch, G. 1955. Ring-necked Duck (Aythya collaris) breeding in Saguenay County, Quebec. Can. Field-Nat. 69: 130. 287 Scott, P. 1955. Ring-necked Duck in Gloucestershire: a new British bird. Brit. Birds 48: 377. 1954 Kilhara, L. 1954. Repeated territorial attacks of Pied-billed Grebe on Ring- necked Duck. Wilson Bull. 66: 265-267. 1953 Chandler, E. H. 1953. A breeding record for the Ring-necked Duck in Massa- chusetts. Auk 70: 86. Nicholson, W. R. 1953. A study of the breeding waterfowl of Corinna Stream. M.S. thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono, ME. 118 pp. 1952 Mendall, H. L. 1952. Maine's new citizen — the Ring-necked Duck. Bull. Maine Audubon Soc . 8: 22-25. 1951 Yocum, C. F. 1951. Breeding status of the Ring-necked Duck in Washington. Condor 53: 47-49. 1949 Springer, P. F. 1949. Recent records of the Ring-necked Duck. Auk 66: 200. Tuck, L. M. 1949. Occurrence of the Ring-necked Duck in Newfoundland. Can. Field-Nat. 63: 211-212. 1947 Mansell, W. C. 1947. Ring-necked Duck breeding in Ontario. Auk 64: 474. Severinghaus , C. W. and D. Benson. 1947. Ring-necked Duck broods in New York State. Auk 64: 626-627. 1946 Squires, W. A. 1946. Old breeding records of the Ring-necked Duck in New Brunswick. Auk 63: 600. 1945 Zirrer, F. 1945. The Ring-necked Duck. Passenger Pigeon 7: 41-46. 1940 Moffitt, J. 1940. The Ring-necked Duck in northern California. Gull 22: 13- 15. 288 1918 Mendall, H. L. 1938. Ring-necked Duck, breeding in eastern North America. Auk 55: 401-404. 1936 Todd, W. E. C. 1936. The Redhead and Ring-necked Duck breeding at Pyraatuning Lake, Pennsylvania. Auk 53: 440. 1926 Sprunt, A., Jr. 1926. Status of the Ring-necked Duck in South Carolina. Auk 43: 364-366. 1924 Griscom, L. and J. M. Johnson. 1924. Ring-necked Duck in northern New Jersey. Auk 41: 339. 289 GREATER SCAUP (Aythya marlla) [DA: Bjergand, DU: Toppereend , EN: Scaup, FI: Lapasotlea, FR: Milouinan, Canard railouinan; GE : Bergente, IC: Duggond, IT: Moretta grigia, JA: Suzugamo, NW : Ber- gand , PO: Ogorzalka, RU: (Marine Scaup), SP: Porron bastardo, Cos grande, SW: Bergand] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America The Greater Scaup breeds in North America from Alaska through Arctic Canada east to the shores of Hudson Bay, with isolated records or casual nesting in northwestern British Columbia, central Alberta, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It nests also in the Chima region of northern Ungava and commonly in a small area in southeastern Newfoundland (Palmer 1976b). Palmer (1976b) pointed out that breeding records for North Dakota and Michigan (AOU 1957) are probably erroneous; the validity of a recent breeding record from Florida (Montalbano 1977) is also dubious (Palmer, pers . comm.). Greater Scaup winter chiefly on the sea coasts, along the Pacific from the Aleutian Islands to California, on the Atlantic from Newfoundland to central Florida, and along the Gulf coast from Florida to coastal Texas. Others winter Inland on the eastern Great Lakes and to a lesser extent along the drainage of the Mississippi River. The southern limits in western North America are in Sin- aloa and northern Baja California, and in eastern North America are in southern Florida, the Bahamas, and western Cuba (Palmer 1976b). World Distribution Greater Scaup also breed in Iceland, at least sporad- ically in Great Britain, and regularly through northern Eurasia from Fenno- Scandia to Siberia and islands in the Bering Sea (Cramp et al. 1977, Johnsgard 1978). Eurasian populations winter in western Europe, along the Mediterranean, in the Black Sea and Persian Gulf, in some parts of northern Africa, in India, and along the shores of Japan, China, and Korea (Cramp et al. 1977). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina The Greater Scaup is a fairly common winter resident from October to April in the waters of Pamlico Sound and adjacent areas (Potter et al. 1980). It is occasionally found inland on rivers and lakes (Pearson et al. 1942). Bellrose (1976) reported the proportion of Greater Scaup among both spe- cies of scaup killed during hunting seasons from 1967 to 1969. He then used these figures to estimate how many of the birds seen on January waterfowl sur- veys were Greater Scaup. If his proportions are still valid, then the number seen in North Carolina during the January 1975 survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980) was about 1,175 birds. 290 South Carolina This species is a winter resident, of uncertain numerical status, but considered uncommon along the coast and inland (Potter et al. 1980). It is generally present from late October to early April; an occasional indi- vidual may be observed in early summer. It prefers to inhabit large bays, estuaries, and the ocean, and seldom visits freshwater areas (Sprunt and Cham- berlain 1949). The scarcity of inland records no doubt partly reflects the dif- ficulty in separating this species from the Lesser Scaup in the field (Fatora 1965, Burton 1970). Following Bellrose's (1976) methods of computation, about 150 Greater Scaup were seen during the 1975 mid-winter waterfowl survey. This duck is probably more abundant than indicated, however, since 2,000 were reported in Charleston Harbor, 7 February 1976 (Teulings 1976b); four recent Christmas Counts average about 170 birds (Map 21). Georgia Burleigh (1958) stated that the Greater Scaup is a rare and rather local winter resident on the eastern edge of Georgia; authentic records of its occurrence are very few. In winter this bird is notably maritime in its habits. On the Atlantic coast it is rarely seen on inland waters, preferring saltwater bays and sounds where it gathers in dense rafts. Burleigh (1958) also stated that the paucity of records reflects the difficulty in separating the two scaup species in the wild. Perhaps as many as 1,300 birds were present during the January winter waterfowl survey if Bellrose's (1976) method of estimation is used. On the other hand, recent Christmas Counts (Map 21) continue to indicate that very small numbers are present. Florida The Greater Scaup is a fairly common winter resident in Florida, occurring chiefly in the northern half of the state in the Gulf, less abundant- ly on bays and sounds along the Atlantic coast, and occasionally on the larger rivers where it associates with the Lesser Scaup (Sprunt 1954, Kale 1979 ms a, 1979 ms b). An isolated record of breeding was reported (but poorly documented) in 1975 on the Merritt Island NWR, Brevard County, Florida (Montalbano 1977). Bellrose (1976) estimated that 9.1% of the scaup wintering in Florida were Greater Scaup. If this figure is reasonably accurate, then about 26,750 were seen on the January 1975 waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). This fig- ure contrasts strongly with the few sighted on recent Christmas Counts (Map 21). Alabama Imhof (1976b) stated that the Greater Scaup is locally common in winter on the Gulf coast of Alabama, rare in late fall and winter in the Tennes- see Valley, and occasional in the intervening area. Along the coast, it is usually found only on the outermost bays. The maximum number reported along the coast is 600 at Grand Bay, Mobile County. A pair was observed at close range on 16 June 1956 at Dauphin Island, but there is no indication that the species breeds in Alabama (Imhof 1976b). Mississippi The Greater Scaup seems to be quite uncommon in Mississippi; there are few reported observations. Burleigh (1944) knew of a single specimen from along the coast, a bird taken in May at Gulfport. More recent reports sug- gest that small numbers may be in the state from October to March (Weber and Jackson 1977, Jackson and Cooley 1978a). As elsewhere, however, the difficulty in separating the two scaup in the field may lead to underestimates of the abun- dance of this less common species. 291 292 Louisiana This species frequents coastal waters between early November and early April (Lowery 1974). Bellrose (1976) estimated that about 60,000 Greater Scaup winter here. Using his methods of estimation, perhaps not less than 11,400 were seen during the incomplete 1975 waterfowl survey of Louisiana (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Texas Oberholser (1974) noted that this species is a winter-resident in Texas, generally occurring between 18 October and 20 May. It is scarce to rare on the Gulf coast and rare elsewhere. Bellrose (1976) estimated a wintering population of about 600 birds during the late 1960 's. His methods of computa- tion lead to an estimate of about a dozen Greater Scaup present during the 1975 winter survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Recent Christmas Counts (Map 21) sug- gest that it is more common there. Historic records suggest that this species was much more abundant earlier in the century. SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding In North America, the Greater Scaup breeds from coastal and Arctic Alaska east through the Yukon and the Northwest Territories to extreme northern Manitoba and Ontario and western Quebec. Other populations regularly breed on the coast of Ungava Bay and in Newfoundland (Palmer 1976b). Bellrose (1976) suggested that about three-quarters of the Greater Scaup in North Amer- ica breed in Alaska, principally in the Yukon Delta; he estimated that 550,000 breed there and suggested that another 200,000 breed in Canada. The Greater Scaup is also a common breeding bird in the Old World. There, "the Scaup" is found nesting across the northern Palearctic from Iceland west to northern Russia and Siberia and south to about 60°N, with occasional breed- ing farther south in the Faeroes, Britain, and the south Baltic (B0U 1971). Figures listed in Cramp et al. (1977) indicate breeding populations of about 20,000 in Iceland, 2,000 in Finland, and 230,000 in the western U.S.S.R. Winter The Greater Scaup winters in North America along the Pacific coast from the Aleutian Islands south to California (rarely northern Baja California), along the Atlantic coast from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Florida, and along the Gulf coast south to the Mexican boundary (AOU 1957). January surveys by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service indicated that about 60% of the total wintering population is in the Atlantic Flyway ; nearly half of these winter between Massa- chusetts and New Jersey. South of Chesapeake Bay, Greater Scaup become much less abundant, and are apparently least abundant off Georgia, and most abundant off Florida. The status of this species on the Gulf coast is poorly known but it is apparently abundant off Florida and Louisiana. A total of about 1,131,800 "scaup" were reported within the contiguous United States on the 1975 waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Bellrose' s 293 (1976) estimates (a) suggest that about 358,000 of these scaup were Greater Scaup; his earlier calculations indicated a total of about 317,000 birds. Prob- ably somewhat more than 12% of the Greater Scaup seen in 1975 wintered in the southeast, a substantial majority of them in waters off Florida and Louisiana. The difficulty in identifying the Greater Scaup in the field has been fre- quently noted above. The very similar Lesser Scaup is more abundant in the southeast, and there is a tendency either to apply the name of the more common species or to hedge by not Identifying scaup to species. Thus, reliance on ob- server's reports is likely to convey an erroneous concept of the relative abun- dance of the two species. Population estimates given by Bellrose (1976) are based on the total number of scaup detected on aerial surveys, allotted in pro- portion to the percentage of Greater and Lesser Scaup found in spot checks of hunters' bags, a method that has obvious shortcomings. Migration The principal migration routes of Greater Scaup from their breeding grounds in northwestern North America extend east- southeast to the principal wintering grounds on the northern Atlantic coast. Some, perhaps most, of the birds wintering along the Pacific coast move south well offshore but others apparently follow a more interior pathway through western Canada. Great- er Scaup wintering along the Gulf coast apparently diverge from east-southeast routes to fly south along the Mississippi drainage and through Iowa and Georgia to western Florida (Bellrose 1976). HABITAT Nesting Preferred nest sites of the Greater Scaup in open boreal forest (taiga) of North America are islands in large lakes. In the Yukon Delta, how- ever, these birds nest on marshy, lowland tundra on slightly elevated areas near ponds (Bellrose 1976). Some nests have been found as much as a thousand meters from water (Palmer 1976b), but most are close to ponds or other bodies of water (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Similar breeding habitats have been reported in the Old World; in Scandinavia they frequent upland birch communities (Cramp et al. 1977). Nests are usually concealed in tall grass (Bellrose 1976). Preferred cover is usually grass-sedge, mostly Glyceria (R. Kirkpatrick in Palmer 1976b), but nests have also been found in rock crevices, under shrubs, and on floating veg- etation (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Feeding Greater Scaup have a pronounced tendency to feed in open water and are the most marine of the genus Aythya (Cramp et al. 1977). They prefer to feed in water about 1-4 m (3-13 ft) deep (Palmer 1976b). Non-breeding (a) We assumed that the estimates Bellrose (1976) made for the proportion of Greater Scaup among scaup seen in Louisiana (6.6%) applies also for Missis- sippi and Alabama. For the flyway as a whole we used his estimate that 13.7% of scaup seen were Greater Scaup. We also used his proportions of 1.4% for Texas, 2.3% for the Central Flyway, and his overall proportion of 37.7% for the Pacific Flyway. 294 birds frequently congregate in large numbers over mussel beds or other areas supplying rich food resources (Cramp et al. 1977). Winter and Offshore During the winter Greater Scaup prefer salt and brack- ish bays and estuaries, as well as large areas of open marine and nearby fresh water (Palmer 1976b). Habitats used by non-breeding birds in the Old World are usually marine and may be tidal and exposed to severe weather. These habitats include partially landlocked, low saline seas, such as the Baltic. Brackish and fresh waters are used less extensively, and rivers are uncommonly frequented (Cramp et al. 1977). Scaup wintering off the coast of Connecticut did not feed on mudflats but were seen feeding in breaking surf (Cronan 1957 in Palmer 1976b). FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Greater Scaup feed primarily by diving using only the feet for propulsion, but they occasionally tip-up and dabble as well. They feed throughout the day, often in large flocks, and may also feed at night, particularly when disturbed (Cramp et al. 1977). One study conducted off Connecticut (Cronan 1957 _in Pal- mer 1976b) reported that these birds made dives of up to to 23 ft (7 m) but that most dives were much more shallow. These dives averaged 20.4 sec, with a range of 9-33 sec. Summaries by Palmer (1976b) and Cramp et al. (1977) provide detailed ac- counts of the foods eaten in the New and Old Worlds, respectively; these should be consulted for more extensive listings of foods eaten by Greater Scaups. Our remarks below are largely condensed from these two sources. Food may be either vegetable or animal in origin and may vary considerably from area to area and from season to season. It was nearly equally divided (46.5% - animal) in one study of 752 stomachs from North America. Pondweeds (Potamogeton, Ruppia, Phyllospadix, etc.) were the principal plants eaten and constituted 18.9% of the diet. Bivalve molluscs (23.2%), snails (15.9%), aquat- ic insects (7.2%), and crustaceans (6.8%) were the principal animal foods con- sumed. In some areas (e.g., along coastal lakes and streams in British Columbia), fish and fish eggs may be important items of diet. In other areas, muskgrass (Chara) may form the bulk of the food. A number of studies indicate that bi- valve molluscs constitute the major food of birds wintering on saltwater. Little quantitative information on the food habits of Greater Scaup in the southeastern United States is available. We summarize this material by state below. Florida Stieglitz (1967) reported the foods eaten by four Greater Scaup wintering near Cabbage Island in Apalachee Bay on the Florida Gulf coast. These birds had eaten almost solely gastropods (85.2% by volume) and mud crabs (Rithropanopeus sp. - 13.8%). Molluscs consumed to the greatest extent were greedy dove-shell (Anachis avara - 35.4%), variable nassa (Nassarius ambiguus - 26.3%), and Atlantic modulus (Modulus modulus - 20.0%). The only plant food found was shoalgrass (Diplanthera wrightii - 1.0%). 295 Mississippi Christmas (1960) reported Greater Scaup feeding on dis- carded, dead Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) on a small bayou near Davis Bay. IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying Nests are begun in June, mainly in mid-June, according to studies cited by Bellrose (1976) and Cramp et al. (1977). Mean Clutch Size Clutches on islands in Great Slave Lake, Northwest Ter- ritories, consisted of 4-21 eggs, although the larger ones contained eggs de- posited parasitically by other species. The average clutch was 9.0, or 8.5 with the parasitized nests omitted from the calculations (Trauger and Bromley 1975 in Bellrose 1976). Palmer (1976b) stated that the clutch size is commonly 7-9 eggs. The modal clutch size for first clutches in Finland was 11; the mean for first clutches in Iceland was 9.7 (authors cited i^ Cramp et al. 1977). Incubation Period Palmer (1976b) found no data on the incubation period for North American birds but cited a study (Hilden 1964) that reported 24-25 days for Greater Scaup in Finland. Hatching Success Few data are available. In two studies cited by Bellrose (1976), 25-45% of the nests observed were successful, but the number of birds hatched in these nests was not given. Cramp et al. (1977) listed hatching suc- cess rates of 77% for Finnish birds and 67.9% for Icelandic birds; the range for the latter over a period of ten years was 47.6% to 84.3%. Fledging Success Few data are available. Bellrose (1976) believed that mortality of ducklings was low. In Finland only 6.5% of the eggs laid resulted in birds raised to fledging (Hilden 1964 .in Cramp et al. 1977). Age at Fledging Data are not available for North American birds. Cramp et al. (1977) reported a fledging period of 40-45 days. Age at First Breeding There is evidence that most females do not nest un- til their second year or later (Trauger i_n Bellrose 1976), but some yearling females breed; other data indicate that some yearling males also breed (Palmer 1976b). Mortality of Eggs and Young Most of the relatively few eggs that did not hatch during a study conducted in Finland (Hilden 1964 jji Johnsgard 1975) were lost to crows and ravens; a few eggs were also lost to floods. Sources of mor- tality for New World Greater Scaup are virtually unknown, but Bellrose (1976) believed that mortality was slight among unfledged ducklings. Renesting We have found no information on renesting by North American Greater Scaup. Bengtson (1972a in Cramp et al. 1977) reported that 31% of 45 Icelandic females re-laid after loss of the first clutch. The mean clutch size for second clutches was 7.0. Maximum Natural Longevity Banding records in the United States indicated 296 that a bird banded in Alaska reached a minimum age of 18 years, 4 months (Clapp et al . in press). Greater Scaup in the Old World have attained an age of at least 13 years in the wild (Rydzewski 1978). Weight Bellrose (1976) listed the average weight of 177 adult males as 1.82 lb (826 g) and that of 44 adult females as 1.65 lb (748 g) . Immature males (n = 190) and immature females (n = 124) averaged 1.71 lb (776 g) and 1.62 lb (735 g) , respectively. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION The Greater Scaup is a known victim of oiling at sea. Bourne (1972) re- ported casualties due to a very small oil slick in the Firth of Forth at Sea- field, Scotland, and noted the extreme vulnerability of species (such as the scaup) that concentrate along coasts for foraging. Joensen (1972b) reiterated this point, noting that Greater Scaup in Danish waters were very vulnerable to oiling because large proportions of their wintering populations were often con- centrated in very small areas. Greater Scaup were listed among oiled species in a spill in San Francisco Bay in 1973 (Holmes and Cronshaw 1977). Some 1,500 scaup (including Greater Scaup) died following seven spills in the Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay, 1973-1978 (Perry et al. 1979). Other reports of oil- ing deaths are summarized in Table 5. The Greater Scaup is clearly a species that may be seriously affected by oil pollution. However, the proportion of wintering Greater Scaup that utilize the coastal waters of the southeast is relatively small, reducing the chance of major population effects if oiling were to occur in that area. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1978 Campbell, L. H. 1978. Patterns of distribution and behaviour of flocks of sea- ducks wintering at Leith and Musselburgh, Scotland. Biol. Conserv. 14: 111-124. 1977 Montalbano, F. , III. 1977. A Florida breeding record for the Greater Scaup. Fla. Field Nat. 5: 42-43. 1974 Peterson, S. R. and R. S. Ellarson. 1974. Successful breeding record for Great- er Scaup at Rankin Inlet, Northwest Territories, Canada. Musk-Ox No. 14: 62. 297 Table 5. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Greater Scaup found after major oiling incidents. Number Number Percent' of oiled of dead age of dead Greater Greater Area Dates birds Scaup Scaup N. Sjaelland, Feb.- -Mar. 2,340 (a) 8 0.34 Denmark 1965 Bornholm, Jan.- -Feb. 466 (a) 1 0.21 Denmark. 1968 Tay Estuary, Mar .- -Apr . 1,168 (b) 1 0.09 Scotland 1968 Northeast Jan.- -Feb. 10,992 (a,c) 42 0.38 Britain 1970 S. Kattegat, Dec. 1970- 2,311 (a) 2 0.09 Denmark Jan. 1971 North-central Mar. 1972 4,749 (a) 14 0.29 Kattegat, Den- mark Waddensea, Dec. 1972 9,151 (a) 7 0.08 Denmark Baltic sea Nov. 1974- 653 (a,c) 1 0.15 coast, Poland Aug. 1975 Firth of Forth, Feb. 1978 680 (a) 130 19.12 southern Scot- land Source Joensen 1972a Joensen 1972a Greenwood and Keddie 1968 Greenwood et al. 1971 Joensen 1972b Joensen and Hansen 1977 Joensen and Hansen 1977 Gorski et al. 1977 Campbell et al. 1978 (a) Total includes only those birds identified to species (b) Total includes both live and dead oiled birds. (c) Total includes some birds that were not oiled. 298 1973 Bromley, R. G. 1973. Observation of Greater Scaup at Ellice River, Northwest Territories. Can. Field-Nat. 87: 169. 1972 Billard, R. S. and P. S. Humphrey. 1972. Molts and plumages in the Greater Scaup. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 765-774. Vermeer, K. , D. R. M. Hatch and J. A. Windsor. 1972. Greater Scaup is common breeder on northern Lake Winnipeg. Can. Field-Nat. 86: 168. 1970 Anderson, A. and K. E. Fridzen. 1970. [Great Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus) catches Scaup (Aythya marila) on the Stream of Stockholm.] Var Fagelvarld 29: 267-269. [In Swedish with English summary.] Hodson, K. and M. Grimble. 1970. Parasites from Common Goldeneye , Greater Scaup and Oldsquaw collected on Boundary Bay, B.C., February, 1970. Blue Jay 28: 125-126. Ruttledge, R. F. 1970. Winter distribution and numbers of Scaup, Long-tailed Duck and Common Scoter in Ireland. Bird Study 17: 241-246. 1969 Weller, M. W., D. L. Trauger and G. L. Krapu. 1969. Breeding birds of the West Mirage Islands, Great Slave Lake, N.W.T. Can. Field-Nat. 83: 344-360. 1968 Bengtson, S.-A. 1968. Inter-specific pairing in Scaup and Tufted Duck. Wild- fowl 19: 61-63. Dane, C. W. and H. F. Duebbert. 1968. Specimen records of Greater Scaup. Prairie Nat. 1: 16. 1965 Fatora, J. R. 1965. Greater Scaup added to Savannah River Plant area list. Chat 29: 107-108. 1962 Godfrey, W. E. 1962. A Saskatchewan specimen of the Greater Scaup. Can, Field-Nat. 76: 125. 299 1960 Christmas, J. Y. 1960. Greater and Lesser scaup feeding on dead Gulf menhaden. Auk 77: 346-347. 1958 Atkeson, T. Z., Jr. 1958. Goldeneye, Oldsquaw, and Greater Scaup records from Wheeler Reservoir. Ala. Birdlife 6: 15-16. Cronan, J. M. 1958. Sex ratios of wintering scaups in Long Island Sound. Wilson Bull. 70: 191-192. 1957 Cronan, J. M. , Jr. 1957. Food and feeding habits of the scaups in Connecticut waters. Auk 74: 459-468. 1955 Cronan, J. M. 1955. A study of scaup duck wintering in Long Island Sound. M.S. thesis, Univ. Connecticut/Storrs, CT. Geroudet, P. 1955. Un hybrid de Milouinan et de Morillon? Nos Oiseaux 23: 17-18. [In French.] 1954 King, B. 1954. Alarm display by female scaup. Brit. Birds 47: 208. 1951 Gehrman, K. 1951. Life history of the scaup. M.S. thesis, Washington St. Univ. /Pullman, WA. 1949 Longley, W. H. 1949. Greater Scaup eating frogs. Auk 66: 200. 1946 Barrett, L. L. 1946. The Greater Scaup in Minnesota. Flicker 18: 13-14. 1941 Monro, J. A. 1941. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Greater Scaup Duck, Lesser Scaup Duck. Can. J. Res. 19 (Sect. D): 113-138. 1939 Lynch, J. J. 1939. Marine algae in food of Rhode Island waterfowl. Auk 56: 374-380. 300 LESSER SCAUP (Aythya af finis) [FR: Petit railouinan, GE: Veilchenete, SP: Costero chico, US: Dos-gris] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America The primary breeding range of the Lesser Scaup extends from north-central Alaska east to the northwestern Northwest Territories, southeast to southwestern James Bay, south in the interior to southern British Columbia, northeastern Idaho, northwestern Wyoming, northeastern Montana, and northwestern North Dakota, and east to northeastern South Dakota and northwestern Minnesota (Palmer 1976b). It also breeds at scattered localities farther south and is ap- parently extending its breeding range to the east in Canada (Palmer 1976b). To the south of the primary breeding range, the Lesser Scaup breeds or has bred in northern California, Utah, southern Washington, eastern Oregon, northern Idaho, northern Arizona, Nebraska, southern Wisconsin, Michigan, northeastern Iowa, Ohio, and several eastern localities in Canada (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). The northern limits for wintering Lesser Scaup are from southwestern Brit- ish Columbia southeast to central and western Utah, northern Texas, eastern Kan- sas, and southwestern Iowa and from the southern Great Lakes to southeastern Massachusetts (Palmer 1976b). South of these areas, Lesser Scaup winter both inland and along the Pacific, Atlantic, and Gulf coasts of the United States; a notable proportion occurs along the Gulf. They also commonly winter off the coasts of Mexico and south at least to the Pacific coast of Guatemala (Bellrose 1976). The species is found locally and in small numbers in the rest of Central America (Palmer 1976b). World Distribution The Lesser Scaup breeds only in North America, and largely winters there, although a few regularly winter in Bermuda and the Carib- bean. The southern limits of distribution in mainland South America are the Cauca Valley and eastern Andes of Colombia, Venezuela, and western Ecuador (Pal- mer 1976b). Lesser Scaup have straggled to Hawaii, and there are reports of the species from Britain and Europe, although Palmer (1976b) doubted the validity of these reports. DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina The Lesser Scaup is a fairly common winter resident through- out the state (Pearson et al. 1942). Often locally abundant, large concentra- tions may be found along the coast (Potter et al. 1980). Most are present from October to May (Potter et al. 1980), but a few may remain in the summer (Teul- ings 1971c, 1972c). Bellrose (1976) indicated that winter populations were on the order of 8,000 birds. The 1975 winter waterfowl survey by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 301 Service (Goldsberry et al. 1980) (a) listed 8,500 scaup wintering off North Carolina. If this population is apportioned to species [as done by Bellrose (1976)], about 7,300 of these birds were Lesser Scaup. South Carolina Sprunt and Chamberlain (1949) regarded the Lesser Scaup as a fairly common winter resident throughout the state, most abundant along the coast. Most are present from late October to mid-April (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949); very small numbers are occasionally present during the summer (Burton 1970, Teulings 1976c). Bellrose (1976) estimated that winter populations totalled about 16,000 birds. Calculations based on the 1975 winter survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980) suggest a population of less than than a thousand birds, although data from re- cent Christmas Counts (Map 22) indicate that Lesser Scaup are considerably more abundant in South Carolina than the winter survey indicated. A flock of ducks thought to contain more than 50,000 birds (most of them evidently Lesser Scaup) was seen in Charleston Harbor, 23 January 1970 (Teulings 1971b). Georgia Lesser Scaup are common migrants and winter residents throughout Georgia and are abundant along the coast and offshore (Denton et al. 1977). Burleigh (1958) considered this species to be the most common migrant and win- ter resident among the ducks, and he reported that it preferred fresh-water areas. Excluding occasional summering birds, limits for dates of occurrence are 5 October (Denton et al. 1977) and 2 June (Teulings 1976c). Estimates based on January waterfowl surveys (Bellrose 1976) indicate that the winter population is about 16,000 birds. Calculations based on the 1975 survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980) suggest that about 8,300 were present that year. Florida Howell (1932) considered the Lesser Scaup the most common duck in Florida in winter and spring, an assessment with which Sprunt (1954) and Palmer (1976b) agreed. Kale (1979 ms a) noted flocks of up to 25,000 at Merritt Island NWR on the Atlantic coast; about that many are regularly reported on Christmas Counts from there (Map 22). As many as 68,000 Lesser Scaup have been reported in Tampa Bay on the Gulf coast (Fickett in Schreiber et al . 1975), and the spe- cies is abundant off both the peninsula and the panhandle. Bellrose (1976) es- timated a wintering population of almost 285,000; an estimate derived from the 1975 waterfowl survey indicates that at least 267,000 were present that year. Found throughout Florida, these ducks normally arrive in early October and remain until May. There are, however, July records for St. Marks NWR, and July and August records from Pensacola (Sprunt 1954). There is a nesting record from Lake Jackson, Wakulla County, in 1896, although the bird was thought to have been a cripple (Sprunt 1954); Kale (1979 ms b) indicated other isolated nesting records. Alabama The Lesser Scaup is abundant in winter and on migration in Ala- bama. Although the species occasionally summers in the state, there are no re- cords of breeding birds. These ducks prefer to winter on deep inland lakes and (a) We manipulated the data for Lesser Scaup in Goldsberry et al . (1980) as explained in the preceding account, q.v. 302 303 ponds. Lesser Scaup also occur in large numbers along the coast where they are usually present from early October to early June (Imhof 1976b). On the Gulf coast, a maximum of 17,500 was counted at Dauphin Island on 20 April 1968 (Imhof 1976b); 2,200 scaup of both species were reported present during the winter of 1975 (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Most of these were presumably Lesser Scaup. Recent Christmas Counts (Map 22) from the vicinity of Dauphin Island averaged over a thousand birds, suggesting that the actual number wintering in the state is greater than that indicated by aerial waterfowl survey by the Fish and Wild- life Service. Mississippi Burleigh (1944) considered the Lesser Scaup the most abundant wintering duck on the Mississippi coast, with numerous flocks also found on the larger freshwater ponds and in shallow saltwater areas. Birds arrived in early November and did not depart until late May. More recent reports include 10,000 Lesser Scaup at Bellfountaine Point (Jackson 1976), and 10,200 scaup (most prob- ably Lesser Scaup) on the 1975 winter survey. This last census was incomplete (Goldsberry et al. 1980), however, and the total wintering population is no doubt larger. These scaup occur in Mississippi from as early as mid-October (Jackson and Weber 1976) , and occasional birds have been reported through the summer (Jackson and Cooley 1978a). Louisiana In some years, the Lesser Scaup is the most abundant duck win- tering in Louisiana (Smith 1961 jji Harmon 1962). They arrive in large numbers by late October and remain until early April. In winter these scaup often form rafts of thousands along the edge of the Gulf. Through late November or early December most Lesser Scaup remain on lakes and bays (Smith 1960 i_n Harmon 1962). They then move offshore into the Gulf of Mexico where they are evidently fairly common around oil production platforms (Harmon 1962). A few birds have been noted in summer (Lowery 1974). Coastal Louisiana is one of the major wintering grounds for the Lesser Scaup; more than 1,500,000 were present there during the winter of 1960-1961 (Smith 1960 iji Harmon 1962). Calculations based on data presented by Bellrose (1976) indicate more than three-quarters of a million are regularly present in winter; several hundred thousand more are present during the peak of fall mi- gration. Bellrose (1976) reported that concentrations occur on Lakes Pontchar- train and Borgne , in coastal marsh, and offshore. Texas During the winter, Lesser Scaup are locally abundant to common on the coast, and irregularly common throughout the state (Oberholser 1974). They are most numerous in the northern half of the state in spring and fall, and scarce to rare during the summer, particularly on the coast, although occasion- al flocks of 50-100 may linger. Bellrose (1976) reported that Galveston Bay holds one of the largest con- centrations (30,000 birds) in the Pacific Flyway. Other notable concentrations include 35,000 present in San Antonio Bay, Aransas NWR, 21 November 1977 (Web- ster 1978a), and 50,000 at Cove, 5 February 1977 (Webster 1977). Data provided by Bellrose (1976) suggest that some 98.6% of the scaup wintering in Texas are Lesser Scaup. If this figure is still applicable, then the 1975 January survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980) found about 187,000 Lesser Scaup wintering there. 304 SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding The Lesser Scaup nests only in North America. Most breed from north-central Alaska south to northeastern Idaho and northwestern Wyoming, southeast to northeastern Manitoba, thence south to northwestern Minnesota and northeastern North Dakota. Other small or local populations breed or have bred from northeastern California and eastern Oregon east across the northern Great Plains to Ohio. Breeding has also been reported on eastern James Bay in Quebec (Palmer 1976b). Precise numbers of breeding Lesser Scaup are unavailable because the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service does not distinguish between Greater and Lesser Scaup in surveys of the breeding grounds. According to Bellrose (1976), the total breeding population of both species of scaup is larger than that for any other duck except the Mallard. Estimated total breeding populations for these two species varied from 5,100,000 to 9,100,000 during 1955-75, with a mean of 6,900,000. The largest numbers of breeding birds are found in the open boreal forest of Canada (1,700,000 birds), in the closed boreal forest to the east (1,900,000), and in interior Alaska (600,000) (Bellrose 1976). The 1976 breed- ing ground survey (Larned et al. 1980) listed a total of about 6,900,000 breed- ing scaup. Winter Lesser Scaup winter both inland and along the coasts of North Amer- ica, with most wintering in the eastern half of the continent (Bellrose 1976). The southern limits of the wintering range are in the Caribbean and northern South America (Palmer 1976b). This scaup is more abundant along the coasts but is often found on fresh or brackish waters within these areas. Bellrose (1976) estimated that 1,454,000 Lesser Scaup were wintering in the United States in the late 1960's, in addition to another 297,000 in Mexico. Smaller numbers winter in Guatemala, and about 7,500 winter in the West Indies, mostly in Cuba. Figures provided by Bellrose suggest that nearly 85% of the total wintering population is found in southeastern waters and along the coast of Mexico. Only a small proportion (ca. 10%) of those wintering within the United States are found in the western half of the continent. Most of the rest of the U.S. winter population occurs along the lower Mississippi drainage and along the central and northeastern Atlantic Seaboard (Johnsgard 1975). Major concentrations are found along the coast of Texas and Louisiana, along the cen- tral Gulf and Atlantic coasts of Florida, and off Georgia (Bellrose 1976, Map 22). Data from the 1975 winter survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980), while incom- plete, suggest a wintering population in the United States and Mexico of no less than 983,000 that year. This decrease from the figures provided for early counts by Bellrose is probably more apparent than real, since several areas of concentration for this species in the Mississippi Flyway went unsurveyed . Migration Most migrating Lesser Scaup move southeast from their primary breeding grounds in the northwestern portion of North America. The pathway used by the largest number of birds extends south-southeast from there to Lakes Winnepegosis and Manitoba, northwestern Minnesota, and to the Mississippi River between Burlington and Keokuk, Iowa (Bellrose 1976). Most Lesser Scaup fly from the latter area south to the Gulf, but substantial numbers continue south- east to the Gulf coast of Florida. Other important routes follow the coastlines 305 south (Bellrose 1976). For further details on the migration of Lesser Scaup see Bellrose (1976) and Palmer (1976b); their interpretation of migratory routes may vary in detail. HABITAT Nesting Lesser Scaup nest near ponds, lakes, potholes, sloughs, marshes, in river deltas, on seasonally flooded flats, and on islands (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). They often nest semi-colonially, with the largest nesting con- centrations in hardstem bulrush (Scirpus acutus) marshes along lakes with an abundant food supply (Palmer 1976b). This species preferred to nest in sedges in Lousana, Alberta, and in the Saskatchewan Delta; in the latter area most of the nests were on floating or semi-floating plants. In another part of Alberta juncus beds were preferred over mixed prairie (authors cited Jji Bellrose 1976). Studies cited by Bellrose (1976) indicate considerable variation in the proxim- ity of the nest to water. Average distances listed in one pothole area with strongly fluctuating water levels ranged from 7 to 125 ft (2.1 to 38.1 m) over a period of four breeding seasons. Feeding Lesser Scaup feed in a wide variety of habitats, often in immense rafts. Bellrose (1976) saw thera foraging in roadside and farm ponds and on flooded fields only a few feet deep, as well as in water 10-40 ft (3- 12 m) deep that were 5-10 mi (8-16 km) offshore in the Gulf of Mexico. He stated that this species feeds more commonly in water 10-25 ft (3-8 m) deep. Palmer (1976b) indicated that Lesser Scaup preferred to feed in water 1-3 m (3-10 ft) deep. Winter and Offshore Winter habitat of the Lesser Scaup consists of bays and estuarine waters, flooded coastal marshes, and open fresh water both inland and along the coast (Palmer 1976b). This scaup prefers more sheltered waters than the Greater Scaup (Bellrose 1976), but compact flocks of dozens to thou- sands of resting birds may be found well offshore (Palmer 1976b). Bellrose (1976) remarked that Lesser Scaup feed in deeper water than other diving ducks (except for the sea ducks, e.g., Oldsquaw) . FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Lesser Scaup feed principally by diving from the surface using the feet for propulsion; they will also "tip-up" in shallower water (Palmer 1976b). They tended to dive obliquely on ponds in Manitoba (Siegfried 1976b). Palmer (1976b) described diving behavior in more detail. Palmer (1976b) suggested that Lesser Scaup in tidewater areas vary their times of feeding with the tide and remarked that they feed nearer shore at high tide. Males and females dove for mean periods of 10.3 and 13.2 sec, respective- ly, while foraging on ponds in Manitoba (Siegfried 1976b). On coastal impound- ments in South Carolina, diving times varied from 6.3 sec in water 1.5 m (4.9 ft) deep to 16.6 sec in water 0.5 m (1.6 ft) deep (Alexander and Hair 1979). At these coastal impoundments Lesser Scaup fed by themselves or in loosely associ- ated pairs. They fed at a mean rate of 5.1 dives per second; Alexander and 306 Hair (1979) found no significant difference between the sexes in the rate of diving or in diving time. Lesser Scaup feed on a variety of foods but animal food predominates in most areas. Studies summarized by Bellrose (1976) report animal food making up as little as 1.0% of the diet (in North Carolina) to as much as 99.9% (off coastal Louisiana). Plant foods of particular significance in one area or an- other include pondweeds (Ruppia, Najas, Zannichellia, Zostera, and especially Potamogeton spp.), Scirpus sedges, wild celery (Vallisneria spiralis), sea let- tuce (Ulva lactuca) , muskgrass (Chara) , coontail (Ceratophyllum) , and shoal- grass (Diplanthera) (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Animal foods are also varied. Molluscs are frequently the most consumed food, according to studies cited by Palmer (1976b) and Bellrose (1976). Vari- ous aquatic insects may also be important in the diet , and fish and Crustacea are also eaten. Amphipods are apparently the principal food in breeding areas and are also much eaten by migrants. Pelecypods, gastropods, or both may be the principal foods eaten in other areas (Palmer 1976b). More specific lists of foods eaten outside the southeast are found in Palmer (1976b) and Bellrose (1976). We give below summaries of studies of food habits of Lesser Scaup in the southeast. North Carolina Quay and Critcher (1965) reported the gizzard contents of five wintering scaup collected on Currituck Sound, but they did not indicate which species of scaup was involved. Bellrose (1976) assumed, or independently learned, that these were Lesser Scaup, but the identification is still in doubt. In any case, these Aythya had largely fed on the seeds and vegetative parts of pondweeds (Potamogeton sp. - 57.3% by volume) and widgeongrass (Ruppia mari- tima - 46.8%). Other plant foods identified included waxmyrtle (Myrica - 10.0%) and the vegetative parts of southern naiad (Najas guadalupensis- 5.0%). South Carolina The crop and gizzard of a single wintering Lesser Scaup collected near Georgetown in coastal South Carolina were nearly empty (Conrad 1965). Conrad found only trace amounts of six plants: widgeongrass, swamp and Pennsylvania smartweeds (Polygonum hydropiperoides , P_. pensylvanicum) , aneileraa (Aneilema keisak) , common spikerush (Eleocharis palustris) , panicgrass (Panicum sp.), and a sedge (Carex sp.). Kerwin and Webb (1972) reported the foods eaten by 15 scaup in coastal South Carolina. Their sample was comprised of both Lesser and Greater Scaup, so we do not summarize their information on food habits here. Bellrose (1976) also attributed this report to Lesser Scaup, which makes the validity of the report made in North Carolina (see above) more suspect. Landers et al. (1976) reported foods eaten by 21 Lesser Scaup at coastal impoundments in South Carolina, but they listed only the plants eaten. Plant material comprised 89.8% (by volume) of the diet and consisted almost solely of two plants, widgeongrass (67.1%) and saltmarsh bulrush (Scirpus robustus - 20.0%). Louisiana Chamberlain (1959) examined the gizzards of 9 scaup col- lected on Rockefeller Refuge in Cameron Parish. He gave no detailed list of the foods eaten, but indicated that plant seeds occurred in all gizzards, insects 307 in one, and molluscs In five. Harmon (1962) studied the food habits of Lesser Scaup wintering off the Louisiana coast. He examined the gullets and gizzards of 32 scaup collected from 100 yards (91 m) to 4 mi (6.4 km) south of Rockefel- ler Refuge, and found that 99.8% of the food was surf clams (Mulinia lateralis). Rogers and Korschgen (1966) conducted an extensive study of the food habits and reported the stomach contents of 37 Lesser Scaup. Twenty of these were col- lected in December 1959 in marshes around Lake Borgne , near New Orleans; the rest were taken from roadside ditches and ponds near Grand Chenier in late Feb- ruary and early March 1960. These birds had subsisted largely on fish (41.8% by volume) and crustaceans (16.6%); the only fish identified in the remains was sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus). The crustacean foods identified were crayfish (Carabarinae - 7.0%), freshwater shrimp (Palaemonetes sp. - 4.5%), side- swimmers (Hyalella sp. - 3.1%), and opossum shrimp (Mysidae - 1.3%). Small amounts of insects (4.0%) and snails (1.0%) were also eaten. Vegetable matter made up 37.3% of the diet. Identified plant foods were sawgrass (Cladium jamai- cense - 6.9%), bulrush (Scirpus spp. - 3.8%), and widgeongrass (1.9%); the rest of the food consisted of small spiral shells (Nassarius acutus). Texas Twenty wintering Lesser Scaup collected on the Laguna Madre had eaten 22.1% plant food, all of which was shoalgrass - Diplanthera wrightii (McMahan 1970). Of the rest, 39.1% was unidentified organic matter. Snails (12.2%), clams (15.2%), and decapod crabs (10.8%) formed the bulk of the animal foods, but fish fragments (0.2%) and shrimp (0.4%) had also been ingested. One clam (Anomalocardia cuneimeris = A. auberiana) was eaten more than any other animal (Emerson and Jacobson 1976). IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying The Lesser Scaup is a late-nesting duck. Nesting may begin in some areas in mid-May, but the peak of nesting is generally in early June. Some nests may not be started until July (studies summarized by Bellrose 1976). Mean Clutch Size The average clutch in 880 nests observed in studies in 10 breeding areas was 9.0 eggs (Bellrose 1976). Palmer (1976b) reported that the clutch size was usually 9-11 eggs, and noted one study (Keith 1961) in which mean clutch size declined during the laying period (from 10.6 for eggs laid before 16 June to 8.5 for those laid after 30 June). Lesser Scaup sometimes lay eggs in the nests of other scaup or other spe- cies of ducks (Palmer 1976b); one "dump nest" contained 26 eggs (Phillips 1925 in Palmer 1976b). This trait makes calculation of true clutch size difficult, and several authors have assumed that all clutches containing more than 14 eggs are the result of the efforts of more than one female. Incubation Period Palmer (1976b) reported the incubation period as 21-22 days and cited one study (Vermeer 1968) that gave a range of 21-27 days. Bell- rose (1976) reported that the average incubation period was 25 days. Hatching Success In a series of studies involving more than 1,000 nests, about 43% were successful (Bellrose 1976). The average number of hatched young 308 per successful nest was about 8.3. Nesting success (i.e., the proportion of nests in which eggs hatch) varies considerably from area to area and from year to year. Studies cited by Palmer (1976b) give a range of 27% to 83%. Palmer (1976b) pointed out that the proportion of eggs hatching in nests in which at least some hatch is high, and cited figures of 83.3% and 91% for two studies conducted in southeastern Alberta. Fledging Success Because broods are often combined during development, it is difficult to trace the fate of individual broods and to document fledging. There are indications, however, that post-nesting success is high (Bellrose 1976). Age at Fledging Young scaup are able to fly at ages of 45-50 days, accord- ing to Bellrose (1976). Palmer (1976b) reported that age of first flight could be estimated as 47-54 days. Age at First Breeding Although some Lesser Scaup attempt breeding at one year, most do not do so until two years of age (Trauger 1971, Bellrose 1976). Mortality of Eggs and Young Mammals, especially skunks, and birds, espec- ially corvids, are responsible for most nest losses (Bellrose 1976). Nests placed near larid colonies may escape egg predation by crows, but the gulls take large numbers of the young that hatch (Vermeer 1968 in. Bellrose 1976). Renesting In an experimental study in which first clutches were removed before incubation began, 5 out of 31 scaup renested once. One renested twice and another three times (Hunt and Anderson 1966). Another study cited by Bell- rose (1976) reported no renesting, yet another assumed that about 39% of the birds renested. Maximum Natural Longevity A banded individual reached an age of at least 18 years and 4 months (Clapp et al . in press). Weight The average weight of 130 males was 1.9 lb (860 g) , and the aver- age of 144 females was 1.7 lb (770 g) (Nelson and Martin 1953). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Lesser Scaup are one of the waterfowl that have suffered large losses to oil pollution in North America. It may also be the species of anatid most sus- ceptible to oil pollution in the southeast. More than 2,000 Lesser Scaup were killed by oil during the spring migration of 1963 (Anderson and Warner 1969a, 1969b). The sources of the oil were massive spills of crude and soybean oil above the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers in December 1962 and January 1963 (Peller 1963). At least 1,510 scaup died following five spills on the Delaware River and two on the Chesapeake Bay in the period from 1973 to 1978 (Perry et. al. 1979). Most (93.4%) of the scaup mortality occurred in the marine habitat of Chesapeake Bay. Perry et al. (1979) did not report which spe- cies of scaup was involved in this kill. Most, however, were presumably Lesser Scaup because large numbers of this species winter in Chesapeake Bay (Bellrose 1976) and because the Greater Scaup is considerably less abundant there. In 3(19 the southeast 300 to 500 ducks, mainly Lesser Scaup, died in Chocolate Bay following a leak from an oil barge at Port Lavaca, Texas, in the late 1940's (Singleton 1953). Stout and Cornwell (1976) reported that scaup (presumably both species) were the most frequently (47%) reported victims of oiling among banded waterfowl. The Lesser Scaup is abundant in winter in the southeast. Although many remain on inland waters, large rafts form offshore and in bays and estuaries. They also occurs around oil-production platforms. A high proportion of the total Lesser Scaup population winters in the southeast, and sizeable numbers often occupy habitats more likely to be oiled than those occupied by other po- tentially highly vulnerable species (e.g., Redhead). Consequently, we think that this species is one that is potentially at very high risk from oil-devel- opment activities in the southeast. Administrators involved in programs devel- oping petroleum resources should carefully consider their programs' effects in areas where this species congregates in large numbers. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Windingstad, R. M. , M.E . McDonald, L. N. Locke, S. M. Kerr and J. A. Zimm. 1980. Epizootic of occidiosis in free-flying Lesser Scaup. Avian Dis. 24: 1044-1049. 1979 Alexander, W. C. and J. D. Hair. 1979. Winter foraging behaviour and aggres- sion of diving ducks in South Carolina. Proc. 31st Annu. Conf. Southeast- ern Assoc. Fish & Wildlife Agencies: 226-232. 1978 Krueger, D. M. and R. J. Whyte. 1978. Lesser Scaup collides with fence in South Texas. Bull. Texas Ornithol. Soc. 11: 19. 1977 Forrester, D. J., J. M. Gaskin, F. H. White, N. P. Thompson, J. A. Quick, Jr., G. E. Henderson, J. C. Woodward and W. D. Robertson. 1977. An epizootic of waterfowl associated with a red tide episode in Florida. J. Wildl. Dis. 13: 160-167. Hines , J. E. 1977. Nesting and brood ecology of Lesser Scaup at Waterhen Marsh, Saskatchewan. Can. Field-Nat. 91: 248-255. 1976 Siegfried, W. R. 1976b. Segregation in feeding behaviour of four diving ducks in southern Manitoba. Can. J. Zool. 54: 730-736. 310 1975 Anderson, W. L. 1975. Lead poisoning in waterfowl at Rice Lake, Illinois. J. Wildl. Manage. 39: 264-270. Schreiber, R. W., F. M. Dunstan and J. J. Dinsmore. 1975. Lesser Scaup mor- tality in Tampa Bay, Florida, 1974. Fla. Field Nat. 3: 13-15. 1974 Siegfried, W. R. 1974. Time budget of behavior among Lesser Scaups on Delta Marsh. J. Wildl. Manage. 38: 708-713. Trauger, D. L. 1974. Eye color of female Lesser Scaup in relation to age. Auk 91: 243-254. 1973 Sugden, L. G. 1973. Feeding ecology of Pintail, Gadwall, American Wigeon, and Lesser Scaup ducklings in southern Alberta. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept . Ser. No. 24. 45 pp. 1972 Dwernychuk, L. W. and D. A. Boag. 1972. Duck nesting in association with gulls — an ecological trap? Can. J. Zool . 50: 559-563. Kocan, A. A. and R. M. Kocan. 1972. Immature Prosthodendrium sp. in a Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis). J. Parasitol. 58: 1014-1015. Sugden, L. G. and L. E. Harris. 1972. Energy requirements and growth of cap- tive Lesser Scaup. Poultry Sci. 51: 625-633. 1971 Sugden, L. G. 1971. Feeding activity of captive Lesser Scaup. Can. Wildl. Serv. Progr. Notes 24: 1-14. Trauger, D. L. 1971. Population ecology of Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis) in subarctic taiga. Ph.D. thesis, Iowa St. Univ. /Ames, IA. 121 pp. 1970 Anderson, B. W. 1970. Psuedo-sleeping attitude in Lesser Scaup and Ring- necked Ducks. Condor 72: 370-371. Bartonek, J. C. and H. W. Murdy. 1970. Summer foods of Lesser Scaup in sub- arctic taiga. Arctic 23: 35-44. 311 1969 Anderson, B. W. and D. W. Warner. 1969a. A morphological analysis of a large sample of Lesser Scaup and Ring-necked Ducks. Bird-Banding 40: 85-94. . 1969b. Evidence from salt gland analysis for convergence of migratory routes and possible geographic variation in Lesser Scaup. Bird-Banding 40: 198-207. Anderson, B. W., T. E. Ketola and D. W. Warner. 1969. Spring sex and age ratios of Lesser Scaup and Ring-necked Ducks in Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 209-212. Bartonek, J. C. 1969. Build-up of grit in three pochard species in Manitoba. Wilson Bull. 81: 96-97. Bartonek, J. C. and J. J. Hickey. 1969. Food habits of Canvasbacks , Redheads, and Lesser Scaup in Manitoba. Condor 71: 280-290. Dirschl, H. J. 1969. Foods of Lesser Scaup and Blue-winged Teal in the Saskat- chewan River delta. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 77-87. Scharf, J. A. 1969. Drowning of Lesser Scaup in drain tile. Loon 41: 56-57. 19^8 Anderson, B. W. and D. W. Warner. 1968 ms. A study of supraorbital salt glands from spring Lesser Scaup killed in Minnesota. James Ford Bell Mus . Nat. Hist., Univ. Minnesota/Minneapolis, MN. 17 pp. Dindal, D. L. and T. J. Peterle. 1968. Wing and body tissue relationships of DDT and metabolite residues in Mallard and Lesser Scaup ducks. Bull. En- viron. Contam. Toxicol. 3: 37-48. 1966 Rogers, J. P. and L. J. Korschgen. 1966. Foods of Lesser Scaups on breeding, migration, and wintering areas. J. Wildl. Manage. 30: 258-264. 1964 Longcore, J. R. and G. W. Cornwell. 1964. The consumption of natural foods by captive Canvasbacks and Lesser Scaups. J. Wildl. Manage. 28: 527-531. Rogers, J. 1964a. Effect of drought on reproduction of the Lesser Scaup. J. Wildl. Manage. 28: 213-222. . 1964b. A decoy trap for male Lesser Scaups. J. Wildl. Manage. 28: 408-410. 312 1963 Longcore, J. R. 1963. Consumption of natural foods and effects of starvation on Canvasbacks and Lesser Scaups. M.S. thesis, Univ. Michigan/Ann Arbor, MI. Peller, E. 1963. Operation duck rescue. Aud. Mag. 65: 364-367. 1962 Harmon, B. G. 1962. Mollusks as food of Lesser Scaup along the Louisiana coast. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 27: 132-137. McKnight, D. E. and I. 0. Buss. 1962. Evidence of breeding in yearling female Lesser Scaup. J. Wildl. Manage. 26: 328-329. Rogers, J. P. 1962. The ecological effects of drought on reproduction of the Lesser Scaup, Aythya affinis (Eyton) . Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Missouri/Colum- bia, MO. 99 pp. 1960 Christmas, J. Y. 1960. Greater and Lesser Scaup feeding on dead Gulf menhaden. Auk 77: 346-347. 1959 Rogers, J. P. 1959. Low water and Lesser Scaup reproduction near Erickson, Manitoba. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 24: 216-224. 1958 Cronan, J. M. 1958. Sex ratios of wintering scaups in Long Island Sound. Wil- son Bull. 70: 191-192. 1957 Cronan, J. M. , Jr. 1957. Food and feeding habits of the scaups in Connecticut waters. Auk 74: 459-468. 1955 Cronan, J. M. 1955. A study of scaup duck wintering in Long Island Sound. M.S. thesis, Univ. Connecticut/Storrs , CT. Miskiman, M. 1955. Meteorological and social factors in autumnal migration of ducks. Condor 57: 179-184. 1954 Kilham, L. 1954. Unusual feeding behavior of the Lesser Scaup. Auk 71: 316. 313 1951 Gehrman, K. 1951. An ecological study of the Lesser Scaup Duck (Aythya af fin- is Eyton) at West Medical Lake, Spokane County, Washington. M.S. thesis, Washington St. Univ. /Pullman, WA. 94 pp. 1941 Munro, J. A. 1941. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Greater Scaup Duck, Lesser Scaup Duck. Can. J. Res. 19 (Sect.D): 113-138. 1933 Cottam, C. 1933. Feeding habits of the Lesser Scaup Duck. Condor 35: 118-119. 1931 Greene, E. R. 1931. A late spring record of Lesser Scaup Duck (Aythya affinis) in Georgia. Auk 48: 256-257. Trautman , M. B. 1931. Status of the American and Lesser Scaup Ducks in Ohio. Auk 48: 257-258. 1928 Ford, E. R. 1928. Lesser Scaup Duck in Michigan in summer. Auk 45: 497-498. 314 COMMON EIDER (Somateria mollisslma) [DA: Ederfugl, DU: Eidereend , EN: Eider— Duck, FI: Haahka , FR: Eider a duvet, GE: Eiderente, IC : AEderfugl, IT: Edredone, NW: AErfugl, PO: Edredon, SP: Eider, SW: Ejder] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Common Eider nests very near the coast of Arctic North America from southwestern Alaska and the Aleutian Islands around the western and northern shores of Alaska, the Arctic shores of Canada (with a gap at about 100° W lati- tude), islands in the Canadian Archipelago, the shores of Hudson Bay, and the Ungava Peninsula, south along the Atlantic coast of Canada to Newfoundland, the St. Lawrence Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Maritime Provinces, and Maine. In winter this eider is found along the Pacific coast from the Aleutian Islands south rarely to Washington, and in eastern North America in the open waters of Hudson and James bays and on the Atlantic coast from Labrador south to Long Is- land. Some birds reach Virginia and North Carolina, and they are casual to Florida. There are scattered records from inland states and provinces (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b). The Common Eider also nests on the coasts of Greenland, Iceland, northern Europe, and Asia. The Common Eider is found only uncommonly In the southeastern United States. There are records almost every year in North Carolina (Map 23), but of only one or a few birds each year. Literature surveyed for this report revealed only seven records for South Carolina, 1962-79, of one or two birds on each oc- casion. The seven records for Florida, 1955-73, include one for the Dry Tortu- gas (Petrovic and King 1972), perhaps the most southern record for the species, and one from the Gulf coast (Sprunt 1963), the only definite report from the Gulf. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Like other sea ducks that gather in large concentrations in the open ocean, the Common Eider is very susceptible to oil pollution. Oiling incidents have been frequent and large numbers of birds have been involved in some (Table 6). However , the Common Eider is uncommon in waters off the southeastern United States, where sightings have been of one or a few birds at a time, rather than great rafts, and close inshore rather than well out to sea. Although individ- uals would remain highly vulnerable in the southeast , damage to the Common Eider population by oiling in this area would be virtually nil. 315 316 Table 6. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Common Eiders found after major oiling incidents. Number of oiled Number of dead Percen age of Area Dates dead birds Common Eiders Common Eiders North Sea coast, Denmark 1957-1958 92 (a) 5 5.43 North-central Kattegat, Denmark Jan. -Feb. 1962 1 ,723 (a,b) 2 54 14.74 Southeast Kent , England winters of 1963-64 to 1965-66 509 (a) 2 0.39 N. Sjaelland, Denmark Feb. -Mar. 1965 2 ,340 (a) 208 8.88 North Sea coast, Denmark 1965-1966 803 (a) 1 0.12 Northeast England Jan. 1966 805 s 0.62 Pagham Harbour area, W. Sussex, England Jan. -Feb. 1967 91 (a,c) ri 5.49 Bornholm, Denmark Jan. -Feb. 1968 466 (a) 1 0.21 Tay Estuary, Scotland Mar .-Apr . 1968 1 ,168 (c) 1, ,127 96.49 N. Sealand, Denmark Feb. -Mar . 1969 2, ,376 (a) 1, ,683 70.83 Laeso-Vend syssel , Dec. 1969 1, ,362 1, ,081 79.37 Source Joensen 1972a Joensen 1972a Gibson 1966 Joensen 1972a Joensen 1972a Parrack 1967 Phillips 1967 Joensen 1972a Greenwood and Keddie 1968 Joensen 1972b Joensen 1972b Denmark Northeast England Jan. -Feb. 10,992 (a,b) 2,124 1970 19.32 Greenwood et al. 1971 Martha's Vine- yard, MA Feb. 1970 541 (a) 9 9 18.30 CSLP 1971 317 1978 Albers, P. H. and R. C. Szaro. 1978. Effects of No. 12 fuel oil on Common Eider eggs. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 9: 138-139. Campbell, L. H. 1978. Diurnal and tidal behaviour patterns of Eiders winter- ing at Leith. Wildfowl 29: 147-152. Korschgen, C. E. , H. Gibbs and H. L. Mendall. 1978. Avian cholera in Eider Ducks in Maine. J. Wildl. Dis. 14: 254-258. McArthur, P. D. and M. L. Gorman. 1978. The salt gland of the incubating Eider Duck Somateria mollissima: the effects of natural salt deprivation. J. Zool. 184: 83-90. McDougall, P. and H. Milne. 1978. The anti-predator function of defecation on their own eggs by female Eiders. Wildfowl 29: 55-59. Meltofte, H. 1978. A breeding association between Eiders and tethered huskies in northeast Greenland. Wildfowl 29: 45-54. 1977 Bedard, J. and J. Munro. 1977. Brood and creche stability in the Common Eider of the St. Lawrence Estuary. Behaviour 60: 221-260. Gorman, M. L. 1977. Sexual behaviour and plasma androgen concentrations in the male Eider (Somateria mollissima). J. Reprod. Fertil. 49: 225-230. Korschgen, C. E. 1977. Breeding stress of female Eiders in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 360-373. Munro, J. and J. Bedard. 1977a. Creche formation in the Common Eider. Auk 94: 759-771. . 1977b. Gull predation and creching behavior in the Common Eider. J. Anim. Ecol. 46: 799-810. Schamel, D. 1977. Breeding of the Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) on the Beaufort Sea coast in Alaska. Condor 79: 478-485. Stanton, P. B. 1977. Eider Duck transplant experiments on Penikese Island. Trans. N.E. Fish & Wildl. Conf. 34: 65-79. Szaro, R. C. and P. H. Albers. 1977. Effects of external application of No. 2 fuel oil on Common Eider eggs. Pp. 164-167 In D. A. Wolfe (ed.) Proc. Symp. on fate and effects of petroleum hydrocarbons in marine ecosystems and organisms. 10-12 November 1976, Seattle, WA. Pergammon Press, New York, NY. 320 1976 Ashcroft, R. E. 1976. A function of the pairbond in the Common Eider. Wild- fowl 27: 101-105. Gauthier, J. and J. Bedard. 1976. Les deplacements de L'Eider Common (Somater- ia mollissima) dans L'Estuaire du Saint-Laurent. [Movements of the Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) in the St. Lawrence Estuary.] Nat. Can. 103: 261-283. [In French with English summary.] Gauthier, J., J. Bedard and A. Reed. 1976. Overland migration by Common Eiders of the St. Lawrence Estuary. Wilson Bull. 88: 333-344. Korschgren, C. E. 1976. Breeding stress of female Eiders (Somateria mollissima dresseri Sharpe) . Ph.D thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono, ME. 115 pp. Milne, H. 1976. Body weights and carcass composition of the Common Eider. Wildfowl 27: 115-122. Minot, E. 0. 1976. American Eider rearing ecology in the Grand Manan Archi- pelago, N.B. M.S. thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono, ME. 90 pp. Ostrander, W. 1976. Common Eider in Elraira. Kingbird 26: 201-202. Spurr, E. B. and H. Milne. 1976a. Factors affecting laying date in the Common Eider. Wildfowl 27: 107-109. . 1976b. Adaptive significance of autumn pair formation in the Common Eider Somateria mollissima L. Ornis Scand. 7: 84-89. Swennen, C. 1976. Populatie-structuur en Voedsel van de Eidereend Somateria m. mollissima in de Nederlandse Waddenzee. [Population structure and food of the Eider Somateria m. mollissima in the Dutch Wadden Sea.] Ardea 64: 311-371. [In Dutch with English summary.] Wakeley, J. S. and H. L. Mendall. 1976. Migrational homing and survival of adult female eiders in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 40: 15-21. 1975 Campbell, L. H. 1975. Predation on Eiders Somateria mollissima by the Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus in Spitsbergen. Ornis Scand. 6: 27-32. Goryainova, G. P. and T. N. Tarnovskaya. 1975. [Changes in the porosity of egg shell during embryogenesis of birds.] Zool . Zh. 54: 1113-1115. [In Rus- sian with English summary. ] Koeman, J. H. 1975. The toxicological importance of chemical pollution for marine birds in the Netherlands. Vogelwarte 28: 145-150. 321 1978 Albers, P. H. and R. C. Szaro. 1978. Effects of No. 12 fuel oil on Common Eider eggs. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 9: 138-139. Campbell, L. H. 1978. Diurnal and tidal behaviour patterns of Eiders winter- ing at Leith. Wildfowl 29: 147-152. Korschgen, C. E. , H. Gibbs and H. L. Mendall. 1978. Avian cholera in Eider Ducks in Maine. J. Wildl. Dis. 14: 254-258. McArthur, P. D. and M. L. Gorman. 1978. The salt gland of the incubating Eider Duck Somateria mollissima: the effects of natural salt deprivation. J. Zool. 184: 83-90. McDougall, P. and H. Milne. 1978. The anti-predator function of defecation on their own eggs by female Eiders. Wildfowl 29: 55-59. Meltofte, H. 1978. A breeding association between Eiders and tethered huskies in northeast Greenland. Wildfowl 29: 45-54. 1977 Bedard, J. and J. Munro. 1977. Brood and creche stability in the Common Eider of the St. Lawrence Estuary. Behaviour 60: 221-260. Gorman, M. L. 1977. Sexual behaviour and plasma androgen concentrations in the male Eider (Somateria mollissima). J. Reprod. Fertil. 49: 225-230. Korschgen, C. E. 1977. Breeding stress of female Eiders in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 360-373. Munro, J. and J. Bedard. 1977a. Creche formation in the Common Eider. Auk 94: 759-771. . 1977b. Gull predation and creching behavior in the Common Eider. J. Anim. Ecol. 46: 799-810. Schamel, D. 1977. Breeding of the Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) on the Beaufort Sea coast in Alaska. Condor 79: 478-485. Stanton, P. B. 1977. Eider Duck transplant experiments on Penikese Island. Trans. N.E. Fish & Wildl. Conf. 34: 65-79. Szaro, R. C. and P. H. Albers. 1977. Effects of external application of No. 2 fuel oil on Common Eider eggs. Pp. 164-167 In D. A. Wolfe (ed.) Proc. Symp. on fate and effects of petroleum hydrocarbons in marine ecosystems and organisms. 10-12 November 1976, Seattle, WA. Pergammon Press, New York, NY. 320 1976 Ashcroft, R. E. 1976. A function of the pairbond in the Common Eider. Wild- fowl 27: 101-105. Gauthier, J. and J. Bedard. 1976. Les deplacements de L'Eider Common (Somater- ia mollissima) dans L'Estuaire du Saint-Laurent. [Movements of the Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) in the St. Lawrence Estuary.] Nat. Can. 103: 261-283. [In French with English summary.] Gauthier, J., J. Bedard and A. Reed. 1976. Overland migration by Common Eiders of the St. Lawrence Estuary. Wilson Bull. 88: 333-344. Korschgren, C. E. 1976. Breeding stress of female Eiders (Somateria mollissima dresseri Sharpe). Ph.D thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono, ME. 115 pp. Milne, H. 1976. Body weights and carcass composition of the Common Eider. Wildfowl 27: 115-122. Minot, E. 0. 1976. American Eider rearing ecology in the Grand Manan Archi- pelago, N.B. M.S. thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono, ME. 90 pp. Ostrander, W. 1976. Common Eider in Elmira. Kingbird 26: 201-202. Spurr, E. B. and H. Milne. 1976a. Factors affecting laying date in the Common Eider. Wildfowl 27: 107-109. . 1976b. Adaptive significance of autumn pair formation in the Common Eider Somateria mollissima L. Ornis Scand. 7: 84-89. Swennen, C. 1976. Populatie-structuur en Voedsel van de Eidereend Somateria m. mollissima in de Nederlandse Waddenzee. [Population structure and food of the Eider Somateria m. mollissima in the Dutch Wadden Sea.] Ardea 64: 311-371. [In Dutch with English summary.] Wakeley, J. S. and H. L. Mendall. 1976. Migrational homing and survival of adult female eiders in Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 40: 15-21. 1975 Campbell, L. H. 1975. Predation on Eiders Somateria mollissima by the Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus in Spitsbergen. Ornis Scand. 6: 27-32. Goryainova, G. P. and T. N. Tarnovskaya. 1975. [Changes in the porosity of egg shell during embryogenesis of birds.] Zool . Zh. 54: 1113-1115. [In Rus- sian with English summary. ] Koeman, J. H. 1975. The toxicological importance of chemical pollution for marine birds in the Netherlands. Vogelwarte 28: 145-150. 321 Mendenhall, V. M. 1975. Growth and mortality factors of Eider ducklings (Soraa- teria m. mollissima) in north-east Scotland. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Aberdeen/ Aberdeen, Scotland. Munro , J. 1975. L'elevage des jeunes chez l'Eider commun (Somateria mollissima) dans l'estuaire du Saint-Laurent. M.S. thesis, Univ. Laval/Quebec, PQ. Reed, A. 1975. Migration, homing, and mortality of breeding female Eiders of the St. Lawrence Estuary, Quebec. Ornis Scand. 6: 41-47. Swennen, C. 1975. Afwijkende kleuren bij de Eidereenden van Vlieland. [Aber- rant colorations in the Eider ducks of Vlieland.] Limosa 47: 51-52. [In Dutch with English summary.] 1974 Allerstam, T. , C.-A. Bauer and G. Roos . 1974. [Field- and radar studies of the spring migration of the Baltic Eider Somateria mollissima.] Var Fagel- varld 33: 15-27. [In Swedish with English summary.] Alrakvist, B. , A. Andersson, A. Jogi, Th. K. Pirkola, M. Soikkele and J. Virtanen. 1974. The number of adult Eiders in the Baltic Sea. Wildfowl 25: 89-94. Belopol'skii, L. 0., G. P. Goryainova and T. V. Tarnovskya. 1974. [Sex ratio in the Common Eider.] Ekologiya 5: 110-111. [In Russian.] Bishop, C. A. and W. Threlfall. 1974. Helminth parasites of the Common Eider Duck, Somateria mollissima (L.), in Newfoundland and Labrador. Proc. Helminthol. Soc . Wash. 41: 23-35. Cantin, M. , J. Bedard and H. milne. 1974. The food and feeding of Common Eiders in the St. Lawrence Estuary in summer. Can. J. Zool . 52: 319-334. Gjoseater, J. and R. Saetre. 1974. Predation of eggs of capelin Mallotus villosus by diving ducks. Astarte 7: 83-89. Gorman, M. L. 1974a. Criteria for aging embryos of the Eider. Wildfowl 25: 29-32. . 1974b. The significance of habitat selection during nesting of the Eider Somateria mollissima mollissima. Ibis 116: 152-154. . 1974c. The endocrine basis of pair-formation behaviour in the male Eider Somateria mollissima. Ibis 116: 451-465. Grenquist, P. 1972. Eraan emottoman haahkapoikueen vaiheista ensimmaisten elinpaiven aikana. [Observations on four newly-hatched eider ducklings without a conducting female.] Suomen Riista 24: 76-81. [In Finnish with English summary. ] 322 Joensen, A. H. 1974. Populations and shooting utilization of migratory ducks in Denmark, with particular reference to the Eider Duck (Somateria mollis- sima). Internatl. Congr. Game Biol. 11: 269-278. Milne, H. 1974. Breeding of numbers and reproduction rate of Eiders at the Sands of Forvie National Nature Reserve, Scotland. Ibis 116: 135-152. Milne, H. and A. Reed. 1974. Annual production of fledged young from the Eider colonies of the St. Lawrence Estuary. Can. Field-Nat. 88: 163-169. Nystrom, M. and S. B. Hansson. 1974. Interaction bewteen early experience and depth avoidance in young Eider ducks (Somateria mollissima L.). Behavior 48: 303-314. Persson, L. 1974. Endoparasitism causing heavy mortality in Eider Ducks in Sweden. Internatl. Congr. Game Biol. 11: 255-258. Persson, L. , K. Borg and H. Fait. 1974. On the occurrence of endoparasites in Eider Ducks in Sweden. Viltrevy 9: 1-24. Schamel, D. L. 1974. The breeding biology of the Pacific Eider (Somateria mollissima v-nigra Bonaparte) on a barrier island in the Beaufort Sea, Alaska. M.S. thesis, Univ. Alaska/Fairbanks, AK. 95 pp. 1973 Bourget, A. A. 1973. Relation of Eiders and gulls nesting in mixed colonies in Penobscot Bay, Maine. Auk 90: 809-820. Fog, M. and I. Kraul. 1973. Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and organochlorine insecticides in eggs from Eider (Somateria mollissima) . Acta Vet. Scand. 14: 350-352. Gorman, M. L. 1973. Pituitary prolactin levels in the Common Eider Somateria m. mollissima. Ornis Scand. 4: 123-125. Joensen, A. H. 1973. [The breeding of the Eider (Somateria mollissima) in Denmark.] Dan. Vildt. 20: 1-36. [In Danish with English summary.] Leuzinger, H. and S. Schuster. 1973. Der starke EInflug von Eiderenten Soma- teria mollissima im Herbst 1971 nach Suddeutschlan und in dir Schweiz. Ornithol. Beob. 70: 189-202. [In German with English summary.] McAloney, R. K. 1973. Brood ecology of the Common Eider (Somateria mollissima dresseri) in the Liscombe area of Nova Scotia. M.S. thesis, Acadia Univ./ Wolfville, NS. 1972 Almkvist, B. and A. Andersson. 1972. [Aerial census of flocked Eider males Somateria mollissima — a method for estimating breeding populations.] Var Fagelvarld 31: 237-240. [In Swedish with English summary.] 323 Gorman, M. L. and H. Milne. 1972. Creche behaviour in the Common Eider Soma- teria m. mollissima L. Ornis Scand. 3: 21-26. Grenquist, P. 1972. Eraan emottoman haahkapoikueen vaiheista ensimmaisten elinpaiven aikana. [Observations on four newly hatched Eider ducklings without a conducting female.] Suomen Riista 24: 76-81. [In Finnish with English summary.] Grenquist, P., K. Henrikkson and T. Raitis. 1972. Haahkakoiraudeb suolituk- keumasta. [On intestinal occlusion in the male Eider.] Suomen Riista 24: 91-96. [In Finnish with English summary.] Karpovich, V. N. , B. V. Kester and L. 0. Belopolski. 1972. [The actual state of the nesting of the Eider in the Kandalaksha Nature Reserve.] Communs. Baltic Commn. Study Bird Migr. 7: 140-153. [In Russian with English sum- mary. ] Petrovic, C. A. and J. King, Jr. 1972. Common Eider and King Rail from the Dry Tortugas, Florida. Auk 89: 660. Soikkeli, M. and J. Virtanen. 1972. The Palva oil tanker disaster in the Finnish southwestern archipelago. II. Effects of oil pollution on the Eider, Somateria mollissima, population in the archipelagos of Kokar and Folgo, southwestern Finland. Aqua Fenn. 1972: 122-128. Swegen, H. 1972. [Visual migration of Eider Ducks Somateria mollissima inland in southernmost Sweden.] Var Fagelvarld 31: 183-190. [In Swedish with English summary.] Uspenski, S. M. 1972. The Eiders (genus Somateria). Neue Brehm Bucheri, Wittenberg-Lutherstadt , East Germany. 1971 Dunthorne, A. A. 1971. The predation of cultivated mussels by Eiders. Bird Study 18: 107-112. Gorman, M. L. and H. Milne. 1971. Seasonal changes in the adrenal steroid tis- sue of the Common Eider Somateria mollissima and its relation to organic metabolism in normal and oil-polluted birds. Ibis 113: 218-228. Ilnicky, N. J. 1971. First known record of Common Eiders in Michigan. Jack- Pine Warbler 49: 10-11. Player, P. V. 1971. Food and feeding habits of the Common Eider at Seafield, Edinburgh, in winter. Wildfowl 22: 100-106. Pounder, B. 1971. Wintering Eiders in the Tay Estuary. Scott. Birds 6: 407- 419. 324 1970 Ahlen, I. and A. Andersson. 1970. Breeding ecology of an Eider population on Spitsbergen. Ornis Scand. 1: 83-106. Bourget , A. A. 1970. Interrelationships of Eiders and gulls nesting in mixed colonies in Penobscot Bay, Maine. M.S. thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono, ME. Cantin, M. 1970. Alimentation de l'eider commun (Somateria mollissima dres- seri) dans l'estuaire du Saint-Laurent. M.S. thesis, Laval Univ. /Quebec , PQ. 79 pp. Clark, S. 1970. The American Eider. Sea Frontiers 16: 302-308. Folkestad, A. 0. and A. Moksnes. 1970. Observas joner av Trekkende aerfugel i Trondelag. [Observations on migrating Eiders in Trondelag, Norway.] Sterna 9: 9-17. [In Norwegian with English summary.] Freeman, M. M. R. 1970. Observations on the seasonal behavior of the Hudson Bay Eider (Somateria mollissima sedentaria) . Can. Field-Nat. 84: 145-153. Gorman, M. L. 1970a. The daily pattern of display in a wild population of Eider Duck. Wildfowl 21: 105-107. . 1970b. Behavioural and physiological adaptations for breeding in the Eider Duck (Somateria mollissima). Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Aberdeen/ Aberdeen , Scotland . Grenquist, P. 1970. [On mortality of the Eider Duck (Somateria mollissima) caused by acanthocephalan parasites.] Suomen Riista 22: 24-34. [In Fin- nish with English summary. ] Haila, Y. 1970. Palvan Oi jyonnettomuus . [The "Palva" oil tanker catastrophe off the SW coast of Finland.] Suomen Riista 22: 7-13. [In Finnish with English summary. ] 1969 Drenckhahn, D. 1969. Mauser und Vorkommen van Edierente, Somateria mollissima, Trauerente , Melanitta nigra, und Samtente, Melanitta fusca, wahrend der 01- pest im Herbst 1968 an der Nordseekuste Schleswig-Holsteins. Corax 3: 23- 30. [In German . ] Ingolfsson, A. 1969. Behavior of gulls robbing Eiders. Bird Study 16: 45-52. Palmer, C. J. 1969. Some observations on the behavior and activity regime of Eider ducklings in creches. M.S. thesis, Univ. Aberdeen/Aberdeen, Scot- land. 325 1968 Barry, T. W. 1968. Observations on natural mortality and native use of Eider Ducks along the Beaufort Sea coast. Can. Field-Nat. 82: 140-144. Clark, S. H. 1968. The breeding biology and experimental management of the American Eider in Penobscot Bay, Maine. M.S. thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono, ME. 169 pp. Guignion, D. L. 1968. Clutch size and incubation period of the American Eider (Somateria mollissima dresseri) on Brandypot Island. Nat. Can. 95: 1145- 1152. Kumari, E. 1968. [The Common Eider (Somateria mollissima L.) in the U.S.S.R., Proc. Conf. Estonia, May 1966.] Tallinn: Valgus, and Inst. Zool. & Bot . , Acad. Sci. Estonian S.S.R. 131 pp. [In Russian with English summary.] Mendall, H. L. 1968. An inventory of Maine's breeding Eider Ducks. Trans. Sect. Wildl. Soc, Fish & Wildl. Conf. 25: 95-104. Milne, H. 1968. The Eider — mussel food link in the community of the Ythan Estuary. Rept . Challenger Soc. 3: 31. Pethon, P. 1968. Food and feeding habits of the Common Eider (Somateria mol- lissima). Nytt Mag. Zool. 15: 97-111. Swennen, C. 1968. Nest protection of Eiderducks and Shovelers by means of faeces. Ardea 56: 248-258. 1967 Choate, J. S. 1967. Factors influencing nesting success of Eiders in Penob- scot Bay, Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 31: 769-777. Guignion, D. L. 1967. A nesting study of the Common Eider (Somateria mollis- sima dresseri) in the St. Lawrence Estuary. M.S. thesis, Laval Univ. /Que- bec , PQ. 131 pp. McGilvrey, F. B. 1967. Food habits of sea ducks from the northeastern United States. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 18: 142-145. McLaughlin, F. L. 1967 ms. Behavior study of the interrelationships of gulls and Eiders in mixed breeding colonies of Penobscot Bay, Maine. Unpubl. File Rept., Maine Coop. Wildl. Res. Unit, Orono , ME. 41 pp. 1966 Choate, J. S. 1966. Breeding biology of the American Eider in Penobscot Bay, Maine. M.S. thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono, ME. Marriot, R. W. 1966. The food and feeding of the Eider population of the Ythan Estuary, Aberdeenshire, in autumn and winter. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Aber- deen/Aberdeen, Scotland. 326 1965 Carlson, C. W. 1965. Common Eiders at Nags Head, North Carolina. Chat 29: 25-26. Cobb, J. L. S. 1965. Abnormal nesting behaviour of Eiders and Herring Gulls. J. Scott. Ornithol. Club 3: 252-253. Cooch, F. G. 1965. The breeding biology and management of the Northern Eider (Somateria mollissima borealis) in the Cape Dorset area, Northwest Terri- tories. Can. Wildl. Serv. Wildl. Manage. Bull. Ser. 2a, No. 10. 68 pp. Hatch, J. J. and R. P. Holmes, III. 1965. Common Eider at Morehead City, North Carolina. Chat 29: 24-25. Holmes, R. P., III. 1965. Common Eider at Morehead City — a footnote. Chat 29: 52. Milne, H. 1965. Seasonal movements and distribution of Eiders in northeast Scotland. Bird Study 12: 170-180. 1964 Garden, E. A., C. Rayski and V. M. Thorn. 1964. A parasitic disease in Eider Ducks. Bird Study 11: 280-287. Ryden, 0. and H. Kallander. 1964. [Calculations of migratory flight speed with special reference to the Eider (Somateria mollissima).] Var Fagel- varld 23: 151-158. [In Swedish with English summary.] 1963 Baillie, J. L. 1963. The 13 most recent Ontario nesting birds. Ont. Field Biol. 17: 15-26. Milne, H. 1963. Seasonal distribution and breeding biology of the Eider Soma- teria mollissima mollissima (L.) in northeast of Scotland. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Aberdeen/Aberdeen, Scotland. Pertsov, N. A. and V. E. Flint. 1963. Pitanie gagi Kandalakshskogo zapoved- niki i rol' ee dinamike litoral'noi fauny. [The diet of the Eider of the Kandalaksha Reserve and its role in the dynamics of the littoral fauna.] Trudy Kandalak. Gos. Zapov. 4: 7-18. [In Russian with English summary.] 1962 Milne, H. 1962. Seasonal movements and distribution of Eiders in northeast Scotland. Bird Study 12: 170-180. Paludan, K. 1962. Ederfuglene i de Danske farvande. Dan. Vildt. 10: 1-87. [In Danish with English summary.] 327 1961 McKinney, F. 1961. An analysis of the displays of the European Eider Somater- ia mollissima mollissima (Linnaeus) and the Pacific Eider Somateria mol- lissima v-nigra (Bonaparte). Behaviour Suppl. 7. 124 pp. 1960 Gerasimova, T. D. and Z. M. Baranova. 1960. Ekologiya obysknovennoi gagi (Somateria mollissima L.) v Kandalakshskom zapovednike. [Ecology of the Common Eider, Somateria mollissima L., in the Kandalaksha Reserve.] Trudy Kandalak. Gos. Zapov. 3: 8-90. [In Russian.] Hebard, F. V. 1960. The spread of the Eider in America. Brit. Birds 53: 135-136. Kulachkova, V. G. 1960. Gibel ' ptentsov obyknovennoi gagi i prichiny, ee vyzyvayushchie . [Mortality of Eider fledglings and its causes.] Trudy Kandalak. Gos. Zapov. 3. Murmanskoe knizhnoe izdatel '-tvo. [In Russian.] 1959 Ames, J. E. 1959. Common Eider, Kittiwakes, Razorbill at Hatteras. Chat 23: 24. Kapitonov, V. I. 1959. K biologii gagi Kandalakshskogo zaliva. [On the biol- ogy of the Eider in the Kandalaksha Bay.] Trudy Nauchno-Issledovatel' skogo Instituta Sel' skogo Khozyaistva Krainego Severa, Vol. 9. [In Russian.] Lewis, H. F. 1959 ms. Predation of Eider Ducks by Great Black-backed Gulls in Nova Scotia. Rept. Nova Scotia Dept . Lands & Forests, Halifax, NS. Pettingill, 0. S., Jr. 1959a. King Eiders mated with Common Eiders in Ice- land. Wilson Bull. 71: 205-207. . 1959b. Puffins and Eiders in Iceland. Maine Field Nat. 15: 58-71. Sykes, P. B. 1959. Common Eider, Kittiwake, Razorbill. Chat 23: 34. 1958 Clark, G. M. , D. O'Meara, and J. W. van Weelden. 1958. An epizootic among Eider ducks involving an acanthocephalid worm. J. Wildl. Manage. 22: 204-205. Cooch, G. 1958. A study of some aspects of the breeding biology of the North- ern Eider (Somateria mollissima borealis). Trans. N.E. Wildl. Conf. 1: 122-123. Hoogerheide, J. and C. Hoogerheide. 1958. Het aantal Eidereenden (Somateria mollissima) bij Vlieland. Limosa 31: 151-155. [In Dutch.] 328 Humphrey, P. S. 1958. Diving of a captive Common Eider. Condor 60: 408-410. Myres, M. T. 1958 ms. Preliminary studies of the behavior, migration and dis- tributional ecology of Eider Ducks in northern Alaska, 1958. Rept., Univ. Brit. Columbia, Dept. Zool. 14 pp. 1957 Moltoni, E. 1957. Elenco di Edredoni - Somateria m. mollissima (L.) - cattur- ati in Italia. Riv. Ital. Ornitol. 27: 154-157. [In Italian.] 1955 Flint, V. E. 1955. [A contribution to the biology of the Common Eider.] Biull. Moskovskovo Obshchestva Ispytatelei Prirody Biol. 60: 53-62. [In Russian. ] 1954 Burnett, F. L. and D. E. Snyder. 1954. Blue crab as starvation food of oiled American Eiders. Auk 71: 315-316. 1951 Paynter, R. A., Jr. 1951. Clutch-size and egg mortality of Kent Island Eiders, Ecology 32: 497-507. 1950 Hoogerheide, C. 1950. De Eidereenden, Somateria mollissima L. , op Vlieland. Ardea 37: 139-161. [In Dutch.] 1948 Williamson, K. 1948. Eider Duck plucking down during distraction-display. Ibis 90: 142-143. 1944 Gross, A. 0. 1944. The present status of the American Eider on the Maine coast. Wilson Bull. 56: 15-26. 1942 Hibben, Ms. F. C. 1942. Pacific Eider nesting at Glacier Bay, Alaska. Con- dor 44: 181. 1941 Snyder, L. L. 1941. On the Hudson Bay Eider. Occas. Pap. R. Ont . Mus. Zool, No. 6: 1-7. 329 1939 Lewis, H. F. 1939. Size and sets of eggs of the American Eider. J. Wildl. Manage. 3: 70-73. 1938 Gross, A. 0. 1938. Eider Ducks of Kent's Island. Auk 55: 387-400. 1936 Grenquist, P. 1936. Some notes on diving of young Tufted Ducks, young Velvet Scoters, and young Eider Ducks. Ornis Fenn. 13: 6-23. 1932 Gudmundsson, G. 1932. Beobachtungen an islandischen Eiderenten (Somateria m. mollissima). Beitr. Fortpf. Vogel 8: 86-147. [In German.] 1931 Lewis, H. F. 1931. Recovery of a banded American Eider (Somateria mollissima dresseri) . Bird-Banding 2: 184. 1930 Robertson, D. J. 1930. Further notes on Eiders in Orkney. Brit. Birds 23: 309-310. 1929 Robertson, D. J. 1929. Notes on breeding-habits of the Eider in the Orkneys. Brit. Birds 23: 26-30. 1925 Boase, H. 1925. Notes on the courting display and nesting of the Eider in the Tay Estuary. Brit. Birds 19: 45-48. Montague, F. A. 1925. Notes on the summer habits of the Northern Eider. Brit. Birds 19: 138-144. 1922 White, G. R. 1922. Eider Duck— a correction. Auk 39: 411-412. 1909 Evans, W. 1909. The food of the Eider. Brit. Birds 3: 165-166. Robinson, H. W. 1909. The food of the Common Eider. Brit. Birds 2: 344. 330 KING EIDER (Somateria spectabilis) [DA: Kongeederfugl, DU: Koningseidereend , FI: Pulskahaahka , FR: Eider a tete grise, Eider royal; GE: Prachteiderente , IC : Aedarkongur , IT: Re degli Edredoni , NW: Praktaerfugl, PO: Turkan , RU: (Crested Eider), SP: Eider rey, Eider real; SW: Praktejder] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION King Eiders breed on the Arctic coast of Alaska from Point Hope, TIgara, and Cape Thompson eastward along the coasts of the Yukon, and the Mackenzie and Keewatin districts. They breed locally on the west coast of Hudson Bay to Cape Henrietta Maria, and South Twin Island, as well as on most of the Arctic islands (AOU 1957, Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959, Palmer 1976b). Breeding also occurs on most of the islands in the Franklin District, northward to northern Ellesmere Island and adjacent Greenland. Local breeding has been reported from northern coastal Quebec, and is suspected in Labrador (Godfrey 1966, Johnsgard 1978). In the winter, King Eiders occur throughout the eastern Aleutian Islands and the Alaskan Peninsula, as well as in northeastern North America from Greenland and Newfoundland south along the Maritime Provinces to the New England States (AOU 1957, Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959), with occasional records farther south and in the interior (Palmer 1976b). The King Eider also breeds in the Palearctic region, including parts of Iceland, Spitzbergen, Novaya Zemlya and Vaigach islands, the eastern Kola Pen- insula, and eastward to the Chuckchee Peninsula (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b). In winter these birds occur in the North Atlantic, east to the Barents Sea and oc- casionally in the Baltic, and in the north Pacific to the Kurile Island and Okhotsk Sea regions (Palmer 1976b). The King Eider occurs only as a vagrant in the southeastern United States. In North Carolina there are five records prior to 1937 (Simpson 1970) and five in the 1970's, all of one or a few birds. The three records from South Caro- lina include one bird seen inland (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949, LeGrand 1979b). There are records of several occurrences in Georgia (Coolidge 1954, Burleigh 1958), three from the Gulf coast of Florida (Kale 1979 ms b) , and one each from Alabama (Imhof 1976b) and Texas (Oberholser 1974). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION There are few reports of King Eiders succumbing to oiling at sea, but as a diving sea-duck it is presumably highly vulnerable to oiling. King and Sanger (1979) regarded this eider as a species for which there should be high concern as to the effects of oiling in the northeast Pacific. However, King Eiders oc- cur only casually in the southeast, and oil accidents there would pose no haz- zard to the species as a whole. 331 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Lindsey, H. R. 1980. King Eider on Saluda River at Columbia, S.C. Chat 44: 41. 1977 Norderhaug, M. 1977. Undersokelser av praktauerf uglen (Somateria spectabilis) pa Svalbard. [Studies of the King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) in Sval- bard.] Nor. Polarinst. Arbok 1976: 271-284. [In Norwegian with English summary. ] Palmer, R. S. 1977. King Eider studies. Brit. Birds 70: 107-113. 1975 Gates, L. 1975. King Eider record in Hattiesburg area. Miss. Ornithol. Soc . Newsl. 20: 2. 1970 Simpson, M. B. , Jr. 1970. An unrecorded specimen of the King Eider from North Carolina. Chat 34: 102. 1968 Reese, J. G. 1968. King Eiders summering in Chesapeake Bay. Md. Birdlife 24: 17-18. 1967 Burr, I. W. 1967. King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) in the San Juans. Murre- let 48: 7. 1965 Sherman, G. R. 1965. The form and duration of the male displays of the King Eider, Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus). M.S. thesis, Univ. Nebraska/ Lincoln, NE. 1963 Thompson, D. Q. and R. A. Person. 1963. The eider pass at Point Barrow, Alas- ka. J. Wildl. Manage. 27: 348-356. 1962 Gandy, B. E. 1962. King Eider collected at Pascagoula, Mississippi. Miss. Ornithol. Soc. Newsl. 7: 20-21. 332 Owre, 0. T. 1962. The first record of the King Eider, Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus) , and the occurrence of other Anseriformes in Florida. Auk 79: 270-271. 1961 Johnstone, S. T. 1961. Breeding the King Eider, 1961. Avicult. Mag. 67: 196- 197. 1959 Pettingill, 0. S., Jr. 1959. King Eiders mated with Common Eiders in Iceland, Wilson Bull. 71: 205-207. 1954 Coolidge, H. W. 1954. King Eider taken near Savannah. Oriole 19: 18. 1950 Barnes, I. R. and C. 0. Handley, Jr. 1950. King Eiders seen at Ocean City [Maryland]. Atl. Nat. 5: 183-184. 1937 Chamberlain, E. B. 1937. King Eider in South Carolina. Auk 54: 383. 1925 Griscom, L. 1925. King Eider in North Carolina. Auk 42: 264. 1924 Janvrin, E. R. P. 1924. King Eider on Long Island in June. Auk 41: 597-598. 1923 Hill, G. A. 1923. The migration of the King Eider at Synuk, Alaska. Condor 25: 103-104. Kennard, F. H. 1923. King Eider in Maine. Auk 40: 120. 1922 Bedell, E. 1922. King Eider at Waterford, N.Y. Auk 39: 563. Praeger, W. E. 1922. King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) in southern Michigan, Auk 39: 104. 333 1921 Stone, W. 1921. King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) in Pennsylvania. Auk 38: 270. Wilson, E. S. 1921. King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) in Michigan waters. Auk 38: 454-455. 1890 Worthington, W. W. 1890. The King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) at Brunswick, Ga. Auk 7: 284. 334 HARLEQUIN DUCK (Histrionicus hlstrlonicus) [DA: Stromand, DU: Harleki jneend , EN: Harlequin-Duck, FI: Virta-alli, FR: Gar- rot arlequin, Canard harlequin; GE: Kragenente, IC: Straumond, IT: Moretta ar- lecchino, JA: Shinorigamo, NW: Harlekinand, PO: Kaczka wzorzysta, Kamieniuszka ; RU: (Stone Duck), SP: Pato arlequin, SW: Stromand] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Harlequin Duck breeds in two disjunct areas in North America. The eastern breeding range extends from the Ungava Bay area south along the coast of Labrador to the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976, Pal- mer 1976b). The breeding range in the west is much larger, extending from the Aleutian Islands and St. Lawrence Island to central Alaska, south through the Yukon Territory, British Columbia, the Olympic and Cascade mountains in Washing- ton, and the Cascade and Wallowa mountains in Oregon to the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada in California and the northern Rocky Mountains of Montana, Idaho, and northern Wyoming (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b). In the winter these ducks are found in the coastal portions of their breeding ranges along the Pacific as far south as coastal central California. The eastern birds winter from south- ern Labrador, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia south along the Atlantic coast to Massachusetts, rarely to Long Island Sound, and casually to the Niagara River, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario (AOU 1957). There are also reports of accidentals occurring farther south during winter. Harlequin Ducks also breed in northern and eastern Asia from Lake Baikal and the Lena River, Siberia, east to northern Kamchatka and the Komandorskiye Islands, and south to northern Mongolia, Manchuria, and the Kurile Islands. In the winter they occur from Kamchatka, Manchuria, and the Aleutian and Pribilof islands south to Korea and southern Japan (AOU 1957). Harlequins also breed in Greenland and Iceland, often wintering along the southern coasts of both islands (AOU 1957). The Harlequin Duck is a species of accidental occurrence in the southeast- ern United States. There were no records for North Carolina before 1961, but six records accumulated by 1967 (Parnell 1965, Carter 1968) and our studies show that there were five additional records by 1977. There are two early records for South Carolina (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949) and three more recent records, 1975-77. Early records from Florida, primarily from the panhandle, are summa- rized by Williams (1968); six recent reports, 1971-77, from the Atlantic coast have come to our attention. There are three records for Alabama, only one of which is from the coast (Imhof 1976b); one very old record for Louisiana (Lowery 1974); and three sight records for coastal Texas (Oberholser 1974). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION We have found no published accounts of oiled Harlequin Ducks , but the spe- 335 cies should be considered highly vulnerable because of its preference for coast- al waters during winter. However, the scarcity of the species in the southeast implies that no damage to the population would be done by oiling incidents in that area. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1979 Kaufman, K. and J. Witzeman. 1979. A Harlequin Duck, reaches Sonora, Mexico. Continental Birdlife 1: 16-17. 1978 Lewis, B. and L. Lewis. 1978. Harlequin Duck on Bull's Island, S.C. Chat 42: 81-82. 1977 Davis, R. 1977. Harlequin Duck at Carolina Beach, N.C. Chat 41: 48. 1976 Parkes, K. C. and C. H. Nelson. 1976. A definite Colorado breeding record for the Harlequin Duck. Auk 93: 846-847. 1973 McNicholl, M. K. 1973. Records of the Harlequin Duck in Manitoba and adjacent regions. Blue Jay 31: 150-152. 1972 Bengston, S.-A. 1972. Breeding ecology of the Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus (L.) in Iceland. Ornis Scand. 3: 1-19. 1971 Bengtson, S.-A. 1971. Habitat selection of duck broods in Lake Myvatn area, north-east Iceland. Ornis Scand. 2: 17-26. Bengtson, S.-A. and S. Ulfstrand. 1971. Food resources and breeding frequency of the Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus in Iceland. Oikos 22: 235-239. Gudmundsson, F. 1971. Straumendur (Histrionicus histrionicus) a Islandi. Fyrri hluti. [The Harlequin Duck (Histrionicus histrionicus) in Iceland.] Natturufraedingurinn 41: 1-28. [In Icelandic with English summary.] 336 1970 Keeny, D. and L. Keeny. 1970. Harlequin Duck in summer in Virginia. Atl. Nat. 5: 183. 1968 Carter, D. 1968. Harlequin Duck at Carolina Beach, N.C. Chat 32: 45-46. Williams, L. E. 1968. Specimen of the Harlequin Duck in Florida. Wilson Bull, 80: 488-489. 1_966 Bengtson, S.-A. 1966. Field studies on the Harlequin Duck in Iceland. Wild- fowl Trust Annu. Rept . 17: 79-94. 1965 Parnell, J. F. 1965. Another Harlequin Duck in North Carolina. Chat 29: 24. 1964 Holmes, R. P. 1964. Harlequin Duck again sighted in North Carolina. Chat 28: 29. 1962 Pool, W. 1962. Feeding habits of the Harlequin Duck. Wildfowl Trust Annu, Rept. 13: 126-129. 1945 Hagar, C. N. 1945. Harlequin Duck on the Texas coast. Auk 62: 639-640. Pearse, T. 1945. Mating of the Pacific Harlequin Duck. Can. Field-Nat. 59: 66. 1923 Floyd, C. B. 1923a. Harlequin Duck in Essex County. Bull. Essex Co. Ornithol. Club 1923: 8. . 1923b. The Harlequin Duck in Massachusetts. Auk 40: 528. 1883 Merriam, C. H. 1883. Breeding of the Harlequin Duck. Bull. Nuttall Ornithol. Club 8: 220. 337 OLDS QU AW (Clangula hyemalis) [DA: Haulit, DU: Useend , EN: Long-tailed Duck, Sea Pintail; FI: Alii, FR: Canard de Miquelon, GE: Eisente , JA: Korigamo, NW: Hauelle, PO: Lodowka , RU: (Marine Duck), SP: Alfagel] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America In North America the Oldsquaw breeds in the Aleutian Islands and Arctic Alaska east across the Arctic coast of Canada to southeastern Labra- dor and the eastern panhandle of Quebec. It breeds north to northern Ellesmere Island and the coasts of Greenland and south to the northern and extreme western Yukon, northern and eastern Northwest Territories, northeastern Manitoba, the coast and islands of James and Hudson bays, and in northern Quebec (Godfrey 1966, Palmer 1976b). The principal wintering grounds of the Oldsquaw in North America lie to the north of the southeastern states. Only in North Carolina is it common. In western North America, wintering Oldsquaw are found from St. Lawrence Island and the Aleutian Islands south along the Pacific coast to the Washington and Oregon border, occasionally to southern California (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b); most win- ter in the Bering Sea (Bellrose 1976). Along the Atlantic seaboard, Oldsquaws are found from southern Greenland, Labrador, and Newfoundland, south to Chesa- peake Bay, and rarely to Florida (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b). In this area the largest concentrations found in 1972 occurred from Delaware Bay to the lower Chesapeake Bay (Bellrose 1976). Small numbers winter along the Gulf coast; there, the species is apparently most abundant in the northern Gulf. Oldsquaws also winter in the interior of North America, chiefly on the Great Lakes, and irregularly on other lakes and rivers south to Colorado, Utah, Texas, Kentucky, and Tennessee (AOU 1957). World Distribution In the Old World, this duck breeds in the northern Palearctic from Iceland, Spitsbergen, and Scandinavia to the tundra of Russia and Siberia, and on the islands of the Bering Sea ( BOU 1971). In eastern Eur- asia, the Oldsquaw breeds south to about 60° N in the interior of the Scandi- navian peninsula. Some breed at about this latitude in southern Finland but most of the breeding population occurs north of 65° N (Cramp et al. 1977). Wintering Oldsquaw in the Old World are found largely at sea and occur in the breeding range south to northern France and the Baltic, Caspian, and Black seas (AOU 1957, BOU 1971, Cramp et al. 1977). In Asia these ducks winter south to Japan and Korea, largely in coastal areas (Vaurie 1965, Cramp et al. 1977). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina According to Pearson et al. (1942) and Wray and Davis (1959), the Oldsquaw is a common winter resident in North Carolina, found raost- 338 ly in coastal bays and sounds. They may also occasionally be seen inland. Pot- ter et al . (1980) considered them uncommon to rare inland, and indicated that most occur in the state from November to April. Oldsquaws in breeding plumage observed along the coast during the summer are probably injured birds unable to fly north. South Carolina Sprunt and Chamberlain (1949) regarded the Oldsquaw as an uncommon winter resident that occurs in varying numbers nearly every year, pri- marily along the coast. They mostly occur on the ocean and in larger bays. One may occasionally be found in freshwater habitats such as rice fields and the backwaters of cypress swamps. Potter et al . (1980) recently stated that the Oldsquaw is rare in South Carolina. This status is also suggested by re- cent Christmas Counts (Map 24). Georgia Burleigh (1958) listed the Oldsquaw as an uncommon winter resi- dent throughout the state. They are most frequently seen as individuals along the coast during late winter and early spring, and are usually females. Denton et al . (1977) considered the species uncommon and irregular in Georgia. Florida Howell (1932) considered the Oldsquaw a rare winter visitor in Florida. Kale (1979 ms a) also reported that they are rare, and noted that a few birds are seen each winter in Atlantic coastal waters. In recent years, Oldsquaws have been reported more frequently on both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts (Kale 1979 ms a, 1979 ms b) . Observations reported in American Birds during the last ten years give dates of occurrence for the Atlantic coast rang- ing from 5 December (at Merritt Island NWR; Stevenson 1977) to 28 March (38 mi, or 61 km off Melbourne; Stevenson 1976). One atypical bird remained in the Indian River near Cocoa until mid-May (Kale 1972). The range of dates listed for the Gulf coast is from 7 November (Edscorn 1977) to 21 April (Kale 1978), both at Tampa . Alabama The Oldsquaw is an uncommon but regular winter resident along the Gulf coast of Alabama. Bon Secour and Mobile Bay also harbor small numbers. It is seldom seen inland but occurs fairly frequently in and near Wheeler NWR (Imhof 1976b). Oldsquaws have been reported along the coast from November to April. A maximum of 65 was counted at Fort Morgan 9 January 1961. Other par- ticularly large flocks seen include 30 birds at Dauphin Island, 7 April 1971, and 50 inland at Lake Purdy, 16 January 1971 (Imhof 1976b). Mississippi Burleigh (1944) considered the Oldsquaw at least a casual vis- itor along the Gulf coast of Mississippi in late winter and spring. Recent ob- servations show that the species is now more common in Mississippi than Burleigh suggested. In Mississippi, the Oldsquaw is most abundant in the Gulf. As many as 85 were seen at West Ship Island, 24-28 February 1979 (Hamilton 1979), and 40 were seen there in March 1977 (Weber and Jackson 1977). Up to 16 were pre- sent at Horn Island in January and February 1978, and another 20 were present at East Ship Island the latter month (Hamilton 1978). Another 15 were seen off Biloxi in the Gulf of Mexico, 20-21 February 1976 (Hamilton 1976). Inland re- cords are few, but as many as 25 have been seen at Sardis Lake (Hamilton 1971). Dates of occurrence given in the last ten years of American Birds show that Oldsquaw may be present in Alabama from 20 December (Hamilton 1971) through 21 April (Imhof 1979). 339 — .23 D o - ?? =.s o „ ° ; =S »5 i 2 " » a— i>^ * ' c S v SB~ I ^ i o 8 ■£ I 2z 3 . J ~ = o • O " M-a «ns lift in - Ill (DO© 340 Louisiana Formerly regarded as only a casual winter visitor to Louisiana (Oberholser 1938) , the Oldsquaw is now regarded as a rare to uncommon winter visitor (Lowery 1974). The number seen has increased markedly in the last few decades. Many of the records are from inland, despite the birds' decided pre- ference for salt water (Lowery 1974). We found about six records for Oldsquaws in Lousiana listed in American Birds, 1970-1979. The localities where they were seen were Lake Pontchartrain , Holly Beach, Natchitoches, Baton Rouge, and on the Calcasieu River near Cameron (Hamilton 1971, 1974, 1975, 1976; Purrington 1973b). The species has been re- corded in Louisiana between 15 November and 3 May (Lowery 1974). Texas The Oldsquaw is a rare and irregular visitor to Texas during the winter, most common in the northern third of the state and on the Gulf coast (Oberholser 1974). At least 16 records of about 24 birds were reported from Texas in American Birds from 1970-1979. The majority of these records were from the coast and consisted of sightings of individual birds. The most re- ported at once were five seen off High Island, 27 February 1977 (Webster 1977). A majority of the records fell between November and January; Oberholser (1974) listed dates of occurrence for the state as 1 9 October to 30 May. SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding The Oldsquaw nests in the arctic and subarctic regions of the Holarctic and is one of the northernmost of ducks in its breeding distribution. Oldsquaws breed circumpolarly with no major gaps in their distribution. In the New World they regularly breed south to Davis Inlet in Labrador (Bellrose 1976); in the Old World, Oldsquaws breed south to southern Finland (Cramp et al. 1977), northeastern Kamchatka, and the Koraandorskiye Islands (Vaurie 1965). The total number of Oldsquaws is unknown, but Johnsgard (1978) speculated that the worldwide population is about 10,000,000 birds. Bellrose (1976) esti- mated that the early summer population of Oldsquaws in North America was 3,000,000 to 4,000,000. In the Old World, the Oldsquaw is the most abundant duck far north in the western Palearctic (Cramp et al. 1977). The total breed- ing population in Eurasia is unknown, but authors cited in Cramp et al. (1977) suggest populations of ca. 2,076,000 in the U.S.S.R.; 200,000 to 600,000 in Iceland; and 1,000 in Finland. Winter Most North American Oldsquaws winter in the Bering Sea; others win- ter south along the Pacific coast to Washington, occasionally to southern Cali- fornia. Bellrose (1976) indicated that more than 1,200,000 winter in the area from St. Lawrence Island and the Aleutians to the Alaskan peninsula. More than 20,000 Oldsquaws winter in the interior on the Great Lakes (Bellrose 1976), and lesser numbers may be found on other bodies of water in the interior. Relatively small numbers winter along the Atlantic coast from southern Greenland and Newfoundland to South Carolina and Georgia. They also occur ir- regularly or in small numbers in Florida and the Gulf Coast States. Bellrose (1976) reported that 11,800 Oldsquaws were seen between the coast of New Jersey and the lower Chesapeake Bay in 1972. This figure represents more than half of 341 all Oldsquaws seen on Audubon Christmas Counts along the Atlantic coast that year. Along the Gulf coast Oldsquaws are most abundant from the Florida pan- handle to eastern Louisiana (Map 24). The Audubon counts provided by Bellrose (1976) suggest that much smaller numbers of Oldsquaws winter along the Pacific coast than along the Atlantic. On the 1975 January waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980), only 432 Old- squaws were reported along the Pacific coast, compared to 11,966 seen along the Atlantic Seaboard. Slightly over half this many (6,800) were seen in Wisconsin and Michigan. Eurasian Oldsquaws winter throughout most of their breeding area — the southern Scandinavian peninsula, the Baltic States and adjacent parts of the U.S.S.R. — south to the British Isles, northern France, the Netherlands, Belgium, and the Black Sea. In Asia they winter south, largely in coastal areas, to Jap- an and Korea. There are no overall population figures for birds wintering in the Old World. Cramp et al . (1977) reported a provisional estimate of no more than 500,000 wintering in western Europe in recent years. They suggested that the disparity between this estimate and estimates for breeding and migrant birds was the result of the latter being wrong or that there were massive concentra- tions of Oldsquaws wintering in unknown areas. Cramp et al. (1977) suggested that Oldsquaw populations in the Old World may have declined due to oil pollution. Palmer (1976b) believes that North Am- erican populations are undiminished from earlier times. Migration Information on the migration of North American Oldsquaws is so poor that Bellrose (1976) was unable to provide a map showing their migratory pathways. He suggested, however, that their migration paralleled the coast when breeding and wintering areas were near salt water and that birds found in the interior and on the Great Lakes migrated overland. This may also be true for birds wintering on the northern Gulf coast. The fall migration of the Oldsquaw is late compared with the migrations of other species. Some may remain on the northern breeding grounds until early September. Long-distance flights overland usually occur after raid-October. Oldsquaws wintering on the southeastern Atlantic coast begin arriving by the last third of October, with others arriving past raid-December (Palmer 1976b). Males apparently migrate a shorter distance than females (Palmer 1976b). Con- sequently, one may expect most of the birds in southeastern waters to be females. Oldsquaws in the southern portions of their winter range in the United States migrate earlier in spring than those wintering farther north (Palmer 1976b). Most of the Oldsquaws wintering in the Chesapeake Bay, just to the north of North Carolina, depart between mid-March and raid-April; peak numbers arrive there in the fall between early November and early December (Bellrose 1976). Cramp et. al . (1977) indicated that some populations of Eurasian Oldsquaws are migratory and that others are partially migratory (i.e., some birds migrate to other areas to spend the winter and others remain to winter in waters near the breeding area). Migratory pathways are poorly known, but the timing of 342 migration appears similar to that of North American birds. HABITAT Nesting Oldsquaws largely breed on high-Arctic tundra and are often the most abundant nesting ducks there (Cramp et al. 1977). They usually nest on treeless or nearly treeless islands in large lakes or ponds, and on coastal is- lands (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Others nest in upland areas near tundra ponds (Bellrose 1976). Cramp et al. (1977) reported similar nesting habitat for Oldsquaws breeding in the western Palearctic. Nest sites are usually near water and are often partially hidden beneath shrubs or among sedges, or in cre- vices between rocks (Palmer 1976b). Alison (1975a) did an intensive study of Oldsquaw breeding biology near Churchill, Manitoba. Alison reported that 59% of 95 nests were located in is- lands in freshwater ponds or lakes. Most of the rest of the nests (24.3%) were on mainland ponds; 9.5% were in marshy areas, 4.2% were in scrubland, and 2.1% were in dry upland. Black Spruce (Picea mariana) boughs concealed 27.3% of the nests from above; these nests were well concealed from the side by grasses, dwarf willows (Salix spp.), or dwarf birches (Betula spp.). Most of the nests (64.1%) were open from above but well-concealed from the side; the rest were partially or poorly concealed. Nests found on the mainland were significantly better concealed than those found on islands. About 65% of all active nests were within 1.4 m (4.6 ft) of open water, and only 10% were further than 14 m (46 ft) from water (Alison 1975a). Feeding Oldsquaws apparently prefer to feed in marine waters even during the breeding season. At other times of year they feed in open ocean, deep lakes, salt and brackish bays, and occasionally in freshwater estuaries (Johns- gard 1978). Alison (1972 In Bellrose 1976) reported that Oldsquaws fed in wa- ter 30-50 ft (9-15 m) deep near Toronto; in Lake Ontario, they were seen feed- ing in water 3-32 ft (0.9-9.8 m) deep (Bellrose 1976). Johnsgard (1975) sug- gested that the foraging depth over sub-tidal feeding areas in coastal areas is no more than 25 ft (7.6 m) , and Palmer (1976b) remarked that they probably commonly dive to depths of 10 fathoms (18 m) . Cramp et al. (1977) stated that normal foraging depths are 3-10 m (10-33 ft). Winter and Offshore Wintering Oldsquaw are found both on open water in- land and off the coast, but most are found along coasts. They are one of the most pelagic ducks and are often found far from shore. Palmer (1976b) indi- cated that wintering birds seldom or never left the water. Birds wintering on fresh water are generally well out in the open; those wintering on the Great Lakes are usually 7-10 mi (11-16 km) or more from shore (Palmer 1976b). FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Oldsquaws feed by diving, sometimes to great depths. Bellrose (1976) suggested that foraging Oldsquaws dive deeper than any other duck. Alison (1975a) examined Oldsquaws caught in gill nets at a depth of 51 m (167 ft); Palmer (1976b) believed that a dive of 34 fathoms (62 m) was the deepest 343 dive that had been adequately documented. Little information is available on feeding techniques but these ducks prob- ably employ a variety of methods to obtain food (Palmer 1976b). Submergence times are long; Cramp et al. (1977) cited studies giving the range of time that Oldsquaws remained below the surface as 30-40 sec, 30-60 sec, and 22-61 sec. Birds in flocks may dive in synchrony (Palmer 1976b) or they may dive one after the other in a long line (Cramp et al. 1977). Oldsquaws usually feed by day, but they may also feed nocturnally (Millais 1913 iri Cramp et al. 1977). Winter- ing birds move inshore to feed, then out to roost. The timing of such movements varies widely with a number of environmental factors (Palmer 1976b). Peterson and Ellarson (1977) recently studied the food habits of the Old- squaw on Lake Michigan and concluded that animal matter comprises most of the diet. They also concluded that the Oldsquaw is an opportunistic feeder that eats any food which is sufficiently numerous or readily available. Most of this food is living animals, but Oldsquaws have also been known to dive for discarded offal (Peterson and Ellarson 1977) and to feed on long-dead fish. Crustaceans and molluscs are often principal components of the diet. Old- squaws collected on Lake Michigan from 1951 to 1954 had eaten 99% (by volume) animal food. Most of it (52-96%, depending on the sample area) consisted of a single amphipod (Pontoporeia af finis). This animal was also an important item of diet in a large sample of Oldsquaws collected on Lake Michigan from 1969 to 1972. During the latter period this amphipod was present in 95% of all Old- squaw gullets that contained any food (Peterson and Ellarson 1977). Rofritz (1977) found that all the identifiable stomach contents from Oldsquaws collected in the Milwaukee harbor consisted of oligochaete sludge worms (Tubifex tubifex and Limnodrilus hof fmeisteri) . Studies cited in Palmer (1976b) and Bellrose (1976) suggest a proportion of animal food ranging from 88 to 100% of the diet. Other animals eaten include a variety of molluscs (e.g., snails, cockles, clams, chitons), crustaceans (e.g., isopods, amphipods, shrimp, crabs), various insects (mostly aquatic forms), fish (e.g., gobies, cod, flatfish, minnows), fish eggs (e.g., stickleback, herring), echinoderms, and annelids (e.g., earth- worms, cutworms) (authors cited J^n Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b, Cramp et al. 1977, Peterson and Ellarson 1977). The small amount of plant material eaten includes such items as pondweeds, various parts of sedges and grasses, filamentous algae, moss, berries, tubers, roots, and leaves (Palmer 1976b, Cramp et al. 1977). We have found no reports of food habits of the Oldsquaw in southeastern waters aside from an occasional anecdotal remark in the distributional litera- ture. More extensive reviews of foods eaten by Oldsquaws are provided by Johns- gard (1975), Bellrose (1976), Palmer (1976b), Cramp et al. (1977), and Peterson and Ellarson (1977). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION The Oldsquaw is a frequent victim of oil pollution and is known to have 344 suffered heavy casualties from oil in both the New and Old Worlds (Table 7). Cramp et al. (1977) considered the Oldsquaw unusually susceptible to oil pollu- tion and suggested that the Old World population may have greatly declined from this source of mortality. Perry et al. (1979) estimated that a total of more than 15,000 Oldsquaws died following two oil spills in the Chesapeake Bay in 1976 and 1978. The Oldsquaw was the principal victim of the 1978 spill, and in 1976 more Oldsquaws died than any other species except the Horned Grebe. We consider the Oldsquaw one of the species most susceptible to oiling of any species that occurs in southeastern waters. Individual Oldsquaws would probably be affected by oil in the event of oil discharges or spills off the southeastern coasts of the United States. However, only a fraction of one per- cent of the North American population, let alone of the world population, win- ters there. Consequently, we believe that oil spills and other effects of petroleum development would have essentially no effect on the overall Oldsquaw population. Table 7. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Oldsquaws found after major oiling incidents. Area Dates Number Number of oiled of dead dead Old- birds squaws Percent- age of Oldsquaws Source North Sea coast , 1957-1958 92 (a) 3 Denmark North-central Jan .-Feb. 1,723 (a,b) 69 Kattegat, Denmark 1962 N. Sjaelland, Feb. -Mar. 2,340 (a) 17 Denmark 1965 Bornholra, Den- Jan.-Feb. 466 (a) 308 mark 1966 Tay Estuary, Mar. -Apr . 1,168 (c) 1 Scotland 1968 N. Sealand, Feb . -Mar . 2,376 (a) 3 5 Denmark 1969 Laeso-Vendsyssel , Dec. 1969 1,362 2 Denmark Northeast Jan. -Feb. 10,992 (a,b) 35 Britain 1970 3.26 Joensen 1972a 4.00 Joensen 1972a 0.73 Joensen 1972a 66.09 Joensen 1972a 0.09 Greenwood and Keddie 1968 1.47 Joensen 1972b 0.15 Joensen 1972b 0.32 Greenwood et al. 1971 345 Table 7. (Continued.) Area Dates Number Number of oiled of dead dead Old- birds squaws Percent- age of Old squaws Source Martha's Vine- yard, MA E. coast Jutland, Denmark Off eastern Can- ada S. Kattegat, Denmark Feb. 1970 Feb. -Mar. 1970 Feb. -Apr . 1970 Dec. 1970- Jan. 1971 541 (a) 1,974 (a) 2,311 (a) 26 0.55 1.32 1,276 (a,c) 192 15.05 0.26 CSLP 1971 Joensen 1972b Brown et al. 1973 Joensen 1972b Djursland-Anholt , Denmark Mar. 1971 239 1.67 Joensen 1972b North-central Kattegat, Denmark Waddensea, Den- mark Baltic sea coast, Poland Baltic sea coast, Poland Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Varangerf jord , north Norway Mar. 1972 Dec. 1972 1972-1974 Nov. 1974- Aug. 1975 4,759 (a) 9,151 (a) 63 11 Mar. 1979 1,616 (e) 1.32 0.12 3,867 (a,b) 2,565 66.33 653 (a,c) 313 47.93 Feb. 1976 30,000 (d) 11,900 39.67 Feb. 1978 10,000 (d) 3,890 38.90 3 0.19 Joensen and Hansen 1977 Joensen and Hansen 1977 Gorski et al. 1976 Gorski et al. 1977 Perry et al. 1979 Perry et al. 1979 Barrett 1979 (a) Total includes only those birds identified to species. (b) Total includes some birds that were not oiled. (c) Total includes both live and dead oiled birds. (d) Figure is an estimate based on counts of dead birds. (e) An estimated 10,000 to 20,000 seabirds died as a result of this oil spill. 346 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 Snell, R. R. 1981. Herring Gull attacks and eats adult male Oldsquaw. Wilson Bull. 93: 110-111. 1980 Nilsson, L. 1980. De overvintrande alfaglarnas Clangula hyenalis antal och utbredning la gs den Svenska kusten. [Numbers and distribution of the Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis along the Swedish coast.] Var Fagel- varld 39: 1-14. [In Swedish with English summary.] Rogers, D. W. 1980. Oldsquaws off Cape Blanco. Oregon Birds 5: 26-27. Spomer, R. 1980. Oldsquaws on the Missouri. S. Dak. Bird Notes 32:59. 1979 Hirsch, K. V. 1979. Wintering diving ducks in Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca . (Abstract only). Pac. Seabird Group Bull. 6: 37. Hope Jones, P. 1979. Roosting behaviour of Long-tailed Ducks in relation to possible oil pollution. Wildfowl 30: 155-158. Hubbard, J. 1979. Spring migration at Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska. (Abstract only). Pac. Seabird Group Bull. 6: 41. Peterson, S. R. and R. S. Ellarson. 1979. Changes in Oldsquaw carcass weight. Wilson Bull. 91: 288-300. Stafford, S. K. 1979. Inland records of Oldsquaws and Surf Scoter from north Florida. Fla. Field Nat. 7: 25-26. 1978 Peterson, S. R. and R. S. Ellarson. 1978a. Bursae , reproductive structures, and scapular color in wintering female Oldsquaws. Auk 95: 115-121. . 1978b. p,p'-DDE, polychlorinated biphenyls, and endrin in Oldsquaws in North America, 1969-73. Pest. Monit . J. 11: 170-181. 1977 Alison, R. M. 1977. Homing of subadult Oldsquaws. Auk 94: 383-384. Kurik, H. 1977. Lowdowka (Clangula hyemalis) na sanie w Przerayslu. [Observa- tion of Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis) near Przemyslu. ] Notatki Ornitol. 18: 50. [In Polish with English summary.] 347 Peterson, S. R. and R. S. Ellarson. 1977. Food habits of Oldsquaws wintering on Lake Michigan. Wilson Bull. 89: 81-91. Rofritz, D. J. 1977. Oligochaeta as a winter food source for the Oldsquaw. J. Wildl. Manage. 41: 590-591. Sexton, D. A. and K. M. Collins. 1977. Records of the Oldsquaw in southern Manitoba. Blue Jay 35: 96-99. 1976 Alison, R. M. 1976. Oldsquaw brood behavior. Bird-Banding 47: 210-213. Gloden, R. 1976. Eisente (Clangula hyemalis) im Kiesgrubengebiet Remerschen/ Wintringen. [Clangula hyemalis in the Remerschen/Wintringen area. ] Regulus 12: 112-114. [In German with French summary.] Peterson, S. R. 1976a. Variation in Oldsquaw rectrix numbers. Auk 93: 190-192. . 1976b. The Oldsquaw: body measurements, food habits, and environmental contaminants. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Wisconsin/Madison, WI. 132 pp. 1975 Alison, R. M. 1975a. Breeding biology and behavior of the Oldsquaw (Clangula hyemalis L.). Ornithol. Monogr. 18. 52 pp. . 1975b. Capturing and marking Oldsquaws. Bird-Banding 46: 248-250. Peterson, S. R. and R. S. Ellarson. 1975. Incidence of lead shot in Lake Michigan Oldsquaws. J. Wildl. Manage 39: 217-219. 1974 Alison, R. M. 1974. Oldsquaw homing in winter. Auk 91: 188. Bergman, G. 1974. The spring migration of the Long-tailed Duck and the Common Scoter in western Finland. Ornis Fenn. 51: 129-145. Fantin, G. 1974. La Moretta Codona (Clangula hyemalis). Riv. Ital. Ornitol. 44: 115-126. [In Italian.] Gjoseater, J. and R. Saetre. 1974. Predation of eggs of Capelin Mallotus villosus by diving ducks. Astarte 7: 83-89. Pehrsson, 0. 1974. Nutrition of small ducklings regulating breeding area and reproductive output in the Long-tailed Duck, Clangula hyemalis. Internatl. Congr. Game Biol. 11: 259-264. 1973 Alison, R. M. 1973. Delayed nesting in Oldsquaws. Bird-Banding 44: 61-62, 348 1972 Alison, R. M. 1972. The breeding biology of the Old-squaw (Clangula hyemalis Linnaeus) at Churchill, Manitoba. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Toronto/Toronto, ON. 129 pp. Letson, E. S. 1972. Oldsquaw (Clangula hyemalis) in Sarasota County [Florida]. Fla. Nat. 45: 129. 1971 Bergman, G. and K. C. Donner. 1971. Wind drift during the spring migration of the Common Scoter (Melanitta nigra) and the Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hy- emalis). Vogelwarte 26: 157-159. Etnier, D. A. 1971. Snow Buntings, Oldsquaw, and White-winged Scoter in east Tennessee. Migrant 42: 5. 1970 Alison, R. 1970. The behaviour of the Old-squaw (Clangula hyemalis Linnaeus), Aves: Anatidae , in winter. M.S. thesis, Univ. Toronto/Toronto, ON. 68 pp, Evans, R. M. 1970. Oldsquaw nesting in association with Arctic Tern at Churchill, Manitoba. Wilson Bull. 82: 383-390. Haila, Y. 1970. Palvan Oi jyonnettomuus. [The "Palva" oil tanker catastrophe off the SW coast of Finland.] Suomen Riista 22: 7-13. [In Finnish with English summary. ] Mathiasson, S. 1970. Numbers and distribution of Long-tailed wintering ducks in northern Europe. Brit. Birds 63: 414-424. Ruttledge, R. F. 1970. Winter distribution and numbers of Scaup, Long-tailed Duck and Common Scoter in Ireland. Bird Study 17: 241-246. 1967 McGilvrey, F. B. 1967. Food habits of sea ducks from the northeastern United States. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept . 18: 142-145. Stewart, P. A. 1967. Diving schedules of a Common Loon and a group of Old- squaws. Auk 84: 122-123. 1966 Paull, D. E. 1966. Long-tailed Duck somersaulting while bathing. Brit. Birds 59: 38. Wilbur, R. 0. 1966. Inland recovery of an Oldsquaw in California. Condor 68: 516. 349 1964 Bergman, G. and K. C. Donner. 1964. An analysis of the spring migration of the Common Scoter and Long-tailed Duck in southern Finland. Acta Zool . Fenn. 105: 1-59. 1961 Bergman, G. 1961. Allin ja mustalinnun muuttokannat kevaalla 1960. [The mi- grating populations of the Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis) and Common Scoter (Melanitta nigra) in the spring I960.] Suomen Riista 14: 69-74. [In Finnish with English summary.] Drury, W. H. 1961. Observations on some breeding water birds on Bylot Island. Can. Field-Nat. 75: 84-101. 1960 Curry-Lindahl, K. 1960. Serious situation with regard to Swedish populations of Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis). Internatl. Waterfowl Res. Bur. Newsl. 10: 15-18. 1959 Kuroda, N. 1959. [Osteological notes on Clangula hyemalis (L.)]. Dobuts. Zasshi 68: 330-334. [In Japanese with English summary.] 1958 Atkeson, T. Z. 1958. Goldeneye, Old Squaw, and Greater Scaup records from Wheeler Reservoir. Ala. Birdlife 6: 15-16. 1956 Ellarson, R. S. 1956. A study of the Old-squaw Duck on Lake Michigan. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Wisconsin/Madison, WI. 231 pp. 1954 Grenquist, P. 1954. [Long-tailed Duck, the most important game bird of the Finnish Archipelago.] Suomen Riista 9: 72-80. [In Finnish with English abstract. ] 1951 Schorger, A. 1951. Deep diving of the Old-squaw. Wilson Bull. 63: 112. 1948 Geroudet, P. 1948. Quelques notes sur la Harelde de Miquelon, Clangula hye- malis. Nos Oiseaux 19: 165-172. [In French.] 350 Lagler, K. F. and C. C. Wienert. 1948. Food of the Old-squaw in Lake Michigan. Wilson Bull. 60: 118. Stresemann, V. 1948. Eclipse plumage and nuptial plumage in the Old Squaw, or Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis). Avicult. Mag. 54: 188-194. 1947 Schorger, A. W. 1947. The deep diving of the loon and the Old-squaw and its mechanism. Wilson Bull. 59: 151-159. 1946 Anon. 1946. Old Squaws caught in set nets. Mich. Conserv. 15: 15. Adams, R. G. 1946. Actions of Long-tailed Duck under water. Brit. Birds 39: 283. 1945 Speirs, J. M. 1945. Flight speed of the Old-squaw. Auk 62: 135-136. 1938 Scott, W. E. 1938. Old-Squaws taken in gill-nets. Auk 55: 668. 1934 Stoner, C. R. 1934. Long-tailed Duck feeding on sea scorpion. Scott. Nat. 1934: 50. 1932 Sutton, G. M. 1932. Notes on the molts and sequence of plumages in the Old- squaw. Auk 49: 42-51. 1929 Alford, C. E. 1929. The diving-habits of the Long-tailed Duck. Brit. Birds 22: 331. Forrest, H. E. 1929. Long-tailed Duck in Merionetta. Brit. Birds 22: 214. Ingram, G. C. S. and H. M. Salmon. 1929. The diving habits of tne Long-tailed Duck. Brit. Birds 22: 264-266. Oldham, C. 1929. Long-tailed Ducks in Hertfordshire and their diving habits. Brit. Birds 22: 214-215. 351 1928 Burleigh, T. D. 1928. Occurrence of the Old-squaw (Clangula hyemalls) at Athens, Clarke, Co., Georgia. Auk 45: 92-93. 1926 Schorger, A. W. 1926. Old-squaw (Harelda hyemalis) at St. Joseph, Michigan. Auk 43: 536. 1925 Taylor, W. P. 1925. Old Squaw, Western Gull and Glaucous Gull in Washington, Murrelet 6: 32. 1922 Anthony, A. W. 1922. The Old Squaw (Harelda hyemalis) at San Diego, Calif. Auk 39: 104. Lawrence, R. B. 1922. Old-squaw (Clangula hyemalis) in Texas. Auk 39: 250. 1919 Harrison, J. M. 1919. Long-tailed Duck feeding on grain. Brit. Birds 13: 85-86. 1914 Hull, E. D. 1914. Habits of the Old-squaw (Harelda hyemalis) in Jackson Park, Chicago. Wilson Bull. 26: 116-123. 1894 Mackay, G. H. 1894. Habits of the Oldsquaw (Clangula hyemalis) in New Eng- land. Auk 9: 330-337. 352 BLACK SCOTER (Melanltta nigra) [DA: Sortartd, DU: Zwarte Zee-eend, EN: Common Scoter, FI: Meriteeri, FR: Macreuse noire, GE: Trauerente , IC: Hrafnsond, IT: Orchetto marino, JA: Kuro- gamo, NW: Svartand, PO: Markaczka czarna, PR: Pato-do-mar, Pato negro; RU: (Scoter), SP: Anade negro comun , Negron comun; SW: Sjoorre, US: American Scoter^ GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America The Black Scoter breeds in coastal interior Alaska from Bristol Bay north to Kotzebue Sound and Mount McKinley. There is a small breed- ing population in central Ungava and there are a few scattered breeding records from Newfoundland, northern Quebec, and southern Keewatin District (Godfrey 1966). Details of the breeding range are not clear (Johnsgard 1975, Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b), in part because summer birds do not necessarily nest. In winter Black Scoters are found in the Great Lakes region and along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Along the Pacific coast they range from the Aleut- ian Islands south to northern Baja California (Palmer 1976b), but are apparent- ly most abundant in the Aleutian Islands and on the Alaska Peninsula (Johnsgard 1975, Palmer 1976b). Black Scoters commonly winter from Newfoundland to the Carolinas (Johnsgard 1975, Bellrose 1976); they also winter, in small numbers, off the Atlantic coast of Florida and off the coast of states bordering the Gulf of Mexico (Map 25). World Distribution The American race (M. n. americana) also breeds in northern Asia from the Lena-Yana watershed to the Anadyr Basin and the Kamchat- ka Peninsula and on the Kurile Islands. The European Black Scoter (M. n. nigra) breeds in Iceland, Scotland, Norway, and northern Eurasia at least to the Khat- anga River (Johnsgard 1978). It has occurred in North America only as a strag- gler to Greenland (Palmer 1976b). European Black Scoters winter primarily off the coasts of western Europe and on the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian seas (Johnsgard 1978), but are also found off the coasts of northwest Africa. Birds of the American race winter along the Asian coast south along the Kamchatka Peninsula to Korea, Japan, and eastern China (Cramp et al. 1977). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES The record of observations of the Black Scoter in the southeast shows a dramatic change in either the winter distribution and abundance of the species or the pattern of observation and reporting. The typical winter distribution of the northern sea ducks — large concentrations off the northeastern coast, Taxonomic note: The Fifth Edition of the AOU Check-list (1957) lists this spe- cies as the Common Scoter, Oidemia nigra. Many older references use the speci- fic name americana. 353 354 perhaps to Chesapeake Bay, with numbers and observations dwindling rapidly southward — was apparently appropriate for this species through the early part of the century. More recent observations, however, indicate large concentra- tions of Black. Scoters off South Carolina and Georgia, but not off either North Carolina or Florida. Unfortunately, the records are not sufficiently consis- tent to reveal whether these concentrations occur every year, in a cyclic fash- ion, or just sporadically. Stott and Olson (1972) postulated that changed dis- tributional patterns of all three scoters might have resulted from changes in hunting pressure off the northern coast , but if the more southerly occurrences are cyclic or sporadic the lack of intense observation in the past may merely obscure the fact that this is actually a historic pattern. At any rate, the pattern is unusual enough to warrant examination in some detail. This species generally remains well offshore, where it might easily escape detection by observers on the coast. Many records from the southeast are of birds in late spring or summer, possibly crippled birds that cannot migrate back to their breeding grounds and that drift shoreward after flocks depart. North Carolina Pearson et al. (1919) considered the Black Scoter "a common winter species in Pamlico and Core sounds..." but more numerous on the ocean; no specific records were given. Later, Pearson et al. (1942) reported the species as "occasional", noting observations dating from 1871, 1919, 1924, and 1934. These records may have been selected to show seasonal or numerical status, and the degree to which they represent total observations is unclear. Wray and Davis (1959) reported at least nine additional observations, but failed to sug- gest any change from the "occasional" status reported earlier. The only recent reports (Teulings 1976d, 1977b; LeGrand 1977b) are of birds that lingered into the summer or that appeared inland, and the literature for the last two decades is silent on the overall status of the species. South Carolina There were only two records of the Black Scoter in this state until 1929, represented by specimens taken in 1884 and 1903. Eight birds were seen in January 1929. "Since then, records have multiplied, and the spe- cies is now listed as a regular winter visitor. It is, indeed, the most common of the scoters frequenting the South Carolina coast" (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949). Although there are few published records since 1949, Burton (1970) said that "This species is by far the earliest of the sea-ducks to arrive in numbers off the South Carolina coast...". The species is seldom mentioned as occurring in South Carolina waters during the 1970' s in any of the seasonal reports in American Birds except on Christmas Bird Counts, when it is generally reported in small numbers (Map 25) . Georgia Greene et al. (1945) reported a single occurrence of the Black Scoter in Georgia, dating from 1903 (the same year as an early South Carolina record). Tomkins (1955) reported three additional occurrences, of single birds, in and about 1955; these records are overlooked by Burleigh (1958), who mentioned only the 1903 specimen. There must have been a very sudden change in the next decade — Stott and Olson (1972) cited observations by 0. Dewberry of "10,000-30,000 [Black] scoters using the open coast during the winters of 1968-70 ". Coolidge (1974) reported two flocks of 108 and 55 Black Scoters in October 1974, and commented that before 1960 the species "...was considered a rare winter visitor to our state. Since that time it has been seen so fre- 355 quently that it no longer has that status and we now expect it as a raid-winter visitor off-shore and in our sounds". The most recent analysis (Denton et al. 1977), on the other hand, considers the Black Scoter uncommon in winter and oc- casional in other seasons. Florida Through the year 1925 there were only about seven records, all from the east coast (Howell 1932). Sprunt (1954) summarized four Gulf coast records, and noted that a high proportion of all Florida records were in the spring or early summer. At present, the Black Scoter is considered rare to un- common on both coasts of Florida, although regular in the Upper Gulf, and ob- servations are occurring with greater frequency than in the past (Kale 1979 ms a , 1979 ms b) . Alabama Black Scoters are rare to casual visitors on the Alabama coast, occurring most frequently in Mississippi Sound. They have been recorded be- tween November and April, and one was observed in the vicinity of Dauphin Is- land during the summer of 1970 (Imhof 1976b). Mississippi The status of Black Scoters in Mississippi is imperfectly known; they are evidently uncommon or rare. Jackson and Weber (1977) and Weber and Jackson (1977) listed recent sightings of three inland on Sardis Lake from early November through 22 December 1976, and of eight on the coast at East Ship Island, 10 March 1977. Louisiana The Black Scoter is uncommon in Louisiana waters but has become more common in recent years. There were only five records through 1960 but by 1973 the species had been recorded 19 times, with a total of 120 birds. Dates of occurrence through this period range from 25 October through 25 May, with no clear pattern of distribution (Lowery 1974). Most of the records were from the coast . Texas Oberholser (1974) considered this duck a rare and irregular winter visitor. It is chiefly coastal in its distribution but there are several in- land records. According to Palmer (1976b), it was once the rarest scoter on the coast but is now the most common. Dates of occurrence given by Oberholser (1974) are from 4 November to 21 April. SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding The breeding distribution of the Black Scoter is not well known but most of the breeding population is found between 75° N and 50° N latitude and in the northern Palearctic and northwestern Nearctic. In the Old World it breeds in Iceland, the Faeroes, and through Scandinavia to the Taimyr Penin- sula. Another population breeds in northeastern Siberia ( BOU 1971). The pri- mary breeding population within North America is in northwestern Alaska, with smaller numbers breeding in Ungava (Palmer 1976b). Few breeding records are available for Canada, but Bellrose (1976) suggested the possibility of a large breeding population west of James Bay. The numbers of Black Scoters breeding in North America are not known ade- quately. Bellrose (1976) stated that most of the 252,000 scoters found in 356 Alaska during aerial surveys were Black Scoters. Of these, most (157,000) breed on the Yukon Delta. Another 75,000 breed adjacent to Bristol Bay and some 20,000 breed on the Seward Peninsula (King and Lensink 1971 in Bellrose 1976). The 1976 survey of waterfowl nesting in Alaska found a breeding popula- tion of 376,200 scoters (Larned et al. 1980). Information on the size of many Old World breeding populations is lacking but this scoter is apparently consid- erably less abundant in the western Palearctic than in the northwest Pacific. Cramp et al. (1977) cited authors listing breeding populations of 1,000 in Ice- land and Finland and about 60 in Britain. Winter The Black Scoter winters on the Asian and North American coast- lines of the Pacific Ocean, in the Great Lakes, and on the Atlantic coast south to about the Carolinas and irregularly to Florida and the Gulf States (Map 25) (A0U 1957, Johnsgard 1975). European birds winter mainly off the coast of West- ern Europe, and on the Black, Mediterranean, and Caspian seas (Johnsgard 1978). Because winter surveys of waterfowl by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service do not distinguish between species of scoter, the distribution and numbers of birds wintering within the United States is poorly known. Bellrose (1976) was puzzled at the small numbers wintering on the Pacific coast and reported an es- timated 250,000 wintering in the Aleutian Islands. During the January 1976 waterfowl survey (Larned et al. 1980), totals of about 97,000 scoters were found in the Pacific Flyway and about 60,000 in the Atlantic Flyway. Bellrose (1976) suggested that about 3% of the birds wintering in the Pacific Flyway were Black Scoters and that this species constituted 20% of the scoters wintering along Atlantic coasts. If these figures are still applicable, approximately 2,900 Black Scoters winter off the Pacific coasts of the contiguous United States, with another 15,000 wintering off the Atlantic coasts. The number of Common Scoters wintering in the Old World is also uncertain but Cramp et al. (1977) listed an estimate of 400,000 to 500,000 wintering in the western Palearctic. Migration Migration of Black Scoters is poorly known and recent handbooks (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b) are frankly speculative in describing possible migratory routes. We would rather not add to these speculations until more and better information is obtained on the distribution and size of wintering and breeding populations. Judging from the information available, Black Scoters usually begin to arrive in southeastern waters in early November and have large- ly departed by late April. Much of the information available on habitats, food habits and breeding biology of the Black Scoter is from studies made in the Old World. Consequent- ly, much of what is presented in the following sections is largely a summary of information given by Cramp et al. (1977), supplemented by information in other recent handbooks. Presumably much of the data given by Cramp et al. (1977) is generally applicable to North American populations of the Black Scoter. HABITAT Nesting Most Black Scoters nest well inland in tundra or dwarf heath. 357 When nesting in wetter, more open sites, they prefer to nest on islets and low promontories. Black Scoters will also nest on upland slopes, arctic-alpine areas, and along the banks of rivers (Cramp et al. 1977). At Lake Myvatn, Iceland, these ducks nested predominantly under dense shrubbery, primarily low rather than high shrubs. They nested to a much lesser extent in holes, meadows, and among sedges. Most nests were within 10-100 ft (3-30 m) of potholes and were well dispersed. The average nest-density was 53 nests/sq km (1 nest/5 acres [Bengtson 1970 iji Johnsgard 1975, Bellrose 1976]). Black Scoters nested in the largest clumps of grass at Hooper Bay, Alaska (Brandt 1943 in Bellrose 1976). Feeding Breeding birds presumably feed in waters near their nest sites; wintering birds largely feed over shellfish beds in shallow waters. Cramp et al. (1977) indicated that these scoters prefer to feed in waters about 1-3 m (3.3-9.8 ft) deep. Winter and Offshore Non-breeding Black Scoters often form large flocks comprised of several hundred to a thousand or more birds. These scoters are usually found on marine waters, generally 500 m (1,640 ft) to 2 km (3.22 mi) offshore over waters not more than 10-20 m (32.8-65.6 ft) deep. They prefer open ocean just offshore to areas interspersed with rocks and islands (Cramp et al. 1977). Johnsgard (1975) indicated that the optimum habitat along the Atlantic coast was within a mile (ca. 1.6 km) of shore and just beyond the breakers. During stormy weather Black Scoters sometimes seek sheltered waters (Palmer 1976b). They rarely come ashore but may occasionally rest on islets or sandbanks (Cramp et al. 1977). FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Black Scoters feed by diving, usually by day in smaller scattered groups than when roosting nocturnally (Cramp et al. 1977). They usually move inshore to feed early in the morning (Phillips 1926 jjn Johnsgard 1975). Diving is of- ten synchronized (Cramp et al. 1977). These scoters do not dive particularly deeply; Cottam (1939 Jji Johnsgard 1978) believed that dives seldom exceeded 40 ft (12 m) . Cramp et al. (1977) indicated that these scoters may remain sub- merged for as much as 49 sec but that dives usually take between 18 and 30 sec. We are unaware of any detailed accounts of food habits within the waters of the southeastern United States. The following comments on foods eaten else- where are largely abstracted from Palmer (1976b) and Cramp et al. (1977), who should be consulted for more detailed listings of organisms eaten. In one study covering North America (Cottam 1939 in Palmer 1976b), Black Scoters fed largely (ca. 90%) on animals. Much of the diet consisted of mol- luscs (e.g., mussels, cockles, clams, snails, scallops) and crustaceans (e.g., amphipods, crabs, barnacles, crayfish, shrimp). Fishes and their eggs, insects, frogs and tadpoles, echinoderras (e.g., sand dollars, sea urchins, starfish, brittle stars) and annelids are also eaten. Inland, freshwater clams are pre- ferred. Vegetable foods eaten in North America are largely pondweeds , includ- ing Zostera, Potamogeton, and Ruppia, as well as various algae. 358 Black Scoters in the Old World have food habits similar to those of North American birds and often feed largely on molluscs. In Iceland, young birds ate mostly aquatic insects and seeds; females mostly ate chironomid larvae and a few adult males ate mostly fish eggs and some chironomid larvae (Bengtson 1971). A number of studies have shown that Blue Mussels (Mytilus edulis) are often an im- portant food item in both North America and in the Old World. IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying The Black Scoter Duck is the last to nest in the Yukon Delta. There, it lays its eggs about the middle of June (Bellrose 1976). Palmer (1976b) indicated that Black Scoters may complete their clutches as early as May in Iceland and that full clutches are commonly present by early June in Iceland and Great Britain. Mean Clutch Size Clutches range from about 5 to 8 eggs in Alaska and the British Isles, but apparently are larger in Iceland (Bellrose 1976). Palmer (1976b) indicated that the usual clutch size is 7-8 eggs and considered 6-10 the normal range. The mean of mean clutch sizes for the period 1961-1970 at Lake Myvatyn, Iceland, was 8.7; early nests contained a mean of 8.9 eggs and late nests a mean of 8.1 eggs. Nests considered to be the result of renesting con- tained a mean of 6.1 eggs (Bengtson 1972). Incubation Period No information is available on the incubation period of North American Black Scoters. Incubation periods ranging from 26 to 33 days have been reported for Old World Black Scoters (Palmer 1976b). Hatching Success For Black Scoters nesting at Lake Myvatyn, Bengtson (1972) indicated that 95.2% of the eggs hatched in nests in which any eggs hatched at all. Bengston estimated a hatching success for Black Scoters of 81.8%. Cramp et al. (1977) reported that eggs hatched in 16 of 38 nests in Ireland. There appear to be no adequate data on hatching success for North American Black Scoters. Fledging Success No exact information is available. Bengston (1972) estimated that a mean of 2.7 young were produced per female at Lake Myvatn, Iceland. Age at Fledging Palmer (1976b) commented that the age of first flight (6-7 weeks) reported by Hantzsch (1905 jLn Palmer 1976b) was only an estimate; Palmer believed that the true age of first flight was greater. Cramp et al. (1977) reported that fledging and independence occur at 45-50 days but they did not indicate the source of their information. Age at First Breeding European birds first nest at two years of age (Dement' ev and Gladkov 1967 _in Bellrose 1976). American birds probably do the same (Palmer 1976b). Cramp et al. (1977) stated that age at first breeding is 2-3 years. 359 Mortality of Eggs and Young Cramp et al. (1977) reported that egg preda- tion by Hooded Crows (Corvus corone) and Magpies (Pica pica) was the main cause of egg loss for Black Scoters nesting in Ireland. In 109 nests at Lake Myvatn, Iceland, in which at least one egg hatched, 86% of the remaining eggs were in- fertile and 3% contained dead embryos (Bengtson 1972). Bengtson ascribed egg loss in 19 nests that failed to hatch eggs to predation (58%), desertion (32%), and flooding (11%). He believed that Raven (Corvus corax) predation was the most important cause of nest failure at Lake Myvatn. We found no observations of actual death of young. Renesting Bengtson (1972) estimated that 31% of 45 females examined in Iceland renested. Maximum Natural Longevity An adult banded in the Old World was recovered 15 years, 11 months, and 9 days after it was banded (Rydzewski 1978). Weight The average weight of 8 males was 2.4 lb (1,089 g); 4 females av- eraged 1.8 lb (816 g)(Nelson and Martin 1953). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION The Black Scoter is especially vulnerable to nearshore and offshore oiling throughout its range (Greenwood 1970, Hope-Jones 1971, Table 8). As a diving duck that forms large rafts in the open ocean where it both feeds and rests, this sea-duck seems particularly vulnerable to oiling. Black Scoters were one of the most common oil-related casualities along both the Dutch and Belgian coasts , according to several separate beached bird surveys conducted from 1948 to 1962 (Hautekiet 1955, Morzer Bruijns 1959, de Ridder 1961, Tanis and Morzer Bruijns 1962, Kuyken and Zegers 1968, all In Ver- meer and Vermeer 1974). Goethe (1961 _in Vermeer and Vermeer 1974) reported that Black Scoters were the species most frequently found dead as the result of oiling on German coasts from 1953 to 1961. Tanis and Morzer Bruijns (1968) considered the Black Scoter the species most affected by oil in the eastern North Sea, and Bourne and Devlin (1969) re- garded it as the waterfowl species most vulnerable to oil in areas offshore Britain. Perry et al. (1979) estimated that 335 Black Scoters died following two spills in the Chesapeake Bay. We have little knowledge of the size of Black Scoter populations wintering in the southeastern United States. Some evidence suggests that substantial num- bers may occur in waters off South Carolina and Georgia. Fair numbers winter in North Carolina, but few are found off Florida or in the Gulf of Mexico. We also know that this is a species subject to considerable damage from oiling and one whose populations elsewhere have been affected by oil pollution. We do not have an adequate idea of the world population or of that nesting in North Amer- ica. Neither do we know much of migratory pathways used by the species. Con- sequently, we cannot be certain of the effect of oil pollution along the Atlan- tic coast. If large numbers (i.e., tens of thousands) winter there regularly, oil pollution potentially could severely reduce North American populations. If 360 few winter there, the effect of development of petroleum resources would prob- ably be slight. Table 8. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Black Scoters found after major oiling incidents. Area Dates Number Number Percent- of oiled of dead age of dead Black Black birds Scoters Scoters Source North Sea coast , Denmark Poole Harbour, Dorset, England North-central Kattegat, Denmark Southeast Kent, England N. Sjaelland, Denmark North Sea coast , Denmark Northeast England Pagham Harbour area, West Sus- sex, England Bornholra, Den- mark Tay Estuary, Scotland N. Sealand, Den- mark Laeso-Vendsyssel , Denmark 1957-1958 Jan. 1961 Jan. -Feb. 1962 winters of 1963-64 to 1965-66 Feb. -Mar. 1965 1965-1966 Jan. 1966 Jan. -Feb. 1967 Jan. -Feb. 1968 Mar . -Apr . 1968 Feb. -Mar. 1969 Dec. 1969 92 (a) 52 433 (a,b) 4 1,723 (a,c) 390 509 (a) 29 2,340 (a) 981 803 (a) 87 805 1 466 (a) 82 1,168 (b) 167 2,376 (a) 387 1,362 241 56.52 Joensen 1972a 0.09 Bourne 1968a 22.63 Joensen 1972a 5.70 Gibson 1966 41.92 Joensen 1972a 10.83 Joensen 1972a 0.12 Parrack 1967 91 (a,b) 4 4.39 Phillips 1967 17.60 Joensen 1972a 14.30 Greenwood and Keddie 1968 16.29 Joensen 1972b 17.69 Joensen 1972b 361 Table 8. (Continued.) Area Dates Number Number Percent- of oiled of dead age of dead Black Black birds Scoters Scoters Source Northeast Britain E. coast Jutland, Denmark S. Kattegat, Denmark San Francisco Bay, California Djursland-Anholt , Denmark North-central Kattegat, Denmark Waddensea , Den- mark Baltic sea coast, Poland Baltic sea coast, Poland Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Jan. -Feb. 1970 Feb. -Mar. 1970 Dec. 1970- Jan. 1971 Jan. 1971 Mar. 1971 Mar. 1972 Dec. 1972 1970-1974 Nov. 1974- Aug. 1975 Feb. 1976 Feb. 1978 10,992 (a,c) 287 1,974 (a) 521 2,311 (a) 262 3,221 (a,d,e) 10 239 77 4,759 (a) 2,663 9,151 (a) 4,500 3,867 (a,c) 604 653 (a,c) 69 30,000 (f) 65 10,000 (f) 270 2.61 Greenwood et al. 1971 26.39 Joensen 1972b 11.34 Joensen 1972b 0.31 Smail et al. 1972 32.22 Joensen 1972b 55.96 Joensen and Hansen 1977 4 9.17 Joensen and Hansen 1977 15.62 Gorski et al. 1976 10.57 Gorski et al. 1977 0.22 Perry et al. 1979 0.27 Perry et al. 1979 (a) Total includes only those birds identified to species. (b) Total includes both live and dead oiled birds. (c) Total includes some birds that were not oiled. (d) This figure represents birds brought to cleaning/receiving stations. (e) Listed only as Common Scoter. (f) Figure is an estimate based on counts of dead birds. 362 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Wahlen, L. 1980. Aprilstrack av sjoore Melanitta nigra vid Hoburgen. Blacku 6: 39-40. 1977 Viksne, J. and J. Bauraanls. 1977. [Results of the Common Scoter moult migra- tion observations in Irben Sound in July-August, 1973.] Communs. Baltic Commiss. Study Bird Migr. No. 10: 32-39. [In Russian with English sum- mary. ] 1975 Heldt, R. 1975. [The seasonal distribution of the Common Scoter in Schleswig- Holstein.] Communs. Baltic Commiss. Study Bird Migr. No. 9: 25-39. [In Russian with English summary.] Jogi, A. 1975. [Moult migration observations of the Common Scoter in 1971.] Communs. Baltic Commiss. Study Bird Migr. No. 9: 40-46. [In Russian with English summary. ] Sutcliffe, S. J. 1975. Common Scoter in Carmarthen - an oiling incident. Nat. Wales 14: 243-249. Szentendrey, G. 1975. Fekete rece (Melanitta nigra) Tahi Lataraban. Aquila 1975: 80-81. 1974 Bergman, G. 1974. The spring migration of the Long-tailed Duck and the Common Scoter in western Finland. Ornis Fenn. 51: 129-145. Coolidge, H. W. 1974. Common Scoters on the Georgia coast. Oriole 39: 48-49. Holupirek, H. 1974. Zum Zug von Trauerente und Samente durch den Bezirk Karl- Marx-Stadt. Falke 21: 415-417. [In German.] Miller, M. 1974. Common Scoter in Cravens Bay. Kentucky Warbler 47: 31-32. 1973 Weiser, C. E. 1973. An early Common Scoter in northern Florida. Fla. Field Nat. 1: 14-15. 1972 Jacoby, V. E. and A. Jogi. 1972. [The moult migration of the Common Scoter in the light of radar and visual observational data.] Communs. Baltic Commiss. Study Bird Migr. No. 7: 118-139. [In Russian with English summary.] 363 1971 Bengtson, S.-A. 1971. Food and feeding of diving ducks breeding at Lake Myvatn, Iceland. Ornis Fenn. 48: 77-92. Bergman, G. and K. 0. Donner. 1971. Wind drift during the spring migration of the Common Scoter (Melanitta nigra) and Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis) . Vogelwarte 26: 157-159. Ferguson, A. 1971. Notes on the breeding of the Common Scoter, Melanitta nigra L. , in Ireland. Irish Nat. J. 17: 29-31. Jogi, A. 1971. Zum Mauserzug der Schellente (Bucephala clangula) und Trauer- ente (Melanitta nigra) in der Estnischen SSR. Ornithol. Mitt. 23: 65-67. 1970 Blomberg, L. 1970. [Common Scoter swimming under water.] Fauna 23: 300-301. [In Norwegian with English summary. ] Ruttledge, R. F. 1970. Winter distribution and numbers of Scaup, Long-tailed Duck and Common Scoters in Ireland. Bird Study 17: 241-246. White, R. V. 1970. Inland flighting of Common Scoter. Brit. Birds 63: 253-254. 1969 Drenckhahn, D. 1969. Mauser und Vorkommen von Edierente, Somateria mollissima, Trauerente , Melanitta nigra, und Samtente , Melanitta fusca, wahrend der 01- pest im Herbst 1968 an der Nordseekuste Schleswig-Holsteins. Corax 3: 23- 30. [In German.] 1968 Goethe, F. 1968. The effects of oil pollution on marine and coastal birds. Helgo. Wiss. Meeresunters 17: 370-374. 1967 McGilvrey, F. B. 1967. Food habits of sea ducks from the northeastern United States. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 18: 142-145. 1966 Bengtson, S.-A. 1966. Observationer rorande sjoorrens (Melanitta nigra) sexu- ella beteende pa hackplatsen med speciellt avseende pa lekgruppsbeteenden. [Observations on the sexual behaviour of the Common Scoter (Melanitta nig- ra) on the breeding grounds, with special reference to courting parties.] Var Fagelvarld 25: 202-26. [In Swedish with English summary.] 364 1965 Joensen, A. H. 1965. En undersogelse af Sortendens (Melanitta nigra) faeld- ningsomrader ved Jyllands sydvestkyst , sommaren 1963. Med bemaerkninger om Gravandens (Tadorna tadorna) og Ederfuglens (Somateria molllssima) forekorast i det danske Vadehav. [An investigation of the moulting areas of the Common Scoter (Melanitta nigra) at the south-west coast of Jutland, Denmark, 1963. With notes on the nearby moulting areas of the Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna) and the Eiderduck (Somateria molllssima).] Dan. Ornithol, Foren. Tidsskr. 58: 127-136. [In Danish with English summary.] 1964 Bergman, G. and K. 0. Donner. 1964. An analysis of the spring migration of the Common Scoter and the Long- tailed Duck in southern Finland. Acta Zool. Fenn. 105: 1-59. Newhall, C. 1964. An August sighting of the Common Scoter at Hilton Head Is- land, South Carolina. Chat 28: 135. 1961 Bergman, G. 1961. Allin ja mustalinnun muuttokannat kevaalla 1960. [The mi- grating populations of the Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis) and Common Scoter (Melanitta nigra) in the spring I960.] Suoraen Riista 14: 69-74. [In Finnish with English summary.] 1960 Bergman, G. and K. 0. Donner. 1960. Die jetzige Grosse des Fruhjahrsbestandes von Clangula hyemalis und Melanitta nigra am Finnlschen Meerbusen. Ornis Fenn. 37: 117-122. 1959 McKinney, F. 1959. Waterfowl at Cold Bay, Alaska, with notes on the display of the Black Scoter. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept . 10: 133-140. Myres, M. T. 1959. Display behavior of Bufflehead, Scoters and Goldeneyes at copulation. Wilson Bull. 71: 159-168. Reeves, H. M. 1959. First Common Scoter collected in Texas. Auk 76: 94. 1957 Humphrey, P. S. 1957. Remarks on the courtship and voice of the Black Scoter. Condor 59: 139-140. Schmidt, G. 1957. Zur Paarbildung der Trauerente. Vogelwelt 78: 125-126. 365 1956 Geroudet, P. 1956. Notes sur une Macreuse noire. Nos Oiseaux 23: 282. [In French. ] Hubbs, C. L. 1956. Off-season, southern occurrence of the Black Scoter on the Pacific coast. Condor 58: 448-449. 1955 Hubbs, C. L. 1955. Black Scoters reported from Baja California. Condor 57: 121-122. Kist, J. and J. Swaab. 1955. Eerste waarneming de Amerikaanse Zwarte Zeeeend , Melanitta nigra americana (Swainson). Ardea 43: 132-134. [In Dutch.] Tomkins, I. R. 1955. Additional Georgia records of the American Scoter. Oriole 20: 30-31. Verheyen, R. 1955. Note sur la variabilite des characteres osteologiques chez la Macreuse noire, Melanitta nigra (L.). Bull. Instit. R. Sci. Nat. Belgique 31 No. 21. 19 pp. [In French.] 1953 Bannerman, D. and J. Bannerman. 1953. Common Scoters roosting ashore. Scott. Nat. 65: 54. 1952 Schmidt, G. A. J. 1952. Zur Balz von Trauer- und Eistente. Vogelwelt 73: 123-125. [In German.] 1951 Bettman, H. and M. Meijering. 1951. Trauerentenzug vor den Ostfriesischen Inseln. Ornithol. Mitt. 3: 278. [In German.] Lunau, C. 1951. Trauerentenzug uber Haffkrug. Die Heimat 58: 227-230. [In German. ] 1950 Cawkell, E. M. 1950. Sex ratio of Common Scoter off part of the coast of S.E. England. Brit. Birds 42: 304-305. Salomonsen, F. 1950. Oversorarende Sortaender (Melanitta nigra (L.)) ved Jyllands vestkyst . Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 44: 171-172. 366 1941 Jorgensen, J. 1941. Sortandens (Melanitta nigra) Juli-August-traek. Dan. Orntihol. Foren. Tidsskr. 58: 127-136. 1937 von Hedemann, H. 1937. Vom Zug der Trauerente (Oldemia nigra) in Schleswig- Holstein. Vogelzug 8: 131. [In gerraan. ] 1930 Sprunt, A., Jr. 1930. Some recent notes from coastal South Carolina. Auk 47: 265-266. 1929 Sprunt, A., Jr. 1929. Some recent records from coastal South Carolina. Auk 46: 248-249. 1927 Gunn, D. 1927. The courtship of the Common Scoter. Brit. Birds 20: 193-197. 1925 Greene, E. R. 1925. The American Scoter in Florida. Auk 42: 579-580. 1914 Dwight , J. 1914. The moults and plumages of the Scoters-genus Oidemia. Auk 31: 293-308. 1891 Mackay, G. H. 1891. The scoters (Oidemia americana, (). deglandi , and 0_. per- spicillata) in New England. Auk 8: 279-290. 367 SURF SCOTER (Melanitta persplcillata) [DA: Brilleand, DU: Gebrilde Zee-eend , FI: Pilkkaniska, FR: Macreuse a lunettes, GE: Brillenente, IT: Anitra del becco largo, NW : Brille-and, PO: Uhla amerykan- ska, RU: (Spotty-nosed Scoter), SP: Negron careto, SW: Vitnackad svarta] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America The Surf Scoter breeds from the Bristol Bay and Kotzebue Sound region of western Alaska east to the area of the Mackenzie Delta and An- derson River in northwestern Canada, south to northern British Columbia, Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, and Lake Athabasca; it is also found in James Bay and in the interior of Quebec and Labrador (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b). Surf Scoters winter primarily along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of North America. They occur on the Pacific coast from the Aleutian chain south to the Gulf of California, and on the Atlantic coast from the Bay of Fundy south to Florida (AOU 1957, Johnsgard 1978). These scoters also occur regular- ly on the Great Lakes and sporadically inland throughout the western and cen- tral United States. Small numbers also winter along at least the northern half of the Gulf of Mexico. Surf Scoters are casual in Bermuda (AOU 1957) and Hawaii (Palmer 1976b). World Distribution Surf Scoters breed and winter almost exclusively in North America. They are casual winter visitors in Europe, where most records are from Britain and Ireland. These scoters have also been reported from Ice- land, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, the Faeroe Islands, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, and Czechoslovakia (Cramp et al. 1977). Surf Scoters have also occurred in the Komandorskiye Islands, on Bering Island, and on the Chukot Peninsula (Dement'ev and Gladkov 1952). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina Surf Scoters are common winter visitors to coastal North Carolina and occasionally occur there in large numbers. An estimated 18,000 were seen near Cape Hatteras, 10 January 1938 (Pearson et al. 1942), and as many as 10,000 were off Pea Island, 30 October 1971 (Teulings 1972a). These ducks are usually seen in smaller groups, however (Wray and Davis 1959). Pot- ter et al. (1980) stated that the Surf Scoter is locally abundant off the Caro- linas in October but is usually common to uncommon. The number present varies from winter to winter and from place to place. The usual period of occurrence along the coasts of the Carolinas is from October to May (Potter et al. 1980). A few birds may remain along the coast into June (Teulings 1978) and one or two are occasionally seen inland (Zapf 1945; Teulings 1971a, 1973a, 1977a). South Carolina Sprunt and Chamberlain (1949) regarded Surf Scoters as fairly common winter residents that were more abundant in the past . Burton 368 (1970) regarded this species as the least common of the three species of scoter wintering in South Carolina. Recent Christmas Bird Counts (Map 26) indicate that Surf Scoters may be at least locally common along the coast of South Caro- lina. A few have been recorded from inland (e.g., on Lake Hartwell near Clemson [Teulings 1977a]), but the great majority are found off the coast. Georgia Surf Scoters are uncomnon winter residents on the Georgia coast, most numerous offshore. They may be expected between October and May (Denton et al. 1977). Florida The Surf Scoter is rare to uncommon in Florida and apparently al- ways has been. Howell (1932) listed only eight records for the state between 1888 and 1932 (at Lake Worth, Punta Rosa, Saint Augustine, Talbot Island, Ponce Park, Daytona Beach, Mosquito Lagoon, and the St. Lucie River). Sprunt (1954) indicated that this species is usually present in Florida from late October to late May, but listed two exceptionally late occurrences: 25 June 1949 (Merritt Island) and 4 June 1952 (St. Marks). A few birds remain into the summer (Ogden 1971, Edscorn 1977). Surf Scoters are presently regarded as rare to uncommon on both coasts of Florida, but are much less frequent along the southern portions. They occur al- most regularly on the Atlantic coast as far south as Cape Canaveral and are un- common but regular in the northern Gulf (Kale 1979 ms a, 1979 ms b) . Seasonal reports in American Birds usually list no more than a dozen birds but in some years the number present is much greater. Some 800 Surf Scoters were seen off northwest Florida during the winter of 1978-79 (Stevenson 1979). Alabama Imhof (1976b) considered Surf Scoters uncommon but regular winter visitors in Mississippi Sound and nearby waters. He believed that Surf Scoters are the most common scoter in Alabama. There are less than a half dozen inland records; no more than two have been seen at once. More are seen along the coast; maximum numbers recorded have been 22 birds seen at Fort Morgan, 23 January 1971, and 50-75 seen near Coffee Island on an unknown date (Imhof 1976b). The Surf Scoter has been recorded in Alabama between 6 November (Purrington 1978) and 20 April (Imhof 1976b). Mississippi Neither Burleigh (1944) nor Gandy and Turcotte (1970) mention- ed the occurrence of the Surf Scoter in Mississippi. This scoter is apparently uncommon, judging from scattered records listed in American Birds and in the Mississippi Kite, a periodical devoted to local ornithology. For the period from July 1976 through November 1978, Surf Scoters were reported in Mississippi from as early as 24 November 1977 (inland at Noxubee NWR) to as late as 15 May 1977 (Horn Island). The two largest concentrations reported during this period were up to 40 birds seen 11-17 February 1978 at East Ship Island and 80 seen 28 February 1978 at Horn Island (Weber and Jackson 1977, 1978; Jackson and Cooley 1978a) . Louisiana Lowery (1974) indicated that Surf Scoters had been recorded 19 times in Lousiana through 1973; these records total 72 birds. Through the per- iod covering the spring of 1979, at least seven more records appeared in Amer- ican Birds; these involved at least 86 individuals. More than half of the re- cords for the Surf Scoter, the second most abundant scoter in Louisiana, are 369 370 from Cameron Parish. Extreme dates of occurrence are 8 November and 13 May (Lowery 1974). Surf Scoters may occur in greater abundance in the Gulf off Louisiana than the present record suggests. The largest concentrations seen include 17 birds west of Holly Beach, 24 April 1971 (Imhof 1971); 20 seen on the Sabine NWR Christmas Count in the winter of 1976-77; and 34 near Holly Beach, 21 February 1977 (Hamilton 1977). Texas Oberholser (1974) listed this species as a rare and irregular win- ter visitor to Texas. He reported that Surf Scoters had occurred at least 30 times in Texas and we know of about seven more recent records. Records are chiefly from coastal areas but a few have also been reported inland. Surf Scoters usually occur in Texas between mid-October and mid-May (Oberholser 1974). Maximum numbers reported along the Texas coast during the period 1 970- 1978 in American Birds were an estimated 24 seen off the Bolivar Peninsula, 22-23 April 1975 (Webster 1975b); 6 at a pond in Austin, 10 December 1974 (Webster 1975a); and 5 at Texas City Dike, 7 November 1973 (Webster 1974). SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding The Surf Scoter breeds only in North America from western Alaska east through the Yukon and Northwest Territories, south to James Bay, and in the interior of Quebec and Labrador. Bellrose (1976) estimated a breeding pop- ulation of 257,000 Surf Scoters, but he gave reasons why he believed that this estimate was too low. Winter Most wintering Surf Scoters are found along the Pacific coast from the eastern Aleutians to Baja California, and in the Atlantic from the Bay of Fundy to South Carolina (Bellrose 1976, Map 26). In the Atlantic, these scoters winter most abundantly between Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, and Norfolk, Virginia (Bellrose 1976). Surf Scoters are much less common off the Atlantic coast south of South Carolina and off the Gulf coast (Map 26). A few regularly winter on the Great Lakes. Bellrose (1976) estimated a winter population of about 765,000 birds in Alaska. However, Johnsgard (1978) warned that these estimates are highly uncertain, in that observers made little effort to distinguish scoters to species during winter surveys. Migration Migratory pathways used by the Surf Scoter are too poorly known to warrant much speculation about them. Bellrose (1976) suggested that Surf Scoters wintering in the Pacific fly overland to the coast and that those win- tering in the Atlantic move east-southeast to James Bay and then to the north- eastern Atlantic coast. HABITAT Nesting The breeding habits of the Surf Scoter are not well known; accord- ing to Bellrose (1976), this scoter is the least studied duck in North America. Breeding habits probably resemble those of other scoters. Palmer (1976b) ex- amined the sketchy data available and concluded that these scoters nested in brushy or forested habitats some distance from "quiet and slow-moving waters of the forest zone and semibarrens" . He also stated that Surf Scoters nesting in 371 the lake-plateau region of interior Ungava preferred to nest by bog ponds and other waters in open lichen-spruce woodland. Feeding Johnsgard (1975) noted that foraging Surf Scoters fed in shallow- er waters than did White-winged Scoters and indicated that Surf Scoters forage closer to coasts than do either of the other two scoters. Winter and Offshore Most of the wintering population is exclusively marine but small numbers also winter on the Great Lakes (Palmer 1976b). Palmer (1976b) indicated that non-breeding Surf Scoters are found more typically in the lit- toral zone of the ocean than are the other two scoter species. Others are found on adjoining coastal estuaries and bays. In the northeast, sandy substrates that harbor molluscs important in the diet are favored. All three species of scoters tend to congregate at the mouths of estuaries where food is more plenti- ful (Stott and Olson 1974 in Bellrose 1976). FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Surf Scoters dive for their food. They dive either with wings closed or with half-spread wings, and they may or may not use their wings for propulsion underwater. Diving birds may clear the surface before a dive and may dive either straight down or at an angle (Palmer 1976b). Diving periods off the shores of the North Pacific ranged from 19 to 45 sec, with the lowest mean (20 sec, n = 9) recorded in the shallowest water and the greatest mean (43.25 sec, n = 4) recorded in the deepest (Alford 1920). Surf Scoters wintering near Vancouver, British Columbia, dove for 32.7 to 65.3 sec (mean = 51.9 + 2.29) in about 3.1 to 9.2 m (10.2 to 30.1 ft) of water (Dow 1964). The sequence of dives made by a Horned Grebe and a Surf Scoter near Comax, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and the behavior of the grebe suggested that these two species were feeding commensally (Pearse 1950). The grebe dove short- ly after the scoter did and apparently obtained food dislodged by the feeding scoter. Paulson (1969) later reported similar observations of two Horned Grebes and a Surf Scoter at Deception Pass, Whidbey Island, Washington. We know of no detailed information on the food habits of the Surf Scoter in the southeastern United States nor have its food habits been studied well elsewhere. Cottam (1939 in Palmer 1976b, Bellrose 1976) indicated that 88% of the diet was composed of animals, chiefly molluscs (60.8%), crustaceans (10.3%), and insects (9.6%). Studies on the wintering grounds have revealed that animal foods comprise from 96% (Maine to Long Island) to 100% (New Hampshire and Massa- chusetts) (authors cited iri Bellrose 1976) of the food items. Aside from molluscs (e.g., mussels, clams, olive shells), crustaceans (e.g., barnacles, clams), and various insects (mostly aquatic forms), Surf Scoters eat echinoderms (particulary Strongylocentrotus) , marine worms, clam- worms, sea anenomes, hydroids, and fish (Ammodytes, Fundulus) and their eggs (Clupea) (Palmer 1976b). Judging from the few studies available, blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), Arctic wedge clams (Mesoderma arctatum) , Atlantic razor clams 372 (Ensls or Slllqua costata) , and various yoldias (Yoldia spp.) are particularly important foods (authors cited iji Bellrose 1976). Plant foods eaten include pondweeds (e.g., Potamogeton, Ruppia, Zostera , Zannichellia) and representatives of a variety of other genera that are listed by Palmer (1976b). IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying Almost nothing is known. Bent (1925) listed egg dates from 19 June to 8 July, basing this on twelve records. Mean Clutch Size Unknown. Normal clutches are thought to contain 5-9 eggs (Palmer 1976b). Incubation Period Unknown (Johnsgard 1975, Palmer 1976b). Hatching Success Unknown (Johnsgard 1975, Palmer 1976b). Age at Fledging Unknown (Johnsgard 1975, Palmer 1976b). Fledging Success Unknown. Murdy (1964 j^n Bellrose 1976) found that twelve pairings produced a total of five broods over a three-year period. Age at First Breeding Unknown. The minimum age at first breeding is sug- gested by Palmer (1976b) to be "presumably two years". Mortality of Eggs and Young We have no information, nor do we have any information on whether this species renests. Maximum Natural Longevity Unknown. Weight Twelve males averaged 2.2 lbs (998 g) , 10 females 2.0 lbs (907 g) (Nelson and Martin 1953). Five summer males from interior Alaska weighed 2.1- 2.21 lb (964-1,006 g [mean = 2.17 lb or 987 g)(Irving 1960 in Palmer 1976b). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION The Surf Scoter is a frequent victim of oiling (Table 9) and was recently rated by King and Sanger (1979) as a species of high concern in this regard in the Pacific Northwest. Palmer (1976b) stated that floating oil is a factor in the mortality of this species along both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America. Many were killed during an early oil pollution incident in San Francisco Bay (Aldrich 1938), and this was one of the four species most adverse- ly affected by the 1971 spill in the same area (Smail et al. 1972). It is of less concern in the waters of the southeastern United States since such a rela- tively small proportion of the total population of the Surf Scoter winters there. We consider it likely that oil spills involving these birds would deci- mate local populations. Areas of maximum concern in southeastern waters would be those farthest north (i.e., the Carolinas) where significant numbers may win- ter. 373 Table 9. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Surf Scoters found after major oiling incidents. Area Dates Number Number Percent- of oiled of dead age of dead Surf Surf birds Scoters Scoters Source San Francisco Bay area, Cal- ifornia Mar. 1937 397 (a) 23 5.79 Aldrich 1938 San Francisco Bay, California Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Northern Oregon and Washington coasts Jan. 1971 3,221 (a,b) 189 Feb. 1976 30,000 (c) 1,690 Mar. 1976 362 (a) 5.87 5.63 0.28 Small et al, 1972 Perry et al. 1979 Harrington- Tweit 1979 Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Feb. 1978 10,000 (c) 400 4.00 Perry et al. 1979 (a) Total includes only those birds identified to species. (b) This figure represents birds brought to cleaning/ receiving stations. (c) Figures are estimates based on counts of dead birds. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1979 Hirsch, K. V. 1979. Wintering diving ducks in Puget Sound, and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. (Abstract only). Pac . Seabird Group Bull. 6: 37. Stafford, S. K. 1979. Inland records of Oldsquaws and Surf Scoter from north Florida. Fla. Field Nat. 7: 25-26. Wahl, T. 1979. Associations of scoters with herring spawn in northwest Wash- ington. (Abstract only). Pac. Seabird Group Bull. 6: 37. 1978 Gilliland, A. R. 1978. Surf Scoter taken in Jackson County, Oklahoma. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc. 11: 30-31. 374 1970 Austin, G. T. 1970. The occurrence and status of certain anatids in southern Nevada. Condor 72: 474. Saloraonsen, F. 1970. Brilleand (Melanitta perspicillata (Linnaeus)), ny for Danmark. [The Surf Scoter, Melanitta perspicillata (Linnaeus), recorded in Denmark.] Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 64: 267-269. [In Danish with English summary.] 1969 Paulson, D. R. 1969. Commensal feeding in grebes. Auk 86: 759. 1967 McGIlvrey, F. B. 1967. Food habits of sea ducks from the northeastern United States. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept . 18: 142-145. Turcotte, W. H. 1967. Surf Scoters recorded on Ross Barnett Reservoir. Miss. Ornithol. Soc. Newsl. 12: 3. 1964 Dow, D. D. 1964. Diving times of wintering water birds. Auk 81: 556-558. 1963 Baillie, J. L. 1963. The 13 most recent Ontario nesting birds. Ont . Field Biol. 17: 15-26. Simkin, D. W. 1963. A Surf Scoter nesting record for northwestern Ontario. Can. Field-Nat. 77: 60. 1960 Huey, W. S. 1960. Surf Scoter in New Mexico. Auk 77: 224. Radder, C. C. 1960. Surf Scoter (Melanitta perspicillata) and other birds in Pinellas County. Fla. Nat. 33: 35. 1959 Myres, M. T. 1959a. The behaviour of the sea-ducks and its value to the sys- tematics of the tribes Mergini and Somateriini, of the family Anatidae. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Brit. Columbia/Vancouver, BC. 504 pp. . 1959b. Display behavior of Bufflehead, scoters, and goldeneyes at copulation. Wilson Bull. 71: 159-168. 375 1957 Humphrey, P. S. 1957. Observations on the diving of the Surf Scoter (Melanitta perspicillata). Auk 74: 392-394. 1950 Pearse, T. 1950. Parasitic birds. Murrelet 31: 14. 1949 Johnston, D. W. 1949. Surf Scoter records from Georgia. Auk 66: 81. 1945 Zapf, T. 1945. Surf Scoters at Greensboro. Chat 9: 46. 1943 Trautman, M. B. and M. A. Trautman. 1943. An Ohio record of the Surf Scoter. Wilson Bull. 55: 54. 1926 Miller, W. DeW. 1926. Structural variations in the scoters. Am. Mus . Novit . 243: 1-5. 1922 Widraann, 0. 1922. Surf Scoters (Oidema perspicillata) near St. Louis. Auk 39: 250. 1920 Alford, C. E. 1920. Some notes on diving ducks. Brit. Birds 14: 106-110. 1914 Dwight , J. 1914. The moults and plumages of the scoters - genus Oidemia. Auk 31: 293-308. 1891 Mackay, G. H. 1891. The scoters (Oidemia americana, 0_. deglandi , and 0. per- spicillata) in New England. Auk 8: 279-2 90. 376 WHITE-WINGED SCOTER (Melanltta fusca) [DA: Flojlsand, DU: Grote Zee-eend , EN: Velvet Scoter, FI: Pilkkasiipi , FR: Macreuse brune blanches, Macreuse a alles blanches; GE: Samtente, IC: Korpond, IT: Oreo marino, JA: Birodo kinkuro, NW: Sjo-orre, PO: Uhla, RU: (Hump-nosed Scoter), SP: Anade marino de alas blancas , Negron especulado; SW: Svarta] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America The White-winged Scoter breeds from northwestern Alaska, the Yukon, and the Northwest Territories east to Hudson Bay, south through western Canada to southern Manitoba (Johnsgard 1975) and south to northern North Dakota and northeastern Washington. Most of the breeding population is found in ex- treme northwestern Canada and northeastern Alaska (Palmer 1976b). White-winged Scoters winter in the Aleutians and along the southern coast of Alaska south along the Pacific coast to northern Baja California. In the western Atlantic they winter mainly from southern Newfoundland south along the coast to South Carolina (Palmer 1976b), with very small numbers found farther south and along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. World Distribution Other races of the White-winged Scoter breed in the northern Holarctic from Fenno-Scandia east through northern Eurasia to Kamchat- ka thence south to Estonia and to 53° N latitude in western Siberia and Lake Baikal (BOU 1971). Old World populations largely winter along the Atlantic, North Sea, and Baltic coasts of Europe (BOU 1971, Cramp et al. 1977), and along the coasts of eastern Asia south to Japan and China (Johnsgard 1978). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina White-Winged Scoters occur in small numbers in winter (Map 27) along the North Carolina coast (Wray and Davis 1959); Potter el al . (1980) considered them uncommon. They are found on the sounds and on the ocean offshore from the outer beaches (Pearson et al. 1942). Maximum numbers report- ed in the regional reports of American Birds include 35 seen off Atlantic Beach, 27 April 1974 (Teulings 1974b) and about 50 seen off Pea Island, 30 October 1971 (Teulings 1972a). Several unusual inland records are summarized by Weeks (1975) and Harrison (1975). South Carolina White-winged Scoters are rare winter visitors on the South Carolina coast, with most records of occurrence between early November and mid- Taxonomic note: North American populations have often been considered a dis- tinct species, M. deglandi , with two subspecies (e.g., AOU 1957). We follow most current workers in merging deglandi into fusca but have largely restricted our literature survey to references on the American population. 377 " i o ° * 5 S"5 ■s= 2 - "? 7 ? - «o- -s o 1 lag * * * 1 |ii(D0© 5? = 378 May (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949). They occur almost exclusively offshore, but Burton (1970) mentioned two inland records and Weeks (1975) reported a single female in Barnwell County, November 1967 to February 1968. Another was seen in- land at Lake Greenwood, 15 January 1978 (LeGrand 1978). Georgia Burleigh (1958) knew of only one sight record for Georgia. The first specimen for the state was taken on Tybee Island, near Savannah, 7 May 1959 by Tomkins (1959), who commented that the species may be more regular off- shore than is generally realized. Observations in succeeding years sustained this suggestion and the species is now regarded as an uncommon winter resident on the coast, more abundant offshore, and rare inland (Denton et al. 1977). Florida Sprunt (1954) listed five records of White-winged Scoter in the state. Although observations of this species, as well as of the other scoters, are more frequent now, it is still considered rare to uncommon on both coasts but regular in the upper Gulf (Kale 1979 ms a, 1979 ms b) . Alabama Imhof (1976b) regarded this scoter as a rare winter visitant to the Tennessee Valley and the Gulf coast, and rare to casual on migration else- where. The first specimen was a female taken inland at Wheeler NWR, Limestone County (Atkeson 1961). Most sightings are between October and April, with one each in June (Jackson and Cooley 1978b) and in August (Imhof 1976b). Along the Gulf coast, It has been reported from Gulf State Park, Gulf Shores, and Fort Morgan. The maximum number seen at one time (15) was at Fort Morgan, 29 Nov- ember 1957 (Imhof 1976b). Mississippi Gandy and Turcotte (1970) listed a single specimen of White- winged Scoter collected 6 December 1960 at Desoto Lake, Coahoma County. There are more recent records for several coastal localities (Weber and Jackson 1977, Jackson and Cooley 1978a), suggesting that the species may winter regularly in small numbers on the Gulf coast. Maximum numbers reported in recent years (12-13 birds) were seen in Mississippi Sound and off East Ship and Horn islands (Hamilton 1977, 1978; Imhof 1978). Louisiana Lowery (1974) indicated that the status of all the scoters in Louisiana was very poorly known, largely due to a lack of adequate observations. He knew of only 27 birds reported on 21 dates from October to May, two-thirds of them from November through January. Only one of these records was made well inland. Texas Oberholser (1974) considered this species to be rare and irregular in winter, occurring chiefly on the upper and central coasts (Chambers, Galves- ton, and Aransas counties). In Texas waters they prefer offshore shoals, big bays, and sounds (Oberholser 1974). SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding In North America, the White-winged Scoter breeds from the upper Yukon River of Alaska and the Mackenzie River Delta south to central British Columbia, southeastern Alberta, southern Manitoba, northeastern Washington, and northern North Dakota. Old World populations breed across the northern Pale- 379 arctic from Scandinavia to Kamchatka. Using aerial and ground surveys performed by various agencies, Bellrose (1976) gave an estimate of ca. 675,000 for the North American breeding popula- tion of White-winged Scoters, but he indicated that this figure was probably too large. He also noted declines in breeding populations in some portions of the North American range; surveys of the breeding grounds in 1976 indicated de- clines from the 1966-75 mean for scoter species breeding in northern Alberta and the Northwest Territories (-14%), in northern Saskatchewan and northern Manitoba (-24%), and in southern Saskatchewan (-70%). Populations in southern Alberta and Manitoba increased markedly from the ten-year mean (Larned et al . 1980). Old World breeding populations are poorly known; the population breed- ing in the western Palearctic is apparently much smaller than that in North America and is apparently decreasing in much of its range. Winter North American White-winged Scoters winter along the Pacific coast from the Aleutians and southern coastal Alaska to Baja California, and along the Atlantic coast from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to South Carolina. Some also winter in the Great Lakes States, and a few (Map 27) along the Gulf coast (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b). Bellrose (1976) estimated that about 56,000 White-winged Scoters wintered along the Atlantic coast on the average during U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service inventories (1966-73). Nearly 70% of all scoters wintering along the Atlantic coast are found between Long Island Sound and the Chesapeake Bay region; areas of maximum concentration vary from species to species, however, and White-winged Scoters are most abundant from Maine to New Jersey (Bellrose 1976). On the Pacific coast of North America the largest wintering populations of White-winged Scoters are found in the Aleutian Islands (perhaps 250,000 birds), and from southeast Alaska to California (Bellrose 1976). The 1976 winter water- fowl survey of the contiguous United States (Larned et al . 1980) listed winter- ing populations of 96,800 scoters in the Pacific Flyway and 59,800 in the Atlan- tic Flyway; another 10,500 were reported from the west coast of Mexico. Cramp et al. (1977) considered the White-winged Scoter the least numerous sea-duck wintering in the western Palearctic and cited an estimate of perhaps 150,000-200,000 birds. Migration Migration routes and chronology are detailed by Bellrose (1976). In general, birds migrate east or west towards the coast and then along the coastline to their wintering areas. Band recoveries suggest that the farther north and east the birds breed, the more likely they are to migrate towards the Atlantic coast, and the farther south and west they breed, the more likely that migration is to the Pacific coast (Bellrose 1976). The northward movement of White-winged Scoters wintering along the Atlan- tic coast begins as early as March; migration occurs mostly in October and Nov- ember (Palmer 1976b). Palmer (1976b) gave additional information on differences in migration between birds of different age and sex and remarked that data from Old World populations suggested similar patterns of movement there. 380 HABITAT Nesting North American White-winged Scoters breed along inland lakes and streams, on islands and islets in inland waters, and inland in treeless or fair- ly open country (Palmer 1976b). Nests are commonly found near water (Palmer 1976b) but are sometimes found as much as a half-mile (a quarter kilometer) away, where they are usually situated in dense cover (authors cited _in Bellrose 1976). In a recent study conducted in Saskatchewan and Alberta, Brown and Brown (1981) found that most nests were in dense cover at least 50 m (160 ft) from the nearest shoreline. Redshoot gooseberry (Ribes setosum) was the primary cover for almost all the nests found at Redberry Lake, Saskatchewan. At Jessie Lake, Alberta, gooseberry, western snowberry (Syraphoricarpos occidentalis) , roses (Rosa spp.), and raspberry (Rubus spp.) were all important cover plants. Cramp et al. (1977) reported that White-winged Scoters in the Old World generally breed nearer fresh or brackish waters than does the Black Scoter. Nests are well concealed and usually within 100 m (330 ft) of water, although some may be found 2-3 km (1.2-1.9 mi) away. Feeding Palmer (1976b) indicated that roosting and foraging birds prefer sheltered waters in shallow bays and to the lee of islands. Cramp et al. (1977) added that Velvet Scoters (= White-winged Scoters) were more likely to feed in broken water among rocks and islands than Black Scoters. White-winged Scoters usually forage in waters less than 25 ft (7.6 m) deep but dives of as much as 60 ft (18 m) have been reported (Johnsgard 1975). Cramp et al . (1977) stated that the normal foraging depth was ca. 5 m (16 ft). Winter and Offshore Wintering and non-breeding White-winged Scoters are usually found in brackish and marine coastal waters; in these areas, they prefer shallow water over shellfish beds that have sandy or gravelly bottoms (Palmer 1976b). Johnsgard (1975) described this habitat as the "littoral zone of the ocean, just beyond the breakers and within a mile of shore." Habitats reported for wintering birds in the Old World are similar (Cramp et al . 1977). White-winged Scoters tend to form flocks of about 10-15 birds when large numbers are present on saltwater bays (Palmer 1976b). Cramp et al . (1977) pointed out that this species usually occurs in smaller flocks than does the Black Scoter. FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR White-winged Scoters feed by diving from the surface. They use their feet for propulsion and dive with partially opened wings (Palmer 1976b, Cramp et al. 1977). They make repeated short dives, with about twice as much time spent underwater as at the surface (Palmer 1976b), and they may exhibit synchronized diving (Cramp et al. 1977). In summarizing reports from various areas, Cramp et al. (1977) reported that these ducks usually submerged for 20-40 sec in southwest Finland, and they cited extremely long dives of 56 and 65 sec. Aside from diving for food, White-winged Scoters also occasionally dabble 381 in driftlines (Naumann 1896-1905 in Cramp et al. 1977). They feed largely by day but apparently sometimes feed at night and at dawn and dusk (Palmer 1976b). Like the Black Scoter, White-winged Scoters feed primarily on animal life, principally molluscs and crustaceans. Cottam (1939 jLn Palmer 1976b) summarized food habits in North America and found that this scoter ate about 75% molluscs and about 13% crustaceans. Molluscs eaten include olive shells (Olivella pycna) , dog whelks (Nassarius fossatus), blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), jacknife clams (Solon solarius) , cockles (Cardium) , snails (Physa) , scallops, and oysters. Crustaceans eaten include crabs (e.g., Cancer, Carcinus) , isopods, amphipods, shrimp, and crayfish. White-winged Scoters also eat insects (e.g., caddisfly larvae, grasshop- pers), echinoderms (sand dollars, sea-urchins, brittle stars, starfish, heart- urchin), annelids (Polychaetes) , and fish and their eggs. They have also been known to eat frogs but apparently eat these, as well as fish, relatively rare- ly (authors cited in Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b, Cramp et al. 1977). Which foods are most important in the diet varies from area to area. In different studies, blue mussels, rock clams (Cancer irroratus), Atlantic dog- winkle, (Thais or Nucella lapillus) , Atlantic razor clams (Ensis or Siliqua costata) , and Arctic wedge clams (Mesodesma arctatum) , cockles (Cardium edulis) (authors cited in Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b), and slipper shells (Crepidula f ornicata) (Hof f 1977) have been the principal foods eaten. Plants eaten include pondweeds (e.g., Zostera, Potamogeton, Ruppia, Val- lisneria) , and sea lettuce (Ulva) (Palmer 1976b). We have no quantitative information on the food habits of White-winged Scoters in southeastern waters. They presumably feed on the foods indicated above. Palmer (1976b) and Cramp et al. (1977) provided more extensive lists of foods eaten, as well as references to the primary literature dealing with the food habits of the White-winged Scoter. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION White-winged Scoters appear to be highly susceptible to oil pollution. In North America, oil-related deaths of these ducks have been recorded since the 1930's. In 1937, they were among the most frequently encountered victims of an oil pollution incident in San Francisco Bay, California (Aldrich 1938, Moffitt and Orr 1938, both Ln Vermeer and Vermeer 1974). It was also one of the most numerous victims of an oil spill in the same area in 1971 (Small et al. 1972, Table 10). Following the grounding of the freighter SEAGATE off the Olympic Peninsula in Washington, White-winged Scoters and Common Murres were the two species hardest hit by the subsequent oil spill (Richardson 1956, LaFave 1957, both ^n Vermeer and Vermeer 1974). There is also evidence of high oil-related mortality in the Old World. In a review of oil spills in Danish waters from 1953 to 1968, Joensen (1972a) listed this species as one of the most frequent victims; in the same area, most of the world's largest wintering population was lost to oil pollution in 1972 (Joensen 1972a). 382 Palmer (1976b) suggested that oil pollution on both coasts of North Amer- ica was a greater source of mortality for the White-winged Scoter than duck hunting. King and Sanger (1979) indicated that populations of White-winged Scoters in the Pacific Northwest of the United States could be at severe risk from oil pollution. This species is evidently declining in numbers in the Old World and in some portions of its North American range. Although we have no good idea of the numbers wintering in the waters of the southeastern United States, it seems likely that the total is small compared to numbers in the more northern waters of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Consequently, although White-winged Scoters will probably be among the first birds lost to oil spills in the southeast, oil pollution or development of petroleum resources in this area should have little effect on the total population of this species. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 Brown, P. W. and M. A. Brown. 1981. Nesting biology of the White-winged Scoter. J. Wildl. Manage. 45: 38-45. 1980 Byard, M. E. 1980. White-winged Scoter taken in Grant County, Oklahoma. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc . 13: 21. Wilson, W. J. 1980. Inverted flight of White-winged Scoters during courtship flight. Am. Birds 34: 747. 1979 Hirsch, K. V. 1979. Wintering diving ducks in Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. (Abstract only). Pac . Seabird Group Bull. 6: 37. 1978 Houston, C. S. and P. W. Brown. 1978. Longevity of White-winged Scoters. Bird-Banding 49: 186-187. 1977 Hoff, J. G. 1977. Slipper shells, a major food item for White-winged Scoters. Wilson Bull. 89: 331. Mikuska, J. and I. Ham. 1977. Patka kulasica, Melanitta fusca (L.), u Kopacfv- skom Rezfrvatu i u Jugoslaviji. [Velvet Scoter, Melanitta fusca (L.), in the Kopacevski Rit Reservation and in Yugoslavia in general.] Larus 29- 30: 137-140. [In Serbo-Croatian with English summary.] 383 Table 10. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead White- winged Scoters found after major oiling incidents. Number Percent- Number of dead age of of oiled White- White- dead winged winged Area Dates birds Scoters Scoters Source San Francisco Mar. 1937 397 (a) 38 9.57 Aldrich 1938 Bay, area, Cal- ifornia North Sea coast , Denmark North-central Kattegat, Denmark. N. Sjaelland, Denmark North Sea coast , Denmark Pagham Harbour area, W. Sussex, England Bornholm, Denmark Tay Estuary, Scotland N. Sealand, Denmark Laesso-Vendsyssel , Denmark 1957-1958 Jan. -Feb. 1962 Feb. -Mar. 1965 1965-1966 Jan. -Feb. 1967 Jan. -Feb. 1968 Mar .-Apr . 1968 Feb. -Mar. 1969 92 (a) 6 1,723 (a,b) 673 2,340 (a) 975 803 (a) 28 91 (a,c) 1 466 (a) 36 1,168 (c) 2 2,376 (a) 197 Dec. 1969 1,362 33 6.52 Joensen 1972a 39.06 Joensen 1972a 41.66 Joensen 1972a 3.49 Joensen 1972a 1.10 Phillips 1967 7.73 Joensen 1972a 0.17 Greenwood and Keddie 1968 8.29 Joensen 1972b 2.42 Joensen 1972b Northeast Britain Martha's Vine- yard, MA E. Coast Jutland, Denmark Jan. -Feb. 1970 Feb. 1970 Feb. -Mar. 1970 10,992 (a,b) 58 0.53 1,974 (a) 417 21.12 Greenwood et al. 1971 541 (a) 397 73.38 CSLP 1971 Joensen 1972b 384 Table 10 (Continued.) Area Dates Number of oiled dead birds Number Percent- of dead age of White- White- winged winged Scoters Scoters Source Off Eastern Canada S. Kattegat, Denmark San Francisco Bay, California Djursland-Anholt , Denmark North-central Kattegat, Denmark Waddensea, Den- mark Baltic sea coast, Poland Baltic sea coast, Poland Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Northern Oregon and Washington coasts Feb. -Apr . 1970 Dec. 1970- Jan. 1971 Jan. 1971 Mar. 1971 Mar. 1972 Dec. 1972 1970-1974 Nov. 1974- Aug. 1975 1,276 (a,c) 2 2,311 (a) 223 3,221 (a,d) 147 239 119 4,759 (a) 1,129 9,151 (a) 89 3,867 (a,b) 292 653 (a,b) 101 Feb. 1976 30,000 (e) 30 Mar. 1976 362 (a) 22 0.16 9.65 4.56 49.79 23.72 0.97 7.55 15.46 0.10 6.08 Brown et al . 1973 Joensen 1972b Smail et al. 1972 Joensen 1972b Joensen and Hansen 197 7 Joensen and Hansen 1977 Gorski et al. 1976 Gorski et al. 1977 Perry et al. 1979 Harrington- Tweit 1979 (a) Total includes only those birds identified to species. (b) Total includes some birds that were not oiled. (c) Total includes both live and dead oiled birds. (d) This figure represents birds brought to cleaning/receiving stations. (e) Figure is an estimate based on counts of dead birds. 385 1975 Harrison, J. R. (ed.). 1975. [Note on White-winged Scoter distribution.] Chat 39: 57. Weeks, H. P., Jr. 1975. An inland South Carolina record for the White-winged Scoter. Chat 39: 56-57. 1973 Wetmore, A. 1973. A Pleistocene record for the White-winged Scoter in Mary- land. Auk 90: 910-911. 1972 Grosz, T. and C. F. Yocom.. 1972. Food habits of the White-winged Scoter in northwestern California. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 1279-1282. 1971 Millard, J. L. , Jr. 1971. White-winged Scoter in Johnston County, Oklahoma. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc. 4: 26-27. 1969 Vermeer, K. 1969. Some aspects of the breeding of the White-winged Scoter at Miquelon Lake, Alberta. Blue Jay 27: 72-73. 1968 Waaramaki , T. 1968. [Further observations on the breeding of the Velvet Sco- ter (Melanitta fusca) in the Oulanka River basin, north-east Finland.] Suomen Riista 20: 87-93. [In Finnish with English summary.] 1967 Kumerloeve, H. 1967. Zum Brutvorkommen der Samtente im transkaukasisch- (armenisch-) nordost-kleinasiatischen Hochland. Anz. Ornithol. Ges. Bayern 8: 63-65. McGilvrey, F. B. 1967. Food habits of sea ducks from the northeastern United States. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 18: 142-145. Skinner, R. W. 1967. White-winged Scoter record. Ala. Birdlife 16: 40. 1966 Grosz, T. 1966. Food habits and parasites of the Pacific White-winged Scoter, Melanitta fusca dixoni , in the Humboldt Bay area. M.S. thesis, Humboldt St. Coll. /Areata, CA. 386 1961 Atkeson, T. Z. 1961. A White-winged Scoter specimen from Alabama. Auk 78: 640. Duebbert, H. F. 1961. Recent brood records for the White-winged Scoter in North Dakota. Wilson Bull. 73: 209-210. 1959 Tomkins, I. R. 1959. A Georgia specimen of the White-winged Scoter. Oriole 24: 27. 1958 Atkeson, T. Z. , Jr. 1958. White-winged Scoter records from Wheeler Reservoir. Ala. Birdlife 6: 14. 1957 Koskimies, J. 1957a. Verhalten und Okologie der Jungen und der jungenf uhren- den Wiebchen der Samtente. Ann. Zool. Soc. Vanamo 18/9: 1-69. . 1957b. Nistorttreue und Sterblichkeit bei einera marinen Bestand der Samtente. Vogelwarte 19: 46-51. . 1957c. Polymorphic variability in clutch size and laying date of the Velvet Scoter, Melanitta fusca L. Ornis Fenn. 34: 118-144. . 1957d. Variations in size and shape of eggs of the Velvet Scoter. Arch. Soc. Vanamo 12: 58-69 1955 Houston, C. S. 1955. White-winged Scoter banding. Blue Jay 13: 28. Koskimies, J. 1955. Juvenile mortality and population balance in the Velvet Scoter in maritime conditions. Pp. 476-479 jji Acta XI Internatl. Ornithol. Congr. Basel, 1954. 1953 Huenecke, H. S. 1953. White-winged Scoter nesting record in North Dakota. Auk 70: 366. Koskimies, J. and E. Routamo. 1953a. Zur Fortpf lanzungsbiologie der Samtente Melanitta f. fusca (L.). I. Allgemeine Nistokologie. [The breeding biol- ogy of the Velvet Scoter Melanitta f. fusca (L.). I. General nesting ecol- ogy.] Pap. Game Res. Helsinki. No. 10. 105 pp. [In German with English summary. ] 387 Koskimies, J. and E. Routamo. 1953b. The rate of survival in a Velvet Scoter population. Suoraen Riista 8: 183-184. 1952 Grenquist, P. 1952. Recent changes in the populations of the Eider and the Velvet Scoter in the Finnish archipelago. Pap. Game. Res., Helsinki 8: 81-100. 1949 Rawls, S. K., Jr. 1949. An investigation of the life history of the White- winged Scoter Melanitta fusca deglandi. M.S. thesis, Univ. Minnesota/ Minneapolis, MN. 1945 Salomonsen, F. 1945. Amerikansk Flojlsand (Melanitta fusca deglandi (Bona- parte)) ny for Gronland. [The American Velvet Scoter (Melanitta fusca deglandi (Bonaparte)) in Greenland.] Dan. Ornithol. Forens. Tidsskr. 39: 254-258. 1943 Howard, J. A. 1943. Status of the White-winged Scoter in Louisiana. Auk 60: 453. 1936 Grenquist, P. 1936. Some notes on diving of young Tufted Ducks, young Velvet Scoters, and young Eider Ducks. Ornis Fenn. 13: 6-23. 1931 Stoll, F. E. 1931. An den Brutplatzen von Oidemia fusca and Arenaria inter- pres. J. Ornithol. 79: 541-547. [In German.] 1926 Miller, W. DeW. 1926. Structural variations in the scoters. Am. Mus . Novit. 243: 1-5. 1925 Bailey, A. M. 1925. The White-winged Scoter in Louisiana. Auk 42: 442. 1891 Mackay, G. H. 1891. The scoters (Oidemia americana, (). deglandi , and £. per- spicillata) in New England. Auk 8: 279-290. 388 COMMON GOLDENEYE (Bucephala clangula) [DA: Hvinand, DU: Brilduiker, EN: Goldeneye , FI: Telkka, FR: Canard garrot , GE: Schellente, IC : Hvinond, IT: Quattrocchi, JA: Hojirogamo, NW: Kvinand , PO: Gagol krzykliwy, PR: Pato dos gelos, SP: Porron osculado, SW: Knipa, US: European Goldeneye] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America North American Common Goldeneyes (_B. c_. americana) breed across northern North America from western and central Alaska and northern Mac- kenzie to northern Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec, central Labrador, and Newfoundland. Southern breeding limits are southern British Columbia, north- western Montana, eastern North Dakota, northern Minnesota and Michigan, north- eastern New York, northern New England, and New Brunswick (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976). In winter, these ducks are found in open water from southeastern Alaska and northern British Columbia across the northern United States and southeast- ern Canada, southward to extreme northern Mexico and the Gulf coast of the United States (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976). World Distribution A Eurasian subspecies of the Common Goldeneye (_B. c_. clangula) breeds extensively across northern Europe and Asia from Norway to Kamchatka and the Komondorskiye Islands, extends southward to Germany, Switzer- land, the Baltic States, central Russia, Mongolia, and Sakhalin, and occasion- ally nests outside this extensive range. In winter the species occurs from Britain and the southern part of the continental breeding range south to the Mediterranean nations, the Middle East, northern India, southern China, and Japan (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976, Cramp et al. 1977). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina The Common Goldeneye is a regular but not abundant winter visitor in North Carolina waters. Some are found inland on fresh water, but most are in small scattered flocks in salt or brackish waters along the coast. Numbers too small to record (as other than "trace") were found in North Carolina during the 1975 winter survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Wintering Goldeneyes normally are seen between October and March, bur occasional migrants may be found as late as May or June (Pearson et al. 1942, Wray and Davis 1959). South Carolina These ducks are fairly common winter residents of coastal South Carolina, generally found from November to April (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949). The January 1975 waterfowl survey reported 100 birds (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Georgia The Common Goldeneye is an uncommon winter resident in Georgia, occurring in suitable localities throughout the state from about November to early April (Burleigh 1958, Denton et al. 1977). None was reported on the 1975 389 winter waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Florida Sprunt (1954) reported that the Common Goldeneye was found in winter (November-March) throughout the state, but was never common. More re- cently, Kale (1979 ms a) listed the species as rare along the Atlantic coast of Florida but fairly common (though not abundant) on the Gulf coast north of St. Marks NWR (Kale 1979 ms b). On the basis of earlier waterfowl surveys, Bellrose (1976) estimated that the Florida wintering population held about 100 birds. The January 1975 winter survey reported 200 (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Alabama Imhof (1976b) considered this species uncommon in most of inte- rior Alabama, although it may be locally common in the Tennessee Valley and in salt water bays of the Gulf coast. The maximum mid-winter counts reported, at Dauphin Island, were between 400 and 500. Inland, as many as 200 have been seen near Decatur (Hamilton 1978). Three hundred were recorded in Alabama waters during the January 1975 waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Mississippi Burleigh (1944) reported that goldeneyes occur regularly, but in very small numbers, along the Gulf coast of Mississippi. More recent obser- vations in the state (Jackson 1976, Jackson and Weber 1976) suggest that this pattern still holds. The largest groups of Common Goldeneyes reported were of 18 and 10 birds (Jackson and Weber 1977, Jackson and Cooley 1978a). None was reported for either Mississippi or Louisiana during the 1975 winter survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Louisiana The Common Goldeneye is seen regularly in bays and lagoons along the coast, and in large lakes, but not in large numbers. In most instances, the winter visit lasts only from November to February (Lowery 1974). Texas The Common Goldeneye occurs irregularly along the Texas coast, al- though it may be locally common at times (Oberholser 1974). Bellrose (1976) indicated that some 1,300 goldeneyes winter in Texas; only about 100 reach the coast. Only 30 were reported on the 1975 census (Goldsberry et al. 1980). They usually occur in Texas from mid-November to mid-May, although a few Common Goldeneyes are occasionally seen outside these periods (Oberholser 1974). SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding In North America, the Common Goldeneye breeds primarily in Can- ada in a broad area from central Alaska, the Yukon Territory, and northwestern Mackenzie eastward across the Prairie Provinces to Hudson Bay and the Atlantic coast of Labrador and Newfoundland. The southern limits of the breeding range are in the northern tier of the United States (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Estimates of summer populations in Canada total approximately 1,225,000 birds; Alaskan birds number about 45,000, and those in the United States south of Can- ada, about 10,000 (Bellrose 1976). The centers of abundance in Canada are the boreal forests. Breeding populations in Europe are large; Cramp et al. (1977) cited breeding populations of about 100,000 birds in Finland and about 240,000 in European and western Asian U.S.S.R. Winter Winter populations of the Common Goldeneye seem small relative to 390 breeding numbers, probably because the coastal areas favored by the species are not surveyed intensively. Half of the continental winter population is off the Pacific coast, and about a third is off the Atlantic coast. In the latter area, the main wintering ground is between Long Island Sound and North Carolina. Only about 1,500 birds normally winter south of Virginia (Bellrose 1976). The largest numbers of wintering birds on the Pacific coast of North America are found in southeastern Alaska and British Columbia (Palmer 1976b). Judging from figures provided by the most recent winter survey (Goldsberry et al . 1980) and from recent Christmas count data (Map 28), the Common Golden- eye reaches its peak abundance in the southeastern United States in the north- ern and western Gulf of Mexico. Calculations based on the waterfowl harvest survey for the 1974-1975 hunting season (Larned et al. 1980) also support this conclusion. The estimated number of goldeneyes that were killed and retrieved in 1975 in each of the southeastern states is as follows: North Carolina - 0, South Carolina - 0, Georgia - 0, Florida - 0, Alabama - 328, Mississippi - 0, Louisiana - 2,437, and Texas - 1,202— a total of 3,639 birds. The figures for Louisiana and Texas much exceed those obtained on the winter watefowl survey for 1975 (2,437 vs. 0, and 1,202 vs. 30); the figure for Alabama is only slight- ly greater (328 vs. 300). Approximately 114,000 goldeneyes were reported within the contiguous Unit- ed States during the January 1975 winter waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Only 630 (0.55%) of these were reported from southeastern waters. The largest wintering populations were found in Washington (20,833), Maine (12,525), Maryland (11,300), and Illinois (10,800). Bellrose (1976) indicated that about 80% of the goldeneyes wintering in Washington are Common Goldeneyes; the popu- lations in Maine, Maryland, and Illinois are presumably almost entirely Common Goldeneyes . Data provided by Bellrose (1976) from ground and aerial surveys for areas in North America outside the contiguous United States suggest wintering popula- tions of at least 50,000 birds in Alaska, British Columbia, and the Aleutians; 5,500 in Newfoundland and the Maritiraes; and 550 along the Mexican coasts. Cramp et al. (1977) listed wintering populations for northern and central Europe that total about 210,000 birds, the great majority (170,000) of which are in Danish waters. Another 52,000 winter in the western U.S.S.R. Migration The migration pattern of North American Common Goldeneyes is not well defined, partly because of the proximity of breeding and wintering areas. Many move only a short distance from breeding grounds to wintering areas but others may migrate as far as 800-1,200 mi (1,300-1,900 km) (Palmer 1976b). Apparently most birds from the interior move to the coasts in fall, dispersing to the south along the coasts rather than inland (Bellrose 1976). Spring migration begins about the end of February in the southern part of the wintering range in the conterminous United States and reaches a peak in late March and early April; fall migration begins in early October and peaks in November and December (Palmer 1976b). 391 392 HABITAT Nesting The Common Goldeneye nests in holes, usually natural cavities in trees, primarily in boreal forests, or in man-made nest boxes. More exotic nesting sites include a ledge within a church tower (Bellrose 1976) and rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) burrows (Cramp et al . 1977). Open woods near the edges of fields or marshes are preferred (Bellrose 1976). Palmer (1976b) also noted nesting in floodplain forest, and on bog ponds and small lakes in forests. Feeding Common Goldeneyes in southwest Sweden preferred to feed on lakes that apparently lacked fish; Eriksson (1979b) believed that this choice was the result of competition between the ducks and the fish for food eaten by both. During autumn on the Swedish west coast most Goldeneyes are found on subaquatic meadows of Zostera marina, Ruppia spp., and Characeae (Pehrsson 1976). Golden- eyes take most of their food from the bottom at depths of up to 4 m (13 ft), with few probably diving deeper than 9 m (30 ft)(01ney and Mills 1963). Palmer (1976b) reported that most food is obtained in 3-12 ft (0.9-3.7 m) of water; maximum depths records for dives are about 20 ft (6 m) . Goldeneyes take food from submerged surfaces or from the water, and frequently overturn and search beneath stones (Olney and Mills 1963). Winter and Offshore Most Common Goldeneyes move to the coasts in winter and frequent the open ocean or bays there. Some are found on fresh water in the interior of the United States where large rivers and lakes remain unfrozen. Palmer (1976b) indicated that non-breeding birds of this species are typically found in shallow bays but raft at night well out from shore. Non-breeding birds are also found in estuaries (preferably brackish) and near the mouths of rivers (Palmer 1976b). Cramp et al. (1977) indicated that Common Goldeneyes are found widely on both salt and fresh water in the western Palearctic but prefer estu- aries and marine bays, sheltered shallow waters along the coast, and sewage out- falls. These ducks are usually found in small flocks but may occur in aggrega- tions of up to several hundred birds (Cramp et al. 1977). FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Most Common Goldeneyes feed by day, obtaining their food by diving, appar- ently to the bottom, except when pursuing fish. Bellrose (1976) timed 18 dives by feeding Goldeneyes in the interior United States and found that they averag- ed 30 sec in duration, with a range of 11-41 sec. Eriksson (1976) found that ducklings fed by four methods: diving, surface feeding, dabbling, and pecking at emergent vegetation. Diving occurred most frequently. Synchronous diving by members of a feeding flock has been observed; in other instances, members of a flock may dive one after another in rapid succession (Geroudet 1965 J^n Cramp et al. 1977). Goldeneyes feed predominantly on animal matter but may feed to a consider- able extent on plants in late spring and autumn; in addition, these ducks ex- hibited marked local and seasonal variation in diet (Pehrsson 1976). Animal foods made up three-quarters of the diet of a sample of 395 Common Goldeneyes examined by Cottam (1939 _in Bellrose 1976); crustaceans, insects, molluscs, and fish were the important groups represented. Among the plant food taken were 393 pondweed , wild celery, and seeds of other aquatic plants. In a study of winter- ing birds on Chesapeake Bay, Stewart (1962) found that the diet consisted large- ly of crustaceans, molluscs, and small fish, with some plant material. Crusta- cea (particularly crabs), insect larvae, amphipods, molluscs, and small fish made up most of the diet in Britain, with plant material reported from only two of four samples and in low percentages (Olney and Mills 1963). Pehrsson (1976) found that Common Goldeneyes feed on smaller mussels (Mytilus edulis) than those eaten by other diving ducks in the same area. Thus, food habits seem to be the same on both sides of the Atlantic. A study of the food of Common Goldeneye ducklings in Sweden revealed that they fed almost entirely on aquatic insects, both adults and larvae (Eriksson 1976). IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying Nesting may 'begin in mid-April and continue through much of May with regional and seasonal variation (Bellrose 1976), probably depending on local weather conditions. Eggs are laid every second day (Bellrose 1976). The mean date of the beginning of egg laying at one locality in southwest Swe- den, 1971-1977, varied from 15 April to 9 May (Eriksson 1979c). Other studies in Europe found most eggs present from about mid-May through June (Cramp et al. 1977). Mean Clutch Size Clutches in 75 North American nests held from 5 to 15 eggs and averaged 9.21 eggs (Bellrose 1976). In Finland, the mean size of 63 clutches was 9.3, ranging from 5 to 17 (Linkola 1962 in Cramp et al. 1977). Clutch size in Sweden varied from a mean of 8.5 to 10.2 over the period 1 971 — 1977 (Eriksson 1979c). The range of clutch sizes recorded for this area was 3-15 for the period 1974-1977 (Eriksson 1979a), but Eriksson defined clutch size as the number of eggs in a nest in which incubation was known to have oc- curred. Consequently, his figures would have included nests in which more than one female laid eggs and those in which eggs were lost during egg laying. Clutches laid late in the season in southwestern Sweden were significantly smaller than those laid earlier (Eriksson 1979c). Incubation Period Incubation takes 28-32 days, with an average of 30 days (Bellrose 1976). Cramp et al . (1977) indicated that most incubation periods are 29 to 30 days and listed extremes of 27 and 32 days. Hatching Success An average clutch of 9.2 eggs produces an average of 6.3 ducklings but a mean of only about 4.1 survives to near-fledging age (Bellrose 1976). An average clutch of 9.3 eggs at hatching produced an average of 4.7 young reared in Finland (Linkola 1962 in Cramp et al. 1977). In Sweden, a mean of 8.9 young hatched in nests in which at least one young hatched, but an aver- age of only 27% of the clutches hatched any eggs (Eriksson 1979c). Studies re- ported in Bellrose (1976), largely on North American Goldeneyes, indicate that 50-69% of the nests result in at least one duckling hatched. In a study con- ducted in southwestern Sweden, 1971-1977, the percentage of clutches that hatch- ed ranged from 16 to 38% (Eriksson 1979c). Fledging Success Bellrose (1976) reported that Common Goldeneye broods suffer unusually high losses. He noted that an average clutch of 9.2 eggs 394 resulted in only 4.71 ducklings by the time the young were fully feathered but not yet capable of flight. Age at Fledging Age at first flight for North American birds is 56-60 days (Bellrose 1976). Cramp et al . (1977) indicated a fledging period of 57 to 66 days, with ducklings becoming independent of their parents at about 50 days. Age at First Breeding Bellrose (1976) suggested that most Common Golden- eyes breed for the first time in their second year, and cited a report indica- ting that some may not breed until their third year or later. Mortality of Eggs and Young Nests in Minnesota were destroyed by raccoons (Procyon lotor) , red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) , and Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) (Johnson 1967 _in Bellrose 1976). Eggs were eaten by martens (Martes martes) and jays (Garrulus glandarius) in southwest Sweden (Eriksson 1979c). Dump nesting causes the desertion of some nests, as does human disturbance (Bellrose 1976). Loss of clutches in southwest Sweden, 1971-1977, was attri- buted to desertion (22% of nests lost) and predation (52%); the reason why other nesting attempts failed was not known. Two earlier studies conducted in Finland found desertion to be the most common cause of nest failure (Eriksson 1979c). Palmer (1976b) noted that competition for nest sites was a source of egg loss. Very little is known of the sources of mortality in young birds. Renesting Bellrose (1976) suggested that some renesting probably occurs if nests are lost during egg- laying and remarked that probably only a small pro- portion of hens that lose clutches re-lay. Linkola (1962 in Cramp et al. 1977) indicated that this was the situation for birds nesting in Europe. Maximum Natural Longevity A Common Goldeneye banded in North America apparently reached an age of at least 14 years and 3 months (Clapp et al. in press). Another bird banded when full grown in Europe survived for another 17 years (Rydzewski 1978). Weight Fifty-eight males averaged 2.2 lb (998 g) and 53 females averaged 1.8 lb (816 g)(Nelson and Martin 1953). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION The Common Goldeneye is frequently a victim of oiling but usually only a few individuals are involved (Table 11). King and Sanger (1979) considered this species one that could be affected by oil pollution in the Pacific North- west but not one that would be severely at risk. Recent oil spiJls in Chesa- peake Bay resulted in relatively large fatalities for wintering Common Golden- eyes (Table 11). Common Goldeneyes are not abundant in waters of the southeast- ern United States, and the birds do not gather in large rafts as do many sea ducks. In most of the southeastern states, oiling is unlikely to have a sub- stantially detrimental effect on the overall population of the Common Goldeneye. However, these birds might suffer significant losses in the colder, more north- ern, waters of North Carolina, and possibly during cold winters along the north- ern and western Gulf, where the species may be more abundant than is usually thought . 395 Table 11. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Common Goldeneyes found after major oiling incidents. Area Dates Number Percent- Number of dead age of of oiled Common Common dead Golden- Golden- birds eyes eyes Source Poole Harbor, Dorset, England N. Sjaelland, Denmark. Northeast England N. Sealand, Denmark. Laesso-Vendsys- sel, Denmark Northeast Britain Martha's Vine- yard, MA E. coast Jut- land, Denmark Off Eastern Canada S. Kattegat, Denmark North-central Kattegat, Denmark Waddensea, Denmark Baltic sea coast, Poland Baltic sea coast, Poland Jan. 1961 Feb. -Mar. 1965 Jan. 1966 Feb . -Mar . 1969 Dec. 1969 Jan. -Feb. 1970 Feb. 1970 Feb. -Mar . 1970 Feb. -Apr . 1970 Dec. 1970- Jan. 1971 Mar. 1972 Dec. 1972 1970-1974 Nov. 1974- Aug. 1975 433 (a,b) 13 2,340 (a) 14 805 1 2,376 (a) 3 1,362 3 10,992 (a,c) 5 541 (a) 1,974 (a) 1,276 (a,c) 2,311 (a) 4,759 (a) 9,151 (a) 3,867 (a,b) 653 (a,b) 13 13 21 16 34 3.00 Bourne 1968a 0.60 Joensen 1972a 0.12 Parrack 1967 0.13 Joensen 1972b 0.22 Joensen 1972b 0.05 Greenwood et al. 1971 2.40 CSLP 1971 0.66 Joensen 1972b 0.31 Brown et al. 1973 0.39 Joensen 1972b 0.44 Joensen and Hansen 1977 0.17 Joensen and Hansen 1977 0.88 Gorski et al. 1976 0.77 Gorski et al. 1977 396 Table 11 (Continued.) Area Dates Number of oiled dead birds Number of dead Common Golden- eyes Percent- age of Common Golden- eyes Source Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Firth of Forth, southern Scotland Feb. 1976 30,000 (a,c) 330 Feb. 1978 10,000 (a,c) 1,650 Feb. 197! 680 (a) 18 1.10 Perry et al. 1979 16.50 Perry et al. 1979 2.65 Campbell et al. 1978 (a) Total includes only those birds identified to species. (b) Total includes some birds that were not oiled. (c) This figure is an estimate based on counts of dead birds. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Briefe, B. 1980. Storsamling av knipor Bucephala clangula. Calidris 9: 48. Eriksson, M. 0. G. 1980. Breeding biology of the Goldeneye Bucephala clang- ula in Sweden. Doktorsavhandlung. , Zool. Inst., Goteborgs Univ. /Gothen- burg , Sweden. Janssen, R. B. 1980. A possible Common Goldeneye X Hooded Merganser. Loon 52: 37. Sims, A. C. 1980. Female Goldeneye spinning. Brit. Birds 73: 33. 1979 Coulter, M. W., W. Crenshaw, G. Donovan and J. Dorso. 1979. An experiment to to establish a goldeneye population. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 7: 116-118. Eriksson, M. 0. G. 1979a. Clutch size and incubation efficiency in relation to nest-box size among goldeneyes Bucephala clangula. Ibis 121: 107-109. . 1979b. Competition between freshwater fish and Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula (L.) for common prey. Oecologia 41: 99-107. 397 Eriksson, M. 0. G. 1979c. Aspects of the breeding biology of the Goldeneye Bucephala clangula. Holarctic Ecol. 2: 186-194. Hirsch, K. V. 1979. Wintering diving ducks in Puget Sound, and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. (Abstract only). Pac. Seabird Group Bull. 6: 37. Reichholf, J. 1979. [The wintering of Goldeneye Bucephala clangula in southern Bavaria, particularly on the lower River Inn.] Anz . Ornithol. Ges. Bayern 18: 37-48. [In German with English summary.] Rogge, D. 1979. Probleme und Erfshrungen bei vorbertenden Vesuchen zur Wieder- arsiedlung de Schellente ( Bucephala clangula) an ausgewahlenbewassen der DDR. [Problems and experiences with preliminary experiments on the intro- duction of the Common Goldeneye Bucephala clangula to selected waters in East Germany.] Beitr. Vogelkd. 25: 94-96. [In German.] 1978 Erikksson, M. 0. G. 1978. Lake selection by Goldeneye ducklings in relation to the abundance of food. Wildfowl 29: 81-85. Gauckler, A., M. Kraus and W. Krauss. 1978. Die Schellente Bucephala clangula Brutvogel in Bayern. [Breeding of the Goldeneye Bucephala clangula in Bavaria.] Anz. Ornithol. Ges. Bayern 17: 161-175. [In German.] Jepsen, P. U. 1978. Sex- and age composition of goldeneye ( Bucephala clangula) populations during the non-breeding season in Denmark. Nat. Jutlandica 20: 137-146. [In English with German summary.] Ma honey, S. P. and W. Threlfall. 1978. Digena, Nematoda , and Acanthocephalia of two species of ducks from Ontario and eastern Canada. Can. J. Zool. 56: 436-439. Moulton, M. , and M. Ports. 1978. Piracy by Ring-billed Gull on Common Golden- eyes. Bull. Kansas Ornithol. Soc. 29: 18. Oliver, P. J. 1978. Some observations on Goldeneyes in West Middlesex. Lon- don Bird Rept. 42: 85-88. Schwab, A. 1978. Flugunfaehige Schellente verweilt sieben jahre auf dem wichelsee/ow. [Flightless goldeneye remain seven years at Wichel Lake (near Alpnach, Switzerland).] Ornithol. Beob. 75: 98-99. [In German.] 1977 Campbell, L. H. 1977. Local variations in the proportion of adult males in flocks of Goldeneye wintering in the Firth of Forth. Wildfowl 28: 77-80. Campbell, L. H. and H. Milne. 1977. Goldeneye feeding close to sewer outfalls in winter. Wildfowl 28: 81-85. 398 1976 Eriksson, M. 0. G. 1976. Food and feeding habits of downy Goldeneye Bucephala clangula (L.) ducklings. Ornis Scand . 7: 159-169. Hume, R. A. 1976. Reactions of Goldeneyes to boating. Brit. Birds 69: 178-179. Gochfeld, M. 1976. An apparent hybrid Goldeneye from Maine. Wilson Bull. 88: 348-349. Jacob, K. J. 1976. Zur Haltung und Zucht de Schellente , Bucephala clangula. Zool. Garten 46: 139-144. Jepsen, P. U. 1976. Feeding ecology of Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) during the wing- feather moult in Denmark. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. 10. 23 pp. [In English with Danish and Russian summaries.] Lumsden, H. G. and R. Wenting. 1976. Common Goldeneyes hatching from cracked eggs. Auk 93: 833-835. Pehrsson, 0. 1976. Food and feeding grounds of the Goldeneye Bucephala clang- ula (L.) on the Swedish west coast. Ornis Scand. 7: 91-112. Pounder, B. 1976. Wintering flocks of Goldeneyes at sewage outfalls in the Tay Estuary. Bird Study 23: 120-131. 1975 Eriksson, M. 1975. En iakttagelse av mard Martes martes rovande agg av knipa Bucephala clangula. [An observation of a Martin, Martes martes, stealing an egg of Goldeneye, Bucephala clangula. ] Var Fagelvarld 34: 155. [In Swedish with English summary. ] Gerrard, A. J. 1975. Black-headed Gulls associating with feeding Goldeneyes. Brit. Birds 68: 295-296. Pehrsson, 0. 1975. Regional, seasonal, and annual fluctuations of the Golden- eye, Bucephala clangula (L.), on the Swedish west coast. Viltrevy 9: 241- 302. 1974 Mikkola, H. 1974. Telkan haudonta-aktiivisuudesta Kuusamon oulangalla. [On the activity of the Goldeneye during incubation in Kuusamo.j Suomen Riista 25: 71-73. [In Finnish with English summary.] Pirkola, M. K. and J. Hogmander. 1974. Sorsanpoikueiden ianmaaritys. [The age determination of duck broods in the field.] Suomen Riista 25: 50-55. [In Finnish with English summary.] Salo, L. J. 1974. Habitat selection by the Goldeneye, Bucephala clangula, and the Tufted Duck, Aythya fuligula, in forest Lappland. Suomen Riista 25: 36-41. 399 1973 Jepsen, P. U. 1973a. Studies of the moult migration and wing-feather moult of the Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) in Denmark. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. No. 8. 23 pp. . 1973b. The distribution and numbers of Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) moulting in Denmark. Dan. Rev. Game Biol. No. 8. 8 pp. 1972 Leuzinger, H. 1972. Zur Okologie der Schellente Bucephala clangula am wich- tigsten Uberwinterungsplatz des nordlichen Alpenvorlandes. Phanologie, Geschlecterver-Haltnis und Abhangigkeit des Verhaltens der Schellente von Nahrungsangebot im Gebiet Untersee/Rhein . [On the ecology of the Goldeneye, Bucephala clangula, in the most important wintering area of the Northern Alpine Piedmont. Phenology, sex ratio, and dependence of the behavior of the Goldeneye on available food in the Untersee/Rhein dis- trict.] Ornithol. Beob. 69: 207-235. [In German with English summary.] Stone, W. B. 1972. Fishing lines trap waterfowl. N.Y. State Conserv. 27: 38. 1971 Andrle, R. F. 1971. Apparent Goldeneye nest at Buffalo, New York. Kingbird 21: 212-214. Jogi, A. 1971. Zum Mausermug der Schellente (Bucephala clangula) und Trauer- ente (Melanitta nigra) in der Estnicshen SSR. Ornithol. Mitt. 23: 65-67. Nilsson, L. 1971. [Migration, nest-site tenacity and longevity of Swedish Goldeneye Bucephala clangula. ] Var Fagelvarld 30: 180-183. [In Swedish with English summary. ] Paget, J. M. 1971. Barrow's Goldeneye and Common Goldeneye on Lake Lanier. Oriole 36: 37. 1970 Bjerke, T. 1970. [The jumping reaction of Goldeneye ducklings.] Sterna 9: 149-152. [In Norwegian with English summary.] Rajala, P. and T. Ormio. 1970. On the nesting of the Goldeneye Bucephala clangula (L.) in the Meltaus game research area in northern Finland, 1959-1966. Finnish Game Res. 31: 3-9. 1969 Campbell, J. M. 1969. The Canvasback, Common Goldeneye, and Bufflehead in arctic Alaska. Condor 71: 80. 400 Linsell, S. E. 1969. Pre-dusk and nocturnal behavior of goldeneye , with notes on population composition. Wildfowl 20: 75-77. McLaren, W. D. 1969. Further data on interspecific competition at a joint Bufflehead-Goldeneye nest site. Can. Field-Nat. 83: 59-61. Nilsson, L. 1969a. The behavior of the Goldeneye Bucephala clangula in the winter. Var Fagelvarld 28: 199-210. . 1969b. The migration of the Goldeneye in north-west Europe. Wildfowl 20: 112-118. 1968 Gardarsson, A. 1968. [The Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) in Iceland, with notes on identification.] Natturuf raedingurinn 37: 76-92. [In Ice- landic with English summary. ] Prince, H. H. 1968. Nest sites used by Wood Ducks and Common Goldeneyes in New Brunswick. J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 489-500. 1967 Nilsson, L. 1967. The winter distribution, migration and sex-ratio of the Goldeneye in Sweden. Var Fagelvarld 24: 301-309. 1966 Mester, H. and W. Prunte . 1966. Beobachtungen uber die Tauchdauer der Schel- lente. Anthus 3: 46-49. 1965 Erz, N. 1965. Ringfunde von Reiherente und Schellente. Auspicium 2: 166-169. Kendall, M. 1965. Goldeneye diving into water from air. Brit. Birds 58: 341-342. Nilsson, L. 1965. [Studies on the preening behaviour of the Goldeneye (Buceph- ala clangula) . ] Var Fagelvarld 24: 301-309. [In Swedish with English sum- mary. ] Nuorteva, P. and T. Ormio. 1965. The insect fauna of the nests of the Golden- eye. Ann. Ent. Fenn. 31: 208-219. Olney, P. J. S. 1965. The autumn and winter feeding biology of certain sym- patric ducks. Internatl. Congr. Game Biol. 6: 309-321. Prince, H. H. 1965. The breeding ecology of Wood Duck (Aix sponsa L.) and Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula L.) in central New Brunswick. M.S. thesis, Univ. New Brunswick/Fredericton, NB. 109 pp. 401 1964 Dane, B. and W. G. van der Kloot. 1964. An analysis of the display of the Goldeneye Duck. Behaviour 22: 282-328. Wodner, D. 1964. Vorkommen und Durchzug der Schellente im Kreis Hoyerswerda, Falke 11: 21-24. 1963 Grenquist, P. 1963. Hatching losses of Common Goldeneyes in the Finnish Arch- ipelago. Pp. 685-689 Jji Proc. XIII Internatl. Ornithol. Congr., Ithaca, NY. Heintzelman, D. S. 1963. Diving times of a Common Goldeneye. Wilson Bull. 75: 91. Lemmetyinen, R. 1963. Telkanpoikasten suhtautumisesta isokoskeloemoonsa . Suomen Riista 16: 91. 1962 Grenquist, P. 1962. Telkan pesakolokilpaili josta lisaantymistulokesta Keski- Hameesa. [Notes on the breeding success of ducks in central Hame.] Suomen Riista 15: 157-174. [In Finnish with English summary.] 1961 Dane, B. 1961. A quantitative analysis of the display of the Goldeneye, Bucephala clangula (L.). Ph.D. thesis, Cornell Univ. /Ithaca, NY. Gibbs, R. M. 1961. Breeding ecology of the Common Goldeneye, Bucephala clang- ula americana, in Maine. M.S. thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono , ME. King, B. 1961. Pre-dusk gatherings of Goldeneyes. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 12: 166. Mantysaari, E. 1961. Poikkeuksellisen suuri telkkapoikue . [A clutch of 21 eggs of Goldeneye.] Suomen Riista 14: 124. [In Finnish with English sum- mary. ] 1960 Kuroda, N. 1960. [The food of the Goldeneyes.] Tori 15: 289-290. [In Japan- ese.] 1959 Dane, B., C. Walcott and W. H. Drury. 1959. The form and duration of the dis- play actions of the Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula). Behaviour 14: 265-281. 402 Lind , H. 1959. Studies on courtship and copulatory behaviour in the Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula L.). Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 53: 177-219. Oko, Z. 1959. Gagol, Bucephala clangula (L.) w Wielkopolsce . [The Goldeneye, Bucephala clangula (L.) in Great Poland.] Przeglad Zool. 3: 188-193. [In Polish.] 1958 Atkeson, T. Z., Jr. 1958. Goldeneye, Old Squaw, and Greater Scaup records from Wheeler Reservoir. Ala Birdlife 6: 15-16. Carter, R. C. 1958. The American Goldeneye in central New Brunswick. Can. Wildl. Serv. Wildl. Manage. Bull. (Ser. 2) 9. iii and 47 pp. 1957 Myres, M. T. 1957. An introduction to the behavior of the goldeneyes: Buceph- ala islandica and _B. clangula (Class Aves , Family Anatidae) . M.A. thesis, Univ. Brit. Columbia/Vancouver, BC. 254 pp. Siren, M. 1957a. Miten telkkapoikueet saadaan sidotuisksi omille ristamaille. [How Goldeneye broods can be tied to one's own game grounds.] Suomen Riista 11: 59-64. [In Finnish with English summary.] . 1957b. [On the faithfulness of Goldeneye to its nesting region and nesting site.] Suomen Riista 11: 130-133. [In Finnish with English sum- mary. ] 1955 Trub, J., G. Gilleron and P. Geroudet. 1955. Une nidfication du Garrot en Suisse romande, Bucephala clangula. Nos Oiseaux 23: 96-98. [In French.] 1954 King, B. 1954. Goldeneye "up-ending" and its method of drinking. Brit. Birds 47: 355. 1953 Breckenridge, W. J. 1953. Night rafting of American Goldeneyes on the Missis- sippi River. Auk 70: 201-204. 1952 Carter, B. C. 1952. The American Goldeneye in central New Brunswick. M.S. thesis, Univ. Maine/Orono , ME. 403 Siren, M. 1952. Under so kningar over knipans, Bucephala clangula, fortplant- ningsbiologi. [Studies on the breeding biology of the Goldeneye, Buceph- ala clangula. ], Riistatieteellisia Julkaisuja/Pap. Game Res. 8: 101-111. [In Swedish with English summary.] 1951 Siren, M. 1951. [Increasing the Goldeneye population with nest boxes.] Pap. Game Res. 8: 101-111. [In Finnish with English summary.] 19A4 Wright, M. B. 1944. American Golden-eyes feeding on salmon eggs. Condor 46: 126-127. 1943 Trautman, M. B. 1943. Herring Gull attack on normal Golden-eye. Wilson Bull. 55: 192. 1940 Bernhardt, P. 1940. Beitrag zur Biologie der Schellente (Bucephala clangula). J. Ornithol. 88: 488-4 97. [In German.] 1939 Gunn, D. 1939. On the courtship-display of the Goldeneye. Brit. Birds 33: 48-50. Munro, J. A. 1939. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Barrow's Golden- eye, American Golden-eye. Trans. R. Can. Instit. 22: 259-318. 1929 Mershon, W. B. 1929. Golden-eye nesting on the ground. Auk 46: 532-533. 1923 Bernhardt, P. 1928. Beobachtungen an der Schellente. Beitr. Fortpf. Vogel 4: 85-88. Mershon, W. B. 1928. Golden-eye Duck nesting on the ground. Auk 45: 498. 1924 Boase, H. 1924. Courting display of the Golden-eye on salt water. Brit. Birds 18: 69-71. 404 1920 Mayhoff, H. 1920. Von den Brutvogeln des Moritzburger Teichgebietes. Verh. Ornithol. Ges Bayern 13: 352-359. I'M 8 Mayhoff, H. 1918. Zura Schwingengerausch der Schellente. Verh. Ornithol. Ges Bayern 13: 351-359. 1911 Brewster, W. 1911. Courtship of the American Goldeneye or Whistler (Clangula clangula americana). Condor 13: 22-30. 1910 Townsend, C. W. 1910. The courtship of the Goldeneye and Eider Duck. Auk 27: 177-181. 1900 Brewster, W. 1900. Notes on the breeding habits of the American golden-eyed duck or whistler. Auk 17: 207-216. 405 BUFFLEHEAD (Bucephala albeola) [DA: Amerikansk Hvinand, DU: Buf f elkopeend , EN: Buf fel-headed Duck, FI: Pikku- telkka, FR: Garrot albeole, GE: Buf f elkopfente , IC: Hjalraond, IT: Quattrocchi americano, JA: Hime hijiro, PO: Gagol raalutki , RU: (Small Goldeneye) , SP: Por- ron albeola, Pato cabeza clara; SW: Buffelhuvud] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America Buffleheads breed from central Alaska, the Yukon Territory, and British Columbia eastward through the forested portions of Canada to Ontar- io, and perhaps to the Ungava Peninsula. The main range extends south into the United States only in Montana, Idaho, and North Dakota, but there are isolated breeding populations in the mountains of several western states (Erskine 1972), as well as a recent breeding record from central Idaho (Lannoy and Sakaguchi 1979). There are old records from beyond the primary present range (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b). In winter, Buffleheads are found from the Aleutian Islands south along the Pacific coast to northern Mexico, along the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick to the northern portions of Florida, and along the Gulf coast to Tamaulipas, Mexico (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b). Buffleheads also winter in the interior of North America on open water from the Great Lakes southwest to the central interior highlands of Mexico (Palmer 1976b). World Distribution The Bufflehead is a Nearctic species, and records out- side of North America represent stagglers. The most common extralimital records come from the Komandorskiye Islands and the Kamchatka Peninsula in the western U.S.S.R. during fall and winter. Individuals have also been reported as far south in the Pacific as the Kuril Islands, Japan, and Hawaii (Palmer 1976b). To the southeast, Buffleheads have straggled to Bermuda, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica (Palmer 1976b), and to the northeast and east have wandered to Greenland, Britain, Czechoslovakia (Palmer 1976b), and Iceland (Cramp et al. 1977). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina Buffleheads are winter residents in North Carolina, where they are usually found in small groups on lakes or other open water (Pearson et al. 1942). They are present from November through April or May and are more common along the coast than inland (Potter et al. 1980). Bellrose (1976) re- ported that about 7,100 Buffleheads were seen in North Carolina on winter water- fowl surveys (1955-1974), making this state the most important wintering ground along the southeastern Atlantic coast. The 1975 winter waterfowl survey report- ed 3,000 Buffleheads (Goldsberry et al. 1980); about 3,800 were believed to have been killed there during the preceding hunting season (Larned et al. 1980). Large congregations are occasionally recorded. Pearson et al. (1942) noted the 406 presence of 2,500 on Pea Island during the winter of 1940-41. South Carolina Buffleheads are fairly common winter residents in South Carolina, generally arriving in early November and sometimes lingering until late April. They prefer salt water and are most numerous along the coast on marshes, bays, tidal rivers, and the Inland Waterway; they occasionally occur inland on freshwater ponds and rice fields (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949). January waterfowl surveys typically found 350 Buffleheads in South Carolina (Bellrose 1976); 300 were found there during the January 1975 survey (Golds- berry et al. 1980). Winter populations are doubtless larger than this, however, since an estimate based on data provided by Larned et al. (1980) suggests that about 850 were killed there during the 1975 hunting season. In addition, four recent Christmas Counts (that covered only a portion of the coast) averaged a total of slightly over 350 birds (Map 29). Georgia Burleigh (1958) regarded the Bufflehead as an uncommon transient and winter resident throughout the state. Denton et al. (1977) assigned it the same status, and gave dates of occurrence from early November to late April. Bellrose (1976) reported that some 35 were seen there on January waterfowl sur- veys; 200 were reported on the January 1975 survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Florida This species occurs in Florida as an uncommon winter visitor, chiefly on the northern Gulf coast. Howell (1932) gave only two records from the Atlantic coast. Sprunt (1954) reported that Buffleheads occur sparingly in the central portions of the state south to Lake Okeechobee, their normal southern limit in the state. At present the Bufflehead is uncommon on the At- lantic coast, with small concentrations at Merritt Island NWR (Kale 1979 ms a, Map 29). It is generally uncommon on the Gulf coast, although more numerous in the upper Gulf (Kale 1979 ms b, Map 29). Bellrose reported that about 950 were seen on winter surveys; 1,000 were reported there on the January 1975 survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Recent Audubon Christmas Bird Counts averaged slight- ly over 1,000 Buffleheads (Map 29). Alabama Buffleheads are winter residents in Alabama. They are found both inland and on the outermost bays of the Gulf coast and are equally abundant on fresh and salt water. These ducks have been reported from early November to late April along the coast; the maximum concentration reported there was 215 birds observed at Bon Secour Bay on 8 February 1957 (Imhof 1976b). Bellrose (1976) gave no figures for populations wintering in Alabama; the 1975 winter waterfowl survey found 500 birds (Goldsberry et al. 1980) Mississippi Burleigh (1944) reported that the Bufflehead winters in ex- tremely small numbers on the Gulf coast. More recent observations indicate that the species occurs in winter in small numbers throughout the state from early November to late March (Jackson and Weber 1976, Jackson and Cooley 1978a). The largest concentration reported was 120 birds at Horn Island on 1 6 January 1978 (Jackson and Cooley 1978a). None were reported during the 1975 waterfowl sur- vey (Goldsberry et al. 1980), but slightly over 800 were believed to have been shot and retrieved by hunters during the preceding hunting season (Larned et al. 1980). Louisiana The Bufflehead is usually in Louisiana from November to March, 407 Ill 'DO© 408 with extreme dates of occurrence from mid-October to late April. These ducks occur throughout the state but are most frequent in the deepest lakes and bays (Lowery 1974). As in Mississippi, none were reported during the 1975 winter waterfowl census (Goldsberry et al. 1980), but slightly more than 800 were shot by hunters the preceding hunting season (Larned et al. 1980). Texas The Bufflehead occurs in Texas from early November to late April as a winter resident. Oberholser (1974) considered the species locally common to scarce in the western half of the state and uncommon to rare in the eastern half. Bellrose (1976) reported that the average seen on winter surveys was 4,300 Buffleheads. These ducks may now be more common along the Texas coast than this information suggests. Blacklock (1978 ms) considered the species common in winter, with peak densities present from December to February. Golds- berry et al. (1980) reported 7,730 Buffleheads during the 1975 winter survey of Texas; this was more than twice that reported for all of the other southeastern states. In addition, average Christmas Bird Counts for recent years were larger along the southern Texas coast than anywhere else in the southeast (Map 29). SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding The Bufflehead breeds solely in North America. It breeds from central Alaska east through the Yukon Territory and northern Mackenzie District, across British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, to Ontario, and probably into Quebec. It breeds south only as far as northern Idaho and north- western Montana (AOU 1957, Erskine 1972, Palmer 1976b). Isolated breeding popu- lations occur in central Oregon, northeastern California, northwestern Wyoming, and northern and eastern Idaho (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b, Lannoy and Sakaguchi 1979). Erskine (1972) suggested a range of between one-quarter and three-quarters of a million birds in the spring population of Buffleheads in North America. Bellrose (1976) analyzed additional breeding ground surveys and indicated that the spring pre-breeding population was about 745,000 birds; Erskine' s earlier analysis of the same kind of data had resulted in an estimate of 500,000. A majority of the population (423,000 birds) is found in the closed boreal forest and extensive parklands of the Canadian Prairie Provinces but the greatest den- sities (10 per sq mi) are found in the Cariboo District of British Columbia (Bellrose 1976). A survey of part of the breeding grounds in 1976 (Larned et al. 1980) revealed a population of about 896,000 birds. Nearly half (45.1%) of these were in northern Alberta, northeastern British Columbia, and the North- west Territories. Substantial numbers were also found in northern Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, and the Saskatchewan River Delta (30.3%), and in Alaska (13.1%). Winter Buffleheads winter along the Pacific coast from the Aleutians to Sinaloa on the central Mexican coast, and along the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick south (Map 29) to northern Florida and the Gulf coast as far as Tamaulipas (AOU 1957); they are also found in larger inland lakes (Bellrose 1976). In 1966-69, winter surveys by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- vice found 90,000 Buffleheads (Johnsgard 1975). Bellrose (1976) indicated that nearly 13,000 more winter on Alaskan refuges and that Audubon Christmas Bird 409 Counts reported about 150 wintering in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Quebec. About 53.4% of the 90,000 Buffleheads reported by Johnsgard (1975) winter in the Atlantic Flyway with another 35.6% in the Pacific Flyway, 6.2% in the Mis- sissippi Flyway, and about 4.6% in the Central Flyway. The proportions for the Pacific and Central flyways include counts for the west coast of Mexico and for the interior and east coast of Mexico, respectively. About 90,850 Buffleheads were found on the 1975 winter waterfowl survey, 5,990 of which were in Mexico (Goldsberry et al. 1980). The proportions found in the Pacific (29.9%) and Atlantic (52.1%) flyways were similar to those re- ported by Johnsgard (1975), but the proportion in the Central Flyway (15.7%) was considerably larger, principally because of the large number reported from Texas. The Mississippi Flyway held the remaining 2.3%. Proportions found in each flyway during the 1976 survey (Larned et al. 1980) were roughly similar, but the proportion in the Central Flyway (8.9%) was, as in the preceding year, greater than in the Mississippi Flyway (4.6%) , suggesting that there may have been a change in the winter distribution of the Bufflehead in the southeast. In 1975 the southeastern United States harbored 12,820 (ca. 14.1%) of the total found on the winter survey; about 60% of the Buffleheads in the southeast were found in Texas, which held the fifth largest wintering population. The largest wintering populations were found in Maryland (14,300), Washington (13,686), New Jersey (12,260) and California (7,877). Figures provided earlier by Bellrose (1976) suggested that roughly 19% of the population wintering in the contiguous United States and Mexico was found in the southeastern United States. The largest numbers of wintering birds were found in Washington (ca. 15,000), New Jersey (9,900), Maryland (8,800), North Carolina (7,100) and Texas (4,300). Migration During fall migration most Buffleheads migrate from their breed- ing grounds in northwestern North America either southwest to the Pacific coast or southeast to the north Atlantic coast (Bellrose 1976). Erskine (1972) point- ed out that the migratory pathways divide in Alberta. From a triangular area about 150 mi (241 km) across at its base near 54° N latitude, Buffleheads may follow a variety of routes; this area is the source of most birds migrating south. Almost all Buffleheads to the west of this area migrate southwest and most of those to the east move southeast. Considerably less is known about routes employed by migrating Buffleheads during the spring because relatively few birds are banded during the winter and only a few are shot (illegally) during the spring. The routes taken may well be very similar to those employed in fall (Erskine 1972). Erskine (1972) provided the most information on Bufflehead migration and his work has been ably summarized by Palmer (1976b) and Bellrose (1976). By February, wintering Buffleheads may be moving north along the Atlantic coast to the areas from which they will migrate overland to the breeding grounds. Most will have left the Gulf and southeastern Atlantic coasts by March. During fall migration the major movement by migrating Buffleheads apparently occurs in late October and early November with most of these ducks reaching their wintering grounds during December (Palmer 1976b). Bellrose (1976), Palmer (1976b), and especially Erskine (1972) should be consulted for further details on migration 410 in areas other than the southeast. HABITAT Nesting The Bufflehead is one of the few hole-nesting ducks and is conse- quently associated with forests in its breeding distribution. These ducks nest primarily in mixed coniferous-deciduous woodlands north and west of the Great Plains (Palmer 1976b). Palmer (1976b) indicated that Buffleheads typically nest in or by small, shallow, fresh or slightly alkaline bodies of water that have little emergent vegetation around their margins. Erskine (1972) characterized lakes used for breeding as moderately to highly eutrophic, and indicated that Buffleheads avoid both shallow, weedy sloughs and large, deep, gravel-shored lakes . Nest density is closely related to the presence of deciduous trees con- taining Common Flicker (Colaptes auratus) holes, especially aspen. Flicker holes are preferred, but holes excavated by Pileated Woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) are also used. Burned areas and parkland groves of aspens which sup- port large numbers of nesting Flickers also support large numbers of Buffleheads. Few nest far from water or in dense forest (Palmer 1976b). Most of 205 nests found in breeding areas from Alaska to California and Saskatchewan were found in in Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides - 52.2%) and Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii - 21 . 5%)(Erskine 1972). Feeding Buffleheads prefer to feed in shallow water, with most feeding done at depths of about 6-10 ft (1.8-3.0 m)(Erskine 1972). Winter and Offshore Buffleheads seek out sheltered portions of the marine habitat for winter, avoiding the more exposed coasts. They particularly favor shallow waters over mud flats that are exposed at low tide. Habitats utilized range from secluded coves, river mouths, and shoals along flat Gulf shores to the icy edges of rocky coasts (Erskine 1972). Wintering Buffleheads may occur quite far from shore and may winter on sheltered salt water, slightly brackish water, and on inland fresh water just south of the areas in which most such waters freeze (Palmer 1976b). FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Buffleheads feed predominantly by diving, using the feet for propulsion (Erskine 1972). They have also been seen wading in shallow water seizing food with their heads submerged beneath the water and also seizing food at the sur- face (King 1976). In another instance, a flock was seen up-ending on the Indian River at Cape Canaveral (King 1976). Buffleheads may dive for food individually but when in flocks often exhibit synchronized diving. Most dives take 15-25 sec in water 6-10 ft (1.8-3.0 m) deep; dives may average as little as 10 sec in shallower water. Palmer (1976b) summarized Erskine 's (1972) fine synthesis of the feeding habits of the Bufflehead by stating that "The Bufflehead feeds primarily on 411 small animals: aquatic insects, shrimps, snails, etc. (total 70%-90%), to a much lesser extent on seeds and other portions of aquatic plants." The primary foods taken on fresh water in spring and summer are insects; in autumn, insects, gas- tropods, and plants; and in winter, molluscs, the latter mostly snails. Birds on salt water from fall through spring feed chiefly on crustaceans and molluscs and to a limited extent on insects (Palmer 1976b). Erskine (1972) summarized the food habits of Buffleheads by stating that in all seasons they feed primar- ily on arthropods and only secondarily on molluscs; they feed chiefly on insects while on fresh water and on crustaceans on salt water. The most important food in marine situations are decapods, including both shrimp and crabs; isopods are also frequently eaten. Minor items of diet include marine worms, bryozoans, water mites (Hydrachnida) , and small fishes (mostly sculpins [Cottidae] ) (Erskine 1972). Erskine' s summary should be consulted for further details of the food habits of the Bufflehead. Although little is known of the food habits of Buffleheads in southeastern waters, presumably the foods eaten there are similar to those consumed elsewhere. Quay and Critcher (1965) gave the sole report of stomach contents taken entire- ly within southeastern waters. They reported that five Buffleheads wintering on Currituck Sound, North Carolina, had eaten 54.6% (by volume) plant material. The most important foods were pondweeds (Potamogeton spp. - 28.6%) and widgeon- grass (Ruppia maritima - 12.6%); southern naiad (Na jas guadalupensis - 2.0%) was considerably less important. Quay and Critcher did not indicate what kind of animals were eaten. IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying Egg-laying begins in late April in the southern parts of the range but occurs later farther north. The most northern populations begin lay- ing about mid-May. The period of peak laying ranges from early May to mid-May from southern to northern parts of the range. Almost all laying is completed by mid-June throughout the range (Bellrose 1976). Mean Clutch Size In studies summarized by Erskine (1972) of 263 nests, the mean clutch size was 8.75 eggs; 9 eggs is the most common size. Mean clutch size was smallest (7.00, n = 5 ) in southern localities (California, Ore- gon), and largest (9.00, n = 18) in northern localities (Alaska). Incubation Period Incubation periods ranged from 28 to 33 days in British Columbia (Erskine 1972). Hatching Success In Erskine' s (1972) study in British Columbia, some eggs hatched in 75-80% of all nests; in these successful nests, about 90% of the eggs laid were hatched. The average production from successful nests was 8 chicks, which represented a loss of less than one egg per nest. Fledging Success "Probably only about one-half of hatched young survive to flight" (Erskine 1972). Age at Fledging Young Buffleheads are capable of flight at 50-55 days in British Columbia (Erskine 1972). 412 Age at First Breeding Buffleheads probably breed for the first time at the age of 2 years (Erskine 1972). Mortality of Eggs and Young Nests may be destroyed by large predators (bears) or robbed by small ones (mustellids, squirrels). Competitors for nest- ing cavities (flying squirrels, birds) may cause the loss or desertion of nests and eggs. Some nests are deserted after intrusion by other Buffleheads or by Barrow's Goldeneyes that lay in the same cavity (Erskine 1972). Some young fail to leave the nest cavity or to reach water. Erskine (1972) suggested that large carnivorous fish, especially the northern pike (Esox lucius) , may take the ducklings. Renesting There is no good evidence that Buffleheads renest after the loss of a clutch (Erskine 1972). Maximum Natural Longevity Birds banded in British Columbia have been found alive up to nine years after banding (Erskine 1972). A bird recovered at Sled Lake, Saskatchewan, had reached an age of at least 14 years and 3 months (Clapp et al . in press). Weight Averaged over the year, male Buffleheads weigh about 1 lb (450 g) , and females weigh about 0.73 lb (330 g) (Erskine 1972). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Buffleheads have been involved in a few oiling incidents (Table 12). King and Sanger (1979) suggested that this species may be adversely affected in the waters of the Pacific Northwest, but they thought that the damage probably would not be catastrophic. This species seldom forms large aggregations and is fair- ly uncommon in much of the southeastern United States. Consequently, we think that there is no major hazard to the Bufflehead population from development of petroleum resources in most of the southeastern United States. Only in the colder waters of North Carolina, the state harboring more wintering Buffleheads than any other in the southeast, are these ducks likely to suffer significant mortality from oil pollution. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 Bolen, E. G. and B. R. Chapman. 1981. Estimating winter sex ratios for Buffle- heads. Southwest. Nat. 26: 49-52. 1980 Lirapert , R. J. 1980. Homing of adult Buffleheads to a Maryland wintering site. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 905-908. 413 Table 12. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Buffleheads found after major oiling incidents. Area Dates Number Number of oiled of dead dead Buffle- birds heads Percent- age of Buffle- heads Source 1.48 CSLP 1971 0.63 Brown et al 1973 0.22 Smail et al 1972 1.80 Perry et al. 1979 2.60 Perry et al. 1979 Martha' s Vine- yard, MA Off Eastern Canada San Francisco Bay, California Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Feb. 1970 541 (a) Feb. -Apr. 1,276 (a,b) 8 1970 Jan. 1971 3,221 (a,c) 7 Feb. 1976 30,000 (d) 530 Feb. 1978 10,000 (d) 260 (a) Total includes only those birds identified to species. (b) Total includes both live and dead oiled birds (c) This figure represents birds brought to cleaning/receiving stations. (d) Figure is an estimate based on counts of dead birds. 1979 Lannoy, S. L. and F. D. Sakaguchi. 1979. First record of breeding Bufflehead in central Idaho. Murrelet 60: 72-73. 1978 Davis, G. 1978. Bufflehead brood in Marshall County. Loon 50: 213-214. Erskine, A. J. 1978. Durability of tree holes used by Buffleheads. Can, Field-Nat. 92: 94-95. 1976 King, B. 1976. Feeding behaviour of Buffleheads. Brit. Birds 69: 105. 414 1973 Lubbock, M. R. 1973. The propagation and captive management of mergansers and Bufflehead. Internatl. Zoo Yearbk. 13: 72-77. 1972 Erskine, A. J. 1972. Buffleheads. Can. Wildl. Serv. Monogr. Ser. No. 4. 240 pp. 1971 Kocan, R. M. and J. 0. Knisley, Jr. 1971. The Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola): a new host record for Plasmodium. J. Wildl. Dis. 7: 217-218. Schlauch, F. C. 1971. Two Buffleheads on Long Island during the summer of 1970. Englehardtia 4: 51. Williams, W. M. H. 1971. Some notes on the rearing of Bufflehead and Hooded Mergansers (Bucephala albeola and Mergus cucullatus) . Avicult. Mag. 77: 58-65. 1969 Campbell, J. M. 1969. The Canvasback, Common Goldeneye and Bufflehead in arctic Alaska. Condor 71: 80. 1968 Gerasimov, N. N. 1968. [The Buf fle-headed duck - the casual bird of Kamchat- ka.] Ornitologiya 9: 345. [In Russian]. 1967 Wiemeyer, S. N. 1967. Bufflehead food habits, parasites, and biology in north- ern California. M.S. thesis, Humboldt St. Coll ./Areata, CA. Yamaaoto, H. 1967. A male Buffle-head was observed in two successive years. Tori 18: 196-200. 1966 Miller, R. S. 1966. Bufflehead uses artificial nest box. Blue Jay 24: 184- 185. Schroeder, C. H. 1966. Recent records of the Bufflehead breeding in North Dakota. N. Dak. Outdoors 28: 14. 1964 Erskine, A. J. 1964. Nest-site competition between Bufflehead, Mountain Blue- bird, and Tree Swallow. Can. Field-Nat. 78: 202-203. 415 Hancock, D. A. 1964. Breeding record for the Bufflehead west of the Coast Ranges in British Columbia. Can. Field-Nat. 78: 64-65. 1961 Erskine, A. J. 1961. Nest-site tenacity and homing in the Bufflehead. Auk 78: 389-396. Griffei, W. E. 1961. Bufflehead nesting racords for Oregon. Murrelet 42: 5. 1960 Erskine, A. J. 1960. A discussion of the distributional ecology of the Buffle- head (Bucephala albeola: Anatidae; Aves) based upon breeding biology studies in British Columbia. M.A. thesis, Univ. Brit. Columbia/Vancouver, BC. 1959 Erskine, A. J. 1959. A joint clutch of Barrow's Goldeneye and Bufflehead eggs. Can. Field-Nat. 73: 131. Myres, M. T. 1959. Display behavior of Bufflehead, scoters, and goldeneyes at copulation. Wilson Bull. 71: 159-168. 1947 Evenden, F. G. 1947. The Bufflehead nesting in Oregon. Condor 49: 169. 1942 Munro, J. A. 1942. Studies of waterfowl in British Columbia. Bufflehead. Can. J. Res. 20: 133-160. 1941 Davis, H. P. 1941. Nesting of Bufflehead ducks at Lake Almanor, California. Condor 43: 294. 1933 Linsdale, J. 1933. A way to distinguish young Buffle-head Ducks from young Golden-eye Ducks. Condor 35: 38-39. 1927 Raine, G. 1927. Nest of the Solitary Sandpiper, Yellowlegs, and Bufflehead duck. Oologist 44: 4-5. 1926 Dixon, J. 1926. The Bufflehead breeds in California. Condor 28: 47-48. 416 1921 Dixon, J. 1921. The Bufflehead breeding in California. Condor 23: 165. Ray, M. S. 1921. On the occurrence of the Bufflehead at Eagle Lake. Condor 23: 192-193. 1918 Monro, J. A. 1918. The Buffle Head in the Okanagan Valley, British Columbia. Oologist 35: 12-13. 1911 Simpson, R. B. 1911. A flight of Buffleheads. Oologist 28: 44, 417 HOODED MERGANSER (Lophodytes cucullatus) [DA: Hjelmskallesluger , DU: Kuifzaagbek, FI: Vaippakoskelo, FR: Harle couronne, GE: Kappensager, IT: Sraergo americano, SP: Serreta cabezona, SW: Kamskrake] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION Hooded Mergansers breed in two disjunct portions of North America. A western population nests from southeastern Alaska and southern British Columbia eastward into the Rocky Mountains of Alberta, northwestern Montana and northern Idaho, south through Washington and western Oregon through the Cascades, in the Sierra Nevada to central California, and in the Rocky Mountains to Colorado. The eastern population breeds from southern Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia south through the Mississippi Valley and the Appala- chian Mountains, sporadically to Kansas, northern Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Nesting is very rare and sporadic on the southeastern coastal plain, but has occurred even to Florida (Sprunt 1954, Repenning and Webster 1978). Both parts of the breeding range may be expanding (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Birds from the western region winter in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California, south rarely to Mexico. Those from the eastern region winter on the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plain from New England to Texas, although some occur farther inland, particu- larly in mild winters (AOU 1957, Johnsgard 1975, Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Estimates for the total pre-breeding spring population total about 76,000 birds (Bellrose 1976). The Hooded Merganser is a common migrant and winter visitor in the south- eastern states south to central Florida. It is less common in southern Florida, and its relative abundance decreases to the west through Louisiana and Texas (Map 30). It is primarily a bird of inland and fresh water areas, although some occur along the coast. The Hooded Merganser was apparently much more widespread and numerous in earlier days. The species declined with the clearing of bottom- land forests and the draining of swamp and marsh land. Since the 1930's, an in- crease in numbers has been noted, and the more southerly areas are being invaded or recolonized. Much of the nesting in the Prairie States and in the southeast takes place in boxes placed for Wood Ducks (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Some nesting has been reported in recent years in all the southeastern states except Texas . SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION No records of oil pollution of Hooded Mergansers are available. Because the species is seldom found offshore in salt water, the potential for oiling poses little threat to the species in the southeastern states. 418 419 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1981 Smith, R. L. 1981. Hooded Merganser nesting in Brookings County. S. Dak. Bird Notes 33: 15. 1980 Digulio, R. T. and R. B. Hamilton. 1980. Utilization of agricultural wetlands in a Mississippi River bottomland by Wood Duck and Hooded Merganser broods. Proc. 33rd Annu. Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies: 81-87. Graham, B. J. 1980. Nest hole competition between Wood Ducks and Hooded Mer- gansers. Jack-Pine Warbler 58: 36. Janssen, R. B. 1980. A possible hybrid Common Goldeneye and Hooded Merganser. Loon 52: 37. 1979 Ruckel, S. W. 1979. Hooded Merganser nests in Wood Duck box. Oriole 44: 50-51. 1978 Repenning, R. W. and J. W. Webster. 1978. Hooded Merganser breeding in a north Florida phosphate mine. Fla. Field Nat. 6: 48. Riexinger, P., W. T. Corbert and W. Sharick. 1978. Hooded Merganser breeding in Schoharie County. Kingbird 28: 30-31. Russell, R. P., Jr. 1978. First record of a Hooded Merganser-Wood Duck hybrid in the wild. Loon 50: 208-209. 1977 Bain, G. A. and W. Threlfall. 1977. Helminth parasites of Hooded Mergansers, Lophodytes cucullatus (L.) from Ontario. Proc. Helminthol. Soc . Wash. 44: 219-221. Dahlin, J. 1977. Mallard/Merganser pair bond. Passenger Pigeon 39: 300. Loughry, F. D. and T. Wheatley. 1977. First nesting of Hooded Merganser on Maryland's Eastern Shore. Md. Birdlife 33: 55. White, D. H. and E. Cromartie. 1977. Residues of environmental pollutants and shell thinning in merganser eggs. Wilson Bull. 89: 532-542. 1975 Browne, S. 1975. Hooded Mergansers breeding in New York. N.Y. Fish Game J. 22: 68-70. 420 White, D. H. 1975. Hooded Merganser kills a meadow vole. Wilson Bull. 87: 282. 1974 Bouvier, J. M. 1974. Breeding biology of the Hooded Merganser in southwestern Quebec, including interactions with Common Goldeneyes and Wood Ducks. Can, Field-Nat. 88: 323-330. 1973 Fitzner, R. and J. N. Fitzner. 1973. The Hooded Merganser in southeastern Washington. Murrelet 54: 38-39. 1972 Robinson, L. H. 1972. A second Hooded Merganser brood in South Carolina. Chat 36: 107. Strong, L. 1972. Utilization of artificial nesting structures by Hooded Mer- gansers in Mississippi. Mississippi Kite 2: 23-24. 1969 Kitchen, D. W. and G. S. Hunt. 1969. Brood habitat of the Hooded Merganser. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 605-609. Morse, T. E. , J. L. Jakabovsky and V. P. McCrow. 1969. Some aspects of the breeding biology of the Hooded Merganser. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 596-604. 1968 Kitchen, D. W. 1968. Brood habitat selection of the Hooded Merganser, Lopho- dytes cucullatus, in northeastern Wisconsin. M. Wildl. Man. thesis, Univ. Michigan/ Ann Arbor, MI. 73 pp. 1966 McGilvrey, F. B. 1966. Nesting of Hooded Mergansers on the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland. Auk 83: 477-479. 1961 Johnsgard, P. A. 1961. The sexual behavior and systematic position of the Hooded Merganser. Wilson Bull. 73: 227-236. 1957 Mossman, A. S. 1957. Hooded Mergansers at Afognak Island, Alaska. Condor 59: 341. 421 Sherwood, M. P. 1957. Southernmost records for the Hooded Merganser (Lopho- dytes cucullatus) in the United States. Auk 74: 266-267. 1952 Mumford, R. E. 1952. The Hooded Merganser in Indiana. Indiana Aud . Q. 30: 2-7. 1944 Sprunt, A., Jr. 1944. Two abnormal breeding records for South Carolina. Auk 61: 306-307. 1933 Bagg, A. C. and S. A. Eliot, Jr. 1933. Courtship of the Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus). Auk 50: 430-431. 1930 Robb, W. H. 1930. Nuptial performance of the Hooded Merganser. Auk 47: 244- 245. 1924 Beck, H. H. 1924. Apparent nesting of the Hooded Merganser in Lancaster Co., Pa. Auk 41: 596-597. 422 RED-BREASTED MERGANSER (Mergus serrator) [DA: Toppet Skallesluger , DU: Middeleste Zaagbek, PI: Tukkakoskelo, FR: Harle huppe, GE: Mittelsager , IC: Toppond, IT: Smergo minore, JA: Umi aisa, NW: Siland, PO: Tracz dlugodzioby, PR: Merganso, RU: (Long-nosed Merganser), SP: Mergansar de pecho, Serreta mediana; SW: Sraaskrake] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America Red-breasted Mergansers breed from the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the Yukon east across northern Canada, and south to northern Brit- ish Columbia and Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southeastern Manitoba, northern Minnesota, central Wisconsin and Michigan, southern Ontario and Quebec, north- ern Maine, and the Maritime Provinces. They occur on southern Baffin Island, but not on most other islands of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago or in the in the northeastern Northwest Territories (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b). These ducks winter mostly on salt water from the southern portions of their breeding range south along the North American coastline to Baja California, Son- ora, central Arizona and New Mexico, and the Gulf coast. Inland, they winter in the Great Lakes States, along the St. Lawrence River, and sparsely elsewhere. They are accidental visitors in the Hawaiian Islands, Bermuda, the Bahamas, Cuba, and Puerto Rico (Palmer 1976b). World Distribution The breeding range of the Red-breasted Merganser ex- tends from Greenland, Iceland, parts of the British Isles, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Estonia east across northern Europe and Asia, and south to the Baltic coast of Germany, Poland, central Russia, Lake Baikal, Manchuria, and Kamchatka (Dement ' ev and Gladkov 1952, Delacour 1954, AOU 1957, Cramp et al. 1977). Red-breasted Mergansers winter chiefly along coasts from southern Greenland, Iceland, the British Isles, Scandinavia, the North Sea, the Bay of Biscay, and the Mediterranean and Black sea coasts east to Pakistan, the China coast, Japan, and Kamchatka (Dement' ev and Gladkov 1952, Delacour 1954, Cramp et al. 1977). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina Pearson et al. (1942) considered the Red-breasted Mergan- ser a common winter visitor, arriving mainly in October along the coast and de- parting in April, although some remain until June. They are most common along the coast, especially in the Cape Hatteras region (Map 31), but may be seen throughout the state. North Carolina evidently harbors one of the largest popu- lations of wintering Red-breasted Mergansers in the southeast. A concentration of perhaps 10,000 of these mergansers was seen off Nags Head, 3 February 1972 (Teulings 1972b), and Bellrose (1976) reported average winter populations of 11,500 in Albemarle and Pamlico sounds. 423 424 Red-breasted Mergansers have bred at least once in North Carolina, well south of their normal range. A pair with a brood of seven young was present at Pea Island during the summer of 1956 (Chamberlain and Chamberlain 1956). Need- ham (1968) saw an immature Red-breasted Merganser at Wrightsville Beach on 28 June 1967 but never saw the parents. The identification remains in doubt be- cause young Red-breasted and Common Mergansers are very similar in appearance (Palmer 1976b) and because Needham gave no basis for the identification. An- other flightless young merganser was seen at an impoundment near West Onslow Beach on 6 July 1970; it was identified as a Red-breasted Merganser (Teulings 1970b), perhaps because a bird believed to be a female Red-breasted Merganser had been seen there on 10 June. South Carolina These mergansers are one of the most numerous winter wild- fowl in South Carolina, generally arriving in late October and remaining along the coast until early April; others may stay to summer (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949). They are most common along the coast (Map 31), but also occur at inland localities. Bellrose (1976) indicated average winter populations of about 1,800 birds off the coast. Red-breasted Mergansers reportedly bred within South Carolina on at least four occasions, but these records are poorly documented and the bases for spe- cific identification were never given. Burton (1970) stated that "On June 6, 1965, a female with two ducklings was seen sitting on a mudbank opposite Rock- ville, Charleston County, by T. A. Beckett III. Upon being observed, they took to the water and swam into the nearby marsh. All further attempts to locate them failed." Parnell (1967) noted that during the summer of 1967, "Red- breasted Mergansers were found nesting in the Charleston area for the second year with young birds seen by Beckett." Teulings (1972c), who indicated that the observations were again made by Beckett, stated that "At least 3 pairs of Red-breasted Mergansers were known to have nested successfully in the Charles- ton area during the summer of 1972." Teulings (1974c), again basing his statements on observations by Beckett, reported that "...Red-breasted Mergansers were present in small numbers through the period [the summer of 1974] at Charleston where a nesting pair successfully raised a brood of five young on Bohicket Creek.... Two families of Red-breasted Mergansers were also seen June 17 at Rockville, S.C." Other authors (e.g., Johnsgard 1975, Potter et al. 1980) did not question these records of Red-breasted Mergansers in" South Carolina but no records were mentioned by Bellrose (1976) or Palmer (1976b); Palmer (1976b) evidently sus- pected that these records may have been confused with Common Mergansers, "the most likely nester at southerly localities." Georgia Along the coast of Georgia, Red-breasted Mergansers are fairly common winter residents (Burleigh 1958). They are markedly less common and ir- regular in appearance throughout the interior of the state. Dates of occurrence range from 4 November (Denton et al. 1977) to 27 May (LeGrand 1979c), with a few remaining in summer. Florida Sprunt (1954) noted that Red-breasted Mergansers are common winter visitors throughout the coastal regions of both the Atlantic and Gulf 425 portions of the state (Map 31). Howell (1932) noted their presence in Florida from 10 October (St. Marks NWR) to mid-June; the species has since been re- ported in July (Ogden 1975). Red-breasted Mergansers are now abundant and wide- spread along both coasts of Florida in bays and open water the length of the state (Kale 1979 ms a, 1979 ms b) , but they are more abundant along the Gulf coast (Palmer 1976b, Map 31). Eleven Christmas Counts taken along the Atlantic coast in 1977 totalled about 1,200 Red-breasted Mergansers (Kale 1979 ms a), while sixteen Counts along the Gulf coast totalled nearly 4,500 (Kale 1979 ms b) . Flocks ranged in size from a few to more than 100 birds (Kale 1979 ms a, 1979 ms b) . One concentration near St. Marks NWR was estimated at 1,500 birds (Stevenson 1976). The Florida winter population was placed at 6,300 by Bell- rose (1976). Alabama Red-breasted Mergansers are abundant along the coast of Alabama in winter and on migration, and they are fairly common inland. They may be pre- sent along the Gulf throughout the year but are most abundant from 18 October to 16 May. A maximum concentration of 2,850 Red-breasted Mergansers was seen at Fort Morgan Peninsula, 27 December 1947. They occur casually inland during the summer but are not known to nest in Alabama (Imhof 1976b). Mississippi The Red-breasted Merganser was the only duck seen every month of the year on the Mississippi coast by Burleigh (1944). The species is abun- dant from December to March, and flocks of ten or more birds are seen frequent- ly. Scattered individuals are observed throughout the summer (Burleigh 1944, Jackson and Cooley 1978b); Burleigh noticed that these non-breeders are all in first year plumage. Louisiana This duck is moderately common in Louisiana from the last part of October until the end of April. A few may remain into the summer. They are particularly common in Barataria and Vermilion bays, in Lake Borgne, and in Chandeleur Sound. Red-breasted Mergansers occur primarily on the coastal water- ways of Louisiana and are much less common inland (Lowery 1974). Bellrose (1976) reported winter populations of 10,000 birds in Louisiana bays. Texas The Red-breasted Merganser is a winter visitor in Texas from Novem- ber to May (extremes, 18 September to 28 May); casual summer lingerers have been reported. This merganser is irregularly very common to fairly common on the up- per Texas coast, common to uncommon on the central and lower coast, and uncommon to rare and irregular over the rest of the state (Oberholser 1974). Bellrose (1976) remarked that about 98% of the 1,200 Red-breasted Mergansers found on winter surveys of the Central Flyway are found on the Texas coast. SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding The Red-breasted Merganser breeds in the Western Hemisphere from the Aleutian Islands and the Arctic coast of Alaska east to the western shore of Hudson Bay and southeastern Baffin Island, and south to northwestern Brit- ish Columbia, central Saskatchewan, the northern Great Lakes States, and the Maritime Provinces (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). There are scattered reports of casual breeding well south of this area but the validity of at least some of these is doubtful. 426 In the Old World, these mergansers breed in the northern Palearctlc from Iceland, the Faeroes, and the British Isles through Scandinavia, Denmark, and the Baltic States to Russia, northern Siberia, and the islands of the Bering Sea (BOU 1971) . Bellrose (1976) reviewed estimates of populations of North American Red- breasted Mergansers and derived from these a total summer population of 237,000. Population estimates for northern Europe indicate a population of probably not less than 13,000 pairs (Cramp et al. 1977). Winter In North America, Red-breasted Mergansers winter primarily along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts from open waters of the breeding range south to Baja California and coastal Sonora (Palmer 1976b), coastal Tamaulipas (Saunders and Saunders 1949 in Leopold 1959), and southern Florida (Palmer 1976b). Bellrose (1976) used Christmas Count figures to estimate the proportions of each species of merganser that were included in the estimates made during January waterfowl surveys. He assigned 67% of the observations to Common Mer- gansers, 25% to Red-breasted Mergansers, and 8% to Hooded Mergansers. He esti- mated that a total of nearly 60,000 Red-breasted Mergansers wintered in the four flyways: 38,000 (ca. 64%) in the Atlantic, 14,000 (ca. 24%) in the Missis- sippi, 6,000 (ca. 10%) in the Pacific, and 1,100 (ca. 2%) in the Central Flyway (Bellrose 1976). About 165,000 mergansers were counted in the contiguous United States during the January 1975 waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980). If Bellrose' s method of estimation is valid, about 41,000 of these were Red-breast- ed Mergansers, and more than half of them wintered in the waters off the south- eastern states. Eurasian populations winter south to northern Africa, the Middle East, the China coast, and Japan. About 40,000 winter in western Europe and the British Isles, another 50,000 in the Mediterranean and Black sea regions, and 48,000 pairs in Russia (Cramp et al . 1977). Migration The majority of Red-breasted Mergansers that breed inland appar- ently migrate toward the Atlantic or Pacific coasts to reach their principal wintering grounds. A smaller proportion migrate into the Great Lakes region, and from there move to either the Gulf or the mid-Atlantic coast. Those that winter along the Texas coast apparently fly from central Canada south across the Great Plains (Bellrose 1976). Cramp et al. (1977) summarized movements and chronology of migrations for this species in the Old World. Fall migrants may appear in coastal areas to the north as early as Septem- ber (Palmer 1976b) but the peak of fall migration along the southeastprn coast occurs during the third week of November (Bellrose 1976), with some migrants still moving past raid-December (Palmer 1976b). Spring migration occurs largely from early March through May in the contiguous United States, with peak movement from late March through late April (Palmer 1976b). Flocks of fall migrants may consist of a few hundred birds or more, but flocks of spring migrants are usu- ally smaller (Cramp et al. 1977). 427 HABITAT Nesting North American Red-breasted Mergansers breed both inland on lakes, rivers and ponds and along the coasts on shores and on marine islets (Palmer 1976b). Palmer (1976b) described ideal breeding habitat as small islets with low, prostrate vegetation or other natural features to cover the nest, and with open strand, gravel bars, or rocks to provide roosting and preening areas for drakes and young. Johnsgard (1975) noted that Red-breasted Mergansers breeding in northern Europe nest mainly on lakes and rivers that have barren shores and clear water. Cramp et al. (1977) pointed out that the species is largely boreal in its breeding distribution, but also nests to some extent in tundra and tem- perate forest. Nest sites of Red-breasted Mergansers are highly varied. They nest in marshes, rocky islets, on vegetated islands in large lakes, on river banks and lake shores, in cavities in banks and under rocks, and beneath piles of drift- wood, fallen logs, or conifer boughs (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). These ducks also have used nest-boxes in Finland (Palmer 1976b). Palmer (1976b) pointed out that overhead cover may be a requirement for nesting and that these ducks prefer to nest on small islands within about 10 m (33 ft) of the edge of the water. A half dozen or more nests may be found near one another; this reflects habitat preference rather than social nesting (Palmer 1976b). Feeding Johnsgard (1978) reported that wintering Red-breasted Mergansers preferred to forage in clear and shallow waters not affected by heavy waves. Non-breeding Red-breasted Mergansers are often found on less sheltered waters than their congener, the Common Merganser, and are more marine in distribution than that species (Palmer 1976b). Winter and Offshore Wintering Red-breasted Mergansers are found on both inland fresh waters and coastal marine waters but are found in the largest con- centrations along the coasts where they are most common inshore and in tide- water areas (Palmer 1976b). They are found more frequently in open ocean and on salt and brackish bays than on fresh or slightly brackish waters (Johnsgard 1978). FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Red- breasted Mergansers usually dive for food (Bellrose 1976) but they also pursue prey along the surface with only their heads submerged (Munro and Clemens 1939). The feet provide most of the propulsion but the wings are oc- casionally used (Palmer 1976b). Most food Is brought to the surface to be swal- lowed, but smaller items are eaten underwater (Cramp et al. 1977). Most feeding dives last for about 10 to 30 sec, with only short pauses between dives (Palmer 1976b). Authors cited in Cramp et al. (1977) and Bellrose (1976) provided a range of submergence times from 15 to 48 sec. Red-breasted Mergansers feed most actively in the early morning and evening (Cramp et al. 1977) and they often cooperate to drive fish into shallower water where they may be more easily captured (authors cited Jji Cramp et al. 1977). They feed in pairs and in small and large flocks. Rolls and Rolls (1974) des- 428 cribed a behavior in which birds arose from the rear of a flock on the surface of the water, pattered through or flew over the birds in front of them, and then dove into the water, evidently to seize fish. The mergansers that found them- selves at the rear of the flock then did likewise. An editorial note pointed out that this may not have been feeding behavior but may have been a form of "diving-play." Palmer (1976b) and Cramp et al. (1977) provided extensive summaries of foods eaten by Red-breasted Mergansers, and can be consulted for detailed lists of specific organisms eaten. Most of our brief summary of food habits is de- rived from these two sources. Red-breasted Mergansers largely feed on fish; one study dealing with food habits in North America indicated that about 87% of the diet was fish, the re- mainder consisting primarily of crayfish and shrimp. The fish eaten are small, usually less than 8-10 cm in length. Fish making up a significant part of the diet in one part of range or another include Salmon (Salmo salar) , sculpins (Cottus asper, C . gobio) , blueback herring (Alosa aestivalis) , herring (Clupea pallasii) , sticklebacks (Gasterosteus spp., especially G. aculeatus) , and min- nows (Phoxinus) . Shrimps eaten include Pandalus and Crago. Other foods taken to a lesser extent include fish eggs, frogs (Rana) , annelids, (nereids, Lubri- cidae) , insects (nymphs of dragonflies [Anisoptera] , mayflies [Ephemerida] , aquatic Coleoptera [e.g., Dytiscus ] , and larval craneflies [Tipulidae] and caddisflies [Trichoptera] ) , amphipods (Gammarus) , crabs (Carcinus, Lophopano- peus) , prawns (Palaemonidae) , and molluscs (Hydrobira, Mytilus, Littorina, Cardium, Mya) . Exceedingly little is known of food habits in the southeastern United States. A wintering bird collected in South Carolina contained only top min- nows (Gambusia) (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949). IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying In North America, nests may be initiated in late May, but the season more frequently begins in mid June. Nests may be started as late as mid- July (Bellrose 1976). The peak of laying in Britain is in May and early June, and in Iceland occurs during the first three weeks of June (authors cited ^n Cramp et al. 1977 ). Mean Clutch Size In North America, nests hold 5-11 eggs, with an average of 7.8 per nest; clutches in Europe average slightly larger (Bellrose 1976). Palmer (1976b) indicated that first clutches usually contain 7-11 eggs. Re- placement clutches in Finland averaged 6.2 eggs. Eggs are sometimes laid in dump nests, or in nests of other birds of this or other species (Palmer 1976b). Incubation Period Bellrose (1976) cited a figure of 30 days for confined birds in England. Palmer (1976b) cited studies of clutches in the wild, with incubation periods from 29 to 35 days, usually 32 days. Hatching Success Little exact information is available. Many nests are abandoned, and not all eggs hatch in nests that produce young (Palmer 1976b). 429 Individual broods in North America range from 3 to 13 young, with an average of 7.8 (Bellrose 1976). Fledging Success Broods of young often combine into large groups (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b), masking the success of individual broods. Age at Fledging The age at first flight for birds in the wild is not known, but is probably less than the 65 days or more required by the Common Merganser (Bellrose 1976). Heinroth and Heinroth (1928 jji Palmer 1976b) estimated an age at first flight of 59 days; their estimate was based on observations of captive birds. Cramp et al. (1977) indicated that young achieved independence before this, at about 50 days. Age at First Breeding Red-breasted Mergansers first breed as they approach two years of age (Palmer 1976b). Mortality of Eggs and Young Kortegaard (1968) indicated that nests in North Jutland had been destroyed by otters (Lutra lutra) , rats (Rattus norveg- icus) , foxes (Vulpes vulpes) , and gulls (Larus sp.). Renesting Bellrose (1976) suggested that renesting is rare because of the lateness of nest initiation, but Palmer (1976b) cited data to suggest it happens frequently in Europe. Maximum Natural Longevity The oldest bird yet recorded in North America was about 5 years old (Clapp et al . in press), but records from Europe show that Red-breasted Mergansers may attain an age of 9 years, 8 months (Rydzewski 1978). Weight Nelson and Martin (1953) gave a mean weight of 18 adult males of 2.5 lb (1,100 g) and that of 17 adult females of 2.0 lb (910 g) . SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Its wintering habitat in coastal marine habitats and its method of feeding (diving, often in flocks) make the Red-breasted Merganser vulnerable to oiling. There are many recent reports of oiled birds, both from the Old and New Worlds (Table 13), but few major losses have been reported. Ranwell and Hewitt ( in Vermeer and Vermeer 1974) indicated heavy losses following a spill in Poole Harbour, England. Brown et al. (1973) suggested that as much as two-thirds of the Red-breasted Mergansers wintering in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, died fol- lowing an oil spill in February 1970. Mortality from oiling has also been re- corded in the southeastern United States. Robertson and Mason (1965) found two Red-breasted Mergansers that had been killed by oil at Long Key in the Dry Tor- tugas in January 1964, and at least two more died from oiling following a spill off Tampa, Florida, in January 1970 (data from the Bird-Banding Office). King and Sanger (1979) gave the Red-breasted Merganser an Oil Vulnerability Index of 56 (out of a possible 100) for birds in the northeast Pacific. This figure indicated a species that might be affected, but not catastrophically so. A substantial proportion of the American Red-breasted Merganser population 430 winters in the southeastern United States. We must assume that development of petroleum resources in the southeast presents some hazard to the stability of populations of this species in North America. Table 13. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Red-breasted Mergansers found after major oiling incidents. Area Dates Number Number of dead of oiled Red- dead breasted Percent- age of Red-breast- ed Mergan- birds Mergansers sers Source North Sea coast , Denmark Poole Harbour, Dorset, England N. Sjaelland, Denmark Medway Estuary, Kent, England Pagham Harbour area, W. Sussex, England Bornholm, Denmark Tay Estuary, Scotland N. Sealand, Denmark Northeast Britain Martha's Vine- yard, MA E. coast Jutland, Denmark Off eastern Canada 1957-1958 Jan. 1961 Feb. -Mar. 1965 Sep. 1966 Jan. -Feb. 1967 Jan. -Feb. 1968 Mar .-Apr . 1968 Feb . -Mar . 1969 Jan. -Feb. 1970 Feb. 1970 Feb . -Mar . 1970 Feb . -Apr . 1970 92 (a) 3 3.26 433 (a,b) 48 11.09 2,340 (a) 55 2.35 2,748 (a) 1 0.04 91 (a,b) 44 48.35 466 (a) 1 0.21 1,168 (b) 10 0.86 2,376 (a) 48 2.02 10,992 (a,c) 22 0.20 541 (a) 3 0.55 1,974 (a) 28 1.42 1,276 (a,c) 40 3.13 Joensen 1972a Bourne 1968a Joensen 1972a Bourne 1968a Phillips 1967 Joensen 1972a Greenwood and Keddie 1968 Joensen 1972b Greenwood et al. 1971 CSLP 1971 Joensen 1972b Brown et al. 1973 431 Table 13. (Continued.) Area Dates Number of oiled Red- dead birds Number Percent- of dead age of Red-breast- breasted ed Mergan- Mergansers sers Source S. Kattegat, Denmark San Francisco Bay, California Djursland-Anholt , Denmark North-central Kattegat, Denmark Waddensea , Denmark Baltic sea coast, Poland Firth of Clyde, Ayrshire, Scotland Baltic sea coast, Poland Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Firth of Forth, southern Scotland Varangerf jord , north Norway Dec. 1970- Jan. 1971 Jan. 1971 Mar. 1971 Mar. 1972 Dec. 1972 1970-1974 Jan. 1974 Nov. 1974- Aug. 1975 Dec. 1976 Feb. 1978 Feb. 1978 Mar. 1979 2,311 (a) 28 1.21 3,221 (a,d) 6 0.19 239 2 0.84 4,759 (a) 22 0.46 9,151 (a) 5 0.05 3,867 (a,c) 9 0.23 279 (a) 6 2.15 653 (a,c) 2 0.03 30,000 (e) 6 0.002 10,000 (e) 30 0.59 680 (a) 4 0.73 1,616 (f) 2 0.12 Joensen 1972b Smail et al. 1972 Joensen 1972b Joensen and Hansen 1977 Joensen and Hansen 1977 Gorski et al. 1976 Lloyd et al. 1974 Gorski et al. 1977 Perry et al. 1979 Perry et al. 1979 Campbell et al. 1978 Barrett 1979 (a) Total includes only those birds identified to species. (b) Total includes both live and dead oiled birds. (c) Total includes some birds that were not oiled. (d) This figure represents birds brought to cleaning/receiving stations. (e) Figure is estimate based on counts of dead birds. (f) An estimated 10,000 to 20,000 seabirds were killed during this spill, 432 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Braun, B. M. , P. A. Heinz and G. H. Heinz. 1980. Herring Gull predation on Red-breasted Merganser ducklings. Wilson Bull. 92: 403. Jackson, J. A. and B. J. Schardien. 1980. The Red-breasted Merganser as a summer bird on the Mississippi Coast. Mississippi Kite 10: 8-9. 1979 Stedman, S. and A. Stedman. 1979. Feeding association between Bonaparte's Gulls and Red-breasted Mergansers. Fla. Field Nat. 7: 27. 1978 Atkinson, K. M. and D. P. Hewitt. 1978. A note on the food consumption of the Red-breasted Merganser. Wildfowl 29: 87-91. Blaser, P. 1978. Ein Gaensesaeger-Mittelsaeger-bastard am Thunersee. [A Goosander X Red-breasted Merganser hybrid at Thun Lake.] Ornithol. Beob. 75: 275-276. [In German with English summary.] van der Berg, A., H. J. M. Baptist and P. L. Meininger. 1978. Twee broedge- vallen van de Middelste Zaagbek Mergus serrator in het Grevelingenmeer . [Two breeding cases of the Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator in the Lake Grevelingen. ] Liraosa 51: 1-5. [In Dutch with English summary.] 1977 Lingle, G. R. and T. A. Schupbach. 1977. Food of a Red-breasted Merganser in Michigan. Jack-Pine Warbler 55: 97. Moller, A. P. 1977. Yngletidspunkt , kuldstorrelse og ungerproduktion hos nogle andefugle i Nordjylland. [Time of breeding, clutch size, and nestling pro- duction in some species of Anatidae in northern Jutland, Denmark.] Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 71: 68-69. [In Danish with English summary.] Phillips, J. and J. Duncan. 1977. Red-breasted Merganser killing Oyster- catcher. Scott. Birds 9: 299-300. White, D. H. and E. Cromartie. 1977. Residues of environmental pollutants and shell thinning in merganser eggs. Wilson Bull. 89: 532-542. 1975 van der Kloot , W. and M. J. Morse. 1975. A stochastic analysis of the display behavior of the Red-breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator). Behaviour 54: 181-216. 433 1974 Rolls, J. C. and M. J. Rolls. 1974. Red-breasted Mergansers diving from the air. Brit. Birds 67: 78. 1973 Petrovic, C. A. and J. King, Jr. 1973. Bird records from the Dry Tortugas. Fla. Field Nat. 1: 5-8. 1972 Erskine, A. J. 1972. Populations, movements and seasonal distribution of mergansers in northern Cape Breton Island. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. No. 17. 36 pp. Keating, P. 1972. Courtship behavior of Red-breasted Merganser in February. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc. 5: 28. 1971 Pelzl, H. W. 1971. Nest parasitism by Red-breasted Mergansers in Wisconsin. Auk 88: 184-185. 1970 Emlen, S. T. and H. W. Ambrose, III. 1970. Feeding interactions of Snowy Egrets and Red-breasted Mergansers. Auk 87: 164-165. 1968 Kortegaard, L. 1968. Studier over den Toppende Skalleslugers (Mergus serrator) ynglebiologi i Vejlerne. [Studies on the breeding biology of the Red- breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator) in Vejlerne, North Jutland.] Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 62: 37-67. [In Danish with English summary.] Needham, F. 1968. Immature Red-breasted Merganser at Wrightsville Beach, N.C. Chat 32: 27. 1966 Hogstrom, S. 1966. Anteckningar om konskvot och flockstorlek hos overvin- trande smaskrake pa Gotland. Fauna Flora 61: 207-213. 1965 Des Lauriers, J. R. and B. H. Brattstrom. 1965. Cooperative feeding behavior in Red-breasted Mergansers. Auk 82: 639. Fatora, J. A. 1965. Red-breasted Merganser observed on Savannah River Plant. Chat 29: 108-109. 434 Nilsson, L. 1965. [Observations of the spring behaviour of the Red-breasted Merganser.] Var Fagelvarld 24: 244-256. [In Swedish with English sum- mary. ] Robertson, W. B. , Jr. and C. R. Mason. 1965. Additional bird records from the Dry Tortugas. Fla. Nat. 38: 131-138. Walker, C. H. and D. H. Mills. 1965. Organic chlorine insecticide residues in Goosanders and Red-breasted Mergansers. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 16: 56-57. 1964 Locke, L. N., J. B. DeWitt, C. M. Menzie and J. A. Kerwin. 1964. A merganser die-off associated with larval Eustrongylides. Avian Dis. 8: 420-427. 1963 Hending, P, B. King and R. Prytherch. 1963. Communal diving in turbid water by Red-breasted Mergansers. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 14: 172-173. Johnston, D. W. 1963. Red-breasted Merganser in summer near Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Chat 27: 54. Kumerloeve, H. 1963. Von Ubersommern (und Fruhsommerzug?) des Mittelsagers bei der nordfriesichen Insel Amrum. Beitr. Vogelkde. 8: 286-287. 1962 Mills, D. H. 1962a. The Goosander and Red-breasted Merganser in Scotland. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 13: 79-62. . 1962b. The Goosander and Red-breasted Merganser as predators of salmon in Scottish waters. Sci. Invest. Freshwater Salm. Fish Res., Scott. Home Dept. 29: 1-10. 1961 Thompson, M. C. 1961. The flight speed of a Red-breasted Merganser. Condor 63: 265. 1958 Grenquist, P. 1958. [A nesting box for the Red-breasted Merganser.] Suomen Riista 8: 49-59. [In Finnish with English summary.] 1957 White, H. C. 1957. Food and natural history of Mergansers on salmon waters in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 116. 63 pp. 435 1956 Aass, P. 1956. Sil-andens naering i ferskvann. Norg. Jeger-og Fisk Forb. 85: 8-14. Bergman, G. 1956. Om kullsaramanslagning hos skrater , Mergus serrator, och Mergus merganser. Fauna Flora 1956: 97-110. [In Swedish with English summary. ] Pflugbeil, A. 1956. Bruten des Mlttelsagers auf Schleimunde, 1955. Vogelwelt 77: 44-47. 1954 Curth, P. 1954. Der Mittelsager. A. Ziemsen Verlag. Wittenburg Lutherstadt. 102 pp. [In German.] 1953 Penner, L. R. 1953. The Red-breasted Merganser as a natural avian host of the causative agent of Clam Digger's Itch. J. Parasitol. 39 (suppl.): 20. 1952 Erickson, J. G. 1952. A possible hybrid between the Hooded Merganser and the Red-breasted Merganser. Wilson Bull. 64: 167. Owen, D. F. 1952. Red-breasted Merganser breeding in Cumberland. Brit. Birds 45: 294. 1951 Hoogerheide, C. and C. Groot. 1951. Enkele notities over het gedrage van de Middleste Zaagbek. Lev. Naturr 54: 33-38. Ringleben, H. 1951. Aus dem Leben des Mittelsagers (Mergus serrator L.). I. Vogelwelt 72: 43-50, 84-87, 119-128. [In German.] 1950 Yocum, C. F. 1950. Red-breasted Merganser in eastern Washington. Murrelet 31: 13. 1947 Adams, R. G. 1947. Mating behaviour of Wigeon and Red-breasted Merganser. Brit. Birds 40: 186-187. 1946 Bunker, A. 1946. Gulls taking fish from mergansers. Can. Field-Nat. 60: 115. 436 1940 von Tome, H. 1940. Etwas vom Mittelsager. Beitr. Fortpf. Vogel 16: 173-180. 1939 Munro, J. A. and W. A. Clemens. 1939. The food and feeding habits of the Red- breasted Merganser in British Columbia. J. Wildl. Manage. 3: 46-53. White, H. C. 1939. The food of Mergus serrator on the Margaree River. Nova Scotia J. Fish Res. Bd . Can. 4: 309-311. 1938 Wilhjelm, 0. 1938. Vore ynglende Skalleslugeratern. Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 32: 101-153. 1937 Burdet, A. 1937. Troisieme cas de nidification du harle huppe (Mergus serra- tor L.) en Hollande. Ardea 26: 111-115. [In French.] Johnson, R. A. 1937. Tapeworm in young Red-breasted Merganser. Auk 54: 383. Loppenthin, B. 1937. Toppet Skallesluger , Mergus serrator, ynglende ved fersk- vand. Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 31: 152-153. [In Danish.] 1925 Colraan, H. R. and H. Boase. 1925. Courting display of the Red-breasted Mergan- ser on salt water. Brit. Birds 18: 313-316. 1912 Strong, R. M. 1912. Some observations on the life-history of the Red-breasted Merganser, Mergus serrator Linn. Auk 29: 479-488. 437 COMMON MERGANSER (Mergus merganser) [DA: Stor Skallesluger , DU: Grote Zaagbek, EN: Goosander, FI: Isokoskelo, FR: Harle bievre, GE: Gansesager, IC: Gulond, IT: Smergo raaggiore, JA: Kawa aisa, NW: Laksand, PO: Tracz nuroges , PR: Merganso , RU: (Large Merganser), SP: Ser- reta grande, SW: Storskrake, US: American Merganser] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America The Common Merganser breeds from southern Alaska and the southern Yukon east across central Canada to southern and eastern James Bay and across the Labrador Peninsula to Newfoundland, south in the mountains to cen- tral California and southern Colorado, occasionally farther south, and east from southern Alberta to the Great Lakes States, northern New York, and New England (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). They have recently been breeding in small num- bers in the upper Delaware River of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and in the Sus- quehanna River Valley of Pennsylvania (Boyle et al. 1980). Most North American Common Mergansers winter from the Pribilof and Aleutian islands, southern British Columbia, Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, Missouri, the Great Lakes States, the St. Lawrence Valley, Prince Edward Island, and Newfound- land south to southern California, north-central Mexico, and northern Texas, and east to central Georgia (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976). Small numbers winter farther south to central Baja California, the northern Gulf coast, and southern Florida (Palmer 1976b). World Distribution Outside North America, the Common Merganser breeds from Iceland, Great Britain, Scandinavia, and the Baltic Sea region south to eastern France, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, and Greece, east across Russia, central Siberia, and Mongolia to Kamchatka and Sakhalin, and from Afghanistan and the Himalayas to Tibet and Altai. They winter on open water in Europe, the northern Mediter- ranean region, on the Black, Caspian, and Aral seas, the Persian Gulf, northern India, northern Indochina, southeastern China, and Japan (Delacour 1954, AOU 1957, BOU 1971, Cramp et al. 1977). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES North Carolina Common Mergansers are uncommon to rare winter visitors in North Carolina, where they are primarily found inland on fresh water. Most are present from November to April (Potter et al. 1980); dates of occurrence for winter visitors extend from as early as 29 October (LeGrand 1979a) to as late as 21 April (Wray and Davis 1959). The numbers of Common Mergansers that occur along the coast is not well known because some are probably overlooked among the much more abundant and sim- ilar appearing Red-breasted Mergansers. LeGrand (1978) noted that this species is more numerous in the Carolinas during very cold winters and reported that 18, 438 which he considered an impressive number, were seen inland on Roanoke Rapids Lake, 22 January 1978. Common Mergansers have bred at least once in the state but are rarely seen during the summer. A pair nested at Bennett's Pond, Chowan County, in 1938 and another bird was collected at Cape Hatteras on 26 June 1939 (Pearson et al. 1942) . South Carolina Sprunt and Chamberlain (1949) considered the Common Mergan- ser "decidedly uncommon" as a winter resident, recorded between 24 November and April 16. Burton (1970) believed that it might be more abundant than previously thought because females might be confused with the similar but more common Red- breasted Merganser; he remarked that these mergansers were primarily regarded as coastal visitors. Reports of larger numbers have come primarily from inland, however. A flock of 250 or more was seen on 24 September 1961 at Hartwell Lake (Chamberlain 1961). Inlands counts of 22 at Lake Greenwood, 3 February 1977 (LeGrand 1977a), and 16 there 10 February 1978 (LeGrand 1978) were considered "impressive" and "remarkable" by LeGrand. Georgia In Georgia, this species is an uncommon winter visitor, seen only at infrequent intervals (Burleigh 1958). Denton et al. (1977) considered it rare in the interior and uncommon on the coast, with records from mid-November to mid-April . Florida This species occurs uncommonly in Florida as a winter visitor (Sprunt 1954). It is found coastally in saltwater bays, lagoons, rivers, and offshore. There were several records for the winter of 1977-78 (Kale 1978, Stevenson 1978). Kale (1979 ras a, 1979 ms b) considered the Common Merganser rare on both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Alabama Imhof (1976b) considered this merganser fairly common to uncommon in winter in the Tennessee Valley but rare and irregular elsewhere in the state. Most are present between late October and late April; dates of occurrence along the coast are from 20 November to 24 April. The largest number reported for the Gulf coast is 10 at Dauphin Island, 27 December 1958 (Imhof 1976b). Mississippi There are only a few reports of the Common Merganser in Mis- sissippi, all between late December and early February 1977-78, and all from inland lakes (Jackson and Weber 1977, Jackson and Cooley 1978a). The largest number reported is eight at Moon Lake, 4 February 1978. Louisiana Lowery (1974) regarded the Common Merganser as an uncommon win- ter visitor in Louisiana, recorded in all months from October through April; there is one record for June. Most of the 37 records are from non-coastal lo- calities but the species has been seen in all coastal parishes. The largest numbers reported have been 21 on University Lake, Baton Rouge, 4 December 1955 (Lowery 1974); and "more than 20" at Calcasieu Lake, 5 December 1970 (Hamilton 1971). Texas The Common Merganser is a winter visitor in Texas. Oberholser (1974) noted that these ducks are irregularly very common in the northern and middle Panhandle, locally common to scarce in the southern Panhandle and Trans- 439 Pecos, and scarce to rare elsewhere. Most are present between late October and May, with extreme dates of occurrence of 21 October and 16 June. Summer strag- glers are occasionally recorded both inland and along the coast. Oberholser (1974) indicated that most Common Mergansers occur on fresh water, and only a few are seen on brackish inlets and bays. SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding In North America, most Common Mergansers breed from southern Al- aska east across Canada to James Bay and across the Labrador Peninsula to New- foundland, south in the western mountains to California and Colorado, and east to the Great Lakes States and New England (AOU 1957, Palmer 1976b). They oc- casionally breed south of this range; some records attributed to the more marine Red-breasted Merganser may apply to this species. Bellrose (1976) estimated that the summer population of Common Mergansers in North America may be as high as 641,000 birds. Johnsgard (1978) cautioned that these estimates are based on uncertain assumptions, and suggested that this figure may be an overestimate. Palmer (1976b) believed that the total popula- tion in North America was small compared to populations of other ducks and prob- ably consisted of no more than several hundred thousand birds. The principal breeding grounds are apparently in the closed boreal forest from Alberta to Lab- rador (Bellrose 1976). Breeding populations are much smaller in Europe and are poorly known elsewhere. Some of the larger breeding populations reported by Cramp et al. (1977) are as follows: 500-1,000 pairs in Great Britain, ca. 4,000 pairs in Finland, 1,300-1,400 pairs in the Baltic area of the U.S.S.R. , and 1,500 pairs in Estonia. Winter Most North American Common Mergansers winter from open waters within the breeding range south to a line extending eastward from southern Cal- ifornia through northern Texas to southern South Carolina (Bellrose 1976). Old World populations from some areas (Iceland, Great Britain) largely winter with- in the breeding range; other populations are more strongly migratory and occur south to the northern Mediterranean, the Caspian Sea area and the Persian Gulf, northern India, southeastern China, and Japan. Bellrose (1976) estimated that the wintering population of the North Amer- ican Common Merganser was about 165,000 birds, the majority wintering in the interior of the continent. He indicated that the largest wintering populations were in Oklahoma (30,000 birds), Illinois (ca. 20,000), Ohio (12,000), eastern New Mexico (12,000), Kansas (10,000), Nebraska (9,000), and upstate New York (ca. 6,000). The status of the Common Merganser in the coastal waters of the southeastern United States is inadequately known because of difficulties in distinguishing it from the similar and more numerous Red-breasted Merganser. Bellrose (1976) indicated that Common Mergansers are generally uncommon in the southeast; only a few hundred are found along the Atlantic coast between Vir- ginia and Florida, and less than a thousand winter south of Tennessee and Mis- souri. Cramp et al. (1977) listed estimates for wintering populations of Common Mergansers in northwestern Europe: 75,000 in the Europe/Black Sea/Mediterranean 440 region; 10,000 in the Black Sea; and 26,000 in the Caspian Sea region of the U.S.S.R. Migration Like Old World birds (Cramp et al. 1977), North American Common Mergansers may make either short local migrations or more extensive ones (Palmer 1976b), and migratory pathways are still poorly known. Palmer (1976b) noted that this species usually moves singly, in pairs, and in small groups that tend to remain close to shore along coasts. Timken and Anderson (_in Johnsgard 1975) indicated that groups of 8 to 9 birds are usually seen, and that flocks never contain more than 30 birds. Apparently females and young migrate farther than do most adult males (Palmer 1976b); this accounts for the preponderance of sightings of the former in southeastern waters. In fall this species migrates later than most other ducks. Young and adult females precede adult males by several weeks. On the Atlantic coast, migration peaks in November; in Florida it does not peak until after mid-December (Palmer 1976b). Birds wintering from Mobile to Galveston Bay do not arrive until late December (Bellrose 1976). The spring migration is relatively early, and the age difference in migration is reversed from that found in fall. The spring migra- tion of more southerly wintering birds may begin as early as mid-February (Pal- mer 1976b), but the peak is in March and may continue into April. Data summa- rized by Cramp et al. (1977) suggest that these migratory phenomena are similar in Old World birds. HAB ITAT Breeding Palmer (1976b) regarded the Common Merganser as a species that nests primarily in cool, clear waters of northern forests and western mountains. Johnsgard (1975) believed that the preferred nesting habitat was ponds near the upper portions of rivers in forested areas and clear freshwater lakes with for- ested shorelines. He indicated that Common Mergansers prefer to nest on islands in such situations. Nests are usually found in holes and concealed recesses. Holes in trees are frequently used (Palmer 1976b). Other sites used include recesses beneath boulders, dark spaces under the roots of fallen trees, crevices in cliffs, areas under dense shrubbery, and hollows in stream cutbanks (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Most nests are situated near water (Palmer 1976b) and may be found as much as 50 ft (15 m) up in tree holes (White 1957 ^n Bellrose 1976). Common Mergansers also have used a wide variety of artefactual cavities as nest sites. Nest boxes have been used in both the New and Old Worlds. Since the availability of suitable nesting holes is believed to limit distribution (Palmer 1976b), breeding populations of this species in some areas could presum- ably be increased by providing such sites. Grenquist (1953 in Palmer 1976b) in- dicated that as many as 63 of 100 nest boxes were occupied during one breeding season in the Finnish Archipelago, and young hatched in 53. Other nest sites provided by man include an abandoned lighthouse tower, bales of hay in an aban- doned icehouse, and a stone pier supporting a covered bridge (Bellrose 1976). Feeding Johnsgard (1975) summarized preferred feeding habitat as fairly 441 shallow waters from 1 1/2 to 6 ft deep. Palmer (1976b) added that Common Mer- gansers regularly feed in deep or shallow rapids. Most foraging occurs in clear water, because Common Mergansers visually select and follow their prey; most food is taken near the bottom (Palmer 1976b). Winter and Offshore Dement' ev and Gladkov (1952) stated that the most char- acteristic winter habitat was the mouths and pre-estuarine regions of rivers. Cramp et al. (1977) indicated that any large body of open water is used, and use of marine waters is only incidental. These authors remarked that Common Mergansers can only be regarded as sea-ducks to a minor degree because they seek out fresh water and may winter inland on almost any large reservoir, lake, or river. Bellrose (1976) indicated that the increase in wintering populations in states such as Oklahoma and Kansas was probably the result of the building of many reservoirs and impoundments. Palmer (1976b) indicated that Common Mergan- sers are a shoalwater species and thus are usually found near the shore. FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Common Mergansers principally dive from the surface for their food, pro- pelling themselves with their feet as they chase their prey. They swim with their heads submerged and dive in all but shallow water. Occasionally, these mergansers may "tip-up" to seize prey. They also occasionally probe around near stones near the bottom. Food is occasionally stolen from gulls and they have been observed feeding on dead or dying fish that had been caught in tur- bines (authors cited Jji Cramp et al. 1977). Most dives are shallow but these ducks have been caught as deep as 35-40 ft (11-12 m) in gill nets (Palmer 1976b). Submergence times are usually about 30 sec, but may range up to about 2 minutes. They feed most actively in the early morning and evening. The pattern of feeding behavior may vary from area to area (authors cited _in Johnsgard 1975, Palmer 1976b, Cramp et al. 1977). More detailed accounts of feeding techniques and interactions with other spe- cies may be found in Johnsgard (1975), Palmer (1976b), and Cramp et al. (1977). Various studies (e.g., Johnsgard 1975, Palmer 1976b) agree that Common Mer- gansers are opportunistic feeders. They feed on whatever is most plentiful and most easily available, primarily fish. Recent summaries (Johnsgard 1975, Bell- rose 1976, Palmer 1976b, Cramp et al. 1977) indicate that as little as 75% of the diet may consist of fish but often all food identified is fish. A great variety of fish are consumed; Palmer (1976b) indicated that this merganser is known to eat at least 50 species of fish. Other food items ingested include fish eggs and fry, frogs (Rana) , salamanders (Ambystoma) , crustaceans (shrimp, crayfish, crabs), molluscs (mussels, crabs), insects and their larvae, and ner- eid annelids (authors cited above). On rare occasions they have been known to eat birds and they occasionally even eat Water Shrews (Neomys f odiens) and water snakes (Cramp et al. 1977). The authors cited above provide exhaustive lists of species eaten. Their summaries, as well as the papers cited therein, should be consulted for further details. Hansen (1978c) and Anderson and Reeder (1977) give more recent infor- mation on food habits than that provided by the handbooks; we do not summarize 442 these here because their papers shed no light on food habits in the southeast- ern United States. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Small numbers of Common Mergansers have been involved in oil spills (Table 14). King and Sanger (1979) suggested that this species is moderately vulner- able to oiling along the northern Pacific coast of North America. The fact that these ducks are uncommon in southeastern waters and prefer fresh water implies that they would not be adversely affected by offshore development of petroleum resources . Table 14. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Common Mergansers found after major oiling incidents. Area Dates Number of oiled dead birds Number of dead Common Mergan- sers Percent- age of Common Mergan- sers Source Northeast Britain Jan. -Feb. 10,992 (a,b) 1 1970 0.009 Greenwood et al. 1971 North-central Kattegat, Denmark. Mar. 1972 4,759 (a) 0.04 Joensen and Hansen 1977 Waddensea , Denmark Dec. 1972 9,151 (a) 0.01 Joensen and Hansen 1977 Baltic sea coast, Poland 1970-1974 3,867 (a,c) 1 0.03 Gorski et al. 1977 Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Feb. 1976 8,385 (a) 11 0.13 Roland et al. 1977 Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Feb. 1978 10,000 (c) 39 0.39 Perry et al. 1979 (a) Total includes only those birds identified to species. (b) Total includes some birds that were not oiled. (c) Figure is estimate based on counts of dead birds. 443 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Borenius, G. 1980. Familj av storskrak slussar fran ostersjon till raalaren. [Female Goosander, Mergus merganser, leading brood through a lock.] Var Fagelvarld 39: 105. [In Swedish with English summary.] Hansen, S. G. 1980a. Breeding status of the Goosander in Norway. Dan. Fugle 32: 147-151. [In English with Danish summary.] 1980b. Selection of nest-sites of the Goosander (Mergus m. merganser L.) in Denmark. A further test of Hildens theories concerning habitat selection in birds. Dan. Fugle 32: 177-192. [In English with Danish sum- mary. ] Klaus, R. 1980. Gansager — Brutvogel am oberen Zurichsee. [Goosander — breeding bird on Upper Zurich Lake.] Ornithol. Beob. 77: 244. [In German.] Meek, E. and B. Little. 1980. Goosander studies in the British Isles. Dan. Fugle 32: 132-146. [In English with Danish summary.] Neubauer , W. 1980. Die Brutvorkommen des Gansesagers (Mergus m. merganser) in der DDR. Dan. Fugle 32: 168-170. [In German with Danish summary.] Nittyla, J. 1980. On the development of some Goosander (Mergus m. merganser L.) populations in Finland: a review. Dan. Fugle 32: 158-165. [In English with Danish summary. ] Schmidt, G. A. J. 1980. Zur Nestplatz-Situation beim Gansesager in Schleswig- Holstein. Dan. Fugle 32: 171-176. [In German with Danish summary.] Sjoberg, K. 1980. The Goosander — relation to man. Dan. Fugle 32: 152-157. [In English with Danish summary. ] Walter, D. 1980. Ganseisager Mergus merganser-Bruterfolg im Oberallgau. [Goosander Mergus merganser — breeding sequence in Oberallgau.] Anz. Ornithol. Ges. Bayern 19: 111-112. 1979 Foreman, L. D. 1979. Flock size and density of Common Mergansers in north- western California. Calif. Fish Game 65: 124-127. 1978 Blaser, P. 1978. Ein gaensesaeger-mittelsaeger-bastard am Thunersee. [A Goosander X Red-breasted Merganser hybrid at Thun Lake.] Ornithol. Beob. 75: 275-276. Brock, G. J. 1978. Goosander attacking Osprey. Scott. Birds 10: 53. 444 Hansen, S. G. 1978a. Den tldsmaessige fordeling af den Store Skalleslugers (Mergus m. nerganser) forekorast i og omkring Danmark i traek- og vinter- perioden. [The appearance of the Goosander (Mergus m. merganser) in and around Denmark during the migration and winter-period.] Dan. Fugle 30: 142-149. [In Danish with English summary.] . 1978b. Konsfordelingen blandt de i og omkring Danmark rastende og over- vintrende Store Skalleslugere (Mergus merganser merganser) . [The sex ratio of the Goosanders (Mergus m. merganser) resting and wintering in and around Denmark.] Dan. Fugle 30: 150-154. [In Danish with English summary.] . 1978c. Storrelse og facon pa den Store Skalleslugers (Mergus m. mergan- ser) fodeeraner — isaer fisk. [Size and shape of the food-items — especially fish — of the Goosander (Mergus m. merganser) . ] Dan. Fugle 30: 156-159. [In Danish with English summary.] . 1978d. Skal den Store Skallesluger overleve som dansk ynglefugl? Dan. Jagt 95: 16-19. . 1978e. Den Store Skallesluger-en skovens fugl. Jaget og hjemlos. Felt- ornithologen 20: 208-211. Lovegrove, R. 1978. Breeding status of Goosanders in Wales. Brit. Birds 71: 214-216 Mattig, G-L. 1978. Der Gansesager, Brutvogel an der Oder zwischen Eisen- huttenstadt und Frankfurt. Der Falke 25: 330-336. Nitsche, G. 1978. Brutnachweis des Gaensesaegers Mergus nerganser in der Oberen Wertach. [Breeding of the Goosander Mergus merganser in the upper Wertach.] Anz. Ornithol. Ges. Bayern 17: 182. [In German.] Sheppard, J. R. 1978. The breeding of the Goosander in Ireland. Irish Birds 1: 224-228. 1977 Anderson, B. W. and M. G. Reeder. 1977. Food habits of the Common Merganser in winter. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc . 10: 3-6. Hansen, S. G. 1977a. Farveringmaerkning af stor Skallesluger Mergus merganser pa ynglepladsen i Danmark. [Color-marking of Goosanders Mergus merganser at the Danish breeding grounds.] Dan. Ornithol. Foren. Tidsskr. 71: 65-66. [In Danish with English summary.] . 1977b. Storrelsen af den Store Skalleslugers, Mergus m. merganser, ynglebestande i Danmark frem til 1977. Feltornithologen 19: 206-207. Meek, E. R. and B. Little. 1977a. The spread of the Goosander in Britain and Ireland. Brit. Birds 70: 229-237. . 1977b. Ringing studies of Goosanders in Northumberland. Brit. Birds 70: 273-283. 445 Michels, H. 1977. Der Rueckgang der Saeger auf dem Rhein ira raum Dusseldorf. [The decline of mergansers in the Dusseldorf area of the Rhine.] Chara- drius 13: 26-29. White, D. H. and E. Cromartie. 1977. Residues of environmental pollutants and shell thinning in merganser eggs. Wilson Bull. 89: 532-542. 1976 Foreman, L. D. 1976a. Nest site and activity of an incubating Common Merganser in northwestern California. Calif. Fish Game 62: 87-88. . 1976b. Observations of Common Merganser broods in northwestern Califor- nia. Calif. Fish Game 62: 207-212. Hansen, S. G. 1976a. A survey of the Goosander (Mergus merganser) breeding populations in northern Europe. Dan. Fugle 28: 151-163. . 1976b. Some aspects of the migration-biology of Goosander (Mergus mer- ganser) populations in northern Europe on the basis of existing ringing data. Dan. Fugle 28: 164-178. Hansen, S. G. and S. D. Hedrup. 1976. A list of ringing data on the Goosander, Mergus merganser , in northern Europe. Dan. Fugle 28: 179-195. 1975 Hansen, S. G. 1975. Meddelelser om undersogelser af den Store Skalleslugers biologi i Danmark. Feltornithologen 17: 16. Sjoberg, K. 1975. Bytesval och predationsef fektivitet hos skraker i labora- torieforsok. [Prey selection and effect of predation by Mergus merganser and M. serrator in the laboratory.] Fauna Flora 70: 241-246. [In Swedish with English summary. ] 1974 Anderson, B. W. , M. G. Reeder and R. L. Timken. 1974. Notes on the feeding behavior of the Common Merganser (Mergus merganser). Condor 76: 472-476. Bauer, U. and H. Zintl. 1974. Brutvorkoramen und Brutbiologie des Gansesagers, Mergus merganser, in Bayern. [Distribution and breeding biology of the Goosander in Bavaria.] Anz. Ornithol. Ges. Bayern 13: 71-76. [In German with English summary. ] Bowman, M. C. 1974. Common Crows as commensals of Common Mergansers. King- bird 24: 60-61. Citron, J. D. 1974. Gulls steal fish from Common Mergansers. Delmarva Orni- thol. 9: 71-72. Coolidge, H. W. 1974. Early fall observations of Pintails and Common Mergan- sers. Oriole 39: 48. 446 Miller, S. W. and J. S. Barclay. 1974. Predatlon In warm water reservoirs by wintering Common Mergansers. Proc. 27th Annu. Conf . Southeastern Assoc. Fish & Game Commiss.: 243-252. Nilsson, L. 1974. Naringsval hos rastande och overvintrande storskrake Mergus merganser i Skane. [Food preference in resting and wintering Goosanders, Mergus merganser, in Scania, Sweden.] Var Fagelvarld 33: 293-294. [In Swedish with English summary.] Sjoberg, K. 1974. The food of the Goosander (Mergus merganser) in northern Sweden. Rapport nr. 52 fra Ricklea faltstation. Tyler, J. D. 1974. Early fall date for Common Merganser. Bull. Okla. Orni- thol. Soc. 7: 55. 1973 Dyck, J. 1973. Redekasser til Stor Skallesluger . Fuglevaern 1973: 18-19. Miller, S. W. 1973. Predation by the Common Merganser in a warm water reser- voir. Q. Rept. Okla. Coop. Res. Unit 26: 14-20. 1972 Anderson, B. W. and R. L. Timken. 1972. Sex and age ratios and weights of Common Mergansers. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 1127-1133. Erskine, A. J. 1972. Populations, movements and seasonal distribution of mergansers. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rept. Ser. No. 17. 35 pp. 1971 Anderson, B. W. and R. L. Timken. 1971. Age and sex characteristics of Common Mergansers. J. Wildl. Manage. 35: 388-393. Erskine, A. J. 1971a. Growth, and annual cycles in weights, plumages and re- productive organs of Goosanders in eastern Canada. Ibis 113: 42-58. . 1971b. Parental carrying of young by Goosanders. Wildfowl 22: 60. Grubb, T. C. , Jr. 1971. Bald Eagles stealing fish from Common Mergansers. Auk 88: 928-929. 1970 von Westerhagen, W. 1970. Uber das Jahreszyklus des Gansesagers, Mergus merganser. Corax 3: 121-129. [In German.] 1969 Hauri, R. 1969. Bemerkenswerter Felsenbrutplaz des Gansesagers. Ornithol. Beob. 66: 19-20. 447 Timken, R. L. and B. W. Anderson. 1969. Food habits of Common Mergansers in the northcentral United States. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 87-91. 1968 Heidelbauer, F. A. 1968. Cliff-nesting Common Merganser at Uranium City. Blue Jay 26: 88-89. 1966 Geroudet, P. 1966. La situation actuelle du Harle bievre, Mergus merganser sur Le Leman. Nos Oiseaux 28: 251-256. Latta, W. C. and R. F. Sharkey. 1966. Feeding behavior of the American Mer- ganser in captivity. J. Wildl. Manage. 30: 17-23. Nilsson, L. 1966. [The behaviour of the Goosander (Mergus merganser) in the winter.] Var Fagelvarld 25: 148-160. [In Swedish with English summary.] Preuss, N. 0. 1966. Stor Skallesluger. Feltornithologen 8: 28. 1965 Bezzel, E. 1965. Balz und Paarbildung von Ganse- und Zwergsager (Mergus mer- ganser und M. albellus) im Winterquartier nach Beobachtungen aus Sudbayern. Vogelwelt 8~5: 112-122. [In German.] Himberg, M. 1965. Nagra iakttagelser och reflexioner betraffande storskrakens f odoamnesval. — Huso Biologiska station. Meddelande No. 9: 22-31. Stutz, S. S. 1965a. Escape behavior of Common Merganser broods. Murrelet 46: 47. . 1965b. Size of Common Merganser broods. Murrelet 46: 47-48. Walker, C. H. and D. H. Mills. 1965. Organic chlorine insecticide residues in Goosanders and Red-breasted Mergansers. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 16: 56-57. 1963 Lemmetyinen, R. 1963. Telkanpoikasten suhtautumisesta isokoskeloemoonsa. [The behaviour of Goldeneye ( Buchephala clangula) ducklings incubated by a Goosander (Mergus merganser) hen toward their foster-mother. ] Suomen Riista 16: 91. [In Finnish with English summary.] 1962 Mills, D. H. 1962a. The Goosander and Red-breasted Merganser as predators of salmon in Scottish waters. Sci. Invest. Freshwater Salm. Fish. Res. Scott , Home Dept. 29: 1-10. 448 Mills, D. H. 1962b. The Goosander and Red-breasted Merganser in Scotland, Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 13: 79-92. 1961 Tebbutt, C. F. 1961. Black-headed Gulls feeding in conjunction with Goosand- ers. Brit. Birds 54: 284. 1959 Heard, W. R. and M. R. Curd. 1959. Stomach contents of American Mergansers, Mergus merganser americana Linnaeus, caught in gill nets in Lake Carl Blackwell, Oklahoma. Proc . Okla. Acad. Sci. 39: 197-200. Huntington, E. H. and A. A. Roberts. 1959. Food habits of the merganser in New Mexico. N. Mex. Dept . Game Fish Bull. 9: 36 pp. Lindroth, A. and E. Bergstrom. 1959. Notes on the feeding technique of the Goosander in streams. Repts. Int. Freshwater Res. Drottningholm (Fish. Bd. of Sweden) No. 40: 165-175. 1958 Fritsch, L. E. and I. 0. Buss. 1958. Food of the American Merganser in Unak- wik Inlet, Alaska. Condor 60: 410-411. Griffee, W. E. 1958. Notes on Oregon nesting of American Merganser and Barrow's Goldeneye. Murrelet 39: 26. 1957 White, H. C. 1957. Food and natural history of Mergansers on salmon waters in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. Bull. Fish Res. Bd. Can. 116: 1-63. 1956 Bergman, G. 1956. Om kullsammanslagning hos skrakar Mergus serrator och Mer- gus merganser. Fauna Flora 1956: 97-110. [In Swedish with English sum- mary. ] Jopson, H. G. M. 1956. Breeding of the American Merganser in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. Auk 73: 285. 1955 Holmer, M. 1955. [Notes on the biology of the Goosander (Mergus merganser) at the Indal River.] Var Fagelvarld 14: 231-235. [In Swedish with English summary. ] Lindroth, A. 1955. Mergansers as salmon and trout predators in the River In- dalsalven. Rep. Inst. Freshwater Res., Drottningholm 35: 113-117. 449 Poncy, R. 1955. A propos de Harles. Nos Oiseaux 23: 84. [In French.] 1953 Alcorn, J. R. 1953. Food of the Common Merganser in Churchill County, Nevada. Condor 55: 151-152. Lamore, D. 1953. Ring-billed Gulls stealing fish from female American Mergan- sers. Wilson Bull. 65: 210-211. 1952 Johnson, G. F. 1952. Goosander breeding in Cumberland. Brit. Birds 45: 294. 1948 Wetmore, A. 1948. A Pleistocene record for Mergus merganser in Illinois. Wilson Bull. 60: 240. 1946 Hvid, 0. 1946. Den Store Skallesluger. Dan. Jagt 63: 112. 1945 Barnes, V., Jr. 1945. American Merganser in Puerto Rico. Auk 62: 460. Lovell, H. B. 1945. Reaction of American Mergansers to Herring Gull depreda- tion. Wilson. Bull. 57: 202. 1943 Renssen, Th. A. 1943. Overzomerende Grote Zaagbekken, Mergus merganser (L.). Ardea 32: 280-281. [In Dutch.] 1942 Grenquist, P. 1942. Iakttagelser over Storskravens , Mergus m. merganser, foda omeddelbart efter ruggningen. Ornis Fenn. 19: 25-28. 1940 Salyer, J. C. , II and K. F. Lagler. 1940. The food and habits of the American Merganser during winter in Michigan, considered in relation to fish manage- ment. J. Wildl. Manage. 4: 186-219. 1939 Coldwell, C. 1939. The feeding habits of American Mergansers. Can. Field- Nat. 52: 55. 450 1937 Munro, J. A. and W. A. Clemens. 1937. The American Merganser in British Col- umbia and its relation to the fish population. Bull. Biol. Bd. Can. 55: 1-50. White, H. C. 1937. Local feeding of kingfishers and mergansers. J. Biol. Bd. Can. 3: 323-338. 1936 Munro, J. A. and W. A. Clemens. 1936. Food of the American Merganser (Mergus merganser americanus) in British Columbia. Can. Field-Nat. 50: 34-36. White, H. C. 1936. The food of kingfishers and mergansers on the Margaree River, Nova Scotia. J. Biol. Bd. Can. 2: 299-209. 1935 Cooper, G. P. 1935 ms. Analysis of the stomach contents of thirteen American Mergansers taken from the Escanaba River, Michigan, during September, 1935. Inst. Fish Res. Rept. No. 313. 6 pp. 1930 Gordon, A. S. 1930. Some breeding-habits of the Goosander. Brit. Birds 23: 245-247. 1929 van Rossem, A. J. 1929. Nesting of the American Merganser in Chihuahua. Auk 46: 380. 451 MASKED DUCK (Oxyura domlnica) [EN: Quail Duck, FR: Canard masque, Canard zombie, Canard routoutou; GE: Masken- ruderente, SP: Pato dominico, Pato chorizo, Pato chico, Pato criollo, Pato es- pinoso, Pato codorniz, Pato agostero] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION The Masked Duck is primarily a species of the West Indies and northern South America. It occurs in the Lesser Antilles, Trinidad and Tobago, and in South America east of the Andes from Colombia to northern Argentina, Uruguay, southern Bolivia, and southeastern Peru. It has occurred one or more times in all the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico (except Mississippi), and as a straggler north to Wisconsin and Massachusetts (Johnsgard and Hagemeyer 1969). It is resident locally from coastal Texas (uncommonly) and Nayarit south through Mexico and Central America to Panama, and in the Greater Antilles, but is rare east of Hispaniola (AOU 1957, Bond 1971). There are single records of the Masked Duck in Georgia (Johnsgard and Hage- meyer 1969) and Alabama (Imhof 1976b). The species has been recorded frequently in Florida, with annual appearances since 1973 and as many as nine reported at once. Owre (1962) suggested that the species might be more frequent in Florida than previously recognized. The record tends to bear this out, and a nesting record there in the near future would not be surprising. We know of six records of the Masked Duck in Louisiana, and Lowery (1974) predicted that "it will soon- er or later be found to nest in southwestern Louisiana." The history of occurrences of the Masked Duck in Texas, including the first two verified nestings, was summarized through 1968 by Johnsgard and Hagemeyer (1969). Oberholser (1974) extended the record into 1970, and noted three records of breeding in the 1930' s. Small numbers of Masked Ducks were seen in each year of the past decade in counties along or near the southern Gulf coast. Definite nesting areas in recent years are Anahuac NWR, Chambers County; Falfuttias, Brooks County; Welder Wildlife Refuge, San Patricio County (Johnsgard and Hage- meyer 1969, Oberholser 1974); and Brownsville, Cameron County (Webster 1978a). SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION We have no information that oiling has affected Masked Ducks. Because of the limited distribution and rarity of the species in the southeastern states, and because of its preference for inland waters, the Masked Duck is not likely to be greatly affected by oiling incidents. 452 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1974 Jenni, D. A. and R. D. Gambs. 1974. Diving times of grebes and Masked Ducks, Auk 91: 415-417. 1973 Fall, B. A. 1973. Noteworthy bird records from south Texas (Kenedy County) Southwest. Nat. 18: 244-247. 1969 Jenni, D. A. 1969. Diving times of the Least Grebe and Masked Duck. Auk 86: 355-356. Johnsgard, P. A. and D. Hagemeyer. 1969. The Masked Duck in the United States. Auk 86: 691-695. 1958 Seaman, G. A. 1958. Masked Duck collected in St. Croix, Virgin Islands. Auk 75: 215. 1956 Hames, F. 1956. Masked Duck in Florida. Auk 73: 291. Loetscher, F. W., Jr. 1956. Masked Duck and Jacana at Brownsville, Texas. Auk 73: 291. 1927 Lawrence, R. B. 1927. Masked Duck (Nomonyx dominicus) in Texas. Auk 44: 415. 1906 Houghton, C. 0. 1906. The Masked Duck in Maryland. Auk 23: 335. 189S Fisher, A. K. 1895. The Masked Duck (Oxyura dominicus) in the lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas. Auk 12: 297. 453 RUDDY DUCK (Oxyura jamaicensis) [DU: Rosse Stekestaart, FR: Erismature roux, Erismature joues blancs; GE: Schwarzkopf Ruderente, SP: Malvasia canelo, SW: Araerikansk kopparand] GENERAL DISTRIBUTION North America The Ruddy Duck breeds from north-central British Columbia, northern Alberta, central Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba south to southern California, central Arizona, northern New Mexico, and western and southern Texas. Nesting has occasionally occurred in Alaska, the north-central and eastern Unit- ed States, Florida, Louisiana, southern Baja California, central Mexico, and Guatemala. The species winters from southern British Columbia, Idaho, Colorado, Kansas, the Great Lakes, and Massachusetts south through the United States and most of Mexico into Central America and in the Bahamas (AOU 1957, Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). World Distribution Subspecies of the Ruddy Duck are resident throughout the West Indies, the Greater Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles south to Grenada, and in the Andes of South America from Colombia to Argentina and Chile (AOU 1957, Meyer de Schauensee 1966, Bond 1971). An introduced population is estab- lished in Britain (Cramp et al. 1977). DISTRIBUTION IN THE COASTAL SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES The Ruddy Duck is common as a migrant and winter visitor in the southeast- ern states; it breeds regularly in Texas but has been found nesting only rarely elsewhere in the region. The movement of birds from the Caribbean population to the southeastern coast of the United States has not been documented but is a possibility. North Carolina Ruddy Ducks are common winter residents from October to May along the coast of North Carolina, but are less common inland (Potter et al . 1980). The principal wintering ground along the Atlantic Seaboard extends from Pamlico Sound in North Carolina northward into Chesapeake Bay (Bellrose 1976). The 1975 winter waterfowl survey recorded 9,300 Ruddy Ducks in North Carolina and about another 3,000 were killed there during the preceding hunting season (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Two pairs nested at Pea Island in 1953 (Wray and Davis 1959) but this seems to be the only record of extralimital nesting in North Carolina. Birds occasi- onally summer on impoundments or other bodies of water (Teulings 1970a, 1971c, 1972c, 1973b). South Carolina These ducks are common winter residents in coastal South Carolina and are seldom found in the interior (Sprunt and Chamberlain 1949). Bellrose (1976) estimated a winter population of about 4,000 along the coast. 454 The 1975 winter waterfowl survey found 1,600 Ruddy Ducks in South Carolina, and about 500 were killed there during the 1975 hunting season (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Burton (1970) listed three instances of breeding within the state, one at Bear's Island Game Management Area, another at Bull's Island, and a third at Magnolia Gardens. Georgia The Ruddy Duck is fairly common in winter in Georgia, and is found both in coastal areas and inland (Burleigh 1958, Denton et al. 1977). Bellrose (1976) estimated that fewer than 100 winter in Georgia, however, and none were found during the 1975 survey of wintering waterfowl by the U.S. Fish and Wild- life Service (Goldsberry et al. 1980). None were known to have been killed in Georgia during the 1973-1975 hunting seasons (Goldsberry et al. 1980, Larned et al. 1980), and Christmas Bird Counts from 1973-1977 for Sapelo Island and Glynn County averaged only 45 and 105 birds, respectively. Thus, the species is con- siderably less common in Georgia than in states to the north. A few records of birds in summer suggest that breeding may occur (Denton et al. 1977). Florida Bellrose (1976) estimated that the winter population of Ruddy Ducks in Florida reaches 11,000 birds; the 1975 January survey found only 2,700 (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Kale (1979 ms a, 1979 ms b) regarded this duck, largely found on fresh water in Florida, as uncommon along the Atlantic coast and most of the Gulf coast. It is more abundant in northern Florida than in the southern part of the state (Sprunt 1954), and reaches its peak abundance inland and along the panhandle. As many as 8,000 to 10,000 were once seen inland on Lake Jackson (Robertson 1971, Stevenson 1971) and winter populations of 7,500 to 8,400 have been recorded at St. Marks NWR (Kale 1979 ms b). Ruddy Ducks have bred at least three times in Florida. A female with six young was seen near Mayport , Duval County, in June 1964; adults with two young were seen in an abandoned rock quarry near Live Oak, Columbia County, in late May 1976 (Menk and Stevenson 1977); and a pair with young was seen at the site of the Occidental phosphate mine in 1979 (Ogden 1979). Alabama This bird is a fairly common migrant and winter visitor in Ala- bama from October to May, mainly on deep ponds in the interior. Breeding birds have not been observed, although some birds have been present through the sum- mer. The largest count along the Gulf coast was of 250 at the Mobile Delta (Imhof 1976b). About 320 were believed to have been killed during the 1974 hunting season (Goldsberry et al. 1980), and about 525 were shot and retrieved by hunters during the subsequent season (Larned et al. 1980). The January 1975 waterfowl survey reported 100 in Alabama (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Mississippi Ruddy Ducks are reported as regular visitors to the Gulf coast from November to May, but in small numbers (Burleigh 1944). They are apparently more abundant inland, with a count of more than 2,000 at Jackson on 1 January 1977 (Jackson and Weber 1977). Bellrose (1976) reported an average winter popu- lation of 8,000; most of these birds were seen at sites well away from salt wa- ter. The 1975 winter waterfowl survey recorded 6,600 Ruddy Ducks in Mississippi (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Although birds have spent the summer (Jackson and Cooley 1978a), nesting has not been reported. Louisiana Bellrose (1976) estimated an average winter population of 13,000 455 Ruddy Ducks in Louisiana, mostly on lakes associated with the Mississippi River, Only 1,000 were reported on the January 1975 waterfowl survey, but the surveys of both Louisiana and Mississippi were incomplete (Goldsberry et al. 1980). Most Ruddy Ducks are found in Louisiana from November through mid-April, with occasional birds remaining in summer. Nesting occurred near Holly Beach, Cam- eron Parish, in 1969 and 1970 (Lowery 1974). Texas Approximately 6,000 Ruddy Ducks winter along the Gulf coast of Texas, with a slightly smaller number in the northwestern part of the state (Bellrose 1976). Goldsberry et al. (1980) reported 3,230 wintering in Texas during the 1975 waterfowl survey. The species breeds along the coast and at scattered inland localities in the central part of the state (Meitzen 1963, Oberholser 1974). SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE Breeding The Ruddy Duck nests in western Canada from north-central Brit- ish Columbia, Alberta, central Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba south in the western United States through most of Washington, Oregon, western Idaho, and central California and in the Plains States through northern Montana, the Dak- otas, western Minnesota and Iowa, Nebraska, western Kansas, western Oklahoma, and central Texas, and into the mountains of Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. There are records of sporadic or occasional nesting from Maine to Florida in the east, and from Alaska to Mexico in the west. Bellrose (1976) estimated an average breeding population of 595,000 birds for North America over the years 1955-73. Individual surveys of the North American breeding grounds in 1976 (Larned et al. 1980) totalled about 277,000 birds; this figure is probably low, since some parts of the breeding range were not surveyed. Palmer (1976b) pointed out that the Ruddy Duck was formerly much more num- erous and that numbers declined greatly during the early part of the century as a result of market shooting. He also remarked that the current and continuing loss of breeding habitat would prevent this species from ever attaining its for- mer abundance and suggested that the total continental population of Ruddy Ducks was no more than a few hundred thousand birds at best. The size of populations breeding elsewhere are, in general, poorly known. We have no adequate information on the size of South American and West Indian populations; Hudson (1976) reported that the feral population in England con- sisted of 40-45 pairs in 1974. Winter Calculations based on Bellrose 's (1976) data indicate a North Amer- ican winter population of about 232,700 birds. About 55% of these winter in the Pacific coastal states and western Mexico (ca. 136,650 birds), most of these in California. Another 20% (ca. 36,000 birds) winter in the interior of the con- tinent, and about 25% (60,000 birds) winter along the Atlantic coast. Most of the latter population is concentrated in an area from Chesapeake Bay to Pamlico Sound, frequenting brackish estuarine waters. Florida (11,000), Louisiana (13,000), and coastal Texas (6,000) harbor large winter populations of Ruddy Ducks (Bellrose 1976). 456 The 1975 mid-winter waterfowl survey (Goldsberry et al. 1980) recorded about 152,600 wintering Ruddy Ducks in the United States and Mexico; an esti- mated additional 64,500 had been killed during the preceding hunting season. Of those surveyed, 43% were in the Pacific Flyway, 2% were in the Central Fly- way, 7% were in the Mississippi Flyway, 39% were in the Atlantic Flyway, and 9% were in Mexico. About 16% (ca. 24,500 birds) wintered in the southeastern United States. The largest wintering populations were in California (ca. 54,250 birds), Maryland (25,500), North Carolina (9,300), and Oregon (8,300). Audubon Christmas Bird Counts (Map 32) suggest that larger winter concentra- tions occur in southern Florida and Texas. Wintering populations elsewhere are not well known. Palmer (1976b) cited Leopold's (1959) observation in 1952 of an estimated 107,700 Ruddy Ducks just west of Acapulco in Guerrero, Mexico, and remarked that this population may have have then represented more than a third of the entire North American population. Unknown numbers winter in and perhaps south of Guatemala. Winter surveys in the Caribbean have revealed about 100 birds (Bellrose 1976). The post-breeding population of introduced Ruddy Ducks in England numbers in the low hundreds (Hudson 1976). Migration Birds from the prairies tend to move to the coasts, particularly the Pacific coast, funnelling into three major areas — the Great Salt Lake of Utah, Minidoka NWR near Rupert, Idaho, and the Klamath Basin of California. From these areas the birds move on to southern California and western Mexico. Birds from the north central prairie states may move eastward to the Chesapeake Bay or New England. Some apparently move directly south across the Great Plains (Bellrose 1976). Within the contiguous United States spring migration occurs from early March into May. Dispersal in the fall may occur as early as August but the pri- mary movement to the wintering range occurs from early September to early Decem- ber, with a peak in October. Ruddy Ducks wintering in Mexico arrive later and depart earlier than do birds wintering farther north (Palmer 1976b). Most mi- gration occurs at night in small flocks of five to fifteen birds (Bellrose 1976). HABITAT Nesting Ruddy Ducks nest in emergent vegetation in water about a foot deep at the edges of prairie marshes (Bellrose 1976). Cattail (Typha) , bulrush (Scirpus) , white top (Scolochloa) , and reeds (Phragmites) are all used when avail- able (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). They nest on both large and small marshes that range from potholes of less than an acre in extent to 1,200-acre sloughs. The nest may be either a floating platform of vegetation or a platform built up from the floor of the marsh. Nests also may be placed on old muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) lodges or feeding platforms or on old coot (Fulica americana) nests. Nests may be found either near shore or far from it, at the edge of the marsh or concealed well within it (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b, and authors cited therein) . Feeding On the breeding grounds in southern Manitoba, Ruddy Ducks prefer to feed in areas of shallow water near the edges of ponds (Siegfried 1973c). 457 458 Large bodies of shallow fresh or brackish water are preferred on migration, es- pecially those with areas of aquatic plant growth (Palmer 1976b). Bellrose (1976) indicated that they regularly forage in water 2-10 ft (0.6-3.0 m) deep. Winter and Offshore Ruddy Ducks winter in ice-free inland waters and in shallow brackish or salt water areas along the coast (Palmer 1976b). Ruddy Ducks wintering in the Chesapeake Bay region are found nearly exclusively on slightly brackish to brackish estuarine bays and apparently only exceptionally on salty estuarine bays; they avoid coastal bays and open ocean (Stewart 1962 Ln Johnsgard 1975). Johnsgard (1975) thought that "ideal ruddy duck wintering habitat consist[ed] of brackish to slightly brackish estuaries or coastal lagoons of shallow depths." FOOD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOR Siegfried (1973c) reported that adult Ruddy Ducks on the breeding grounds in southern Manitoba feed almost exclusively by diving; food is strained from the mud of the pond bottoms. Surface feeding by skimming and straining was also seen, but Siegfried recorded this only 5 times in 810 observations of for- aging adults. Young birds also feed mainly by diving but tend to make shal- lower, shorter dives than do adults. Ruddy Ducks tend to dive obliquely rather than vertically and, like Lesser Scaup, move longer distances from the point of submergence than do Canvasbacks and Redheads. Diving intervals in water 1 ra deep averaged 18.6 sec in males, 20.6 sec in females (Siegfried 1973c); the longest diving time recorded for captive birds was 29 sec (Johnsgard 1975). Twenty-five dives by wintering Ruddy Ducks at Brigantine NWR, New Jersey, aver- aged 19.78 sec and ranged from 17.4 to 21.8 sec (Heintzelman and Newberry 1964). Ruddy Ducks only rarely peck at items on the surface of the water (Siegfried 1973c). Ruddy Ducks are largely vegetarians but their diet varies with age, season, and location (Bellrose 1976). Adults and young birds in Manitoba feed primarily (90%) on animal foods in the summer, according to Siegfried (1973c). Larval and pupal midges (Chironomus) are the main food items, but other insects, crusta- ceans, and molluscs are also taken. In other parts of the year, plant foods ap- parently make up the major portion of the diet. Widgeon grass and pondweeds are the most important food items in winter in Humboldt Bay, California (Yocura and Keller 1961 jji Bellrose 1976). Clams and snails are eaten most commonly in the clear brackish bays of the Chesapeake region (Stewart 1962 in Bellrose 1976), Cottam (1939) showed that the overall proportions of food in the diet of Ruddy Ducks was about 72% plant matter and 28% animal matter. We know of but one study giving details on food habits of Ruddy Ducks in southeastern waters. Quay and Critcher (1965) reported that the food of 75 Rud- dy Ducks wintering in Currituck Sound consisted primarily of the seeds of pond- weeds (Potamogeton spp. - 23.5% by volume) and widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima - 33.8%). The vegetative parts of Potamogeton (6.4%) and muskgrasses (Characaeae - 4.4%) also were eaten in significant amounts; another 6.0% of the diet consisted of animals, primarily insects (1.4%), amphipods (2.2%), and fish eggs (1.7%). Further details on specific foods eaten at other times of year and in other 459 areas may be found in Johnsgard (1975), Bellrose (1976), and Palmer (1976b). IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS Egg Laying Nesting in Iowa and Manitoba began in May with peaks in early (Iowa) or late (Manitoba) June (Low 1941, Bellrose 1976, Siegfried 1976a). Palmer (1976b) noted complete first clutches by late April or early May, while those nesting in the northern tier of states complete clutches from the end of May into June. In some areas of the United States some eggs may be laid as late as mid-July. Eggs have been found in the West Indies from December to May, with a peak in March; birds in South America evidently lay from about November to April (Palmer 1976b). According to Palmer (1976b), Ruddy Ducks are single-brooded in the north- ern portion of their breeding range; he suggests that they may often be double- brooded in the southwestern United States and perhaps in Mexico. Mean Clutch Size Siegfried (1976a) reported that most nests studied in Manitoba contained seven or eight eggs; the mean was about 7.5 eggs. Summar- izing several studies, Bellrose (1976) calculated an overall average clutch of 8.05 eggs. The normal range of clutch size is apparently 5-15 eggs (Bellrose 1976, Palmer 1976b). Ruddy Ducks also have "dump nests" in which more than one female may lay eggs. As many as 80 eggs have been found in a single nest (Pal- mer 1976b). Incubation Period The incubation period at 6 nests in Iowa was 25 or 26 days (Low 1941); that in 7 nests in Manitoba was 23 days (Hays in Bellrose 1976). Hatching Success Bellrose (1976) summarized studies of 356 nests of which 69.6% were successful in having some young hatch; the average successful nest produced 5.7 ducklings. Palmer (1976b) mentioned 3 studies in which the hatch- ing success in nests in which at least some young hatched ranged from 70.4% to 100%. Low (1941) noted that some females lead the young from the nest before all the eggs hatch; the abandoned eggs may be the latest laid eggs or eggs dumped by other females (Bellrose 1976). Fledging Success Bellrose (1976) reported a considerable loss in ducklings during development, so that broods nearing fledging averaged only 4.4 young. Age at Fledging Young Ruddy Ducks could fly at an age of of six or seven weeks in Manitoba (Hays in Bellrose 1976). Palmer (1976b) indicated that age at first flight in wild birds was about six weeks. Age at First Breeding Palmer (1976b) pointed out that there is no definite information on age at first breeding for wild Ruddy Ducks. Bellrose (1976) sug- gested that some, but not all, Ruddy Ducks begin breeding in the first year but noted instances in which captive birds did not breed until the second or third year. Mortality of Eggs and Young Low (1941) reported the mink (Mustella vison) as a predator on Ruddy Duck nests. Some eggs are deserted as a result of nest 460 parasitism by this or other species (Low 194 1 ) and some are flooded (Siegfried 1976a). Bellrose (1976) suggested that desertion was the major cause of nesting losses in this species, and that flooding was next in importance; he also re- corded some loss to predation by crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and magpies (Pica pica) . Renesting Siegfried (1976a) and Bellrose (1976) believed that renesting occurs infrequently; however, replacement of lost clutches has been known to occur occasionally (Hays ^n Bellrose 1976). Maximum Natural Longevity A Ruddy Duck banded in British Columbia was found in Oregon at a minimum age of 13 years, 7 months (Clapp et al. in press). Weight Nelson and Martin (1953) gave the average weight of 12 males as 1.3 lb (590 g), and of 17 females as 1.1 lb (499 g) . SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL POLLUTION Ruddy Ducks are frequent victims of oil pollution, often severely so (Table 15). Johnsgard (1978) attributed their decline in numbers in recent years to loss of breeding habitat and to the "periodic losses of large numbers of birds on wintering areas as a result of oil-spill disasters." King and Sanger (1979) felt that although oil spills in the Pacific Northwest would not be catastrophic to the Ruddy Duck population, the species' status should be monitored during the course of programs developing petroleum resources. Because this species prefers fresh or brackish waters, it would probably not be in much danger from oil spills in the marine waters of the southeastern United States; on the other hand, spills into riverine and estuarine situations from holding tanks onshore could cause losses severe enough to significantly threaten the species' North American population. Moderate to major kills of Ruddy Ducks from oil pollution have occurred recently in the Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay, north of the study area. Consequently, we feel that oil pollution within the northernmost part of the study area in North Carolina, particularly Pamlico Sound, could cause severe damage to this species. The effects of oil on Ruddy Ducks winter- ing in the sheltered waters of the Laguna Atascosa, in Texas, might also be harmful; as many as 45,000 birds winter there (Webster 1971). BIBLIOGRAPHY 1980 Shackford, J. S. 1980. Breeding of the Ruddy Duck in Oklahoma. Bull. Okla. Ornithol. Soc . 13: 9-11. 1979 Perry, M. C. and J. W. Artmann. 1979. Incidence of embedded and ingested shot in oiled Ruddy Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 266-269. 461 Table 15. Number of dead birds and number and percentage of dead Ruddy Ducks found after major oiling incidents. Area Dates Number Number Percent- of oiled of dead age of dead Ruddy Ruddy birds Ducks Ducks Source San Francisco Bay area, Cal- ifornia Mar. 1937 397 (a) 0.50 Aldrich 1938 San Francisco Bay, California Delaware River, Pennsylvania Delaware River, New Jersey Delaware River , Pennsylvania Delaware River, Pennsylvania Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Delaware River, Pennsylvania Chesapeake Bay, Virginia Jan. 1971 3,221 (a,b) 41 1.27 Dec. 1973 4,000 (c) 3,960 99.0 Feb. 1974 3,500 (a) 3,430 98.0 Apr. 1974 500 (a) 490 Jan. 1975 2,500 (a) 2,525 Feb. 1976 30,000 (a) 350 98.0 99.0 1.2 Dec. 1976 2,000 (a) 1,720 86.0 Feb. 1978 10,000 (a) 90 0.9 Small et al. 1972 Perry et al. 1979 Perry et al. 1979 Perry et al. 1979 Perry et al. 1979 Perry et al. 1979 Perry et al. 1979 Perry et al. 1979 (a) Total includes only those birds identified to species. (b) This figure represents birds brought to cleaning/ receiving stations. (c) Figure is an estimate based on counts of dead birds. 462 1978 Bundy, G. 1978. Ruddy Duck in Shetland. Scott. Birds 10: 21-22. Culbert, R. W. and J. S. Furphy. 1978. The Ruddy Duck in Lough Neagh, Co. Armagh. Irish Birds 1: 234-236. Joyner, D. E. 1978. Wing molt in female Ruddy Ducks. Condor 80: 102-103. Rhodes, M. J. 1978. Late nesting of Ruddy Duck in northwest Texas. Bull. Texas Ornithol. Soc . 11: 19-20. 1977 Joyner, D. E. 1977a. Behavior of Ruddy Duck broods in Utah. Auk 94: 343-349. . 1977b. Nest desertion by Ruddy Ducks in Utah. Bird-Banding 48: 19-24. Ladhams, D. E. 1977. Behaviour of Ruddy Ducks in Avon. Brit. Birds 70: 137- 146. Menk, G. E. and H. M. Stevenson. 1977. Second Florida breeding record of the Ruddy Duck. Fla. Field Nat. 5: 12-13. Miller, M. R. , R. M. McLandress and B. J. Gray. 1977. The display flight of the North American Ruddy Duck. Auk 94: 140-142. Richards, J. M. 1977. A summary of nesting records for Ruddy Duck, Oxyura jamaicensis , in Ontario, with particular reference to the regional munici- pality of Durham. Ont. Field Biol. 31: 45-47. Siegfried, W. R. 1977. Notes on behaviour of Ruddy Ducks during the brood period. Wildfowl 28: 126-128. Went, R. 1975. Rare birds: the North American Ruddy Duck. Bird Life 1975: 18-19. 1976 Hudson, R. 1976. Ruddy Ducks in Britain. Brit. Birds 69: 132-143. Joyner, D. E. 1976. Effects of interspecific nest parasitism by Redheads and Ruddy Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 40: 33-38. King, B. 1976. Association between male North American Ruddy Ducks and stray ducklings. Brit. Birds 69: 34. Siegfried, W. R. 1976a. Breeding biology and parasitism in the Ruddy Duck. Wilson Bull. 88: 566-574. . 1976b. Segregation in feeding behaviour of four diving ducks in southern Manitoba. Can. J. Zool. 54: 730-736. 463 Siegfried, W. R. 1976c. Social organization in Ruddy and Maccoa ducks. Auk 93: 560-570. Siegfried, W. R. , A. E. Burger and P. J. Caldwell. 1976. Incubation behavior of Ruddy and Maccoa ducks. Condor 78: 512-517. White, D. H. and T. E. Kaiser. 1976. Residues of organochlorines and heavy metals in Ruddy Ducks from Delaware River, 1973. Pest. Monit. J. 9: 155-156. 1975 Featherstone , J. D. 1975. Aspects of nest site selection in three species of ducks. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Toronto/Toronto, ON. Joyner, D. E. 1975. Nest parasitism and brood-related behavior of the Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis rubida) . Ph.D. thesis, Univ. Nebraska/Lincoln, NE. 1974 Dawson, L. R. 1974. Rearing the North American Ruddy Duck. Avicult. Mag. 80: 237. Martin, R. M. 1974. The North American Ruddy Duck in captivity. Avicult. Mag. 80: 132-135. McKnight , D. E. 1974. Dry- land nesting by Redheads and Ruddy Ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 38: 112-119. 1973 Siegfried, W. R. 1973a. Platform-building by male and female Ruddy Ducks. Wildfowl 24: 150-153. . 1973b. Post-embryonic development of the Ruddy Duck, Oxyura jamaicen- sis, and some other diving ducks. Internatl. Zoo. Yearbk. 13: 72-87. . 1973c. Summer food and feeding of the Ruddy Duck in Manitoba. Can. J. Zool. 51: 1293-1297. . 1973d. Wing moult of Ruddy Ducks in Manitoba. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 93: 98-99. 1972 Libby, H. J. 1972. Ruddy Duck brood distribution in relation to marsh habitat M.S. thesis, Univ. Wise ./Madison, WI. Siegfried, W. R. 1972. Ruddy Ducks colliding with wires. Wilson Bull. 84: 486-487. 464 1969 Hays, H. and H. M. Habermann. 1969. Note on bill color of the Ruddy Duck, Oxyura jamalcensls rublda. Auk 86: 765-766. Joyner, D. E. 1969. A survey of the ecology and behavior of the Ruddy Duck (Oxyura jamaicensis) in northern Utah. M.S. thesis, Univ. Utah/Salt Lake City, UT. 1968 Campbell, R. W. 1968. Two records of the Ruddy Duck nesting in Vancouver, British Columbia. Can. Field-Nat. 82: 217-219. 1967 Johnsgard, P. A. 1967. Observations on the behavior and relationships of the White-backed Duck and the stiff-tailed ducks. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept . 18: 98-107. 1964 Heintzelman, D. S. and C. J. Newberry. 1964. Some waterfowl diving times. Wilson Bull. 76: 291. 1963 Cutts, E. 1963. Ruddy Duck nest found near Charleston, South Carolina. Chat 27: 53-54. Meitzen, T. C. 1963. Additions to the known breeding ranges of several spe- cies in south Texas. Auk 80: 368-369. 1961 Hunt, G. S. 1961. Ruddy Ducks in southeastern Michigan in summer. Jack-Pine Warbler 39: 95. King, B. 1961. Feral North American Ruddy Ducks in Somerset. Wildfowl Trust Annu. Rept. 12: 167-168. 1958 Ferguson-Lees, I. J. 1958. The identification of the White-headed and Ruddy Ducks. Brit. Birds 51: 239-240. 1953 Wolf, K. 1953. Grebe-duck nesting parasitism. Auk 70: 84, 465 1946 Peterson, R. T. 1946. Thousands of Ruddies. Wood Thrush 1: 2. 1941 Low, J. 1941. Nesting of the Ruddy Duck in Iowa. Auk 58: 506-517. Mitchell, E. T. 1941. An isolated Ruddy Duck colony. Flicker 13: 23-24. 1940 Zimmerman, F. R. 1940. The Ruddy Duck in Wisconsin. Passenger Pigeon 2: 111- 116. 1938 Bennett, L. J. 1938. Redheads and Ruddy Ducks nesting in Iowa. Trans N. Am. Wildl. 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A Georgia specimen of the White-winged Scoter. Oriole 24: 27. Trauger, D. L. 1971. Population ecology of Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis) in subarctic taiga. Ph.D. thesis, Iowa St. Univ. /Ames, IA. 121 pp. Vaurie, C. 1965. The birds of the Palearctic fauna. Vol. I: Non-Passeri formes H. F. & G. Witherby, Ltd., London, xx and 763 pp. 489 Ve re she hag in, N. K. 1946. Gibel' ptits ot nefti v Azerbaidzhan. [Death of birds from oil in Azerbaidzhan.] Zool. Zh. 25: 69-80. [In Russian. Tran- slation available as Can. Wildl. Serv. TR-RUS-277.] Vermeer, K. 1968. Ecological aspects of duck nesting in high densities among larids. Wilson Bull. 80: 78-83. Vermeer, K. and R. Vermeer. 1975. Oil threat to birds on the Canadian west coast. Can. Field-Nat. 89: 278-298. Vermeer, R. and K. Vermeer. 1974. Oil pollution of birds. An abstracted bib- liography. Pesticide Section, Can. Wildl. Serv. Manuscript Reports No. 29. 68 pp. Wallace, H. E. 1970. Operation Dirty Bird. Fla. Wildl., April 1970: 4-7. 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Mulhern. 1979. Relations of wintering Canvasbacks to environmental pollutants — Chesapeake Bay, Maryland. Wilson Bull. 91: 279-287. Williams, L. E. 1968. Specimen of the Harlequin Duck in Florida. Wilson Bull. 80: 488-489. Williams, S. 0., III. 1975. Redhead breeding in the state of Jalisco, Mexico. Auk 92: 152-153. Woolfenden, G. E. and R. W. Schreiber. 1973. The common birds of the saline habitats of the eastern Gulf of Mexico: their distribution, seasonal status, and feeding ecology. Pp. Ill J/l-J/21 in J. I. Jones (ed.) A survey of the eastern Gulf of Mexico. State University System of Florida, Institute of Oceanography, St. Petersburg, FL. Wray, D. L. and H. T. Davis. 1959. Birds of North Carolina by T. G. Pearson et al. (1942). Revised ed . Bynum Printing Co., Raleigh, NC. xxvii and 434 pp. Zapf , T. 1945. Surf Scoters at Greensboro. Chat 9: 46. 491 50272 -101 REPORT DOCUMENTATION Unreport no. PAGE FWS/OBS-82/20 3. Recipient's Accession No. 4. Title and Subtitle Marine Birds of the Southeastern United States and Gulf of Mexico. Part II: Anseriformes 5. Report Date July 1982 7. Author(s) R.B. Clapp; D. Morgan-Jacobs; R.C. Banks 8. Performing Organization Rept. No. 9. Performing Organization Name and Address Museum Section, USFWS National Museum of Natural History Washington, DC 20560 10. Project/Task/Work Unit No. 11. Contract(C) or Grant(G) No. 14-16-0009-78-917 (G) 12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address Office of Biological Services Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Department of the Interior Washington, DC 20240 13. Type of Report 4 Period Covered Through 1981 14 15. Supplementary Notes 16. Abstract (Limit: 200 words) This report describes the distribution, abundance, habitat, food habits and other aspects of the life history, and susceptibility to oil of 41 species of waterfowl of the order Anseriformes in the southeastern Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Winter distribution maps for the more common species are presented. An extensive, chronological bibliography accompanies each species account. The report is a planning tool for the Bureau of Land Management, other Federal and State agencies, and private companies dealing with oil impacts in coastal waters. 17. Document Analysis a. Descriptors birds, oceans, petroleum industry, petroleum transportation, abundance, habitat b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms Anseriformes, duck, goose, swan, winter distribution (birds), outer continental shelf, southeastern U.S., Gulf of Mexico, oiled birds c. COSATI Field/Group IB. Availability Statement Unlimited 19. Security Class (This Report) Unclassified 20. Security Class (This Page) Unclassified 21. No. of Paees 504 22. Price (See ANSI-Z39.18) See Instructions on Reverse 4JU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1982-572-347 OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-7 (Formerly NTIS-35) Department of Commerce U^. Headquarters - Office of Biological ©