ет > в tthe en ee ee arr terrane ры О М до оборо бес eA Pope oi еее ет i ЕЯ i ote oy eT a heh ALN TE AE I AT ONES : а Dares ть с въ ; к ен отче, емо ата РУНЫ == -* - я - - Ей но о) . В 4 И о ne abe ondatacoe Sorter AEE hans ОЕ о anon pipe Rate pT ADVTS PDs DIB ETP Arh dbe tt Bo> hart r by ite Vea VDD oh Is Og RG HY See Serene „ кн, чека Ор ие >> THE LIBRARIES STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT BUFFALO HEALTH SCIENCES LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF BUFFALO т р a ZOOLOGICHESKII INSTITUT AKADEMII NAUK SSSR Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. New Series No. 34 FAUNA of the U.S.S.R. (Fauna SSSR) Chief Editor Academician Е. М. Pavlovskii Editor A. A. Shtakel'berg FISHES (Ryby) Vol. Ex №. 4 № ALLS cok EY” 0 ore А. № Svetovidov “Gadiformes (Treskoobraznye) | Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk Moskva — Leningrad 1948 Translated from Russian Published for the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., by the Israel Program for Scientific Translations Jerusalem 1962 \ LAG OTS 63-11071 Published for THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION, WASHINGTON, D.C. and THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, U.S.A. by the ISRAEL PROGRAM FOR SCIENTIFIC TRANSLATIONS Translated by Walter J. Walters with Vladimir Walters (Department of Zoology, University of California) Technical editing by the Staff of the Ichthyological Laboratory, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, U.S. Department of the Interior. Printed in Jerusalem by S. Monson PST Cat. No. 993 Price $ 3.00 Available from the Office of Technical Services, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington 25, D.C. ERRATA OTS 60-21816 Р5Т-226 "Т.М. Likhachev," given in this translation as one of the authors of the original work, iS incorrect. The correct spelling is eM. Gaikhareyv. " TRANS LAGORS!, NOTE 1, Page numbers appearing in the margin of the translation correspond to those in the Russian text. 2. The section оп Boreogadies was modified from Transl, No. 151 of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. 3. This translation was made with support from the National Science Foundation through a grant (G-7123) to the Sears Foundation for Marine Research, 4. We are indebted to Dr. А. М. Svetovidov for his great kindness in re- viewing the translation and commenting upon portions of it. PRAN S LAT TONE ТРО" NOTE Readers using the morphological sections of this book are cautioned not to confuse the terms olfactory bulb and olfactory lobe, and olfactory nerve and olfactory tract. CONTENTS EKOREW.@ RID ое ое ое еее TAXONOMIC INDEX OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES..... INT RODUG TION, 4. неа 6 осо eles овес A Brief Historical Outline of the Classification of the Фо вся а о бо вовог chelots) осовоо с ClassiticatiOnste а. КОЗ Сао ев о ее ооо со соо ole Geographical Distribution. „о. оо, оооооо вое ВУ еее оса ое осо ненаю ье Commercial [Importance „ео сео нео еее во ово БОТ рВУ <2) «sis еее ее еее SYSUEMATIC РАВТ.. иона оо осени. OrderGadttormes вс соевое оо Family Мегаевоер1:Чае. 5-е 64s 6 «ss 44s 66 не Family Moridae 2. ccccasccvcsesessscves Family Bregmacerotidac. '. о. о. ооо ооо ое Family Gadidae . ое ооооо оное ое Subfamily Lotindés + ates s aislele mrs sie 6 66 Subfamily Merlucciinae . ‹ вл «lee eres Sublamily Gadinae sa зоол еее TIN IDEX? OF LATIN (NAMES seis: ое wot ose a «es alate one Fxplanation of Tables (I-LXXII) «.sccccscccvscrec Russian page 5 7 127 137 217 222 English page I III 132 143 228 232 FOREWORD At the present level of knowledge a detailed revision of the gadoids is extremely necessary. In this survey the entire gadoid group had to be studied as a whole, and not merely the external features; otherwise it would not have been possible to arrive at reliable, firmly based conclusions. The present work, therefore, has greater scope than that normally envisaged for the "Fauna of the U.S.S.R." series. It deals not only with species found in Soviet waters but with those from more remote regions. Thus, in this work, attention has been focused mainly on an osteologically based morphology, and not on external characteristics. My own attention was mainly directed toward the investigation of higher systematic categories: the order, family, genus and species. I gave considerably less attention to the study of races and lower taxonomic units, mainly because I lacked technical personnel and had insufficient material collected in the proper manner for modern investigations of races. The Zoological institute of the Academy of Sciences has an extremely rich collection of almost all the gadoid species. This and the material kindly sent to me by people and institutions, both in the U.S.S.R. and from abroad, were instrumental in enabling me to complete this work. The geographical distribution of this group of fish needed elucidation, too. This in itself made песез- sary the summary of the available information in this field. Distribution maps must, of course, be compiled with the utmost accuracy. Since this, unhappily, was not always possible, the maps presented must be re- garded as having orientation and schematic value only. Fairlydetailed exposition on the biology of gadoids is available in well-known abstracts on fish migrations (Meek, Scheuring, Schmidt). Thus, relatively little attention has been paid to these problems in the introduction. A number of related fields have not been exhaustively treated. I did not feel myself competent to deal with commercial problems, which are, indeed, outside the scope of a book of this type; nor with otoliths, which have been described in a number of works by Frost; nor-with larvae, on which a special volume of the "Fauna of the U.S.S.R." is being prepared. I have cited only the best-known data in the literature. These were selected from the voluminous material which has been published on gadoids. In cases where books are known to me only by their titles, since I was unable to obtain the texts, I do not cite them. I wish to thank the many people I consulted who gave their help and encouragement when I was in difficulty. It is my pleasant task to thank L.S. Berg, E.F.Gur'yanova and particularly Е.К. Suvorov, who, among others, allowed me the use of unpublished material. Almost three years have elapsed since this book was written. I have made use of only the most im- portant works that have appeared in the interval, and those not always fully. September 1940, The publication of this work, which had been completed and set in type by the end of the summer of 1941, was delayed by the war. Later, during the Leningrad blockade, the proofs were lost. I was able to use, though not to their full extent, the most important works published during the war which were accessible to me. I was unable to make use of them in the sections dealing with biology and economic importance of gadoids; the data on the latter subject remain almost unchanged. April 1947, TAXONOMIC INDEX OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES 1. FAMILY Moridae Russian English 1. Genus Laemonema Ginther page page de в Юле рез th Schmidt, п. conan Gad peak она ala ene Pe eben Cee ry oke 70 2. Genus Antimora Giinther 1. Astimicrolepis Beat’ ahi. “con еее, Bete Diet о: 069 71 2. FAMILY Gadidae 1. Subfamily Lotinae 1. Genus Brosme (Cuvier) Oken 1. В. brosme (Miill.) ...... Beh ТЫ а ait hh ое af super es 75 77 2. Genus Gaidropsarus Rafinesque 1. G. megalokynodon (Kolomb.) .. ...... о В 08 ео ol 83 2. G. pacificus (Тешт. et Sone Sat ee ee ме ое о 908 84 3. G. mediterraneus (L.) . Pere sc eT Ta ere ote SR 82 84 д. 9: guttatus СО аа п ла 83 86 5. А. novae-zealandiae (Hector) ...... .....2.... a aot a oe ano BS 86 6. G. macrophthalmus (Gunth.)...........-.0.. а He dine 84 87 P1Gocbiscayensiss! (COMM oa veto ys, nctja поел обо ее Зее SB Cue 87 8. @. barbatus) (DeBuen), ое. ees rete see ete se, as АЕ 88 9. G. а и, Persad Eee SMS СЕ НИ netltsmys ereaoles 86 88 10. а. aris (Yarr.) Bag MING ID LRG UES cM ET ili Е A Wart le Bread ses 8S 89 11. а. ae rdti (Coll.) ...... ое ay ча О boys 87 89 12. G. carpenteri (Gunth.) „оне тени Ay ое бы Ee 90 13. G. ensis (Reinh.) Pa Sk eer ears Ue oa acer оне ое Seal ete 188 91 3. Genus Ciliata Couch О пиара sees cae os Merit tai Пе lost wie = ee 93 2. С. septentrionalis (Coll.) а НЫ ЗН 90 95 4. Genus Enchelyopus Bloch et Schneider т в cimbrius, (Ls). ee ee о. TUNE Read ea © Tela Ca ewe em 9 97 5. Genus Raniceps (Cuvier) Oken СВ: raninus (6. ооо о ое ie ОЕ ome 97 100 6. Genus Phyets Rose 1. Ph. phycis (L.) ........ titers vanes ее cir steel сое: ОТ 104 2. Ph. blennoides (Вгапп.) еее еее. 102 105 3. РВ. chesteri Goode et Bean ........ о. с ооо оное 103 106 7. Genus Urophycis Gill 1. U. regius (\М/ а.) .......... ее. 107 111 2. Ц. chuss (Walb.)........ о С А о aa 8 : 108 113 ay. О. floridanus (Bean et Dresel) we. ls el A cece ig ence Be SS (cage ote 110 114 В беоне БТ Бга5 еп 515 (Каюр) нь бо. cirratus|(GoodevetiBean) аа PRA еав eam) и о ИНЬ cee еее 8. Genus Lota (Cuvier) Oken TE | De ey (on оао ое sarin OnE ржа. ota: leptural/Hubbs ев убери уе ih. WA Sy rae Ww ol. зле demmiesnlotajmaculosa’.(eSueun)\/ зе 9, Genus Molva Fleming APE MEMO Val iM) hie Ny о О id oA aay dale li SLU о alc gro RR a 2aMis dipterygia, dipterygia (Вепп.) ив 2b: M..dilpterygia \elongata (Otto). 2.05 2. ek ео 2. Subfamily Merlucciinae 10. Genus Merlucctus Rafinesque PO ITICT: LUCCUUS), 5 Diss) enue OUR IB И ИО Еее ее . hubbsi Marini Ls MeO Me tN aN TS) MRD ie eat NR ОН LY Ile ie opens ртов, (AV TES) ее telieg Te Ура (отели basta ny о И ОДА IR Um AR cea ТЕ PAbiimearis: ОМИ а a few lathe Swot volt ar) eal capensis Castelnau ee mm pean ne ell аа PRAUS Ura S ACH U ECON pian iN i eens AMAT atest Mea MR ott STNG Tat veo tas Natl ye etetyan ye) Meth VOR Wts ЕЕ 3. Subfamily Gadimae 11. Genus Trisopterus Rafinesque ADEM LV О el well ies А RNU Ms ALIGN Neal a НИЕ sis За т. пла MINUCUS) (MUI) eri ny rites edieinay № ею 26204 minutus), capelanusy (Risso)y 712 Ray Wiese) oe) а ollie 3. Т. esmarkii (Nilss.) ...... SONATE IDLER Nae VS Rance eR VR i ee 12. Genus Odontogadus Gill fia sO}*merlangus merlangus)(Ts.) 0.05). ам tb. О. merlangus euxinus (Nordm.)........- 2-22.25 255+ etree 13. Genus Pollachius (Nilsson) Bonaparte Ae Rapollach sus (Е а eWay ie), И DIP Scvirens i i( 165) ii) ee heliconey MMR о Alb ем тел 14. Genus Melanogrammus Gill JeeMienaerlefinus: (We) jiu) ei oie (aie Ayla mall athelae Mele} ali Ch SSS OOS а О 15. Genus Gadus Linné да. Giemorhua) morta. Те ее а Te 4a,. G. morhua morhua п. hiemalis Taliev .......... ие ADSGimorhualcallarias То ыы ИИ 1с. С. morhua kildinensis Derjug.......-- 2... 2-2 ee еее 4d. С. morhua maris-albi Derjug. еее Fe teres Ae) GU morhua fogaci Rich. (1 Mee SMe ie Tt ike MISS eH ile \/eUhed = 4f. С. morhua macrocephalus Til. .........-----:: В 16. Genus Gadiculus Guichenot 4a. С. argenteus argenteus Guich. ... еее еее 4b. С. argenteus thori J. Schm. ...... еее delta ie ее 17. Genus Microgadus Gill Я: Ми отасо а! "(Wally аа и AN A EC a) Maced Ue ded М DrOxiMus) \(GUPARG) iyi y aise) conse В hay ae NaN eae aya L i is 18. Genus Eleginus G. Fischer ет navagay (Pal Dey ys И О О i AION и QUES Pe гаси в, (ее В: Sal dah (He Piya). anes ie SAN MN eae LEN RIERA MGI IE) SSC Te lta Rae ects a lathe tse 2. B. agilis (Reinh.) 115 116 117 117 122 124 125 129 130 131 137 139 140 140 141 142 142 145 147 148 149 153 155 158 160 164 174 180 181 183 184 186 187 193 194 197 199 202 206 210 214 20. Genus Arctogadus Drjagin ©) 0) ть al! cops aw ее ее ее о УЧ ое Sei 21. Genus Theragra Lucas 1a. Th. chalcogramma chalcogramma (Pall.)........-............ ) 1b. Th. chalcogramma chalcogramma n. fucensis (Jord. et Gilb.) . 1. М. poutassou (Risso) 2. M. australis Norman we ef ge: сете 22. Genus Micromesistius Gill of) at peter “ej. Fee well еее se 1ép 81) Це а кхе Mey Celle. ve, “el ce Ife ve prance 216 217 220 222 224 227 11 INTRODUCTION A Brief Historical Outline of the Classification of the Order Within the order Anacanthini,J. Miiller(1846:177), who was first to es- tablish this order, placed those fishes having fins without spinous rays, ventral fins, if present, jugular or thoracic, andair swimbladder, if present, without pneumatic duct. The entire broad assemblage of fishes thus united into one order by these characters was divided by J. Miller thus (1.с. :202):- Ordo Anacanthini Subordo I. Anacanthini subbrachii Fam. 1. Gadoidei 2. Pleuronectides Subordo II. Anacanthini apodes Fam. 1. Ophidini Accordingly, the order Anacanthini, as indicated by J. Miiller (1.с.: 177, 199), consists partially (Anacanthini subbrachii) of Malacopterygii subbrachii and partially (Anacanthini apodes) of Malacopterygii apodes according to the classification of Cuvier (1817:212, 229). In its internal structure, J. Miller considered the Anacanthini very close to the Anacanthopterygii, with which they, just as with the Pleuronectidae, have been graded for a long time. Gunther (1862:317), accepting the order Anacanthini as established by J. Miiller, considered that they have spinous rays only in the vertical fins, and divided the order into two suborders somewhat differently: Anacanthini Gadoidei. Head symmetrical. Families: Gadopsidae, Lycodidae, Gadidae, Ophidiidae (groups: Brotulina, Ophi- diina, Fierasferina, Ammodytina, Congrogadina), Macru- ridae, Ateleopodidae. Anacanthini Pleuronectoidei. Both sides of head asymmetrical. Family: Pleuronectidae. Gunther's system also differs by a greater subdivision within the sub- orders. Cope (1872:341) defined the Anacanthini as fish, whose skull base is simple (without a myodome), posttemporal forked, scapular foramen be- tween scapula and. coracoideum; pharyngeals three, horizontal, the third being the longest; rays in dorsal fin soft; caudalfin diphycercal. According to these characters he placed in the Anacanthini, which he accepts as one of the groups of theorder Percomorphi, only the families Gadidae and 12 Macruridae, separating the majority of the related families into a special group of the same order Scyphobranchii. Cope separated the flat fishes into the distinct order Heterosomata, in which status they are ac- cepted by almost all later classifications. Cope's classification of the Anacanthini appears to be a great step forward, inasmuch as the scope and characters established by him as the basis for his classification have been accepted by a great majority of later classifications. Jordan and Gilbert (1883:783) indicated in a footnote that in the order Acanthopteri the families Gadidae, Macruridae, Lycodidae, Congrogadidae, Fierasferidae, and Ophidiidae constitute a separate group or suborder of the Anacanthini, or Jugulares, distinguished from the other Acanthopteri by long dorsal and anal fins, consisting entirely of soft rays. They divided the family Gadidae into the subfamilies Gadinae, Merlucciinae, Chiasmodontinae, Brotulinae, even though the latter in their keys (page 79) was separated into a distinct family. Gill (1884:167) gives the.following subdivisions of the Anacanthini, or Jugulares: GADOIDEA. Orbito-rostral portion of cranium longer than the posterior portion, cranial cavity widely open in front, supraoccipital well developed with a crest behind, scapular foramen between the scapula and coracoideum. Families: Gadidae, Merlucciidae, Bregmacerotidae, Rani- eipitidae,- Macruridae, OPHIDIOIDEA, Orbito-rostral portion of cranium contracted and shorter than the posterior, cavity closed in part in the front by the expansion and fusion of the parasphenoid with frontals, scapula with a foramen in the cen- ter. Families: Brotulidae, Brotulophididae, Ophidiidae, Fierasferidae, Congrogadidae. LYCODOIDEA. Orbito-rostral portion of the cranium compressed and shorter than the posterior, the cranial cavity open in front but bounded laterally by the expansion of the annectant parasphenoid and frontals, sup- raoccipital declivous and tectiform behind, scapula with foramen in the center. Families: Lycodidae, Ammodytidae, Ateleopodidae, Xenocephalidae, All groups of the family Ophidiidae and all genera of the families Gadidae, Ophidiidae and Ateleopodidae of Gunther's system are considered by Gill as families; the family Gadopsidae and the genus Chiasmodus he considers to be families of Acanthopterygii. Most im- portant in Gill's system appears to be the fact that as a basis of division of the order into groups he indicates new osteological characters, which are important even to the present day. We are considerably closer to the present treatment if we accept asa basis the characters of the Gadoidea of Gill's classification, and adopt the Anacanthini of Jordan and Evermann (1898:2528), who considered them just as one of the suborders of the Acanthopterygii. To the Anacanthini they refer the families Gadidae, Merlucciidae, Macruridae, The family Ranicipitidae is not included in the suborder Anacanthini, perhaps only because it is absent from the shores of North America. The families Bregmacerotidae, Brotulidae, Ophidiidae, Lycodi- dae, Fierasferidae, and some others are placed in the group Ophi- dioidea, which is near the group Blennioidea of the suborder Xenopterygii of the order Acanthopterygii. The flat fishes are placed in a separate sub- order (Heterosomata) of the order Acanthopterygii, near the Anacanthini. The family Ammodytidae is referred to the suborder Rhegnopteri, near the suborder Percesoces. 13 Boulenger (1901:268) grouped gadoid fishes with the families Trachini- dae, Callionymidae and Nototheniidae into the division Jugulares of the order Acanthopterygii because of the position of the scapular foramen between the scapula and coracoideum and the jugular position of the fins. This classification, as we shall see later on, receives no recognition be- cause it is incorrect to group fish into one suborder solely by the position of their ventral fins and the scapular foramen between the scapula and cora- coideum. In 1903 Regan (1903:459) defined the Anacanthini as follows: parietals separated from each other by the supraoccipital; prootic and lateral occipi- tal separated by the enlarged opisthotic; pectoral arch attached to the skull; no mesocoracoid; vertical and ventral fins without spinous rays (except the first dorsal ray of some Macruridae); ventral fins anterior in position; pelvic bones posterior to the clavicular symphysis and loosely attached to it by a ligament; gills pectinate; swimbladder without pneumatic duct. Regan paid no special attention to the position of the Scapular foramen between the scapula and the coracoideum, as in Gadomus longifilis of the Macruridae this foramen was found within the scapula. Likewise in Trematomus ofthe Nototheniidae, which Boulenger placed in the Anacanthini, owing to the position of the scapular foramen between the scapula and coracoideum, this foramen was actually found within the sca- pula. The Gadidae, Macruridae and Muraenolepidae are referred by Regan to the Anacanthini. The genera Merluccius and Raniceps, separated by some authors into distinct families, are included by him in the family Gadidae. Regan refers the genus Bregmaceros also to the Gadidae because according to his investigations, the pelvic bones are loosely attached to the clavicular symphisis the caudal fin is symmetrical, and the scapular foramen is between the scapula and coracoideum, but not within the scapula, as was believed by Jordan and Evermann (1898:2526), who separated Bregmaceros into a distinct family and placed it near the families Brotulidae and Ophidiidae. At present Regan's classification of the Anacanthini appears to be gen- erally accepted. With minor changes it is also accepted by Jordan (1923:162). Classification Goodrich, accepting in his ''Vertebrata Craniata'' (1909:478) the Anacan- thini, which he calls Gadiformes, within the scope of Regan's definition calls our attention to a long known (Stannius, 1854:63) but forgotten peculiarity in structure of the interorbital region and the forebrain, considering this peculiarity as the most characteristic feature of these fishes. The cranial cavity in the Gadiformes extends forward as a narrow canal above the interorbital septum, within which lie the olfactory nerves and through which the cranial cavity appears to be brought closer to the nasal capsules. The olfactory nerves [or tracts] in the Gadiformes do not there- fore pass through the orbit,and throughout their length they lie close to each other (Figure 1,A) thus differentiating them from the majority of other Teleostei, whose olfactory nerve of each side passes through the orbit and is thus separated by the interorbital septum from the nerve on the other side (Figure 1,C). The other exceptions among the Teleostei appear to be distantly related families Galaxiidae (Swinnerton, 1903:61), Siluridae, Cyprinidae (Sagemehl, 1891:489), some Characinidae (Sagemehl, 1885:1) and Plectognathi (Diodon) (Owen, 1846:184, fig. 47), in which the interorbital region is similar in structure to the Gadiformes. Besides, the olfactory lobes in Gadiformes are far removed from the forebrain, being enclosed in the canal above the interorbital septum near the nasal capsules. The olfactory nerves in these fishes are consequently very short, and the olfactory lobes are connected with the forebrain by means of long olfactory tracts (Figure 2,A) which among other Teleostei occurs only in the Galaxiidae (Swinnerton, 1903:63), some Cypriniformes (Sagemehl, 1885:74; 1891:489) and Plectognathi (Owen, 1846:184). --ту FIGURE 1. Tranverse section of the interorbital region at the anterior end of the eye A-Gadus morhua; B—Physiculus japonicus, С -Гис1орегса lucioperca; D-Coelorhynchus jordani; bc—cranial cavity (canal over interorbital septum); bs—bony interorbital septum; cs—membranous interorbital septum; f—frontal; ms~mem- branous interorbital septum; п, olf—olfactory nerve; п. opt—optic nerve; ps—para- sphenoid; tr. olf—olfactory tract. Besides the aforementioned families and orders of fish,the olfactory nerve also does not pass through the orbit in Liparis and Cyclop- terus, as pointed out by Dietz (1913:86). The cranial cavity, however, extends into the interorbital region only in Liparis in which it is of the same width as posteriorly and directly reaches the nasal capsules, As regards Cyclopterus, the cranial cavity ends anteriorly at the level of the hind margin of the eyes, and further the olfactory nerves are sepa- rated by cartilage which fills the entire interorbital region. The olfactory nerves do not pass through the orbits in a number of other genera of the suborder Scleroparei (Myoxocephalus, Cottocomephorus, Comephorus, Sebastes, Trigla, Occa) to which both of the above mentioned fished belong, and in some Blennioidei (Blennius, Lumpenus, Ophidion); Баш попе ofthemdoesthe cranial cavity extend into the interorbital area, with the exception of Myoxocephalus, in which it has the form of a canal running forward to the nasal capsules. However, what appears to be most important, the olfactory lobes in all of the enumerated fishes* lie very near the forebrain and are connected to the nasal capsules by means of long olfactory nerves lying between the membrane of the interorbital septum and the bones or cartilages of the interorbital region (Figure 1,D) and thus do not pass through the orbit. The canal above the interorbital septum, with the olfactory nerves enclosed in it, is also present, as we discovered, in the family Brotulidae (Hoplo- brotula armata), in which, just as in the family Cyprinidae, the canal is osseous but the olfactory lobes are closely adjacent to the fore- brain, while the long olfactory nerves extend along the canal to the nasal capsules. Thus the interorbital region,sometimes even within the same group of fish,is variable in structure and in some groups it cannot be accepted as an important systematic character. As regards the position of the olfactory lobes, at the nasal capsules, they are placed, so far as presently known (see Lissner, 1918:127), only in the families Galaxiidae, Cyprinidae, Siluridae, andsome Characinidae, inthe order Plectognathi and in the Gadiformes. Of the Cyprinidae onlyin Carassius and of the Gadidae only in Raniceps are the olfactory lobes arranged at some distance from the nasal capsules, approximately midway between them and the forebrain; because of the expanded cartilage in the anterior part of the canal, near the nasal capsules in these fishes, the olfactory lobes shifted from the nasal sacs. Very characteristic is the fact that the olfactory lobes in the Brotulidae lie near the forebrain regardless of the exist- ence of the canal in the interorbital region,directly reaching to the very nasal capsules. It is possible that in those Characinidae in which the olfactory bulbs donot lie near the nasal capsules this is due to the expansion of cartilage in this region. * Dietz's statement (1921:436) on the position of the olfactory lobes in the Cyprinidae (Figure 2) near the forebrain and in Liparis (Figure 5) near the nasal capsules is incorrect: as is well known in the Cyprinidae, the olfactory lobes are near the nasal capsules, while in Liparis, according to our examination, near the forebrain. As to the caudal fin skeleton, in the Gadiformes it is of definitely different structure than in Cyclopterus, Liparis and Cottus, which Dietz considers closely allied to Gadiformes on the basis of this character even though in these fishes it is somewhat less asym- metric than in the other Scleroparei. The most important character of the Gadiformes - large opis- thotic with the foramen for the glossopharyngeal nerve - is not considered by Dietz. The olfactory lobes are not, however, arranged close to the nasal capsules, in all Gadiformes. In Macrurus caver- nosus (Pfiiller, 1914:48, pl. 1-2), Coeclorhynichus jordan, Ce lc oes Lorhynchus Co jap omae u's), Mawar Chirinehus trachi rine hus) Con y = phaenoides, rupestris,, C. ialtipin - nis and Abyssicola macrochir(our investigations) ofthe family Macruridae the olfactory lobes very closely adjoin the forebrain, the cranial cavity does not ex- tend in the form of a canal above the inter- orbital septum and thus the olfactory tracts are absent and the olfactory nerves are long. Besides, in all these fishes both olfactory nerves at their origins lie close to each other between the membran- ous interorbital septum of the right and left sides of the skull, later becoming separated by the frontals and mesethmoid and passing to the nasal capsules between these bones and the membranous interor- bital septum, thereby missing the orbit. (Figure 1,D). In the family Gadidae the canal above the interorbital septum is bordered with the two bony parallel crests extending along the skull on the under side FIGURE 2. Brain of the frontals. In the family Macruri- dae the olfactory nerves are arranged on A-Gadus morhua; B-Lucioperca _—_ the two sides of the single unpaired crest lucioperca; 1. olf—olfactory lobes; running down the middle of the skull of the under side of the frontals. It may be pre- sumed that the olfactory lobes and the in- terorbital region are similarly arranged in all other representatives of this family. Thus,in one of the most important charac - ters, the position of the olfactory lobes and the structure of the interorbital region, the family Macruridae differs essen- tially from the other families of the Gadiformes. Of the characters pecul- iar both to the Macruridae and the other families of the Gadiformes, there must be pointed out the enlarged opisthotic with the foramen for the glossopharyngeal nerve*; the other characters are likewise peculiar to many other teleostean groups. Thus, by some characters the family Macruridae must be placed in the Gadiformes, by other ones it must be separated from that order, and either would be almost equally correct. However, after excluding the Macruridae from the Gadiformes,many other characters (position of the scapular foramen between the scapula and the coracoid, only soft rays in the unpaired fins, position of ventral fins anterior to the pectorals) п. olf—olfactory nerve; tr. olf—olfac- tory tract. * We examined only one specimen of the Macruridae for this characteristic - Coelorhynchus anati- rostris Jord. et Gilb. 7, 18 not considered by Regan as diagnostic become common to all families of the order, and Gadiformes (Anacanthini) may be considered actually as soft rayed and united into an order by a greater number of other characters, Therefore, the immense family of Macruridae, apparently falling in turn into several families, should be separated into a distinct order closely related on one side to the Gadiformes and on the other side to some of the Acanthopterygii. According to the investigations of Stannius (1844:63) and Goodrich (1909: 478), the interorbital septum and the lower part of the canal of the olfactory nerve in the Gadiformes are membranous (Figure 1,A). According to our investigations, the canal of the olfactory nerve as a whole and the in- terorbital septum to a considerable extent are osseous in a number of representatives of the family Gadidae (Figure 1,B). Besides, in fishes having an osseous interorbital septum and canal of the olfactory nerve the neurocranium has a very small opening in front since it is almost closed by the broadening and fusion of the parasphenoid and the descending wings of the frontals, which also form the interorbital septum. In the neuro- cranium of fishes having a bony interorbital septum posteriorlyon either side of the foramen magnum there is a large membrane-covered fon- tanelle through which by means of two long hornlike processes the swim- bladder is in contact with the auditory capsules (Figure 3,A and B). The connection of the swimbladder with the auditory capsules in one of the re- presentatives of the family Gadidae-Lotella bacchus was discover- ed long ago (Parker, 1883:234) but remained little known. The fact that a similar connection of the swimbladder with the auditory capsule exists in some other gadoids as well was not known at that time and therefore this very important anatomical peculiarity was not evaluated to the full extent of its importance in classification. The entire osseous canal of the olfactory nerves, the interorbital septum which is osseous for a considerable distance, the fontanelles in the rear of the neurocranium and the contact through them of the swimbladder with the auditory capsules: all these characters are very important,and genera distinguished by them must be separated into the distinct family Moridae. The family Moridae comprises the genera: Mora, Lepidion, Uraleptus, Lotella, Physiculus, Laemonema, Antimora and a number of others. The order Gadiformes (Anacanthini) therefore consists of the families Gadidae, Moridae and Bregmacerotidae. The latter is close to the Gadidae, but through a number of characters must be placed into a distinct family. As regards the genus Muraenolepis, which Regan (1903:466) considers as a separate family Muraenolepidae and places in the order Gadiformes (Anacanthini), it does not differ from the Gadiformes by the structure of the forebrain and skull but due to the increased number of pectoral radials (not less than 10) and some other characters (gill open- ings narrow and not extending above basis of pectorals, scales long and arranged at angles to each other; for further details see Svetovidov 1939: 583) it occupies a somewhat separate position. The increased number of pectoral radials has an important meaning and gives basis for separating the family Muraenolepidae into а suborder of the Gadiformes. ‘Thus, the order Gadiformes is divided into two suborders: 1) Muraenolepidoidei with one family Muraenolepidae and 2) Gadoidei with the families Moridae, Bregmacerotidae and Gadidae,. The latter, most FIGURE 3. Contact of swimbladder with auditory capsule in the family Moridae A-Physiculus japonicus, lateral view; B—same from ventral aspect; m—muscle; pt—post- temporal; scl—supracleithrum. naturally, on the basis of structure of the adult, larvae, and eggs is di- vided into the following subfamilies: Lotinae, Merlucciinae and Gadinae. The origin and relationship of the Gadiformes with all families and groups of fish associated with them is rather distant. The remoteness of the Gadiformes from the Pleuronectiformes (Heterosomata) has been very definitely and convincingly shown by Cope (1872:341) and Cunningham (1897: 498), whose conclusions Boulenger (1902:296) and Regan (1910a:484) con- firmed with new anatomical data. Regan (1903:460), who brought out a number of new characters well distinguishing the Gadiformes from the re- lated families Blenniidae, Zoarcidae, Brotulidae, Ophi- diidae, and others, and Boulenger (1904:646, 702, 703) consider that the resemblance between these two groups of fish could be assigned to con- vergence rather than to close relationship. Later (1910:11) Regan ex- pressed the suggestion of deriving the Gadiformes from the primitive Iniomi, related to the recent Aulopidae. Gregory (1933:207, 380, fig. 85), pointed out the remoteness of the Gadiformes from the Aulopidae, which have the parietals meeting and not separated by the supraoccipital and having different structure of the gill cover. Besides, it must be added that the canal above the interorbital septum in the Aulopidae is absent and the olfactory nerves pass through the orbit. But the most important distinction of the family Aulopidae, just as in all other families and 19 groups of fish which are near the Gadiformes, appears to be the position of the olfactory lobes near the nasal capsules. This important anatomical peculiarity of the Gadiformes, which is typical only of the distantly related Cyprinidae and Galaxiidae, indicates an early branching off from existing groups of fish of common origins. Moreover, it is necessary to point out that some characteristic morphological peculiarities, particularly the diphycercal caudal fin* and the position of the olfactory lobes near the nasal capsules and not at the forebrain, represent secondary specializations: as it is known in young gadoids the caudal finis homocercal and the olfactory lobes as indicated by T.S. Rass (Svetovidov, 1937:1288), are placed extreme- ly close to the forebrain. L.S. Berg (1940:284), by placing the Gadiformes almost immediately after the Cypriniformes in his classification, and below the Perciformes, considers them to be a lowly organized order derived from forms related to the Pachycormidae. For the Gadidae he gives a somewhat different division into subfamilies than is accepted here, based only on the structure of adults. He separates into subfamilies Eleginus (parapophyses enlarged and containing processes of the swimbladder) and Raniceps (olfactory lobes somewhat removed from nasal capsules; of secondary nature in Raniceps andin Carassius see above). The classification of the family Gadidae is very little elaborated. Even in the works specifically devoted to the Gadidae or to the order Gadiformes, the problems of the classification of the family are either un- treated or given very little attention. Therefore, in treatises and com- pendia on fishes of these or other seas, the genera of the cods are arranged in the most varied order and sequence. Of all efforts to classify the codfishes, the greatest attention is drawn to the classification of Jordan and Evermann (1898:2531) who, on the basis of a very important character, the structure of the dorsal fin, divide the genera of the family into 5 groups: Gadinae, Lotinae, Phycinae, Gaidropsarinae and Brosminae,. Within each of these groups the genera are arranged without any system. In addition, the entire system be- comes somewhat confused because in it are included genera which we separate into the family Moridae, whilethey accept the genusMerluccius asa separate family. Efforts to classify the Gadinae, the group of the Gadidae which is richest in species and genera, actually come down to dividing these into a whole series of groups. Williamson (1909:111) proposed various groupings of the Gadinae according to many characters (position of the mouth, and that of anal fin origin, coloration of peritoneum, dimensions of the eyes, and that of the barbel, length of bases of vertical fins, dimensions and even pigmentation of fish, 20 characters in all) whereby for each one of the charac- ters he obtained varying numbers of groups and attempted to distribute among them the genera,but because of overlap and varying functional signi- ficance of these characters the results were inconstant. In the opinion of the author, the classification must be based upon a complex ofcharacters functionally correlated with the most characteristic biological property of the group. One of the morphological peculiarities of gadoids, characteristic in such a strongly pronounced and variable form and typical perhaps to them alone, is the structure of the vertical fins, There are among them species having * Whitehouse (1935: 70) considers it as homocercal also in the adults, Barrington (1935:270) proposes to name tails of this type pseudocaudal. 20 i) В РУ Г М merluccius FIGURE 4. Structure of unpaired fins, lateral line and its branches on the head, foramina or notches for the facial nerve (a) and mucous cavity (b) on the skull 10 21 М. proximus 4232 замы мии ы Fe Be be rb E> oe Ч. FIGURE 4 (CONT .) - Structure of unpaired fins, lateral line and its branches on the head, foramina ог notches for the facial nerve (a) and mucous cavity (b) on the skull 1 22 one, two, or three dorsal and one or two anal fins. This peculiarity of the gadoids partially finds a reflection in the classification of Jordan and Evermann, A typical biological peculiarity of the gadoids no less variable than the above mentioned morphological character is their ability to inhabit various parts of the hydrosphere and their variable adaptation to movement. The predominant majority of the gadoids keep to the bottom but there are among them those which live in the middle of the water, leading a pelagic mode of life (Micromesistius). There are among them species living at a considerable depth (Bros me) as well as species which live near the shores in shallow water. Remaining near the shores, some representatives have immobile habits (Raniceps) others, suchas Eleginus, are much more mobile. Along with species residing locally among the gadoids there are those which undertake extensive migrations. Undoubtedly the above mentioned morphological and biological peculiarities of the gadoids are functionally integrated, The most perfect structure of the vertical fins, as has been shown in an experimental study by Houssay (1910:13),appears to be not continuous dorsal and anal fins but fins divided into several parts, inasmuch as such a divided structure is more adaptable for streamlining in the turbulent currents pro- duced by the swimming movements of the fish's body. In the structure of the vertical fins all the gadoids can be arranged in series (Figure 4). From this figure it may be seen how, beginning with Brosme and ending with Micromesistius, the dorsal and anal fins become more and more dif- ferentiated. Brosme has one long dorsal fin and one long anal fin adjoin- ing the caudal fin. Gaidropsarus, Ciliata and Enchelyopus al- ready have two dorsal fins: the first one consists of only one normally de- veloped ray*. In Raniceps the first dorsal fin is slightly larger (3 rays) andin Phycis, Urophycis and Molva normal size. Merluccius, having a notch in the posterior part of the anal and second dorsal fin, ap- pears to be a transitional form to the gadoids having three dorsal and two anal fins. Further, in fishes having three dorsal and two anal fins, these fins at first are in contact with each other at their bases, gradually be- coming separated by continuously increasing interspaces, and in Tri- sopterus luscus the anal fins are often connected by a small membrane. At the end of the series the anal fins are again somewhat closer. Therefore, we have a series of fishes having gradually differentiating unpaired fins. Within the subfamily Lotinae fishes in this group are arranged accord- ing to the partitioning of at first one dorsal fin into two and the beginning of the formation of the third dorsal and second anal fins. The Gadinae pre- sent a continuation of this series with regard to the further separation of the dorsal fins, that is, increasing interspaces. It is quite evident that in those fishes having more than one dorsal and one anal fin, as well as in fishes with greater interspaces between these fins, the total lengths of the bases of all dorsal and both anal fins is less than in fishes having continuous fins. The main base characters in this series, as we see from the summation of the data, are the division of the fins and the size of the interspaces but not the sum of the lengths of their bases and furthermore not the total number of rays inthem. Thus, for example, the total length of bases of the dorsal fins in Trisopterus esmarkii is approximately the same as that in the two other species of this genus, while the number of rays in these fins * The other rays of the first dorsal fin in Gaidropsarus mediterraneus by their structure (Bogoljubsky, 1908:327) are not actually fin rays. 12 24 FIGURE 5. Skull in dorsal and lateral views A-Trisopterus luscus; B-Eleginus navaga; a-orbital space; b—foramen (in Т. luscus) and c— notch (in Е. navaga); п.п. facialis and trigeminus; d—foramen of the glossopharyngeal nerve; e—crest above foramen for the dorsal recurrent branch of the facial nerve; f—crest above the lateral line system on the pterotic; g—lateral crest over this canal on the frontal; h-median crest of the frontal over the canal; i—mucous Cavity. 13 23 in both other species is considerably greater. Toa still greater degree all of the above stated will apply to the number of rays as well as to the sum of the lengths of the bases of the anal fins. Within the series of the gadoids, arranged according to the degree of differentiation of their unpaired fins, one observes several regularities with respect to other characters, whereby each of these characters separates within the general series into two parallel series according to the two sub- families of Gadidae: Lotinae and Gadinae; the subfamily Mer - luccinae occupies an intermediate position. The facial nerve emerges from the skull together with the trigeminal nerve through a foramen or a notch of various depth in the front part of the prootic on the side of the skull (Figure 4, a and Figure 5, b,c). In Brosme brosme this nerve passes through the foramen (Figure 4, a), andin Gaidropsarus mediterraneus, the next in the series, through a deep notch in the prootic, the edges of which approach each other so close- ly that they almost close it anteriorly. In Ciliata mustela and others following it in the series, the notch becomes wider and shallower anteriorly. The notch in Lota lota is as deep and its edges anteriorly are narrowed almost as much as in Gaidropsarus mediterraneus, while in all species of Molva and Merluccius the facial nerve passes from the skull again through the foramen. The facial nerve emerges likewise through the foramen also in species of the genus Trisopterus which are a further continuation of the series. The width of the bony link [link separating the foramen from interorbital space] * is a little broader in T. luscus than in T. minutus, and in the latter it is wider thanin T. esmarkii. Odontogadus merlangus and representatives of the family following it have a prootic notch which gradually becomes broader and less deep in front. In both forms of Gadiculus argenteus the notches are almost absent. Further, in species of the genera Eleginus, Microgadus, Boreogadus, Arctogadus and Theragra the notch gradually deepens and the edges become more approximated. Micromesistius has a foramen on the side of the skull, Thus, by this character the general series of the gadoids, arranged according to the degree of differentiation of their unpaired fins, is divided by this character in turn into two paral- lel series corresponding to the division of the family into subfamilies. The same regularities can be observed in the variation of some other characters. On the dorsal side of the skull of the gadoids, on each parietal, there is a foramen through which emerges the dorsal recurrent branch of the facial nerve (Figure 5, e and Figures Bin Tables XXI-LXVI]I). In some of the gadoids these foramina are protected in each species by crests of varying degrees of development; in other species the crest is not developed, and the foramen is open ontop. In Brosme brosme and Gaidropsarus mediterraneus, Ciliata mustela, Enchelyopus cimbrius which follow it in the series the crest protecting this foramen is present. In Raniceps ranius [sic] and all species of the genera Phycis and Urophycis the foramen of the dorsal recurrent branch of the facial nerve is not covered because the crest is a barely noticeable growth located some- what posterior to the foramen. In Lota, and all species of Molva and Merluccius the crests are developed and cover the foramina. Within the subfamily Gadinae the parietal crests are developed more strongly. * Added by author. 14 25 26 In all species of the genera Trisopterus, Odontogadus, Pollachius, Gadus and Melanogrammus crests are developed, their size dimin- ishing from Trisopterus through Melanogrammus. Nocrests in Gadiculus. Furtherinthe series crests are present and gradually increase toward the end of the series in Eleginus, Microgadus, Boreogadus, Arctogadus, Theragra and Micromesistius, while in some spe- cimens of Eleginus navaga the crests are present, and in the others they are not developed. The glossopharyngeal nerve (Stensio, 1921:155) emerges from the skull through a small foramen in the opisthotic (Figure 5, d and Figures A in Tables XXI through LXVII). This foramen varies in size within each series following the same regularity as the previous one. In Brosme brosme the foramen is almost invisible. In Gaidropsarus mediterraneus, Giliata,mustela,, Enchelly opuswmeiimibrnius,; Raniceps rani - nus itis small, and in species of the genus Phycis and Urophycis it is slightly larger, in Lota and Molva itis large andin Mer- luccius itis again of small dimensions. Further, in all species of the genus Trisopterus this opening is hardly noticeable, its dimensions gradually increasing to Gadus and Melanogrammus and beginning with Gadiculus diminishing again. The lateral lines of the gadoids form sensory (or slime) canals on either side of the head (Figure 6): Preoperculo-mandibular canal, the infraorbit- al canal and the supraorbital canal with a short commissure connecting the right and left canals. The lateral line of the body has on the head a supra- temporal portion (L'), above which there is an ossification of 4 or 5 ossa tabularia (=supratemporal). Each canal оп the head is covered from above for almost its entire length by a crest of those bones on which the canals are located (frontals, pterotics, sub- and pre-orbitals, nasals, preoper- culars, tabulars). The most important of these crests is the median crest on the frontal (Figure 5, h) and the lateral crests on the frontals and pter- otics (Figure 5, Гапа в). The supraorbital commissure of the supra- orbital canalis located in a special depression in the frontals - a mucous cavity (Figure 5,i). The mucous cavity in some of the Gadidae is closed in front by the fused edges of the lateral and median crests over the canals on the frontals, while in others it is widely open as the edges of the lateraland median crests of the frontals are shortened and do not coalesce in front of the mucous cavity. In Brosme brosme the edges of the lateral and mediancrests of the frontals are so near to each other that they almost close the small mucous cavity in front. In Gaidropsarus mediterraneus, Ciliata mustela and Enchelyopus cimbrius the mucous cavity is open in front and of very minute dimensions. Rani- ceps raninus hasamucous cavity open in front. In some species of the genera Phycis and Urophycis the mucous cavity is open in front, in others it is closed; both of these genera represent in this respect slight deviations from the general rule, and the reasons for this we shall discuss further. In Lota lota the mucous cavity is almost closed in front by the approaching edges of the lateral and median crests of the frontals, which in the species of the genus Molva, being fused,forms a well-locked cavity The mucous cavity in all species of the genus Merluccius is represent- ed by a wide depression in the center of the frontals, and it has a shape de- viating somewhat from that common to the gadoids. The mucous cavity is 15 ] ey 2 mare CILLA : .; ere SS i Z oS, 2 SU hare 4 5 FIGURE 6. Distribution of sensory canals and pores on the head of Gadus morhua (A) and pit organs on the head of Eleginus navaga (B) [drawing A modified from Cole] PM-—preoperculo-mandibular canal, 1-12- И5 pores; JO—infraorbital canal, 1-9-И$ pores; SO-supraorbital canals, 1-3—И5 pores; SOC~—supraorbital commissure with unpaired (4) роге; L—lateral canal; L'-supra- temporal portion and L"—cephalic portion of the lateral line. The dots in both figures represent pit-organs. closed further, beginning with Trisopterus and ending with Gadicu- lus. In all the succeeding species of the series the mucous cavity is open in front but is closed again in the species at the end of the series, in Theragra chalcogramma, Micromesistius poutas.sou and M. australis. It should be noted that whether the mucous cavity is closed ог openin front, itis generally typical for all species of any given genus of the gadoids, with the exception,as pointed out above,of the genera Phycis 16 27 and Urophycis. Besides, there is one more species, Eleginus navaga, in which the approximating edges of the lateral and median crests of the frontals are sometimes fused on one side, and in one of the skulls studied they are fused on both sides. Thus, this feature is in an unstable state,in the first case within the limits of the genus,and in the second with- in the limits of the species, each of them being in the middle of each of the two parallel series. A similar regularity is observed in the structure of the crests above the sensory canals on the frontals. In Brosme, Gaidropsarus, Ciliata, вере уоров, „ Мо1\ха, .Urisiopterus,.Maicromesistius, that as, in fish which are at the beginning and the end of each series, the margins of the crests on the frontals closely adjoin to these bones and almost close over the canal. Furthermore, in some of these fishes (Trisopterus) the margins of these crests are in places fused with the frontals by means of bony bridges. In all the remaining gadoids arranged between them in both series the margins of the crests above the sensory canals on the front- als are usually raised. The genus Merluccius deviates somewhat in that the crests are developed very slightly. Along each of the sensory canals on the head are distributed numerous groups of nerve endings (Figure 6, B) - genipores (pit-organs),or these canals open outward with a row of pores (Figure 6, A); however, few geni- pores are present even in that case. The lateral line on the body of gadoids extends from the head to the caudal fin in the form of a continuous or inter- rupted line divided by small interspaces (Figure 4). In Brosme brosme the lateral line extends continuously from the head to the end of the dorsal fin, becoming interrupted only on the caudal peduncle (Figure 4). In Gaidropsarus mediterraneus, Ciliata mustela and En- chelyo pus cimbrius the lateral line is interrupted throughout its length, in Raniceps raninus the lateral line is apparently absent (see page 101). In species of the genera Phycis and Urophycis and in Lota lota the lateral line is uninterrupted almost to the end of the anal fin, and beyond that is interrupted; in species of the genus Molva itis interrupted posteriorly from the end of the anal fin, in those species of Merluccius itis uninterrupted for its entire length. In species of the genera Trisopturus, Odontogadus, Pollachius and Melano- grammus the lateral line is continuous throughout its length; in species of the genera Gadus, Gadiculus* and Microgadus the lateral line is interrupted posteriorly from the middle or the end of the third dorsal fin; in species of the genus Eleginus it becomes interrupted at the rear or beginning of the second dorsal fin and in species of the genera Boreogadus and Arctogadus the lateral line is discontinuous for its entire length. Further in the series in Theragra chalcogramma the lateral line is interrupted behind the origin of the second dorsal fin, and in Micro- mesistius poutassou and М. australis it is continuous for its entire length, A similar regularity exists in the series of the gadoids in respect of the presence on the head of pores and genipores (see dots on head, Figure 4). Genera placed at the beginning and end of the subfamilies Lotinae and Gadinae and forming two parallel series within the general one of the gadoids have pores on the head, while in genera placed in the middle of each * Specimens of Gadiculus are usually without scales, and because of this it is difficult to judge the struc - ture of the lateral line; however, it extends without interruption to the middle of the third dorsal fin. 17 28 of these parallel/series (Raniceps and Lota in the first series, Microgsadus, \Eleginws), Boreosadus. and Arc'to oadus imithe second series) only pit-organs are found, Exceptions to this rule in the first series appear to be only Phycis and Urophycis, which are located in the middle of the Lotinae series, but have pores. Both of these genera likewise represent a certain exception, as was indicated above, as regards the structure of the mucous cavities. It must be noted that all species which have the mucous cavity open in the front, with the exception of some in the genera Phycis and Urophycis, have only pit-organs on their heads. All of these species, again with the exception of those of the genera Phycis and Urophycis, live in coastal regions. Many enter fresh water and even live there permanently. The genus Merluccius, deviat- ing somewhat in the structure of its mucous cavity from the usual gadoid type, differs likewise from its nearby relatives in the classification of genera by the absence of mucous pores. In the series of the gadoids arranged according to degree of the differ - entiation of the unpaired fins, the interspaces between the anal fins within the Gadinae series, as was indicated above, at first increase and at the end of the series the fins again approach each other (Figure 4). The posi- tion of the origin of the anal fin shifts accordingly: in Trisopterus this is placed under the first dorsal fin, farther down the series the begin- ning of the anal fin gradually moves backward, but commencing with Ele - ginus it again advances forward so that in both species of Micro- mesistius the anal fin begins anteriorly to the first dorsal fin. Thus the general series of the gadoids arranged according to the degree of differentiation of their unpaired fins splits as regards all other charac- ters, according to the division of the family into Lotinae and Gadinae, in two parallel series; the subfamily Merlucciinae occupies an inter- mediate position between them. In general the variations in all characters run parallel to each other in each of the series. The variation in each of these characters, especially of the foramen or notch for the facial nerve on the side of the skull takes place within rather narrow limits. For example, in the cod, the notch for the facial nerve on all skulls examined and illustrated in drawings from other works varies but little. Most variable appears to be the foramen for the glossopharyngeal nerve on the opisthotic. In one skull of Pollachius virens the foramen on the right side is smaller than on the left side. Similarly, in the figure of the skull of P. pollachius (Williamson, 1902, Table VII, Figure 41) this opening is also small, and in the photograph (1,c, Table IX, Figure 28) it is of the normal size for this species. The same thing is observable in other species, studied from several or many skulls, but the general confor- mity with the principle of change, in this or any other feature studied, is very obvious even with the greatest degree of variability. From ontogenetic data, it is known that in the development of larvae of any gadoid fish a gradual differentiation of the embryonic finfold* occurs. Within the continuous embryonic finfold extending along the entire body of the larvae rays form in accordance with the locations of the caudal, dorsal and anal fins of the adult fish,whereas in Brosme (J. Schmidt, 1905a, Table I, Figures 1-12) these rays are formed evenly along the entire back from above,and along the posterior half of the body from below, whereas + See tables in the works of J. Schmidt (1905, 1905а, 1906, 1906a, 1907, 1907а). 18 in fishes having more than one dorsal or anal fin the location of the inter - spaces between the future fins of adults have shortened rays (if in the adult these fins are in contact with each other) or rays are entirely absent (J. Schmidt, 1905, Tables I-III). The terminal rays of two adjacent fins in the embryonic finfold in the young of all gadoids, evenin Micromesistius poutassou larvae, in which in the adult the fins are separated by broad interspaces, touch each other or are separated by very narrow interspaces. Simultaneous with the formation of the rays in the embryonic finfold, notches appear at the places of the fin interspaces of the adults. On becoming deep- er these notches gradually divide the embryonic finfold into separate fins. The dorsal and anal fins are still in contact with each other in a fully formed fry and in the fingerling, but in those species in which in the adult the fins are separated by interspaces, the fin membrane at the posterior ends of the fins gradually reduces with the growth of the fish,and thereby forming the interspaces which subsequently increase. The structure of the lateral line canals on the head is of considerable phylogenetic importance. In the Holostei and lower Teleostei (Cyprini- formes, Clupeiformes) these canals are imbedded in bones and communi- cate with the outside by means of narrow openings penetrating the canal (Goodrich, 1930:294-295). In more highly organized Teleostei the dermal bones are buried more deeply under the skin, canals are less imbedded in the bones, and as in the Gadiformes, are present as a trough covered by crests and only partially imbedded in the bony cavity. The mucous cavity in fry under 60mm in length, apparently, is not closed in front, inasmuch as in gadoid fry 60 to 65 mm in length the median and lateral crests of the frontals are connected through membrane which in fishes 85 or more mm in length becomes ossified. How the development of other characters progresses is unknown. Thus, the series of the gadoids arranged according to these characters, to a certain extent appears to be a reflection of the phylogenetic relation- ships of genera and species of the family. However, we cannot assume, with Holt and Calderwood (1895:440), that all members of the series grad- ually evolved from Brosme which stands at the beginning of the series and is more generalized. Nearest to the original form of the gadoids are ».. ^ apparently the genera Phycis and Urophycis, which retain even in й the adult stage certain features of the larval structure: the ventral fins in all species of these genera, like the larvae of Lotinae, are long and con- sist of only three rays. This suggestion is supported, as it seems to us, by the fact that of the number of features of the gadoid skull studied the mucous cavity, one of the most important in species of the genera Phycis and Urophycis, as was stated above, has a structure characteristic of all species of the family. At the same time, Phycis and Urophycis have some more Specialized characters peculiar to all of the Gadinae: frontal bones in all species of both genera examined fuse into a single un- paired plate, thus linking the subfamilies of the gadoids. The supposition that the genera Phycis and Urophycis are the closest to the original form of the family is likewise supported by the fact that among the gadoids there is no fish known with one dorsal fin in which there would have been a notch as observed in the posterior ends of the se- cond dorsal and anal fins of Merluccius. On the contrary, in Rani- ceps and Gaidropsarus there appears a gradual reduction in the 19 posterior part of the first dorsal fin, thus separating it by an interspace from the second dorsal fin. In the young of Raniceps the first dorsal fin is longer and is in contact with the second, but with the growth of the young the posterior part of this fin becomes reduced and due to this a space forms between it and the second dorsal fin (Schmidt, 1907a, Table I, Figures 9-13). In young Gaidropsarus the first dorsal fin is of normal structure, but with growth the posterior part of the fin gradually reduces (D'Ancona, 1932, Table ХШ, Figures 15-20, Table XIV, Figures 13-22), and, besides the structure of the fin in adult fish shows that this feature is secondary and produced through regression (Bogoljubsky, 1898:382). There fore, in some gadoids the dorsal fins are subjected to further differentiation in the posterior part of the second dorsal fin the third one originates, while in the others the process of reduction is going on, the hind part of the first dorsal fin diminishes, and this fin almost disappears in the above men- tioned genera. As indicated above, the Gadinae, having further divided fins, lead in general a more active mode of life than the Lotinae with weakly dif- ferentiated fins. Corresponding to periodic changes of other character- istics in the series, the biological features of the Gadoids change in general in parallel manner. Brosme brosme and species of the genera Molva and Merluccius, standing at the beginning and at the end of the Lotinae series, live at considerable and even great depths. All other represent- atives of this subfamily appear to inhabit considerably shallower water. At greater depths live all species of the genera Trisopterus, Odonto- gadus, Pollachius, Melanogrammus, Gadus, Theragra, Micromesistius, which are located at the beginning and end of the series of Gadinae, while Microgadus, Eleginus, Boreogadus, Arctogadus inhabit much shallower coastal regions. Exception among the Gadinae are both forms of Gadiculus argenteus, which live at considerable depths, and partially Pollachius virens which keeps to the surface layers, while among the Lotinae some species of Gai- dropsarus are found at depths. Classification of eggs and larvae of the gadoids based on their adapta- bility toa pelagic mode of life, completely coincides withthe subdivision of the family into two parallel series. The Lotinae and Merlucciinae have eggs with an oil globule (Rass, 1936:300), and in the larvae the pelvic fins are elongate and consist of only three rays. Inall the Gadinae eggs have no oil globule and the pelvic fins in the larvae are not elongated. In the Merlucciinae, which occupy an intermediate position between the Lotinae and Gadinae, the pelvic fins are not as strongly elongated as in the Lotinae, The larvae of the subfamily Gadinae are mainly classi- fied according to pigmentation and are divided into three groups: 1) Polla- chius pollachius, P.virens, Gadus morhua, Eleginus navaga, Е. gracilis, Boreogadus saida, 2) Trisopterus luscus, T. minutus, T.esmarkii, Melanogrammus : aegle- finus, Odontogadus merlangus, Micromesistius poutassou, 3) Gadiculus argenteus argenteus, G.argenteus thori. With the above offered classification of the family Gadidae this classification of the larvae in the subfamily Gadinae agrees very little, because it is based upon entirely different characters, namely on pigmentation. Never- theless, we must note that the first group comprises the species standing 20 30 in the middle of the series of Gadinae, while in the secona there are primarily species located at the ends of the series. Thus, the parallelism between the two series both in the morphological characters discussed and also to a considerable degree in the ecology of the gadoids is fairly complete. The above mentioned and to a certain extent some other species appear to be ecological exceptions. It must be pointed out that some morphological characters are more pronounced in the Loti- nae (the depth of the notch in the prootic), others in the Gadinae (crests on the parietals above the foramen of dorsal recurrent branch of the facial nerve), and some characters (mucous cavities) in Lotinae have a some- what deviating structure. / FIGURE 7. Skull of Gadus morhua with lateral line system canals (dots indicate pores) and branches of the facial nerve (after Cole and Goodrich partially changed), an~—angular; art—articular; bc—buccal branch of the facial nerve, innervatingthe infraorbital canal; d—dentary; eth, 1-lateral ethmoid; f—frontal; hf—hyoid ramus of the facial nerve; hmf—hyomandibular ramus of the facial nerve innervatingthe preoperculo-mandibular canal; hy~hyomandibular; iop—interoperculum; ll—lateral ramus of the vagusnerve innervating the lateral line and supratemporal portion of the lateral line; mpt—meta- pterygoid; mx—maxillary; n—nasal; op—operculum; pmx—premaxillary; pop—preoperculum; porb—preorbital (equals lacrimal); pt- posttemporal; q—quadrate; rfd—the recurrent dorsal ramus of the facial nerve; rd—its branch supplying the area of the dorsal fin; rv—its branch supplying the area of the pectoral fin; so—super- ficial opthalmic ramus of the facial nerve supplying the supraorbital canal; soc—supraoccipital; sop—suboper- culum; sorb—suborbital; s~symplectic; t-tabular (supratemporal), As all the preceding shows, the variation in the studied characters does not proceed uniformly: one character - the structure of the unpaired fins tends throughout the series toward a gradual successive differentiation, while the variations in all other characters manifest cyclic deviations with increases and decreases just as though these characters were arranged on an ascending spiral,the axis of which would be the increasing differentia- tion in the structure of the unpaired fins. In such an arrangement the genus Brosme of the subfamily Lotinae would appear to be under Trisop- terus which is at the beginning of the subfamily Gadinae, and the genus Merluccius would appear to be under Micromesistius. The 21 31 intermediate genera of the Lotinae would come under the analogous genera of the Gadinae. It must be pointed out that the genera arranged in the middle of each series likewise possess certain other common features: in Boreogadus and Arctogadus,on the upper part of the skull, behind the mucous cavity, there are transverse crests which are also found in Phycis and some species of Urophycis. What is the common bond among these various and, at first glance, functionally unimportant characteristics ? Unpaired fins,as we have seen play a very important role in the move- ments of fishes. Under the crests and in the mucous cavity on the frontals the sensory canals of the lateral line are situated,by means of which,as we know,the fish orientates itself into a flow during its swimming movements. Through the foramen or notch in the prootic and the foramen in the parietal on the dorsal side of the skull emerges the branches of the facial nerve, which,as is known, innervates the branches of the lateral line on the head and also the dorsal and pectoral fins (Figure 7, bc,hmf,so,rfd). Through the foramen in the opisthotic in the gadoids issue the glossopharyngeal nerve (Stensio, 1921:125) which is connected with the facial nerve by means of Jacobsen's anastomosis, which is a part of the palatine ramus of this nerve (Cole, 1898:148). The complex of these characters represents the adaptation to movement in various layers of water, to perception of motion and to transmitting of these sensory perceptions to the brain by nerves emerging from the skull through foramina and notches of various forms and dimensions. Thus, all the characters that form the basis of the classification of the gadoids are in an intimate functional relation. It is possible that the structure of the brain varies similarly, as changes have been demonstrated in the structure of certain parts, associated with the mode of life and feeding (Evans, 1936: 367). Representatives of the family Moridae can be arranged in a series similar to that of representatives of the family Gadidae, according to the structure of the unpairedfins. Atthe beginning of the series would stand the ge- nus Brosmiculus, at theendTripterophycis. The absence of skeletons comprising if not the majority of species at least all the genera of the family Moridae does not permit us to select the characters on which we may base our classification. Judging by the small number of skulls be- longing to just a few genera of the family Moridae, one may presume that there exist interrelationships in some characters similar to those of the family Gadidae. Furthermore, here we have the genera Laemone- ma and Laemonemodes, the pelvic fins of which consist of three rays as in the genera Phycis and Urophycis. The family Muraenolepidae is the most primitive of all families of the Gadiformes. The increased number of radials in the pectoral fins is peculiar also to the families Gymnotidae and Anguillidae, and should be regarded as indicating generalization. By the structure of the skull Muraenolepis mostly resembles some of the Gadidae of the subfami- ly Lotinae, but, contrary to the opinion of Regan, its nearest relations are not with Onos (=Enchelyopus), but with Phycis and Urophycis. Besides, the family Muraenolepidae, just as the family Moridae, resembles the subfamily Lotinae also ina number of other features: their vertical fins are not as highly differentiated as in the Gadinae, 22 the eggs of all Moridae which have been studied in this respect have an oil globule, and the larvae have elongated pelvic fins. The tropical family Bregmacerotidae does not differ from the Gadidae to such a great degree as does the family Moridae, and is the closest systematically to the genus Gaidropsarus, one of the most typi- cal of the warm water representatives of the family Gadidae. Fossil Gadoids Numerous remains in the form of otoliths, referred to many genera of the family Gadidae, are found in all Tertiary formations of almost all the European countries, beginning with the upper Paleocene (Frost, 1931:105; 1934:500; Leriche, 1910:229; Koken, 1884:546; 1885:113; 1891:83; Chaine et Duvergier, 1928:190). A great number of genera and species of gadoids were described from these otoliths but, generally speaking, it is difficult i to identify not only species but even genera of the fossil gadoids based only on otoliths. The best example of this is the research of Weiler (1935:35), who referred almost all Merluccius known from lower Tertiary deposits to) the other genus’, 'Nemopteryx. Indisputable remains in the form of impressions, by which one could state that they definitely belong to this or that extinct or recent genus of gadoid, are known only beginning with the Lower Oligocene. Remains of the family Bregmacerotidae (genus Bregmacerosa) are found in Eo- cene deposits. The fossil Moridae are known only by otoliths from the Oligocene formations of New Zealand. FAMILY GADIDAE Below are listed the representatives of the gadoids which are known from fossils, Species and genera of gadoids which are described from otoliths only are not mentioned, Genus BROSME (CUVIER) OKEN Brosme susedanus Kner (= Brosmius susedanus Kner, 1863:145; Kramberger, 1883:68 = Brosmius cfr. susedanus Erasmo, 1930:82). Upper Miocene of Croatia (Podsused). Brosme fuchsianus Kramberger (= Brosmius fuchsianus Kramberger, 1883:68). Upper Miocene of Crotia (Podsused). Brosme strossmayeri Kramberger (= Brosmius stross mayeri Kramberger, 1883:69). Upper Miocene (?) of Croatia (Beocin). Brosme elongatus Kramberger (= Brosmius elongatus Kramberger, 1883:69; 1885:63; Lednev, 1914:3; Smirnov, 1936:27; = ? Onobrosmius elongatus ponticus Bogachev, 1938:38). Upper Miocene of Croatia(Dolje, Sused), Upper Miocene- Lower Pliocene Apsheron Peninsula (fish clays and colicious marls imprints from the vicinity of Binagady, Pontic clays of the Kirov region) and the Northern Caucasus (clay slate strata from the vicinity of Dzaudzhikau). 23 33 Brosme murdjadjensis Arambourg (-Brosmius murdjad- jensis Arambourg, 1937:59). Upper Miocene (Sahelien Terrace) of Algieria (Province of Oran, Raz-el-Ain). Brosme oligocaenicus Bogachev (Brosmius' oligocaeni- cus Bogachev, 1933:27). Lower Maykop strata (Oligocene?) of the Cau- casus (in the vicinity of Sumgait). Brosme andrussovi Bogachev (Brosmius andrussovi Bogachev, 1933:45). Middle Miocene of Apsheron Peninsula (Spirialis strata). Brosme sp. Lednev (=Brosmius sp. Lednev, 1914:5). Upper Mio- cene-Lower Pliocene of Apsheron Peninsula (fish clays and marl strata from the vicinity of Binagady). Genus PHYCIS ROSE Phycis suessi Steindachner (=Brosmius Heckel, 1851:157= Pycis suessi Steindachner, 1860:566). Lower Pliocene in the vicinity of Vienna (Inzersdorf). Otoliths ascribed to the recent species Urophycis tenuis are found in Miocene deposits of eastern Germany (Chaine et Duvergier, 1928:191). Genus PSEUDOLOTA BOGACHEV Pseudolota abbreviata Bogachev (=Lota sp. Lednev, 1914:36 = Pseudolota abbreviata Bogachev, 1933:28). Lower Miocene of Apsheron Peninsula (Upper Maikop group deposits in the vicinity of Baku) and Shabandag. In Lota sp. described by Lednev, Bogachev established from the draw- ings that the second dorsal and anal fins are divided in two. This impres- sion was examined by myself and the division of the fins into two parts was not observed. In the area of the separation of the second dorsal fin as in- dicated by Bogachev, there are several rays pressed to the back, and these fin rays are covered over by some rockwith the result that in the drawing the fin appears to be divided; these rays cannot be the posterior rays of the fin, asthey are verythin andhardly noticeable in the impressions. The anal fin at the sixth ray cannot be divided in two because the fifth, sixth, and seventh rays in the impression are the longest. The interspace between the fifth and sixth rays is slightly greater than that between the others as both rays are somewhat more spread apart; almost the same interspace is seen farther back between the seventh and eighth rays. To the description of this impression by Lednev, we must add that the pectoral fins on the impression are very long, extending beyond the anal fin; the pelvic fins are shorter, and their tips are very poorly preserved. The neural spines of the first 12 to 15 vertebrae are expanded at the base, are in contact, short and not strongly inclined backward. The structure of the neural spines is more reminiscent of Molva thanof Lota. From the recent species of the genus Molva this fish differs by the considerably lower (45) number of vertebrae (63-65 in М. molva, 82-84in М. diptery- gia elongata), 24 Genus LOTA (CUVIER) OKEN Lota hulai Pietschmann (1934:48). Lower Pliocene, vicinity of Vienna. Sole representative of fossil gadoids, found in fresh or brackish water deposits (Congerien-Tegeln). Genus NEMOPTERYX AGASSIZ Close to genus Merluccius, from which it differs in having narrow parapophyses, which are normal for the gadoids, neural spines not in con- tact at the bases, pectoral fins extremely elongate; two dorsal and one anal fin with notches in the posterior portion of the second dorsal and anal fins. Extinct genus. Nemopteryx crassus Agassiz (=N. crassus Agassiz, 1842:75 = N. elongatus Agassiz, 1842:76 = Palaeogadus troschelii v. Rath, 1859:126 = Palaeobrosmius elongatus v.Rath, 1859:130 = М. 34troscheli Wettstein, 1886:59 = М. elongatus Rychlycki, 1909:760 = Gobius elongatus Rychlycki, 1909:759). Lower-Middle Oligocene of Switzerland (Canton Glarus) and lower layers of Middle Oligocene of the Galician Carpathians. Nemopteryx emarginatus (Koken) [=Otolitus (Merluccius) emarginatus Koken, 1884:547 = Merluccius emarginatus Weiler, 1928:50 = N. emarginatus Weiler, 1935:34]. Middle Oligocene of Germany (the Mainz Basin). Nemopteryx baschkaensis (Kramberger) (= Megalolepis baschkaensis Kramberger, 1879:61 = Merluccius baschkaensis Kramberger, 1882:111 = N. baschkaensis Weiler, 1935:34). Lower strata of Middle Oligocene (Baschka, Krakowiza). Nemopteryx latus (Kramberger) (= Megalolepis latus Kram- berger, 1879:62 = Merluccius latus Kramberger, 1882:11 = N. latus Weiler, 1935:34). Lower strata of Middle Oligocene of Carpathians (Baschka). Nemopteryx leptosomus (Kramberger) (Gobius leptosomus Kramberger, 1879:63 = М. leptosomus Weiler, 1935:34). Apparently identical to N. baschkaensis, Lower Oligocene of Carpathians (Basch- Ка). Nemopteryx athanasiui Раиба (Pauéa, 1932:149; 1934:639; Weiler, 1933:20). Lower strata of the Middle Oligocene of Carpathians (Dukla, Jaslo, Krosno, Suslanesti), Moravia (Nikoltschitz) and Hungary (Eger). Nemopteryx elongatus (Simonescu) (= Gobius elongatus Simonescu, 1905:120 = М. elongatus Pauéa, 1934:641 = М. elongatus Weiler, 1935:34). Lower strata of the Middle Oligocene of Carpathians (vicinity of Piatra, Moldavia). Nemopteryx kubacskai Weiler (Weiler, 1935:28). Oligocene of Hungary (Budapest). Nemopteryx sp. Weiler (= Merluccius sp. Weiler, 1928:77 = N. sp. Weiler, 1935:34). Lower strata of the Middle Oligocene of Moldavia (Blatt Mainest, Jud. Bacau). 25 35 Nemopteryx sp. Bogachev (Bogachev, 1933:28). Oligocene - Lower Pliocene of the Northern Caucasus (Upper Maikop group near Perkichkuhl). Besides the Lower and Middle Oligocene, Nemopteryx possibly is found also in Upper Oligocene, and perhaps in Miocene where otoliths were found resembling the otoliths of Nemopteryx (Weiler, 1935:39). Genus MERLUCCIUS RAFINESQUE Merluccius macroactus (Kramberger) (=Gobius macroactus Kramberger, 1879:64, pl. XVI, Figure 5 = Merluccius macroactus Weiler, 1935:34). Lower strata of Middle Oligocene of Carpathians (Wola radzisz6wska). Merluccius lednevi Bogachev (Bogachev, 1933:35). Oligocene - Lower Miocene of Apsheron Peninsula (Upper Maikop group in the vicinity of Sumgait). Merluccius maicopicus Bogachev (Bogachev, 1933:26). Lower Maikop group in the vicinity of Sumgait (Oligocene? of the Caucasus). Merluccius errans (Smirnov) (= Spinogadus errans Smirnov, 1936:68 = М. maeoticus Bogachev, 1942:89*). Oligocene—Lower Miocene of the Northern Caucasus (upper Maikop deposits in the vicinity of Dzaudzhikau and the Meotic ones of the Taman! Peninsula). After detailed study almost all fossil species of the genus Merluccius from Central Europe were found to belong to the genus Nemopteryx. Similarly the study of the otoliths of both genera has shown that all Paleo- cene, Eocene, and the majority of Oligocene otoliths on which a number of species of the genus Merluccius have been described proved to be of the genus Memopteryx; tothe genus Merluccius belong only otoliths from the Upper Tertiary deposits of Central Europe (Weiler, 1935:35). Genus GADUS L, ($. lat. ) Recent gadoids, formerly referred to the genus Gadus, at present are divided into several independent genera. It is difficult to identify exactly fossil gadoids, described mainly from incomplete remains, and therefore, in the following they are all referred to the genus Gadus s. l. Gadus jonas (De Bosniaski) (in: Sauvage, 1880:12=G. jonas Erasmo, 1930:78). Upper Miocene of Apennine Peninsula (Gabbro, Pro- vince of Livorno). * The identity of М. maeoticus is established by Р.С. Danilchenko, to whom the author is very grate- ful for this information. Merluccius sp. Lednev (1914:37) was synonymized by Bogachev (1933:35) withM, lednevi. As indicated by Р.С. Danilchenko, it is closer to М. еггап$. 26 36 Gadus aeglefinoides (Kner et Steindachner) (= Morrhua aegle- finoides Kner et Steindachner, 1863:34; Kramberger, 1883:65). Upper Miocene of Croatia (Podsused). Gadus extensus (Kramberger) (= Morrhua extensa Kramberger, 1885:51; 1886:135). Upper Miocene of Siebenburgen (Szakadat). Gadus lanceolatus (Kramberger) (= Morrhua lanceolata Kramberger, 1883:67). Upper Miocene of Croatia (Podsused). Gadus macropterygius (Kramberger) (=Моггпиа macrop- terygia Kramberger, 1883:65= Gadus sp. ? aff. aeglefinoides Bogachéev, 1928:38 = Gadus macropterygius Bogachev, 1933:33). Upper Miocene of Croatia (Dolje) and Apsheron Peninsula (diatomaceous clays from the vicinity of Binagady). Gadus minimus (Kramberger) (=Morrhua minima Kramberger, 1885:63; 1891:104). Upper Miocene of Croatia (Sused). Gadus szagadatensis (Steindachner) (=Моггвиа szagadaten- sis Steindachner, 1863:139). Upper Miocene of Siebenburgen (Szakadat). Gadus atropatanus Bogachev (Bogachev, 1933:37). Middle Miocene of Apsheron Peninsula (spiralis strata). Gadus kiplingi Bogachev (Bogacheyv, 1928:36; 1933:40). Upper Miocene of Apsheron Peninsula (diatomaceous clays from the vicinity of Binagady). Gadus caspius Bogachev (Bogachev, 1928:36; 1933:41). Upper Miocene of the Apsheron Peninsula (diatomaceous clays from the vicinity of Binagady). Gadus kwitkae Bogachev (Bogachev, 1933:43; 1938:40). Lower Pliocene of Apsheron Peninsula (Ройс clays from the vicinity of Binagady and Kirov region). Gadus spoliatus Bogachev, (Bogachev, 1938:41). Lower Pliocene of Apsheron Peninsula (Pontic marls of the Kirov region). Gadus iniistius (Jordan et Gilbert) (FArnoldina iniistia Jor- dan et Gilbert, 1919:63 = Arnoldina iniistia Jordan, 1921:262 = Arnoldites iniistia Jordan, 1923:164). Pliocene of southern Califor- nia. Known only from one imprint with both the rear dorsal and anal fins unpreserved. Jordan and Gilbert separated it into a distinct genus to Тпеваска ог РоШасвтаз. Gadus sp. (Раса, 1935:103). Pliocene (Pontic strata of Oltenie). Gadus sp. (Pauca, 1935a:228). Miocene of Siebenburgen (Gemeinde Desmir, Bezirk Cojoecna). Some of the above listed species are identical. Some of them are known from poor remains. Besides, remains of the genus Gadus s. 1. are known from fragments of skeletons from the Upper Pliocene of southern Gréat Britain, and small specimens from glacial and post-glacial clays of Norway (Woodward, 1901:599). In glacial clays of Sweden near Lund bones were found identical to bones of presently living Boreogadus saida (Smitt, 1893:484), and in glacial clays near Karlsborg (near Lake Vettern) -— bones identical to those of Melanogrammus aeglefinus (Munthe, 1910:1). Eclipes veternus Jordan et Gilbert (= Merriamina ec- tens Jord. et Gilb.), Е. manni Jordan et Gilbert, Е. extensus Jord., referred by Jordan (1921:260) to the family Gadidae it is difficult to say to what family they refer. 27 36 Thus, the Gadidae inthe Oligocene and Miocene were represented by the same genera as at present. Of all the fossil gadoids only Memop- {егух is not found today. Family BRFGMACEROTIDAE The only existing genus,Bregmacer os, is known in the fossil state. Genus BREGMACEROS THOMPSON Bregmaceros albyi (Sauvage) (= Podopteryx albyi Sauvage, 1880:17 = Р. bosnjaski Sauvage, 1881:19 = Erethmophorus зр, Stefano,’ 1918:85 = B. ‘albyi Arambourg, 1929725; “Erasmo;”"1930:51): Upper Miocene of Appenine Peninsula, Sicily (Licata) and Algeria (Sidi- Brahim, Raz-el-Ain). Bregmaceros filamentosus (Priem) (= Problennius fila- mentosus Priem, 1908:17 = Bregmaceros filamentosus Агат- bourg, 1925:58). Eocene of Iran (Pouchet-e-Kuuh). Family MORIDAE Fossil representatives of this family in the form of impressions are un- known. Strinsia alata Steindachner (1859:771) cannot be referred to this family inasmuch as the genus Strinsia is excluded from present faunistic works, In the upper Oligocene (Hutchinsonian beds) of New Zealand otoliths were found which Frost (1933:129) assigns to Physiculus [G. (Physi- culus)terakohensis]. Thus, from the beginning of the Tertiary period the families Gadidae and Bregmacerotidae, as can be judged by fossil remains, were sufficiently well differentiated. Many recent genera of the subfamilies Lotinae (Brosme, Lota, Merluccius) were also well differentiated. How sharply the present day Gadinae genera were differentiated in the Miocene is difficult to judge by fossil remains. Geographical Distribution The geographical distribution of each family of the order Gadiformes is distinguished by essential peculiarities mainly depending on the ecological differences of the families. Representatives of the family Moridae in- 28 38 \\ и < хм Vs ° ae cs 29 GE 2010 ЗЕЕ | 5 ^ Distribution of the family Gadidae FIGURE 8. The white line marks the 5-1-2 species. 3~about 10 species; 4—about 5 species (3-5); 1—about 20 species; 2~-about 15 species; southern border of the distribution of the genus Lota. habiting considerable depths, just as the entire basic mass of the deep water fauna appear to be cosmopolitan; they are sufficiently evenly distributed throughout almost all deep seas (Table 1). Table 1 Distribution of the family Moridae. Total North North Southern number Atlantic Pacific Atlantic of Ocean and | Ocean and and Pacific Oceans Brosmiculus* Melanonus Algoa Uraleptus Austrophycis Physiculus Lotella Salilota Lepidion i) N OO 1 2 3 4 5 6 th 8 9 = (=) = о Hypsirhynchus = — Microlepidium — N Laemonema = w Laemonemodes = > Antimora — un Halargyreus — a Mora Re WY ON S&S RB “N * Tripterophycis Total Species * The genera marked with an asterisk have not been examined osteologically and are only Be оао referred to the family Moridae. ** Including three species from the Indian Ocean. 1 Including two species from the Indian Ocean, The distribution of the warm-water -loving members of the family Bregmacerotidae is limited to tropical and subtropical seas. Distribution of the family Gadidae, being more cold-water-loving than the family Bregmacerotidae, and found at much lesser depths than the family Moridae, is limited basically to the northern hemisphere, with the exception of some species of Gaidropsarus, Urophycis, Merluc- cius, and Micromesistius, which occur off the coasts of New Zealand, at the southern tip of Africa and at South America (Table 2 and Figure 8). 30 In tropical regions at depths where only single specimens of some species of the genera Merluccius and Urophycis are found (perhaps there are also Gaidropsarus), the representatives of the family Gadidae as arule are absent. Not all of the Gadidae havea similar distribution within the general area of the family: some are found only in Arctic seas, the majority in temperate ones, and a few in subtropical seas. Table 2. Distribution of the family Gadidae, North North Southern Atlantic Pacific Arctic | Atlantic Ocean and Ocean and Seas |апа Pacific Oceans Brosme Gaidropsarus Ciliata Enchelyopus Raniceps Phycis Urophycis Lota Molva Merluccius 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 are L>(S) Trisopterus — [>] Odontogadus — (oS) Pollachius — a Melanogrammus Gadus Gadiculus Microgadus Cl al ond сч м WI Eleginus — №) Boreogadus iy) (>) Arctogadus N rare Theragra м ~N Micromesistius 2 1 — — 1 Total number of species 58(9) 40(4) 5(3) 5(2) в * The majority of these species are undoubtedly only subspecies. жж The number of subspecies are shown in parentheses, 3 В. saida is found in the most northern part of the Bering Sea,mainly being distributed throughout the Arctic seas. 3a Corrected figures given by the author due to misprints in the original text. 3b Figure corrected by author with the following note: A second species (Th. finmarchica) was recently described from the North Atlantic (Koefoed, Fiskeridirektor Skr., ser. Havunders., ХТ, 5, 1956; Svetovidov, Univ. Bergen Arbok, Naturvid. rek. Nr.11, 1959). The present distribution of genera and species of the family Gadidae within the general area occupied by them as well as the distribution of the families within the order, besides having historical reasons, depends mainl on temperature. All the Gadidae can be divided into several groups in accordance with the zoogeographical subdivisions of Ortmann (1896): 31 40 I. Arctic-circumpolar subregion: Arctogadus borisovi, A. pearyi Boréogadus agilis#*B.) saida, Eleginus navaga, (Gadus morhua’ ogac; "Ge morhwa.marnis > albi,jG..morhua morhua n.hiemalis. To these also may be referred, evidently, а. morhua kildensis from Mogil'noe Lake on Kil'din Island, as well as a local coastal Murmansk race of G. morhua morhua. Il. Atlantic-boreal subregion: Brosme brosme*, Gaidropsarus mediterraneus**, Ciliata septentrionalis, C. mustela, Enehelyopus cimbrius, Raniceps raninus, FP hycis, phye us, Ph. “bhennoides, .Ph. chesteri,Urophy cis mestus,. 9. беби, U. Chusis; М. floridanus,. U.earlii, М. cirnawus, Wotauhota lota, "EWYota lepturia; №. lotta nracwlosa (fresh water), Molva molva*, M. dipterygia dipterygia*, M. dipterygia elongata*, Merluccius,merluccius*, М. bilinearis®*, Trisopterus luscus*, T. minutus minutus, T. minutus capelanus, T. esmarkii, Odontogadus merlangus mien lain gus, О. merlangus euxinus, Pollachius pollachits, РЁ virens, Melanogrammus aeglefinus,.Gadus jmorhuaimonr- hua, Gadiculus argenteus argenteus*, а. argenteus thori*, Microgadus tomcod, Micromesistius poutassou* [Therag- ra finmarchica must be added]. Ш. Pacific-boreal subregion: Gaidropsarus pasificus, Merluc- cius productus*, Gadus morhua macrecephalus, Eleginus gracilis, Theragra chalcogramma chalcogramma, Th. chal- cogramma chalcogramma п. fucensis, Microgadus proxi- mus. IV. Antarctic (temperate) region: Gaidropsarus capensis, G. novae-zealandiae, \Urophycis brasiliensis, Merlucciu's capensis*, M. гауй*, M. ‘australis, М. hubbsi*paNMicex oc Mesistius-australrs*, The first group comprises forms whose distribution coincides with the range of the Arctic-circumpolar subregion of Ortmann; all of these forms, with the exception of the subspecies of G. morhua and possibly also A. pearyi and В. agilis, are to a considerable extent euryhaline. The southern limit of distribution of this group (В. Saida,E.navaga) in the Atlantic Ocean coincides more with that of the Arctic region after Broch (1933:17) than with Ortman's limits. Some of the species of the Arctic region (Arctogadus, B. agilis) inhabit the coldest seas and can be called high-Arctic (Hofsten, 1915:209). A comparatively small number of species found here as well as in other subregions, does not permit us to divide them further. The distribution of the second group corresponds with the Atlantic boreal subregion of Ortman,with the only difference being that within it we must include the Mediterranean and the Biack Seas, thus making its southern limits at the eastern coasts of the Atlantic extend slightly farther south, approximately to 15°N., coinciding closely with the southern limits of * Forms marked with an asterisk live at considerable depths, ** The other doubtful Gaidropsarus species are not mentioned. 32 41 the distribution of the Mediterranean-Atlantic fauna of 5. Eckmann (1935-113). At the coasts of North America the limit of distribution of this group of gadoids almost coincides with the southern limit of the Atlantic-boreal sub- region of Ortmann. To be more precise, as Eckmann properly remarks, (1935-144), and this particularly refers to the gadoids, these are not bound- aries but rather transitional areas, as some species penetrate very far into the Arctic regions along the Gulf Stream branches, according to seasonal variations in temperature. With favorable conditions, a number of species, especially those living at considerable depths, range much further south of their indicated boundaries. The same refers to the boundaries of other regions. There is no reason for separating the Mediterranean gadoids, with those of the adjoining part of the Atlantic, into a special Mediterranean-Atlantic fauna (Eckmann, 1935:113) inasmuch as many Mediterranean gadoids (М, poutassou, Ph. blennoides, T. luscus) with singular exceptions (О. merlangus euxinus and T. minutus capelanus) are dis- tributed in the Atlantic Ocean far to the north—- to the boundaries with thé Arctic fauna and appear to be more common here than in the Mediterranean, Besides, the spawning grounds of all species of gadoids are found within the limits of the regions typical of them, while all Mediterranean gadoids, with the exception of the above mentioned two subspecies, spawn primarily in the Atlantic Ocean, not only in the Mediterranean. The most important peculiarity of the Mediterranean-Atlantic fauna - relationship with the Indo- West Pacific - is foreign to the gadoid fauna. However, there are some indications of a minor segregation of the gadoids in this region such as: the areas of some forms (М. dipterygia elongata, Ph. phycis, С. argenteus argenteus) toa certain degree coincide with the bound- aries of the Mediterranean-Atlantic fauna. Besides, the southern range of some North Atlantic species (G. morhua morhua, М. aegle- finds, | Р: virens, -Mimolva;) Mi diptery gia ‘dipteryg ia ‘and others) coincide closely with the northern boundaries of Eckmann's Mediterranean-Atlantic fauna. The third group of gadoids must be referred to the Pacific-boreal sub- region of Ortmann, the boundary of which with the Arctic Circumpolar subregion in the gadoids in the Bering Sea extends approximately from the Chuckchi Peninsula to Cape Nome in Alaska. To the north of this boundary enter cod(Gadus morhua macrocephalus) and vachnya (Elegi- nus gracilis), and tothe south saika (Boreogadus saida), The southern boundaries of the distribution of this group of gadoids closely coincides with Ortmann's boundaries: central California on the coast of North America and central Japan in the Pacific Ocean. Only single species of gadoids penetrate south of this boundary = to the Yellow Sea and the Gulf of California. A characteristic peculiarity of this subregion appears to be that, in spite of the low temperature of the water of some of its seas, the gadoid fauna bears a partial boreal character. The species of the Arctic genus Elegi- nus - Е. gracilis here appears as a warmer water species, occurring even in the Yellow Sea. In comparison with the Atlantic-boreal subregion the gadoid fauna of the Pacific-boreal subregion is much poorer. In the southern hemisphere the gadoid fauna is still poorer: here we find five species (or perhaps they are subspecies)of the genera Gaidropsarus 33 42 and Merluccius closely related to the boreal forms, and one each of the genera Urophycis and Micromesistius. Thus, the fauna of the gadoids in the Atlantic-boreal subregion is much richer, having the greatest number of endemic genera. The gadoid species which are largest in size and most abundant in number are met with here. Next ina quantitative comparison of endemic genera and species is the Arctic Circumpolar subregion. The Pacific-boreal subregion is still poorer in gadoids. There is only one endemic genus (Theragra), The Antarctic (temperate) region has not a single endemic genus, Such a distribution of the gadoids shows little agreement with Eckmann's zoogeographical regions (1935) primarily because there is no sufficient reason to separate gadoids into a special Mediterranean-Atlantic region, Besides,the gadoids of the Bering and Okhotsk Seas have more reason to be included in the Pacific boreal region than in the Arctic region. And, finally, the poor and uniform gadoid fauna of the southern hemisphere is more cor- rectly considered as one without subdividing it into South African, South Australian, New Zealand and Peruvian-North Chilean regions, With regard to almost all groups of marine animals, and particularly fishes, many authors (Ginther, 1880:176; Smitt, 1904:394; Berg, 1918: 1835; Broch, 1935:42, and others) have noted that the fauna of the North Pacific Ocean shows great similarity to the fauna of the North Atlantic, and is much richer in species and genera and even families. The fauna of the North Atlantic Ocean, as well as that of the Arctic Seas, appears in the main to be an impoverished fauna of the North Pacific Ocean from which it is mainly derived. Among fishes the gadoids are almost the only exception to this general rule since this family is represented in the northern parts of the Atlantic Ocean by a greater number of species and genera. The reasons for such a peculiar distribution of the gadoids, which is contrary to the distribution of other fishes, and which was noted simultaneously with the discovery of the similarity of the fauna of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans and the fact that the latter is much richer (Gunther, 1880:180; Smitt, 1904: 402), however, remains unexplained. After the separation of the family Ga- didae from the family Moridae, the predominantly Atlantic distribution of the gadoids becomes still more marked (see Tables 1 and 2 and Figure 8) as deep water fishes are cosmopolitan. The numerical predominance of gadoid species and genera in the North Atlantic, the presence there of a number of endemic genera (Brosme, Raniceps, Phycis, Urophycis, Molva and others), the absence of endemism in the Pacific gadoid fauna, and its obvious genetic dependence on the Atlantic, doubtless points to the derivation of the Pacific gadoids from the Atlantic. The opinion is being accepted in recent years by many authors (Scheuring, 1930:197; Zenkevich, 1933:21; Smitt, 1936:175). It is clear that the present gadoid fauna of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and of the Arctic Seas has had a somewhat different origin than the rest of the ichthyo- fauna of both oceans, In the opinion of L. A. Zenkevich, the wealth of species and genera of gadoids in the Atlantic is a phenomenon which developed in the Atlantic Ocean itself and began after the separation of the two oceans at the end of the Pliocene (1. с. :21), but this opinion contradicts the paleontological data since gadoid remains were found in much earlier strata, in the Oligocene 34 43 and Miocene, and otoliths beginning with the upper Paleocene. To this we must add that the evolution of the gadoids did not occur so rapidly since already in the Oligocene and Miocene deposits of western Europe and the Caucasus,the gadoids, especially in the subfamily Lotinae, are repre- sented by the same genera as at present; many of these genera are represen- ted by a few species, while in the glacial clays of Scandinavia a skeleton was found of a small gadoid completely identical with the skeleton of the present day Boreogadus saida. Some authors (Schmit, 1936:175) consider that the main basin in which the gadoids developed during the Tertiary were seas that covered the area of the present North Atlantic Ocean and farther north. In discussing the problem of the origin of the’ gadoids, in addition to the fauna and the present day geographical distribution, it is also necessary to consider the following: 1) definite and fairly marked preference for cold water associated with the eurythermal habits of the family as a whole, 2) time and places of fossil remains, and 3) geological history of localities of the fossil remains of the gadoids. The predominant cold water habits of gadoids have attracted the attention of almost all authors (Giinther, 1880:177; Zenkevich, 133:21; 5. Ekman, 1935:235), who pointed out the peculiar distribution of the family. Actually, both the geographical distribution (primarily in considerably high latitudes of the northern hemisphere) and, most important, the spawning time, which in the great majority of species occurs in the cold season of the year, doubt- less explains the cold water preference of the gadoids. As noted by Appellof (1912:303), requirements for reproduction may be an indirect in- ‘dication of the origin, thus reproduction in the cold season of the year is indicative of an Arctic origin. In species which prefer warm water and those which are distributed farther south the spawning time occurs in the warmest time of the year. Scomber scombrus (L.), inthe same latitudes as the cod off the coast of Norway spawns in June-July (McIntosh а. Masterman, 1897:160), Mullus barbatus L. and М. surmuletus L. at the coasts of Great Britain spawn in June-July (Meek, 1916:304). In more southerly latitudes spawning of these fishes takes place earlier, Spawning time in the flat fishes, among which there are also boreal and al- most Arctic groups as well as tropical fishes, differs according to their distribution: tropical flat fishes spawn in the warm time of the year, and breeding in flounders with a more normal northerly distibution tends to be in the colder part of the year; but even among these there are some, the subfamily Pleuronectidae, found at much higher latitudes which spawn at the coldest time of the year. Within the gadoids species with the most south- erly distribution breed in warmer seasons of the year than do species dis- tributed farther to the north (J. Schmidt, 1909:155). Indisputable fossil remains of the gadoids - as imprints of skeletons - are known from Central Europe, the Caucasus and a few from California*. The first to appear in the Lower Oligocene is Nemopteryx which disappears toward the end of Middle Oligocene. In Middle and Upper Oligocene deposits deep water gadoids - Brosme and Merluccius - appear. Gadoids of the Gadus 3.1. type appear for the first time in much later deposits, as singular specimens in the Middle Miocene and abundantly in the Upper Mio- cene beds. Phycis and Lota are known from Lower Pliocene deposits. * See the chapter on fossil gadoids. 35 44 Judging from otoliths which have been found, gadoids were found even earli- er - in the Eocene and even the Upper Paleocene, but as was noted above it is difficult to identify them exactly even though they were referred to many genera and even species of the present day gadoids. All of these fossils were found in deposits of central Europe and the Caucasus. From the Paci- fic region (southern California) fossil gadoids are known only from Pliocene deposits. At the time to which are referred the earliest known remains of gadoids - Paleocene and earlier, in place of the present Mediterranean in southern and central Europe, as we know, was the Tethys Sea extending farther west- ward into the central part of the present Atlantic Ocean and southeastward where it was connected with the Indian Ocean, The northern boundary of the Tethys in Europe extended along the northern boundaries of the Carpathians and the Alps which rose in the form of flat islands; southward the boundary of Tethys passed approximately through northern Africa. The northern part of the present Atlantic Ocean was crossed by a bridge connecting Europe with North America through Iceland and Greenland (Jhering, 1927:35), The Paleocene fauna of the Tethys was tropical, extremely rich and in the opinion of Ekman (1934:359) gave rise to the existing littoral fauna of tropical seas. The Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene fish of the Tethys and the Anglo-Paris and Belgian epicontinental basins adjoining it were simi- larly tropical (Leriche, 1902:47; 1905:49; 1910:231); and present day gadoids were absent. Only from the middle and end of the Oligocene in the Tethys do present day deep water Merluccius appear, and in the northeastern part of it (Apsheron Peninsula) Brosme; for gadoids which keep to lesser depths such as Gadus $.1. the climate was apparently still a little too warm, Nemopteryx which is found here only in Oligocene deposits apparently preferred slightly warmer water than present day gadoids and perhaps lived at depths, because its remains are mainly recorded from Tethys deep water deposits. Only N. emarginatus has been found also in shallower deposits of the Mainz Basin. From the middle of the Tertiary (during Miocene) the Tethys greatly diminished, a number of islands emerged from the sea, its northeastern portion separated and consequently became greatly freshened; the strait across the Pyrennean Peninsula disappeared, giving room to a narrow strait in the area of the Guadalquivir River; the Tethys lost its communication with the Indian Ocean, Asa result of the cooling of the climate the European portion of the Tethys lost its tropical fauna. Thus, at the end of the Tertiary period a gradual cooling of the climate occurred, under which influence the Paleocene tropical fauna of the Tethys disappeared and in its place came a more cold water fauna originating along the northern parts of the Pacific Ocean. The migration of this fauna into the Atlantic Ocean became possible for the first time, as was shown by Berg (1918:1835), only during the Pliocene,when simultaneously with the marine submergence in the region of the Bering Strait there was a warmer climate, The gadoids, as pointed out above, appeared in those seas which were in regions of the Atlantic Ocean and Europe considerably earlier, Already from the Middle Miocene deposits of the Caucasus the genus Gadus s.1. (Gadus atropatanus) is known and from Upper Miocene deposits many species of this genus are known from Central Europe as well as from the Caucasus. The upper Miocene deposits of Central Europe and Algeria also 36 45 contain Brosme, previously known from the Oligocene beds of the Cau- casus. In the Pacific the gadoids appear only in the Pliocene (California), that is apparently after transgression of the area of the Bering Strait. All of the above stated facts: the present distribution of the gadoids, their ecology, localities and age in the fossil state, and the Tertiary history of the seas in which the deposits have been found, all these facts indicate that with cooling of the climate in the Upper Tertiary the gadoids migrated to the seas which covered regions of present day Central Europe and the Caucasus, from much colder basins to the north, Present day knowledge of the history of the northern seas only allows us to guess and to suggest in which of these basins the gadoid fauna developed and where they were in the early Tertiary. It is, nevertheless, possible to assert that the gadoid fauna did not originate in those epicontinental marine basins which covered present day western Europe (Anglo-Parisian, Belgian, etc.), even though otoliths were found in deposits of these seas belonging, if not to the assigned genera then un- doubtedly to the gadoids because the climate, flora (K6ppen-Wegener, 1924: 104) and fauna of these localities, marine as well as terrestrial (Leriche, 1902:47; 1905:49; 1906:125; 1910:231; White, 1931:36) were tropical. It is obvious that the gadoids in the early Tertiary frequented cold water basins and only the deep water forms admixed into the tropical fauna. This oc- curred in localities perhaps within the sphere of influence of some cold stream upwellings from the bottom water layers of the basin where gadoids are usually found. Such a basin could be the Polar and the adjacent Scan- dinavian and other basins but, to our regret, the Tertiary history of the Polar Basin has remained unexplored to this day although it is shown in all (46-62) of Arldt's paleogeographic charts of the Tertiary, Chalk, Urski, and Triassic periods. The tetrahedral theory of the structure of the earth, according to which there had always been a sea around the North Pole (Arldt, 1919:1196), has been the only evidence for the great age of the Polar Basin. According to the most recent studies of О. G. Panov (1946), the formation of the Polar Basin and the establishment of the marine regime can be placed in the Mesozoic. The deepening and formation of the present basin commenced from the very beginning of the Tertiary period. The above assumptions on the origin of the gadoids is strongly supported by the distribution of some crustaceans. Thus, for example, besides the considerable number of species of various groups of marine animals (see Eckman, 1935:245) there are several genera of amphipods in which the distribution is almost or even exclusively High Arctic - "High Arctic auto- chthous forms" as they are called by Gurjanova* (1935:566). To their number belong the genus Onisimus with 11 purely Arctic species, of which only three descended into the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean; in the northern part of the Far Eastern Seas this genus is not found (Gurjanova, 1932:159). All the three species of the genus Acanthostepheia appear to be pure Arctic (Gurjanova, 1929:288; 1932:159). Of the six species of the genus Pseudolibrotus four appear to be exclusively Arctic, hardly ever ex- tending south of the Arctic Circle into the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean and absent from the Pacific Ocean; two species are found in the Caspian Sea (Gurjanova, 1932:163). Among the isopods the genus Mesi- dothea is purely Arctic, only one (М. entomon) of its four species has subspecies in the Baltic, Bering, Okhotsk and Caspian Seas and in some fresh water basins of northern Europe and North America (Gurjanova, * [Also known in literature as Gur'yanova] 37 46 1932:175), The number of endemic crustaceans for the Polar Basin is ex- tremely high: among the amphipods 41%, among isopods 34% (Gurjanova, 1939:681). The distribution of the above mentioned crustaceans has great similarity | to the distribution of the gadoids: a very small proportion of them (М. entomon orientalis), proportionately much less than in gadoids, occur in the northern parts of the Far Eastern Seas, being mainly distributed throughout the Arctic Seas and in the North Atlantic Ocean, while the only Pacific representative of these species has its origin in the Arctic, just as the Pacific gadoids have their origin in the Atlantic. However, in addition to the similarities in distribution of the gadoids and crustaceans there are also some differences: a great part of the crustaceans inhabit the Arctic seas, hardly penetrating into the North Atlantic Oceanandalmost completely absent from Far EasternSeas, while the gadoids are more numerous and range much farther south in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and, more im- portant, they are represented by a greater number of species in the North Atlantic than in the Arctic seas, The reason for this similarity, which we may presume, was still greater in the Early Tertiary period, is undoubtedly conditioned by the fact that the gadoids and the above named crustaceans apparently evolved in one and the same basin, evidently the Polar Basin. Differences in their distribution patterns developed later and appear to have resulted from cooling of climate during the Upper Tertiary and in the greater mobility of gadoids. As in- . dicated above, the climate and the fauna of the Tethys and the epicontinental basins which lay to the north of it were tropical. Undoubtedly, the climate in the region of the Polar Basin was much warmer than at present as the early Tertiary flora of Greenland, Iceland and Spitzbergen was of some- what more southern type than the flora of present day Norway; here were found two species of birch, linden and pine and others (here, cited by Koppen-Wegener, 1924:106). With cooling climate, gadoids began to move out of the Polar Basin and finding more suitable conditions farther south concentrated here in all their great variety, leaving in the Arctic seas elements which were better suited to lower temperatures. However, the crustaceans we referred to previously, being less mobile and undoubtedly better adapted to cold than were the main mass of the gadoids, remained in the Arctic Seas. Because of the earlier connection of the Polar Basin with the Atlantic than with the Pacific, gadoids could move into the north- ern part of the Atlantic with the cooling climate, and not into the Pacific. Apparently, the same will explain the greater penetration of the crustaceans referred to above into the northern part of the Atlantic and not of the Pacific. As is known, the faunal exchange between the Pacific and the Arctic Seas, and through the latter also with the Atlantic Ocean, first became possible only in the Pliocene. Connection of the Polar Basin with the Tethys began much earlier. From the very beginning of the Tertiary period and up to the close of the Oligocene (Archangelsky*,1935:119; Obruchev, 1935:9, 11) a wide sea passage to the northeast of the Tethys extended from the present day Caucasus toward the mouths of the Ob' and Yenesei - and the Oligocene representatives of the genera Brosme and Merluccius which were found in the Lower Maikop deposits of the Caucasus possibly had penetrated southward along this passage. In the Eocene this sea was shallow, in the Oligocene, quite deep, and at the end of that period it became broken up into lagoons and lakes (Obruchev, 1935:8-9). The bridge connecting Europe * [Also known in literature as Arkhangel'skii] 38 and North America through Britain, Iceland and Greenland, in the opinion of the majority of paleogeographers, did not exist continuously (see Arldt, 1919:406-423) and apparently at times was covered by the sea which formed bays and straits across it thus connecting the Polar Basin with the Tethys and adjacent seas. It is most probable that this was the route along which the gadoids, otoliths of which are known from early Tertiary deposits of western Europe, had penetrated into these seas. Apparently, as noted by Davies (1920:311), the Anglo-Parisian-Belgian basin was subjected in the Paleocene (Landenian layer) to influences from the north and from the south (Tethys), but from the latter apparently to a lesser extent. This resulted in a mixture of warm and cold water faunas and explains the occurrence of gadoid otoliths. But generally the prevailing climatic conditions during Palaeogene, together with the partial isolation of the Polar Basin were cause enough for the concentration of the gadoids in higher latitudes in the Paleo- cene. The main migration of the gadoids from the Polar basin into the mid- dle latitudes apparently took place in the Upper Miocene when the land con- nection between Europe and North America had disappeared and the climate became similar to that of the present day. At this time, as indicated above, a great number of representatives of Gadus _ s.1l. and a considerably larger number of those of other gadoid genera appeared in the deposits of Central Europe and the Caucasus in much greater numbers than in the Oligocene. The basic patterns of present distribution of the gadoids just as of all the fauna and flora had developed in the beginning of the Quaternary period under the influence of lower temperatures and heavy glaciation. The gadoids 47 best adapted to cold concentrated in the high Arctic regions while the more warnrwater-loving species were forced to retreat to the south. Meanwhile, due to periodic decreases and increases in salinity which occurred at this time in the Polar basin, Zenkevitch (1933:22) showed that only those gadoids adapted to cold which could tolerate freshening (genera Arctogadus, Boreogadus, Eleginus) survived in the high Arctic regions. A number of other cold water loving gadoids, being intolerant of low salinity (genera Gadiculus, Brosme and others) were forced, together with some more warm, water-loving fishes to retreat to more southerly latitudes, but at depths. The concentration in different regions of different ecological groups of gadoids apparently did not require them to be completely isolated from each other during that period as there was a continuous bridge between Europe and NorthAmerica. A glacialcooling and even a small reduction in sa- linity* following it, which is possible without complete isolation of the Arctic Seas from the Atlantic Ocean, would have been sufficient for this. The adaptation to a fresh water existence in the burbot apparently occurred over a long period of time and in various parts of its range. Even though in the fossil state a burbot is known from fresh water or brackish water deposits in the vicinities of Vienna in the Lower Pliocene, apparently the burbot entered fresh water during the glacial period and from the * We must, however, indicate that to judge by all information at hand a complete freshening of the Polar Basin never occurred since in that case the enumerated gadoids which propagate only in sea water, as well as the crustaceans listed above (for this see also Gurjanova, 1939:679) would never have survived. 39 43 Polar Basin, This assumption is supported by the present day circum- polar distribution of Lota and by its absence from the Neogene (Pliocene) deposits of Siberia (Schtilko, 1934:74). As shown above, gadoids could have penetrated (see Berg, 1918; 1838; 1934:69) into the Pacific during the Pliocene and then during the marine postglacial transgression, when the climate was warmer than today (Berg, 1911:73; Smith, 1919:167). Indisputable remains of gadoids are known from Pliocene deposits of California. Apparently during the Pliocene,Theragra* appeared in the Pacific and evolved to a distinct genus. It is more difficult to state when the other gadoids migrated into the Pacific. In this regard there are just two points of view. According to one point of view (Schmitt, 1936:175), cod and navaga migrated into the Pacific during the Pliocene, while according to the other point of view (Schmidt, 1936:136), the migra- tion took place before or during glacial cooling. The first opinion seems to be supported by present distributions in the Pacific Ocean extending south- wards to and including the Yellow Sea,where it seems they could have gone only under the influence of dropping temperatures. However, this could not have occurred because, owing to rising of land at the onset of the Quater- nary Period,the Yellow Sea itself at that time was dry land, and the Sea of Japan a land-locked basin. The gadoids could not have been present either in that land-locked basin or in the adjoining parts of the Pacific, for the cli- mate there was much warmer than now, as is shown by the occurrence in those localities of tropical fauna (molluscs and coral in the Tokyo Bay during the Name facies (Krishtofovich, 1932:293), After penetrating into the Pacific Ocean post-glacially,cod and navaga could have entered the Yellow Sea and Sea of Japan, because it is known, for example, that migratory forms of codcan appear in a very short time where they have been unknown before in times of change in thermal conditions. Thus in recent years, when there was a general warming there, cod were discovered in the Kara Sea (Berg, 1935:73). Thus it appears most likely that cod and navaga penetrated into the North Pacific Ocean during the postglacial period. The White Sea cod(G. morhua maris-albi), which settled in the White Sea during the post-glacial period (Derjugin, 1932:443) is only a subspecies, the same as is the Pacific cod. This becomes even more probable because navaga and that form of cod from which the Pacific cod was derived are cold water loving. It is possible that Microgadus proximus and Merluccius productus which have very closely related species in the Atlantic Ocean entered the Pacific Ocean simultaneously with cod and navaga. On the other hand, they are more warm water loving than are cod and navaga and that might indicate that their distribution could have occurred also at another time and, in the case of Merluccius, through other ways (see below). Considerably later, apparently at the end of the warm post-glacial period, saika (В. saida) appeared in the Bering Sea, keeping to its most norther- ly parts; the reason for its slow dispersal southward, and particularly into the Sea of Okhotsk where it could have found favorable conditions, is apparent- ly the absence of floating ice, with which this fish is generally closely as- sociated, south of Cape Lopatka along the eastern coast of Kamchatka and at the Aleutian Islands. The most cold water loving of the gadoid genera, Arctogadus, is confined to the coldest Arctic Seas. * [This suggestion now must change as the Atlantic species of Theragra (Th. finmarchica) has recently been found. ] 40 49 The existing distribution of Pacific gadoids and closely related Arctic and Atlantic species and subspecies shows the routes along which they mig- rated into the Pacific Ocean. The distribution of Eleginus navaga along the northern coasts of Europe and Siberia and E. gracilis inthe Far EasternSeas indicates the migration of the latter into the Pacific along the coasts of Asia. Microgadus proximus (closely related to the species M. tomcod which occurs along the Atlantic coast of North Ameri- ca) undoubtedly entered the Pacific Ocean around the North American con- tinent. That the same route was followed by G. morhua macrocepha- lus, is substantiated not so much by the number of vertebrae (Schmidt, 1936:64) as by its cranial as well as ecological affinities with G. morhua ogac, found at the shores of Greenland. С. morhua ogac and С. morhua macrocephalus, distinguished craniologically by a broad head and also ecologically by the fact that they do not undertake extensive migrations as does the narrow-headed G. morhua morhua, in pre- glacialtimes were apparently represented by one form which occupied one broad common range (present distribution, see Figure 26). With the dis- appearance of the land connection between North America and Europe the continuous range of this coastal form appeared to be interrupted by the deep sea which appeared in place of the land and thus along the northern parts of both coasts of the newly formed Atlantic Ocean there appeared two forms; at first isolated geographically they later acquired morphological distinction. Theform isolated along the northern shores of Europe apparent- ly played some role in the formation of G. morhua maris-albi (about this see further on page 173). The form found along the coast of North America penetrated into the Pacific Ocean and gave rise to С. morhua macrocephalus which spread widely to the south and developed into a warmer water race than the original form. The narrow-headed form of cod -G. morhua morhua which ranged farther south and was adapted to warmer temperatures did not enter the Pacific Ocean with the broad-headed cod and navaga apparently because the climate at that time along the north- ern tip of North America appeared to be too severe for it. It is unlikely this route was followed by Merluccius productus in penetrating the Pacific; as for deep-water fish the other route seems most likely —along the coast of South America, which is partly confirmed by its absence from the coasts of Asia, and its present bipolar distribution. Boreogadus saida, found in Arctic seas at the coasts of Asia and North America, also inhabits the northernmost part of the Bering Sea along both shores. Thus, judging by the present distribution, the dispersal of gadoids into the Pacific Ocean apparently occurred chiefly around the coast of North America, i.e., coinciding with the dispersal routes of the majority of representatives of other groups of marine animals which migrated primarily in the opposite direction from the northern part of the Pacific Ocean into the northern part of the Atlantic. The dispersal of gadoids in the southern hemisphere where they are re- presented by close but not identical species and subspecies of the genera Gaidropsarus (G. capensis, G.novae-zealandiae) and Mer- luccius (M. capensis, M. hubbsi, M. australis, M. gayi) and by the single species of the genera Micromesistius (M. australis) and Urophycis (U. brasiliensis) at the southern tips of Africa and South America and at New Zealand could have occurred during the glacial 41 50 cooling period, and is perhaps even taking place at the present time. Asis known, in tropical regions the surface water layer with the highest tempera- ture is latitudinally the narrowest and the bottom water layer with a mini- mal temperature is latitudinally the broadest in the Atlantic Ocean along the western shores of Africa (Schott, 1926:134, tables IX, XIV, and XV) and in the Pacific Ocean along the western shores of America (Schott, 1935:150, 181, tables XX-XXIII and XXXI-XXXII). Due to this the transition from tro- pical to temperate fauna is least pronounced here (Ekman, 1935:88) and because of this, we have here the most favorable conditions for the exchange of faunas between the northern and southern hemispheres. Thus, for examp- le, separate representatives of the bipolar distributed family Triglidae (Svetovidov, 1936:8) sometimes were recorded in the tropical area off the western coasts of Africa (Regan, 1915:129). As indicated above, some gad- oids (Merluccius gayi) are also found in the tropical areas of the Paci- fic Ocean off the western coasts of America at depths. Thus, the bottom water layer of a tropical area does not represent an insurmountable barrier to the southward dispersal of more warmth loving gadoids (some species of the genus Gaidropsarus) and deep-water ones (genera Merluccius and Micromesistius) even at the present time in the indicated places, but for the majority of them this dispersal occurred mainly during glacial cooling. In general, species which have penetrated into the southern hemi- sphere are either the most warm-loving and more southern in distribution (Gaidropsarus, Urophycis) or those living at great depths and leading a bathypelagic mode of life(Merluccius, Micromesistius). Ecological peculiarities of the families of the gadiformes and the distri- bution according to climatic zones, depending on those peculiarities, have remained unchanged from the very beginning of the Tertiary. The family Bregmacerotidae which was tropical in the Eocene (В. filamento- sus, Eocene of Iran) remained approximately the same through the Mio- cene (B. albyi, Upper Miocene of Algeria, Miocene of Algeria and Sicily); in tropical areas they survive to this day. The Miocene climatic cooling caused the migration of colder water gadoids to the middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere where they were not known previously. Judging by otoliths referred to the genus Physiculus and found in Upper Oligocene deposits of New Zealand (Frost, 1933:129), the family Moridae has had a wide distribution also from the very beginning of the Tertiary. Biology* All gadiforme fishes, with the exception of one Species, are marine; in particular this applies to the families Moridae and Bregmacerotidae, representatives of which as a rule are absent even from brackish areas around river mouths, As to the family Gadidae, among its represent- atives there is one species, the burbot, with three subspecies (Lota lota lota, Г.. lota leptura, L. lota maculosa), living,and repro- ducing in fresh water. A number of species of the family Gadidae, being * Compiled from data from the systematic section and the works of Hjort (1909), Damas (1909), J. Schmidt (1909) and some other authors cited in the text. 42 51 basically marine fish, enter into greatly freshened and sometimes quite fresh water, and some travel considerable distances up rivers within the sphere of influence of tides and ebbs. To this group of species belong Eleginus navaga, E.gracilis,Microgadus tomcod and perhaps M. proximus, Boreogadus saida, Arctogadus borisovi and some others. Fromthe number of exclusively marine species of the family some (for instance Gadus morhua and particularly some of its forms) can tolerate somewhat lower salinity even during the spawning season, and occasionally may enter quite fresh water (three specimens of cod caught in the Luga River, one kilometer from the mouth). A number of species of the family (Molva moltva, M.dipterygia dipterygia, M.dipterygia elongata, Gadiculus argenteus argenteus,G argenteus thori, Micromesistius poutassou and some others) live and re- produce in marine water, at a salinity no less than normal oceanic. With regard to temperature each family of the order has its own character - istic requirements. The family Gadidae is the most varied in this re- spect. Basically this family is quite cold-loving. A group of species (Ametogadus borisovi, Boreogadus saida, В. agilis, Elegi- nus navaga, ап {о а lesser degree Е. gracilis and some others) lives and,whatismore important, breeds at temperatures close te zero and even lower. On the other hand, a group of species requires for its existence much higher temperatures. The most warm-loving of the Gadidae are Trisopteruslusicus, ТТ. minutus minutus, T. minutus cape- lanus, Molva dipterygiaelongata and some others. The family Bregmacerotidae, in contrast with the family Gadidae, is more warm-loving because species are found in tropical parts of all oceans where they live at great depths as well as in the surface layers. Species of the family Moridae appear to be fishes which are quite cold-loving and adapted to living in cold waters close to the bottom, living at great depths at the border or beyond the borders of the continental shelf. In vertical distribution each of the families of the Gadiformes also has its own characteristics. The Gadidae are most varied in this respect. Almost all species of this family, to some extent, live only at the bottom with the exception of Micromesistius poutassou, partially Mer - luccius and some others, living over great depths and leading a pelagic mode of life at a sometimes considerable depth from the surface or in the very surface layers. Some of the gadoid species live along the very shores and at shallow depths, for instance Raniceps raninus, Eleginus navaga, E.gracilis, Microgadus tomcod, M.proximus and perhaps Arctogadus borisovi, or among floating ice as Boreo- gadus saida. A group of other species belonging to the family Gadidae, as for example Gadus morhua morhua, Melanogrammus aegle- finus and many others, live at considerable depths—to 200 meters and deeper. Finally, some species of the family live at great depths, down to 1,000 meters. Deepest dwelling species are Brosme brosme, Molva dipterygia dipterygia, M.dipterygia elongata, Gadiculus argenteus argenteus, G.argenteus thori and others; some of these remain at great depths, perhaps not at the very bottom but in inter- mediate layers. All representatives of the family Moridae, аз а rule, live at great depths of several hundred meters and some more than a thousand meters and generally are not found in coastal areas. Species of the family Bregmacerotidae lead a pelagic mode of life. The ecology and 43 52 biology of representatives of the families Moridae and Bregmacero- tidae have been little studied and information regarding them is very limited. So far as known, almost all Gadiformes undertake migration. The fami- lies Moridae and Bregmacerotidae have not been studied at all in this respect, but as far as the family Gadidae isconcerned, the migrations of its representatives as well as other questions of their biology and ecology have been much more fully studied. Some gadoids undertake limited migra- tions dependent upon changes of temperature from the shores to somewhat greater depths and back,or within the limits of a quite restricted portion of their range. To those fishes which are more or less sedentary and under- take only local limited migrations,belong species of the genera Gaidrop- sarus, Enchelyopus cimbrius and some others. Somewhat more mobile but undertaking migrations only within limited_portions of their ranges are Eleginus navaga, Е. gracilis, Microgadus tomcod and, perhaps M. proximus. Boreogadus saida seems not to under- take large migrations but it is apparently carried great distances with drift- ing ice. But particularly extensive migrations are undertaken by the oceanic form of cod, Gadus morhua morhua, and by the haddock—Melano- grammus aeglefinus, which travel in summer from the coasts of Norway almost to the shores of Novaya Zemlya, making in a short period of time a trip of 1,500 to 2,000 kilometers. Similar extensive migrations are undertaken by cod moving between Greenland and Iceland. Migration of gadoids, as with all fishes, is closely related to feeding and reproduction, and to a great degree it depends upon currents and seasonal changes in temperature. Cod, whose migration has been studied most, after losing a great deal of weight during spawning in spring, travel north- ward along the North Atlantic current from the breeding grounds off the Lofoten Islands in pursuit of food or in search of food. This spring migra- tion of hungry cod northward is closely related to the rising water tempera- ture. With the approach of fall and a drop in water temperature the Lofoten cod gradually leave the eastern portions of the Barents Sea and during winter only part of the population remains in the western regions of the Barents Sea. For the purpose of feeding and in close accordance with the changing temperature, the haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) as well as pollack (Pollachius virens) undertake migrations almost as extensive; Micromesistius poutassou and some others undertake migrations of lesser distances and not in such masses as the two preceding species. Under the influence of seasonal changes in temperature and for the purpose of finding food those gadoids which move only between great depths and coastal waters also migrate. Mach species of the family out of the spawning season lives over a wider range and is subjected to greater extremes in temperature, salinity, depth than during the spawning season. During the spawning season fully adult gadoids gather in places which are quite fixed and familiar to each species, where each species spawns within specific environmental limits which are more restricted than the usual ranges of variation in temperature, salinity and depth. The ecological characteristics of each species of the gadoids during the spawning period are more specific than are those outside the Spawning season, and on this basis some authors (Hjort, 1909:58; Damas, 1909:223; J. Schmidt, 1909:178) offered a division of the gadoids into several biological groups. 44 53 Even closely related species have distinctly different conditions, locations and times of spawning, the best example of which is the genus Molva. M. molva lays eggs at a temperature of 6-10° C., a salinity of 35.2 parts per thousands, at a depth averaging about 200 meters; M. diptery- gia—at a temperature of 5-8°C., a salinity of 35.2 parts per thousand, at adepth averaging about1,000meters; М. dipterygia elongata-ata temperature of 8-9°C., asalinity of 35.5 parts per thousand, at a depth averaging 1,000 meters. The spawning characteristics of each species differ greatly, the spawning grounds being found in various places: in M. molva closer to shore, in both subspecies of M. dipterygia at depths, while ш M.dipterygia dipterygia spawning grounds are distributed north of Ireland, andin М. dipterygia elongata —southward. Such vicarious species and forms among the gadoids exist not only as regards Spawning grounds but Spawning season as well. The main spawning season of the gadoids is the latter half of winter and early spring; insome species spawning takes place in summer, while in species of lesser size it may occur almost the whole year round. Time of spawning for the same species is greatly dependent upon the geographical latitude —in the southern portion of the range spawning occurs earlier than in the more northerly portions. The fecundity of the gadoids is extremely large [Molva molva produce up to 60 million eggs (Fulton, 1891:234), Gadus morhua 4 to 6, sometimes up to 9 million eggs, though its eggs do not all mature at once and apparently all are not laid at one time as in a mature ovary several stages in the development of eggs were distinguished]. Number of eggs de- pends upon the size of the fish; gadoids of large size have a greater number of eggs, smaller individuals considerably fewer; navaga, for example, has only 6 to 90 thousand eggs. Eggs, larvae and young of almost all gadoids lead a pelagic or in some cases (Micromesistius, Gadiculus) bathypelagic mode of life, while the young of many species (Gadus morhua, Melanogrammus aeglefinus, Eleginus navaga, Е. gracilis, Odontogadus merlangus and some others) hide under jelly fish (Cyanea) and the young which already lead a bottom mode of life (Urophycis chuss) — within the shells of mollusks (Pecten magellanicus). Some species of gadoids (for instance, Eleginus navaga) have demersal eggs, and in Lota lota eggs are laid on the bottom or remain in a suspended state at the very bottom. Incubation period continues from one week to a month, and in Arctic species is much longer than in boreal species. During development of eggs into young several stages are distinguished (Rass, 1933:12): 1) eggs, 2) larvae characterized by presence of the yolk sac, 3) incompletely formed young which extend from full resorption of the yolk sac to the appearance of rays in the unpaired fins, 4) a formed young, having rays in the unpaired fins but without scales, and 5) juvenile or year- lings—fully formed fish with scales. During the pelagic period of life the egg, larvae and young are carried by currents from the spawning places sometimes to very great distances. In the gadoids which spawn at Lofoten Islands the young toward the end of the pelagic stage are carried by the North Atlantic current from the spawning grounds for hundreds of kilometers along and away from the shores. In the egg and young of the cod spawning along the southern and western shores 54 \ of Iceland a circular current circulating here carried them to the northern shores of the island. Thus, even in the egg, larval and young stages the dispersal of gadoids away from the spawning grounds takes place. The dispersal of gadoids in their pelagic stages of development does not go beyond the limits of the currents circulating through the spawning grounds. Active migration of the adults greatly broadens the limits of distribution of each species. How- ever, the distributional range of each species of gadoid is determined not only by the migration and ecology of the adult but to a great extent also by the reproductive ecology, which occurs as shown above within narrower limits than those within which a given species could exist outside of the spawning season. The adult stage of many species of gadoid can find suit- able conditions for life at great distances from the spawning grounds, but cannot find favorable conditions for breeding and thus are often immediately forced to return for spawning to places which are restricted spatially in comparison with the general range,and after spawning depart again on dis- tant migrations. Examples of this might be Micromesistius pou- tassou, which in the adult stage penetrates into the western part of the Barents Sea, but for breeding is forced to return to a comparatively small area which extends in a narrow strip along the 1,000 meter isobath from Iceland to the Bay of Biscay. It is seen from this example that the broaden- ing of the range of the species from its spawning ground, which we should take as its center, occurs along the paths of currents. Expansion of the range with change in external conditions is generally accompanied by the expansion also in this direction of the spawning grounds. Since the second half of the last century the cod was never found in commercial abundance at the shores of Greenland but during recent years, due to a general warm- ing of the climate and a northward displacement of life zones, the cod began to be caught in great numbers and now stays here the whole year. It is es- tablished at present that the spawning of the cod occurs at the western shores of Greenland. Saithe (Pollachius virens), which for a long time was never found along the shores of Greenland, appeared during recent years and apparently began to spawn there. Upon reaching a certain size which varies for each species from a few to 15 cm, the young and yearlings gradually descend to the bottom and, now actively swimming, approach the shores. The length of the pelagic young stage is different for each species and varies from several weeks to several months; incod, for example, it lasts for an average of 3 months and longer in northern latitudes. The longest this period lasts is in deep-water fishes, although this is not a general rule. The pelagic juvenile phase of one and the same species is much longer in northern breeding regions than in south- ern. The young of almost all species of gadoids spend the first years of life along shores at shallow depths. The depth and distance from shore of the place of habitat of the young is different for each species and actually has almost no relation to the depth of the spawning grounds. During the first few years of bottom life the young undertake only limited migrations under the influence of seasonal changes in temperature and in search of food. Аз they grow the migratory movements of the young ones lengthen, and at the time of attainment of full maturity the extent of the migrations becomes of the normal length for the species. 46 55 The time as well as size of attainment of full maturity differs in different species of gadoids. Small species reach sexual maturity fastest—Elegi- nus navaga, Boreogadus saida begin to spawn at from two to four years of age. Larger species of gadoids—Pollachius у1гепз, Me- lanogrammus aeglefinus, Gadus morhua-—grow much faster, but reach sexual maturity at much later ages. Pollachius virens first begins to spawn at from five to six years of age; Melanogrammus aeglefinus at from four to five years of age; different races of Gadus morhua at ages from four to fifteen years. Young gadoids feed on small invertebrate animals. Food of adult gadoids 15 most varied. Smaller species (Eleginus navaga, Boreogadus saida) feed on small planktonic and benthic crustaceans and less often on young fish. Larger species of gadoids (Gadus morhua, Melanogram- mus aeglefinus, Pollachius virens) feed on echinoderms, mol- lusks, large crustaceans and fish. The main food of some species (Gadus morhua, Pollachius, virens, and others) is fish. Commercial Importance Of all families in the order only the Gadidae are of commercial im- portance*; the other families have no importance for industry. The gadoids by their role in catches of international fisheries are in the first place after herring. Annual catch of all the gadoid species in recent years reaches on the average over 17,500 thousand metric centners [kilograms]. Not included in this figure is the gadoid catch of the southern hemisphere and the number of species caught in small quantities and not included in the statistics, Our trawling industry during 1934-1938 had caught from 772 to 2,132 thousand metric centners. Cod has the greatest importance of all species of gadoids, the catch of which in the Atlantic Ocean along the coasts of Europe, Greenland and New- foundland in recent years exceeds 10 million metric centners (about 10.7 million metric centners in1933 and 10.4 million metric centners in 1934 not counting the catch of the USSR). Besides, during recent years 1.5 to 2 mil- » lion metric centners of cod was taken from the Pacific Ocean annually. Thus, cod constitutes on the average about 60-70% of the total catch of all the gadoids. Second place in the catch belongs to the haddock of which about 2 million metric centners are taken out of the sea annually (about 2.13 million metric centners in 1933 and about 1.8 millionmetric centners in 1934). Saithe has very great importance, with an annual catch which exceeds 1 million metric centners (about 1.11 million metric centners in 1933 and about 1.2 mil- lion metric centners in 1934). The Pacific species—mintay (Theragra chalcogramma) the stock of which is not being sufficiently exploited, is still produced in considerable quantities: in Japan over 900 thousand metric centners are caught. мене data herein quoted are taken from Bull. Statistique des Peches Marit. XXII (1933), 1935—-XXIV (1934), 1936, Pacific Fisherman (1936) and Canadian Fisheries Manual 1931. Data on catches for the USSR are quoted from information given in the works of М. А. Maslov (1939, 1944) which could not have been used here more fully for reasons indicated in the foreword. The catch of Theragra is given according to the data of Е.К. Suvorov. 47 The merlang (Odontogadus merlangus merlangus) also has quite an important role in the catch of gadoids. Of this species about 700 thousand metric centners (about 730 thousand metric centners in 1933 and over 715 thousand metric centners in1934) are caught annually. Andfinally Merluccius merluccius and Molva molva, though not playing any role in our economy, as does merlang, hold an important position in the catch of western European countries. Over 400 thousand metric centners (over 445 thousand metric centners in 1933 and about 407 thousand metric centners in 1934)of M. Merluccius are caught annually; over 300 thousand metric centners (over 300 thousand metric centners in 1933 and over 350 metric centners in 1934) of M. molva. All other species of gadoids have no appreciable importance in economy and international statistics do not consider them. Codfishing played an important role in the economy of countries of north- western Europe from very early times. It is known that the cod was the object of fishing even to prehistoric man. At first fishing was done along the shores in places where cod were concentrated at certain times of the year. Trawling originated in western Europe at the end of the 19th century and already in the beginning of this century it was very greatly developed. Russian coastal cod fishing in the Barents Sea began in the 15th century. The only instrument used in cod fishing along the coast untilalmost recent times was the long-line. The hand-line, which was used in western Миг- man, was almost unknown in the eastern areas. Cod nets began to come into use only after the October Revolution. Coastal fishing is conducted during spring and summer, a period when the cod come closer to shore. The possibility of trawling cod and haddock in our waters was established by the explorations of the Murman Scientific Fishery Expedition; however, this type of fishing was not adopted by the Russian fishermen. Only hand- lines were widely used along the coast. Results of the investigation of the Murman Scientific Fishery Expedition were utilized by foreigners, at first the English and Germans (Knipovich, 1914:35; Maslov, 1944:18,19). The Russian trawling industry, until the October Revolution, was nonexistent in the Barents Sea, if we do not include several separate experiments in trawling. The Soviet trawling industry originated after the end of the Civil War, and in 1919-1924 the number of trawlers reached 11, catching prima- rily along the Kanin shores and along the shores near the Murman coast. In 1925, with the transfer of the trawling base from Arkhangel'skto Murmansk, Soviet trawlers began to fish the year round, their number increasing to 17, and by 1933 to 60, and the extent of the industry had extended to all in- dustrial regions of the Barents Sea, Cod appears to be the main object of the Soviet trawling industry (46-78% of trawling catch in 1922-1933). British and German trawlers in the Barents Sea during this period were catching a somewhat smaller number of cod than of haddock. From 1925 the catch of the Soviet trawlers exceeded the catch of British trawlers in the Barents Sea, excluding the catches of the latter on the Bear Island- Spitzbergen Bank; from 1937 the catch of Soviet trawlers exceeded British catches in the Barents Sea, also including the catches on these forementioned banks. Catches of German trawlers in the Barents Sea, together with the catches from the Bear Island-Spitzbergen Banks, became less than the Soviet ones beginning in 1932, In the Far Eastern seas our trawl catch be- ganin 1929, The trawler fleet of the USSR in the period from 1934 to 1938 48 had fished from the Barents Sea from 772 (1934) to 2,132 (1937) thousand metric centners. The bulk ofthiscatch (87.2 to 95.0%) was cod and haddock, In our fishery, as in international fisheries, in first place by catch is cod, which in the Barents Sea from 1930 to 1938 constituted from 47.5 to 85.1% of the total catch of the trawling fleet. The total catch of the cod in the period of time from 1934 to 1938 varied from 558 (1934) to1,750 (1937) thousand metric centners. Insecond place in our gadoid fishery is haddock which during the period 1930 to 1938 represented 6.3 to 37% of the total catch of the trawling fleet. The total catch of haddock from 1934 to 1938 was from 84 (1935) to 770 (1938) thousand metric centners (Maslov, 1939). The saithe was caught in our waters in lesser quantities. The Alaskan pol- lack, caught in considerably great quantities in Japan, is hardly ever used by our fisheries. Both species of navaga have somewhat greater industrial importance. The catch of navaga from 1936 to 1941 varied from 11.6 (1920) to 24.0 (1930) thousand metric centners. The Far Easterncatch of navaga (vahrga) was over 16,000 metric centners. Thecatchof burbot during these years varied from 16.7 (1941) to 18.76 (1937) metric centners. To the gadoids which are totally unused in industry but which are found in considerable numbers we may refer the Polar cod or saika (Boreogadus saida) which plays an important role in feeding of marine mammals. From by-products of the gadoid industry we must first indicate cod liver oil which, because of the high vitamin content, has great application in medicine. Cod heads are used in the preparation of fish meal. The skin is also removed from large fishes and processed. 56 BIBLIOGRAPHY Publications in Russian Arkhangel'skii, A.D. 1935. Geologicheskoe stroenie SSSR (Geological Struc- ture of the U.S.S.R.), 2 (2):1-427, 69 figs. Berg, L.S. 1911. Ob izmeneniyakh klimata у istoricheskuyu epokhu (Climatic Changes in the Hostorical Period). -Zemlevedenie, No. 3:73-76. Berg, L.S, 1918. О prichinakh skhodstva fauny severnykh chastei Atlanticheskogo i Tikhogo okeanov (The Causes for the Similarity in the Fauna of the Northern Parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans), —Izvestiya Akademii Nauk (VI), 12(2): 1835-1842, Berg, L.S. 1934. Ob amfiboreal'nom (preryvistom) rasprostranenii morskoi fauny v severnom polusharii (On the Discontinuous Distribution of Marine Fauna in the Northern Hemisphere). —Izvestiya Geograficheskogo Obshchestva, 66(1) :69-78. Berg, L.S. 1935. Nedavnie klimaticheskie kolebaniya i ikh vliyanie na migratsii ryb (Recent Climatic Fluctuations and their Influence on Fish Migrations), II: 73-84. Berg, L.S. 1940. Sistema ryboobraznykh i губ, nyne zhivushchikh i iskopaemykh (Systematics of Contemporary and Fossil Ichthyoids and Fish), —Тгиду Zoologich- eskogo Instituta Akademii Nauk SSSR, 5 (2):87-517. Bogachev, V.V. 1928. Ostatki kita i ryby iz diatomovykh otlozhenii Apsheron- skogo poluostrova (Whale and Fish Remnants in the Diatomaceous Deposits of the Apsheron Peninsula). —Azerbaidzhanskoe Neftyanoe Khozyaistvo, 5 (77): 33-39, figs. 1-10, Bogachev, V.V. 1933. Materialy po izucheniyu tretichnoi ikhtiofauny Kavkaza (Data from Studies on the Ternary Ichthyofauna of the Caucasus). —Тги4у Azer- baidzhansk, пей. issled. inst., geol. otd., 15:1-62, 11 tabl. 50 Bogachev, V.V. 1938. Ryby iz ponticheskikh otlozhenii Kirovskogo raiona (Fish from the Pontic Deposits of the Kirov Region). —Trudy Azerbaidzhanskogo Filiala Akademii Nauk, geologicheskaya seriya, 9 (39): 36-60. Bogachevyv, V.V. 1942. Materialy po ikhtiofaune meoticheskogo morya (Data оп the Ichthyofauna of the Meotian Sea). -Doklady Akademii Nauk, 38 (2): 89-92. Deryugin, K.M. 1928. Fauna Belogo morya i usloviya ee sushchestvovaniya (The Fauna of the White Sea and the Conditions for its Existence), —IssLledovaniya morei SSSR, 7-8 (1-12):1-511. Gur'yanova, Е.Е. 1929. К faune Crustacea-Malaeostraca ust'ya г. Eniseya (Crustacean Fauna — Malaeostraca in the Mouth of the Yenesei River). —Russkii Gidrobiologicheskii Zhurnal, 8 (10): 285-299. Gur'yanova, E.F. 1932. Fauna Crustacea morya Laptevykh (Crustacean Fauna of the Laptev Sea). —Issled. SSSR, 15:157-187. Gur'yanova, E.F. 1939. К voprosu о proiskhozhdenii i istorii razvitiya fauny Polyarnogo basseina (On the Origin and Historical Development of the Polar Basin Fauna), —Izvestiya Akademii Nauk, seriya biologicheskaya, 5:679-704. Knipovich, М.М. 1914. Tralovyi promysel у Barentsovom more (Trawling in the Barents Sea), —Vestnik rybopromyshlennosti, 29 (1-2): 34-50. Kristofovich, A.N. 1932. Geologicheskii obzor stran Dal'nego Vostoka (Geolo- gical Review of Far-Eastern Countries). -TsNIGRI, pp. 1-332, 79 figs. Lednev, М.М. 1914. Fauna rybnykh plastovApsherona(Fauna of the Fish Strata of Apsheron). —Trudy Geologicheskogo komiteta, 80:1-65,tabl. I-V. Maslov, N.A. 1939. Tralovyi promysel v Barentsovom more v 1936-1938 gg. (Trawling in the Barents Sea from 1936 to 1938). -Trudy Polyarnogo nauchno- issledovatel'skogo instituta morskogo rybnogo khozyaistva i okeanografii, 6:3-32. Maslov, N.A. 1944. Donnye ryby Barentsova morya i ikh promysel(Bottom Fish of the Barents Sea and their Economic Use). —Ibid., 8:3-196. Obruchev, V.A. 1935. Geologicheskoe stroenie severnykh raionov Sibiri. Geo- logiya i poleznye iskopaemye Severa SSSR (Geological Structure of the Northern Regions of Siberia. Geology and Mineral Sources of the Northern U.S.S.R.). — I, Glavnoe upravlenie Severnogo morskogo puti, pp. 5-90. 51 Panov, D.G. 1946, Istoriya razvitiya Polyarnogo basseina (The Historical Devel- opment of the Polar Basin). -Nauchnyi byulleten' Leningradskogo Gosudarstven- поро Universiteta, 13; 29-31, Rass, T.S. 1933. Instruktsii po sboru i tekhnike kolichestvennoi obrabotki- ikry i mal'kov morskikh ryb (Instructions on Harvesting and Treatment of Marine Fish Spawn and Fry), —Izdatel'stvo Gosudarstvennogo Okeanograficheskogo instituta, 1: 24, Rass, T.S. 1936. О tipakh stroeniya ikrinok i ikh znachenii dlya klassifikatsii ryb (Egg Structure and its Importance in Fish Classification). -Doklady Akademii Nauk, II (XI), 7 (93): 299. Shmidt, P. Yu. 1904. Ryby vostochnykh morei (Fish of the Eastern Seas), —Izdanie Russkogo Geograficheskogo obshchestva, 1(11):1-466, 6 tabl., 31 figs. Shmidt, P. Yu. Migratsii ryb i geologicheskoe proshloe (Migrations of Fish and the Geological Past). —Priroda, 6:59-73. Shmidt, P.Yu. 1936a. Migratsii ryb (Migrations of Fish). -Biomedgiz, pp. 1-326, 76 figs. Shmit, V.F. 1936, O poyavlenii i rasselenii nekotorykh rodov semeistva tresko- vykh v severnoi chasti Tikhogo okeana (Om the Appearance and Distribution of Some Genera of the Gadus Family in the Northern Pacific Ocean). —Zoologiche- skii zhurnal, 15 (1):175-183. Shtylko, В.А. 1934. Neogenovaya fauna presnovodnykh ryb Zapadnoi Sibiri (Neo- gene Fresh-water Fish Fauna of Western Siberia), -Trudy Vsesoyuznovo geologo- razvedochnogo ob"edineniya, 359:93, tabl. I-IX. Smirnov, V.P. 1936, Ryby severo-kavkazskogo oligotsena (Chernomorskii raion) (Fish of the North-Caucasian Oligocene) (Black Sea Region). —Тгиау Uzbekistan- skogo Universiteta, V: 43-217, 12 tabl. Svetovidov, А.М. 1936. Triglidae..-Fauna SSSR, Ryby, 6 (9):1-24, 3 tabl., 2 figs. Svetovidov, А.М. 1939. Sravnitel'no-anatomicheskie dannye о rode Muraeno- lepis iz treskoobraznykh (Comparative Anatomical Data on Gadidae Muraenolepis Species), -Doklady Akademii Nauk, 23 (6):583-585, 5 fig. 52 Zenkevich, L.A, 1933. Nekotorye momenty zoogeografii Severnogo Polyamogo basseina у 5ууа21 $ voprosom о ego paleogeograficheskom proshlom (Some Zoo- geographical Aspects of the Northern Polar Basin with Regard to its Paleogeo- graphic Past). ~-Zoologicheskii zhurmnal, 12 (4):18-34. Publications in Other Languages Agassiz, Г. 1842. Recherches sur les poissons fossiles. Neuchatel, V,1:I-XII, 1-160, Ancona, U.De. 1932, Uova, larve e stadi giovanili di Teleostei, Fauna Нога golfo Napoli, 38:1-21, 94-255, 280-306, 11 tav. Appellof, А, 1912. Ueber die Grenzen zwischen Fortpflanzung und Vertreitung mariner Tierformen, Verh, VIII. Intern, Zool. Kongresses zu Graaz, 1910: 303- 311. Arambourg, С. 1925. Revision des poissons fossiles de Licata (Sicile), Ann. Paleont., XIV, 2-3:1-98. Arldt, Th. 1919. Handbuch der Palaeogeographie. I-II, Leipzig:1-1647, 76-24 Textabb. Barrington, Е.]. 1935. Structure of the Caudal Finofthe Cod. Nature, CXXXV: 2705 Barrington, Е.]. 1935a. The structure and development of the tail in the plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) andthe cod(Gadus morhua), Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N.S., 79, pt. Il]: 447-469, 25 textfigs. Bogoljubsky, $. 1908. Zur Kenntnis der Dorsalflossen bei Motella tricirrata. Zeitschre> f.'wiss. 209. 90:327-333,'1 Tat. 53 58 Boulenger, С.А. 1901. Notes on the classification of the Teleostean fishes. On the Trachinidae and their allies. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7), ViIII:261-271. Boulenger, С.А. 1902. Notes on the classification of the Teleostean fishes. IV. On the systematic position of the Pleuronectidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7), Х:295-304. Boulenger, С.А. 1904. 1910. Fishes (Systematic account of Teleostei). Cam- bridge Natural History (edited by $.Е. Harmer and A.S. Shipley), УШ:541-727. Broch, H. 1933. Einige Probleme der biogeographischen Abgrenzung der arktischen Region. Mitt. Zool. Mus., Berlin, XIX:1-20, 6 Karten. Broch, H. 1935. Octokorallen des nordlichsten Pazifischen Ozeans und ihre Bezie- hung zur atlantischen Fauna. Avh. Norske Vid.-Akad. Oslo, mat.-nat. Kl:1- 53, .21, Тех». Chaine, J. et Duvergier, J. 1928. Sur les otolithes fossiles de la Pologne. Ann. Soc. Geol. Pologne, V:190-204, 1 pl. Cole, F.J. 1898. Observations on the structure and morphology of the cranial nerves and lateral sense organs of fishes; with special reference to the genus Gadus. Trans. Linn. Soc. London, (2), VII:115-221, 3 pl. Cope, E.D. 1872. Observations on the systematic relations of the fishes. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 20th Meeting (1871):317-343. Cunningham, J.T. 1897. Recapitulation. Science Progress, (2). 1:483-510. Cuvier, С. 1817. Le Régne animal. Ed. I, I-XXXV_ 1-540. Damas, D. 1909. Contribution 4 la biologie des Gadides. Rapp. Proc. -Verb., X:1-227, 26 pl., 25 figs. Davies, A.M. 1930. Faunal migrations since the Cretaceous Period. Proc. Geol. Assoc. , XL, (1929):307-327. Dietz, P.A. 1913. De plaats des Gadiden in het system. Ti jdschrift Nederl. Dierkudgige Vereenig., (2), XII:LXXXVI-LXXXVII. Dietz, P.A. 1921. Uber die systematische Stellung der Gadidae. Zugleich Nr. 2 der "Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Kiefer und Kiemenbogenmuskulatur der Teleostier", Mitt. Zool. Stat. Neapel, XXII, (1914-21):433-457, 14 Textfig. 54 Ekman, S. 1934. Indo-Westpazifik und Atlanto-Ostpazifik, eine tiergeographische Studie. Zoogeographica, II, 3:320-374. Ekman, S. 1935. Tiergeographie des Meeres. Leipzig: I-XII, 1-542, 244 Abb. Erasmo De, С. 1930. L'ittiofauna fossile di Senigallia. Atti Accad. Sci. fis. mat. Napoli, (2), XVIII, 1:1-83, 4 pls., 13 figs. Erasmo De, С. 1930. L'ittiofauna fossile del Gabbro. Ibid. : 1-118, 4 pls. Evans, Н.М. 1935. The brain of Gadus, with special reference to the medulla oblongata and its variations according to the feeding habits of different Gadidae. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. B, CXVII: 367-399. Frost, G.A. 1931. Fish otoliths from eocene strata below the London clay. In: White, E.J. The Vertebrate faunas of the ‘English eocene. Brit. Mus., Appendix 1:105-109. Frost, G.A. 1933. Otoliths of fishes from the tertiary formations of New Zealand. Trans. a. Proc. New Zealand Inst., LXIII: 133-141, 2 pls. Frost, G.A. 1934. Otoliths of fishes from the lower tertiary formations of Southern England. V. Anacanthini, Heterosomata, Ostariophysi. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10), ХГУ: 500-505. Fulton, T.W. 1881. The comparative fecundity of sea-fish. 9th Ann. Rept. Fishery Board Scotland, pt. П:243-268. Gill, Th. 1884., On the Anacanthine fishes. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., (188 3):167-183. Goodrich, E.S. 1909. Vertebrata craniata. First fascicle: Cyclostomes and Fishes. In: Treatise on zoology ed. by R. Lankester, IX, London:I-XVI + 1-518, 514 figs. Goodrich, E.S. 1930. Studies on the structure and development of vertebrates. London:I-XIII + 1-836, 754 textfigs. Gregory, W.K. 1933. Fish skulls. A study of the evolution of natural mechanisms, Trans. Americ. Philosoph. Soc., N.S., XXII, Part П:75-481, 302 textfigs. Gunther, A. 1862. Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum, IV:I-XXI + 1-534. 55 59 Giinther, А. 1880. An introduction to the study of fishes. Edinburgh: 1-720, 363 figs. (After the Germdn translation, 1886.) Gurjanova, Е. 1935. Zur Zoogeographie der Crustacea-Malacostraca des Arkti- schen Gebietes. Zoogeographica, II, 4:555-571. meckiel, ]. «1851. Sitzungen der К. -К. geologische Reichsanstalt. Jahrb. К. geol. Reichsanst., П:157. Hjort, J. 1909. Summary of the results of the investigations of the Komission A. Rapp. Procés. -Verb., Х:20-159, 53 figs. Hofsten, М. 1915. Die Echinodermen des Eisfjords. К. Svensk Vet. -Akad. Handl., LIV, 2:202-208. Holt, E.W. and Calderwood, W.L. 1895. Report on the rarer fishes (Survey on fishing grounds, west coast of Ireland, 1890-1891). Sci. Trans. Royal Doublin Soc., (2), V:361-511, 10 textfig, 6 plates. Houssay, F.De. 1910. La morphologie dynamique. Paris:1-372, 117 textfigs. Jhering, H. 1927. Die Geschichte des Atlantischen Ozeans. I-VII+1237, 9 Karten. Jordan, D.S. 1921. The fish fauna of the Califomia tertiary. Stanf. Univ. Publ., Univ. Ser. Biol. Sci., 1, 4:237-299, tabl. 1-57. Jordan, D.S. 1923. A classification of fishes, including families and genera as far as known. Ibid., III, 2:79-243+1-X. Jordan, D.S. 1925. The fossil fishes of the miocene of Southern California. Ibid., IV, 1:1-50, tabl. 1-21. Jordan, D.S. and Evermann, B.W. 1898. Fishes of North and Middle America. Ш. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., XLVIII, 3. Jordan, D.S. and Gilbert, СЬ.Н. 1883. А synopsis of the fishes of North America. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., XVI:1-1018. Jordan, D.S. and Gilbert, СЪ.Н. 1919. Fossil fishes of Southern California. ПТ. Fossil fishes of the pliocene formations. Stanf. Univ. Public., Univ. Ser. Biol. Sci. :61-98. 56 Jordan, D.S. and Gilbert, Ch.H. 1919. Fossil fishes of Southern California. II. Fossil fishes of the (miocene) Monterey formations of Southem California. Ibid.: 13-60. Kner, R. 1863. Uber einige fossile Fische aus der Kreide- und Tertidrschichten von Comen und Podsused Sitzzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math. -naturw. Cl., XLVIII, 1:126-148, 1-3 Taf. Kner, R. und Steidachner, F. 1863. Neue Beitrage zur Kenntinis der fossilen Fische Oesterreichs. Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien math. -naturw. CL., XXI: 17-36, 1-7 Taf. Koken, E. 1884. Ueber Fisch-Otolithen, insbesondere iiber diejenigen der nord- deutschen Oligocin-Ablagerungen. Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., XXXVI: 500-565, IX-XII Taf. Koken, Е. 1885. In: у. Koenen, Ueber eine pdlaozine Fauna von Kopenhagen. Abh. phys. Cl, К. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen, XXXII:113. Koken, Е. 1891. Neue Untersuchungen ап tertidren Fisch-Otolithen. Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., XLIII:77-170, 27 Textfig., 1-Х Taf. Képpen, W. und Wegener, A. 1924. Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit. Berlin:I-IV + 1-255, 1 Taf., 44 Texttabb. Kramberger-Gorjanowic, О. 1879-1880. Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der fos. silen Fische der Karpathen. Palaeontografica, XXVI:51-68, XIV-XVI Taf. Kramberger-Gorjanowic, О. 1882. Bemerkungen zur fossilen Fischfauna der Karpathen. Verh. К. К. geol. Reichsanst. Wien: 111-114. Kramberger-Gorj anowic, р. 1883. Die jungtertiare Fischfauna Croatians. Beitr. Paldont. Oesterr. -Ungarns. III, 2:65-85. Taf. I-II. Kramberger-Gorjano wic, D. 1885. Palaeoichthyolozki prilozi. Rad. Jugoslavensk. Akad., LXXII:10-65, Tabl. I-V. Kramberger-Gorjanow i с, D. 1886. Palaeoichthyologische Beitrage. Soc. Hist. Nat. Croatica, [:123-137. Kramberger-Gorjano zic, D. 1891. Palaeoichthyolozki prilozi. Rad. Jugoslavensk,Akad., CVI:59-145, Taf. 1-УШ. 57 Leriche, M. 1902, Les poissons paléocénes de la Belgique. Mém. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique, П:1-147, 3 pls., 8 figs. Leriche, М. 1905. Les poissons €océnes de la Belgique. Ibid., 1:49-228, 9 pls., 55 figs. ; Leriche, М. 1906. Contribution 4 l'étude des poissons fossiles de nord de la France et des régions voisines. Mém. Soc. Géol. Nord., V:430, pl. I-XVII. Leriche, M. 1910. Les poissons oligocénes de la Belgique. Mém. Mus. Roy. Hist. Мас. Belgique, У:229-263, 15 pls., 92 figs. Lissner, H. 1918, Das Gehirn der Knochenfische. Wissenschaftl. Meeresunter- such., Abt. Helgoland. N.F., XIV:127-133, 3 Taf., 42 Textabb. McIntosh, W.C. and Masterman, A.T. 1897. The life-histories of the British marine food-fishes. I-XV +1-516. Meek, A. 1916. The migration of fish. London:I-XVIII + 1-427, 128-figs. Miller, J. 1846. Ueber den Bau die Grenzen der Ganoiden und uber das _natiir- liche System der Fische. Abhandl. Konigl. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin, (1844):117-216, 6 Taf. Munthe, Н. 1910. Om ett fynd af kolja i glaciallera vid Bellefors i Vastergdtland. Sveriges Geol. Undersokning, 3, (1909), 9:1-8, 1 textfig. Ortmann, А.Е. 1896. Grundzuge der marinen Tiergeographie. Jena: I-IV + 1-91, 1 Karte. Owen, В. 1846. Lectures on the comparative anatomy and physiology of the vertebrates animals. Г. Fishes. London:XI + 1-308. Parker, T.J. 1883. Onthe connection of the air-bladders and the auditory-organ in the red-cod (Lotella bacchus). Trans, a. Proc. New Zealand Inst., XV: 234-236, pl. XXXIII. Pauca, М. 1932. Zwei Fischfaunen aus den oligozinen Menilitenschiefern von Mahren. Annal, Naturhist. Mus. Wien., XLVI:147-152, Taf. I, 1 Abb. Pauca, М. 1934. Die fossile Fauna und Flora aus dem Oligozadn von Suslanecti- Muscel in Rumanien. Anuarul Instit. Geol. Rom@niei, XVI, (1931):575- 668, Taf. ГУП. 58 Pauéa, М. 1935. Poissons fossiles du Pontien d'Oltenie. Bulet. Soc. Вотйпе Geol., 11:98-103, 1-2 Taf. Pauéa, М. 1935а. Fische aus dem miozanen Dazittuff Siebenbirgens. Bulet. Soc. Romane Geol., 11:222-230, 1 Taf. Pfiller, А. 1914. Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Seitensinnesorgane und Kopfanatomie der Macruriden. Jenaische Zeitschr. Naturwissensch., 52, (N.F. 45), 1:1- 134, 2 Taf. Pietschmann, V. 1934. Lota hulai, eini neue Fischart aus dem Wiener Becken. Paldontol. Zentrbl., XVI:48-52, Taf. Priem, Е. 1908. Poissons fossiles de Perse. Annales mission Morgan, Paris:1-25,- 3 pls. Rath, G. Von. 1859. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der fossilen Fische des Plattenberges im Canton Glarus. Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., XI:108-132, Regan, C.T. 1903. On the systematic position and classification of the Gadoid or Anacanthine fishes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7), X1:459-466. Regan, C.T. 1910. Notes on the classification of the Teleostean fishes. Proc. Seventh Intern. Zool. Congr., Boston Meeting, August 19-24, (1907):1-16. Regan, С.Т. 1910a. The origin and evolution of the Teleoste.~ fishes of the order Heterosomata. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8), V1:484-496, figs. Regan, C.T. 1915. A collection of fishes from Lagos. Ibid., XV:124-130. Regan, С.Т. 1929. Fishes. Article in Encyclopedia Britanica, 14th ed., IX: 305-328. Rychlicki, J. 1909. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Fischfauna aus den karpatischen Menilitschiefern. Kosmos, XXXIV:749-764. Sagemehl, М. 1885. Beitradge zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Fische, IV. Das Cranium der Characiniden. Morph. Jahrb., X:1-119, 2 pls. Sagemehl, М. 1891. Beitrdge zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Fische. IV. Das Cranium der Cyprinoiden. Morph. Jahrb., XVII:489-585, 3 pls. Sauvage, М. 1881. Nouvelles recherches sur les poissons fossiles découverts par М. Albye & Licata en Sicile. Annales Sci. Géol., XI:1-50, 3 pls. 59 Scheuring, L. 1930. Die Wanderungen der Fische. II. Ergebnisse d. Biologie, \1:4-304, 83 Abb. Schmidt, J. 1905. The pelagic post-larval stages of the atlantic species of Gadus. Part I.) Medd. Котт. Havunders., Fisk.,1, 4:1-77, plsI-III. Schmidt, J. 1905a. On the larval and post-larval stage of the torsk [Brosmius brosme (Ascan. )]. Ibid. I, 8:1-10, pl. I. Schmidt, J. 1906. The pelagic post-larval stages of the atlantic species of Gadus. Part I. Ibid. II, 2:1-19, pl. I. Schmidt, J. 1906a. On the pelagic post-larval stages of the lings (Molva molva and Molva byrkelange). Ibid., II, 3:1-15, pl. I. Schmidt, J. 1907. On the post-larval development of the hake (Merluccius vulgaris), Ibid., II, 7:1-9, pl. I. Schmidt, J. 1907а. On the post-larval development of some North Atlantic Gadoids (Raniceps raninus and Molva elongata). Ibid., II, 8:1-14, pl.1. Schmidt, J. 1909. The distribution of the pelagic fray and the spawning regions of the Gadoids in the North Atlantic from Iceland to Spain. Rapp. Proces. - Verb., X:1-229, 10 pl., 15 figs. Schott, С. 1926. Geographie des Atlantischen Ozeans. 2-te Aufl. Hamburg: I-XIV + 1-368, LXVII Taf., 115 Textfig. Schott, С. 1935. Geographie de Indischen und Stillen Ozeans. Hamburg: I-XIX + 1-413, XXXVII Taf., 114 Textfig. Simonescu, J. 1905. Sur quelques poissons fossiles du tertiaire Roumain. Ann. Scient. Université de Jassy, Ш, 2:106-122, pl. 1-П. Smith, J.P. 1919. Climatic relations of the Tertiary and Quatemary faunes of the California regions Proc. Calif, Acad. Sci., (4), IX, 4:123-173. Smitt, Е.А. 1893. A history of scandinavian fishes. п ed., [:1-566 + 1-УШ. Stannius, Н. 1842. Ueber das peripherische Nervensystem des Dorsch, Gadus callarias. Archiv. Anatomie, Physiol. u. wissenschaftl. Medic. :338-387. 61 Stannius, H. 1854. Handbuch der Anatomie der Wirbeltiere. Zweite Auflage, Berlin:1 -279. 60 Steindachner, Е. 1859. Ueber eine fossile Strinsia von SzAgodat in Siebenbirgen. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math. - naturw. С1., ХХХУПЕ 771-775. Steindachner, F. 1860. Вейгазе zur Kenntnis der fossilen Fischfauna Oesterreichs. bids.) ХТ. 552-57. Steindachner, Е. 1863. Beitrige zur Kenntnis der fossilen Fischfauna Oester- reichs. Ibid., XLVIL 128-142, 1-3 Taf. Stefanode, С. 1918. I pesci fossili di Licata in Sicilia. Mem. per service alla descripz. della carta geol. d'Italia. Comm. Geol., VII, 1:1-92, 10 pls., 9 textfigs. Stensio, Е. 1921. Triassic fishes from Spitzbergen. Vienna: [-X XVII +1-35. Svetovidov, А.М. 1937. Ueber die Klassifikation des Gadiformes oder Anacanthini. Bull. Acad, Sci. URSS, Ser. Biol., 4:1281-1288, 3 Abb. Swinnerton, H.H. 1903. The osteology of Cromeria nilotica and Galaxias attenuatus. Zool. Jahrb., Anat., XVIII:58-70, 15 Textabb. Weiler, W. 1928. Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der tertidren Fische des Mainzer Beckens. II. 3. Die Fische des Septarientones. Abh. Hessischen Geol. Landesanstalt, Darmstadt, VIII, 3:1-63. Weiler, W. 1928. In: Krejci-Graf, K. und Weiler, W. Fische aus dem rumani- schen Tertidr. ЦП. Paliontologischer Teil. Senkenbergiana, X, 1-2:62-80. Weiler, W, 1933. Zwei ologozane Fischfaunen aus dem Konigreich Ungarn. Geologica Hungarica, Ser. Paldont., XI: 7-54, I-III Taf. Weiler, М. 1935. Nemopteryx kubacskai п. sp. aus dem Kleinzeller Tegel bei Budapest, zugleich ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Gattung Nemopteryx Ag. und Merluccius Г. Paladontol. Zeitschr., XVII, 1-2:27-44. Wettstein, A. 1886. Fischfauna der Tertidren Glarnerschief. Denkschr. Schweiz. Pal. Gest, ХПЕ1-103, Tat. У. White, E.J. 1931. The vertebrate faunas of the English eocene. I. From the Thanet sands to the basement bed of the London clay. London:I-XIV+1-104, 162 figs. Whitehouse, R.H. 1935. Structure of the caudal fin of the cod. Nature, CXXXV: 70, 1 textfig. 61 Williamson, H.C. 1902. A comparison between the cod (Gadus callarias, Linn.), the saith (Gadus virens, Linn.) and the lithe (Gadus pollachius, Linn.) in re- spect to certain external and osteological characters. 20th Ann. Rept. Fish. Board Scotl., (1901), pt. IIE 228-287, pl. IV-XI. Williamson, Н.С. 1906. On the specific characters of Gadus luscus, Gadus minutus and Gadus esmarkii. 24th Ann. Rept. Fish Board Scotl., (1905), pt. ЦЕ 116-158, pl. Vili-x. Williamson, Н.С. 1909. On the specific characters of the haddock (Gadus aegle~ finus, Linn. ); whiting (Gadus merlangus, Linn.); Gadus poutassou, Risso; Gadus argenteus, Guichenot; Gadus saida, Lepechin; Gadus ogac, Richardson; Gadus navaga, Kélreuter; with a key to the species of Gadus found in northern waters. 27th Ann. Rept. Fish Board Scot].(1907), pt. Ш:97-134, pl. VIII-XIII. Woodward, A.S. 1901. Catalogue of the fossil fishes. IV: I-XXXVII+1-636, XIX pls. Yabe, H. The latest land connection of the Japanese Islands to the Asiatic conti- nent. Proc. Imp. Acad., Tokyo, У, 4: 167-170. 62 62 SYSTEMATIC PART Order GADIFORMES (ANACANTHINI ex parte) Olfactory nerves short, olfactory lobes lying close to nasal capsules (exept in Raniceps, which has olfactory nerves slightly elongate and, owing to this, olfactory lobes lie between the nasal capsules and the fore- brain), connecting with the forebrain by means of long olfactory tracts. О: factory nerves and tracts are arranged in a special canal- a continuation о the cranial cavity over the interorbital septum and are thus separated from the optic nerves. Orbitorostral portion of skull longer than or equal (in some Moridae)to the rear portion. Basisphenoid and orbitosphenoid ab- sent. Myodome absent. Opisthotic exceptionally well-developed, pierced by foramen for the glossopharyngeal nerve, its rear end partially encroach on the foramen of the vagus nerve, and beneath it contacts the basioccipita] separating the prootic from the exoccipital. Supraoccipital well-developed with a longitudinal crest along its entire length or over the posterior por- tion only, in contact with frontals separating the right and leftparietals. The pectoral girdle is attached to the skull; mesocoracoid absent; scapular fora men between scapula and coracoid, pectoral radials 4-13. Pelvic bone be- hind pectoral symphysis, loosely attached to it by a ligament. Vertebrae numerous, first two without parapophyses, ribs and epipleurals, the rest 2-4 also without parapophyses,but with sessile ribs and epipleurals; all the remaining precaudal vertebrae with well-developed parapophyses to which are attached ribs and epipleurals, with the exception of Merluccius in which the first 5-6 vertebrae are similar to those in all other gadoids, but the next one with rudimentary parapophyses, ribs and epipleuralia, and all the remaining precaudal vertebrae with greatly expanded parapophyses, but without ribs and with epipleurals only on the anterior 3-4 vertebrae. A neu ral spine of the first vertebra is firmly attached to the supraoccipital crest Four gills, a slit behind the fourth, pseudobranchiae absent, gill opening wide, gill membranes free or narrowly attached to the isthmus; 6-8 branch ostegal rays. Allfins spineless, 1-3 dorsal fins, 1-2 anal fins- caudal fin separated from dorsal and anal, rarely partially or completely fused (in Muraenolepidae)to them, diphycercal*, pelvic fins anterior to pecto- rals. Body and part of the head covered with small cycloid scales. Chin usually with a barbel. Swimbladder without a pneumatic duct, sometimes rudimentary. Puloric caeca numerous, seldom singular or absent. * To be more correct pseudocaudal (see page 7), 63 63 64 FIGURE 9. Scheme of measurements of the gadoid fishes. Explanations in the text. 64 The order is more sharply de- fined after separating off the fami- ly Macruridae, and consists of the families Muraenolepidae, Moridae, Bregmacerotidae, Gadidae. Measurements of representatives of the order Gadiformes were ta- ken according to the generally ac- cepted method used by V.S. Mukhin for cod, in which not all measure- ments were taken but just the fol- lowing (fig. 9): a-b— total length; а-с — length of bodyto the end of the scale cover; a-d — anteanal dis- tance; a-e — antedorsal distance; f-f' —‘length of pectoral fin; 5-5" — length of pelvic fin; e-e' — length of base of first dorsal fin; h-h' -— length of base of second dorsal fin; i-i' — length of base of third dorsal fin; d-d' — length of base of first a- nal fin; j-j' — ‘length of base of se- cond anal fin; k-k' height of first dorsal fin; 1-1' — height of first anal fin; m-c — length of caudal peduncle; a-o — length of head; a-p — length of snout; р-р" > horizon= tal diameter of eye; q-q' — length of upper jaw; r-r' — length of low- er jaw; s-s' — length of barbel. In addition considerable importance is attached to the distance between the first and second dorsal fins (e'-h), the second and third dorsals (h'-i) and between both anal fins (d'-j). The body depth is important but highly unreliable as a character in the gadoids,depending to a great de- gree on the fullness of stomach,and therefore it has not been measured. The body depth beyond the pel- vic fins is more independent of the degree of fullness of stomach, as indicated by М.В. Evropeitseva. Almost equally the distances from pectoral and pelvic fins to the anal fin are dependent upon the degree of fullness of the stomach and maturity of the sexual products. These mea- surements were also excluded from this study. In species with less compli- cated fins, the measurements are considerably simplified. In view of the fact that misunderstandings often arise due to differences in measurements it is necessary here to clarify some of them. The length of the body was measured from the tip of the snout (if lower jaw projects then the measurement was taken from its tip) to a line connecting the tips of the lobes of the caudal fin when the rays are pressed straight back. This length is considered basic and if body length is mentioned then this particular mea- surement is meant. The length of the pectoral fin was measured from the base of its first ray to the tip of the fin. As for the length of the pelvic fin it is taken frem the base of the first ray to its tip. In some cases it is very important to measure, in addition to the length of the pelvic fin, the distance to the tip of the longest ray (second ray); but the length of the pelvic fin is always taken to be the length to the end of the first ray and in such cases where it is not particularly specified, this length is meant. The height of the first dorsal and first anal fins were taken at the longest ray, with the exception of cases where this ray in the dorsal fin (in some species of Phy- cis and Urophycis) is very elongated like a thread. In such cases the height of the fin is accepted as the length of the longest ray which is not threadlike and the elongate ray was measured separately. For length of caudal peduncle the distance from the posterior end of the last dorsal or anal fin to the end of the scale cover (the end of scale cover in cod is distinctly visible) is accepted. For the depth of caudal peduncle the least depth of that part of the body (in Lotinae) of the depth of the caudal peduncle at the end of the last dorsal or anal fin is accepted. The head length was measured from the tip of the snout (if lower jaw is projecting forward, then from its tip) to the spinelike end of the operculum. The membrane, which embraces the gill cover, was not taken into consideration. Width of the interorbital space is taken as the least bony width of the skull in the interorbital area while the fleshy covers were not measured. N.B.Evropeitseva recommends measuring in addition to those above, the length of the caudal portion of the body from the vertical of the posterior end of the first anal fin to the end of the scale cover. All body measurements are expressed as percentage of length of Боау* (to ends of the lobes of the caudal fin), and those of the head - as percentage of head length. In counting the number of rays in all unpaired fins with the exception of the first dorsal, the membrane at the base of the beginning and end of each fin must be cut,as otherwise a few rays concealed in the membrane and skin cover will remain uncounted. Gill-rakers were counted in the outer row of the first gill arch and all gill-rakers were counted including rudiments. All vertebrae were counted including the last, to which the middle rays of the caudal fin are directly connected. For the explanation of parts of the skull mentioned in descriptions, see Figure 5 and pages 22-26 of the introduction. The processes of the hyoman- dibular were namedhere as follows (Figure 10): the articular process by which * It would have been more correct and exact to express these measurements in terms of percentage of body length to end of scale cover, аз М.Е. Markun does for the burbot, but as long as everyone accepts the percentages of total length of the body,we feel that we should not upset this generally accepted rule. 65 65 this bone is joined to the skull; the opercular process to which is joined the operculum; the preopercular process to which is attached the praeoperculum; the lower process to which are attached from beneath the symplectic and stylohyale. The pores of the canals of the lateral line system distributed on the head and having very important systematic significance are described in the diagnoses for the preoperculo-mandibular canal, infraorbital canal, com- missure and supraorbital canal. The number of pores in the supratemporal portion and cephalic portion of the lateral line are constant and therefore were not counted. At present there are a great number of pa- pers with detailed descriptions of the skull of various species of gadoids and there is no need -6 to give a general discription of the skull of the Gadidae. Therefore, attention was directed chiefly to those characteristics of skull struc- ture which have significance in the classifica- tion or distinction between genera and species of gadoids. With the same point in view there were selected and here briefly described sev- eral bones of the visceral skeleton, gill cover and girdle of the paired fins, drawings of which could be of great help in studying the feeding a—atticular; ‘b-opercular; ¢—preoper~ и, of fish... However, one, must, bear in. mindithat a es almost all of the bones of the viscerel skeleton vary within considerably broad limits. The drawings of the vertebral co- lumns may be useful in studying fossil fishes where great importance is at- tached to the neural spines, and transverse processes and haemal arches, the dimensions and forms of which sharply distinguish the species and gen- era of gadoids. Ribs and epipleuralia are not indicated in these drawings as they are weakly attached to the vertebrae and usually fall off when the mus- cles are removed. The osteology of some species (Melanogrammus aeglefinus, Ele- ginus navaga, E. gracilis, Boreogadus saida and especially Gadus morhua morhua) have been studied from several téns of skele- tons. A number of species (Gaidropsarus mediterraneus, Rani- ceps‘raninus, Phiyeis: phycis, Urophyeisuregius,, Up braisiua liensis,, Lota lota Тота, Molva molva, М... dipteryeora) ehon-= gata,’ Mierluccius:‘merluecius, Trisopterusi minutus, саре- lanus, Odontogadus merlangus euxinus, Gadus morhua morhuain, hiemalis, Giimorhua sm anis-adibite., Сл mio nha macrocephalus) were studied from 2, 3, 4 or more skeletons. The remaining scarcer species were studied from one skeleton. The number of specimens studied is indicated in parentheses after the description of each species; such indications are absent if the number of specimens examined was more than ten, ioe FIGURE 10. Processes of the hyoman- dibular of Gadus morhua. 66 66 Key to the Families 1 (2). Caudal fin connected with dorsal and anal fins. Pectoral radials no less than 10. (Suborder Muraenolepidoidei) . И О А НТВ 1. Muraenolepidae 2 (1). Caudal fin separated from dorsal and anal fins, rarely partially con- nected. Pectoral radials 4-6. (Suborder Gadoidei) . Ни 3 (4). Swimbladder in contact with the auditory capsuies through the fone nelles in the lateral occipitals at the rear of the skull*,. Neurocra- nium almost closed anteriorly, olfactory canal and partly the inter- orbital septum are bony. The head of the vomer often toothless. , Deepwater fishes. В А о 5 9 3 Hts) ео Le eels аа 4 (3). No icentanenes) БЕ Вата che! Bini in the eral ыы, the swim - bladder not in contact with the auditory capsules. Neurocranium widely open anteriorly, interorbital septum and canal of the olfactory nerve membranous. The head of the vomer is always toothed. Fish of usually moderate depths. 5 (6). First dorsal fin at the nape consisting of only one long slender ray. Orbitorostral portion of skull equal to the rear portion. Olfactory nerve canal wide, almost equal in width to the neurocranium, И Moe ес тонае | 6 (5). Beet | ты роте о о ieee! i eoneraliy of normal structure, seldom consisting of one ray. Orbitorostral portion of skull much longer than posterior portion, Olfactory nerve canal narrow. ; SER ОИ MaKe SU EN Na Ha EMSS MIMEE St oe) Os) IMAM shan Rt) ale Canidae Suborder MURAENOLEPIDOIDEI Pectoral radials 10-13. Gill openings narrow, extending upwards only to the level of the pectoral bases. Scales oblong and arranged at angles to each other. Caudal fin connected with a second dorsal and anal. 1. Family MURAENOLEPIDAE Muraenolepidae Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7), XI, 1903: 460; Svetovidov, Dokl. Akad. Nauk, XXIII, 6, 1939: 583. Orbitorostal portion of skull longer than rear portion, Lower portion of canal for olfactory nerves, and interorbital septum membranous. Neurocra- nium widely open anteriorly, without fontanelles in the auditory region of the * This is very easy to discover when one lifts the gill cover and makes a lateral incision above the gills along the base of the skull. A horn-like process of the swimbladder is seen in the Moridae, and if this is lifted up a fontanelle can be seen. Continuing the incision forward, under the eye, it can be established whether there is bone or membrane in the lower part of the canal over the interorbital septum. 67 67 skull in the lateral occipitals. Swimbladder small, thick-walled, arranged in the rear of the body cavity beginning approximately in the middle and lacking any horn-like processes anteriorly, not being in contact with the auditory capsules. Basioccipital lacking facets for attachment of muscles on the un- derside. Head of vomer without teeth. Frontals fused into a single unpaired bone. Pyloric caeca absent. Two dorsal fins and one anal fin, first dorsal fin consisting of only one ray. A barbel on the chin, Genus Muraenolepis with 3 marine species in the southern hemi- |.» sphere. Suborder GADOIDEI Pectoral radials 4-6. Gill openings wide, extending above the base of the pectoral fins. Scales normal. Caudal fin separate from dorsal and anal fins, seldom partially fused. 2. Family MORIDAE Gadidae (ex parte) auctorum. = Gadidae (ex parte) Erethmophoridae Jordan, Classif. fish. , 1923163. — Moridae Svetovidov, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, biol., 4, 1937:1286. Orbito-rostral portion of skull somewhat longer than or equal to the pos- terior portion. Neurocranium opens in front only with a narrow opening, а1- most closed by the enlargement and fusion of the parasphenoid with the front- als, Canal of the olfactory nerves and partly the interorbital septum bony. A large membrane-covered fontanelle in the neurocranium posteriorly in the lateral occipitals on each side of the foramen magnum. The swimbladder in contact with auditory capsules (Figure 3) by means of two long horn-like pro- cesses with thickened tips which are tightly pressed against the fontanelle membranes in the lateral occipitals. Posterior part of swimbladder tight- ly embraced by the ribs. Each of the swimbladder horns has a muscle fast- ened to a Special process on the lower part of the basiooccipital and to the supracleithrum, Head of vomer toothless or with minute teeth, rather broad and flat, on the underside. 1-2, more seldom 3, dorsal fins and 1, or more seldom 2, anal fins. Deep-water fishes. About 17 widely distributed deep-water genera: Brosmiculus (2 spe- cies), Melanonus (3 species), Algoa (1 species), Uraleptus (1 spe- cies), Austrophycis (1 species), Physiculus (20 species), Lottela (8 species), Salilota (2 species), Hypsirhynchus (1 species), Lepi- dion (=Haloporphyrus) (10 species), Microlepidium (2 species), Laemonema (9 species) Laemonemodes (1 species), Antimora (5 species), Halargyreus (3 species), Mora (1 species), Triptero- phycis (1 species). At present within the limits of the USSR only one species each of the gen- era Laemonema and Antimora is found, 68 68 COMPARATIVE NOTES. Genera and species of the family Moridae have been little studied, owing mainly totheir rare occurrence. Some species are known only from one specimen, very few from several, and only a few from many specimens. Because of this the osteology not only of most spe- cies but even of all the genera of the family is unstudied. At present we may say with assurance that only the following genera belong to the family Mori- dae: Uraleptus (U. maraldi Risso studied in detail*), Physiculus — Lotella (L. phycis Temminck and Schlegel was studied in detail and L. maximowiczi Herzenstein in part), Lepidion(L. inosimae Gunther and L. schmidti Svetovidov studied in detail) Laemonema (L. longipes P. Schmidt studied in detail), Mora (М. mediterra- nea Risso was partially studied from a specimen and also from photographs of the skull), Antimora (A. microlepis Bean studied in part). Undis puted membership in the family Moridae has not yet been established tor) the genera Brosmiculus, Melanonus, Algoa, Salilota, Micro lepidium, Laemonemodes, Halargyreus, Tripterophycis and Hypsirhynchus. These genera resemble those genera which undoubtedly belong to the family Moridae in their broad almost cosmopolitan distribu- tion. The genus Algoa, known only from a single specimen, was very poor- ly described and never again found by anyone else; the species A. viridis Casteinau, 1861 (mouth of Zwartkops River, Algoa Bay, South Africa) is doubtful and possibly does not belong to the Gadiformes. The genus Strin- sia (5. tinca Rafinesque, 1880 [1810], Sicily) described very inadequate - ly from a badly preserved specimen, and perhaps erroneously, has not been found since its description and is never mentioned by modern faunistic work- ers. The following are referred to the genus Physiculus (in table 1), follow- # ing Norman's (Discovery Reports XVI, 1937), Leptophycis filifer Garman (= Physiculus rastrelliger Gilbert), Pseudophycis peregrinus Giinther(= Physiculus peregrinus), Lotella mar- ginata Gunther(= Physiculus marginatus), Physiculus rha- cinus Forst, following Norman, is referred to the genus Lotella. The genus Eretmophorus (Е. kleinenbergi Giglioli, 1889, Messina) turned out to be the young of Lepidion lepidion (Risso) (D'Ancona, Arch. Zool. Ital, XV, 1930:297). The genus Melanosoma Barnard (Ann, S. Afr. Mus., XXI, 1925:331), is considered identical with Melanonus, while some authors (Jordan, Gilbert and Hubbs and others) referred the lat- ter to the family Gadidae, and others (Regan) to the family Macruridae The genus Pteridium, usually Gadidae, should be placed in the family Macruridcae because the olfactory lobes are placed near the forebrain and opisthotic is greatly enlarged. Key to the Genera 1 (2). Ventral fins consist of only two elongated rays and of one rudimentary В OL AY COMO АСЕ od RL . 1. Laemonema Gunther 2 (1). Pelvic fins of normal structure, consisting of approximately 6 rays о ОВ 2. Antimora Glinther * The skeleton and the structure of the swimbladder were studied. ** In partially studied species of which only single specimens are in the collection of the Zoological Institute of The Academy of Sciences, the presence of the fontanelles in the posterior portion of the skull and the connection of the swimbladder with the auditory capsules was ascertained. 69 69 1. Genus LAEMONEMA GUNTHER Laemonema Ginther, Cat. fish., IV, 1862: 356 (Туре: Phycis yarrellii Lowe). Two dorsal and one anal fin, second dorsal and anal long, with no fewer than 40 to 50 rays; rays of middle part of both fins are sometimes shortened to form a notch, Each pelvic fin consists of two long thread-like rays and one rudimentary ray. The mental barbel present or absent. Teeth on pre- maxillary, on dentary and weak on the head of vomer. Lateral line slightly curved, continuous to the caudal peduncle and apparently beyond, Pores are present on the head, Nine species at depths of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. In our waters one species, *1, Laemonema longipes P. Schmidt (Table XX). Laemonema longipes P. Schmidt, Dokl., Akad. Nauk, Nov. Ser. XIX, 8, 1938:653 (Okhotsk Sea). ID6, ПО 50-52, A 45-46, gill-rakers 19-20. Lower jaw slightly pro- jecting. Pelvic fins long, reaching beyond the beginning of the anal fin, ex- tending posteriorly approximately one-third of its length. In percentage of body length: anteanal distance 31.1-33.5, antedorsal distance 22.1-22.7, length of pectoral fin 18,5-18.6, length of pelvic fin 30.6-33.6, length of base of first dorsal 4.6-4.9, length of base of second dorsal 55.9-58.2, length of base of anal fin 51.4-53.2, height of first dorsal fin 6.1-6.3, depth of caudal peduncle 1.1-1.3, its length 5.3-6.3, the length of head 19.8-20.1. In percent of head length: length of snout 32.9-36.0, diameter of eye 19.1-19.8, length of upper jaw 43.5-44.0, length of lower jaw 52.4-55.1, interorbital space 19.3-21.2. Coloration of upper part of body brownish; head, sides of body and belly silvery (3 specimens), It is distinguished from the nearby allied L. gracilipes Garman by larger scales, smaller eyes, much longer pectoral and pelvic fins and smal- ler number of rays in the second dorsal and anal fins. DISTRIBUTION. SeaofOkhotsk. Known only from a few specimens (4 spe- cimens from two nearby localities: 55°42! north latitude, 143°34' east longi- tude, depth 542 meters; 55° 13'30" north latitude, 146°34' east longitude, depth 592 meters; two specimens from the western shores of Kamchatka), BIOLOGY unknown. 2. Genus ANTIMORA GUNTHER Antimora Gunther, Ann, Мар. Nat. Hist. (5), Il, 1876:2 (Type: A. rostrata Giinther) Two dorsal and one anal fin, second dorsal long, with more than 50 rays, anal fin with more than 40 rays, both with a deep notch in the middle, first ray of first dorsal fin elongated, thread-like. Pelvic fins of normal struc- ture, containing about six rays. A well-developed barbel on the chin. Snout 70 70 flattened, projecting forward above the jaws. Teeth on premaxillary and dentary, small patch of weak teeth on vomer. Lateral line slightly curved, continuous for almost its entire length, interrupted only beyond the middle of the anal fin. There are pores on the head, Five species from the depths of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In our waters only one species. ' *1. Antimora microlepis Bean(Table XVIII). Antimora microlepis Bean, Proc. U. $. Nat. Mus., XIII (1890), 1891: 38 (51°00'23" М, 130°34'W); Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М. Amer., Ш, 1898: 2545 (distribution); Franz, Abh. Math. -phys. Cl.Bayer. Akad. Wiss., Suppl. Bd. IV, 1910: 29 (Misaki); Gilbert a. Burke, Fish. Bering Sea a. Kamchatka, (1910), 1912: 90 ( Avachin Lip); Schmidt, Trans. Pacif. Committ., II, 1931: 151 (Misaki). ID4, ПО 52, A 41, gill-rakers 15. Percentages of body length: ante - anal distance 58.8, antedorsal 21.1, length of pectoral fin 16.7, length of base of first dorsal 3.3, length of base of second dorsal 57.5, length of base of anal 31.5, elongate ray of first dorsal fin 26.4, depth of caudal peduncle 2.7, its length 7.3, head length 23.2. Percentages of head length: length of snout 30.0, diameter of eye 25.6, length of upper jaw 42.4, length of lower jaw 49.8, interorbital space 20.7, length of mental barbel 10.8 (1 specimen). DISTRIBUTION. The Pacific Ocean off the coast of North America from Queen Charlotte Island to California, along the Asiatic coasts from Avachin- sky Bay,at the shores of Japan (Misaki). BIOLOGY not studied, All known specimens were caught at great depths. 3, Family BREGMACEROTIDAE Bregmacerotidae auctorum. Orbito-rostral part of skull equal to the posterior part. Neurocranium broadly open in front, without fontanelles posteriorly in the lateral occipi- tals. Interorbital septum and canal of olfactory nerves are membranous below, canal of olfactory nerves broad, slightly narrower than the cranial cavity and much broader than inthe Gadidae. Sacculus of large dimen- sions. Swimbladder of small size, thin walled, not in contact with the audi- tory capsules. Basioccipitais lacking ventral processes for attachment of muscles. Vomer with few teeth. Two dorsal fins and one long anal fin: First dorsal fin consists only of one elongated and slender ray arranged on the supraoccipital, second dorsal and anal fins with a large notch in the middle almost separating each into two fins. Pelvic fins elongate. consist- ing of five rays. Pyloric caeca few in number. No barbel below the chin. Small fishes of tropical seas, leading a pelagic mode of life on the surface, and apparently reaching great depths (500 meters and deeper). The genus Bregmaceros Thompson (= Calloptilum Rich, = Asthen- urus Tickell) with 2 or 3 species in tropical parts of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. The genus Auchenoceros Giinther apparently be- longs to the same family. 71 71 4. Family GADIDAE- Cops Gadidae (ex parte) + Merlucciidae Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М. Amer., Ш, 1898: 2528, 2531. — Gadidae (ex parte) Regan, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (7), XI, 1903:460. - Gadidae (ex parte)+ Gaidrop- saridae +Merlucciidae Jordan, Classif. Fish., 1923:163. -Gadidae Svetovidov, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Biol., 4, 1937:1286; Berg, Classification of Fishes, 1940: 285. Orbito-rostral part of skull much longer than the posterior part. Canal of the olfactory nerves and interorbital septum membranous. Neurocranium broadly open in front, without fontanelles in the auditory region in the rear of the skull and in the exoccipitals. Swimbladder with short horn-like pro- cesses anteriorly, not in contact with the auditory capsules through fontan- elles. Basioccipital lacks ventral processes for muscle attachments. Head of vomer always with teeth. One-three dorsal and one-two anal fins. Twenty-two genera in Arctic and boreal parts of the northern hemisphere, some species in the southern hemisphere. This family, according to certain important structural characteristics of the adults, larvae and eggs, is divided most naturally into three subfami- lies: Lotinae, Merluccinae and Gadinae. COMPARATIVE NOTES. The subfamily Lotinae in many morphologi- cal characteristics appears to be more primitive than the subfamily Gadi- nae. Many genera of this subfamily are separated from each other much more distinctly than those genera of the subfamily Gadinae. Within the subfamily Lotinae several groups of morphologically related genera can be indicated: 1) Brosme, 2) Gaidropsarus, Ciliata, Enchelyopus, 3) Rani- ceps, 4) Phycis, Urophycis, 5) Lota, Molva. Some authors con- sider these groups or part of them as subfamilies or even families. Of all groups in the subfamily Lotinae, the most divergent is Raniceps, in which the olfactory lobes are somewhat shifted from the nasal capsules to the forebrain, and the olfactory nerves are elongated owing to the lateral expansion of the skull and formation of cartilage in the anterior part of the canal above the interorbital septum. In addition, the upper expanded part of the post-cleithrum is a separate bone. In all other respects Raniceps does not differ from the other Lotinae, and therefore there is no reason to separate it as an independent family or even a family. And there is still less reason for segregating as an independent family or even subfamily the genera Gaidropsarus, Ciliata, and Enchelyopus, which have no note- worthy distinctions whatsoever. Most naturally, according to the morphological peculiarities of the adults as well as the larvae and eggs, the Gadidae falls into the subfamilies Lotinae and Gadinae., The subfamily Merlucciinae appears to be in the main one of the groups of the subfamily Lotinae but distinctly di- verges in some characters (the structure of the mucous canals on the head, absence of pores and genipores) which place it near the family Macruri- dae; ina number of characters this subfamily appears to be transitional between the subfamilies Lotinae and Gadinae. 72 72 276). 10 ((5). Pa). 12 (11). 13 (16). 14 (15). 15 (14). 16 (13). ти (18). 18 (17). Key to the Genera . One or two dorsal fins and one anal fin. Frontals paired in all with the exception of Phycis and Urophycis. Parapophyses not widened, bearing ribs and epipleurals. Mucous cavities and crests over the lateral line canals on top of the head are normal. Barbel below the chin present. (Subfamily Lotinae). One dorsal fin, long, partially fused with the caudal and anal fins Е А о О Ne 1. Brosme (Cuvier) ОКеп Two dorsal fins. First dorsal fin consisting of only one ray, in the rear.of which are placed numerous short and slender soft rays ina groove. Besides the barbel on the chin, there are several barbels on the snout. No more than three barbels on snout. Skull narrow, its width con- tained about twice in length. Two barbels on snout. Head of vomer considerably enlarged, point- ed-anteriorhy 295, f\ Soi ..... 4 Gaidropsarus Rafinesque Three barbels on snout, one at each nostril and one at the tip of the snout. Head of vomer small, its apex rounded .......... BCT ЕВ caer о 4. Enchelyopus Bloch et Schneider No less than 4 barbels on snout. Skull broad, its width no more than 1.5 times in its length First dorsal fin with more than one ray, no furrow with free fila- mentous rays posterior to the fin. No barbels on snout. First dorsal fin of only three rays. Head and body strongly de- pressed from top to bottom. Skull broad, almost as wide as long. и бе 5. Raniceps (Cuvier) Oken First dorsal fin with more than 3 rays. Body not depressed dorso- ventrally. Pelvic fins of only two greatly elongated rays and one rudimentary ray. Head of vomer of normal size. Opisthotic with a large process posteriorly for the articulation of the pectoral girdle; posttemporals and supracleithrum normally* Gevelope dy | MT A Pas EN HIRO BATS, нами 6., 12 Шуст5 Rose The processes posterior to the opisthotic for the articulation of the pectoral girdle not developed, the posttemporals and supracleith- PUT ав К. ме, MED ROBES. вом 7. Urophycis Gill Pelvic fins of normal structure, consisting of more than three rays, and not greatly elongated. Head of vomer greatly enlarged, ends extending out in horseshoe shape. Teeth in jaws and head of vomer feeble, bristle-like. A short bar- bel on each side at the anterior nostrils. A deep notch for the fa- cial nerve on the side of the skull; Freshwater. ......... о а Mey Hoa ge 8. Lota (cuvier) Oken Teeth in jaws and head of vomer strong, canine. No barbels at the anterior nostrils. A foramen on side of head for the facial nerve. Мазтне lit ae еп ee Ne alate МИ, змеи овал Ys 9. Molva Fleming * This can be established by removing the skin covering and muscles from one side of the body immediately behind the head on top. 73 292). 20) (1): 21 (2). 22 (42). 23 (26). 24 (25). 25 (24). 26 (23). 27 (21). 28 (34). 29:(32). 30 (31). 31 (30). 32 (29). 33 (41). 34 (28). Parapophyses expanded, A large triangular recess оп top of skull bordered with crests which diverge from the longitudinal crest of the posterior part of the supraoccipital. Second dorsal and anal fins with a notch posteriorly. No barbel on chin, (Subfamily Mite *ar, Dan CEN Tyra ее о 10. Merluccius Rafinesque Three dorsal and two anal fins. Frontals fused into one unpaired plate. (Subfamily Gadinae). First anal fin long, beginning under first dorsal or even anterior to it, its length considerably more than half of the anteanal distance. Origin of first anal fin under the first dorsal. Interspaces between dorsal fins less than the diameter of the eye. Anal fins usually in contact. A black spot at the base of the pecto- ral fin, sometimes very faint in alcohol-preserved specimens. Dorsal fins in contact, less frequently separated by narrow inter- spaces. Barbel below the chin well developed, its length no less than half the diameter of the pupil. A foramen at the side of the skullifor facialinerve. и... 11. Trisopterus Rafinesque Dorsal fins with narrow interspaces. Mental barbel rudimentary or absent. Notch on side of skull for facial merve. ....... AMON eis ated oy VOM oy SESAME Ee a tomierg eve: Cates 12. Odontogadus: Gill Dorsal and anal fins with small interspaces. No black spot at base of pectoral fin elie sels ies 13. Pollachius (Nilsson) Bonaparte First anal fin short, no more than half of the anteanal distance*, its origin posterior to the first dorsai fin, Mucous cavity on skull closed in front**, Pores on head along the lateral line canals, Upper jaw projecting. Lateral line dark, extends without interruption to the caudal fin, a large dark spot across it beneath the first dorsal. Jaws shortened, length of lower jaw no more than twice the caudal peduncle depth. Bones of pectoral girdle swollen and ivory-like. ......... О Ба а И 14. Melanogrammus Gill Laterai line light, continuous to the middle or end of the third dor- sal fin, discontinuous beyond; no dark spot on side of body. Length of lower jaw more than twice the depth of the caudal peduncle. Bones. of pectoral pirdle порта]. ии. 15. Gadus Linne Lower jaw projecting. Barbel below the chin scarcely developed or absent. Barbel below the chin not developed. Large, broad, open mucous cavitiest onthe head. Suboperculum and postcleithrum not swollen and ivory-like. Smallfish., ....+.... ое А не Е ha ys =: bb... Gadieu lis times ‘in body length. 37 fis ora). oe a) ev ем» 7. СЦ. biskayensis (Coll. ) 15 (6). Pectoral fin with more than 19 rays. 16 (19). Pectoral fin with 19 to 20 rays. В Е МО DPA OA AS te er ie ae 8. С. barbatus (De Buen) Ом. 968-10, (A about GO cts ys 9.0 Gi canpie nist si aup) 19 (16). Pectoral fin with more than 20 rays (usually about 22). 20 (23). Eyes not large, equal to or less than the interorbital space. 21 (22), First dorsal ray equal to the diameter of the eye. II D 62-64, A еее ast ellfen Gants LOUNGE чи Бакиев Wve.) 22 (21). First dorsal ray greater than eye diameter. II D 54-59, A (43) ait OL 5) le NA HS ET ta i) Gol rein hard tin(Colly) 23 (20). Eyes large, greater than the width of the interorbital space. .... ea wee fe Ng TU нее ее 12. G. carpenteri (Gunth. ) Zee) Hirst dorsal ray long. equal о Ме Беза length) aman tis BM le т о р. о емо (Ве) 1. Gaidropsarus megalokynodon (Kolombatovic) Motella megalokynodon Kolombatovic, Glasnik Hrv. Naravoslovnoga Drustva, XV, 1903 (Adri- atic Sea at Spalato). ID1, 11D 55, A 46, P 9, УТ. Head large, 45times in body length. Eyes about 5 times in head length, greater than the length of the snout. Depth of * Eyelids included, and not only the width of the frontal bones as accepted for other genera. 83 82 body less than the length of the head, equal to the postorbital length of the head. Barbels on the end of the snout long, twice the diameter of the eye. Two barbels on the chin, judging from the figure much shorter than the bar- bels on the snout. Base of first dorsal fin about half the length of the head. One strong tooth on the end of each premaxillary the other teeth less de- veloped. Coloration pinkish-brown, Length is not indicated, (After Ko- lombatovic). DISTRIBUTION. Adriatic Sea at Spalato, at depths, COMPARATIVE NOTES. Most characteristic for this form is the small number of rays in the pectoral fin, if their count is correct. Judging from the picture, there are two barbels on the chin, which are rarely observed for instance in cod, and is nothing else but an anomaly. In the figure the base of the first dorsal is equal to the head length, but in the description it is only half the head length, 2. Gaidropsarus pacificus (Temminck et Schlegel) Motella pacifica Temminck et Schlegel, Fauna Jap., Pisces, 1842:249 (Japan, Nagasaki). — Onus pacificus Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh. , (1891), 1892:6. ID1, ПО 45, A 38, 14, V5. Head 54times in body length, Eyes small, less than length of snout, equal to interorbital space. Mouth opening less than half the length of the head. Body depth contained 8 times in its length. Distance of anal opening from tip of snout 3/5 of the length of the body. Coloration in alcohol,brown on back, changing to yellowish on the belly. Fins with whitish margin, more pronounced in the posterior portions of the anal and dorsal fins. In the rear of the anal fin at its base is a large oval yellowish colored spot. Length about 30cm (after Collett). DISTRIBUTION. At the coasts of southern Japan (Nagasaki). COMPARATIVE NOTES. Only one specimen known; about 30cm in length with no indication of the exact locality or detailed measurements. No figure of this species. It is totally incomprehensible why in the 100 years elapsed since Sieboldt travelled, not one specimen has been found of this species. By the number of rays in the fins the species differs greatly from all other species of the genus. .3. Gaidropsarus mediterraneus (Linné)—Mediterranean three- barbeled marine nalim, galeya (Tables I, XXII, LXVIII). Gadus mediterraneus Linné, Syst. nat., ed. X, 1758:255 (Oceano Europeo, IID 54, A 44, P15). — Gadus tricirratus Brunnich, Ichth. Massil., 1768 : 22 (II 54, A 45, P 16), - Gadus mus- tella, С. fuscus Risso, Ichth. Nice, 1810:215 (ПР 52-54, A 44, P 14-18). - Gaidrop- sarus mustellaris Rafinesque, Ind. ittiol. Sicil., II, 1810:51— Gadus jubatus Pallas, Zoogr. rosso- asiat., Ш, 1811:202 (Black Sea), — Gadus argenteolus Montegu, Mem. Wer. Nat. Hist. Soc., II, 1818:449 (Р 16-18, juv). — Onos mustella, О. maculata, О. fusca Risso, Hist. nat. Eur. паб. , Ш, 1826:215, 216 (II 52-58, А 44-48, Р 14-18). — Motella tricirrata Nilsson, Prodr. ichth. Scand. , 1832:48 (after Bloch, 1795; II D 56, A 46, 18). — Motella communis Canestrini, Arch. Zool., Anat. Fisiol., II, 1862:369 (IID 52-55, A 44-47, Р 17, V 6, Mediterranean Sea). — Motella vulgaris Stein- dachner, Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien., math. -naturw. Cl., LVII, 1, 1868:710 (ex раме). — Motella tricirrata, М. maculata, М. fusca Moreau, Hist. nat. poiss. France, Ш, 1881:268, 270, 272. — Motella mediterranea Lutken, Vidensk. Medd. naturhist. Foren. Kbnhvn., (1881), 1882:235 (ПО 55-56, A 47—49, P16, V 6-7). — Motella tricirrata Day, Fish. Gr. Brit. Irel., I, 1884:317, pl. 84 83 LXXXVIII, +. 1 (11 D55-57, A 48-50, P 16-18, bibliography, distribution). — Onos mediterraneus Collett, Nyt Mag. Naturv., XXIX,1885:93. — Onus mediterraneus Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh. , (1891), 1892:6 (compilation). — Onos mediterraneus О. fuscus et О. tricirratus (ex parte) Smitt, Scand. fish. , I, 1893:357, Е. 131 (bibliography, measurements). — Gaidropsarus zernovi Gratzianov, Experiments on the observation of fish, 1907:463 (Black Sea, Bay of Streletzk). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Nordman, Faune Pontique, 1840:531, pl. XXVI, f. 1 (Black Sea); Kesler, Fishes of the Aral-Caspian-Pontian district, 1877:235 (Black Sea); Pchelina, Tr. Novoross. Biol. St., II, 1, 1936, 33 (larvae); Drenski, Spis. Bulgarian Akad. Nauk, XXV, 1923:109 (Black Sea and at the coasts of Bulgaria); Kosyakina, Tr. Моуогоз5. Biol. St., II, 2, 1938:26 (spawning at Novorosyisk); Pchelina, Tr. Novo- ross. Biol. St., ПЦ, 3, 1940:71 (young in the region of Novorosyisk Harbor); Vinogradov, Tr. Karadagsk, Biol. St., 4, 1931:142 (young at Karadag). ID1, ПО 54-58, А 44-49, P 17-19, У (5) 6*, gillrakers 7-10, pyloric саеса 13-14**, vertebrae 48—49. Gillrakers in the form of tubercles with small spines on top. Swim-bladder present, small and thin-walled 1 Head not large, 5.0-5.5 times (18.0-19.6%) in body length. Eyes not large, 6.1-7.7 times (13.0-16.4%) in head length, less than the length of the first dorsal fin ray and the length of the snout. In percentage of the body length: anteanal distance 41.4-46.7, antedorsal space 16.8—17.9, pectoral fin length 11.0-13.5, pelvic fin length 9.2-13.5, length of base of first dorsal fin 10.5-12.4, base of second dorsal 55.2—58.0, length of base of anal fin 39.5—43.5, length of first dorsal fin ray 4.1-5.8, depth of caudal peduncle 4,.7-5.7, length of caudal peduncle 4.2-5.8. In per cent of head length: length of snout 23,2-—26.3, length of upper jaw 41.3-46.0, length of lower jaw 50.7—-56.6, interorbital space 9.1-12.8 (only least bony width; width of the least fleshy width 18.5-19.2). Coloration is dependent upon place of habitat and is greatly varied. Back more often brown, more or less dark; sides and belly lighter. Head, entire body and fins with irregu- larly rounded numerous spots and dots. In the pelagic post-larval stage the back is blue, sides and belly silvery. Length to 50cm, DISTRIBUTION. Most common off the coast of Great Britain and Ireland, southwestern coasts of Europe, Mediterranean and Black Seas. Northward along the coasts of Norway to Olesund, eastward to the northern part of the Kattegat. The expedition ''Travailleur" and ''Talisman" found it at the coasts of Morocco and Sudan. BIOLOGY. Lives generally at shallow depths near the shores on rocky bottom with aquatic vegetation. More seldom it is found at greater depths and on other grounds. Spawning apparently is extended: in the Black Sea at Novorossisk it occurs from September to March, a great number of eggs dis- covered in October, November and December, in 1934 and 1935 also in March; pelagic larvae 40-53 mm in length were caught in May; larvae 2.1mm in length were caught in November, 1934, just before the entrance to Novo- rossisk Harbor larvae 3mm in length were caught at the end of March, 1938, in the central part of the harbor in the bottom layer. In the vicinity of No- vorossisk the young up to 53 mm in length were caughtin the open sea ata depth of 60 meters in June, 1933. In Galatz Harbor young about 40mm in length were caught in March, 1938, and 2 young 49mm in length — in May of the same year. + After Collett (1892), ПР 55-56, А 47-49, Р 17 (16), V6. Lutken indicates for У 6 (7). ** According to Day, up to 20. 1 Its indicated absence is incorrect. 85 84 COMMERCIAL VALUE almost none, COMPARATIVE NOTES. The description is based on specimens from the Black Sea. Besides, specimens from the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean (Palermo, Nice, Madeira) were also examined. Some of the species indicated in the synonymy were described and based only on differ- ence in coloration, The difference in size of teeth indicated for some spe- cies is dependent on age. In regard to the closely related G. vulgaris see the comparative notes for the genus. Motella tricirrata Nilsson must be considered a synonym of this species and not а. vulgaris, as Nilsson identifies it according to Bloch, who gives the radial formula for the fins which brings it closer to а. mediterraneus, Here also should be referred Gadus argenteolus Montegu(P 16-18, juv). The radial form- ula for fins in Onos tricirratus Smitt [II D (55) 58—60 (64), А (45) 47-49 (54), Р 19-21] wholly embraces the range of variation in G. mediterran- eus and G. vulgaris, inasmuch as the ray counts of М. vulagris Liitken[= С. vulgaris (Yarrell)] and М. tricirrata Рау [= Ч. me- diterraneus (L.)] are included in it. Steindachner united both these spe- cies into one. 4. Gaidropsarus guttatus (Collett) Onus guttatus Collett, Bull. Soc. Zool. France, XV, 1890:105 (at the Azores Islands). — Onos guttatus Steindachner, Sizungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math-naturw., Cl., C, 1, 1891:360 (at Canary Islands). — Onus guttatus Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh. , (1891), 1892:7. ID1, ILD 50-54, A 43-46, P 16-17, УТ. Head length 43-54 times in body length (about 19%). Eyes of medium size, horizontal diameter contain- ed in head length about 6 times, equal to interorbital space and less than the length of the first dorsal ray or the length of the snout. Body deep, depth at the origin of the anal fin contained about 54-64 times in length. Anal open- ing located midway between the tip of the snout and the end of the anal fin, Depth of caudal peduncle 35 &ппез in length of head. Base of first dorsal fin is 1} times less than the head length. First dorsal ray short. Pectoral fins reaching to the origin of the second dorsal. Body blackish with many well- pronounced spots, Fins and head with similar but less distinct spots. Length to 21.3cm (after Collett, 1890). DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean at the Azores and Canary Islands, COMPARATIVE NOTES. Form close to if not identical with G. medi- Be Gea meus. 5. Gaidropsarus novae-zealandiae (Hector) Motella novae-zealandiae Hector, Trans. Proc. New-Zeal. Inst., VI, (1873), 1874:107, pl. XVIII, f. 76b (Cape Campbell). ID1, 1D58, A 44, P17. Head about 6 times in body length. Eyes shorter than snout, contained almost 7 times in head length. Snout equal in length to the width of the interorbital space. First ray of first dorsal, 86 85 judging by the description and figure, not longer than the filamentous rays arranged behind it. Coloration in alcohol reddish brown, yellowish beneath, Length 17.8cm (after Hector). DISTRIBUTION. New Zealand, Cape Campbell (Hook Strait). COMPARATIVE NOTES. By the number of rays in its unpaired fins this species definitely differs considerably from the geographically close С. pacificus and а. capensis. 6. Gaidropsarus macrophthalmus (Gunther) Motella macrophthalmus Gunther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (3), XX, 1867:29, t. V, Е. B(at Hebrides). — Onus macrophthalmus Ginther, Chall. Rept., Zoology, XXII, 1887:96. — Onus тас- rophthalmus Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh., (1891), 1892:8. PD А ТИ 55, A'45)) РВ Headtlarge: 41(4.35) times in body length. Eyes large, about 4 times in head length, larger than interorbital space. Body low, about 7 times in its length. Anal opening placed between tip of snout and posterior end of anal fin. Base of first dorsal of medium length, little shorter than the distance from its origin to the eye, contained more than 2 times in head iength. First dorsal fin ray short, equal in length to the eye. Coloration uniform, dorsum with irregular narrow transverse bars. Length 7.4 ст. (after Collett, 1892). DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean at the Hebrides at depths of 130-150 meters, COMPARATIVE NOTES, Only one specimen is known, 7.4 cm long. Lutken (Vid. Medd. Nat. Foren, Kjobenh.,, 1882:244) suggested that this spe- cimen is a young G. mediterraneus, which is opposed by Gunther (1867), who states he had never seen a specimen of this species with such large eyes. However, Liitken obviously is correct, as such small speci- mens (46-65mm) or С. mediterraneus from the collections of the Zoological Institute Academy of Sciences have eyes just as large (4-43 times in head length and wider than the interorbital space) as G. macro- phthalmus, but with a head of slightly smaller dimensions, 7. Gaidropsarus biscayensis (Collett) Onus biscayensis Collett, Bull. Soc. Zool. France, XV, 1890:107 (Bay of Biscay); Christ. Vidensk. - Selsk. Forh. , (1891), 1892:9. ID1, ПО 54, A 44, P17, V6. Head not large, contained 51 Чтез (18%) in body length. Eyes large, their horizontal diameter contained about 4 times in head length, exceeding the width of the interorbital space, length of first ray of first dorsal fin and the length of the snout. Body low, its depth contained about 9-95times in its length. Anal opening placed slightly closer to the tip of the snout than to the rear of the anal fin. Depth of caudal pe- duncle contained 4 times in the head length and less than twice in the base of the first dorsal fin. Base of first dorsal fin slightly greater than the distance from its origin to the eye, contained in the head length 2 times, First ray of first dorsal short. Pelvic fins extend somewhat to origin of second dorsal 87 fin. Pigmentation uniformly brownish, light, second dorsal and caudal with brownish stripes. Length to 13.3cm (after Collett, 1890). DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean along the shores of Europe (Bay of Bis- cay, at a depth of 155 meters and at Cape Finisterre at a depth of 400 meters). BIOLOGY unknown, COMPARATIVE NOTES. Known only from three young specimens (2 to 13.3cm and 1-7.4 ст in length). Species very close and possibly identical with а. macrophthalmus.and а. mediterraneuws.’ Eyes: large, slightly larger than in G. macrophthalmus, but head not large, the same asin С. mediterraneus,. Not being in possession of type speci- mens of а. guttatus, а. macrophthalmus and G, biscayensis, it is impossible to resolve the question of their identity with С. mediter- raneus or of their existence as independent species, 8. Gaidropsarus barbatus De Buen Gaidropsarus barbatus De Buen, Bol. Soc. Espan. Hist. Nat., 34, 1934:502, f. 1 (Mediterranean Sea in the vicinity of Malaga). ID1, 1D49, A 43, P19, V6. Head not large, about 21% of body length. Eye 5 times in head length, smaller than interorbital space, 83% of its width. Snout length 26% of the head length. Body depth about 15% of its length. Anal opening approximately midway between tip of snout and rear end of anal fin, anteanal distance about 40% of body length. Base of first dorsal fin smaller than the distance from its origin to the eye, and contained about 2 times in head length. First dorsal fin ray short, but great- er than the diameter of the eye. Length 11.9cm (after De Buen). DISTRIBUTION, Mediterranean Sea in the vicinity of Malaga, 3 miles from shore at a depth of 140 meters, COMPARATIVE NOTES. Single known specimen, described by De Buen as a distinct species; very close by its numbers of unpaired fin rays to С. carpenteri and Ч. capensis from the coasts of South Africa. The 86 main distinguishing characters: number of pectoral fin rays (23 on G. car- penteri) and pelvic fin rays [7 (6) in G. capensis] and dimensions of the eyes—would hardly serve as specific distinction, 9. Gaidropsarus capensis (Kaup) Motella capensis Kaup, Wiegm. Arch. Naturg., 1858:90 (Cape of Good Hope); Kner, Reise Novara, Fische, 1868:279, pl. XIII, f. 3 (Indian Ocean at St. Paul Island); Sauvage, Arch. Zool. Exper. Gener. , VIII, 1870:42 (at St. Paul Island). — Gaidropsarus capensis Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus., XXI, 1925:323 (Kalk Bay, Algoa Bay). ID1, ПО 68-70, A about 60*, P 19-20**, V 7(6). Head contained 4.8—5.1 times (19.4-20.6%) in body length. Eyes not large, contained 6 to 7 times in head length (14.5-18.0%) shorter than the first dorsal ray, snout and interorbital space, Body depth about 6.5 times in length. Anal opening lies nearer the tip of the snout thanto the rear of the anal fin. Base of first * After Barnard, II D 45, A 40; after Sauvage, A 48, ** Kner indicates 16 to 17 rays for P, Collett 19-20 for the same specimens, 88 87 dorsal fin less than the distance from its origin to the eye. Coloration light brown without dark or light spots, second dorsal and anal fins with a narrow whitish border. Length to 16cm (after Kner, Collett). DISTRIBUTION. The Atlantic Ocean at the southern tip of Africa; the In- dian Ocean at St. Paul Island. BIOLOGY is apparently identical to that of related species of the northern hemisphere. Keeps close to shore down to depths of 45 meters. COMMERCIAL VALUE none. COMPARATIVE NOTES. By the number of rays in the second dorsal and anal fins the specimens from the coasts of the southern tip of Africa and from St. Paul Island differ greatly. For the first, are indicated IID 45, A 40, for the latter ПО 68-70, A about 60 (48). If there is no mistake in fin ray counts in South African specimens they are two distinct forms. The South African specimens by the number of rays in the second dorsal and anal fins are closest to С. pacificus. Specimens from St. Paul Island have the highest number of rays in comparison with all known species belonging to this genus, 10. Gaidropsarus vulgaris (Yarrell) Motella vulgaris Yarrell, Brit. fish., ed. 1, II, 1836:186 (IID 55, A 49, P 20, У 7); Lutken, Vidensk. Medd. naturhist. Foren. КЪпВуп. , (1881), 1882:235 (Faroe Islands). — Onos vulgaris Collett, Nyt Mag. Naurv., XXIX, 1885:93.— Gaidropsarus argenteolus, Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh. , (1902), 1903:65. ID1, ПО 62-64, A 51-54, P (20-21) 22-24, V 8. Head of considerable size, contained 4.5-4.8 times in body length (20.8-225%). Eyes not large, contained 7—8 times in head length, equal to first dorsal fin ray and snout, smaller than width of interorbital space. The greatest depth of the body is contained 65 итез in its length. The anal opening lies nearer the rear end of the anal fin than to the tip of the snout. The caudal peduncle is deep, con- tained about 3 times in the head length, or about 15 times in the base of the first dorsal fin. The base of the dorsal fin is shorter than the distance from its base to the eye, and is contained more than 2 times in the head length. Pectoral fins reach beyond the second dorsal fin. Coloration reddish-brown. Length to 51.8 cm (after Collett). DISTRIBUTION. Not known exactly. Lutken, who first directed attention to this species, had about 15 specimens from the Faroes. At the coasts of Norway and northward, he indicates it from Olesund, east to Flekke-Fjord (at the entrance to Skagerrak). According to Yarrell, it occurs at the coasts of Great Britain. Collett (1885) had specimens with 21 pectoral fin rays from the Mediterranean Sea. 11. Gaidropsarus reinhardti (Collett) Motella argentata Reinhardt, Kngl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk., Nat. Afh., VI, 1837:110 (Greenland). — Motella reinhardti Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh., 1878:83 (to the west of Bear Island). — Onos reinhardti Collett, Norske Nordh. Exp. 1876-78, Fiske, 1880:131 (bibliography, biology). — Onos reinhardti Giinther, Chall. Rept. Zoology, XXII, 1887:97, t. XIX, f. B(Faroe Channel); Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. 89 88 Forh. , (1891), 1892:13 (bibliography); Saemundsson, Synops. fish. Iceland, 1927:30 (at the northern shores of Iceland); Koefoed, Rept. Sci. Res. "Michael Sars" North Atl. Exp. 1910, IV, 1, 1932:118 (northward from Great Britain). ID1, ПО 54-59, A (43) 45-46 (48), P 22-24, УВ. Head length contain- ed 4.5-5.1 times in body length (19.3-20.1%). Eye contained 4.7-5.5 times in head length (18.4-18.7%), shorter than first ray of first dorsal fin, equal to or less than the width of the interorbital space. The body depth about 53 times in its length. Anal opening lies closer to the rear end of the anal fin than to the tip of the snout. The caudal peduncle depth is contained about 34 times in head length (5.5-5,8% of the body length) and not fully 2 times in the base of the first dorsal fin. The base of the first dorsal fin is greater than the distance from its origin to the eye, and is contained two times in head length. The first ray of the first dorsal fin is slightly elongated, slight- ly longer than the eye. Coloration uniform, reddish-brown, Length to 31.8 cm (after Collett). DISTRIBUTION, Inthe most northern part of the Atlantic Ocean; in the Faroe Channel and at the southern coasts of Greenland, at the northern coasts of Iceland and to the west of Bear Island, BIOLOGY has been studied very little. It is found at low and even nega- tive temperatures at depths of 14 {0 1,400 meters. It apparently feeds on small fishes, crustaceans (Decapoda-Hippolyte). COMPARATIVE NOTES. Very close to G.mediterraneus and с. vulgaris, distinguished from the first by rather greater number of rays in the pectoral fins, from the second by lesser number of rays in II D and A, as can be seen from the following table: G. mediterraneus ' 44-49 17-19 (5S) 6 (7) G. reinhardti (43) 45-46 (48) 22-24 8 G. vulgaris 51-54 (20) 22-24 8 Known from a small number of specimens, The small Reinhardt speci- men of Motella argentata Reinhardt had in its second dorsal no less than 53, and in the anal no less than 43 rays; pectoral fins are in a poor state of preservation, thus it is impossible to establish its identity with G. reinhardti from this specimen. 12. Gaidropsarus carpenteri (Gunther) Motella macrophthalmus Giinther (nec Giinther 1867), Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist., (4), ХШ, 1874:139 (between Shetland and Faroe Islands. -Onos carpenteri Ginther, Chall. Rept. Zoology, XXII, 1887:97, t. XLII, f. D (between Shetland and Faroe Islands), - Onos carpenteri Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh, , (1891), 1892: 15. 90 ID1, ПО 49, A 45, P 23, V 6. Head 4 times in body length. Eyes large, less than 4 times in head length, equal to the length of the snout, greater than the width of the interorbital space. The depth of the body 8 times in body length. The anal opening nearer to tip of the snout than to the rear end of the anal fin. The base of the first dorsal fin is a little more than half the head length, almost equal to the distance from its origin to the eye. The first dorsal fin ray is almost equal in length to the diameter of the eye. Pigmentation uniform. The length about 11.6 cm (44 inches). (After Collett). DISTRIBUTION, Atlantic Ocean between the Shetland and Faroe Islands at a depth of 340 meters. COMPARATIVE NOTES. Only a small specimen is known. By the number of rays in the second dorsal and in the anal its closest relative is С. capensis, and by the number of pectoral rays— G. vulgaris. The species is extremely doubtful. 13. Gaidropsarus ensis (Reinhardt) Motella ensis Reinhardt, Kngl. Danske Vidensk. -Selsk., Nat. Afn., VI, 1837: 110 (Greenland); ibid. , УП, 1838:116, 128.-Onos ensis Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , 1863:241. - Motella ensis Liitken, Vidensk. Medd. naturhist. Foren. Kbnhvn., (1881), 1882:236 (full description),- Onos rufus СШ, Proc. О. S. Nat. Mus., VI, 1883:259. - Onos ensis Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh. , (1891), 1892:16 (bibliography); Goode a. Bean, Oceanic ichth., 1896:381, f. 327 (distribution along the shores of North America),- Gaidropsarus ensis Jordana, Evermamn, Fish. М. а. М. America, 1898:2555 (bibliography), — Onogadus ensis De Buen, Bol. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat., XXXIV, 1934:501. ID1, ПО59, А 44-46, P 22.24 (27), V 8. Head not large, contained 53 тез in body length (16.8%). Eyes not large (in adults), 2 times in length of snout and in width of interorbital space*. Anal opening midway between tip of snout and hind end of anal fin. First ray of first dorsal fin long, al- most equal to head length (14.5% of body length). Coloration uniform brick red. Length to 39.2 cm (after Collett). DISTRIBUTION, Atlantic Ocean along the shores of North America from Greenland to Cape Hatteras. BIOLOGY. Keeps at depths, in the Gulf Stream at a depth of over 1,900 meters, COMPARATIVE NOTES. Known only from a small number of specimens. Very close and perhaps identical with G. reinhardti, distinguished from it by the elongate ray of the first dorsal fin. There are no bases whatsoever to segregate it into a special genus, ' 3. Genus CILIATA Couch Ciliata Couch, Laud. Mag. Nat. Hist., V, 1822:15 (Type: С. glauca Couch=larval С. mustela), — Couchia Thompson, Nat. Hist. Irel., IV, 1856:188 (Type: С. minor Thompson=larval С. mustela), — Molvella Каир, Wiegm. Arch, Naturg., XXIV, 1, 1858:90 (Туре: М. borealis Kaup=C. mustela), * According to Jordan and Evermann, large, almost equal to snout length and to interorbital space. 91 89 Similar to Gaidropsarus, but has five barbels: one on the chin and one at each of the anterior and posterior nostrils. The head of vomer is small, its anterior edge ina form of a semicircle. The skull is broad, its greatest width is contained in the length of its base not more than 1} times. Two pores in the supratemporal portion of the lateral line. No unpaired pores. FIGURE 13. Distribution of the genus Ciliata 1-С. mustela; 2-C, septentrionalis, SKELETON. The skull is not high (A), a little lower in its anterior por- tion than in the posterior, its greatest height is contained about 3 times in the length of its base. The lower edge of the bones of the base of the skull is almost straight, but the vomer and basioccipital are placed on a slight incline, due to which the base of the skull at its ends is somewhat curved. The upper profile of the skull represents a slightly curved line. The supra- occipital crest has a considerable sized backward-directed process on top, the posterior end of which lies somewhat behind the rear end of the basiocci- pital crest developed in the posterior part, only over the lateral occipitals, no crest on the forward portion of the supraoccipital posteriorly and on the frontals. The anterior edge of the mesethmoid is somewhat concave, placed vertically, almost a right angle with its upper edge. The orbital space is small, shortened, its depth approximately equal to its base. The notch in the facial nerve penetrates deeply into the front part of the prootic, the low- er edge rounded, the upper edge at an angle with a small process on the lower edge of the frontals. The foramen of the glossopharyngeal nerve on the opisthotic is small, hardly noticeable. The skull from above (B) is quite broad, its greatest width contained somewhat less than 15times in its length, 92 90 gradually and slightly narrowing anteriorly. The lateral walls of the skull are limited by almost straight lines with quite deep notches in the anterior part of the pterotics and with a small protuberance at the anterior end of the sphenotic. Edges of frontals without notches in the interorbital space. The lateral ethmoids are expanded laterally, hardly protruding forward under the frontals. The anterior end of the mesethmoid is above the anterior end of the vomer. The edges of the crests of the sensory canals on the pterotics are firmly adjoined to these bones, almost closing the canals from the sides. The mucous cavity is closed from above by the expanded edges of the lateral and median crests of the frontals. There are small triangular crest-like processes on the parietals over the opening of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve. Three irregular rows of teeth along the anterior edge of the head of the vomer on a broad horseshoe-shaped elevation beneath the skull (С). The lower edge of the parasphenoid is flat, with winglike expan- sions above the thickened lower portion, Sphenotic wide and greatly elong- ated. The skull from behind (D) with a small upward-projecting supraocci- pital crest. The lateral walls of the skull are limited in straight lines, the skull in the auditory region is not convex. The opercular process of the hyo- mandibular is somewhat longer than the lower process, narrow at its base and slightly broadened at its tip; the preopercular р‘ ocess has the form of a small outgrowth on the rear edge of the lower process; the articular process projects forward considerably. The posttemporal is small, the lower branch very short, more than twice as short as the upper. The postcleith- rum is thin, curved, not broadened at its upper end. The pelvic bone is of considerable size, larger than in the majority of the gadoids. The opercu- lum hasadeep notch in its lower edge, the posterior end of which is pointed, and the forward edge is rounded. Parapophyses short, not very wide. The description is given from one skeleton of G. mustela. DISTRIBUTION. Two species in the northern parts of the Atlantic Ocean along the coasts of Europe (Figure 13). COMPARATIVE NOTES. This genus most essentially differs from the closely related Gaidropsarus and Enchelyopus inthe form of its skull and in the number of barbels. Key to the Species 1 (2). No rudimentary barbels on the preorbital skinfold. The head small, BW OMb 1100 ОЕ боб LEMOL NN sas ев iene ue Wedel а Ma SiC ede (alee) 2 (1). Three barbels on each side on the НИ skinfold. Head large, about, 25% of body, length 4.) sini а. „С. Septentrionalis (Collett) 1, Ciliata mustela (Linné)—The five-barbeled marine nalim (fables, Ui, хх ХУ). Gadus mustela Linné, Syst. nat., ed. X, 1758: 255 (Oceano Еигорео). - Gadus quinquecirratus Cuvier, Régne animal, ed. I, П, 1817:216 (ex Pennant),- Gadus mustela Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828: 193 (length to 45cm); Faber, Naturgesch. fish. Isl., 1829:81 (Iceland),- Ciliata glauca Couch, Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist., V, 1832:15, 741 (му.). - Motella glauca Jenins, Man, brit. vert. anim., 1836:451 (juv.). -Motella argenteola Duben et Koren, Vet. Akad. Handl., (1844), 1846:92. — Enchelyopus mustela Gronovius ed. Gray, Cat. fish., 1854:101.- Couchia glauca et С. minor Thompson, Nat. hist. Irel., IV, 1856:188. - Motella borealis Каир, Wiegm. Arch. Naturg., 1858:90 (North Саре). — Motella mustella Day, Fish. Gr. Brit. Irel., 1, 1884:314, pl. LXXXVIII,f. 2 (variation in the structure of barbels), - Onos mustela Smitt, Scand, fish., I, 1893:554, f. 132, +. XXVII, +. 2, 3 (bibliography). 93 91 DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Schagerstrém, Physiogr., Salsk. Tidskr., I, 1838:305 ("Ore Sund Strait); Kroyer, Danm, Fiske, II, 1843-1845:185, fig. (northern part of Kattegat); Steindachner, Sitzungsber, Akad. Wiss. Wien, math-naturw. Cl., LVII, 1, 1868:710 (Korunya, Lisbon); Malm, Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:495 (near the coasts of Bohuslan Province): Moreau, Hist.:nat. poiss, France, Ш, 1881:273 (English Channel, Arcashon and Biarritz in Bay of Biscay); Saemundsson, Synops. fish, Iceland, 1927:31 (Iceland); Ussing, Flora og Fauna, Kbnhvn., 43, 1, 1937:27 (in Danish fjords). РОО 50-55,1А`40-—41,; (Polity Vion gill-rakers:9,., Pyloric.caeca, 12%, vertebrae 47. The gill-rakers are shaped as tubercles with small bristle- like spines оп фор. The lateral line has about 27 pores and a sharp curve beneath the beginning of the second dorsal fin. The body shortened, the head comparatively small, 17.3-19.7% of body length. Interorbital space broad, 21.7-22.4% of head length. Snout blunt. A single pair of long barbels be- fore the nostrils, a single pair of shorter ones at the tip of the snout, one barbel on the chin, no rudimentary barbels along the upper jaw. The upper jaw projects forward, scarcely extending beyond the vertical of the posteri- or edge of the eye. Eyes small, their longitudinal diameter 11.8-14.5% of head length, slightly exceeding half of the width of the interorbital space; eyes directed somewhat upward, Antedorsal distance 15.7-17.8%, anteanal distance 39.3-43.6% of body length. First dorsal ray 20.3-—33.7% of head length, 4.0-5.8% of body length. Coloration reddish-brown or olive green. The dorsum light gray; the venter white, yellowish or reddish, without spots or stripes. Length generally 28, as indicated by Fleming (1.с. ) to 45cm (2 specimens), DISTRIBUTION, Atlantic Ocean, along the shores of Europe, northward to Finmark (Eks-fjord), at the southern coasts of Iceland, southward to the Bay of Biscay and the western coasts of the Pyrennees, eastward to Sund; most common along the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. In connection with the distribution along the coasts of Iceland it is interesting to note that during the winter of 1820-21 during a heavy storm hundreds of individuals of this species were thrown on the southern shore (Faber, 1.с.). At pre- sent it is extremely seldom found and only in the western part of the south- ern coast (Saemundsson), It is found in areas which are very close to our seas; there is reason to presume that in connection with the general warm - ing during recent years we may expect to find this species in our waters also, BIOLOGY is little known. Generally keeps close to shores, not descend- ing to great depths beyond the lirnits of the distribution of green algae, pre- ferring rocky bottom but also seen on sandy bottom. Spawning takes place winter and spring. The eggs as in all gadoids are pelagic. There are in- dications, apparently based upon mixing of the eggs with some other fish, that the eggs develop in nests. Feeds on small fish, mollusks, and crust- aceans, COMMERCIAL VALUE none. COMPARATIVE NOTES. The development and even the number of bar- bels are variable: Day (1. c.) described 2 specimens (7.6 and 10.2 cm in length) which have short barbels along the edge of the snout; in a specimen 13.2cm in length the barbels on the end of the snout were not developed. Sometimes the barbels on one side are connected with membrane to the * According to Smitt, 8-10. 94 92 barbels on the other side and in one case both barbels of one side were fused into one, the other side (of the head) being of normal structure. 2. Ciliata septentrionalis (Collett)—Northern marine nalim Motella septentrionalis Collett, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (4), XV, 1875:82 (Floro, north of Bergen; Béd6 north of the Arctic Circle),—- Onos septentrionalis Collett, Norske Nordh. Exp. 1876-1878, Fiske, 1880:138, +. IV, Е. 35, Е. 36. - Motella septentrionalis Liitken, Vidensk. Medd. naturhist. Foren. Kbnhyn, (1881), 1882:234. - Onos septentrionalis Smitt, Scand. fish., I, 1893:548, f. 130 (bibliogra- phy, description), — Gaidropsarus septentrionalis Jordana. Evermann, Fish. М.а. М. America, ПТ, 1898:2559; Collett, Christ. Vidensk, -Selsk. Forh., (1902), 1903: 63. ID1, ПО 45-53, A 41-43, P 15-16, УТ. Lateral line with about 20 large pores (about 18 in the type specimen), and a sharp curve beneath the origin of the second dorsalfin. Body short. Head large, about 25% (4times) in body length, dorso-ventrally depressed. Interorbital space wide, about 20% of head length. Snout blunt. A single pair of long barbels before the nostrils and a pair of shorter barbels at the tip of the snout, a single row of three or more shorter or rudimentary barbels behind these along the preor- bital skinfold on the upper jaw. Upper jaw longer than lower jaw, extending far back of the verticai of the posterior edge of the eye. Eye not large, horizontal diameter about 11.5 % of head lengthand only slightly more than the width of the interorbital space, directed somewhat upward. Antedorsal dis- tance about 23%, anteanal distance about 46% of body length, First dorsal fin ray 19.3% of head length. Coloration brown without traces of spots, paler оп the sides. The largest specimen, 17.2 cm (after Collett and Smitt). A- bout 15 specimens from the coasts of Norway and one specimen from the coasts of Greenland are known (Collett). DISTRIBUTION. The Atlantic Ocean along the northwest coast of Norway from Fl6ro (north of Bergen) to Finmark (Eks-Fjord) and at the coasts of Greenland (1 specimen, exact locality not indicated, Collett, 1880). The range of this little known species comes closer to our waters and we have basis to expect to find it along the Coast of Murman. BIOLOGY unknown, maintains itself at great depths probably over 100 meters, COMMERCIAL УАГОЕ попе. COMPARATIVE NOTES. Very close to the preceding species, not always differing from it, as was indicated above even in the number of barbels. However, the comparatively larger head, antedorsal distance and other cha- racters do not permit us to doubt the individuality of this species. Judging from the broad interorbital space the skull is just as wide as C.mustela. 4. Genus ENCHELYOPUS Bloch et Schneider Enchelyopus Bloch et Schneider, Syst. ichth., 1801:950 (Type: Gadus cimbrius Г, = Е. cimbri- us).— Rhinonemus Gill, Proc, Acad, Nat. Sci. Phila., 1863:241 (Type: В. caudacuta Gill=E. cim- brius). 95 93 94 Similar to Gaidropsarus and Ciliata, but has 4 barbels, one on the chin, one at the tip of the snout, and one/at each nostril; the head of the vo- mer is small, the skull is narrow, its width contained about 2 times in the length of its base. One pore in the supratemporal portion of the lateral line on each side and one unpaired pore at back of the head between them. SKELETON. The skull is not high(A), the height contained about 4 times in the length of its base. The lower edge of the bones at the base of the skull is straight, only the ends of the basioccipital and vomer slightly curved downward. The upper profile of the skull in the anterior third slightly des- cending anteriorly, straight, farther back it is slightly curved and almost parallel with the base. The supraoccipital crest is developed only in the posterior portion above the lateral occipitals, extending posteriorly some- what beyond the hind edge of the basioccipital, without the process on top*. The anterior edge of the mesethmoid is concave, placed vertically, its up- per edge straight. The orbital space is large, high, its height contained about 25times in the length of the base. The notch of the facial nerve is deep, its upper and lower edges with slight extensions. The foramen of the glossopharyngeal nerve on the opisthotic is small. The skull from above (B) is narrow, especially in the interorbital region, its greatest width con- tained a little less than 2 times in the length of the base. The lateral edges of the frontals are arranged at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the skull with rather deep notches at the anterior end. The lateral edges of the front als are straight anteriorly and behind the narrow interorbital region. La- teral ethmoids greatly projecting on the sides, but hardly projecting anteri- or to the forward edges of the frontals. The anterior end of the vomer lies beneath the forward end of the mesethmoid. The edges of the crests above the sensory canals on the frontals close these canals from the sides for their entire stretch. The mucous cavity is closed above by the expanded edges of the middle and lateral crests of the frontals. The scarcely developed pa- rietal crests slightly close the foramen of the dorsal recurrent branch of the facial nerve from above. Along the anterior edge of the vomer underneath the skull (С) is a small horseshoe-shaped growth with small teeth. Lower edge of parasphenoid slightly rounded anteriorly, flattened and broadened posteriorly. Sphenotic beneath the frontals quite short, not laterally ex- panded. Supraoccipital crest in the rear of the skull (D) scarcely extending over the supraoccipital and epiotics. Prootics somewhat convex, auditory region slightly inflated on the sides. Opercular process of the hyomandibu- lar thin, elongate, equal in length to the lower process, the preopercular process, scarcely developed, the articular extending upward considerably. The posttemporals of small size, the lower branch is half the length of the upper. The pelvic bone is of considerable size. The operculum has a deep notch on its lower edge, the front and especially the posterior ends are very sharp. The preoperculum is broad, with a large, sharp process anteriorly. Parapophyses short, narrow. This description is based on one skeleton, DISTRIBUTION. One species in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean along the coasts of Europe and North America (Figure 14). * This process may have been broken off perhaps on the skull examined. 96 FIGURE 14. Distribution of Enchelyopus cimbrius *1, Enchelyopus cimbrius (Linné)—Four barbeled marine nalim (Tables II, XXIV, LVIII) Gadus cimbrius Linné, Syst. nat. ed. ХИ, 1766:440 (Oceano Atlantico, scanico),—- Gadus mustela (non Г.) et С. cimbrius Strussenfelt, Vet. Akad. Handl., 1773:24, t. 2, Е. А, B.—Enchelyopus cim- brius Bloch ed, Schneider, Syst. ichth., 1801:50, pl. IX (Atlantic Ocean and Baltic Sea),- Motella cim- brica Nilsson, Prodr. ichth. Scand., 1832:48. - Motella caudacuta Storer, Proc, Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. , III, 1848:5 (along the shores of North America).- Rhinonemus caudacuta Gill, Proc, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1863:241.- Couchia edwardii Couch, Journ. Linn. Soc. London, Zool., IX, 1866:38 (larvae). — Onos (Rhinonemus) cimbrius Goode a. Bean, Proc. Ч. $. Nat. Mus., I, (1878), 1879:348 (synonymy of species, identical with М. caudacuta Storer) - Rhinonemus cimbrius Jordan, Cat. fish, № Amer- ica, 1885: 128. — Onos cimbrius Smitt, Scand. fish., I, 1893:544, +. XXVII, f. 1 (bibliography, distri- bution, ecology).— Gaidropsarus cimbrius Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh. , (1902), 1903:59. DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Holt, Journ. Маг. Biol, Аззос., (п. s.), V. 3, 1898:343 (Bristol Вау); Mobius и. Heincke, Fische Ostsee, 1882:238 (Baltic Sea); Le Danois, Bull. Soc. Zool. Paris, XXXVI, 1913:228 (in the area of Cape Penmark, bibliography); Bigelow a. Welsh, Fish. gulf Maine, 1925:458 (distribution, biology); Knipovitch, Tr, Inst. Izuch. Severa, 27, 1926:162 (70°55! north latitude, 33°30! east longitude); Saemunds- on, Synops. fish. Iceland, 1927:31 (Iceland); Chaine et Duvergier, Act. Soc. Linn, Bordeaux, LXXX’, 1928:48 (Bordo); Bate, Contrib. Canad, biol. fisher. , (п. s.), V, 6, 1929:109 (shores of Canada, development); Jeffers, Contrib. Canad. biol. fisher. , (п. s.), VII, 15-23, 1923:8 (Belle-Isle Strait). ID1, ПО 45-50, A 37-41, P 15-16, V5, gill-rakers 9-10, vertebrae 54. Gill-rakers of normal structure. About 29 pores* in the lateral line, spaced more widely in the posterior portion of the body, the lateral line with a slight curve beneath the posterior end of the pectoral fin. Head not large, 16.0-17.2% of body length. Interorbital space very narrow, 7.9-8.9% of body length. One pair of long barbels at the anterior nostrils, one shorter * To be exact, pairs of pores. 97 95 barbel on the chin and one small barbel at the tip of the snout. The upper jaw extends slightly beyond the vertical of the rear edge of the eye. The eyes are large, their lateral diameter 22.2—24.4% of the head length, 2 1/20: 3 times аз greatas the interorbitalspace. Inper cent of body length: anteanal dis- tance 37.4-43.0, antedorsal 14.4-15.1, length of pectoral fin 13.1-14.9, length of pelvic fin 7.4-8.9, base of first dorsal fin 10.5-11.8, base of se- cond dorsal fin 58.3-59.2, base of anal fin 41.7-45.3, length of first dorsal fin ray 13.2-14.2, the depth of caudal peduncle 3.3-3.7, the length of the caudal peduncle 16.0-17.2. In per cent of head length: the length of the snout 24.4-27.1, the length of the upper jaw 43.9-48.0, the length of the low- er jaw 48.7-55.8. The coloration of the dorsum reddish-brown, paler on the sides, with irregular brown spots in the rear of the body; belly with brownish dots. First dorsal fin ray blackish-sky-blue, the other unpaired fins grayish-blue or ashen gray with dark spots at the posterior end of the second dorsal and anal fins and above and below the caudal fin, a few spots of slightly smaller dimensions on the entire extend of the second dorsal. Pectoral fins sky-blue-black, belly grayish-sky-blue. Reaches 41 cm in length, usually 20—35cm (6 specimens). DISTRIBUTION. Northern part of the Atlantic Ocean at the coasts of Eu- rope northward to the western part of the Barents Sea (to 70°55! north lati- tude, 33°30' east longitude), all around Iceland, along the coasts of Norway, Faroe Islands, southward to the southern end of Great Britain and the Bay of Biscay (to Bordeau), in western part of Baltic Sea and occasional speci- mens to the Bay of Finland*, Very common along the coasts of Norway. Common along the coasts of North America from Gulf of St. Lawrence (and perhaps even farther) to Narragansett Bay, at depths toCape Fear. BIOLOGY is very little known. Keeps to the bottom usually at moderate depths, but quite often is found near the shores at very shallow depths; it was, however, found on the slopes of the continental shelf at a depth of 550 meters and еуеп 1,300 meters. Inthe southern parts of its range along the coasts of North America it is generally found at greater depths. Pre- fers soft muddy bottom; apparently does not undertake large migrations, with the exception of small seasonal movements in the fall to the shores to lesser depths, and in the springfrom the shores to greater depths. Time of spawning not definitely known but apparently is very prolonged: from Jan- uary to August and even later, to September-—October, at the coasts of Canada from June to September inclusive; development of eggs takes place here at 13-19°C. Feeds on crustaceans, worms and mollusks. COMPARATIVE NOTES, Motella caudacuta Storer (= Rhinone- mus caudacuta) undoubtedly is a form identical with E, cimbrius. Specimen examined by Storer had a somewhat iarger number of rays in se- cond dorsal fin (53) and in anal fin (48). Such a number of rays in these fins in E, cimbrius has been found by no one else on specimens from European shores or North American shores. In our specimens from the coasts of North America (39°55' north latitude, 71°41' east longitude) [editor's note—should be west longitude] IJ 49, A 41. Goode and Bean (1. c,), who established the identity of this species considered that Storer had committed an error in his count of fin rays. * Number 26353 of the collection of the Zoological Institute. Delivered by V.S. Mikhin. 98 5. Genus RANICEPS (CUVIER) OKEN "Les Raniceps" Cuvier, Regne animal, ed. I, II, 1817:217 (Туре: Blennius raninus L, =В. га- ninus). — Raniceps Oken, "Isis," 1817:1182 (Type: B. raninus L.=R. raninus, secundum Cuvier). Olfactory lobes placed between the nasal capsules and the forebrain, The upper broader portion of the postcleithrum separated into a distinct bone. Body greatly depressed anteriorly. Two dorsal fins and one anal fin, first dorsal fin small, consisting of only 3 rays, the second of more than 60 rays. Second dorsal and anal slightly joined with the caudal. Lower jaw shorter than upper. A barbel below the chin. Teeth on head of vomer, premaxillary and dentary small, hooklike, bent, in several rows, larger in the outer row. Head of vomer moderately developed. Lateral line undeveloped(see page 101). Pit organs on the head. Mucous cavity of considerable size, not closed an- teriorly, middle crests of frontals are developed. Facial nerve emerges through a notch. Skull very broad, its width almost equal to its length. Py- 96 loric caeca two, rudimentary. Swim-bladder normally developed. SKELETON. Skull high (A), little lower in front than behind, its greatest height con- tained little more than 3 times in its base. The lower profile of the skull presents a slightly curved line, the parasphenoid with a slight curve under the anterior end of the prootic; the basioccipital is slightly curved downwara. The upper profile of the skull is slightly curved. Crest of the supraoccipital with a small indentation at the level of the rear end of the epiotic, developed as well in the posterior part of the supraoccipital above the lateral occipital and also in the forward portion between the parietals; the crest on the frontals is absent, Anterior end of mesethmoid descending rather steep- ly, straight, with a small convexity in the middle, placed at a right angle to the upper, slightly raised edge. Orbital space elongate, its height contained about 3 times in the length of its base. Notch of the facial nerve deep, its rim with small ridges at the junc- tions of the forward end of the prootic with the alisphenoid above and with the ascending FIGURE 15. Distribution of Raniceps Processes of the parasphenoid below. А ASAE small foramen for the glossopharyngeal nerve on the opisthotic. The skull from above (B) is very broad, its greatest width almost equal to the length of its base. The edges of the skull are limited from the sides with wavy lines, somewhat con- vergent anteriorly. The lateral edges of the pterotic with projections in the middle and notches in the forward part. The sphenotic is slightly expanded laterally. The lateral edges of the frontals are without noticeable notches in 99 97 the interorbital region. The lateral ethmoids are almost equally expanded transversely as well as longitudinally, considerably extending on the sides and forward from beneath the front ends of the frontals. The anterior end of the mesethmoid lies beneath the anterior end of the vomer. The crests a- bove the sensory canals on the pterotic and frontals are broad, lying very close to these bones. Mucous cavity large, shallow, without sharply de- fined edges, not divided in half by the posterior end of the central crest. The central crests are short, their edges not fused with the edges of the lateral crests and not closing the mucous cavity in front. The foramen of the re- current dorsal branch of the facial nerve liesin the anterior part of the pa- rietal, not covered from above, small crest-like projections located pos- terior 40 Фет. Vomer broad when viewing the skull from below (С), flat, its head with numerous teeth, arranged in a wide band along its forward edge. Parasphenoid flat, broad, its rear end from below on the same level with greatly developed laterally flared walls of the skull. The skull from back (D) not high and broad, with a few flattened and dorsally broadened supra- occipital crests rising above. Base of the skull broad, lateral sides of the skull limited by curved lines. The articular process of the hyomandibular long and broad, the lower process narrow, as are the opercular and pre- opercular processes, closely approaching and connected with each other for almost their entire length. Both branches of the posttemporal long, the lower almost half the length of the upper. The postcleithrum sharply curv- ed at the upper end, not widened even above the curve; the upper portion of this bone is greatly broadened and separated as a distinct bone. The pelvic bone processes are long. The operculum is narrow, with a deep notch in its lower edge and pointed at both ends. The urohyale is of small size, nar- row with broadened lower edge. Parapophyses elongated, widened at their bases. This description is based on one skeleton. DISTRIBUTION. One species at the European coasts of the Atlantic Ocean (Figure 15). COMPARATIVE NOTES. The structure of the suborbitals in Raniceps, as indicated by Dietz (1921:440), is of irregular form, and the third has the same appearance as in the Scleroparei, without any distinction from the structure of these bones in the other gadoids, for example Lota. Соппес- tion of the third suborbital with the preoperculum none, it ends well in ad- vance of the preopercle, This genus appears to be the most divergent group from all Lotinae (the location of olfactory lobes and the recently discovered peculiarity—a second postcleithrum), DinRianice ps) 'nanin'u's:(Linné) (Tables Il, ххх LX VIM) Blennius raninus Linné, Syst. nat., ed. Х, 1758:258 (habitat in Sueciae lacubus). — Blennius ra- ninus and В. fuscus Miller, Zool. Dan. prodr., 1776:43. — Gadus raninus Miiller, Zool. Dan. , II, 1784:6, pl. ХГУ. — Gadus fuliginosus Walbaum, Schr. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berlin, V, 1784:107. — Gadus trifurcus et С. minimus Walbaum in: Artedi, Gen. pisc,, 1792:139, 143 (ex Pennant). — Batrachoi- des blennoides Lacepéde, Hist. nat. poiss., II, 1800:451, 456. — Phycis ranina Bloch ed. Schneider, Syst. ichth., 1801:57. — Blennius trifurcatus Shaw, Gener. zool., IV, 1803:174. — Betrachocepha- lus blennoides Hollberg, Gdteb. Vettensk. Handl., Ill, 1819:39, fig. — Raniceps trifurcatus et В. jago Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828:194. — Raniceps niger Nilsson, Prodr. ichth. Scand., 1832:50. — Raniceps fuscus Кгбуег, Danm. Fiske, II, 1843-1845:231, fig. — Вап1серз raninus Day, Fish. Gr. Brit. Irel., I, 1884:320, pl. XC, f. 1 (synonymy); Smitt, Scand. fish. , I, 1893:558, pl. XXV, Е. 3 (synonymy, distribution, biology); Otterstr6m, Danm. Fauna, Fisk. , II, 1914:44 (description, distribution). 100 98 DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Mébius и. Heinke, Fische Ostsee, 1883:238 (Kiel and Meklenberg Harbors); Hjort, Rapp. Ргосез. -Verb., Х, 1909:67 (spawning grounds); J. Schmidt, ibib. :109, 147 (spawning conditions); De Buen, Fauna ict. , 1935:77 (Atlantic coast of Pyrennee Peninsula). 1D 3, ИО 63—64, A 57-60, P 21-22, gill-rakers 11-12, vertebrae 47. Pectoral fins broad, rounded, reaching beyond origin of anal fin. Second pelvic fin ray eloagate, much longer than the other rays, almost reaching the origin of the anal fin. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 43.3— 44.5, antedorsal distance 30.7-30.9, length of pectoral fin 15.2-—15.3 length of pelvic Нп 11.6-12.2, base of first dorsal fin 1.7-2.2, base of second dor- sal fin 51.4-—53.6, base of anal fin 42.2-44.5, height of first dorsal fin 2.3- 2.7, depth of caudal peduncle 3.4-3.7, its length 4.0-4.5; length of head 27.2—21.3. In per cent of head length: length of snout 23.1-—27.6, horizontal diameter of eye 15.2-17.5, length of upper jaw 54.9-57.6, length of lower jaw 55.1-57.0, interorbital space 26.2-26.5, length of barbel 6.7-7.4. Col- oration uniformly brownish black with a bluish cast, lips whitish, the fins same color as the dorsum; the tips of the pelvic fin rays and narrow stripe along the second dorsal, forward portion of anal and end of caudal are whi- tish, Length 20-25, ultimately to 30cm. (3 specimens). DISTRIBUTION. Rather restricted: European coasts of the Atlantic O- cean from Trondheim Fjord to the Bay of Biscay and the Iberian Peninsu- la, around Great Britain and Ireland, eastward to Skaggerak, to Kiel and Meklenberg Harbors. Linné erroneously indicated also Swedish lakes. BIOLOGY. Lives in coastal waters at shallow depths, generally 10 to 20 meters, more seldom found at greater depths — to 75 to 100 meters. Lives as solitary individual, does not undertake extensive migrations, limit- ing itself apparently to local movements, Spawning takes place during summer and fall at temperatures not lower than 10 to 12°C, at shallow depths (75 and even 50 meters), near shores, apparently throughout the en- tire range of distribution. At any rate, spawning has been established along the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, in the North Sea, the English Chan- nel, Skaggerak and even in Sesser Belt. Feeds on crustaceans, mollusks, worms, echinoderms and apparently fish. COMMERCIAL VALUE none, caught individually and occasionally, prac- tically useless for food. COMPARATIVE NOTES. Tubercles which occur on the anterior part of the body above the pectoral fins in some specimens are caused by folds of the skin and the loss of scales in those places. It is possible that there are also pit organs present. This characteristic distinguishes R. trifurcatus and В. jago Fleming. The lateral line inall Raniceps specimens exa- mined is absent on the body; however it is indicated and shown on the illus- tration by Day (1. c.). On the other hand, Otterstré6m (1. с.) indicates that pronounced lateral lines in this species are not found. Dr. Norman, who examined at my request the specimens in the British Museum, informs me that the lateral line is sometimes absent; however, in well preserved spe- cimens it is observable on the forward portion of the body. 101 99 6. Genus PHYCIS Rose Phycis (non Phycis Fabricius 1798, Insecta Lepidoptera = Phycita Fabricius 1798) Rose in: Artedi, Synonymia, 1738:111 (Type: Phycis of Aristotel= Phycis tinca Bloch et Schneiders Ph. blennoides)*; Bloch ed. Schneider, Syst. ichth., 1801:56 (Туре: Ph. tinca Bloch et Schn.= Ph. blennoides). Two dorsals and one anal fin, the first dorsal fin consisting of 8 to 11 rays, the second of more than 50. The second dorsal and anal fins are se- parated from the caudal fin by a small interspace. The pelvic fins consist of 3 rays: 2 long and one rudimentary. The frontals are fused into one un- paired bone. The lower jaw is shorter than the upper. A barbel below the chin always present. Teeth small, in several rows on the premaxillary, dentary and head of vomer. Head of vomer weakly developed. Lateral line on anterior half of body in the shape of a low arch placed above the midline, and beyond it runs along the middle of the body, straight, continuous almost to the end of the anal fin, and discontinuous beyond. Pores on the head**. The mucous cavity is opened or closed anteriorly; there is a notch on the sides of the skull for thefacial nerve. Opisthotic with a large posteriorly directed process for the articulation of the pectoral girdle; posttemporals and supracleithrum normally developed. SKELETON, Skull not high (A), its greatest height in all species contain- ed about 3 to 35 тез in the length of the base. The bones in the base of the skull are placed along a straight line, only the vomer and the basioccipital are Slightly curved downward. The upper profile of the skull presents a more or less curved line, gradually descending anteriorly. The supraocci- pital crest is developed only in the rear portion over the exoccipitals; the crest on the front part of the supraoccipital between the parietals and front- als is absent; the rear edge of the crest is placed above the rear edge of the basioccipital or beyond it. The anterior edge of the mesethmoid is slightly inclined forward, with a small notch in the middle or straight, arranged at an obtuse angle to its upper edge. The orbital space is elongate, its base 21 to 3 times greater than its height. The notch of the facial nerve enters the anterior edge of the prootic rather deeply, widely open in front, its edg- es with small projections at the junctions of forward end of the prootic with the ascending process of the parasphenoid beneath and with the alisphenoid above. А small but noticeable foramen for the glossopharyngeal nerve on the opisthotic. The skull is broad from above (B); the length of its base exceeds its greatest width by approximately half again, its width gradually dimin- ishes toward the interorbital region. The lateral edges of the pterotic are convex, rounded, with a small notch in front. The frontals gradually nar- row toward the interorbital region, broadening somewhat in front. The lat- eral ethmoids are expanded laterally, almost not covered by the front edge of the frontals, The frontals in the middle or in the posterior part of both sides with a small transverse crest diverging from the lateral crest toward the midline of the skull, The anterior edge of the mesethmoid is located over the anterior end of the vomer or slightly behind it. The crests above the sensory line canals on the frontals and pterotic are very wide, their edges somewhat raised, Mucous cavity rather deep with well limited edges, * Although the type species of the genus Phycis was named non-binomially, since Phycis Fabricius 1798 was referred by him to Phycita and at present is not being used in entomology, the generic name should be retained. ** The number and location of pores was not studied in all specimens. 102 100 slightly divided into two parts at the base by a low longitudinal partition. The edges of the median crest of the frontals almost touch or are connected to the lateral crests, leaving the mucous cavity open anteriorly (in Ph. phycis) or closing it (in other species). The foramina of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve on the parietals are located at the very forward edge of the weakly developed crests, slightly covered or not covered at all by the latter from above. A process of the opisthotic to which is connected the posttemporal extends to the side of the epiotic on each side. From below the skull (C) along the entire anterior edge of the vomer is an elevation with a wide band of very small teeth placed in a few irregular rows, The para- sphenoid is broad, especially posteriorly, its lower edge for its entire stretch is flat. The rear ends of the occipitals extend from the sides of the basioccipital or are concealed on each side of the skull in the back, In the opisthotic notch a process of these bones protrudes, The skull from the back (D) with a high rising supraoccipital crest somewhat broadened and flattened at the top. The processes of the opisthotic are placed beneath the epiotic over the foramen of the vagus nerve. The auditory region of the skull is convex from the sides. The skull from beneath is semispheric, even somewhat fiattened. The articular process of the hyomandibular is broad for its entire length, extending somewhat forward over the opercular pro- cess; the opercular process is shorter than the lower process, which is not too broad; the preopercular process is located along the opercular one, both are fused for their entire stretch and are directed somewhat downward, The posttemporal is not large, the lower limb is almost twice as short as the upper. The postcleithrum is thin, long, slightly arched at its upper end. The pelvic bone is of considerable size, its lower process thin and long. The operculum is almost in the shape of an equilateral triangle, its lower edge with a small notch and both ends pointed. The preopercle in front has a wide downward directed process. The urohyale is rather wide. The para- pophyses are long, thin, slightly broadened at their bases. This description is based on one skeleton of Ph. phycis, one Ph. blennoides, and one Ph. chesteri. DISTRIBUTION. Northern section of northern part of Atlantic Ocean, one species at the coasts of North America, two species along the coasts of Eu- rope and in the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 16). Ina fossil state Phycis (or Urophycis) are known from the Lower Pliocene, COMPARATIVE NOTES. Phycis and Urophycis, like some other genera, form a group within the subfamily Lotinae, very distinctly differ- ing from the other genera by a whole complex of characters (frontals fused into an unpaired plate, structure of pelvic fins). Hypsiptera argentea Ginther (Cat. Fish., II, 1860:386), as indica- ted by Liutken[Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (5), УП, 1881:123; Vidensk. Medd. Naturhist. Foren. Kbhvn., (1881), 1882:252], appears to be a pelagic form of Phycis; in the opinion of Emery (Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel, Vi, 1886: 159), itis Ph. phycis. Inregardto Ph. macronemus of Rafinesque, described very incompletely, it is very difficult to say anything. 103 [01 1 (2). 2 (1). 8 (3% 4 (3). Ly FIGURE 16. Distribution of the genus Phycis 1-РЬ. phycis; 2-РЬ. blennoides; 3-Ph. chesteri, Key to the Species About 130 transverse rows of scales, about 11-12 scales between first dorsal fin and lateral line, First dorsal fin without any elongate rays, pelvic fins reaching origin of anal fin. Mucous cavity not closed in front of Skull т (Pep eyes Gia.) Fewer than 120 transverse rows of scales, 5-6 scales between first dorsal fin and lateral line. Third ray of first dorsal fin greatly elong- ate, pelvic fins reaching far beyond anal fin origin, The mucous ca- vity on the skull closed in front. About 100 transverse rows of scales, gill-rakers about13...... т 2 gh PhS bslemay ond ers овен About 90 transverse rows of scales, gill-rakers about 21. ..,.. ава ae ee Ими Зо et Ce hie sitet) (Goodetetupean) Phycis phycis (Linné) (Tables XXVI, LXVIII) Gadus phycis Linné, Syst. nat., ed. ХИ.; 766:442 (Mediterranean Sea). — Phycis mediterraneus DeLaroch, Ann. Mus. Paris, XIII, 1809:332. — Phycis furcatus Bowdich, Excurs. Madeira, 1825:125 f. 128 (Madeira). — Phycis limbatus Valenciennes in: Webb et Bertelot, Hist. nat. iles Canaries, II, 2) 1825:78, pl. XIV, Е. 2 (Canary Islands). — Urophycis mediterraneus Jordan a. Gunn, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1898:347. — Phycis phycis Fowler, Marine fish. W. Africa, I, 1936:474. 104 102 DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Bibron, Exp. sci. Morée, Ш, 1, 1833:80 (coasts of Greece); Guichenot, Explor. sci. Algerie, Zool., V, 1850:103 (Algeria); Steindachner, Sitzunsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math. -naturw. Cl. , LVII, 1, 1868:701 (Lisbon, Cadiz, StraitsofGibralter, Malaga, Barcelona, Teneriffe Island); Kolombato- vic, Fische Spalato, 1882:40 (Adriatic Sea, rare); Rocherbrune, Faune Senegamb., Ро155., 1883:114 (south to Cape Verde); Vaillant, Exp, sci. "ТгауаШешг" et "Talisman," Poiss., 1888:289 (Bay of Biscay); D'Ancona, Fauna flora golfi Napoli, 38, 1933:239 (reproduction). ТО 10-11, ПО 60-63, А 58-64, P 17-18, gill rakers 12-13, scales 120-140, 11-12 scales between first dorsal fin and lateral line, vertebrae 47, mucous cavity open in front, foramina of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial on the palatine are not covered by crests, skull broad in the inter- orbital area, about 25% of its length. Interorbital space broad, 17.0-19.7% of the head length. Eyes not large, 18.3—22.4% of head length, Jaws short, upper jaw 45.0-47.2, lower 51.0-52.3% of head length. Caudal peduncle short and high, its length 4.1-4.6%, its depth 4.8-5.2% of body length. Pel- vic fins usually reach only the beginning of the anal fin, constituting 22.3- 22.8% of the body length. First dorsal fin has no elongated rays, its height scarcely exceeding the height of the second dorsal, constituting only 8.0-9.3% of body length. Posterior ends of second dorsal and anal fins appear slight- ly rounded at the height of the angles. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 40.6—45.2, antedorsal distance 26.1-28.2, length of pectoral fin 14.6—15.7, base of first dorsal fin 6.4-8.0, of the second dorsal fin 49.2- 52.7, base of anal fin 46.8—48.5, length of head 21.8-22.7. Percentages of head length: snout length 26.6-28.7, length of barbel 25.4-27.0. Coloration brown blackish or reddish, darker on back, lighter on sides and belly. Length to 60cm and more, most often 15-25 ста. (5 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. Eastern coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, along the shores of Europe north to the Bay of Biscay, south along the coasts of Africa to Cape Verde. Inthe Mediterranean Sea along the shores of the Iberian and Appenine Peninsulas, Sicily and Algeria, rare in the Adriatic Sea. BIOLOGY. Lives at moderate depths but is found at depths of 600 meters ог more, Rather rare but in some places is found more often than Ph. blennoides. Breeds apparently throughout its entire range; larvae and post-larval stages were found in the Mediterranean as well as in the Atlantic (Bay of Biscay). Spawning time January to May. 2. Phycis blennoides (Briinnich) (Tables III, XXVII, XVIII) Gadus blennoides Brimnich, Ichth. Massil, 1768:241 (Mediterranean Sea at Marseilles). — Gadus albidus Linne ed. Gmelin, Syst. ichth., I, 1788:1171. - Gadus bifurcus Walbaum in: Artedi, Gen. pisc., 1792:137. — Blennius gaboides Lacepéde, Hist. nat. poiss., II, 1800:484. — Phycis blennoi- des et Ph. tinca Bloch ed Schneider, Syst. ichth., 1801:56, Pl. XI.— Batrachoides gmelini Risso, Ichth. Nice, 1810:143, pl. VI, Е. 6 (Villafranche).— Phycis furcatus Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828:193. — Phycis blennoides Day, Fish. Gr. Brit. Irel., I, 1880—84:303, pl. LXXXV, Е. 2 (bibliogra- phy, distribution). — Phycis albidus Vaillant, Exp. sci. "Travailleur" et "Talisman;' Poiss., 1888:288, pl. XXVI., f.4, 4а. — Phycis blennoides Smitt., Scand. Fish., I, 1893:540, Pl. XXI, f. 2 (bibliogra- phy, distribution). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Guichenot, Exp. sci. Algérie, Zool., V, 1850:103 (coasts of Algeria); Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh., (1902), 1903:51 (northward to 69° north latitude); Saemundsson, Sy- nops. fish. Iceland, 1927:30 (Iceland); D'Ancona, Fauna flora golfo Napoli, 38, 1933:233 (reproduction); Cipria. Mem. talassogr. ital., 1936:237, 1, fig. (development); Lénnberg, Fauna och Flora, Uppsala, 1937:153 (Kattegat). 105 103 ID 8-9, ПО 60-64, А 50-55, P 16-18, gill rakers 12-13, scales about 100, 5-6 scales between the first dorsal fin and lateral line, vertebrae 49. Mucous cavity on the skull is closed in front, the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve on the palatine is slightly covered by small crests; the skull is narrowed in the interorbital region, nearly 15% of its length. The interorbital space is narrow, 11.7-13.8% of head length, The eyes are large, 25.0-29.0%of head length. Jaws long, the upper 48.2-50.7%, lower 53.1-55.1% of head length. Caudal peduncle long and low, its length 3.2-5.9%, depth 2.9-3.8% of body length. Pelvic fins long, extending to the middle and even beyond the anal fin, constituting 35.7-43.9% of body length. First dorsal fin higher than the second, its third ray slightly longer, consti- tuting 12.2-17.2% of body length, The rear ends of the second dorsal and anal fins are rounded. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 41.8-44.8, antedorsal distance 22.8—26.2, length of pectoral fin 13,.8-15.5, base of first dorsal fin 6.5-7.5, of second 52.5-53.0, the base of the anal 42.0-44.1, the head length 19.3-22.5. In percent of head length: snout length 26.2-26.3, barbel 18.4-21.0, Coloration brown or grayish-pink, belly whitish or sil- very. Length to 75cm., generally 15-30cm, (5 specimens). DISTRIBUTION. Eastern coasts of the Atlantic, north along the coasts of Europe occasionally to the Vestarol Islands (68.5° north latitude), eastward at Skaggerak and Kattegat, at the western part of the southern coasts of Ice- land, around Britain and Ireland, Iberian Peninsula and Madeira, along the coast of Morocco in Africa. Western part of the Mediterranean along the European coast and Algeria, in the Adriatic. It is found in places very near to our waters; in connection with the general warming up in recent years it is possible that this species enters our waters. BIOLOGY. Prefers sandy and muddy bottoms. Feeds on crustaceans and fish. Spawns in the spring extending into summer inclusive of August. Spawning grounds: Mediterranean, Atlantic along the shores of Great Bri - tain. In the Mediterranean reproduction takes place in January—May. COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE very small, used as food but seldom caught. COMPARATIVE NOTES. The species is well distinguished from the pre- ceding one in external characters, differs considerably from the preceding also osteologically by its narrower skull in the interorbital space, the closed mucous cavity and in other characters. The foramina of the recurrent dor- sal branch of the facial nerve on the parietals are placed beneath small crests and not in front of them as in the preceding species. Batrachoi- des gmelini Risso, judging from the description and figure, is apparent- - ly identical to this species and not to the preceding, 3. Phycis chesteri Goode et Bean (Tables XXVIII, LXVIII) Phycis furcatus (non Fleming) Storer, Boston Journ. Nat. Hist., I, 1837 (coast of the state of Massa- chusetts). — Phycis chesteri Goode a. Bean, Proc. Ц. $. Nat. Mus., 1878:256 (Cape Ann, Atlantic); Goode a. Bean, Oceanic ichth., 1895:360, f. 313 (measurements, distribution). — Urophycis chesteri Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. N. a. M. America, III, 1898:2556; Bigelow and Welsh, Fish. gulf Maine, 1925: 456, f. 227 (biology). 106 104 ТО 10, 11D 54, А 47, Р 16*, gill-rakers 21, scales 90, 5-6 between the first dorsal fin and the lateral line, vertebrae 49. Mucous cavity on skull locked in front, recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve foramen on the palatine is hardly covered by small crests, the skull is narrow in the inter- orbital region, about 15% of its length. The interorbital space is narrow, about 13.4% of the head. The eyes are large, 31.7% of the head length. The jaws are long, the upper 48.6, lower 58.9% of the head. Caudal peduncle long and not deep, its length 5.2, depth 2.4% of body length. The pelvic fins are long, extending beyond the middle of the anal fin, and constituting 49.7% of body length. The third ray of the first dorsal fin is greatly elongated and extends to the center of the second dorsal fin, constituting 33.7% of body length. The pectoral fin is also slightly longer than in the preceding species, and constitutes 18.7% of body length. Posterior ends of the second dorsal and anal fins rounded, In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 39.4, antedorsal distance 22.6, base of first dorsal 5.9, second 51.1, base of anal fin 42.6, length of head 19.0%. In per cent of head length; snout length 28.0, barbel length 12.9. Coloration in alcohol red or reddish brown on the back, muddy or reddish-white below, dorsal fins of the same color as the dorsum, with dark edges. Length to 28cm. (1 specimen). DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean off the coast of North America from Newfoundland (Laurentian Channel) to Cape Lookout. BIOLOGY. Very little studied. Keeps at the bottom at great depths 200-900 meters and somewhat greater (1,000 meters), known on occasion in lesser but still somewhat considerable depths (60 meters). Judging from the catch of adult fish with mature sexual preducts and pelagic young spawn- ing apparently occurs in summer and fall. COMPARATIVE NOTES. By the structure of its skull and other osteolo- gical characters this species is close to Ph. blennoides, and bears a resemblance in a number of other characters (the lower and longer caudal peduncle, narrower interorbital space, elongated jaws, large eyes, elong- atedfins). They differ from each other by the fact that Ph. chesteri has much longer pectoral and pelvic fins, particularly the third ray of the first dorsal, and the somewhat lesser length of the barbel. Measurements of three specimens of Ph. chesteri given by Goode and Bean (1. с.) are close to the measurements of our specimen. Craniologically the species differs by the fact that Ph. chesteri has the upper profile of its skull less curved, has no notch in the front edge of the mesethmoid, the supraoc- cipital crest scarcely extends past the basioccipital, part of the skull behind the forward angle of the sphenotic is somewhat shorter than in Ph, blen- noides, and this angle is rounded. Investigation of a greater number of fish and skulls of both of these forms will perhaps prove them to be subspe- cies. Ph. furcatus Storer should be considered identical to this species inasmuch as Storer defined itas Ph. furcatus = Ph. blennoides, a species much closer to Ph. chesteri., * According to Goode and Bean, I D 9-10, II 55-57, A 56, Р 17-18, V 3. 107 105 7. Genus UROPHYCIS Gill Urophycis Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , (1863), 1864:240 (Type: Blennius regius Walbaum =U. regius).— Emphycis Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. N. a. M. America, III, 1898:2552 (Type: Gadus tenuis Mitchills-U. tenuis). Similar to Phycis, but the opisthotic process is almost undeveloped, the posttemporal and supracleithrum are rudimentary. SKELETON. Skull in lateral aspect (A) not high, its base exceeds the greatest height by 34 to 4 times. The lower edge of the bones of the base of the skull in a straight line, curved only at the ends. The upper profile ofthe skull is slightly curved at the anterior end of the supraoccipital or in the in- terorbital region, for the rest of the length it is rather straight, slightly descending forward, The frontal and supraoccipital crest anteriorly be- tween the parietals is absent, developed only in the posterior part of the sup- raoccipital above the exoccipitals, extending back beyond the posterior end of the basioccipital. The front edge of the mesethmoid is almost vertical, slightly rounded or with a slight notch placed almost at right angles to the upper surface. The greatest height of the elongate orbital space is contained 2110 3 times in its base. The notch of the facial nerve is rather deep, the anterior and ventral edges slightly rounded. Foramen of the glossopharyn- geal nerve on the opisthotic is not large but noticeable. The skull from a- bove (B) is broad posteriorly, somewhat narrowing anteriorly, its greatest width contained 1110 2 times in its length. The lateral edges of the pterotic are rounded, with a slight notch in front, almost parallel to each other; be- yond them are located the upper edges of the opisthotic. The edges of the sphenotic are somewhat convergent in front. The frontals are short and ra- ther broad, gradually narrowing in the middle and somewhat broadening an- teriorly. The lateral ethmoids are expanded laterally and almost entirely extend anteriorly from beneath the frontals, Small transverse crests ex- tend from the lateral crests in the middle of the frontals toward the midline of the skull in some (U. regius, Ц. tenuis.). The anterior edge of the vomer protrudes slightly from beneath the anterior edge of the mesethmoid or is located beneath it. The crests over the sensory canals on the pterotics and frontals are not extremely broad, their edges are slightly elevated. The mucous cavity is quite deep, its edges are distinctly limited, at its base it is divided by a longitudinal partition open in front(U. regius, U. chuss, Ч. floridanus) ог closed(U. tenuis, U. brasiliensis) by the fused edges of the lateral and median crests of the frontals, forming in such case canals which are closed above. The crests on the parietals are scarcely de- veloped, the foramina of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve are located at their very forward edge, scarcely covered by them, Along the an- terior edge of the head of the vomer on the skull below (C) from either side of its apex there is a slight elevation with from 1 to 3 very irregular rows of small teeth. The teeth at the apex of the head of the vomer are smaller and placed in narrower rows. The parasphenoid is broad, its lower surface for its entire length flat. The lateral occipitals do not extend from the sides of the basioccipital. The opisthotic processes to which the pectoral girdle is attached are absent or rudimentary. The skull from beneath (D) is hemis- pherical or flattened at the base. The supraoccipital crest extends slightly above the skull, its upper edge somewhat broadened, flat. The articular 108 106 process of the hyomandibular extends more or less above the opercular pro- cess; the lower process is rather narrow at its base, slightly broadened to- ward the tip; the opercular process is broad at the base and narrows toward the tip. The preopercular process is absent. The posttemporals and sup- rachleithrum are scarcely distinguishable, of very small size. The post- cleithrum is thin, long, somewhat curved at its upper end. The pelvic bone has a thin and long lower process. The operculum is rather narrow and blunt at its upper end with a deep notch along its lower edge, and both lower ends pointed. The preopercle in front with a sharp or rounded upward direc- ted process. The urohyale broad, somewhat pointed or rounded posteriorly. The parapophyses are rather long, thin, broadened at the base. Description given from one skeleton of U. regius, one Ч. chuss, one U. floridanus, two U. tenuis andtwo U. brasiliensis. DISTRIBUTION. Bipolarly distributed genus: 6 species are known intem- perate waters and at depths in subtropical parts of the Atlantic Ocean along the coasts of North America; one species at the coasts of South America (Figure 17). From the 6 species of the northern hemisphere only 3 appear to be widely distributed and well known, the others have narrow distributions and are little known, often only from a few specimens. COMPARATIVE NOTES. From the general structure of the skull as well as from external characters, the genera Phycis and Urophycis and the genera Eleginus and Microgadus cannot be separated into two inde- pendent genera. However, the structure of the upper part of the pectoral girdle (posttemporals, supracleithrum) and the portion of the skull (opistho- tic) to which the pectoral girdle is connected have considerable distinctions indicated in the diagnoses of these genera. By these peculiarities the gene- ra Phycis and Urophycis, externally resembling each other as much as do Eleginus and Microgadus, most naturally fall into two genera, one of which like Eleginus, is found along the coasts of Europe, and the other like Microgadus at the coasts of North America. The difference consists only in that Phycis and Urophycis are not found in the Paci- fic Ocean and range farther southward. By basic osteological characters which are placed at the base of the classification of the family species of the genera Phycis and Urophycis, like Eleginus and Microgadus, are almost identical and form two parallel series. It must be pointed out that the changes in numbers of scales in osteologically studied species of the genera Phycis and Urophycis parallel the changes in basic characters which are placed at the base of the classification of the family, with the only difference being that in the series of species of Phycis the number of scales diminishes while in the series of species of Urophycis it increas- es. Because of the fact that the osteology of some of the rare forms has not been studied, regardless of the presence of good osteological distinctions in those forms which have been examined in this respect, the diagnostic keys to the species have been compiled only from external characters, mainly from the numbers of transverse rows of scales difficult to count. It is pos- sible that after studying the osteology of all species of Urophycis they will place themselves in the same series as in the key to the species. Spe- cies of the genus Urophycis, not studied osteologically, however, are not included in the classification of the family but are placed at the end af- ter the species which have been studied osteologically. Until the osteolo- gy of these three little-studied species is investigated it is difficult to say 109 107 positively to which of the two genera Urophycis or Phycis they should be referred, but yet they are very isolated and very remote from the species of the genus Phycis and their distribution speaks for their belonging ra- ther to the genus Urophycis. Ph. borealis Saemundsson (Vidensk. Medd. naturhist. Foren, Kbnhvn. 65, 1913:65; ibid., 74, 1922:185), described from five specimens from the southwestern coasts of Iceland (see also his Synops. fish. Iceland, 1927:31), is the closest and perhaps identicalto Ц. tenuis (ID 10, ПО 55-58, А 49-51, P16, scales 160, dorsal fin with short thread-like ray, pelvic fin does not reach origin of anal fin, on the drawing 21% of body length). By the number of transverse rows of scales these specimens cannot be re- ferred to Ph. pHycis, norito Ph. bhennoides' orn: Ph. scheste ri; besides, from the first they differ by the elongated ray of the first dorsal fin, from both the latter by the shorter pelvic fins, not reaching the origin of the anal fin and the not so greatly elongatedrays of the first dorsalfin. Ph. borealis differsfrom Ч. regius, Ч. cirratus, U. floridanus and U. earlli bythe elongatedfirst dorsal ray, from U. chuss by much shorter pelvic fins and not so greatly elongated ray in the first dorsalfin. Not knowing the structure of the skull we cannot say to which genus these specimens should be referred. If the opisthotic has no process, characteristic of Phycis, then Ph, borealis would be nearer to or perhaps identical with Ч. tenuis, but if the process is present, then it should be a distinct species of the genus Phycis, which is scarcely possible, because it is difficult to admit that this species possessed quite a small range and was so little known in spite of not living at very great depths (40-120 meters). The penetration to the coasts of Iceland of an American species is most likely*. Key to the Species 1 (4). Not more than 100 transverse rows of scales, 7 Goh Veer DRS 2M gD ay a» eo ge a eS Tere 1. U. regius (Walb. ) 32 2)e70,.D-V0: 1 D166. АБТ. einen tee 6. U. cirratus Goode et Bean 4 (1). More than 100 transverse rows of scales. 5 (8). Not more than 140 transverse rows of scales. 6 (7). About 110 transverse rows of scales, third ray of first dorsal fin elongate and threadlike. ......... 2..0. chus (Ма ) 7 (6). About 120 transverse rows of scales, third ray of first dorsal fin not-elongate., ис ..3. U. floridanus (Bean et Dresel) 8 (5), One hundred forty transverse rows of scales or more. 9 (12). About 140 transverse rows of scales, third dorsal ray elongate. 10 (11). Pelvic fins hardly reaching origin, of anal fin’. ги мае ap bent eid Ue ws ay Abeer Bame saree arf, 9. obenuds миа) 11 (10). Pelvic fins long, reaching far beyond the origin of anal fin, м, мая eee oD. 0. brasiliensis,(Kaup) * A specimen of Ph. borealis 24cm long was studied (Svetovidov, Trudy Zool. Inst. Akad. Nauk USSR, vol. XVIII, 1955:346—348). The opisthotic processes were absent, the posttemporal and supracleithrum rudimentary. In other characters it is identical with U. tenuis. 110 12 (9). About 155 transverse rows of scales, third dorsal fin ray not Glongatewn (itera mms 3 а Л они 3, elas т 1 (Bean) 22 «(>< 2 Е 355$ RS FIGURE 17. Distribution of the genus Urophycis 1-U. regius; 2-U. chuss and Ч. tenuis; 3-U. cirratus; 4—0. earlli; 5-U. floridanus; 6—-U. brasiliensis, 1. Urophycis regius (Walbaum)* (Tables ХХХ, LXIX) Blennius regius Walbaum in: Artedi, Gen. pisc., 1792:186 (secundum Schépf). — Enchelyopus regalis Bioch ed. Schneider, Syst. ichth. , 1801:53 (secundum Schdpf). — Gadus punctatus Mitchill, Trans. Lit. Philos. Soc. М. Y., I, 1815:372 (New York). — Phycis punctatus DeKay, New York fauna, 1842:292, t. XLVI, Е. 149. — Phycis regalis Giinther, Cat. fish., IV, 1862:355 (coast of North America). — * At the coasts of North America, spotted-hake. 111 108 Urophycis regius Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , (1863), 1864:240. — Urophycis regius Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. N. a. M. America, III, 1898:2553, f. 898 (bibliography); Bigelow a. Welsh, Fish. gulf Maine, 1925:455, f. 226 (distribution, biology); Hildebrandt a. Cable, Bull. Bureau Fisher. , XLVIII, 1938:612 figs. 132, 136, 140 (from Novia Scotia to South Carolina, eggs*, larvae). ID9, 11D 47, A 45, P 16 gill-rakers 17, scales about 85** vertebrae 46, Mucous cavity not closed in front, Forward edge of the frontals ex- tends slightly anterior to the lateral ethmoids; part of the skull back of the anterior end of the sphenotic is larger than the part placed in front of it, the hind ends of the opisthotic reach the posterior end of the basioccipital. Interorbital space broad, 19.3% of head length. Eyes comparatively not large, 23.8% of head length. The jaws are elongate, upper jaw 49.1, low- er 54.6% of head length. Caudal peduncle deep and shortened, its depth 4.6, length 5.0% of body length, Pelvic fins extend only to the origin of the anal fin and constitute 23.1% of body length. Pectoral fins reach the origin of the anal fin, 17.0% of body length. First dorsal fin with no elongated rays, considerably exceeding the height of the second dorsal, its height constitu- ting only 8.2% of body length. The posterior ends of the second dorsal and anal fins are in the shape of angles slightly rounded at the top. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 35.6, antedorsal distance 22.8, base of first dorsal 7.4, second 55.7, base of anal fin 49.2, head length 21.2. In per cent of head length: length of snout 25.2, length of barbel 4.6. Colora- tion brown, darker above, the unpaired fins of the same color as the dor- sum, first dorsal fin black above with a white margin; lateral line darker than body, with a row of pale spots along it; the pores of the mucous canals оп the sides of the head are dark. The greatest length to 40cm. (1 specimen), DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean at the coasts of North America from Cape Fear to Cape Cod, more seldom to Halifax (Nova Scotia). BIOLOGY. Not studied. Keeps at the bottom at considerable depths, not found along the shores at shallow depths. Spawns, judging from the occurrence of the females with ripened eggs, in August—young 8.35mm in length, mostly during summer, COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE none. COMPARATIVE NOTES. By the form of the skull and especially by the size and outline of the lateral edges of the forward end of the sphenotic to the posterior end of the wing-like process of the opisthotic when the skull is viewed from above, this species considerably differs from the other two species of its genus, which were studied osteologically. Skull of specimen 10.3 cm long is absolutely identical to that of a larger fish (length of skele- ton 21.4cm) figured in Table XXIX. Besides, there are several external differentiating characters (dark lateral line, absence of elongated rays from the first dorsal fin, number of transverse rows of scales and some others) by which this species is very difficult to confuse with any other spe- cies of the genus. * For the first time all doubts are removed as to the presence of an oil droplet in the egg. ** According to Hildebrandt and Cable, I D 8-9, ПР 46-51, А 43-49, scales 89-97. 112 2. Urophycis chuss (Walbaum)* (Tables XXX, LXIX) Blennius chuss Walbaum in: Artedi, Gen. pisc., 1792:186 (secundum Schépf). — Enchelyopus americanus Bloch ed. Schneider, Syst. icht., 1801:53 (secundum Schépf).— Gadus longipes Mitchill, Trans. Lit. Philos. Soc. М. Y., I, 1815:372, +. I, Е. 4 (New York). — Phycis marginatus Rafinesque, Amer. Month. Mag., 1818, Jan.:205 (alongthe shores of North America). — Phycis filamentosus Storer, Mem. Amer. Acad. Art. a. Sci.(n. s.), VI, Il, 1858:367, +. XXIX, f. 4. — Phycis tinca Kaup, Wiegm. Arch. Naturg. , 1858:89 (North America). — Phycis chuss Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , (1863), 1864:237 (bibliography). — Urophycis chuss Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М. America, Ш, 1898: 2555, f. 902 (bibliography); Bigelow a. Welsh, Fish. gulf Maine, 1925:447, f. 220 (biology, distribution); Fraser a. Brunner, Proc. В. Irish Acad. , XLII B, 1925:319 (coast of Ireland); Hildebrandt a. Cable, Bull. Bureau Fisher. , XLVIII, 1938:612, fig. 123-127, 129, 131, 133-135 (southward to North Carolina, description of eggs, larvae). ТО 10, ПО 56-59, A 51-56, Р 16, gill-rakers 16-18, scales 105-115%**, vertebrae 48. Mucous cavity not closed in front, anterior end of the front- als covers from above more than half the lateral ethmoids, the part of the skull behind the anterior end of the sphenotic is shorter than the part of the skull in front of the anterior end of the sphenotic, the hind ends of the opis- thotic not reaching the posterior end of the basioccipital. The interorbital space is broad, 16.7-17.1% of head length. Eyes of considerable size, 24.9-28.4% of head length. Jaws short, upper jaw 43.9-45.6%, lower 51.8-— 52.4% of head length. Caudal peduncle deep and shortened, its depth 3.6 -— 4.5%, length 3.9-5.1% of body length. Pelvic fins elongate, generally reaching past the origin of the anal fin, but sometimes terminating before it, constituting 23.4-30.4% of body length. First dorsal fin higher than the second, its third elongated ray constituting 15.4-17.3% of body length. An- terior ends of second dorsal and anal fins are in the form of angles slightly rounded at the top. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 34.4-37.3, antedorsal distance 23.1-24.4, pectoral fin 13.3-14.8, base of first dorsal fin 7.5-8.0, base of second dorsal fin 55,5-57.2, base of anal fin 45.5-48.9, length of head 19.6-20.9, length of snout 29.0-—30.6, length of barbel 7.0- 9.5. The back and sides of body are reddish or olive-brownish, the back sometimes almost black, the lateral line is pale and without white spots, belly and lower part of head white; grayish or yellowish unpaired fins are the same color as back; pelvic fins pale, pinkish or yellowish. Reaches 75cm and above 1 meter, but generally smaller (4 specimens). DISTRIBUTION. The Atlantic Ocean along the coasts of North America from Newfoundland Bank to Chesapeake Bay, occasionally to North Caroli- na (Kitty Hawk). Indicated west of Ireland. BIOLOGY. Keeps together with U. tenuis, however not everywhere, as in some places one species predominates in the catch while in other pla- ces the other species predominates. It is normally found in places with soft muddy bottoms, more seldom on sandy or shell bottoms, but never on rocky bottoms. The immature fishes live along the coasts at comparatively shallow depths (4—6 meters); the adults depart for deeper waters, not less than 35 meters, generally 110-130 meters. Cases are known when they were found at depths of over 550 meters. Apparently does not undertake distant migrations, except seasonal movements in the fall to lesser depths * At the coasts of North America, squirrel-hake. ** According to Hildebrandt and Cable, ID 9-11, II D 56-61, А 52-56, scales 104-112. 113 110 toward the coasts, in summer from the coasts to greater depths. It does not enter the mouths of rivers and greatly freshened water. Feeds mainly on small crustaceans (amphipods, shrimps, etc. ), fish (herring, flatfish, mackerel and others). Distinguished by very rapid growth which can be seen from the following figures: Males Females First Year 17.5 ст 18.5 ст Зесопа Уеаг 33.0 ст 36.0 ст Third Year 38.5cm 44.5cm Spawning generally takes place at the beginning of summer, commencing in spring and continuing into the fall, Apparently, like many other gadoids, this species comes for spawning to shallower depths than those which it gen- erally inhabits. Spawning conditions not studied. As in other species of the subfamily eggs have an oil globule. Immediately after it is shed the egg has a few small colorless cil globules which coalesce into one soon after fertilization. COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE quite considerable; annual catch, together with U. tenuis, varies from 90 to 160 thousand metric centners, COMPARATIVE NOTES. This species, besides the number of external characters, differs more distinctly from the preceding species by the struc- ture of its skull, as may be seen from the figures in Tables ХХХ and XXX, Ph. filamentosus Storer, to judge by the description, is none other than U. chuss, which was very correctly pointed out by Gill(1.c.). As to Ph. aldrichii Bourne [Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc., (n.s,), I, 1889- 1890:310], which Bourne described as a new species only because it was difficult for him to definitely identify it, pointing out at the same time its nearness to Ph. americanussU. chuss, it is difficult to state anything definite. The only difference between it and U. chuss appears to be the absence of an elongate ray in the first dorsal, which could have been torn, because the two specimens from which this species was described were very greatly damaged. If this supposition is correct, appearence of individ- ual specimens of U. chuss at the shores of Ireland’is of great interest. 3. Urophycis floridanus (Bean et Dresel) (Table XXXI) Phycis floridanus Bean a. Dresel, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. , 1884:100 (Gulf of Mexico). — Urophy- cis floridanus Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М. America, Ш, 1898:2554; Hildebrandt a. Cable, Bull. Bureau Fisheries, XLVIII, 1938:612, figs. 128, 130, 137, 141 (from North Carolina to Pensaccla, des- cription of eggs and larvae). ID 12-13, I1D59, A 49-52, scales about 110*, vertebrae 50. In struc- ture the skull is similar to the preceding species. The interorbital space is broad, 17.8—20.4% of head length. Eyes comparatively small, 20.0-22.6% of head length. Jaws elongate, upper jaw 47.6-49.4, lower 51.8-52.4% of * According to Hildebrandt and Cable, I D 12-13, ПО 54-59, A 40-49, scales 110-120. 114 head length. Caudal peduncle deep and shortened, depth about 4.1-4.3, length 4.9-5.3% of body length. Pelvic fins in young specimens reach the origin of the anal fin, in adults they are shorter, constituting 27.4- 29.5% of body length. First dorsal fin has no elongate rays, its height 9.4-11.8% of body length. The posterior ends of the second dorsal and anal fins are slightly rounded at the tips. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 39.6-42.4, antedorsal distance 22.9-24.0, length of pectoral fin 14.3-15.1, base of first dorsal fin 7.4-8.5, base of second dorsal fin 49.9-52.2, base of anal fin 42.9-—44.6, head length 21.7-22.3. In per cent of head length: length of snout 25.2-25.7, length of barbel 16.0-17.4. Back brown or blu- ish, belly silvery, lateral line dark with a row of pale spots. Vertical fins pale brown, often with a darker border; first dorsal fin partially black without white edge. Length to 40mm (2 specimens). [Corrected by author to 144 шт. Author also adds—After Jordan and Evermann length to 19cm. ] DISTRIBUTION. From the Gulf of Mexico, where in the cold time of year it approaches the coasts of Florida at Pensacola, to North Carolina (Beaufort). 4. Urophycis tenuis (Mitchill)* (Tables XXXII, LXIX) Gadus tenuis Mitchill, Trans. Lit. Philos. Soc., М. У. 1815:372 (New York). — Phycis america- nus (non Bloch et Schneider) Storer, Mem. Amer. Acad. Art. a. Sci., (n.s.), VI, II, 1858:365, t. XXXIX, Е. 3. — Phycis dekayi Kaup, Wiegm. Arch. Naturg., 1858:89 (North America). — ?Phycis rostratus Giinther, Cat. fish. , IV, 1862:353 (without indicating locality, scales about 150). — Phycis tenuis Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , (1863), 1864:238 (critical remarks on synonymy). — Urophycis (Emphy- cis) tenuis Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М. America, Ш, 1898:2555, f. 901 (bibliography): Bigelow a. Welsh, Fisch. gulf Maine, 1925:446 (distribution, biology). ТО 10, ПО 55-59, А 47-49, P16, gill-rakers 15-16, scales 130-140, vertebrae 50. Mucous cavity locked in front, of considerable size, anteri- or edge of frontals covers more than half of the lateral ethmoid from above; part of the lateral edge of the skull behind the forward edge of the sphenotic to the end of the opisthotic is smaller than the part located anterior to it; posterior end of the opisthotic reaches the basioccipital. Interorbital space broad, 18.3-18.6% of head length. Eyes not large, 19.0-24.1% of head length. Jaws short, upper jaw 46.3-—47.6, lower 50.4—52.8% of head length. Caudal peduncle deep and elongate, its depth 4.5-5.0%, length 5.5-6.6% of body length. Pelvic fins generally short, scarcely reaching the origin of the anal fin, constituting 22.2-23.1% of body length. First dorsal fin high- er than the second, its third ray elongate, constituting 11.9-12.5% of body length. Posterior ends of second dorsal and anal fins slightly rounded at their tips. Percentages of body length: anteanal distance 41.1-42.6, ante- dorsal distance 24.6-25.5, length of pectoral fin 14.3-15.4, base of first dorsal fin 7.4-—7.5, of second dorsal fin 50.3-52.7, base of anal fin 41.1- 41.3, length of head 22.2-22.5. In per cent of head length: length of snout 24,5-28.6, length of barbel 5.0-6.9. Coloration greatly variable, dirty- or reddish-brown from above, the sides sometimes bronze, lateral line * Along the shores of North America, squirrel-hake. 115 2 pale, belly dirty- or yellowish-white with small black dots. Dorsal fins of the same coloration as back, anal—as belly, all with black edges; pelvic fins pale with yellowish tint. Reaches a great size, over 1 meter; however, the usual measurements do not exceed 70cm (3 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. Very closely coincides with the distribution of U. chuss, extending, however, from North Carolina somewhat farther to the south, BIOLOGY. With the exception of spawning, very similar to the biology of U. chuss and almost all said of that species could be referred to this, with the only difference that the ties are even closer with the muddy bottom. We know very little of propagation; it takes place, however, apparently at the end of winter and during early spring (to April). Conditions for spawn- ing, as well as for eggs and larvae, have not been studied. COMPARATIVE NOTES. This species differs from the preceding in ex- ternal characters by a greater anteanal distance, slightly smaller size of eyes, shorter snout, greater number of transverse rows of scales; the lat- ter characteristic seems to be the best of the external morphological, Whe pelvic fin of this species generally does not reach the origin of the anal, However, Bigelow and Welsh (1. c.) point out that in Ч. chuss, in which the pelvic fins generally extend farther back than the origin of the anal fin, there are specimens with pelvic fins not reaching the origin of the anal. Generally speaking, externally, U. tenuis and U. chuss are almost indistinguishabie and, as is pointed out by Bigelow and Welsh (1.с. 447), are not distinguishable by fishermen, Craniologically—the form of the skull with the mucous cavity closed in front—both species, however, differ very sharply; while we have no basis to presume that the fact of the locked mu- cous cavity is connected with the greater size this species sometimes at- tains because the mucous cavity is locked by a broad bridge in an examined specimen 12.9 ста in length. Besides, in Ph. phycis, which has closely adjoining lateral and median crests of the frontals, even the largest speci- mens (42.5 спа ш length) do not have a closed mucous cavity in front. Ph. americanus Storer, and Ph. dekayi Kaup have a somewhat longer snout than Ph. tinca Kaup. Therefore it is very possible that Ph. de- kayi is identical to this species, and Ph. tinca-—with the preceding one. 5. Urophycis brasiliensis (Kaup) (Tables XXXIII, LXIX) Phycis brasiliensis Каир, Wiegem. Arch. Naturg., 1858:88 (Montevideo). — Urophycis Ъга- siliensis Pozzi y Bordale, An. Soc. Cient. Argentina, CXX, 1, 1935:158 (from the coasts of Argentina). ID9, ПО 53-56, A 48-58, Р 17-18, gill-rakers 15, scales 135, ver- tebrae 47. Mucous cavity on the skull is closed in front, but of lesser size than in О. tenuis, anterior edge of lateral ethmoids extend somewhat forward from beneath the frontals, part of the lateral edge of the skull be- hind the anterior edge of the sphenotic to the end of the opisthotic is great- er than the part located forward of it, posterior end of the opisthotic ex- tends back to the posterior end of the basioccipital. Interorbital space broad, 17.1-17.4% of head length. Eyes not large, 15.9-16.5% of head length. Jaws short, upper jaw 45.2-47.5, lower jaw 53.1-53.3% of head 116 113 length. Caudal peduncle deep and shortened, its depth 4.3-4.4, length 4.5-— 4.6% of body length. Pelvic fins long, extending back to middle of anal fin, constituting 45.0—46.7% of body length. Third dorsal fin ray greatly elong- ate, constituting 24.5—26.7% of body length. Barbel long, 13.9-14.5% of head length. Posterior ends of second dorsal and anal fins slightly rounded at the tips. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 43.5-—44.4, ante- dorsal distance 23.6—25.0, pectoral fin 12.7-13.0, base of first dorsal fin 5.4—5.7, base of second 56.3—57.9, base of anal fin 40.7-44.0, head length 21.4—21.8. In per cent of head length: length of snout 26.4—27.5. ‘Pectoral, pelvic, dorsal and anal fins and lower part of body with brown dots. Length, judging by examined specimens, about 25-30 сш (2 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean along the coasts of South America be- tween 35° and 40° south latitude. BIOLOGY. Not studied. Keeps at depths of about 50 meters. COMPARATIVE NOTES. Craniologically this species is very close to U. tenuis, differing, however, by the smaller size of the mucous cavity, and more elongated backward and sharpened wing-like processes of the opisthotic. This differentiates both of the examined skulls of U. brasili- ensis from two skulls of Ц. tenuis. A number of externomorphologi- cal distinctions (longer third ray of first dorsal fin and, in particular, long- er pelvic fins, longer barbel, etc. ), together with the diagnostic osteologi- cal data speak for specific recognition of this geographically very interest- ing form. Due to the more restricted mucous chamber this species must be placed in the classification after U. tenuis. 6. Urophycis cirratus (Goode et Bean) Phycis cirratus Goode a. Bean, Oceanic ichth., 1896:358, f. 310 (Gulf of Mexico). — Urophycis cirratus Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. М. a. М. America, Ш, 1898:2553, {. 899. ТО 10, ПО 66, A 57, scales 93, First dorsal fin has no elongated rays. Pelvic fins reach beyond the origin of the anal fin, sometimes as far as the middle of it. Only a few specimens are known, Close to Ч. regius, differentiated by a greater number of rays in the second dorsal and anal fins and by longer pelvic fins (after Goode and Bean), DISTRIBUTION. All known specimens were caught in the northern part of the Gulf of Mexico at great depths, 400 to 600 meters. 7. Urophycis earlli (Bean) Phycis earlli Bean, Proc. Ч. $. Nat. Mus., Ш, 1880:69 (Charleston, South Carolina). — Urophycis earlli Jordan а. Evermann, Fish. М. a. М. America, Ш, 1898:2554, f. 900; Hildebrandt a. Cable, Bull. Bureau Fisher. , XLVIII, 1938:612, f. 139 (along the coasts of North and South Carolina, descriptions of eggs and larvae). ТО 10, ПО 60-63, A 53-54, Р 15, scales about 155*, First dorsal fin without elongate ray. Pelvic fins almost reach anal opening. Species very * According toHildebrandt and Cable, I D 8-9, IID 54-63, А 50-56, scales 153-175. Coloration from dark brown to almost black, sometimes with pale spots, lateral line not dark and without pale spots, ver- tical fins almost black, first dorsal fin without white edges. 117 114 close to U. regius but differs by having considerably smaller scales. By the count of scales it is close to U. tenuis but has no elongate rays in the first dorsal fin. Length to 36 ста. (after Bean). DISTRIBUTION, Atlantic Ocean at the coasts of North and South Caro- lina (from Charleston to Beaufort). 8. Genus LOTA (Cuvier) Oken "Les lottes" Cuvier, Régne animal, éd., I, II, 1817:215 (Type: Gadus lota L.=Lota lota lota. —Lota Oken, "Isis,* 1817:1182 (Туре: С. lota=Lota lota lota, secundum Cuvier), Two dorsals and one anal fin, in first dorsal fin 9-14 rays, second long with more than 65 rays. Pelvic fins of normal structure. Second dorsal and anal fins closely touching the caudal fin. Lower jaw shorter than upper, teeth small and bristle-like, placed in a broad strip on the premaxillary, dentary and head of vomer. Head of vomer well developed, its rear ends are pulled back in the shape of a horseshoe, One barbel at each anterior nostril, Lateral line in the forward part of the body slightly curved and lo- cated above the middle of the body, straight beyond the origin of the second dorsal fin and running uninterrupted along the middle of the body almost to the end of the anal fin, On the head only pit organs. Mucous cavity of con- siderable size, almost closed in front by the close approximation of the ed- ges of the middle and lateral crests of the frontals. On the sides of the skull deep foramina for the facial nerve with the edges coming close toge- ther in front. Skull broad and low. SKELETON. The skull from the side (A) is low, its greatest height is contained about 4 times in the length of its base. The base of the skull is straight, only the rear end of the basioccipital is somewhat curved down- ward, Head of vomer extends downward, its rear end reaching far back, The upper profile of the skull is almost straight, only slightly curved over the prootic, gradually descending toward the forward end of the skull. Crests well developed only in the rear portion of the supraoccipital, reach- ing far back beyond the rear of the base of the basioccipital; on the forward portion of the supraoccipital between the parietals and on the frontals there are по crests. Forward edge of mesethmoid convex, almost vertical, placed at almost a right angle to its upper edge. The orbital space, owing to fusions of the parasphenoid with the processes of the lower surface of the frontals in its forward portion, is small and narrow, its height is con- tained about 3 times in the length of its base. The facial nerve exits from the cranial box through a deep foramen in the forward edge of the prootic, equal in size to ine orbital space; the edges of this foramen in front are brought closer to the extension of the alisphenoid from above and the up- ward projecting process of the parasphenoid from below. The foramen of the glossopharyngeal nerve on the opisthotic is large, placed in a crevice- like cavity on the forward part of the opisthotic. The skull from above (B) is quite broad in the rear, gradually narrowing toward the front; its great- est width is contained 1510 2 times in the length of its base. The sides of the skull are limited by wavy lines, without deep notches or foramina and somewhat convergent anteriorly. The edges of the pterotic in back and 116 from the sides are rounded; there is a Small notch in front. Between the sphenotic and the frontals on either side of the skull there is a small notch; in the interorbital space the edges of the frontals are slightly notched, the lateral ethmoids extend considerably from beneath the frontals in front and on the sides. The forward edge of the mesethmoid extends over the forward edge of the vomer. The crests over the sensory canals on the pterotic are паггсм, broader оп the frontals, their edges quite closely adjacent to these bones. The mucous cavity is not very deep, its edges well limited from the sides; the edges of the middle and lateral crests of the frontals in front are very close to each other, almost closing it in front but not forming canals which are closed from above forward of it. The foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve on the parietal is covered by a small tri- angular shaped crest* from above. From beneath (C) the head of the vo- mer is horseshoe shaped, greatly stretched laterally and posteriorly, co- vered in its entirety with small closely spaced teeth. The parasphenoid is broad, its lower edge for its entire length is rounded, the shaft of the vo- mer is comparatively narrow. The skull from the rear (D) has the supra- occipital crest hardly extending above it, the crests above have small la- teral growths on each side somewhat below its sharpened upper edge. The lateral walls of the cranial box have step-like ridges in the region of the quite convex prootic. The suborbitals are similar in length as well as in width or are somewhat broader. The lower process of the hyomandibular is broad and short; the opercular process and the preopercular process are of equal length with the lower process, but much narrower than the same; the preopercular process is located in the middle between the lower and the opercular processes, in the form of a crest extending forward across the lower process. The posttemporals are of considerable size, the upper fork almost twice as long as the lower. The postcleithrum is greatly curved at the upper end and thin for its entire stretch. The operculum is narrow and elongate, blunt at the upper end with both lower ends sharp; its lowest edge has a notch. The urohyale is short and broad. The parapophyses are thin, quite long. Description given from 5 skeletons of L. lota lota and one of L. lota maculosa, DISTRIBUTION. One species in fresh waters of Europe, northern Asia and North America, falling into three subspecies (Figure 18). In the fossil state it is known from the Lower Pliocene. COMPARATIVE NOTES. By external characteristics and its skeleton Lota is close to the genus Molva and forms with it a group analogous to the genera Phycis and Urophycis, Gaidropsarus, Enchelyopus and Ciliata and others. The systematic locationofthe forms of nalim had been indefinite for a long time: some authors consider the nalim found in North America as an independent species; others—identical to the Europeo-Asiatic. L.S, Berg had segregated the nalim of North America, River Anadyr'and adjacent ri- ver systems into the subspecies L. lota maculosa. Later Hubbs and Schultz described a third subspecies of nalim(L. lota leptura) from the rivers of Alaska and northwestern Canada, and here they referred the 119 во . \ \S \ w \S A NN es zie AAC Ae | ANS о we a. tN ere Ree Е НИ SN | 1 и 120 FIGURE 18. Distribution of the genus Lota 1-L. lota lota; 2-L. lota leptura; 3-L. lota maculosa, 117 nalim from eastern Siberia to the River Kolyma. This form, according to their data, differs from L. lota lota and L. lota maculosa basical- ly by its more elongate caudal peduncle, while the depth of the caudal ped- uncle was measured by them from the notches between the second dorsal and caudal fins and between the anal and caudal. Below are quoted the re- sults of the measurements of nalims from Europe and western Siberia (L. lota lota), Kolyma and Апаауг'(Т.. lota leptura) and North America (L. lota maculosa)*, То Еа ЕТ leptura maculosa In percent of head length: Interorbital space и... ah 5 : 19.0-26.5 21.4—27.3 25.5—29.7 In percent of body length: Antedorsal distance. - - . 29.8—36.2 33.3—36.7 37.4-37.8 Anteanal distance ... 42.1—48.4 44.3—46.9 49.2-50.8 Base of second dorsal . . 45.3—48.7 41.1-46.5 40.4—40.9 Base of апа! .. . .. « 38.5—42.6 34.9—40.0 33.4—34.2 Depth of caudal peduncle . 3.8— 5.8 3.8— 4.4 4.3- 5.0 Length of caudal peduncle . 6.3- 8.4 7.8- 9.0 7.6- 9.1 Length of pectoral fin. ео... . 11.9-14.6 10.4-12.9 11.8-12.0 In percent of length of caudal peduncle: Depth of caudal peduncle . . . . - 50.0—76.7 47.2551.21 | 55:056:0 Number of specimens examined . . « « ° 31 7 2 Г. lota maculosa has a much broader interorbital space, bases of second dorsal and anal fins placed somewhat farther back and shorter. The hiatus in some of these and other characters between this form and both others is due to the small number of specimens examined from North Ame- rica, Osteologically L. lota maculosa differs as from L. lota lo- ta, sofrom Г. lota leptura Буа broader skull. This distinction be- tweenthemis analogous to the distinction between the subspecies of а num- ber of cods (Molva dipterygia dipterygia-M. dipterygia e- longata, Trisopterus minutus minutus-T. minutus cape- lanus, Gadus morhua morhua-G. morhua орас апа С. mor- hua macrocephalus anda group of others) and bears witness to the subspecies distinctness of L. lota maculosa. The distinctions of L. lota leptura from L. lota lota inthis basic morphological charac- ter are apparently none**, The differences in them are brought down ba- sically to the structure of the caudal peduncle and to the somewhat shorter bases of the second dorsal and anal fins in Г. lota leptura, by the length of which this form occupies an intermediate position among the others. With this, any difference in the depth and length of the caudal peduncle, ex- pressed in per cent of body length, is not noticed; they are sharply noted in the index of the depth of the caudal peduncle expressed in percent of its * All the fish examined are only adults over 300mm in length. ** The author had opportunity to acquaint himself with the paper of Hubbs and Schultz only after the war [World War II], a number of years after the completion of this work. Therefore the author had no оррог- tunity to study the osteology of L. lota leptura. 121 118 length, There are no differences in the length of the pectoral fin, according to data furnished by Hubbs and Schultz as well as by our own data, between the three forms of nalim. The pectoral fin of adult Г. lota maculosa often does not reach the vertical of the origin of the first dorsal fin due to the prolonged antedorsal length in this form, while it is often observed in the other two forms (see figure L. lota lota, Table IV). If no distinc- tions in osteological characters between L. lota leptura and L, lota lota are found then perhaps it would be more correct to consider this form not as a subspecies but just as a natio of the latter. One of these na- tiones (but not a subspecies) appears apparently L. lota kamensis Markun from the River Kama, but presently there are no bases to segregate this form. The differences observed in the number of pyloric caeca re- quire confirmation from a greater amount of material from western Europe and eastern Siberia; in other characteristics of the nalim from the River Kama, no distinctions are observed according to Markun's data, as well as from specimens in the collections of the zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences. Lower limits of variation in number of rays in the second dor- sal (60-85) and in the anal (44-81) fins in nalims from the River Svir' examined by Makarova (Berg, 1. c.), give rise to doubt because sucha number of rays in the nalim has never been reported by anyone else. The number of gill-rakers counted by Makarova, apparently not in the outer row, but in both — outer and inner — caused her to give figures doubly ex- ceeding (13-20 as against 5-10) the normal number of gill-rakers in the outer row of first gill arch. Diagnostic Key to the Subspecies 1 (4), Interorbital space narrow, 19-6-27.3% of head length. Antedorsal distance 29-8-36.7%, anteanal 42.1-48.4% of body length. 2 (3). Caudal peduncle elongate, its depth 50.0-76.7% of its length. Length of base of second dorsal fin 45.3-48.7% of length of body. Europe and Siberia to Kolyma.... wi la, №. Fota hota Wat ) 3 (2), Caudal peduncle short, its depth 47. 2 a8 29 of its length. Length of base of second dorsal 41.1-46.5% of body length. Eastern Siberia, Alaska and northwestern Canada ; <0 16. 1... оса а Hubbs eau Schulte 4 (1). и Е broad, 25.5-—29.7% of head length. Antedorsal distance 37.4-37.8%, anteanal — 49.2-50.8 % of body length. North AMEricaws sp oa с ole les ky shota imacu ho sia ‘(hesueum) *1а. Lota lota lota (Linné)—Nalim (Tables IV, XXXIV, LXIX) Gadus lota Linné, Syst. nat., ed. Х, 1758:255 (Europe); Pallas Zoogr. rosso-asiat., Ш, 1811:201 (distribution). — Enchelyopus lota Bloch ed. Schneider, Syst. ichth., 1801:52. — Lota vulgaris Kessler, Ryby Sp. Ryb., 1864:63. — Molva lota Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828:192. — Lota com- munis Rapp., Fische Bodensees, 1854:36. — Lota linnei Malm. Géteb, Bohusl. Fauna,. 1877:491. — Lota lota Smitt, Scand. fish., 1, 1893:532, pl. XXVI, f. 1 (ex parte: Europe, northern Asia, biblio- graphy). — Lota vulgaris var. obensis Anikin, Izv. Tomsk. Univens., XXII, 1902:108 (Ob). — Lota lota kamensis Markun, Izv. Permsk. biol. inst., X, 6, 1936:211 (Kama; biometry, biology). — Lota lota lota Hubbs a. Schultz, Occas. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 431, 1941:17 (comparison with other forms). 122 119 DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Wesenberg-Lund, Int. Rev. ges. Hydrob. Hydrogr., II, 1909:426 (eggs); Gottberg, Finnl. Fiskerier, I, 1912:146 (age); Nordquist, Ark. Zool. , Bd. 9, 1914:20 (larvae); Domrachev and Pravdin, Ryby Ilmen УоШоу 1926:219 (Ilmen, Volhov. , Msta, Vitebsk lakes); Mori, Journ. Chosen Nat. Hist. Soc. , 1928, 6:20 (headwaters of the.River Yalu, Korea); Scheuring, Handb. Binnenfischerei Mitteleu- ropas, ПТ, 3, 1929:101; Berg, Ryby presnykhvod, II, 1933:747 (bibliography, distribution); Derzhavin, tr. azerb. otd. zakavkazsk. fil. akad. nauk, VII, 1934:120 (lower parts of the Rivers Sefidrud and Kury); Probatov, Mat. nauchno-promysl. obsled, karsk. губу 1 г. Кага, 1934:89 (Kara River, rare); Radchenko, tr. vsesoyuzn. nauchnoissled. inst. morsk. rybn. khob. i okeanogr., II, 1935:84 (Teletzk Lake, biology, growth); Lukin, tr. tatarsk. otb. vesesoyuzn. nauchnoissled. inst. ozern. 1 rechi. rybn. khoz, II, 1935:75; Menshichov and Rebin- vykh, tr. permsk. biologic. nauchnoissled. inst. VII, 3-4, 1937: 170 (Irtish, growth); Lukin and Lyakhov. tr. obshch. est. Kazansk. univ., LV, 1-2, 1937:127 (sizes, sex ratio); Ostroumoy, tr. polyarn. kom. dkad. nauk, 30, 1937:82 (Pyasina River); Modestov, sborn. nauchn. stud. rabot mosk. gos. univ. , biology, 1939:93 (Moscow River, biology); Burmakin, tr. nauchno-issled. inst. polyarn. zemled. , zhivotn. i promysl. khoz. , ser. promysl., khoz., 10, 1940:44 (Gulf of Ob and branches of the middle and southern portions of the river); Logashchev, ibid., 11, 1940:55 (Lake Melkoe); Belykh, ibid. :92 (Lake Lama); Kiselev, ibid., 15, 1941:57 (Gydansk Bay and rivers flowing into it, growth); Dmitriev, ibid., 16, 1941:20 (lower Yenesei); Mikhin, ibid. : 64 (Khatanga River, scarce in the Bay). ТО (9-10) 11-14, ПО 68-85, А 63-82, Р 18-21, V 6-8, gill-rakers 5-10 (12), vertebrae 59-63*. Skull narrow, its greatest width contained al- mosttwice initslength. Interorbital space narrow, 19.6-26.5 % of headlength. Antedorsal distance 29.8—36.2 % of body length, anteanal distance 42.1-48.4% ofheadlength. Bases of unpairedfins elongate, base of second dorsal fin 45,3- 48.7%, base of anal fin 38.5-42.6% of body length. Depth of caudal peduncle 50.0-76.7% of its length or the length of the peduncle exceeds its depth by 1.36-2.00 times. In per cent of body length: pectoral fin 11.9-14.6, pelvic fin 7.4-9.8, base of first dorsal fin 6.8—9.8, its height 5.3-7.7, depth of caudal peduncle 3.8-5.8, its length 6.3-8.4, head length 17.7-19.7. In per cent of head length: length of snout 28,5-31.7, diameter of eye 12.3- 14.4, length of upper jaw 39.4-42.9, length of lower jaw 49.2-54,2, length of barbel 20.0-26.6. Coloration quite variable, generally dark brownish ог blackish-gray with large pale spots on the sides and on the paired fins. There are distinguishahle gray, yellow, black and other variations in color- ation depending upon habitat**, Reaches a length of over one meter, weight to 24 kilograms. DISTRIBUTION. Fresh-waters of Europe and northern Asia westward to the eastern part of Great Britain (not found in Scotland and Ireland), ba- sins of Loire and Seine Rivers and in western Switzerland, In western and central Europe south in the Po River, basin of the Danube and perhaps in the Fessali; on the Iberian, Appenine and Balkan Peninsulas it is absent. Rivers running into the northern portions of the Black, Azov and Caspian Seas; seldom found in lower parts of the Kura and Sefidrud Rivers. None in Asia Minor, on the Caucasus or in central Asia. Found in all river ba- sins of the Baltic and White Seas and farther east to and including the Lena; Baikal and rivers entering into it (Selenga and its tributaries); Amur in its * According to Markun, ГР 10-16 (12.5), II D 70-93 (79), A 69-85 (7.5), vertebrae 61—66 (63.5), pyloric caeca 21—67 (41). According to Hubby and Schultz, 60—63 vertebrae. ЖЖ On this see: Sabaneev. -Zhizn'ryb i rybolovstrvo na zaural'skikh ozerakh (Life of Fish and Fishing in the Trans-Ural Lakes), 135. 1874. 123 120 entirety, Ussuri and Sunguri, on Sakhalin, on the Shantar Islands, in the Ud River, in the upper parts of the Yalu (Basin of the Yellow Sea). It also oc- curs in the Bay of Finland and in brackish sections of the sea. BIOLOGY. In contrast with all other representatives of the family this is exclusively a fresh-water fish, very seldom found in even slightly salty sea waters. It lives primarily in rivers and lakes with clear water and rocky bottom, creeping in crevices and holes between stones and underneath banks; shows greatest activity at lower temperatures in winter; during the summer leads a very motionless form of life (according to some indications it goes into a comatose state) and is seldom found, due to which this period of its life is almost unstudied. Beginning in the fall, it is caught in consi- derable numbers in September and October and the catch continues through the winter through the end of April or the beginning of May. Feeding is chiefly on amphipods, larvae of some insects and only adults—partially on some small fish. Spawning occurs in winter, commencing in January and continuing through February and ends in March; occasional specimens some- times have adult sexual products from October. Spawning apparently takes place several times. Fertility is very great—in large fish over 3 million eggs, though usually less, in medium-size fish—300 to 400 thousand eggs. Full adult size is reached in 3 to 4 years, occasional specimens mature at the age of 1 to 2 years. Young in the Pyasina River keep to the mouths of tributary springs; in Lake Teletskoe young were caught ata depth of 120 me- ters. Growth in various water basins occurs unevenly. In the Kama and Volga (near Kazan') andin Finland (Lake Kilpijarvi) the following measure- ments were taken in different years (all lengths of the body in millimeters): COMMERCIAL VALUE very small. From 16.18 (1940) to 18.76 (1937) thousands of metric centner were caught in 1936-1941 in USSR waters. The basic mass of this catch was produced in rivers and lakes of Siberia (on the average 16.9 thousand metric centner), mainly from the Ob (on the average 13.5 thousand metric centner). *Ib,. Lota lota leptura Hubbs et Schultz—Eastern Siberian and western American nalim (Table IV) Lota lota maculosa (non LeSueur) Berg, Ryby presnykh vod, II, 1933:750, Figure 721 (ex parte: Anadyr River, Penzhina River, North America). — Lota lota (поп Г.) Berg, 1, с. (ex parte: Kolyma River); Drjagin, Tr. Sov. izuch. proizv. sil, Akad. Nauk, 5, 1933:55 (Kolyma River, biology, catch). — Lota lota maculosa (поп LeSueur) Agapov, Tr. Nauchno-issled. inst. pol. zemled., zhivotnov. i promysl. Кроу. , ser. promysl. Кроу. , 16, 1941:97 (Anadyr River). — Гота lota leptura Hubbs a. Schultz, Occas. papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, 431, 1941:17 (description, synonymy). 124 ID 10-12, ПО 69-73, А 65-69, gill-rakers 7-12*. Skull narrow аз in the typical form of this species. Interorbital space narrow, 21.4-27.3% of head length. Antedorsal distance 33.3-36.7%, anteanal distance 44.3-46,9% of body length. Base of second dorsal fin shortened, 41.1-46.5% of body length, base of anal fin 34.9—40.0% of body length. Depth of caudal peduncle 47.2—51.2% of its length or length of peduncle 1.92—2.11 greater than it. In per cent of body length: pectoral fin 11.8—12.0, pelvic fin 7.2-7.5, base of first dorsal fin 5.7-6.3, its’height 4.2—4.9, depth of caudal peduncle 3.8—4.4, its length 7.8-—9.0, length of head 18.3-19.8. In per cent of head length: length of snout 28.3-35.7, diameter of eye 9.9-15.5, length of upper jaw 37.5—41.3, length of lower jaw 48.4—51.2, length of barbel 17.9-21.2. Aver- age dimensions in the Anadyr'River 53cm, weight 1 kilogram, but reaches a length to 90cm and weight to 5 kilograms, in Kolyma River 12 to 16 kilo- grams and more. DISTRIBUTION, Fresh waters of northwestern Canada, Alaska, and eastern Siberia. The Yukon River system in Canada and Alaska and rivers of Alaska (Kowak, Naknek). Anadyr'River and apparently rivers of the ba- sin of Bering Sea from Anadyr'Bay to Bay of Korf, Penzhina River in the basin of the Sea of Okhotsk, Kolyma River, and the new Siberian Islands**, Indigirka River and the Yana this or typical subspecies. BIOLOGY, Studied very little. In the Anadyr'River swims upstream for spawning in December, seldom enters bays; one specimen known from pre- mouth section of the Anadyr! In the Kolyma River feeds оп golyan, kolyush- ka, yersh, nalim, konek, chir, and karins. [Translator's note: These are various species of minnows, stickleback, whitefish, burbot and gray- ling. ] COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE in our waters minimal, Comparatively small in Alaska and Canada. In the Kolyma River produced up to 3,719.7 metric centner(12%oftotalcatch), in the Anadyr—about 8 thousand pieces (approximately 80 metric centner), *le. Lota lota maculosa (LeSueur)—American nalim (Table XXXV) Gadus maculosa LeSueur, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., I, 1817:83 (Lake Erie). - Gadus com- pressus LeSueur,l. c.:84 (Connecticut River). — Gadus lacustris Mitchill, Amer. Monthly Mag. , И, 1818:244 (Lake Sebago). — Molva maculosa LeSueur, Mém. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris, V, 1819:159, pl. 16. — Molva huntia LeSueur, 1. с. :161 (Connecticut River). — Lota brosmina Storer, Boston Journ. Nat. Hist., IV, 1839:58, t. V, f. 1. (Lake Winnipiscogee). — Lota maculosa DeKay, New York fauna, Fishes, 1842:284, pl. 52, f. 168. Lota compressa DeKay, 1. с. :285, pl. 78, f. 244, 245. — Lota inornata DeKay, 1. c.:283, pl. 45, Е. 145 (Hudson River). — Lota lota Smitt, Scand. fish., I, 1893:532, pl. XXVI, f. 1 (ex parte: North America). — Lota maculosa Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. N. a. М. America, Ш, 1898:2550 (bibliography, synonymy, ex parte). — Lota lota maculosa Berg, Ryby presnykh vod, II, 1933:750, fig. 271 (ex parte: North America). — Lota maculosa Cahn, Copeia, 3, 1936:163 (spawning). Lota lota maculosa Hubbs а. Schwartz, Occas. papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michi- gan, 431, 1941:17 (comparison with other forms). ТО 11, ПО 69-73, А 66-69, gill-rakers 7-10, vertebrae вот. The skull is broader, its greatest width less than 15 times in its length, antedor- sal and anteanal distances greater, the bases of the unpaired fins shorter, * According to Hubbs and Schultz, 63—66 vertebrae. *k No. 14501 of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences, one specimen in length 935 mm. 1 According to Hubbs and Schultz 61—65. 125 121 than in the basic form. Interorbital space 25.5-29.7% of head length. Аще- dorsal distance 37.4-37.8%, anteanal distance 49.2-—50.8% of body length. Base of second dorsal fin 40.4-40.9%, base of anal fin 33.4-34.2% of body length. Height of caudal peduncle’55.0-56.0% of its length or the length of the peduncle exceeds its depth 1.79-1.80 times. In per cent of body length: pectoral fin 11. 8-12.0, pelvic fin 8.1-8.6, base of first dorsal fin 4.9-7.1, its height 4.4-5.2, depth of caudal peduncle 4.3-5.0, its length 7.6-9.1, length of head 19,7-20.7. In per cent of head length: length of snout 29.7- 30.3, diameter of eye 12.7-13.1, length of upper jaw 42.7-45.0, length of lower jaw 52.0-52.2, length of barbel 18.9-25.5. Coloration and measure- ments, same аз inthe typical form. (4 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. Fresh waters of North America in the basin of the At- lantic Ocean northward from North Carolina, New England, Great Lakes basin and St. Lawrence River, Labrador, lakes and rivers tributary to James Bay and apparently directly around Hudson Bay. In the MacKenzie and Fraser River systems, Hudson Bay tributaries, and in the Rocky Moun- tains specimens are not identified, and according to the classification table, are intermediate between this form and L. lota leptura. BIOLOGY. Studied very little. In summer it lives at depths as does the typical subspecies. During the spawning season it approaches lesser depths from 0.5 to 2 meters in lakes and shallow bays with sand or gravel bottoms, Spawning takes place from the middle of February, more often in the first decade, with temperature at 1.5°C at night. Males appear first at the spawning grounds. During the oviposition 10-12 fishes gather into a motile ball, A female 69.8cm in length contained 1,153 thousandeggs. During the egg laying period the fish usually does not eat. 9. Genus MOLVA Fleming Molva Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828:197 (Type: Gadus molva Linné). — Molva Smitt, Scand. fish. , I, 1893:52 (Туре: С. molva L.).—Lotta Risso, Hist. nat. Europ. mérid., Ш, 1826:217 (Type: С. elongatus Otto=M. dipterygia elongata). Two dorsals and one anal fin, first dorsal fin with 10 to 15 rays, in se- cond 60 to 80 and more rays. Pelvic fins of normal build, second dorsal and anal fins separated from the caudal fin by a narrow space, caudal fin rounded, Lower jaw shorter or longer than upper. Teeth strongly develop- ed on the head of vomer and on dentaries, placed in two rows; especially strongly developed, in the form of tusks, along the inner row; on the pre- maxillary more weakly developed, and placed in several rows. Head of vomer well developed, its rear ends in the shape of a horseshoe reaching backward, Forward nostrils without barbel, Lateral line slightly curved and located above the center axis of the body to the beginning of the second dorsal fin, continuing straight, uninterrupted almost to its end, with breaks after the end of the anal fin. Оп the head along the lateral line canals there are pores: 13 in the preoperculomandibular canal, 11 in the infraorbital canal, 3 in the supraorbital canal, and 1 in the supraorbital commissure. Mucous cavity not large, locked in front. On the sides of the skull a fora- men for the facial nerve. Skull narrow. 126 122 SKELETON. Skull in lateral view (A) elongate, very low, its greatest height contained about 5 times in the length of its base. The lower edge of the bones of the base of the skull are placed ina straight line, only the rear end of the basioccipital slightly curved downward. The head of the vomer reaches far back. The upper profile of the skull for its entire stretch is straight or slightly curved, gradually descending in front. The supraoccipi- tal crest is developed only in the rear portion above the exoccipitals, its rear end located at a considerable distance beyond the rear end of the basi- occipital. There is no crest on the forward portion of the supraoccipital between the parietals and the frontals. The mesethmoid in front has a small notch, gradually descending, slightly rounded at the top. The orbital space is elongate, low, its greatest height contained 3 to 5 times in the length of its base. The facial nerve exits from the cranial box through a foramen, limited in front by the anterior expansions of the parasphenoid process and the lower process of the frontals and partially by the alisphenoid. The large opening for the glossopharyngeal nerve is on the opisthotic. Skull very nar- row in rear (B), narrowing more in the interorbital regions (particularly in М. dipterygia elongata), its greatest width almost 25 times less than its length. Lateral edges of the rear section of the skull are limited by almost straight lines slightly convergent toward the center of the skull, with small notches in the forward portion of the pterotic and in the rear portion of the frontals. The edges of the frontals at approximately the cen- ter of the skull approach each other quite sharply, being almost parallel for the remainder of the stretch in front. The lateral ethmoids are greatly elongate in the lateral direction, and extend considerably from under the frontals on the sides and to a very great extent in front. The forward edge of the vomer projects from beneath the forward edge of the mesethmoid. The crests above the lateral line canals on the pterotic are narrow, wider on the frontals, their edges closely adjacent to these bones, and in one spot on each side they are connected to them, thereby partly locking the canal. Mucous cavity not big, shallow, closed in front by the fused edges of the me- dian and lateral crests, thereby forming a long canal in front of it, covered from above by a thin weak bone. From each side of the skull on the parie- tals there is a small elongate crest, on the rear end of which there is located a foramen for the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve. The edges of the head of the vomer on the skull from beneath (С) are greatly drawn backward in a horseshoe shape, on its entire stretch run two rows of sparse- ly placed teeth. The teeth on the inner row are greatly developed, in the outer row they are small. Parasphenoid and the head of the vomer are nar- row, their lower edge rounded. The skull from the rear (D) with the supra- occipital crest projecting slightly beyond its surface or above. The supra- occipital crest, with a small slight thickening along its upper edge, is flat from above. The suborbitals narrow, elongate. The lower process of the hyomandibular short and broad; the opercular and preopercular processes are of the same length as the lower, both thin; the preopercular process is located between the opercular and the lower; in front it continues in the form of crests across the lower process. The posttemporal is of quite consider- able dimensions, its lower fork half the length of the upper. Postcleithrum thin, curved at its upper end. Operculum broad, blunt at its upper end, with a notch along its lower edge. Urohyale thin, elongate. 127 The description is given from 2 skeletons of М. molva, one М. dip- terygia dipterygia andone M. dipterygia elongata. DISTRIBUTION. Two species and one subspecies along the shores of Europe in the Atlantic Ocean; western section of the Barents Sea and in the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 19), In the fossil state from the Lower Miocene deposits, Pseudolota, a closely related genus, is known. COMPARATIVE NOTES. By the majority of investigated characteristics of both species and subspecies of the genus Molva they are placed ina se- ries in which, by all characteristics, M. dipterygia dipterygia oc- cupies the intermediate space between the other two forms. With that, the number of vertebrae, rays in both dorsal and anal fins, the bases of these fins and the diameter of the eye in the series from М. dipterygia elon- gata to M. molva recede; the antedorsal and anteanal distances, the depth of the caudal peduncle and the width of the skull increase. Both spe- cies of the genus, besides the externo-morphological differences, also dif- fer distinctly osteologically, as is seen from Tables XXXVI-XXXVIIL. FIGURE 19, Distribution of the genus Molva 1-M. molva;2-M, dipterygia dipterygia; 3-M. dipterygia elongata. Diagnostic Key to the Species and Subspecies 1 (2). Lower jaw shorter than the upper. ТО 14-15, ПО 62-65, А 58-61, vertebrae 63=65 2: of) Bd сы .iedale ПИ. pe dv angi) 2(1). Lower jaw projects forward. 128 124 3 (4). 1D 12-14, ПО 74-78, A 72-74, vertebrae 76-79. Atlantic Ocean northward from Ireland. BEAL AM ORTON MMM Ch eG Tee NERO Per ee ame TAH MMi pha etree palin OS caplet .2а. М.. dipterygia dipterygia (Penn. ) 4 (3). ТО 10-12, ПО 76-83, A 75-78, vertebrae 80-84. Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean southward from Ireland В . 26. М. dipterygia elongata (Otto) *1. Molva molva (Linné)—Sea Pike (Tables V, XXXVI, LXIX) Gadus molva Linné, Syst. nat. ed. X, 1758:254 (Oceano Europeo); Fabricius, Fauna Groenl., 1780:148 (Greenland). — Molva vulgaris Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828:192. — Molva molva et М. rap- tor Nilsson, Prodr. ichth. Scand., 1832:45. — Molva linnei Malm, Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:491. — Molva vulgaris Day, Fish. Gr. Brit. Irel., I, 1884:305. — Lota molva Moreau, Hist. nat. poiss. France, III, 1881:258 (Atlantic coast of Europe from English Channel to Bay of Biscay); Mobius u. Heincke, Fische Ostsee, 1883:237 (Keil Harbor). — Molua molva Smitt, Scand. fish., I, 1893:526, pl. XXVI, f. 1 (bibliography, distribution, biology), —Molva molva Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М. America, Ш, 1898:2551. : DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Mela, Vert. Fenn., 1882:302, pl. IX (shores of Murman); Hjort, Rapp. Pro- ces-Verb., X, 1909:62, f. 18 (spawning grounds); Damas, ibid.:203 (spawning); J. Schmidt, ibid: 98, 145, pl. VII (spawning conditions); Saemundsson, Synops. fish. Iceland, 1927:28 (at the shores of Iceland); De Buen, Fauna ictiol., 1935:76 (Atlantic Ocean opposite Gibraltar). ID 14-15, ПО 62-65, A 58-61, P 19-21, V 6-7, gill-rakers 12, ver- tebrae 63—65*. Lower jaw shorter than upper, antedorsal and anteanal distances great: antedorsal 26.7-28.3%, anteanal 45.3-46.5% of body length. Bases of dorsal and anal fins short, base of first dorsal 10.8-13,7%, second dorsal 45.8—47.7%, and anal 38.9—40.1% of body length. Caudal peduncle high, 4.2-4.9% of body length. Head large, 20.8—22.0% of body length; eyes small, 16.0—21.8% of head length. Skull broad, interorbital space 9.7-9.9% of head length. In per cent of body length: length of pectoral fin 9.9-10.9, length of pelvic fin 9.6-11.5, height of first dorsal fin 5.7-7.0, length of caudal peduncle 7.9-8.4. In per cent of head length: length of snout 30.7- 32.8, length of upper jaw 39.7-44.7, length of lower jaw 51.2—-53.0, length of barbel 28.2—28.8. Dorsum and head from above are reddish-brown, оп the sides and from beneath milky white. At the rear of both dorsal and anal fins a black spot, dorsal fins orange or pale olive, with yellowish-white stripe along the edge, anal fin same color as belly. Reaches a length of over 1 and even 2 meters (2.2 meters). (3 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. Western part of Barents Sea opposite the Murman shores. Atlantic Ocean southward to Bay of Biscay and opposite the entrance southwestern and southern shores of Iceland, in summer time at its northern and eastern shores. At the entrance of the Baltic Sea it is common in the Skaggerak and Kattegat, sometimes to Zundt and Kiel harbors. As to its occurrence along the coasts of North America and Greenland, there is no definite information, BIOLOGY. Quite a deep-water fish, usually at depths of 200 meters and deeper at the bottom, primarily on rocky bottom. Keeps separately, does * According to Smitt, I D 14-16, ПО 60-68, A 57-65, P 18-19, V. 6. Vertebrae, according to J. Schmidt, 63-65. ** If the information of De Buen is accurate. 129 125 not form large groups and perhaps does not undertake extensive migrations.. Mode of life predacious, living primarily on various fishes—cod, flounders losos, herring, etc. Along with this type of food in their stomachs were found crustaceans and starfish. Spawning takes place between March and July even somewhat later than M. dipterygia dipterygia, at temper- atures 6° to 10°C and salinity 35.2 parts per thousand, at depths primarily between 50 and 300 meters—around the 200-meter isobath, Main spawning grounds: at the southern and southwestern coasts of Iceland, at the Faroe Islands, along the western coasts of Scotland and Ireland at the southwestern entrance to the English Channel, in the northern part of the Bay of Biscay, in the northern and deep section of the North Sea, at Skaggerak, along the coasts of Norway to 30° north latitude. [This must be an error—transla- tor's note.] Males reach sexual maturity at 80cm, females—90-100cm, at the age of 8-10 years, large individuals contain a great number of eggs, to 60 million, COMMERCIAL VALUE. Noneinourwaters. Caught inconsiderable quan- tities in western European countries. The annual catch for 1933 (together with М. dipterygia dipterygia) was 301,690 metric centner, The main mass is caught in the North Sea along the coasts of Norway, north- western coast of Scotland and northern Ireland. *2а. Molva dipterygia dipterygia (Pennant) (Tables У, XXXVII, LXIX) Gadus dipterygius Pennant, Arct. zool., ed. I, I, 1784:76 (along the coast of Norway; according to Miiller, Zool. Dan. prodr., 1776:42, М. 346, "С. dipterygius, cirratus, maxilla inferiore longiore, pinnis analibus LXX").— Gadus byrkelange Walbaum in: Artedi, Gen. pisc., 1792:135. Gadus abyssorum Nilsson, Prodr. ichth. Scand., 1832:4. — Lota abyssorum Kroyer, Danm. Fiske, Il, 1843-1845:167. — Molva abyssorum Nilsson, Scand. fauna, IV, Fisk., 1855:577. — Molva byrke- lange Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh., 1874:116; Malm, Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:492 (along the coasts of Bohuslan Peninsula).— Molua dipterygia Smitt, Scand. fish., I, 1893:520, pl. ХХУГ f. 3 (bibliography, distribution). | DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Collett, Christ. Vidensk. -Selsk. Forh., (1902), 1903:54 (north to Christiana Fjord); Hjort, Карр. Procés-Verb., Х, 1909:64, f. 18 (spawning grounds); Damas, ibid.: 210 (spawning); J. Schmidt, ibid.: 103, 146, pl. УП (spawning conditions); Johnsen, Bergens Mus. Arbok (1918-1919), 2, 1921:52, Е. 2 (distribution, biology); Saemundsson, Synops fish. Iceland, 1927:30 (coasts of Iceland); Maslov, Tr. Poly- arn. nauchno-issled. inst. morsk. rybn. khoz. i okeanogr., 8, 1944:169 (73° north latitude in the region of the Central Tongue). ID 12-14, ПО 74-78, A 72-74, Р 19, V6, gill-rakers 11, vertebrae 77*, Lower jaw projects forward. Antedorsal distance 23.7-25.3%, ante- anal distance 37.9-44.2% of body length. Base of first dorsal fin 7.8-8.2%, second dorsal 52.0—58.9%, base of anal fin 47.1% of body length. Depth of caudal peduncle 2.5-3.0% of body length. Head 17.2-17.7% of body length, Eyes 23.7-26.9%, interorbital space 7.3-8.7% of head length, In per cent of body length: length of pectoral fin 10.0, length of pelvic fin 9.1, height of first dorsal fin 6.8, length of caudal peduncle 7.9. In per cent of head length: snout length 32.5, upper jaw 43.8, lower jaw 60.8, length of barbel 15.5. * According to Smitt, ID 11-14, ПО 74-83, А 70-81, P 18-20, V 6. According to J. Schmidt, 76-79 ver- tebrae. 130 126 Coloration from above dark brown, on the sides paler, gray-white or Бше- gray, on the belly with small reddish-brown dots. Rear portion of second dorsal, anal and caudal fins and lateral sides of the pectoral fin black with a white edge. Length generally less than 1 meter though sometimes reaches 1.5 meters. (5 specimens). DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean at the coasts of Norway (from Trondheim Fjord) and the southern and southwestern coasts of Iceland, south to the coasts of Scotland and Ireland eastward to Kattegat. In later years, due to the general warming, it has been found considerably farther to the north— at the coasts of the Scandinavian Peninsula to Sen'ja Island, in the Barents Sea to the Central Tongue (73° north latitude)*, BIOLOGY. An even deeper water fish than M. molva, found at depths of 200 to 600 meters, although it is caught at lesser depths (60 meters). Spawning also takes place at great depths at about the1,000 meter isobath, but not less than 500-600 meters. Spawning time—spring—May and begin- ning of June, but on a small scale was observed beginning with April until September. Spawning conditions: temperature 5 to 8°C, salinity 31.15-35.20 parts per thousand. Main places of spawning: opposite the southern coasts of Iceland, western coasts of the Faroe Islands, Scotland and Ireland, in lesser quantities spawns at Skaggerak and in some deep Norwegian fjords — Trondheim and others. Sexual maturity reached at a length of 80cm. COMMERCIAL VALUE. Caught generally at the coasts of Norway, but in industrial statistics it is usually counted with М. molva. COMPARATIVE NOTES. Gadus byrkelange Walbaum, generally referred to this species, has a small number of rays, but the lower jaw projects. Smitt notes that the lower jawin M. dipterygia dipterygia does not project forward. Apparently, he held in his hands only extremely large specimens in which the jaw rarely projects at all. 2b. Molva dipterygia elongata (Otto)—Mediterranean Pike (Tables XXXVIII, LXIX) ?Gadus molva (nonL.) Risso, Ichth. Nice, 1810:119 (Mediterranean Sea at Nice). — ?Phycis тас- rophthalmus Rafinesque, Caratteri, etc., 1810:26, pl. IX, f. 3 (Sicily, lower jaw without barbel). — Gadus elongatus Otto, Conspectus anim. maritim. etc., 1821:6 (Mediterranean Sea at Nice). — Lotta elongata Risso, Hist. nat. Eur. mérid., Ш, 1826:217, f. 47.— Lota elongata Erhardt, Fauna Сус- laden, 1858:9 (Cyclad Islands); Canestrini, Arch. zool. anat., fisiol., II, 1863:367 (Gulf of Genoa). — Lota molva (поп L.) Costa, Fauna Napoli, Pesci, 1, 1863:15, pl. XXXVIII, f. 1.— Lota elongata Moreau, Hist. nat. poiss. France, Ш, 1881:260, Е. 179 (Mediterranean Sea). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Hjort, Rapp. Procés-Verb., X, 1909:64, pl. 18 (spawning grounds); J. Schmidt, ibid.:107, 156, pl. VII (spawning conditions); D'Ancona, Fauna flora golfo Napoli, 38, 1933:229 (spawning); De Buen, Fauna ictiol., 1935:76 (along the shores of the Iberian Peninsula). ТО 10-12, ПО 76-83, А 75-78, Р 16-18, V 6-7, gill-rakers 10-11, vertebrae 80-84**. Lower jaw longer than upper jaw. Antedorsal and an- teanal distances short: antedorsal 22.2-24.6, anteanal 36.4-39.6% of body length. Bases of both dorsal and anal fins long: base of first dorsal 5.3-— 6.5%, base of second dorsal 56.3-57.6%, base of anal 48.6—-50.2% of body + If the identification (М. byrkelange) is correct (Maslov, 1. с.) «x According to Moreau, ГР 10-12, ПО 77-82, A 70-77, Р 18, У 6. According to J. Schmidt, 82-84 vertebrae. 131 length. Caudal peduncle low, 1.7—2.3% of body length. Head small, 15,.7- 17.0% of body length. Eyes large, 24.5-28.2% of head length. Skull narrow, interorbital space 6.1-7.4% of head length. In per cent of body length: length of pectoral fin 8.8-9.7, length of pelvic fin 10.9-13.0, height of first dorsal fin 5.8-6.9, length of caudal peduncle 6.9-8.7. In per cent of head length: snout length 32.4—34.7, upper jaw 40.5-43.2, lower jaw 57.0-60.2, length of barbel 12.2-18.6. In juveniles the barbel is longer. Coloration grayish- pink with black dots, belly silvery-white, fins grayish, second dorsal and anal fins in the rear with a black stripe and narrow white edge. Caudal fin blackish, with a narrow white edge. Length to 70cm (7 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean at the coasts of Europe from Gibraltar northward to the southwestern coasts of Ireland, European coasts of the Me- diterranean Sea from the shores of Spain to the Aegean Sea (Cyclades Is- lands), perhaps entering the Black Sea. BIOLOGY. Justas М. dipterygia dipterygia, it lives and spawns at great depths. Spawning takes place at depths over1,000 meters at tem- peratures not lower than 8-9°C and the salinity not lower than 35.5 parts per thousand. Spawning grounds distributed in the Mediterranean, and At- lantic Ocean opposite the southwestern shores of Ireland and Bay of Biscay. COMMERCIAL VALUE very slight. COMPARATIVE NOTES. Gadus molva Risso, which has in the un- paired fins ray counts (ID 10, ПО 66, A 59) characteristic of М. molva should apparently be referred to М. dipterygia elongata, inasmuch as the lower jaw is longer than the upper. In counting the number of rays there could have beenerror. With regardto Phycis macrophthalmus Rafinesque (no barbel on the chin), which is usually referred to this species, it is very difficult to state anything definite. Molva elongata does not differ greatly from М. dipterygia dip- terygia externo-morphologically or craniologically, and therefore it should be considered as only a subspecies. The skullof М. dipterygia dip- terygia is just a little broader in the rear section. A hiatus which exists between them in some characteristics (bases of the first and second dorsal fins, the depth of the caudal peduncle) has been verified in only the small number of specimens examined. 2. Subfamily MERLUCCIINAE Two dorsal fins and one anal fin, second dorsal and anal fins with a deep notch in the rear part, caudal fin truncate; it is not connected with anal and second dorsal, Frontals paired with a large triangular cavity, bordered on the sides and at the rear by crests, diverging from the rear section of the lateral crests of the supraoccipital. All parapophyses broadened, without ribs, with the exception of the shortened first pair which possess a small rib, and the epipleuralia on only three to four anterior vertebrae. Pelvic fins in the larvae are somewhat elongate; eggs with an oil globule. 132 128 > 10. Genus MERLUCCIUS Rafinesque Merluccius Rafinesque, Caratteri, etc., 1810:26 (Type: М. smiridus Raf. * М. merluccius). Onus Rafinesque, Ind. ittiol. Sicil., 1810:12 (Туре: О. riali Raf. М. merluccius). Merlangus Rafinesque, 1. с.:67 (Туре: С. merluccius L., offered toreplace Onus and Merlucci- us). — Stomodon Mitchill, Rept. fish. М. Y., 1814:7 (Туре: Stomodon bilinearis Mitch.). — Hy- dronus Minding, Naturg. Fische, 1832:83 (Туре: М. merluccius).— Merlus Guichenot in: Gay, Hist. fis. polit. Chile, Il, 1848:328 (Туре: М. gayi Guich.).-- Merluccius Gronowius ed. Gray, Cat. fish., 1854:2 (Туре: М. lanatus Gron. = Merluccius merluccius).—Homalopomus Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1856:132 (Type: Н. trowbridgei Grd. = М. productus).— Epicopus Gunther, Cat. fish., Il, 1860:248 (Type: Е. gayi = М. merluccius).— Trachinoides Borodin, Bull. Vander- bilt Mar. Mus., I, (4), 1934:120 (Туре: Т. maroccanus Borod. = М. Merluccius). Lower jaw projects forward, a row of well developed teeth on the head of the vomer and on the premaxillary and dentary; in addition there is a row of smaller teeth on the vomer, the dentary and between the large teeth on the premaxillary. Head of the vomer well developed and broad. Lateral line almost straight in the forward half of the body, located above the central axis of the body, continuous for its entire length. Canals of the lateral line system are found on the head, butthere are no pores along it. There isa foramen for the facial nerve on the sides of the skull. The ostistic process from the first vertebra is greatly broadened from above. Pyloric caeca absent. Second ray of pelvic fin not elongate. SKELETON, Skull from the side (A) low, gradually receding in front, its greatest height almost 1 the length of its base. The lower edge of the bones at the base of the skull presentsa straight line. The upper profile of the skull is straight for almost its entire length, with small notches only above the lateral ethmoids. Crests developed along the entire length of the supraoccipital, its rear end located forward of the rear end of the basiocci- pital. The forward edge of the mesethmoid is straight, dropping sharply, located at an obtuse angle to its upper edge. The orbital space elongate, its base more than 3 times its greatestheight. Facial nerve exits from the skull through a foramen, separated from the orbital space by the alisphenoid and ascending process of the parasphenoid. The foramen of the glossopha- ryngeal nerve on the opisthotic is small. The skull from above (B) is not very broad, particularly not narrowed in the interorbital region, its great- est width contained little more than 2 times in its length. The edges of the skull are limited from the sides by a slightly wavy curved line with a small step on each side in the rear part of the edges of the frontals. Lateral eth- moids project on the sides and in front from beneath the frontals. The for- ward edge of the vomer projects from beneath the forward edge of the me- sethmoid. The supraoccipital crest in front is bifurcate and runs into di- verging crests on the frontals. The crests over the lateral line canals on the pterotic and frontals are short and narrow. The mucous cavity is large, deep, broadly opened in front; the lateral processes over the canal of the lateral line in front of the mucous cavity are not developed; there exists only the central crest. Parietal crests above the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve are not developed. The vomer from below (C) is broad, flat, its head broadened, the edges are drawn laterally with two rows of teeth into a horseshoe shape along the edge. The parasphenoid is quite broad, its lower surface flat. The supraoccipital crest (D) projects slightly above the skull. The lateral walls of the cranial box are convex, the base of the skull is broad and flat. The preopercular and lower processes 133 “stp Baisne ‘w—z TAeZ *И 0 Чзаайч *W—s ‘stsuadeo *w—py ‘snionpoid "w—g тавэитта ‘Де ‘snroon{Iaw "Ww —] Sry OTTO Ne Sates, Sup yo Worna Ista. “Oe THIS (MM: ЕЕ» КО: #1. Et КЗ: 2. м & & _ ee Во \ © Gy y =e UG 134 130 ` of the hyomandibular are brought closer to each other, both thin and long, the opercular process short, broad at the base; the auricular process is broad, extending forward above the base of the opercular process. The posttemporal is large, both forks are about equal in length. The postcleith- rum is curved and broadened at its upper end. The operculum is broad, its lower edge with a deep notch and both ends sharpened. The urohyal is elon- gate, narrow, its lower edges broad, Parapophyses are long, wide, down- ward curved or curved from beneath, forming a complete bony armour from the sides of the body. DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and subtropical waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in the northern and southern hemispheres (Figure 20). In the fossil state it is known from the Oligocene and Miocene deposits. COMPARATIVE NOTES. * Classification of the genus Merluccius was recently developed by Norman, who had cleared the confused synonymy of representatives of this genus and indicated differentiating characteristics between them. As can be seen from the diagnostic keys, taken almost with- out any change from Norman, the differences between the species of the genus Merluccius are based on the number of transverse rows of scales, gill-rakers on the lower limb of the first gill arch, length of pectoral and pelvic fins and ratio between them, the dimensions of the eyes and the depth of the body; all of these characteristics are overlapping, with the exception of the first two and last, having in some cases a hiatus. We cannot dis- tinguish the various species of gadoids by the depth of the body which is greatly variable and dependent upon the fullness of the stomach and degree of sexual maturity. As for the number of transverse rows of scales and the number of gill-rakers on the lower limb of the first gill arch, these two characteristics coincide or overlap in the majority of species, and the appa- rent distinctions between some species are conditioned by the small number of specimens examined rather than by the actual differences between the species. The lack or absence of material discourages one from studying the osteology of all forms of this genus, but the forms studied in this respect (M. merluccius, M. bilinearis, M. productus) do not have in the structure of the skull and other parts of the skeleton such distinctions as exist between the other species and even subspecies of gadoids. All this in- dicates that even now, with the present state of knowledge, there is very little basis for dividing representatives of the genus Merluccius into different species. The majority of forms of this genus could be subspecies and perhaps only a few species. As they undoubtedly undertake migrations, each of the forms of the genus Merluccius is not isolated within the li- mits of its range from those forms which are geographically near it, which aids in maintaining their systematic closeness. M. merluccius, as in- dicated by Belloc, occurs at depths to Cape Blanco and perhaps even farther south*, thus having opportunity to enter the range of M. capensis which is geographically and systematically close. Doubts as to the specific differ- ence between the species M. capensis from M. merluccius having sufficient basis were expressed by Barnard. M. angustimanus Garman, described from specimens caught almost at the Equator (opposite Panama Bay), in the opinion of Norman is identical with M. gayi; therefore, this form also has the opportunity of entering the range of a geographically close * Of Merluccius from Cape Verde, see page 138. 135 131 form (М. productus), One specimen of Merluccius, caught at the shores of South America,Norman considers to belong to М. australis, Pozzi also (Аппа1. Soc. Cient. Argentina, 120, 1, 1935:158) indicates for the shores of Argentina,M. hubbsi and M. gayi. Based on the mate- rial present in the collections of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences hardly permits the segregation of all these forms in the diagnostic key of the genus Merluccius, and therefore they are provisionally con- sidered as species. Diagnostic Key to the Species 1(12). 100-150 transverse rows of scales. Eyes contained 4 to 74 times in head length, 2 (3). On lower limb of the first gill arch (7) 8-12 gill-rakers, Pelvic fins equal or almost equal in length to pectoral fins, Pectoral fins almost reach or extend slightly beyond the origin of the anal fin, and are contained 18 фо 14 times in head length, Atlantic Ocean at the shores of Europe and North Africa, Mediterranean Sea... . С о a: was bos 1. М. merluccius (L.) 3102). on lower limb of the first gill arch 10-18 gill-rakers. Pelvic fins almost always shorter than ресфога!$. 4 (5). Pectoral fins do not reach or hardly reach the origin of the anal fin, and are contained 12to 15 тез in head length. 10-13 gill-rakers on lower limb of first gillarch. Transverse rows of scales about 130. Atlantic Ocean along the coast of South America. ...... в SE GOs. calcd UIA Re OD. Ne OV ets сс. & М. hubbsi ‘Marini 5 (4). Pectoral fins reach or extend beyond the origin of the anal fin; con- tained 14 to 1 #times in head length, 6 (7). The height of the body is contained 7 to 78 times in its length. The pelvic fins are contained 24 to 24times in head length and constitute about @ of the distance from Е base to the origin of the anal fin. 14-17 gill-rakers on the lower limb of the first gillarch, Trans- verse rows of scales 130-135. Pacific Ocean along the coast of North America миа 3. M. productus (Ayres) 7 (6). Depth of body contained 5-64 times in body length. В fins contained 12 to 21 times in head length, constitute about 3 = of the distance on their base to the origin of the anal fin. 8 (9). 15-18 gill-rakers on the lower limb of the first gill arch. Pector- al fins with 15-16 rays, first dorsal with 11 rays. Transverse rows of scales 110-115. Pacific Ocean along the coast of South ATIC RICAN fe Sh ИР ОО ee .. 4 М. gayi (Guich. ) 9 (8), 10-14 (15) gill-rakers on the lower limb of the first gill arch. Pec- toral fins with 13-14 rays. 10 (11). Transverse rows of scales 100-110. First dorsal fin with 12-13 rays. Pelvic fins constitute 3 to 3 of the distance from their base to the origin of the anal fin. Atlantic Ocean along the coast of North ПОТ we a a yore Se nee as ge 5. М. bilinearis (Mitch. ) 136 132 11 (10). He, 101). Ее Transverse rows of scales 130-140. First dorsal fin with 10-11 rays. Pelvic fins constitute 4 to 2 of the distance from their base to the origin of the anal fin. Along the shores of South America. HS Many pel Sal ts Lea MAN one сиб си Ми Cape ms ars Casteln: Transverse rows of scales 155 to 165. Eyes contained 6 to 75 times in head length (in fishes 34-35 спа). 10 gill-rakers on the lower limb of the first gill arch. Pectoral fins reach to the origin or extend beyond the origin of the anal fin. Along the coast of New Healandyesitecin nanos винт. Macau stra lis s(Hutton) Merluccius merluccius (Linné) (Tables VI, XXXIX, LXIX) Gadus merluccius Linné, Syst. nat., ed. X, 1758:254 (habitat in Oceano); Lacepede, Hist. nat. poiss., II, 1800:446. — Gadus ruber Lacepede, 1. c., V, 1803:671. — Merluccius smiridus Rafinesque, Caratteri, etc., 1810:26. — Onus riali Ва- finesque, Ind. ittiol. Sic., 1810:12. — Gadus merluccius Risso*, Ichth. Nice, 1810:122. — Merluccius esculentus Risso**, Hist. nat. Europ. mérid. , Ш, 1826: 220. — Merluccius vulgaris Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828:195. — Merlucci- us sinuatus Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. London, Ш, 1839:13. — Merluccius ambi- guus Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, VIII, 1840:37. — Merluccius lanatus Gro- novius ed. Gray, Cat. fish., 1854:130. — Epicopus gayi Gunther, Cat. fish., II 1860:248. — Merluccius linnei Malm, Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:489. — Trachi- noides maroccanus Borodin, Bull. Vanderbilt Mus., I, (4), 1934:120, pl. II, f. 2, 3. — Merluccius merJuccius Norman, Discovery Rept. XVI, 1937:45. DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Mobius и. Heincke, Fische Ostsee, 1883:80 (Kiel Harbor); Smitt, Scand. fish., I, 1893:515, pl. XXVI, f. 1 (distribution, biology, syno- nymy); Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. N. a. M. America, III, 1898:2530; Hjort, Rapp. Pro- cés-Verb. , X, 1909:63, f. 17 (spawning grounds); Damas, ibid. :214 (biology); J. Schmidt, ibid. :93, 145, pl. VIII (spawning); Saemundsson, Synops. fish Iceland, 1927:28 (south- westerm shores of Iceland); Belloc, Rev. Trav. ОН. Péches Marit. , II, 2, 1929:153 (synonymy, bibliography, distribution); D'Ancona, Fauna flora golfo Napoli, 38, 1932: FIGURE 21. 288 (spawning); Belloc, Rev. Trav. Off. Péches Marit., VI, 1, 1933:63 (distribution); Structure of ра- Liebman, Rapp. Proces-Verb., VIII, (п. s.), 1934:321 (shores of Palestine, spawns rapophyses of January to March); Belloc, Rev. Trav. Off. Péches Marit., VIII, 2, 1935:145 (number Merluccius. of vertebrae, races, migration); ibid. X, 3, 1937:341 (Atlantic Ocean opposite Cape Vertebral col- Verde, vertebrae 54.09); Maiorova and Marti, Priroda, 1938:995 (Black Sea and along umn from below. the coasts of Georgia). I Dt 15077, 9-10(11), ПО (36) 37-40, А 36-40, Р (12) 13-14, scales 135- gill-rakers (7) 8-12 on lower limb of the first gill arch, on the entire arch 10-12. Pectoral fins long, almost reaching or extending slight- ly beyond the origin of the anal fin, constituting 13.7 to 16.1% of body length, contained 1 4 фо 12 times in head length. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 38.7-41.7, antedorsal distance 26.8-29.3, length of pelvic fin 13.8- 15.8, base of first dorsal fin 9.0-9.9, base of second dorsal fin 42.1-44.3, base of anal fin 41.8—43.8, height of first dorsal fin 10.1-12.3, depth of cau- dal peduncle 3.3-3.9, its length 8.4-10.2, head length 24.3-25.8. In per cent * Belloc and Norman consider Gadus maraldi Rissoto be М. merluccius. Actually it is Ura- leptus maraldi ofthe family Moridae. *k Merluccius maraldi Risso= Uraleptus maraldi, see above. + The limits of variation after Norman were placed in parentheses in all examined species whenever they are more than ours. ТТ After Smitt, to 154. 137 133 of head length: length of snout 34.6-—36.6, lateral diameter of eye 19.0-22.0, length of upper jaw 49.3-52.4, lower jaw 61.3-64.5, width of forehead 21.2- 25.7. Coloration silvery-gray, on the back blackish-gray, at the base of the pectoral fin a small black spot. Length to 1 meter and more (to 1.2 meter). (8 specimens). DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean along the coasts of Europe; north occa- sionally to the Lofoten Islands and southwestern shores of Iceland*; east to Kiel Harbor, common along the southwestern shores of Norway; around Great Britain and Ireland, in the Bay of Biscay and along the shores of the Iberian Peninsula; south in considerable numbers to Cape Blanco; Medi- terranean and Adriatic Seas, east to the Bosphorus and shores of Egypt, Syria and Palestine, the Marmora Sea and the southeastern part of the Black Sea along the coasts of the Caucasus (Batumi). Due to the warming of the Arc- tic observed in recent years, occasional specimens may penetrate into the Barents Sea. BIOLOGY. Presumed to remain usually at the bottom, but judging by the food contents it must rise to the intermediate and surface layers of the water. Livesonfish, not benthonic ones but pelagic—herring, mackerel, sar- dines, and others. Maintains greatly varied depths from 20-25 to1,000 me- ters, but within the limits of the continental slope. Young are sometimes found at very shallow depths. Undertakes migrations, the ways and extent of which are not as yet studied. Undoubtedly there are seasonal migrations from greater to lesser depths, tied in with reproduction and feeding, but be- sides these there are also undoubtedly meridional migrations along the shores although the latter are denied by some (Belloc). In some places it appears very irregularly: after a year of very rich catch comes a series of years during which it is rarely found. The occurrence of occasional specimens at the extreme limits of distribution also to a certain degree serves to sup- port the theory of the migration of the second type. It is found occasionally, and in great aggregations as well. Mainly aggregates in the spawning period. Spawns over very broad bathymetric limits from 100 (or less) to1,000 meters or more. Spawning takes place at the northern and western shores of Great Britain and Ireland, western part of the English Channel, Bay of Biscay and the Mediterranean Sea. Spawns in some years in the Skaggerak and the most northeastern section of the North Sea. Period of spawning extended—from spring to fall, mass spawning up north in the middle or end of summer (July- August), southward-in spring or early summer. In the Mediterranean spawns from January to June. Spawning conditions; temperature quite high, no lower than 9-10°С, salinity not less than 35.2 parts per thousand. Sexual maturity is reached at a length of 20-25cm. Growth parallel with the changes in the stage of maturity falls into 3 periods: 1) period of rapid growth (up to 2 years in females, to 3 years in males), equal to the juvenile stage; 2) period of medium growth (to 7 years), corresponding to attainment of sexual maturity; and 3) period of delayed growth or slowed growth (after 7 years)—period of full sexual maturity. The tempo of growth within the limits of distribution is unequal: in 9 years in the Mediterranean Sea a fish has an average length of 30cm, at Ireland 65cm, in the Bay of Biscay 71cm, at Morocco 78cm. Parallel with this are changes in the number of vertebrae, decreasing on the average from north to south from 51.15 (west of Ireland) to 50.48 (at Cape * Indications for its occurrence at the coasts of Greenland (Jordan and Evermann) are incorrect. 138 134 Blanco), which gives a basis for presuming that this fish has local forms analogous to races of G. morhua morhua (see comparative notes). The presence of local forms, however, does not give grounds for consider- ing that M. merluccius undertakes only short migrations, G. morhua morhua, for example, appears to be evidence contrary to this opinion. COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE quite considerable. Annual catch reaches over 445 thousand metric centner, not counting the catch in the Mediterranean (1933). Main places of catch are southern, western and northern shores of Ireland and northwestern shores of Scotland, COMPARATIVE NOTES. Gadus merluccius (argentatus) Faber (Naturgesch, Fische Islands, 1829:90) = Merluccius argentatus Gun- ther (Cat. fish., IV, 1862:346), as indicated by some authors is Odonto- gadus merlangus, In one of our specimens of М. merluccius the pectoral fins extend slightly beyond the origin of the anal fin. On specimens from Cape Verde the number of vertebrae are on the average 54.09, that is considerably higher than in specimens from more northerly latitudes (at Cape Blanco 50.48, see above), which gives basis for presuming the pre- sence here of some other species. 2. Merluccius hubbsi Marini ? Merluccius gayi (non Guichenot) Cunningham, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, XXVII, 1871: 462; Perurgia, Ann. Mus. Civico Stor. Nat. Genoa (2), X, (XXX), 1891:627 (Biglia Canal); Berg, Anal, Mus. Nac. В. Aires, IV, 1895:74. -Merluccius bilinearis (non Mitchill) Ribeiro, Arch. Mus. Nac. Rio de Janeiro, XVII, 1915, Merlucciidae: 2, Ив. — Merluccius gayi (non Guichenot) Thompson, Proc. U. $. Nat. Mus. L, 1916:417 Devincenzi, Anal. Mus. Montevido, (II), I, (5), 1924:272; Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., LXXVIII, 1927:274. -Merluccius hubbsi Marini, Physis XI, 1932:322, f. ; Norman, Dis- covery Rept. XVI, 1937:46, f. 20A (bibliography). PD (11) 13, ШО 36 (39), А 3741), Р (12). 14, | scales about 130, gill- rakers (10) 12 (13) (on the lower half of the first gill arch, on the whole arch 16). Pectoral fins short, do not reach or hardly reach the origin of the anal fin, constituting 18% of body length, contained 12to i times in head length. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 41.6, antedorsal distance 30.9, length of pelvic fin 15.0, base of first dorsal fin 11.5, base of second dorsal 42.9, base of anal 41.6, height of first dorsal fin 10.9, depth of caudal peduncle 3.5, its length 9.2, head length 26.4. In per cent of head length: length of snout 33.7, lateral diameter of eye 22.5, length of upper jaw 50.6, length of lower 65.2, interorbital space 20.2. Length to 1.2 meters (from one not large specimen 10,1 cm in length). DISTRIBUTION. Southern part of the Atlantic Ocean at the shores of South America from the Straits of Magellan to Brazil. BIOLOGY. Little known but obviously does not differ from the biology of other forms. COMMERCIAL VALUE very slight. COMPARATIVE NOTES. The pelvic fins on our specimen are much long- er than the pectoral; however, according to Norman, they should almost al- ways be shorter than the pectoral. Likewise, the pectoral fins extend slight - ly beyond the origin of the anal fin. 139 135 3. Merluccius productus (Ayres) (Tables VI, XL) Merlangus productus Ayres, Proc. Calif. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1855:64 (San Francisco). — Homalo- pomus trowbridgii Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1856:132. — Gadus productus Gunther, Cat. fish., IV, 1862:338. — Merluccius productus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , 1863:247. — Gadus (Boreogadus) productus Steindachner U. Kner, Sit Sitzungsber, Acad. Wiss. Wien. math. - naturw. Cl, LXV, 1, 1870:20 (Castis Вау). — Merluccius productus Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. N. a. М. America, Ш, 1898:2531, f. 884; Starks a. Morris, Univ. Calif. Publ. , Zool., Ш, (I), 1907:241; Belloc, Rev. Trav. Off. Péches Marit., II, 1929:169, f. 11 (synonymy, distribution); Schultz а. DeLacy, Mid. -Pa- cific Mag. , Jan. - March, 1936:65 (from Califomia to Alaska, bibliography); Norman, Discovery Rept., XVI, 1937:47. ТО 11-12, ПО 37-42, А (37) 38—42, Р 14-16, scales 130—135, gill-ra- kers 14-17 (оп the lower limb of the first gill arch; on the whole arch 19- 21). The pectoral fins reach of extend beyond the origin of the anal fin, con- stituting 17.3-21.2% of body length, contained 1 to 12times in head length. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 40.0-46.0, antedorsal distance 27,3-31.1, length of pelvic fin 12.7-13.1, base of first dorsal fin 10.5-11.2,, base of second dorsal fin 40.5-42.5, base of anal fin 39.6—42.0, height of first dorsal fin 10.5-12.2, depth of caudal peduncle 31-3.5, length of caudal peduncle 9.5-11.0, length of head 24,4-28.8. In per cent of head length: length of snout 35.0-36.5, diameter of eye 19.2-22.3, length of upper jaw 45.5-48.0, length of lower jaw 58.8-61.2, interorbital space 23.0-24.9. Length to one meter (3 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. Northern part of the Pacific Ocean at the shores of North America from California (Pt. Loma) to Puget Sound, occasionally to Alaska. On the Asiatic coast it is recorded from DeCastris Bay (Steindachner u. Kner, 1. c., see comparative notes). BIOLOGY. Does not differ materially from the biology of the other forms. The presence in one or another locality of a considerable number of fish is inconstant. Great predator, feeds on small fish and cephalopods, COMMERCIAL VALUE very small and in the presence of other fish it is usually discarded, COMPARATIVE NOTES. The record given by Steindachner and Kner of finding M. productus in DeCastris Bay is very doubtful, even though the number of rays and description of the specimens (2 greatly damaged) cor- responds to M. productus. If M. productus was actually found at the Asiatic coasts of the Pacific Ocean, then it undoubtedly would have been discovered at the eastern coast of Japan and other places. The Bay of De- Castris is too unusual a spot for this fish, not elsewhere found along the Asiatic coasts. Occasional specimens at the northern limits of the range might perhaps penetrate into our waters. 4, Merluccius gayi (Guichenot) Merlus gayi Guichenot in: Gay, Hist. fis. polit. Chile, Zool. , II, 1848:328, pl. VIII, f. 2 (off the coast of Chile). — Merluccius gayi Каир, Wiegm. Arch. Naturgesch. , 1858:87; Gunther, Cat. fish. , IV, 1862:346. — ?Merluccius angustimanus Garman, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXIV, 1899:183, pl. XLI, f. 1, pl. LXXXVI, f. 1, (Gulf of Panama, scales 110); Delfin, Cat. peces Chile, 1901:100; Revist. Chil., VII, 1903:269, f. 7. — Evermann a. Radcliffe, Bull. U. $. Nat. Mus. XCV, 1917:156. — Meiluc- cius gayi Norman, Discovery Rept. XVI 1937:48, f. 20B. 140 136 ТО 11, ПО 36-40, А 37-39, P 15-16, scales 110-115, gill-rakers 15- 18 (on lower limb of arch). Pectoral fins long, extending back beyond the origin of the anal fin, contained 1 5 to 12 times in head length. Reaches over one meter (after Norman). DISTRIBUTION. Southern part of the Pacific Ocean along the coasts of Chile and Peru south to the Strait of Magellan, north to Panama Gulf occasi- onally. BIOLOGY. Very little known, Lives on small fish, COMMERCIAL VALUE. Considerable; found and caught in considerable quantities. COMPARATIVE NOTES. The specimens described as the individual species M. angustimanus Garman are closest to this form, to which Norman refers them. 5. Merluccius bilinearis (Mitchill) (Table XLI) Stomodon bilinearis Mitchill, Rept. fish. N. Y., 1814:7 (New York, cited by Jordan a. Ever- mann). — Gadus albidus Mitchill, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., I, 1817:409 (New York). — Merluc- cius bilinearis Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , 1863:247; Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М. America, III, 1898:2530; Bigelow a. Welch, Fish. gulf Maine, 1925:386, f. 194, 195 (biology); Hilde- brandt a. Schroder, Bull. Bur. Fisher. , XLIII, 1, 1928:162, f. 85; Belloc, Rev. Trav. Off. Péches Marit. , Il, 1929:165, f. 8, 9 (bibliography, distribution); Norman, Discovery Rept., XVI, 1937:47 (description, distribution). ТО 12 (13), II D (36) 39 (41), А (37) 39-40, P (13) 14-15, scales 100- 110, gill-rakers (10) 13 (15) (on lower half of first arch, on whole arch 17- 18). Pectoral fins reach to the origin of the anal fin or slightly farther, constituting 20.0-20.6% of the body length, contained 1 Е 4015 times in head length. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 40.4—41.3, antedorsal distance 25.9-28.5, length of pelvic fin 15.6-15.9, base of first dorsal fin 11.0-11.6, base of second 41.1-41.4, base of anal 41.0-41.6, height of first dorsal 13.5-14.0, depth of caudal peduncle 3.4-4.3, its length 9.0-9.1, head length 23.6-24.3. In per cent of head length: length of snout 37.2-38.4, ho- rizontal diameter of eye 19.8—21.5, length of upper jaw 49.0-50.5, length of lower 63.0—63.7, interorbital space 24.5-24.6, Coloration dark gray or brown, golden from above, on the sides and belly with silvery sheen. Length to 70cm, but usual dimensions about 35cm (2 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. Northern part of Atlantic Ocean at the coasts of North America from Belle Isle Strait south at considerable depths occasionally to the Bahamas. BIOLOGY. This form, as M. merluccius, is changeable within very broad limits. Mode of life depends little on depth or bottom; found at 100 meters and much less,to 550 meters and deeper; keeps at the bottom as well as in the intermediate layers. When it stays at the bottom it prefers the sand and gravel ground, not mud or rocks. Undertakes seasonal migrations, in the spring coming toward shore to lesser depths, in winter going away from shore toward deeper water. Just as in the European form it appears irregularly, years of big catch alternating with years of poor catch. In its pursuit of foodit keeps in the intermediate as well as in theupper layers of the water. By its feeding, it is a predator, its basic food herring, mackerel, 141 aterinka [Translator's note: possibly atherines] and other small fish, occa- sionally eating kalmar, crabs, etc. Spawning takes place in summer be- ginning in June and ending in the middle of October, the height of spawning during July and August; south of Cape Cod spawning may commence earlier. Depth of the spawning grounds varies from 100 meters or less to 550 me- ters, The main areas are distributed from the shores of Nova Scotia to Cape Cod; They are not found southward, but perhaps exist. Conditions of spawning: temperature 5-7 to 12-15°C, salinity 31.5-32.5 parts per thou- sand, COMMERCIAL VALUE extensive. Catch off the coast of Massachusetts and Maine in 1919 reached over 6 thousand metric centner. 6. Merluccius capensis Castelnau Merluccius capensis Castelnau, Mém. poiss. Afr. austr., 1861:68 (at South Africa); Regan, Ann. Natal. Mus., I, 1906:4 (description); Barnard, Ann. $. Afr. Mus., XXI, 1925:320, pl. XII, Е. 5 (bibliogra- phy); Norman, Discovery Rept. ХИ, 1933:48 (bibliography, description); ibid. : XVI, 1937:48. ТО 10-11, ПО 35-40, A 37-40, scales 130-140, gill-rakers*13-14 (on lower half of gill arch). Pectoral fins long, reaching beyond the origin of the anal fin, contained 14 to 14 times in head length. (after Norman). DISTRIBUTION. Southern part of the Atlantic Ocean at the shores of Af- rica south from Angola; along the eastern shores of the Indian Ocean north- ward to Natal. [Translator's note: Obviously refers to western shores of Indian Ocean. ] BIOLOGY. Undertakes considerable migrations as at exceedingly irreg- ular times it appears in great quantity. Feeds on fish (Macruridae). COMMERCIAL VALUE considerably great, one of the most valued com- mercial fishes along the southern shores of Africa. 7. Merluccius:-australis (Hutton) Gadus australis Hutton, Car. fish. М. Zealand, 1872:45, 115, pl. VIII, f. 2 (Cook Strait). — Mer- luccius gayi Gunther, Challenger's Rept. I, Shore fish. , 1880:22; Waite, Rec. Canterbury Mus., I, 1, 1907:18; ibid., I, 3, 1911:152, pl. ХХХ, Е. 2 (distribution). -Merluccius australis Norman, Discovery Rept. XVI, 1937:48 (bibliography). {D11, ПО 36-43, A 36-42, P 13, scales 155-165, gill-rakers 10 (on the lower half of the first arch). Pectoral fins reach or extend beyond the origin of the anal fin, contained 1 = to 12times in head length. General col- oration reddish-brown from above, silvery from below, mouth inside dark gray. Length to one meter (after Norman). DISTRIBUTION, Around New Zealand, One specimen of this form was found at the shores of South America (Messier Channel). BIOLOGY. Unstudied, but apparently similar to the biology of other forms, INDUSTRIAL VALUE quite considerable, COMPARATIVE NOTES. Norman indicates he had found no difference 137 between specimens caught by the "Challenger" expeditions along the Pacific 142 coast of South America (Messier Channel) and typical specimens of М. australis and on that basis he extends the range of this species to the shores of South America. Apparently, there were actually specimens of М. gayi, intermediate between this form and М. australis. 3, Subfamily GADINAE Three dorsal and two anal fins either touching at their bases or separated by interspaces. Caudal fin truncate or with a notch, separated from the se- cond anal and third dorsal. Frontals fused into one unpaired plate. Eggs without oil globule. Pelvic fins in larvae not elongate, consisting of more than 3 rays. 11. Genus TRISOPTERUS Rafinesque Trisopterus Rafinesque, Prec. découv. somiologiques, 1814:16 (Type: Gadus capelanus Гасер. ). — Morhua Risso, Hist. nat. Europ. mérid., III, 1826:225 (Type: G. capelanus Lacep). — Brachygadus Gill. , Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , (1862), 1863:316; ibid. , (1863), 1864:236 (Туре: С. minutus L.). — Gadulus Malm, Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:482 (Type: G. luscus Ne Dorsal fins touching or separated by a small space, anal fins touching without a space. First anal fin long, its origin beneath the first dorsal fin, Caudal fin truncate or with a small notch. Lower jaw shorter or slightly longer than upper. A long barbel on the chin. Teeth on premaxillary and dentary and in one or two rows along the forward edge of the head of the vo- mer. Lateral line in the forward half of the body in the shape of a low arch, farther back straight, uninterrupted for its entire length. Pores on the head along the sensory canal; 12 pores inthe preoperculo-mandibular canal, 8 pores in the infraorbital canal, 2 pores in the supraorbital canal, and one unpaired pore in the supraorbital commissure. Mucous cavity on the skull almost closed. The facial nerve exits through a foramen on the side of the skull. SKELETON. Skull high (A), its greatest height contained 2 to 25 times in the length of the base of the skull. Parasphenoid with an arch beneath the foramen of the facial nerve approximately equal in all species. Forward of this arch the gones lying along the base of the anterior section of the skull are placed in a straight line. The rear portions of the parasphenoid and basioccipital, which constitute the base of the rear portion of the skull, are also placed ina straight line, but, due to the great convexity of the auditory area, the rear section of the base of the skull from beneath has a somewhat rounded shape. The upper profile of the skull descends forward quite ab- ruptly. The supraoccipital crest in the rear section of the frontals is high, especially in T. luscus; it is lowest in T. esmarkii and is straight and somewhat curved upward, terminating abruptly in front approximately in the center of the skull before the mucous cavity; in the rear it extends be- yond the basioccipital, The mesethmoid descends abruptly in both forms ОА slusicus,; at sSomerangle in, Т. ип ваз and in, T. esmarkii, its forward end with a notch, The orbital space is high, its height contained 143 (in T. esmarkii) about 2 or fewer times in its base. The facial nerve leaves the skull through a foramen, formed by a fusion of the ascending pro- cess of the parasphenoid, forward portion of the prootic and the alisphenoid, The foramen on the opisthotic is very small, The skull from above (B) is broad, the lateral edges of its rear portion formed by the edges of the pterotic, are almost parallel with each other, Forward of the pterotics the skull narrows sharply due to a narrow- ing above the orbits of the forward ends of the frontals. The forward ends of the frontals are widest in T. luscus, narrowest in T. esmarkii. The lateral ethmoids are extended more to the sides than longitudinally; the part extending forward from beneath the frontals is somewhat larger than the portion covered by them. The forward end of the mesethmoid is located be- hind or in back of the forward end of the if vomer, The crests above the sensory ZZ canals are wide; on each side of the WS 4a frontals they are connected by narrow 3:3 | А thread-like commissures with the «Ш edge of the crest which rises above them, The mucous cavity is deep, somewhat separated into two sections by lateral partitions, which rise asa 138 FIGURE 22. Distribution of the genus low crest from its base. Forward of р the mucous cavity, the canals are т- 1-Т. luscus; 2—T. minutus minu- corporated into a bony canal closed on tus; 3—Т. minutus capelanus; 4— all sides, formed by a fusion of the г. lateral crests of the frontals with the central crest of its:forward section. The parietal crests above the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve are in the shape of long transverse processes, which are directed somewhat upward. From be- neath the skull (С), teeth on the vomer are small, placed in a horseshoe - like row which is narrower at the ends and which lies along the forward edge of the head of the vomer; the very apex of the head of the vomer at times is toothless. The parasphenoid in front is slender, rounded, its low- er surface behind the forward edge of the prootic has a lateral concavity. The prootic and opisthotic are greatly convex, the auditory area of the skull is considerably inflated from the sides and somewhat ventrad. In the rear of the skull (D), the supraoccipital crest extends high above its upper edge. The parietal crests above the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve are clearly visible above the dorsal surface of the skull. The rear edge of the preopercular and lower processes of the hyomandibular are parallel to each other in all species; the opercular process is shorter than the lower process, with a broad base in T. esmarkii; almost the same in its entire stretch in all the other species. The lower edge of the 144 operculum in Т. esmarkii is greatly narrowed. The upper edge of the postcleithrum is bent andwidened in T. luscus to the greatest extent. The urohyal is shortened and broad in T. minutus, somewhat more elongate and narrow in all other species. Parapophyses are quite long, particularly in T. minutus, shorter and broaderin T. luscus and T. esmarkii. The first haemal arches are large. Craniologically this genus is well segregated from its nearest relatives. Description based on one skeleton of Т. luscus, twoof T. minutus ИЯ Е 5 two of Ts) /minutus:,capelanus and one of Т. \iesmarkii., DISTRIBUTION, Three species along the European coasts of the At- lantic Ocean and in the western section of the Mediterranean sea, where one of them is represented by a subspecies (Figure 22), 139 Diagnostic Key to the Species and Subspecies 1 (6). Lower jaw shorter than upper. 2 (3). First anal fin long, with 30-34 rays, the length of its base constitut- ing 35.7-37.8 per cent of body length. Interorbital space broad, ий. 919.190 Of NeaGvlemethy и ие ecules Пе ас 5 0) 3 (2). First anal shorter, with 27-30 rays, the length of its Базе constitut- ing 27.9-31.7% of body length. Intererbital space narrower, 17.0- 17.4% of head length. Ao) WaGailli-rakerssabouty2ortws Atlantic, OCEAN sinus ie ceils Vue er opm ee bl) EMAL и ть W Coline ay TO NCA 5 cm Tmt as. (®. М) 5 (4). Gill-rakers 17-20. Western part of the Mediterranean Sea... . Ae ea a NN mn Mt ashe ape ав (В: 5о) ВА) boweryaw Somewhat, longer than пррев д. li is) cue ыы Е EH cat bee Play И ть Зи мне а мана К М5 5.) Века so pte rus: luis Gis (Linné) (Tables МХТ. 25) Gadus luscus Linné, Syst. nat., ed. X, 1758:252 (Oceano Europeo). — Gadus barbatulus Linné, 1. с. :252 (Oceano Europeo). — Gadus bibus Тасерёае, Hist. nat. poiss., II, 1800:365, 403 (Atlantic Ocean at the coasts of Europe). — Morhua lusca Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828:191. — Morhua barbata Fleming, |. c.:191.— Gadus colias Gronow ed. Gray, Cat. fsh., 1854:131. — Gadus minutus Stein- dachner, Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math. -naturw. Cl., LVII, 1, 1868:705 (ex parte: shores of the Iberian Peninsula).— Gadulus luscus Malm, Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:482. — Gadus luscus William- son, 24th Ann. Rept. Fish. Board Scot., pt. 3, (1905), 1906:116 (osteology); Fage, Arch. Zool. Exper. Génér. , (S), VI, 1911:257 (comparison with related forms). » DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Smitt, Scand. fish. , I, 1893:495, pl. LXXII, f. 2 (from the southern coasts of Scandinavia to the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean Sea); Hjort, Rapp. Proces-Verb. , X, 1909:60, +. 16 (spawning); Damas, ibid. :27 (biology); J. Schmidt, ibid. :76, 144 (spawning); Chevey, Rev. Trav. ОН. Péches Marit. , II, 1, 1929:73 (compilation of data on biology and distribution); Tortonese, Boll. pesca, pis- cicult., idrobiol., XI, 2, 1935:232 (at the coasts of Italy). ID 11-14, ПО 20-24, ШО 18-20, ТА 30-34, ПА 19-22, gill-rakers 18—23, vertebrae 47*. The mesethmoid in front descends rather abruptly, its forward end is almost above the forward edge of the vomer. The leading * According to Williamson, 48—49. 145 140 edge of the frontals is almost above the leading edge of the lateral ethmoids, In the interorbital space the skull is broad, about 3 to 4 times in its length, The mouth is inferior. Dorsal and anal fins touch, anals at the base often are fused with each other, First anal fin long, 35.7-37.8% of body length, its origin beneath the origin or somewhat behind the origin of the first dor- sal fin, but no farther than its center. The body is high, the lateral line in the forward section of the body is greatly curved. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 29.2-33.8, antedorsal distance 26.6—29.3, length of pec- toral fin 15.9-19.3, the length of the pelvic fin 12.3-15.7, the base of the first dorsal fin 11.4-14.0, the base of the second dorsal fin 23.9-27.7, base of third dorsal fin 13.7-15.8, the base of the first anal fin 35.7-37.8, base of second anal 15.4-17.1, height of first dorsal 16,2-17.4, height of first anal 12.9-14.8, the depth of the caudal peduncle 4.9-5.9, its length 10.2- 12.8, the length of the head 22.7-23.8. In per cent of head length: length of snout 26.9-28.8, horizontal diameter of eye 28.1-30.9, length of upper jaw 40.0—43.4, length of lower jaw 46.2-49.1, width of forehead 17.9-18.1, length of barbel 23.1-28.6. The upper part of the body is reddish-brown, the lower part lighter with a bluish-gray tint, changing on the belly to whitish; the sides are silvery, the lateral line golden yellow. Almost the entire body is covered with small blackish-brown dots, The fins are blu- ish-black, darker toward the top. Transverse lines of a whitish-gray col- or sometimes run across the body. At the upper edge of the base of the pectoral fin there is a black spot. The length is usually 15-20cm, seldom exceeding 30cm, but may reach 45 ста in length (11 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. European shores of the Atlantic Ocean, at the southern- most shores of Morocco and even farther south (absent, however, at Cape Blanco), in the Bay of Biscay, common around Great Britain and Ireland, in the English Channel, at the western shores of Scotland, in Skaggerak both to Cape Skagon and southern shores of the Province of Bohuslan, Not found at Iceland or the Faroe Islands. Found occasionally in the western part of the Mediterranean along the European and African shores (Morocco and Algiers), Fage, 1.с. :267), BIOLOGY, Studied very little. Stays normally at depths of 250-300 meters, sometimes found in shallow water near shores. Spawning is mainly in the English Channel, where the greatest number of eggs and pelagic lar- vae are found, and also in the Bay of Biscay, at the western and northern shores of Great Britain, around Ireland, in small numbers at the southern part of the North Sea, and-in the Mediterranean. Spawning takes place in comparatively shallow water within the limits of the hundred-meter isobath, primarily at depths of 50 to 100 meters, at fairly high temperatures (not lower than 8—9°C) and at normal oceanic salinities - 32.00-35.35 parts per thousand, The main time of spawning is spring, March-April, spawning in small quantities in summer in June and July and even in August; starting in January. Sexual maturity is attained in one year. A length of 21-25 ст is reached in one year, 23-27 intwo years, 28-33 in three years anda length of 30-31 in four years, Feeds on mollusks, crustaceans, small fish. 146 141 2a. Trisopterus minutus minutus (O. Muller) (Tables XLIII, LXxX) Asellus mollis minor seu Asellus omnium minimus Willughby, Hist. р1зс., 1686:171 (mari Mediterraneo, in "Осеапо vel non omnino vel rarius inveniri"); Ray, Synops. meth. , 1713:163 (litus Comubiense). — Gadus Artedi, Synon., 1738:36, sp. 8; Gen. pisc. , 1738:21, sp. 7 (secundum Willughby et Вау). —Gadus minutus Linné, Syst. nat. ed. X, 1758:25 (secundum Artedi, oc. Atlanticum, errore a Linneo non indicatum); О. Muller, Zool. Dan. prodr., 1776:42 (the shores of Denmark). — Gadus tacaud Lacepéde, Hist. nat. poiss., II, 1800:366, 410 (Atlantic coasts of Europe). — Gadus capelanus Lacepede, 1. с.: 365, 411 (ex parte: Atlantic Ocean and the coasts of Europe). — Morhua minuta Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828:191. — Brachygadus minutus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1862:280. — Gadus minutus Steindachner, Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math. -naturw. Cl., LVII, 1, 1868:704 (ex parte: from Viga, Koruna and Lisbon). — Gadulus minutus Malm. Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:482. — Gadus minutus Williamson, 24th Ann. Rept. Fish. Board Scotl., pt. 3, (1905), 1906:116 (osteology); Fage, Arch. Zool. Exper. Géner. , (5), VI, 1911:257 (comparison with related forms); Chaine et Duvergier, C.-R. Ас. Sci., 20 April, 1927:917 (difference by otoliths). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Mobius u. Heincke, Fische Ostsee, 1862:77 (Kiel Harbor); Smitt, Scand. fish. , I, 1893:495, pl. XXIV, Е. 2 (from Trondheim fjord to coast of the Iberian Peninsula); Hjort, Rapp. Proces-Verb. , X, 1909:59; +. 16 (spawning); Damas, ibid. :215 (biology); J. Schmidt, ibid. :70, 143 (spawning). ТО 13, ПО 23-26, ШО 22-24, I A 28-29, II 23-25, gill-rakers about 28, vertebrae 50*, Mesethmoid descending at а slight angle in front, its forward edge lying slightly behind the forward edge of the vomer. Lead- ing edge of the frontals behind the leading edge of the ethmoids. Skull narrowed in the interorbital space, about 4.4 times in its length, Mouth inferior. Anal fins touching, dorsals also touching or with small inter- spaces. First anal fin 27.9-29.8% of body length, its origin located between the middle and end of the first dorsal fin. Body shallower than in T, luscus, lateral line less strongly curved. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 34.2-—39.7, antedorsal distance 26.2—28.0, length of pec- toral fin 15.8-16.8, length of pelvic fin 13.1-15.1, base of first dorsal fin 10.7-11.4, base of second dorsal 24.6—27.1, base of third dorsal 16,5-16.7, base of first anal 27.9—29.8, base of second anal 17.3-17.4, height of first dorsal 15.9-17.1, height of first anal 10.8-12.5, depth of caudal peduncle 4.6, its length 10.5—-11.1, length of head 22.0—22.5. In per cent of head length: length of snout 23.6-26.5, horizontal diameter of eye 33.7-34.1, length of upper jaw 44.2—44.3, length of lower jaw 50.0—52.0, width of fore- head 17.3-17.4, length of barbel 23.9-24.9. Body above lateral line yellow- ish-brown in color; the sides are lighter with a copper shading; the belly silvery-gray; fins with the same coloration as the body but somewhat dark~- er. Body and fins are covered with small black dots, At the upper edge of the base of the pectoral fin there is a dark spot, sometimes hardly notice- able. Usual length about 15-20cm, seldom to 23 and rarely to 26cm (2 Specimens from North Sea). DISTRIBUTION. European shores of the Atlantic Ocean, northward to Trondheim Fjord, in the east in Zund and Kiel Harbors, common around Great Britain and Ireland; found at the Faroe Islands and southward to the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula. BIOLOGY. The main spawning takes place in the English Channel, at the western and northern shores of Great Britain, around Ireland and in the Bay of Biscay; spawning occurs in small quantity in the North Sea, * According to J. Schmidt, 47-51 vertebrae. 147 Skaggerak, at the northeastern shores of Scotland, and at the Faroe Islands, Spawning grounds are located mainly at depths of 50-100 meters, the main time of spawning—March-April; in lesser quantities eggs are laid earlier or later, until July. Optimal spawning conditions: temperature not less than 8°C, salinity 32.0-35.4 parts per thousand. COMPARATIVE NOTES. At present the Atlantic form of this species bears the name of minutus О. Miller 1776, the Mediterranean — cape - lanus Risso 1826. The form under the name of minutus was indicated by Linné much earlier for the Mediterranean, Lacepede in 1800 indicated terra typica the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean for capelanus., If we bear in mind that G. minutus was accepted by Linne from Artedi, and the latter from Willughby, Ray and Jago, who recorded it also for the At- lantic Ocean which Linné had not done, apparently erroneously, then we will see that both subspecies are indicated for the same places and by the rules of nomenclature neither of these names is suitable and they should be replaced by new names. However, it is doubtful that it would be wise to change the names of these forms accepted by everyone for the past 50 years and more by reversing or giving new names, Therefore, to both these sub- species, even though against the rules of nomenclature, we shall leave the well-established and generally accepted names. G. tacaud Lacep. was accepted by all authors as Т. luscus, even though the number of rays in the first anal fin (25 per Lacepede) indicate it should be referred more properly to T. minutus, but inno case to ie kus seus. 2b. Trisopterus minutus capelanus (Risso) (Table XLIV) Gadus capelanus Lacepede, Hist. nat. poiss., II, 1800:411 (ex parte: Mediterranean Sea). — Мог- hua capelanus Risso, Hist. nat. Europ. тема. , Ш, 1826:226 (Mediterranean Sea). — Gadus minu- tus Steindachner, Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math. -naturw., Cl. LVI, 1, 1868:705 (ex parte: Trieste, 142 Barcelona, and Gibraltar Straits), — Gadus capelanus Fage, Arch. Zool. Exper. Gener. , (5), VI, 191% 257 (comparison with Т. minutus and Т. luscus); Chaine et Duvergier, C.-R. Acad. Sci. 20 April, 1927:917 (difference in otolits) —Gadus minutus Tortenese, Boll. pesca, piscicult. idrobiol., XI, 2, 1935:232 (shores of Italy). ID 11-13, I D18-22, Il] D 17-19, ТА 27-30, ПА 19-20, gill-rakers 17-20, vertebrae 46. Similar to the typical form in the structure of the skull but the forward end of the frontals in the interorbital region is narrower. Mouth inferior. The anal fins touch, and the dorsals also touch or have small interspaces, The first anal fin 29.2-—31.7% of body length, its origin approximately beneath the middle of the first dorsal fin. In body height this takes an intermediate position between T. luscus and the typical form. In per cent of body length: the anteanal distance 31.5-37.4, ante- dorsal distance 28.1-28.8, pectoral length 14.5-16.2, pelvic fin length 13.9- 16.7, base of first dorsal fin 11.2-12.5, base of second dorsal 23.4-24.8, base of third dorsal 15,4-16.7, base of first anal 29.2—31.7, base of second anal 15.4-19.0, height of first dorsal 18.5-19.3, height of first anal 10.4- 10.9, depth of caudal peduncle 4.3-4.6, its length 10.0-11.6, length of head 22.4—23.2. In per cent of head length: length of snout 25.0-27.3, horizontal diameter of eye 30.0-33.2, length of upper jaw 45.5-47.7, length of lower 148 143 jaw 52.2-—56.7, width of forehead 17.0—-17.2, length of barbel 25.7-35.3. Upper part of body pinkish-brown with small black dots on the back and sides, belly grayish-silvery. A dark spot at the base of the pectoral fin, just as in the basic form. Length to 20cm, seldom greater (3 specimens from the Mediterranean Sea). DISTRIBUTION. Western part of the Mediterranean Sea, at the coasts of Iberian and Apennine Peninsulas, at the coasts of Morocco, in the Adriatic Sea, Atlantic Ocean at the Straits of Gibraltar. BIOLOGY. Stays close to shore and to a depth of 300 meters. Spawns from the end of winter to the beginning of summer. Females have ripe eggs in April and May. INDUSTRIAL VALUE comparatively small; it is caught in not too great a quantity, but is highly prized. COMPARATIVE NOTES. This form is very close to T. minutus minutus and ina number of characteristics appears to be intermediate between this species and T. luscus, owing to which many authors have considered it identical with the typical form and some have placed all three forms in one species. T. luscus and T. minutus greatly differ from each other by externo-morphological characters and also by a series of osteological differences. According to the findings of Fage (l.c.), Т. mi- nutus and its Mediterranean form differ ina series of externo-morpho- logical characters, but all these differences have a transgressive character, and osteologically the differences are very small, in view of which they must be considered as geographic subspecies of one species, disregarding the fact that in one character—number of gill-rakers—a hiatus exists at present (28 in T. minutus minutus - 1 specimen; 17-20in T. mi- nutus capelanus- 3 specimens), This hiatus will probably disappear when a sufficient number of specimens has been examined. In the structure of the otoliths these two forms also do not differ as sharply, as T. luscus differs from them. Bothforms of T. minutus differ somewhat in the larval stage by having different pigmentation. Specimens of T. minutus capelanus from the Adriatic Sea differ very little in some identifying features, and perhaps there is here a separate form. *3. Trisopterus esmarkii (Nilsson) (Tables VII, XLV, LXX) Gadus esmarkii Nilsson, Scand. fauna, IV, 1855:565 (shores of Denmark); Dunn a. Holt, Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc., (n.s.), V, 1897-99:79 (southwestern tip of Great Britain, Cape St. Ives); Garstang, ibid. , (п.5.), VI, 1900:274 (English Channel between Saltash and mouth of the Lynher River); Williamson, 24th Ann. Rept. Fish. Board Scotl., pt. 3, (1905), 1906:116 (osteology, number of rays, measurements); Hjort, Rapp. Proces-Verb., X, 1909:59 (spawning grounds); Damas, ibid.:160 (spawning); J. Schmidt, ibid. :63 (spawning); Johnsen, Bergens Mus. Arbok (1918-1919), 2, 1921:51 (one specimen from the Murman coast); Saemundsson, Synops. fish. Iceland, 1927:27 (on southern and western shores of Iceland); Medd. Komm. Hanunders. , Fisk. , VIII, 7, 1929:26 (biology, age); Boldovskii, Dokl. Akad. Nauk, XXIV, 3, 1939:305 (72°08! north latitude, 27°25' east longitude at a depth of 237 meters, 71°23' north latitude, 30°32' east longitude at a depth of 300 meters, 71°00' north latitude, 34°00' east longitude at a depth of 190 meters); Maslov, Tr. Polyarn. naucho-issled. inst. morsk. rybn. khoz. i okeanogr., 8, 1944: 168(spawning at the Lofoten Islands, young at Bear Island). 149 144 LD 14-15, Il D-23-—26,,, 111 D.23-26, 1 A,29-—31, IL.A,29-27, vertebrae 51*, Mesethmoid gradually descending forward, its leading edge much be- hind the leading edge of the vomer. Forward edge of the frontals much be- hind the forward edge of the lateral ethmoids, Skull much narrowed in the interorbital region, about 5.3 times in its length. Lower jaw slightly pro- jects forward. Anal fins touching, dorsals with a small interspace. Begin- ning of first anal almost beneath the rear end of the first dorsal. Barbel not very long, 10.4% of head length. Body much lower than in all other spe- cies of this genus, lateral line less curved. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 34.3-37.5, antedorsal distance 25.3-217.1, length of pec- toral fin 16.7-17.6, length of pelvic fin 12.3-14.5, base of first dorsal fin 11.6-12.7, base of second dorsal 22.1-25.1, base of third dorsal 15.4-18.4, base of first anal 20.4-—26.6, base of second anal 16.4-18.5, height of first dorsal 12.6-13.6, height of first anal 10.6—11.9, depth of caudal peduncle 3.8—4.0, its length 10.5-12.5, length of head 22.1-22.9. In per cent of head length: length of snout 27.9-31.3, horizontal diameter of eye 31.9- 33.5, length of upper jaw 40.7-—42.0, length of lower jaw 53.0-55.0, width of forehead 12.4-13.7, length of barbel 10.4. Dorsum grayish-brown, the sides dull silvery, belly pale. At the upper edge of the base ot the pectoral fin there is a dark spot, which sometimes is not noticeable on specimens preserved in alcohol. Measurements to 25cm, most often 15-20cm (4 specimens), DISTRIBUTION, ‘European shores of the Atlantic Ocean from Iceland to the southern waters of Ireland and the southwestern tip of Great Britain (Cape St. Ives on Cornwall Peninsula); found at the Faroe Islands, east in the Skaggerak and Kattegat. At the southern and western shores of Iceland but not at the northern and eastern shores, In the English Channel it is known only in the extreme western part (between Saltach and Lynher Rivers). Recently in connection with the general warming up along the shores of the Scandinavian Peninsula, it has penetrated into the western part of the Barents Sea to 34° 20' east longitude and to Bear Island, BIOLOGY. Studied as little as all other species of this genus. Spawning occurs almost throughout the entire area of the range, more intensively at the southern and southwestern shores of Iceland and in the northern section of the North Sea. It lays eggs in great numbers along the western shores of Ireland and Great Britain, at the Faroe Islands, and at the southwestern shores of Norway. Spawning on a minor scale also takes place in Skaggerak and the northern sections of Kattegat. Spawning individuals have been found in great numbers in recent years at the Lofoten Islands, and young at Bear Island, In the very southernmost section of the North Sea and in the English Channel no spawning takes place. Spawning occurs at the same depths, at which adult fishes live mostly, — from 80 to 200 meters. Spawning time — from the end of February to July and even to August, most intensively from the end of March to the beginning of May. Optimal spawning conditions: temperature 5 to 9-10°C, most often at 6-7°С, salinity 35.0-35.2 parts per thousand, Sexual maturity is reached at two or three years of age at a length of 16-20cm. Growth at the shores of Iceland occurs as follows: « According to J. Schmidt, 52-55 vertebrae. 150 145 Age (in years) Paar opr 4+ 5 + Length (cm) 16.5 18.0 21.8 23.0 Females grow faster than males and live somewhat longer. Feeds on small crustaceans (Calanus, Rhoda, Meganyctiphanus) and Scopelus. Does not undertake large migrations; keeps more or less constant at the same place, which apparently explains to a great extent the restricted distribution of this fish. In summer it approaches closer to shore and in winter goes into the deep waters. COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE insignificant; there is no special industry for it. At the shores of Iceland it plays a considerable role in the feeding of cod. COMPARATIVE NOTES, This species is very distinct craniologically from the two preceding and externo-morphological characters distinguish it from them very much more. The width of the bony interorbital at the forward edge of the foramen of the facial nerve diminishes in Т. lus.cus to T. esmarkii. One of the craniological distinctions between these species of Trisopterus — the width of the frontals and interorbital re- gion — also changes in the same direction. 12. Genus ODONTOGADUS Gill "Les merlans" Cuvier, Régne animal, éd. I, Il, 1817:213 (Type: Gadus merlangus L.).— Mer- langus (non Rafinesque 1810, synonym’Merluccius) Oken, "Isis," 1817:1182 (Type: С. merlangus L. , secundum Cuvier). — Odontogadus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , 1863:248 (Type: С. euxinus Nordm. ). The dorsal fins are separated by small spaces, the anals touch, The first anal fin is long; it usually begins beneath the middle of the second dorsal fin. The caudal fin is almost without a notch, The mental barbel is either absent, or, whenpresent, small. Lower jaw slightly shorter than upper There is a row of sharp, well-developed teeth on the premaxillary, medial to which on the premaxillary and lateral to which on the dentary there are small, irregularly arranged teeth; small teeth are present along the for- ward edge of the head of the vomer, the lateral teeth the longest. There is a black spot above the base of the pectoral fin. Lateral line on tne forward half of the body a shallow arch above the central axis of the body, farther on straight, continuous along its entire length. There is a system of pores on the head along the sensory canal: 13 pores in the preoperculo- mandibu- lar canal, 9 pores in the infraorbital canal, 3 pores in the supraorbital canal and 1 unpaired pore in the supraorbital commissure, The mucous cavity оп the skull is closed in front. Prootic with a notch in front. Hyo- mandibular extended longitudinally; the opercular process is shorter than the lower process, SKELETON, Skull not exceedingly high (A), its base more than 3 times its height. Lower profile almost straight, parasphenoid with a small curve beneath the forward end of the prootic. Upper profile of the skull gradually descending forward. The supraoccipital crest is not very high; anteriorly it runs imperceptibly into the crest on the rear of the frontal, terminating suddenly in front, approximately in the middle of the skull before the mucous 151 cavity, terminating behind above _ the rear end of the basioccipital or projecting slightly in back of it. The forward edge of the mesethmoid is almost vertical, located almost at right angles to its upper edge, straight, with- out a noticeable notch. Orbital space not high, elongate, its height contained 25times in Из Базе. The facial nerve leaves the skull through a quite deep notch in the forward edge of the pro- otic; the edges of this cavity are an- gular where it changes from the pro- otic to the alisphenoid above and to the upper processes of the parasphe- noid below. The foramen on the opis- é thotic is small. The lateral edge of* \EZA Е the frontals and pterotic on the skull 2 и ры above (В) are almost straight but placed at an angle to each other, be- cause of which the lines forming the FIGURE 23. Distribution of the genus borders of the lateral edges of the Odontogadus skull are slightly curved. Lateral (O.emetladgus menlangas lO: ethmoids extend slightly from be- merlangus euxinus. neath the frontals on the sides and in front, reaching far back from the sides and under the frontals. Forward end of the vomer is located almost beneath the forward end of the mesethmoid. the crests above the canals on the frontals and pterotics are wide, and rise quite high above these bones. Mucous cavity deep, divided from top to bot- tom into two sections by a long narrow partition, In the front the mucous cavity enters into the paired canals which are closed from above by a fusion of the lateral crests of the frontals with the median crest of its forward portion, The parietal crests above the foramina of the recurrent dorsal branches of the facial nerves are extended farther longitudinally than they are laterally, just slightly elevated above the surface of the parietals, al- most unseen on the skull from behind. On the skull from beneath (С), along the forward edge of the vomer, there is a row of small somewhat backward- hooked teeth, the posterior of which are the largest. The lower surface of the middle section of the parasphenoid is flattened, rounded in front and with a small longitudinal concavity in back. The prootic is quite convex on the sides, to such an extent that the lateral walls of the cranium when viewed from behind (D) in the otic region are definitely convex. The supraoccipital crest extends quite a bit above the skull. The preopercular process of the hyomandibular is almost the same in length as the rear portion of the lower process, its rear ends almost parallel to each other. The lower fork of the posttemporal is long, almost equal to the length of the upper. The post- cleithrum has a considerable curve slightly above its middle, its upper end broadened. The urohyal is quite short and broad, Parapophyses are quite long, the first haemel arches are of small dimensions. Description given from one skeleton of О. merlangus merlangus and three skeletons of О. merlangus euxinus., 152 DISTRIBUTION. One species along the Atlantic and Mediterranean 146 shores of Europe with a subspecies in the Black Sea (Figure 23). Diagnostic Key to the Subspecies 1 (2), Mental barbel usually absent and if present hardly noticeable. Рес- toral fins 13.8—15.6%, pelvic fins 7.4-8.6% of body length. Atlantic Ocean, North, Mediterranean and Adriatic эеаз........... ou a on oan OO. мега аа “me Panto urs Gees) 2 (1). There is always a well-developed barbel on the chin. Pectoral fins 15.4-18.2%, pelvics 8.1-11.3% of body length. Black Sea. lb. О. merlangus euxinus (Nordm. ) *1а. Odontogadus merlangus merlangus (Linné)—Merlang (Tables VIII, XLVI, LXX) Gadus merlangus Linné, Syst. nat., ed. X, 1758:258 (Oceano Europeo). — Merlangus vulgaris Kroyer, Danm, Fiske, II, 1843-1845:83. — Gadus merlangus Steindachner, Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math. -naturw. С1., VLII, 1, 1868:703 (ex parte: Copenhagen, Bergen, Viga, Adriatic Sea). — Merlangus linnei Malm, Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:485. - Gadus euxinus (non Могат. ) Ninni, Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., XIII, 1880:75 (Adriatic Sea); Graeffe, Arb. Zool. Inst. Univers. Wien. u. Zool. Stat. Triest, VII, 1880:10 (Adriatic Sea), — Gadus merlangus Williamson, 26th Ann. Rept. Fish. Board Scotl., pt. 3, (1907), 1909:97 (description of the skull), — Gadus merlangus merlangus Svetovidov, Dokl. Akad. Nauk, I, 6, 1935:431, +. 1 (comparison with Black Sea form). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Mobius и. Heincke, Fische Ostsee, 18332235 (western part of the Baltic Sea, from Bostock east to Jutland Island); Smitt, Scand. fish., I, 18932487 (distribution, biology); Fulton, Publ. Circonst., 8-9, 1904:4; Hjort, Rapp. Procés-Verb., X, 1909:56, fig. 15 (spawning grounds); Damas, ibid. 34 (biology); J. Schmidt, ibid. :57, 142 (biology); Derjugin, Fauna kol'skogo zaliva, 1915:588 /Kola Вау); Saemundsson, Medd. Komm. Havunders., Fisk., VIII, 1925:26 (age and growth); Bull. Journ. Маг. Biol. Assoc., XV, 1928:207 (maturity, chemical structure); Desbrosses, Rev. Trav. Off. Péches Marit. , XIII, 1-4, 1939-1943 :177 (Atlantic shores of France; propagation, development, growth); Maslov, Tr. polyarn, naucho-issled, inst. morsk. rybn. khoz. i okeanogr., 8, 1944:168 (Kola Вау in 1936 and 1937, Motovski Bay). ID 12-15, ПО 18-25, ШО 19-22, ТА 30-35, ПА 21-23, gill-rakers 21-22, vertebrae 54*. Usually no barbel on the chin; if present hardly no- ticeable**, In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 34.1-38.2, antedor- sal distance 28.6-—30.0, length of pectoral fin 13.8-15.6, length of pelvic fin 7,4-8.6, length of base of first dorsal 11.6-14.5, length of base of se- cond dorsal 19.8-22.1, length of base of first anal 30.4—33.1, height of first anal 30.4-3.1,[Translator's note: This is probably an error. | height of first ‚ dorsal 9.4-12.4, depth of caudal peduncle 4.7-5.5, its length 9.6-11.7, length of head 23.9-25.2. In per cent of head length: length of snout 32,.2—- 35.6, horizontal diameter of eye 21.6-28.8, length of upper jaw 40.6—44.1, length of lower jaw 50.7-56.0, width of forehead 18.3-20.7. Coloration greatly variable, in large specimens back and upper part of head yellowish- * According to J, Schmidt, 53-57 vertebrae. ЖЖ In 14 specimens examined six had a hardly noticeable rudimentary barbel (3 specimens 92, 107 and 265 mm in length from the North Sea; 1 specimen 202 mm in length from Coast of Murman; and 2 зре- cimens 207 and 236mm in length from the Adriatic Sea), 153 147 brown with grayish-violet shade, sides yellowish-gray, yellow dots along and under the lateral line, often fused and zigzag-like or netlike striping; belly and lower portion of head milky-white. Unpaired fins approximately the same color as the upper portion of body; dorsals somewhat darker than the anals, Pectoral fins yellowish with black dots above the base; belly fins milky-white. Usual measurements 30-35cm, seldom to 68 cm. DISTRIBUTION. Along the European coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas. North to the coasts of Murman (Dal'nezelenetskaya Bay, Ekaterininskaya Harbor) and Iceland; at the shores of Norway and Faroe Is- lands, in the North Sea, in the western part of the Baltic Sea occasionally to Jutland Island, around Great Britain and Ireland, occasionally around to the Iberian Peninsula in the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas. In the Aegean and Marmore Seas the typical form or O. merlangus euxinus, Heuglin (Reisen nach а. Nordpolarmeer ш а. Jahren 1870 и. 1871, 11,1872-— 74:213), apparently erroneously indicated it at Vaigach Island, BIOLOGY. Usually keeps along shore, not only at the bottom but often in the intermediate and upper layers of water. Enters brackish estuaries and even the lower waters of rivers. Spawning takes place throughout the entire range, with the exception of the most northern limits. Basic spawn- ing grounds are located along the shores of the southern portion of the North Sea, along the eastern and northwestern shores of Great Britain, around Ireland, and the southern and southwestern shores of Iceland along the coasts of Norway northward to 65° north latitude. Spawns less intensively in the central and northern portions of the North Sea at the Faroe Islands, at Skaggerak and western portion of the Baltic Sea, in the English Channel, and in the northern part of the Bay of Biscay. In time of spawning this is one of the latest forms of gadoids; spawning begins at the end of January and continues to the middle of July, in the northern parts ofits range slightly later than in the southern. There are indications of possible spawning in the fall (in October, Fulton, 1. с.). Spawning occurs at depths as little as 20 meters, usually at 40-80 meters, at temperatures of 5 to 10°C in the North Sea and 9.5-11.5° С along the coasts of the English Channel and Brit- tany, in waters of normal oceanic salinity, from 30 to 35.25 parts per thou- sand, The young are pelagic for a long time. Migrations of adults are not well studied, but apparently the species does not undertake extensive migrations, remains more or less locally, does not gather into big schools. Feeds on crustaceans and small fish (herring, etc. ). Growth along the shores of Iceland occurs as follows (Saemundsson, l. c.): Age (in years) tgs oad Siar 4+ 5 + 6+ 7+ 8+ Length (cm) 15.1 27.0 39.3 46.6 51.4 54.7 59.2 62.5 It reaches а lesser age and grows somewhat slower along the shores of Мог- way. Females reach a greater age and apparently grow somewhat faster than males, The Icelandic merlang is, on the average, somewhat larger than the Norwegian; here most often are found specimens 40-55 cm. COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE none in our waters. About 700 thousand metric centner are caught annually along the shores of western Eu- rope, main places of catch—North Sea, Skaggerak, Kattegat, the shores of Great Britain and Ireland. 154 148 *1р. Odontogadus merlangus euxinus (Nordmann)—Black Sea merlang, piksha (incorrect), merlanka (at the Batum fisheries)* (Tables VIII, XLVII). Gadus euxinus Nordmann, Faune pontique, 1830:526, pl. XXVI, f. 2 (everywhere along the coasts of the Black Sea). — Gadus merlangus (non Linné) Steindachner, Sitzmgsber, Akad. Wiss. Wien. , math. - naturw. Cl., LVII, 1, 1868:703 (ex parte: Black Sea). — Gadus euxinus Kessler, Ryby Azalo-kasp. - pont. oblast. , 1877:233 (ex parte: Black Sea and at the shores of the Crimea). — Gadus merlangus euxinus Svetovidov, Dokl. Akad. Nauk, I, 6, 1935:426, f. 2 (comparison with basic form). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Kiselevich, sbor. stud. biol. kruzka novoross. univ., 3, 1908:11 (Black Sea and Dniester Delta, Odessa Port); Zernov, zap. akad. nauk, (VIII), XXXII, 1913:174 (Black Sea and at Sevastopol); Druniski, spis. blgarsk. akad. nauk, XXV, 1928:108 (ex parte: Black Sea and Varna, Burgas, Sozopol); Vodyanitzkii, Tr. Sevastopol, biol. st., V, 1936:7 (Sevastopol Harbor, eggs); Pchelina, tr. Novoross.biol. st., II, 1, 1936:32 (young); Kosyakin, tr. Novoross. biol. st., II, 2, 1938:26 (spawning and in the region of Novorossisk); Malyatskii, zoologich. zhurn., XVII, 4, 1938:667, 674 (role in feeding of sturgeon); Pchelina, tr. Novoross. biol. , st., Il, 3, 1940:71 (young in Novorossisk Harbor). ГО 14-17, ПО 16-19, ШО 18-22, I A 28-32, ПА 19-22, gill-rakers 20-23, vertebrae 53. Always a well developed noticeable barbel** on the chin. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 35.6-38.2, antedorsal distance 27.6-—30.2, length of pectoral fin 15.4-18.2, length of pelvic fin 8.1—11.3, length of base of first dorsal fin 12.3-15.8, length of base of se- cond dorsal 17,3-19.9, length of base of first anal 29.0—31.6, height of first dorsal 11.7-13.8, depth of caudal peduncle 3,6-4.5, its length 10.5-12.5, length of head 23.7-25.8. In per cent of head length: length of snout 32.2- 34.8, horizontal diameter of eye 22.8-26.5, length of upper jaw 38.8-—43.3, length of lower jaw 49.0-52.2, width of forehead 18.1-20.1. Upper part of head and budy reddish-brown or yellowish-gray with violet or pink shading. Lower part of body white with a silvery cast. Fins, particularly dorsal and caudal, are yellowish with yellow-gray stripe forward and in the center along the entire fin. First anal fin milky-white with a yellow cast. Dimensions 15-20cm, seldom to 50cm or more, DISTRIBUTION. Along the shores of the Black Sea, Kerch Straits, and the adjacent portions of the Azov Sea (Kazantip) t BIOLOGY. Studied very little. Rare. At Sevastopol it appears in the fall in great numbers, when the temperature of the water drops to 16°C and remains for October, November and December. Gametes are developed in November, December and April. Spawning opposite Novorossisk from No- vember to May, in deep layers of the open sea (40 meters), eggs caught in September; in May of 1936 a considerable quantity of eggs were found in the deep layers of the sea. In Sevastopol Harbor eggs were found in May-July. Youngsters 9.2-28 mm in length at the surface and at a depth of 30 meters with temperature from 8 to 12°C were caught in Novorossisk Harbor and at its mouth in March-April; one young 11mm in length was caught in the open sea at a depth of 30 meters in the end of June. No COMMERCIAL VALUE, but it plays an important role in the feeding of beluga [sturgeon], being its basic food in winter opposite Sevastopol Harbor. * According to information by I. I. Puzanov. ** On fishes 12-18cm length, length of barber 2.3—3.2mm. 1 According to information Бу V. Abramov. 155 149 COMPARATIVE NOTES. The main distinction of this form, at first des- cribed as an independent species, from the typical form was the presence of the barbel on the chin in the first and the absence of it from the second. Be- cause of this, some authors (Ninni, 1. c.; Graeffe, 1. с.) considered the range of the Black Sea form to be much broader—inclusive of the Adriatic Sea where specimens having barbels were found, while other authors (Stein- dachner, 1. с.) consider this form to be identical with the typical form af- ter specimens having barbels were discovered among the latter as well, Comparison of specimens from the Barents, North, Adriatic and Black Seas (Svetovidov, 1. с.) indicated that the Black Sea specimens are quite distinct from all others, and besides the constant presence of a barbel, have a group of other characters; however, all of these characteristics, as may be seen from the diagnosis of both forms, appear to be continuous because of which the Black Sea merlang is considered a subspecies. Specimens (2) from the Adriatic Sea are referred by all distinguishing characters to the typical form. Comparison of the skeletons of both forms substantiates their rela- tionship (see Tables XLIV and XLV) and a very minor distinction was dis- covered only inthat, ш О. merlangus merlangus the skull is slight- ly broader and the forward ends of the frontals extend somewhat more for- ward than in О. merlangus euxinus; on another skull of О. merlan- gus euxinus examined the frontals in front extend forward just as in O. merlangus merlangus, It is possible that a form intermediate be- tween these two will be found in the Adriatic Sea. 13. Genus POLLACHIUS (Nilsson) Bonaparte Pollachius Nilsson in: Bonaparte, Cat. met. pesci Europ., 1846:45 (Type: Gadus pollachius L.); Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. N. a. M. Amer., III, 1898:2534. Dorsal and anal fins separated by interspaces, First anal fin long, be- ginning beneath the middle or at the rear of the first dorsal fin, Caudal fin notched, Barbel on chin hardly developed or absent. Lower jaw projects. Teeth on premaxillary and dentary and ina stripe along the forward edge of the уотег. Lateral line almost straight or slightly curved beneath the beginning of the second dorsal fin. Pores on the head along the sensory canals: 13 pores inthe preoperculo-mandibular canal, 8 pores in the infra- orbital canal, 3 pores in the supraorbital canal, and 1 unpaired pore in the supraorbital commissure, The mucous cavity is closed in front on the skull, There is a notch in the forward part of the prootic. The hyomandibular is stretched lengthwise, the opercular processes shorter than the lower pro- cess, SKELETON, Skull in profile (A) not high, its height contained little more than 3 times in its length. Parasphenoid with a curve (in P. pollachius slightly greater than in Р. virens) under the forward end of the prootic; in front of and behind this curve are bones lying at the base of the skull, dis- tributed in a straight line. The upper profile of the skull presents a wavy line gradually descending anteriorly, Supraoccipital and frontal crests not very high, slightly convex where the supraoccipital crosses over on to the frontal, extending beyond the basioccipital in the rear, the forward end 156 150 151 sharply diminishing in the forward half of the skull before the mucous cavity. The mesethmoid gradually descends in front, its forward edge straight (in Р. pollachius) or convex (in P. virens), placed at an obtuse angle, slightly greater in P. virens thanin P. pollachius, to the upper. The orbital space is lengthened and low, its base 3 or more times exceeding its height. The facial nerve exits from the skull via a notch in the forward part of the prootic; in place of the transgression of the lower edge of the notch of the prootic on to the ascending process of the parasphenoid in Р. pollachius, there is a small convexity, andin Р. virens this edge of the prootic and the ascending process of the parasphenoid are located ata considerable angle. The foramen on the opisthotic is of quite considerable dimensions. The outer edges of the frontals on the skull from above (B), forming, together with the pterotic and sphenotic, the lateral edges of the skull, have a notch on each side above the orbits, andin Р. pollachius it is somewhat deeper thanin P. virens. The lateral ethmoids extend somewhat from beneath the frontals to the sides and are lengthened longi- tudinally, extending a considerable distance anteriorly and especially pos- teriorly. The forward end of the mesethmoid is located behind the forward end of the vomer. The crests of the canals of the lateral line on the frontals and pterotic are broad, rising quite high above these bones. The mucous cavity is quite deep, separated into two sections by a high and wide longitu- dinal partition. Forward of the mucous cavity the lateral crests of the frontals fuse with the median crest of the forward part of the frontals and form bony canals which are locked from all sides, The crests on the pari- etals above the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve are extended more longitudinally, and are directed outward and upward, The vomer оп the underside of the skull (C) is quite broad, the teeth are placed in a narrow stripe of two or three rows along the forward edge of the head; the outer teeth are the larger; the very apex of the head some- times toothless. The lower surface of the parasphenoid in P. pollachi- us is flattened in the rear, in P. virens it is flattened somewhat forward of the forward end of the prootic. The rear ends of the lateral ethmoids from beneath are located at a shallow angle to the longitudinal axis of the skull. The auditory area has a small bulge on the sides, thus all the lateral surfaces of the skull from the rear (D) are somewhat convex. Extending crests on the parietals above the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve are readily seen from behind, Atop the skull the supraocci- pital crest extends quite high. The rear edge of the preopercular and the lower processes of the hyomandibular are placed at a slight angle to each other; the preopercular process is shorter than the rear part of the lower process. The forward edge of the operculum has a lip which makes this bone rectangular; the lower part of the subopercular also has a lip, broader than the upper part. The lower fork of the posttemporal is almost the same length as the upper. Postcleithrum has a curve at a considerable distance from the upper edge, the portion above the curve greatly widened. The uro- hyal is quite narrow and elongate. The parapophyses are quite long in P. pollachius, shorter and wider in Р. virens. The first haemal and several arches following it are quite large in P. virens, somewhat smal- lenin Ps pol tac ВЫ: Description based on one skeleton of P. pollachius one of P. Mili ens), 157 17) FIGURE 24, Distribution of the genus Pollachius 1 PP=pollaichitus;42—'Pi) virens. DISTRIBUTION. Two species in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean (Figure 24). COMPARATIVE NOTES. The genera Pollachius and Odontogadus are very close to each other craniologically. Also, they differ very slightly externo-morphologically. The greatest material external difference be- tweenthem is in the structure of the mouth: in Pollachius the upper jaw extends forward, in Odontogadus the lower jaw. It is possible that these are subgenera of one genus, Diagnostic Key to the Species 1 (2). Barbel absent from the chin, lateral line with a sharp curve beneath the origin of the second dorsal fin, gill-rakers 26-27 .... peas eos Ее а, 2 (1). On she chin. a и. Неа babel: lateral line without a sharp curve beneath the second dorsal fin, gill-rakers 35-40. es RR р errr fe ne В. ды, 1. Pollachius pollachius (Linné) (Tables IX, XLVIII, LXX) Gadus pollachius Linné, Syst. nat., ed. X, 1758:254 (Oceano Europeo). — Gadus lycostomus Faber, Tidskr. Naturv. Kbnhvn, V, 1828:215, 251. — Merlangus pollachius Kryer, Danm. Fiske, II, 1843 - 1845:123 (at Danish shores, biology). — Pollachius typus Bonaparte, Cat. met. pesci Europ. , 1846:45. — Gadus viridus Gronow ed. Gray, Cat. fish., 1854:133. — Pollachius linnei Malm, Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:487. — Gadus pollachius Williamson, 20th Ann. Rept. Fish. Board Scotl. , pt. 3, (1901), 1902:228 (osteology). 158 152 DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Steindachner, Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. , math. -naturw. Cl., LVII, 1, 1868:706 (Korunja, Vigo, westem coast of Portugal); Moreau, Hist. nat. poiss. France, III, 1881:241 (length to 130cm); Mobius u. Heincke, Fische Ostsee, 1882:236 (westem part of the Baltic Sea, eastward to Mecklenberg Harbor); Smitt, Scand. fish. , I, 1893:504 (from Varanger Fjord to Iberian Peninsula, western part of the Baltic Sea, biology); Hjort, Rapp. Procés-Verb. , X, 1909:54, f. 16 (spawning grounds); Damas, ibid. :217 (biology); J. Schmidt, ibid. :44, 142 (biology); Dannevig a. Sdrenson, Rept. Могу. Fish. Mar. Invest. , IV, 4, 1934:9 (age and growth). ТО 12, ПО 19-20, ШО 17-19, ТА 29, ПА 17-20, gill-rakers 26-27, vertebrae 54*, The frontals in the interorbital region have а considerable notch in the sides, the lateral ethmoid extends in front from beneath the forward end of the frontals. The barbel is absent from the chin, the lateral line has a sharp curve beneath the origin of the second dorsal, the caudal fin has a weak Ssemilunar notch. Eyes quite large, 21.6-22.6% of the head -length; jaws elongate, the upper jaw 37.7, the lower 57.2% of head length; interorbital space narrow, 15,2-15.7% of head length. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 37.3-38.2, antedorsal distance 32.5-33.2, length of pectoral fin 12.8—15.0, length of pelvic fin 5.1-5.8, depth of caudal ped- uncle 5.6, its length 10.9-12.0, length of head 24.8-24.9. In per cent of head length: length of snout 36.0-36.8. Coloration highly variable, back and top of head dark, olive-brown, sharply set off from the silvery-gray Sides and belly; on the upper part of the body in adults there are scattered dark yellow or orange dots or stripes. With the exception of the pelvics, all the fins are the same color as the dorsum; pelvic fins are usually light yellow. Lateral line greenish, Measurements of the largest 45—60 ста, usually slightly less, but there are indications that some reach a length of 130cm (2 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. Along the European coast of the Atlantic Ocean, common in the northern section to Trondheim Fjord, occasionally to Varanger Fjord, in small numbers in the western part of the Baltic Sea to Mecklenburg Har- bor and occasionally somewhat farther (northward from Simbrisgam, oppo- site Bornholm Island), at the southern shores of Iceland, occasionally also along the northern shores, at the Orkney Islands, around Great Britain and Ireland, in the Bay of Biscay, occasionally around the Iberian Peninsula and in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea (at Nice and Sicily), which, however, D'Ancona (Arch, Zool. Ital., 1930) considers doubtful. It is found in places so close to us (Varanger Fjord) that we can expect to find occasion- al specimens in our waters. BIOLOGY. Exclusively a marine fish although occasionally it enters the lower estuarine parts of rivers. Keeps close to shore at somewhat lesser depths than the saida. Judging by its distribution and spawning grounds, this is amore warm-loving fish than the saida. Like the saida, it not only keeps to the bottom but also occurs in the intermediate and upper layers of water. Spawning takes place mainly along the western shores of Great Britain and Ireland, in the English Channel, along the coast of France to the Bay of Biscay, less intensively in the Bay of Biscay, in the northern and central portions of the North Sea, at Skaggerak, along the shores and in some fjords of Norway to 60° north latitude and at the Faroe Islands. Spawning time falls in the end of winter and in spring—from February to May; the height of spawning is in March; in the north somewhat later. * According to J. Schmidt 52-55 vertebrae. 159 153 Spawns at lesser depths than the saida, but at greater depths than the North Sea cod. Most spawn within the limits of the 100-meter isobath, fewer to a depth of 200 meters. Spawning takes place at temperatures of 8° and higher, mainly around 10°C and a salinity from 32-35 parts per thousand, Migrations of adults and young have not been studied. In summer the adults occur further north, in winter they return, Feeds primarily on small herring. Growth according to data derived from scale studies occurs as follows (mean figures): Age Cin уваги. 1 2 3 + 5 Length (с. 6.) 13.5 — Fla 26.2—31.2 37.3-40.2 45,4-47.6 ay COMMERCIAL VALUE is very small. COMPARATIVE NOTES. Krd6yer (1. с.) indicates the identity of Gadus lycostomus Faber, *2, Pollachius у1гепз ( Linné )—Saida (Tables IX, XLIX, LXX) Gadus virens Linné, Syst. nat., ed. X, 1758:253 (Oceano Europeo). — Gadus carbonarius Linné, l. с. :254 (Oceano Eruopeo). — Gadus colinus Lacepede, Hist. nat. poiss., II, 1800:366, 416 (adult), — Gadus sey Lacepéde, 1. c.:367, 417 (young) — Gadus arbonarius et С. virens Risso, Ichth. Nice, 1810:112. — Gadus purpureus Mitchill, Trans. Lit. Phil. Soc. М. Y., I, 1815:370. — Merlangus carbonarius Sabine, Suppl. Pary's voy. , 1824:211 (western shores of Davis Strait, young 10-13cm in length). — Merlangus virens et М. carbonarius Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828:195. — Mer- langus virens Reinhardt, Kngl. Danske Vidensk. Selk., Nat. Afh., VII, 1838:115, 128 (coast of Green- land). — Merlangus leptocephalus DeKay, New York fauna, IV, 1842:288, pl. LXV, Е. 146. — Mer- langus carbonarius Кгбуег, Danm. fiske, II, 1843-1845:102 (identified P. virens with Р. carbon- arius). — Merlangus purpureus Storer, Synops. fish. М. America, 1846:220 (coast of North America). - Pollachius carbonarius Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , 1863:231 (synonymy). — Gadus virens Williamson, 20th Ann. Rept. Fish. Board Scotl., pt. 3, (1901), 1902:228 (osteology, number of rays, compar- ison of С. morhua and Р. pollachius). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Danilevskii, Issled. rybol. Rossii, УТ, 1862:10 (coast of Murman): Mobius u. Heincke, Fische Ostsee, 1882:286 (western part of the Baltic Sea); Smitt, Scand. fish. , I, 1893:500 (dis- tribution, biology); Hjort, Rapp. Procés-Verb., X, 1909:52, f. 13 (spawning grounds); Damas, ibid. :167 (biology); J. Schmidt, ibid. :134, 140 (biology); Deryugin, Fauna Kol'skogozaliva, 1915:588 (KolaBay, adults and juveniles); Bigelow a. Welsh, Fish. gulf Maine, 1925:296 (from Chesapeake Bay to Hudson and Davis Straits, biology); Sund, Rept. Могу. Fish Маг. Invest., III, 5, 1925:1 (experimental spawning along the northern shores of Norway); Fischer, Mitt. Deutsch. Seefischerei-Ver. , XLII, 1926:19 (larvae in the western portion of the Baltic Sea); Saemundsson, Medd. Komm. Havunders., Fisk. , VIII, 7, 1929:26 (growth); Gur- vich, Izv. ikht. inst., XIII, 2, 1931:104 (young in the stomach of cod from the coast of Novaya-Zemlya); Jensen a. Hansen, Rapp. Procés-Verb. , LXXII, 1931:39 (from western coast of Greenland); Murmanskii, za. rybn. Industr. Severa, 9, 1934:8 (commercial value); Dannevig, Journ. Conseil, VIII, 3, 1933:355 (verte- bral counts); Berg, Probl. Fizichesk. geogr., П, 1935:77 (White Sea); Agapov and Toporkov, Probl. Arktiki, 2, 1937:107, Figure 3 (young from the western coast of Novaya Zemlya); Maslov, tr. polyarn. nauchno-issled, inst. morsk. губа knoz. i okeanogr., 8, 1944:169 (with matured eggs and gametes in February at the Lofoten Islands, in July, 1936 at Saida Lip of Kola Bay). ID 13-14, ПО 20-22, ШО 20-24, I1A.25—-28, II A 19-23, gill-rakers 35-40, vertebrae 54*, The frontals in the interorbital region are almost without a notch, their forward edges on either side partially reach the for- ward edges of the lateral ethmoids. А barely noticeable barbel on the chin, * According to J. Schmidt 53-56 vertebrae. According to Dannevig average from various localities in Skaggerak varied from 53.40 to 53.68. 160 L54 lateral line almost straight without a sharp curve beneath the origin of the second dorsal fin, caudal fin with a considerable notch. Eyes not large, 15.3—21.4% of head length; jaws shortened, upper 33.0-35.1, lower 48.7 - 52.0% of head length. Interorbital space broad, 19.3—23.8% of head length. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 38.1-41.5, antedorsal distance 29.5—32.4, length of pectoral fin 11.7-14.0, length of pelvic fin 6.5-7.7, depth of caudal peduncle 4.2-—5.5, its length 10.4—12.8, length of head 23.0- 24.0. In per cent of head length: length of snout 31.4-36.6. Coloration very changeable, in adults the dorsum and upper portion of the head is olive - green or gray, sides yellowish-gray, belly silvery-gray or milky white. All unpaired fins are olive gray except the anal which is white at the bases. Pelvic fins are reddish-white, pectorals dark, Forehead, snout and lips are blackish. Lateral line is white, anteriorly greenish-gray for some distance. Usual measurement 60-90 ста, the longest over 115-120cm., DISTRIBUTION. On both sides of the north portion of the Atlantic Ocean, At the shores of Europe south to the Bay of Biscay*, in the North Sea, a- round Great Britain, Ireland, Orkney Islands, Shetland Islands, Faroe Is- lands, and Iceland. At the southern tip of Greenland, western part of the Baltic Sea east to Zund Strait, seldom to Mecklenburg Harbor (Travermund), here also the larvae are carried; at the shores of Norway, in the Barents Sea, along the western shores of Murman, in small numbers east to the Kanin Banks: young 5 to 7cm in size were found along the shores of Murman (Dal'nezelenetskaya Bay)** and at the western shores of Novaya-Zemlya, where it occurs northward to Krestov Bay. Records from along the shores of Spitzbergen (Petrm. Geogr. Mitt., XVIII, 1872:463; Heuglin, Reisen nach а. Nordpolarmeer ind, Jahren 1870-71, III, 1872-—74:221) are not true. In recent years it has been found in quite large numbers in the White Seat, at the shores of North America south to Chesapeake Bay; common from Cape Cod to Cape Breton; occasionally found in Hudson and Davis Straits. BIOLOGY. Judging by the places and conditions of spawning, more warmth loving and requiring somewhat deeper water and greater salt content than treska or piksha. Basic spawning grounds are located on both sides of the Norwegian Channel, in the northern part of the North Sea and along the shores of Norway from almost its southern tip to Trondheim Fjord, a- round the Faroe Islands and at the southern shores of Iceland. Spawning occurs less intensively along the western shores of Scotland and the western and southwestern shores of Ireland. In more recent years spawning may have taken place along the shores of Greenland (western), Murman, and Novaya Zemlya, where in the coastal zone young saida stays en masse al- though spawning has not been directly observed; adult saida have not been found along the coast of Novaya Zemlya. In 1936 it was discovered in Feb- ruary at Lofoten Island and in July at Saida Lip (Kola Bay) with completely mature sexual products. Spawns along the shores of North America largely between Cape Cod and Nova Scotia. Spawning continues from the beginning of January until May, most intensively in March, Along the shores of North * Some authors (Risso, Canestrini) indicate this species in the Mediterranean Sea, which D'Ancona (1.с.) considers to be doubtful. De Buen (1935) does not indicate this species for even the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula. ** Numbers 30970, 30980 and others of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. 1 In the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR there are two small specimens of P. virens (154 and 157mm in length), delivered in 1848 by Hoffmann, apparently from the White Sea inasmuch as the accompanying label was marked "Archangelsk," 161 America reproduction occurs earlier, beginning in the fall—end of October and terminating in the beginning of March, with the greatest intensity from mid-November until mid-January. Fecundity averages about 225 thousand eggs, maximally to 4 million. Spawning occurs at depths of 100 to 200 me- ters, mean depth about 150 meters, at temperatures of 5.5 to 10°C, mean temperature about 7°C and salinity from 35.2 parts per thousand and higher. Along the shores of North America saida spawns at lesser depths—from 45 to 110 meters and slightly deeper, at a salinity of about 32 parts per thou- sand and at temperatures of 3 to 10°C, more often 8 to 9°С. Incubation period at 6°C extends to 9 days, at 9°C,6 days. Pelagic eggs, larvae and young are carried far from the spawning grounds by the currents, In trans- ferring to a bottom form of life one-year olds keep along shores in large schools, Adults lead a very mobile mode of life, staying not only at the bottom but rising to the intermediate and upper levels of the water in pur- suit of food. Extensive migrations, not yet studied, are undertaken. In the beginning of summer they migrate northward, in the fall they return south- ward; caught from June to September along the shores of Murman, Feeds mainly on fish—herring, capelin, young cod and other fishes, crustaceans, sometimes even copepods; along the shores of North America crustaceans play a greater role in its sustenance, Most reach sexual maturity at an age of 5 to 6 years at a length of 60-—70cm, a fewer earlier at age 4 and even 3. 155 Growth is very rapid but it is not equal in various parts of its range (Damas, 1. c.; Saemundsson, 1. c.), if the differences are not conditioned by incorrect definition of age: Аребуеаю) ео ака 5 6 О 8 9 Shores of Norway (Romsdal).......... = 66.5 67.0 69.7 Mae tt Southwestern shores of Iceland....... 3.2. Coe 98.9. 92:8) 103 7h 10 lak 12 3 14 ИН (9.8. 191 82.6 104.5 - 113.5 - - At the southern and western shores of Iceland (Saemundsson, 1. с.) saida grows somewhat faster than along the eastern shores and undoubtedly faster at the northern. Females obviously grow somewhat faster than males. COMMERCIAL VALUE. Inthe Atlantic Ocean along the coasts of Europe the annual catch exceeds 1,100 thousand metric centner. Most are caught in the North Sea at the shores of Norway and Iceland. Along the shores of North America about 160 thousand metric centner are caught annually. In our waters small quantities are caught at present; at the end of the last century during various separate years up to 30 thousand metric centner were caught. In the beginning of October, 1937, at the entrance to Motov Bay not less than 20 metric centner of small and medium size saida were caught in each trawl haul (Maslov). COMPARATIVE NOTES, Because of the great morphological changes in pigmentation that take place with growth in this species, all of the quoted synonyms are due to their variability, which have been indicated by a num- ber of authors (Kroyer, 1. с. and others). * Jn the first case fish were caught in February, in the second in March or April. 162 156 14, Genus МЕГАМОСВАММ0$ Gill Melanogrammus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , (1862), 1863:280 (Type: Gadus aeglefinus L.). — Aeglefinus Malm, Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:481 (Туре: С. aeglefinus L.). -Melanogram- mus Jordan а. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М. Amer., Ш, 1898:2542 (Туре: С. aeglefinus L.). Dorsal and anal fins separated by interspaces. First anal fin short, be- ginning beneath the origin of the second dorsal fin or slightly behind it. Cau- dal fin slightly notched. Barbel on chin weakly developed, shorter than the diameter of eye. Mouth small, rear end of lower jaw beneath the center of the eye, upper jaw extending beyond the lower. Teeth in one-two rows on the dentary, in several rows on the premaxillary, a group of a few teeth at the apex of the vomer. Lateral line dark, in the shape of a shallow arch, to the beginning of the third dorsal fin placed above the central axis of the body, extending without interruption to the end of the body. There are pores along the lateral line canal on the head: 13 pores in the preopercular-man- dibular canal, 7 pores in the infraorbital canal, 1 pore in the supraorbital canal and 1 pore in the supraorbital commissure, Mucous cavity on the skull closed in front. Prootic with a notch in front on the sides of the skull. Crests over the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve scarcely developed. Supraorbital with a high crest. Bones of the pectoral girdle greatly thickened. The opercular process of the hyomandibular some- what shorter than the lower process. SKELETON. The skull is high (A), its height contained in its 1еп а little over 2 times, the upper profile descending sharply anteriorly. The base of the skull has a small curve in the parasphenoid beneath the forward edge of the prootic. In back and in front of this curve the bones lying at the base of the skull are placed in a straight line. The supraoccipital crest and frontal crest are high, somewhat rounded on top, extending considerably beyond the basioccipital, terminating in front approximately in the center of the skull, The forward edge of the mesethmoid is located at an obtuse angle to the upper, descending almost vertically to the vomer, with a notch at the top. The orbital space is quite high, contained about twice in its Базе. The facial nerve exits from the skull through a notch in the forward edge of the prootic, which from below presents a straight line with the ascending process of the parasphenoid. There is a large foramen on the side of the skull in the opisthotic. The lateral edges of the skull from above (B) pre- sent a curved line along the edges of the pterotic and a wavy line along the edges of the frontals. The lateral ethmoids project slightly from beneath the frontals from the sides, extending far forward and backward from the forward edge of the frontals. The forward edge of the mesethmoid is under the forward end of the vomer. The crests above the lateral! line on the frontals and pterotics are broad; their edges rise quite high above these bones. The mucous cavity is quite deep, divided to the top in two sections by a longitudinal partition; due to fusion of the lateral crest of the frontals with the median crests of its forward part, it changes anteriorly on each side into a bony canal. The foramina on the parietals of the recurrent dor- sal branch of the facial nerve are scarcely covered by crests from above; the crests are poorly developed. The apex of the head of the vomer on the skull from below (C) is armed with a bunch of long and slender teeth, in back of them along the forward edge of the head of the vomer there are no 163 157 teeth or if teeth are present they are very poorly developed. The lower surface of the forward portion of the parasphenoid is in the shape of a sharp angle; back of the forward edge of the prootic it is flattened and even some- what concave longitudinally. The sides of the skull when viewed from be- hind (0), due to the bulging of the prootic and opisthotic, are somewhat rounded, Inthe rear only the supraoccipital crest rises high above the skull. The opercular process of the hyomandibular is wide, somewhat shorter than the preopercular or lower processes. The operculum is thickened, and to a somewhat lesser degree, so are the other bones of the gill cover. The operculum has a notch along its lower edge and has sharp angles. All bones of the pectoral girdle and especially the posttemporal and cleithrum are thickened, the postcleithrum with a characteristic curve and broadened at its upper end. The urohyal is short and broad. The parapophyses are thin, long and begin at the fourth vertebra. Description given from 26 skeletons. FIGURE 25. Distribution of Melanogrammus aeglefinus DISTRIBUTION. One species along both shores ofthe north part of the Atlantic Ocean (Figure 25), *1. Melanogrammus aeglefinus (Linné)—Piksha (Tables X, L, LXXI) Gadus aeglefinus Linné, Syst. nat., ed. Х, 1758:251 (in Oceano Europeo). — Morhua aeglefin- us Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828:191. -Morhua punctatus Fleming, 1. с. :192. — Melanogram- mus aeglefinus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. , (1862), 1863:280. — Morhua aeglefinus 164 158 Storer, Hist. fish., Mass., 1867:124, pl. XXVIII, Е. 1. (at the coast of North America). — Aeglefinus linnei Malm, Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:481. — Gadus aeglefinus Brooks, Proc. Dublin Soc. Sci. , IV, 1885:166 (osteology); Williamson, 26th. Ann. Rept. Fish. Board Scotland, pt. 3, (1907), 1908:97 (des- cription of the skull); Welsh, Copeia, 1915, 15:2 (comparison of piksha from European and NorthAmerican shores); Vladykov, Progress Rept. Atlant. Biol. St., St. Andrews, М.В., 14, 1935:3. DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Smitt, Scand. fish. , I, 1893:466 (on both sides of the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, biology); Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М. Amer., Ш, 1898:2542, f. 892, 892a; Hjort, Rapp. Procés-Verb. , X, 1909:54, +. 14 (spawning grounds); Damas, ibid. :127 (biology); J. Schmidt, ibid. : 51, 42 (eggs, larvae); Bieitfus and Gebel, Mat. po estesty. ist. treskii pikshi 1908:150 (adult and ripe specimens on Kola meridian below 71° north latitude); Bigelow a. Welsh, Fish. gulf Maine, 1925:432 (from Cape Hatteras to Belle-Isle Strait, ecology); Saemundsson, Medd. Котт. Havunders., Fish. , VIII, 1925:3 (age and growth); Fischer, Mitt. Deutsch. Seefischeri-Ver. , 1926:16 (western part of the Baltic Sea, adults and larvae); Suvorov, Tr. Inst. izuch. Severa, 38, 1927:48 (age); Averintsev, Tr. nauch. inst. rybn. khoz. , II, 3, 1927:18 (Barents Sea, specimens close to spawning); Rass, Rab. Murm. biol. st., III, 1929:26 (Eka- teriniskaya Harbor, young in June); Thompson, Rapp. Procés-Verb., LIV, 1929:135 (biology); Mikhin, Izv. Otd. рык. ikht., IX, 1, 1930:49 (dimensions, age, growth rate, food); Zenkevich and others, Dokl. 1 sessii Gos. Okeanogr. inst., 4, 1931:36 (feeding); Jensen a. Hansen, Rapp. Procés-Verb., LXXII, 1931:39 (western Greenland); Suvorov and Vadova, Sb. nauchnopromysl. rabot na Murmane , 1932:91 (age, growth); Suvorov, Izv. Ikht. inst., XIII, 2, 1932:64 (Barents Sea, spawning); Jeffers, Contrib. Canad. Biol. Fisher. , (п. s.), VII, 15-23, 1932:8 (Belle-Isle Strait); Ritchie, Rapp. Procés-Verb. , ТХХХ, 1932:1 (North Sea, feeding); Rass, Dokl. 1 sessii Gos. Okeanogr. inst., 5, 1933:8 (spawning in Motovsk Bay): Vladykov, Contrib. Canad. Biol. Fisher., (п. s.), VIII, 27-31, 1934:409 (vertebral number); Rass Karelo- Murmansk. krai, 3—4, 1934; 57 (spawning along the coast of Murman); Taning, Rapp. Procés-Verb. XCIII, (1933), 1935:36 (number of vertebrae); Berg, Problemy fizich. geogr., II, 1935:77 (western coast of the White Sea); Rass, Int. Rev. ges. Hydrob. Hydrogr., 33, 1936:254 (spawning); Agapov and Toporkov, Problemy Arktiki, 2, 1937:107 (Belus'ya Guba, Cape Karmakuly, Lagerno on Novaya Zemlya); Ogilvie, Rapp. Procés-Verb., СУП, 1938 :57 (feeding of young); Zatsepin, Tr. Polyarn. nauchno-issl. inst. morsk. rybn khoz. 1 оКеапорг., 3, 1939:39 (feeding); Maslov, Tr. Polyarn. nauchno- 1551. inst. morsk. rybn. khoz. i okeanogr., 6, 1939:3 (biology, commercial value); ibid, 8, 1944:3, 141 and following (biology, commercial value, Alif, ibid. :187 (utilization, biology, bibliography)*. ID 15-16, ПО 19-21, ШО 19-22, ТА 23-24, ПА 22-23, gill-rakers 24-27, vertebrae 52-57. First dorsal fin high and sharp tipped. Jaw bones greatly shortened, length of the upper jaw 28.6-33.1, length of lower jaw 35.3—39.1% of head length. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 41.7-45.5, antedorsal distance 26.1-—28.2, length of pectoral fin 14.1-16.6, length of pelvic fin 8.9-10.9, base of first dorsal fin 12.2-13.8, base of second dorsal fin 19.7-23.5, third 13.6-16.4, base of first anal fin 21.1- 22.8, base of second anal 13,8-16.5, height of first dorsal fin 13.4-18.5, height of first anal fin 9.6-10.6, length of caudal peduncle 4.3—5.3, its depth 10.4—12.4, head length 24.6-25.7. In per cent of head length: length of snout 34.5-38.9, lateral diameter of eye 20.0-28.2, width of forehead 17.9- 22.8. Upper part of body and head dark gray with violet shading, sides lighter, belly and lower part of head milky white. Lateral line black, А large black spot under the lateral line in the region of the pectoral fins on each side. Pectoral and dorsal fins same color as the dorsum, somewhat lighter at the base; anal fins silvery-gray, also paler at their base; pelvic fins milky white; caudal fin same color as the dorsum, Measurements more often 50—75 спа, mean length about 60cm, the greatest almost one meter (97 cm), DISTRIBUTION. Northern part of the Atlantic Ocean. Along the shores of Europe from the Bay of Biscay to North Cape, at the shores of North America from Cape Hatteras to Newfoundland (Strait of Belle-Isle)and * The last four articles were utilized to a very small degree. 165 159 perhaps in small numbers somewhat farther north; occasionally at the south- ern tip of Greenland; around Iceland, Orkney, Faroe and Shetland Islands; at the shores of Great Britain and Ireland; in the North Sea; in the western part of the Baltic Sea east to Mecklenburg Harbor; in the Barents Sea at Bear Island north to Spitzbergen; eastward to Goose Bank; in small numbers in Yugorskii Sharand at the shores of Novaya Zemlya to Matochkin Shar, In recent years it has been found in considerable numbers along the western coast of the White Sea, and dead specimens in the Kara Sea. BIOLOGY. Biologically close to the Atlantic cod, but somewhat more warmth loving; found at temperatures of about 6°C and usually keeping at depths of 60-200 meters, with a limit of 1,000meters; usually keeps to wa- ter of normal oceanic salinities, not able to withstand great freshening and never entering fresh water, Spawning occurs mainly in the southern sec- tion of its range, mainly in the northern part of the North Sea of 58° north latitude; less concentrated in the central portion of the North Sea, in Ska- gerrak, at the southwestern shores of Norway to Trondheim Fjord, at the north and southwestern shores of Great Britain, at the western and southern shores of Ireland, at the Faroe Islands, at the western and southern shores of Iceland; at the shores of North America breeding occurs throughout the entire range. In the Barents Sea piksha was found with mature and running sexual products (Breitfuss and Goebel, 1. с. Suvorov, 1. c.; Rass, 1. с.). In recent years spawning of piksha was discovered along the western shores of Murman and Finmark, In particular, large numbers of eggs and larvae in early stages of development were discovered along the northwestern coast of Norway from Ande Island to Soré Island (Maslov, 1. с.). Spawning usually occurs at depths of 60-250 meters, more often at depths of 100-150 meters at temperatures from 5.5 to 10°C, most often at 6°C and at a sali- nity not lower than normal oceanic. At the shores of North America piksha spawns at somewhat lower temperatures (2.5-6.5° С) and at a salinity of about 32-32.5 per thousand), The beginning of spawning occurs at the end of January, terminating in the second half of June and even July, the height in March-April, at the shores of Iceland somewhat later, in the region of islands of Soré-Ande March to June, the height at the end of January to the beginning of May. An incubation period of 2.8° С lasts 15 days, at 5.4°C 13 days. Larvae and young are carried by the currents from the spawning grounds northward—to the shores of Murman and to the western part of the Baltic Sea; in the latter, in connection with the increased flow of the Atlantic waters and the rise in salinity, in 1925-1926 it produced catches of piksha which were unheard of in size. The life cycle of piksha in the northeastern part of theAtlantic Ocean, according to studies of recent years, in general presents the following picture. The main mass of the Barents Sea piksha is derived from the spawning grounds along the northwestern shores of Nor- way. Larvae stay at first in the upper layers of the water, then, judging from all the data, live under the bells of medusae. There is no littoral stage of the piksha and the general mass of young remains in the open sea with only a few coming close to shore and into the estuaries, The basic range of the young piksha appears to be the western regions of the Barents Sea, and in some warm years they penetrate farther east to Goose Bank and the shallow waters of Kanin. With the autumn cooling of the water, the young descend into the bottom layers and those which remain in coastal areas re- treat to greater depths. In the spring young piksha which are one-year old 166 160 by that time rise again to the surface layers, approach the shores and enter the estuaries en masse; they depart from the shores in the fall and become by this time wholly a bottom fish. In the second year of life the piksha win- ters in the central regions of the Barents Sea, and some depart for the west. Beginning with the third year of life and until the onset of sexual maturity the Barents Sea piksha undertakes seasonal migrations, departing with the autumnal cooling of the waters from the eastern to the western sections of the sea. The smallest piksha in the second year of life keeps primarily to the western regions of the Barents Sea; medium sized piksha (to 45 cm) pre- dominate in the central part of the Barents Sea; and large piksha (over 45 cm) in the eastern part of the Barents Sea (Maslov, 1. c.). The young feed ba- sically on growing and adult copepods, their nauplii and on eggs. The main food of the adults appears to be benthonic animals (echinoderms, mollusks ‘ gephyreans, polychaetes); fish play a small role in their feeding, but at times their basic food fish is capelin. Bottom fishis often found inthe sto- machs in great quantity; in the North Sea in the spawning season herring feed heavily on their eggs. Piksha feed most intensively at temperatures of 1-2°С. They reach sexual maturity at 4—5 years and a length of about 50cm, in the Barents Sea—in the sixth year of life, but generally 8-10 years of age. The smallest specimen of a sexually mature adult was 47cm. The limit of age, as it is presently known, appears to be 123 years; at the shores of North America somewhat higher. Growth of piksha migrating into the Barents Sea occurs as follows (Suvorov and Vadova, l. c.): Age (years) Sot 4+ Эл 6+ баз 8+ 9+ VO Length (cm) 38,2 47.4 55.7 62.1 69.8 76.6 80.5 82.4 Over the years it was established that the generations of separate abun- dant years predominate in the catch. In the Barents Sea and adjacent por- tions of the northern Atlantic Ocean, the 1925 generation was abundant; the last prolific generation in catches in the Barents Sea was credited to 1933. In the North Sea the piksha, by character of growth in the first year of life, is of two types: northern, with a mean growth for the first year of 16.1 cm and southern, with a mean growth for the same year of 17.8 cm. The limit between these two types of growths in piksha appears to be the 100-meter isobath. Thus, piksha in deeper waters of the North Sea, as well as opposite the northwestern shores of Scotland, Faroe Islands and Ice- land have slower growth rate in the first year of life. This difference in growth rate is smoothed out by 2 or 3 years. In addition, piksha from the North Sea grow a little slower than piksha from other parts of the range (Thompson, 1. с.). Piksha grow unevenly at the coast of Iceland; the fastest growth occurs at the southern and western shores and the slowest growth at the northern and eastern shores (Saemundsson, 1. c.). COMMERCIAL VALUE very great, in catches of gadoids piksha holds first place after cod. The annual catch reaches nearly 2 million metric centner and higher (2.13 million metric centner in 1933), Our trawling industry in the period of time from 1934 to 1938 produced annually from 84 (1935) to 770 (1938) thousand metric centner*., Besides, les- ser quantities in comparison with the quoted figures were caught by coastal fisheries. * The figures, just as for the treska, according to Tables 1 and 3 of Maslov's article (1939). 167 61 COMPARATIVE NOTES. Variation in vertebral count in piksha (T&ning, 1. c.) from the shores of North America (average from 53.88 to 54.12) and at the coasts of Europe (average 53.84 to 54,15) is very small and does not disclose differencesasintreska. Welsh(l. с.) obtained close figures. Vladykov (1. с.), however, distinguishes three races on the shores of North America: Newfoundland (average 52.5-52.9 vertebrae), Nova Scotia (53.5- 54.3 vertebrae), and New England (average 53.1-53.2 vertebrae), The dif- ference in number of vertebrae in piksha from different places at the shores of Europe is not great either,although a similar trend for changes in mean figures exist (average: Ireland 53.84, Faroe Islands 53.88, Iceland 53.86 - 54.05, North Sea 54.01-54.07, Norway south of the Lofoten Islands 54.10- 54.15). It is not likely that such insignificant distinctions will characterize separate races of piksha if we bear in mind the possibility of numbers of ver - tebrae changing under various influences on development of the larvae (see comparative notes оп treska), 15. Genus GADUS Linné Gadus Linné, Syst. nat. ed. X, 1758:251 (Type: Gadus morhua L.).—"Morhues" Cuvier, Régne animal, éd. I, П, 1817:212 (Туре: С. morhua L.).— Morhua Oken, "Isis," 1817:1182 (Туре: С. morhua L., secundum Cuvier). — Morhua Fleming, Hist. brit. animal, 1828:190 (Туре: С. morhua as The dorsal and anal fins are separate. The first anal fin is short, be- ginning beneath the origin of the second dorsal fin or behind the second dor- sal fin, Caudal fin truncate. Barbel well developed on the chin, slightly shorter or longer than the horizontal diameter of the eye. Mouth large, rear end of the lower jaw beneath the rear of the eye or behind it. Upper jaw ex- tends beyond the lower. Teeth in one to two rows in dentary, in a broad band of several rows along the premaxillaries and on the head of the vomer; palatines without teeth. The lateral line is pale, gradually descending to- ward the mid-axis of the body beneath the second dorsal fin and continuing without interruption to the middle or end of the third dorsal fin and interrup- ted beyond, On the head along the sensory canals are pores: 13 preoperculo- mandibular pores, 9 infraorbital pores, 3 supraorbital porec, and 1 pore in the supraorbitalcommissure. The mucous cavity on the skull is closed in front. The prootic is notched anteriorly. Crests above the foramen of the facial nerve are scarcely developed, The supraoccipital crest is not high. Bones of the pectoral girdle are of normal structure, without any thickening. The opercular process of the hyomandibular is longer than the lower process, SKELETON, The skull is not high (A), its height contained 3 or more times in the length of its base. The bones forming the base of the skull are placed in an almost straight line; parasphenoid usually straight. The profile of the skull from above presents a somewhat wavy line, gradually descending anteriorly. The mesethmoid in front is slightly inclined, its forward edge with a small notch, placed at almost right angles tothe upper. The basiocci- pital extends somewhat from beneath the exoccipitals posteriorly. The sup- raoccipital crest is not high, straight on top and extending somewhat beyond 168 “snyeydaoso1sew enyiow "5 —/‘2е8о епулошм *5 —9 14а в-з11ещ enyiow "2 —G ‘515 цэитр [Ех enyiow *9 —фр ‘зещшотч *и eEnyiou enyiow “5 —$ зее[ео enyiowm *5 —Zienyiow enyiow *9 —т snpesd зпиэ8 эцз до иоппамза ‘oz яччй51 ‹ 5 Ms Сх)» Е 2.42 #22 169 162 the basioccipital barely merging in front with the frontal crest, which ter- minates in the forward half of the skull, The orbital space is elongate and narrow, its base exceeding its height 25 to 4 times; it is lowest of all in ©. morhua morhua, higher in all other subspecies. The facial nerve exits from the skull through a notch in the forward section of the prootic. The foramen on the opisthotic is of quite considerable size. The lateral sides of the skull when viewed from above (B) gradually converge toward the for- ward section of the skull. The lateral edges of the frontals are almost with- out notches over the orbits. The lateral ethmoids extend slightly lateral from beneath the frontals, are strongly stretched longitudinally, and extend quite some distance forward and back from the front ends of the frontals. The forward edge of the mesethmoid is over the forward end of the vomer or slightly behind it. The crests covering the sensory canals on the frontals and pterotics are closely appli€d to the bones. The mucous cavity is shal- low and wide; a longitudinal bony partition divides it into two parts, For- ward of the mucous cavity are crests covering the canal, which fuse with the central crests of the frontals and form a bony canal which is closed on all sides. The crests on the parietals above the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve are small, triangular in shape, and do not extend over the surface of the parietals. The vomer on the skull from be- low (C) is quite broad; teeth are placed in a broad stripe in 4 to 5 rows a- long the forward edge of the head; the lateral teeth are largest. The low- er surface of the parasphenoid behind the vomer is flattened. The audito- ry region of the skull when viewed from behind (D)is narrow, without con- vexities on the sides; the upper and lateral surfaces of the skull are limit- ed by almost straight lines. The parietal crests overlaying the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve are not seen from behind, The supraoccipital crest scarcely extends above the skull, The lower process of the hyomandibular is somewhat shorter than the opercular process and рге- opercular process, the rear end of the latter is placed at an angle to the rear edge of the lower process. The lower surface of the operculum has a deep notch and sharp angles; the suboperculum is broad, posttemporal cleithrum and other bones of the pectoral girdle are not thickened, lower fork of posttemporal much shorter than the upper. Postcleithrum more or less curved and broadened at the upper edge. Urohyal short and broad. Parapophyses elongate, but not very broad. This description is based on 150 specimens of G. morhua morhua, one Skeleton of а. morhua callarias, one G morhua kildinen- sis, five а. morhua morhua п. hiemalis, five а. morhua ma- ris-albi, one С. morhuasogac .andtwo,.G."morhua macrocepha- Mus: DISTRIBUTION, One species in the northern portions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and adjacent seas, dividedinto several subspecies(Figure 26). COMPARATIVE NOTES. Schultz and Welander (Copeia, 1935 (3):127) consider the Atlantic, Greenland, and Pacific cods as independent species, basing this mainly on the structure of the horn-like processes in the forward portion of the swim bladder. However, fishes measuring to 30cm are not distinguishable on this character, inasmuch as their horn-like processes are shortened and have the same appearance as in adult Pacific Ocean cods, Besides, the size and form of these processes are variable and individual; the White Sea winter cod(G. morhua morhua п. hiemalis) normally 170 0 FIGURE 27. Structure of hornlike appendages on front of swim bladder in Gadus morhua and subgenera а— С. morhua morhua, length 53.6cm; b— ibid, length 20.0cm;c— С. morhua callarias, length 49.3cm (right appendage straightened and stretched lengthwise); d— ibid, length 25.2cm;e— С. morhua morhua п. hiemalis, length 31.2cm; f— ibid, length 27.4cm; g—G. morhua kildinensis, length 58.4cm; h— ibid, length 52.1 cm; i— ibid, length 51.2cm; j— С. morhua maris-albi, length 34.6cm; k— ibid, length 16.9cm;1— С. morhua macrocephalus, length 52.3cm; m— ibid, length 24.3cm; n— ibid, length 14.0cm; o— С. morhua ogac, length 26.0 ст. 171 163 164 has processes similar to the Atlantic cod(G. morhua morhua) and the White Sea Coastal cod(G. morhua maris-albi) (Figure 27 a, j); the processes sometimes have the appearance of some specimens of the Kildin cod (Figure 27, cp. e, i); in Pacific cod normally the horn-like processes are bent toward the center line, sometimes, however, not only in adults but even in young ones, they are directed forward after the bend (Figure 27 пп); sometimes the horns have a generally irregular form (Figure 25 п); in other words, the structure and dimension of the horn-like processes of the swim bladder vary quite broadly but roughly each form has its own defi- nite structure. The structure of the horn-like processes of the swim blad- der is most closely associated with the habitat of the cod, In the Baltic Sea (С morhua. callatrias)’and Kildin(G. morhua kildinensis) cods which live in considerably freshened water, the swim bladder processes are long. In coastal forms of cod the swim bladder is larger in dimensions, Cod are divisible into two groups by the shape of the skull: narrow-head- ed, with a few morphologiacally close forms (G. morhua morhua, С. morhua morhua п. hiemalis and the closely related G. morhua callarias and G morhua kildinensis) and broad-headed cod with a few forms more sharply distinguishable from each other (G. morhua maris-albi, С. morhua’ орас and © morhwa macrocephaluis), All of the broad-headed forms of cod appear to be coastal, local forms not undertaking large migrations, and geographically isolated from each other (Figure 26); the narrow-headed Atlantic cod undertake distant migrations; however, each is inclined to form local coastal (fjord) forms with limited migrations, With this we must point out that in local coastal forms (nati- ones) of narrow-headed cod the skull, however insignificantly, is still slight- ly broader as we can See in per cent relations to the width of the interorbi- tal space and the length of the head (I), the greatest width of the skull (II), the distance between the rear wings of the frontals* (III), and the width of Thus, craniologically а. morhua morhua and the narrow-headed forms related to it, С. morhua morhua п. hiemalis, С. morhua callarias and С. morhua kildensis, are almost totally indistin- guishable while the broad-headed cod differ greatly from the narrow-head- ed by the form of skull (Figure 28). The skullofG. morhua maris-albi is somewhat narrower in the forward portion than the skull of other broad- headed forms of cod, occupying the intermediate position between these two forms and the narrow-headed cods. This form of cod is also close to G, morhua morhua inthe structure of the swim bladder as well. * According to the sketch of measurement of the skull by Dement'eva and Tanasiichuk. ** The number of skulls are indicated in parentheses. The width of the interorbital space is taken from the description of each form. С. morhua] С. morhua] С. morhua] С. morhua] С. morhua] С. morhua callarias |kildinensis| morhua maris-albi ogac macro- п. hiemalis cephalus 16.2-21.0 17.5-22.0 14.9-18,5 18.4-24.1 22.6-23.1 20.3-25.3 48,1 49.1 46.2—49.2 49,5-53.5 5555 52.5-55.9 38.4 37.4 35.3—38.1 35.2-38.8 43.5 42.3-42.7 25.1 25.4 22,3-25.3 25.5-28.6 311 31.5 -31.6 (1) (1) (5) (5) (1) (2) 172 Based on the structure of the skull, swim blad- der and some other characteristics, the division of G. morhua into six subspecies is here adopt- ed: 1)G morhua morhua, which in turn breaks down into a group of morphologically close- ly related forms of which only G. morhua mor- hua п. hiemalis is here treated; 2)G. mor- Пасата паза. pm owe hua eke ldiiin emis 15: 4)\tGoamowhua miaris-a lbi; 5)'G. morhua ogac; and6)G. morhua macrocephalus, which in turn also breaks down into several close as yet unstudied forms. Of all broad-headed forms of cod the closest to а. morhua morhua is G. morhua maris-albi, which very possibly is derived from it, as is indicated by the similari- ty of structure of the swim bladder as well. FIGURE 28. Outline of dorsal view of skull of narrow-headed cod (Gadus morhua morhua dotted line) and of the broad- headed cod (С. morhua тас- rocephalus full line) 1 (8). 2 (5). One): 4 (3). 5 (2). 647). (6). S Cry: Diagnostic Key to the Subspecies Head narrow, interorbital space represents 15-22% of head length. Horn-like processes of swim bladder in adults generally long, bent at the base toward the mid-line and at the apex, then directed lateral- ly (Figure 27 a). Coloration not bright, without sharp dark spots. Fishes reaching large dimensions and possessing rapid growth rate, Pectoral and pelvic fins short. Northern part of the Atlantic Ocean la) Go miorhwarmror hal i: а not ие. оуег 0 cm in length and possessing slower growth rate. Pectoral and pelvic fins and barbel longer, White Sea Ma. 0G, fan oO hie, mor has ne hiitewmnvais бат. Heya niles processes of the swim bladder in adults generally still long- er with their whole processes coiled in balls. (Figure 27 с, g.). Coloration bright with distinct brown spots. Head narrow, interorbital space 16-21% of its length. Coloration Spots Ваще Seal tues ut i Mele Gay mM Otaauial 9) anil ares cael. Head somewhat wider, interorbital space represents 17.5-22% of its length. Coloration still more spotty. Mogil'noe Lake on Kil'din Pslands’ cca : iy her? Gwin oh way /k'iWdinens is ею Head broad, inte rorbital space constituting 18-25% of its length. 173 9 (10). Horn-like processes of the swim bladder in adults generally long, bent at the base toward the mid-line and at the apex laterally. Col- oration usually darkly’ Wiitetsear 27...) ет а eee атс mm Oana маю awe Der 1c 10 (9). HOC. like processes of the swim bladder short, bent only toward the center line. | 11 (12). Caudal peduncle deep, about 4.5-5% of body length. Coloration usually dark. Hudson Bay and western coast of Greenland... . eas о. ae hey “G:-morhwa “og ac “Richardson 12°(13). onda pedunele п lower, 3.5-4.5% of body length. Color- ation paler. Northern part of the Pacific Ocean and adjacent seas а ea ee ete EES TG. Запоры wa’ macro cep haliicirale [Translator's note: The author mentions choice 13, but there is no choice 13 given. ] *1а. Gadus morhua morhua Linné—Atlantic cod (Tables X, LI, LXxX]I) Gadus morhua Linné, Syst. nat. ed. X, 1758:252 (Atlantic Ocean and the coasts of Europe). — Gadus callarias Linné, 1. с.: 251 (ex parte: Atlantic Ocean and coasts of Europe). — Gadus vertagus Walbaum in: Artedi, Gen. pisc., Ш, 1792:143. — Gadus heteroglossus Walbaum, 1. с. :144. — Gadus ruber Laceptde, Hist.nat. poiss., V, 1803:671, 673. — Gadus arenosus Mitchill, Trans. Lit. Philos. Soc. N. Y., I, 1815:318 (New York). — Gadus rupestris Mitchill, 1. с. :368. morhua punctata Fleming, Hist. brit. animals, 1828:192. — ? Gadus nanus Faber, Fish. Icelands, 1829:113 (Iceland). — Morrhua americana Storer, Mem. Amer. Acad. Art. a. Sci., (п. s.), VI, П, 1858:343, pl. XXVIII, f. 4 (coasts of North America), — Gadus callarias Williamson, 20th Ann. Rept. Fish. Board Scotl., pt. 3, (1901), 1902:228 (description of the skeleton). 166 DISTRIBUTION , BIOLOGY. Smitt, Scand. fish., I, 1893:472 (ex parte: Atlantic Ocean at the shores of Europe and North America, biology); Petersen, Rept. Danish Biol. St., XI, 1902:3; Fulton, Publ. Circonst. , 8—9, 1904:1 (autumn spawning in the North Sea); Jensen, Medd. Котт. Havunders, Fisk., I, 7, 1905:8, f. 4(69°13' М, 8°23' W, otoliths; Ehrenbaum, Wiss. Meeresunters., Abt. Helgoland, УП, 1906:59 (at Bear Island and Spitzbergen); Breitfuss and Goebel, Mat. po estestv. ist. treski i pikshchi, 1908:113 (Barents Sea, races, biology); Hjort, Rapp. Procés-Verb. , X, 1909:48, f. 12 (spawning grounds); Damas, ibid. :62 (biology); J. Schmidt, ibid. :17, 139, (Atlantic Ocean on the coast of Europe, spawning, eggs, larvae); Weigold, Wiss. Meeresunters., Abt. Helgoland, (М. F.), X, 1913:119 (southern part of the North’Sea, egg laying); Hjort, Rapp. Procés-Verb. , ХХ, 1914:81 (biology, migrations, periodical catches); Strubberg, Medd. Komm. Hav- unders., Fisk., V, 2, 1916:1 (experimental egg laying in the Faroe Islands); Strubberg, ibid., VIII, 1, 1922 (Kattegat, Belte, spawning); Graham, Fish. Invest., (2), VI, 6, 1924 (biology); Bigelow a. Welsh, Fish. gulf Main, 1925:409 (from Cape Hatteras to Davis and Hudson Straits); Mikhin, izv. otd. prikl. ikht., III, 2, 1925:189 (Murman, biometry); Jensen, Rapp. Procés-Verb. , XXXIX, 1926:85 (from the coasts of western Greenland, spawning, feeding); Skvortsov, bull. rybn. khoz. , 1927, 10:39 (spawning on the Murman coast); Suvorov, Sborn. у chest'Knipovicha, 1927:365 (spawning on the Murman coast); Somov, tr. inst. izuch. severa, 38, 1927:38 (age); Suvorov,and Chudinov, у. otd. prikl. ikht., VI, 2, 1927:233 (young); Lipin, tr. nauchn. inst. rybn. khoz., II, 4, 1928:31 (measurements of skulls of cods from Kanin Bank); Idelson, Hydro- biol. Zeitschrift, УП, 10-12, 1929:269 (feeding); Zenkevich and others, dokl. i sessii gos. okeanogr. inst. , 4, 1931:20 (feeding); J. Schmidt, C.-R. Trav. Labor. Carlsberg, XVIII, 6, 1930 (ex parte: Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Europe, number of vertebrae and rays in the second dorsal fin); Essichov, tr. inst. izuch. , severa, 48, 1931:75, drawing (Barents Sea at the Kildin Island meridian, Porchnich Lip, comparison of the Turyanka and oceanic cods) [Translator's note: Turyanka is the red or orange color phase. ]; Tarasov, ibid. : 59 (Motov Bay, spawning); Taliev, му. otd. рык. ikht., XI, 2, 1931:137 (White Sea and at Pongom); Jensen а. Hansen, Rapp. Proces-Verb,, LXXII, 1931:3-10 (western shores of Greenland, spawning, feeding ); Idelson, Journ, Conseil, V. 3, 1931:432 (spawning in the Barents Sea); Schnakenbeck, Zool. Anz., 94, 1931: 17 (River Elba and 15 kilometers above Hamburg); Essichov, sb. nauchno-promysl. rabot. na Murmane, 1932: 5 (western Murman, Motov Bay, spawning); Essichov and Киста, ibid. :27 (western Murman, age and | 174 167 ы growth rate); Suvorov and Vadova, ibid. : 67 (dimensions, weight, age complement); Kuchina, ibid. :103 (feeding); Dement'eva and others, dokl. 1 sessii gos. okeanogr. inst., 2, 1932:49 (measurements of the skull); Suvorov, izy. ikht. inst., XIII, 2, 1932:61 (Motov Bay, spawning, eggs); Synkova, ibid. :89 (Novaya Zem- lya, comparison of Novaya Zemlya cod with the Murman cod); Gurvich, ibid. :101 (shores of Novaya Zemlya north to Krestoy Bay, feeding, measurements, age, biometry); Tanasiichuk, kare lo-murm. krac, 1932, 3—4:52 (racial analysis); ibid. :5—6:46 (spawning); Jeffers, Contrib. Canad. biol. fisher. , (п. s.), VII, 15-23, 1932:7 (Belle-Isle Strait); Dannevig, Journ. Conseil, VII, 1, 1932:60 (change in number of vertebrae with different conditions of development of larvae); Vladykov, Contrib. Canad. biol. fisher., (n. s.), VIII, 1-8, 1933:2 (Davis Strait, feeding); Esipov, Tr. arktich. inst., VII, 1933:71, figure (at the shores of Novaya Zemlya to Krestov Bay, comparison of Novaya Zemlya cod with Murman turyanka); Rass, dokl. 1 sessii gos. okeanogr. inst., 5, 1933:4 (spawning): Graham, Fishery Invest. , (2), XIII, 4, (1933), 1934; Provotoy, mat. nauchno- prom. obsled. karsk. gubyir. Kary1934:94(1 specimen from Kara Bay); Rass, Karelo-Murm. Kray, 1934, 3—4:57 (spawning on the Murman coast); McKenzie, Contrib. Canad. biol. fisher. (п. s.), VIII, 27-31, 1934:435 (spawning on the coast of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island); Rollefsen, Rapp. Proces-Verb. , LXXXVIII, 1934:1; Hansen, Jensen a. Taning, Medd. Котт. Havunders., Fisk., X, 1935:3 (spawning of cods on Greenland coast); Vladykov, Progress Rept., Biol. Board Canada, 14, 1935:3, 2 figs. ; Dement'eva and Tanasiichuk za rybn. industr. беуега, 1935, 5:40 (races of cod, literature on criticism of the question); Rass, Int. Rev. ges. Hydrob. Hydrogr. , 33, 1936:251 (spawning); Agapov and Toporkov, probl. Arktiki, 2, 1937:107 (western shores oi Novaya Zemlya); Marti, Tr. polyarn. nauchno-issled. inst. morsk. губп. khoz. i okeanogr., 3, 1939:3 (tabulation of information and literature on biology and races); zatsepin and Petrova, ibid., 5, 1939:2 (feeding); Maslov, ibid. , 6, 1939:3 (commercial); ibid, 8, 1944:3, 50 and following (biology, commercial utilization); Glebov, Praroda, 1941, 4:87 (biology); Dubrovskii, ibid. , 6:74 (Bay of Krotov on Novaya Zemlya in Kara Sea, 72° north latitude)*. 121. —= 15, 01822011101 = 210; PALO —23, Ш Au(15)-17=19 ноты rakers 21-28, vertebrae 49-53. Head small and narrow, its length 24.6-— 26.6% of the body length**, interorbital space 15,.8-20.7% of head length. Barbel usually shorter than the horizontal diameter of the eye, rarely equal to it. Caudal peduncle elongate and not deep, its length 11.6-13.1%, its depth 4.2-5.1% of body length. The appressed rays of the first dorsal fin generally reach considerably beyond the origin of the second dorsal fin, less frequently terminating at its beginning or not reaching it. The horn-like processes at the forward end of the swim bladder are usually elongate and after the bend toward the center line are directed forward and curved lateral- ly at the tips; in young short,and curved only to the center line (Figure 27 a, b). Peritoneum silvery-leadened or leadened black. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 41.2-—48.8, antedorsal distance 28.1-31.5, length of pectoral fin 12.1-13.8, length of pelvic fin 9.1-11.1, height of first dor- sal fin 10.0-12.0, height of first anal fin 8.9-12.3. In per cent of head length: length of snout 33.9-38.4, horizontal diameter of eye 15.5-21.7, length of upper jaw 39.2-44.2, length of lower jaw 49.0-54.8, length of barbel 11.7- 15.6. Coloration very highly variable. Upper part of body dark, ashen or olive gray, often with brownish or grayish round spots. Spots are present on sides of body and head but absent from the forward part of the head. Lower part of body whitish, without spots. Lateral line lighter than the sides of the body. Vertical fins gray with dark spots, sometimes forming trans- verse rows, pectoral and pelvic fins lighter, pelvics often of the same color * The latter works were not utilized fully as they were published after the completion of this work. ** From information by Dementeva averages based on a large number of specimens, variation in I D from 14.37 to 14.75, II D from 19.49 to 20.12, III D from 18.76 to 19.39, I A from 21.13 to 22.39, II A from 18.48 to 19.32, number of vertebrae from 52.14 to 52.55 (limits of individual variation 50—55, without the last vertebrae which we counted). 175 as the belly. Depending upon the habitat, the coloration of cod varies strong- ly. The most common color variant in cod appears to be reddish or orang- ish (aberr. erythrina), which at our shores are called turyanka, The coloration is unstable, the young cod acquires it while living among Lami- naria fronds and with change of habitat or while kept in an aquarium this coloration disappears. Small cod keeping close to shore, sometimes (Jef- fers, 1. c.) take on a dark color suchas а. morhua maris-albi and G. morhua орас. The measurements are most often 50-80cm, about 75cm average, maximal to 1.8 meters*, DISTRIBUTION. Northern part of the AtlanticOcean, At the shores of Europe from the Bay of Biscay to North Cape; at the shores of North Ame- rica from Cape Hatteras to Hudson and Davis Straits; southwestern and southeastern shores of Greenland; around Iceland and, apparently, north- ward from Iceland almost to Jan Mayan (to 69°13' north latitude, 8° 23! east longitude, where otoliths were found); Faroe Islands, Shetland and Orkney Islands in the North Sea; in the Barents Sea along the coasts of Spitsbergen almost to its northern tip, shallows off Bear Island to the latitude of Hope Island, in the central portion to 77° north latitude; at Novaya Zemlya to Admiralty Peninsula and very possibly northward; in Kara Sea to Kara Вау**. It enters within the distributional limits of its nationes and geo- graphically close subspecies — in the White and Baltic Seas and in Hudson Strait. 168 BIOLOGY. The Atlantic cod, as seen from its distribution, is somewhat less warmth loving than saida and piksha, but considerably more than the navaga. It occurs at temperatures of 0 to 16°C; however, the optimal tem- peratures for it appear to be 4-7° C; coastal (fjordal) forms are found at somewhat lower temperatures; in the Barents Sea it is found in greater num- bers at temperatures from 1 to 5°С. Atlantic cod live, asa rule, in waters of normal oceanic salinity; cases of entry into fresh water are rare, but have been known repeatedlyt, It generally keeps to banks or along submarine slopes within the limits of the continental shelf at depths of 10-250 meters, most often 40-100 meters, with a limit of 500 meters. Spawning occurs throughout the entire range, but the basic spawning grounds are located along the shores of Norway, mainly at the banks of the Lofoten Islands, where cod gather in great numbers during spawning. Spawning occurs less intensively in the North Sea, at the eastern shores of Great Britian and at the banks in the middle of the sea, around Ireland and at the western shores of Great Britain, at the Faroe Islands, at the southern and western shores of Iceland, at the shores of Newfoundland,at the western shores of Greenland (to 67° north latitude), in Norwegian fjords, at the snores of Murman from Finmark and to Holy Nose,and in some years inthe western portion of the Barents Sea (at Bear Island), Spawning possibly occurs along the shores of Novaya Zemlya, where it has not been directly observed, but where young were found} t+. Fertility * A 24-year-old female cod 169cm in length, weighing 40 kilograms, was trawled in July 1940 in the Barents Sea, ** Possibly to the mouth of the Pyasina River where a small cod was found in the stomach of ап omul (Ostrou- mov, Tr. Polyarnoy kom., 30, 1937:53), if it was really a cod. [Translator's note: Pyasina River mouth is on the Taimyr Репа. Omul — Coregonus autumnalis.] 1 Several cases of cod entering fresh water are known at the shores of North America and Europe. In the Elba River a 30cm long cod was caught (to 15 kilometers above Hamburg this fish differs greatly from the typi- cal cod), Three cods were caught at the Luga River 1 kilometer from the mouth at the beginning of Jan- uary, 1931. ТТ In the opinion of Rass, these young cod were carried here from elsewhere. 176 169 of cod is quite great, from 570 to 9,300thousandeggs. The number of eggs in cod as large as 100cm reaches 3-4 million; in large fish the num- ber of eggs reaches 9 million or more. Eggs in the ovaries do not ripen all at once and are cast intermittently. Spawning basically occurs within the limits or near the 100-meter isobath, in spots in the North Sea and around Great Britain at lesser depths (20-80 meters and even less). Spawning does not take place beyond the limits of the 200-meter isobath, at the western shores of Scotland and Ireland—deeper than 100 meters. Spawning of the oceanic form of cod at the Lofoten Islands occurs at temperatures of 4-6° С and even 7°C; however, local coastal (fjordal) forms at the shores of Green- land and western Murman cast their eggs at considerably lower temperatures (1-2° С and even at negative temperatures from -0 to -4° С). Spawning oc- curs mainly in February-—April, reaching maximum intensity in March, and in some years may occur even earlier and be greatly prolonged as well; but generally there are cases known of cod spawning at almost any time of year, beginning in the fall (August-September) and terminating in summer (June- July). Duration of the development of eggs 20-35 days. Young cod are found everywhere throughout the entire range; however, in some places it is dif- ficult to say whether they were derived from eggs spawned locally or were brought in as pelagic larvae or young, Young cod undertake seasonal mi- grations to and from the shores, Experiments in tagging showed that grown cod undertake similar limited migrations in the North Sea, at the Faroe Is- lands, in Kattegat and Belt, at the shores of Nova Scotia, New England and a whole group of other places—although in fjord cod and Murman coastal cod there are known individual cases of distant migrations of fishes which had been marked in some of those places. After spawning at the Lofoten Islands, cod, as shown by tagging experiments, undertake distant migrations, entering in the streams of the North Atlantic currents far to the north, into the Barents Sea to the shores of Novaya Zemlya. These cod generally re- present the basis of our cod industry, inasmuch as the local Murman cod is present in much lesser quantities. Lofoten cod approaches the shores of Murman in May-June, shortly after their appearance in the southern part of the Barents Sea at Finmarken-—Fishermens Banks. In the fall cod begin to depart and in November completely disappear from the coastal waters, moving farther into the western regions of the Barents Sea. They remain on the Bear Island Banks throughout the year, constituting the basis of the winter industry. Codarriving in the Barents Sea after spawning differ by having less fat than the local Murman cod. Large cod undertake distant migrations, as similarly established through numerous marking experiments, between the shores of Iceland and Greenland. The number of cod coming to the shores of Greenland, into the Barents Sea and to the shores of Norway, is generally unstable and subject to periodic variations. Sexual maturity is not reached at the same age in different portions of the range: in the North Sea cod begin to spawn in the 4-5 year upon reaching a length of 65—75 cm average; at the Lofoten Islands (Rollefsen, 1. с.) at 6-15, more often at 10-11 years at an average length of 60-100cm. The age limit of cod should be considered 24, possibly more. Spawning occurs annually, upon reaching sexual maturity. Food of adult cod is quite variable, but the basic item of sustenance appears to be fish-herring, capelin, sand launces, young and small cod. Besides these they feed on pelagic Euphausiidae and Hyperiidae and to a lesser extent on benthonic crustaceans (Schizopoda, Amphipoda and Decapoda), The young, leading a pelagic existence, feed on plankton (Са- lanus). Inthe central and western regions of the Barents Sea from October 177 170 to April the greatest food item is herring. From February to June in the same regions and in shallow coastal waters they feed on capelin. Young cod and piksha serve as food throughout the year: from the end of spring in the western industrial region; at the same time, and also in the beginning of fall and from the end of December and in January—in the central regions; in autumn—in the eastern industrial regions and in the shallows of Novaya Zemlya. Sayka Boreogadus saida plays a great role in the feeding of cod in the eastern industrial regions of the Barents Sea, in the shallows of Novaya Zemlya and partially along the northern and southern slopes of Goose Bank in the fall—winter months, Euphausiidae and Hyperiidae are of greatest importance in feeding cod during summer. Bottom crustaceans and a number of mollusks and worms serve as food in the eastern industrial regions. The central and eastern industrial regions have great importance in feeding, the western, less. In the western regions the average index of filled stomachs is not great (35-173), in the central higher (86-173), high- est in the eastern regions (170-224). It now appears that cod does not feed in great concentrations in our industrial regions. According to research findings the causes of such an occurrence remain to be elucidated. Inten- sive feeding occurs in the non-industrial regions and at non-industrial times, when cod travels in broken-up units. Cod keep in schools at the approaches to the feeding grounds but during spawning practically cease eating. The growth of cod invarious parts of its great range is uneven; the coastal (fjord) cod grows slowest, The limits of variation of average size of sexually ma- ture Atlantic cod from the Barents Sea is as follows: 4 years old—35.0-38.4 cm; 5 years old—41.8-44,.9cm; 6 years о19-50.7-55.2 cm; 7 years old— 60.1-64.0cm; 8 years old—69.7-73cm- 9 years о19—80.6-82.5 ста; 10 years old—89,7-91.4, Theagecontingent, thedimensions and size of catch of At- lantic cod are unstable, and vary, being dependent upon the number of indi- viduals in the generation ("the crop") during various years. The generation of a good crop year enters the industry after 5 to 7 years and appears to predominate in the catches for several years following. In the Barents Sea the generations of 1919, 1929, 1930, and 1933 were good crop years, the generation of 1931, poor crops. The fat content in the liver of cod also un- dergoes considerable variation from year to year. Thus, for example, in cod caught at the shores of Norway the comparative weight of the liver var- ied considerably in the period 1900-1911, being minimal in 1903 and maxi- та! in 1900 and 1907, Likewise, the fatness (weight of the liver as per cent of body weight) undergoes periodic changes similarly in the Barents Sea. Large cod over 70cm in length contain the greatest amount of fat in the liver; their fatness varies on the average from 4.0-9.2%, while in smaller—from 2.5—6%. COMMERCIAL VALUE, Very great. Holds first place among the gadoids in size of catch, Annual catches along the shores of Europe, Green- land and North America (Newfoundland) during recent years exceeded 10 million metric centner; before World War I over 6 million metric centner were caught annually. In the period of time from 1934 to 1938 our trawling fleet brought in annually from 558 (1934) to 1,750 (1937) thousand metric centner, Besides, quite a considerable amount of cod was caught by Dement'eva and Tanasiichuk, COMPARATIVE NOTES, The Atlantic cod within the limits of its range comprises several forms (races) as yet not studied too closely and scarcely distinguishable from each other morphologically,but with characteristically 178 a differing growth rates and dimensions and segregation of spawning grounds. The most widely distributed and powerful appears to be a form of cod whose main spawning grounds are located near the Lofoten Islands; it also spawns in small numbers in Motovsk Bay. It is characterized by a high vertebral number (according to Dement'eva and Tanasiichuk, the average 52.5 ver- tebrae), gill-rakers (average 24.9) and fin rays (19.9 in ПО). At our shores the Lofoten cod predominates in the southern part of the Barents Sea, and it is found inthe purest form in the spring in the western regions (Finmar- ken-Fishermens Bank), and especially at the times of approach of fish, It is found in the central regions in purest form during summer and late fall, and at all other times it is found here in mixed groups; it remains at Bear Banks the year round, Its numbers along our shores vary in different years; in warmer years it comes in greater numbers; in colder years, in lesser numbers, Besides the incoming Lofoten cods the other local form which spawns on the shores of Murman was indicated by the earliest explor- ers (Breitfus and Goebel, 1. c.); later the independence of this form of cod was denied (Esipov, 1. c.), but in recent years we have received new data (Dement'eva and Tanasiichuk, 1. с.) confirming the segregation of this as yet unstudied form*. The Murman cod spawns along the Murman coast, mainly in Motovsk Bay, in lesser numbers at its eastern coast (to Rinda); in some years spawning fakes place in great numbers. It is characterized by a lesser number of vertebrae (average 51.8**) than Lofoten cod, gill- rakers (average 23.7), fin rays (II D average 19.4), greater fat content and weight, lower growth rate. Does not undertake great migrations. In lesser numbers this codis continuously distributed along the coasts of Murman, the schools mixing with all schools of cod coming in from the зеа{. In the spring sexually immature cod of this form keep to the southern shores of Motovsk Bay, at Kildin Island and east of it; in the winter they remain in reduced numbers in the deeper parts of the bays and in the shallows. In the open portion of the Barents Sea it is not found in pure form; in some coastal re- gions it predominates over the Lofoten cod. The Murman cod is more cold loving than the Lofoten cod. Maximal approach of the Murman cod to the shores occurs during the hydrological winter, maximal of Lofoten cod dur- ing hydrological summer. The Murman cod, beyond any doubt, represents an independent as yet not clasely studied form (natio) of the Atlantic cod; it is possible that it is identical to the White Sea winter cod. There are data indicating the presence of another form of cod with fewer vertebrae and a higher gill-raker count, spawning, apparently, in the northern fjords of Norway. This cod does not travel far to the east to the Barents Sea. In some years it appears to be the main item of the summer industry at Bear Bank, and in the southern part of the Barents Sea apparently joins the con- tingent of summer schools of cod and does not present any great significance in catches here. A form of cod similar to or perhaps identical with the Murman cod is found in Trondheim Fjord. А cod with a lower vertebral count and fin ray (J. Schmidt, 1. с.) also occurs in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Spitsbergen cod differs by its small size and some external distinctions (Ehrenbaum, 1. c.). Generally in the bays and fjords the Atlantic cod forms * More detailed information on the biology of the Murman cod is given by Т.Е. Glebov (1941), who also indicates that among the Murman cod in recent times there are two distinguishable forms. *& Without the last counted by us. + According to Dement'eva, in summer and fall, as shown by marking experiments, Murman cod moves eastward (Goose Bank and the shallows of Novaya Zemlya) where it mingles with the arriving Lofoten cod. 179 172 as yet unstudied local races with limited migrations and local spawning. Be- sides, cod varies along the entire stretch of the Atlantic Ocean; in the west- ern part it has a greater number of vertebrae and fin rays in the II D than in the eastern part; the cod remaining around Great Britain and Ireland have still fewer vertebrae and fin rays in ПО. At present it is difficult to state what all these above enumerated forms of cod are. In all these cases we must remember the dependence of vertebral number in cod upon the conditions under which the eggs and larvae develop; as shown by Dannevig (1. c.), it varies greatly. More definitely geographically segregated and better studied forms are formed by the Atlantic cod and the White Sea and Baltic Sea cods and the cod of Lake Mogil'noe in Kildin Island. *laj.Gadus morhua morhua п. hiemalis Taliev—White Sea Winter Cod (Table XIII) Gadus callarias hiemalis Taliev, izv. otd. prikl. ikht., XI, 2, 1931:113, Figure 2 (Kandalak- shaya Gulf). — Gadus morhua hiemalis Evropeitseva, rasovyi analyiz belomorskoi treski, izd. Leningr. Gos. univ. , 1937 (biometric characterterization, feeding spawning, growth rate), -Gadus callarias Il'in and Pevzner, Sbom., Posvyashch. Knipovichu, 1939:320—322 (biometry). ГО 12-13, 11D 18-20, ШО 18-20, ТА 20-22, ПА 17-23, gill-rakers 21-22, vertebrae 52-55*. Head comparatively short and narrow, its length 25.2—27.2% of body length, the width of the interorbital space 14.9-18.5% of head length. Barbel generally shorter than the horizontal diameter of the eye, seldom equal, Caudal peduncle elongate and low, its length 10.8-13.2% oi body length, depth 4.5-5.0% of body length. Body and unpaired fins not high. The rays of the first dorsal fin when appressed generally reach be- yond the origin of the second dorsal to 1/7-1/3 of itslength. The horn-like pro- cesses at the anterior end of the swim bladder are generally the same as in the typical form. The peritoneum coloration varies from leadened-black to blackish, In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 44,6—-49,3, ante- dorsal distance 27.9-32.1, length of pectoral fin 13.3-14.7, length of pelvic fin 10.4-11.5, height of first dorsal fin 11.0-13.1, height of first anal fin 10.0-12.2. In per cent of head length: snout length 40.5-42.8, horizontal diameter of the eye 19.7-23.6, length of the upper jaw 40.5-42.8, length of the lower jaw 48.4-52,2,. Coloration as in typical form. Usual measure- ments 20-40cm, the greatest to 50cm (8 specimens). A form very close, morphologically almost indistinguishable from the Atlantic cod, Differs only biometrically (on averages) in lengths of pectoral and pelvic, second dorsal and first anal fins, longer barbel. Craniological- ly likewise indistinguishable. Apparently identical to Murman coastal cod**, The most material distinction from the typical form is in the growth rate and in general in the small size of this cod. B.S. Il'inand У.Т. Pevzner, comparing this doubtful form with specimens of the Murman cod (from Polyarnoe, Eina Bay, Uritsa and near the bird colonies of the Rybachii Peninsula), discovered differences only in the length of the head, diameter of the eye and rate of growth. DISTRIBUTION. The White Sea, where it enters Kandalaksha Bay. In Kandalaksha Bay it is found in the greatest numbers in fall and winter; * According to data of N.V. Evropeitseva, ГР 12-16 (14.3), II 17-21 (19.5), III 17-21 (19.0), ГА 19-25 (21.6), ПА 16-21 (18.6), gill-rakers 20-26 (23.3), vertebrae 51-54 (52.3) (without including the last vertebra, which is counted by us), ** According to Dement'eva this cod is definitely closest in all characteristics to the Murman coastal form of cod. 180 in summer it leaves. Return to Kandalaksha Bay begins in June and later, depending upon the location; arrivals to places nearer the mouth of the bay are observed earlier. In the White Sea, however, it undertakes а consider- able migration, possibly going beyond the limits of the зеа*. BIOLOGY. Spawns partially or entirely in the White Sea. Only two spe- cimens are known close to spawning (fourth stage of maturity), females 5 years old caught the 11th of April, 1936 in or at Pedunikha Bay ata depth of 6 meters. A male (not fully typical) with sexual products at the fifth stage of maturity was caught in 1935 at Pedunikha Bay. The summer young keepin a coastal strip, together with the one-year-olds of G. morhua maris- albi, feeding with them on Harpacticus, benthonic crustaceans, larvae of shrimp, amphipods, brachyura and others, Larger fish, measuring 15-25cm (2-3 years) eat primarily Nereis, Caprella, fin fish (herring, capelin and others) and decapods. Fish measuring 25—50 ст (4 years old and older) feed primarily on fish—capelin (and not sticklebacks, as С. 173 morhua maris-albi), then Nereis pelagica, amphipoda and deca- рода. Inthe spring it feeds on food similar to the food of larger (25-50 cm) G. morhua maris-albi. It differs in delayed growth in comparison with Murman cod and somewhat faster growth in comparison with G. morhua maris-albi. After data from scale studies collected in 1933, N, V. Evro- peitseva gives the following figures for the growth and gain: Age (years) 1 2 3 2 5 Growth (mm) 83 161219 21298: 391 Gain in growth (mm) 83 77 C205 {COME RLS INDUSTRIAL of COMMERCIAL VALUE is comparatively small, but greater than G. morhua maris-albi, as the greatest mass of cod caught in Kandalaksha Bay belongs to this form. The catch of both forms of cod in Kandalaksha Bay during the period 1895-1915 did not exceed 100 metric centner; in later years the primitive form of industry was discontinued. It is caught primarily by women, mainly with rod and line (Deksbach, Rybn. khoz, SSSR, 1925, 8-9:13). *1Ь. Gadus morhua callarias Linné—Baltic cod (Table XI) Gadus callarias Linne, Syst. nat., ed. X, 1758:251 (ex parte: Baltic Sea); Pallas, Zoogr. rosso- asiat., Ш, 1811:182 (Baltic Sea and coasts of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia). — Gadus morhua Kessler, ryby spb. gub., 1864:61 (ex parte: sometimes at Kronshtadt, one specimen from Neva Bay). — Gadus cal- larias Smitt, Scand. fish. , I, 1893:473 (ex parte: Baltic Sea); J. Schmidt, С.-В. Trav. Lab. Carlsberg, XVIII, 6, 1930:15 (ex parte: Baltic Sea east from Bornholm Island). — Gadus morhua с allarias Berg, ryby presnykh vod., II, 1933:744 (Baltic Sea east from Bornholm Island to Neva Bay, in the Luga River at one kilometer from the mouth). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Malgren, Kritisk Ofvers. Finnl. fisk. - fauna, 1863:27 (Gulf of Bothnia to UJeaburg); Mébius и. Heincke, Fische Ostsee, 1883:233 (biology); С. Schneider, Acta Soc. Fauna Flora Fennica ХХ, 1, 1900:24; ibid., XXII, 4, 1901:43; ibid. XXII, 2, 1902:67 (feeding, incidence of parasitic infection); Sandmann, Rapp. Procés-Verb. , У, 1906:41, pl. IV (Си of Bothnia and Finland, growth, di- mension); Hessle, Meddel. Kungl. Lantbruksstyrels, 243, (2, 1923), 1923:8 (coasts of Sweden, growth, feed- ing); 278 (7, 1929), 1929:3, 35 (coast of Sweden, spawning experiments); Кап ег, Kieler Meeresforsch, II, 2, 1948:272 (western part of the sea east of Bornholm Island, spring and fall spawning, comparison of spring and fall spawning cod); Berg, Izv. vesesoyuzn. nauchno-issled. inst. ozern. i rechn. rybn. khoz. , XXIII, 1940:23 (Gulf of Finland, dimensions); Ziecik, Arch. Hydrob. Rybact. , Suwalki, XI, 1938:51; Glebov, Rybn. khoz. , 1946, 4—5:9 (Baltic Sea south of Jutland Island, trawling). ТО 14-16, ПО 16-20, ШО 17-20, 1 18-22, ПА 18-21, gill-rakers 18—23, vertebrae 53**. Head comparatively short and narrow, its length * At Kanin Point cod with a growth rate characteristic of this form was caught, partially substantiating the opinion expressed above as to the identity of this with the Murman coastal form of cod. жж The number of vertebrae in one specimen only; according to J. Schmidt, 50—56 vertebrae. 181 174 25.4-27.8% of body length, width of interorbital space 16.2-21.0% of head length, Barbel usually shorter, seldom somewhat longer than the horizon- tal diameter of the eye. Caudal peduncle elongate and low, its length 9.5-— 12.4, depth 4.1-4.8% of body length. Body and unpaired fins not high, Rays of first dorsal fin when appressed usually reach beyond the origin of the second dorsal fin, seldom reach only to the origin. Swim bladder most of- ten somewhat larger in dimension and less elastic than in the typical form, the horn-like processes at its front end in adults usually very long, rolled in a ball (Figure 27 с). In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 45.7—- 48.2, antedorsal distance 29.5-33.3, length of pectoral fin 13.6-14.9, length of pelvic fin 9.9-12.0, height of first dorsal fin 11.2-13.6, length of first anal fin 9.4-12.1. In per cent of head length: height of snout 35.4-39.0, horizontal diameter of eye 15.9-20.5, length of upper jaw 40.7-44.5, length of lower jaw 48.8—52.9, length of barbel 13.8—18.6. Coloration olive or greenish-gray often with grayish, brownish or brown spots, generally more spotty than the Atlantic cod; often the coloration is darker. Usual measure- ments 40-50cm, in the eastern portion of the sea smaller, 30-45 ст. Weight in the Gulf of Finland averages 0.5 kilograms, in exceptional cases 3-4 kilograms, Larger specimens, almost 100cm in length and weighing up to 7.75 kilograms, are sometimes found in the Gulf of Finland, and are presumed to be Atlantic cod which have accidentally entered the Baltic. DISTRIBUTION, Baltic Sea east of Bornholm Island, more often in its central part and to the middle of the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia (Kvarken Straits), less frequently in the northeastern part of the Gulf of Bothnia (at Uleaburg) and in the eastern part of the Gulf of Finland, in the latter even occasionally to Neva Bay. BIOLOGY. Similar to the biology of the coastal forms of the Atlantic cod, as tagging experiments have shown that it remains locally, undertaking only very limited migrations. All marked fish were caught, at least during the current year, at distances of 1-2 nautical miles from the place of spawning. In the middle part of the northern section of the Baltic Sea it apparently con- centrates primarily at the greater depths; the best catches are usually on the inclines of these depths or in those spots near shore which are close to the depths. South of Jutland Island (55° 50! north latitude, 19° east longi- tude) in 1941 the greatest gatherings were in the bottom layers of water at a temperature of 4-5°С. It prefers rocky bottom and is seldom found on soft mud or sandy bottom. It is characteristic of this form that it lives and breeds at lower salinity; indeed, at the western part of the Baltic Sea east of Bornholm Island, salinity drops to 13-18 parts per thousand and even lower; in the central and eastern parts of the Baltic Sea it is still lower (about 10-12 parts per thousand); however, spawning occurs even here, For spawning it comes closer to shore, in some places in the fall and stays here until May. In the western portion of the sea,spawning begins in January and ends in May; the most intensive part occurs in March, In the eastern part of the sea, shedding of the eggs occurs to a lesser degree and is continuous through summer; its main period falls at a later time. In the deep western part of the sea east of Bornholm Island,spawning continues from March to September inclusive,and two periods of it are observed—spring, stretching from April to July with greatest intensity in June, and a shorter autumn period ending in September,with the greatest intensity in the middle of that month, Spawning here occurs on slopes of the depths, at depths of 70 to over 100 meters with a bottom water temperature in September of 4.3-4.6°C and a salinity of 12.9-17.8 parts per thousand, At Jutland Island, Aland 182 175 Islands and opposite Stockholm spawning occurs with greatest intensity in April-June, in the Gulf of Bothnia in July and August. Maturity is already reached at 3 years of age. In the central portion of the Baltic Sea it matures at a length of less than 40cm at 3 to 4 years of age. The number of females is always greater than the number of males. Eggs and larvae are found at depths of 100-300 meters. In the Gulf of Bothnia growth is faster than in the more southerly portions of the sea. It feeds on crustaceans and fish; at depths food consists of Mesidothea entomon, Mysis oculata, Piomto powe la temonatay, Lumpenus,lampetrifonrnmis,,andher- ring; at lesser depths—Gammarus locuSta, fish (herring, belduga, sticklebacks, and sand launces). COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE. Comparatively minor. In recent years about 170 thousand metric centner (1936) were caught west of Belt Strait. During this year in particular the catch was: Denmark—19.3; Sweden —59.3; Germany—45; Poland—9.3 (1932—38.1); Latvia—29.7 (1939—54.6); Estonia—6.7 (1939—27.7); Lithuania—6.9 thousand metric centner (1939)*, In the Gulf of Finland it has no commercial value. Procured mainly in nets, yarus, partially on rod and line and nets. At the open shores of the sea the catch begins in March, the period when the fish approach the shores for spawning, and continues until winter, It is caught in greatest numbers from June to October. In winter it is caught at greater depths distant from shore. COMPARATIVE NOTES, Externally and craniologically similar to the Atlantic cod, having only a lesser number of rays in the second dorsal fin (according to J. Schmidt, average about 17.5, while oceanic cod has a mean average usually above 19), a lesser number of gill-rakers and a smaller size but a material difference is in having the long and soft horn-like pro- cesses of the swim bladder coiled into a ball. There are indications of the presence in the Baltic Sea of a form of cod with a shortened skull and a sharp profile of the head. *1с. Gadus morhua kildinensis Derjugin—Kildin cod (Tables XI, LI) Gadus callarias kildinensis Derjugin, Tr. Petrogr. obshch. est., LI, 1, 1920:26 (Mogil'noe Lake on Kildin Island); Tr. Petergofsk, inst., 2, 1925:78 (measurements, biology); Rass, Rab. Murm. biol. st., Ш, 1929:25 (measurements of two specimens); Esipov, hidro biol. zhurn. SSSR, IX, 4—6, 1930:131 (compar- ison with the Atlantic cod). PD 12-14. 1D 17 =20; ШТО 17-20, ТА 18-20, ША 17—20, 51 -гакегэ 20—24, vertebrae 54**, Head not large but quite broad, its length 24.4-— 26.9% of body length, width of interorbital space 17.5-22.0% of head length. Caudal peduncle elongate, length 11.9-13.3%, depth 4.2-4.8% of body length. Rays of the first dorsal fin when appressed scarcely pass beyond the origin of the second dorsal fin. The horn-like growths at the anterior end of the swim bladder in adults are usually very long, most often coiled into a ball (Figure 27, g, h, i). Peritoneum leadened silvery or leadened black, In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 44.1-49.1, antedorsal distance * According to published data of the enumerated countries. ** According to Esipov (17 specimens), I D 12-14 (12.8), ПР 16-20 (18.4), ШР 17-20 (18.3), I A 18-22 (20.1), ПА 17-20 (18.3), gill-rakers 21—24 (22.0), vertebrae 51—52 (51.8), without the last vertebra, which we counted. 183 176 27.7-31.5, length of pectoral fin 13.2-14.4, length of pelvic fin 9.4—11.2, height of first dorsal fin 11.2-12.0, height of first anal fin 10.7-11.5. In per cent of head length: length of snout 34.0-37.7, horizontal diameter of eye 16.0-20.3, length of upper jaw 40.0-42.1, length of lower jaw 48.8-50.3, length of barbel 14.5-17.7. Coloration dark and very spotted, The basic color of the upper portion of the body is brownish, often with numerous scat- tered round dark brown spots; similar spots occur on the dorsal and caudal fins; pelvic and anal fins dark with small black dots. Pectoral fins some- what darker, Largest known measurements 79.7 cm (8 specimens). DISTRIBUTION. Lake Mogil'noe on Kildin Island west of the entrance to Kola Bay. Biology of this form is quite individual. It lives in a small closed lake with a maximal depth of 17.5 meters, with a salinity in the bottom layers of the water (below 10 meters) from 22 to 32 parts per thousand and greatly freshened, almost fresh, surface layers. It remains in the lower layers of water, but cases are known of catching them at 1.5-2.0 meters, that is in the water with a salinity of about 1-5 parts per thousand. Spawning of this cod, which is as yet not studied too closely, offers great interest, as the pelagic eggs must be located either in freshened surface layers of water of at depths of 10 meters. Females with ripe eggs and males with well-deve- loped testes were found in mid-February; but spawning apparently occurs in March, Young 7.3 and 9.5mm in length were caught at the end of June. One hundred forty specimens of cod not over 7cm inlength were caught with nets in the beginning of September. Feeds on crustaceans. Growth of this form of cod, apparently, is close to the growth rate of the Atlantic cod; at 5 years of age the average length is about 60.7 ста, at 6 years 65.1cm. COMMERCIAL VALUE almost none, inasmuch as the supply in sucha small lake is insignificant. COMPARATIVE NOTES. This form of cod is undoubtedly derived from G. morhua morhua, and, judging by one skull and the interorbital dis- tance in measured fish, its skull is broader than in the Atlantic cod. The Kildin cod differs more strongly from the broad-headed forms of cod (G. morhua maris-albi, С. morhua,.ogac, G. morhua macroce- phalus) inthe shape of the skull and a group of other characteristics, *ld. Gadus morhua maris-albi Derjugin—White Sea coastal cod (Tables XII, LIII) Gadus callarias maris-albi Derjugin, Tr. Petrogr. obsch. est., LI, 1, 1929:27 (White Sea); Mikhin, Izc. otd. prikl. ikht., ПТ 2, 1925:191 (Kandalaksha Gulf, biometric characteristics); Taliev, ibid., XI, 2, 1931:103, Figure 3 (Kandalaksha Gulf and region of Kandalaksha from the village of Kolvitza to Pirju Bay, biometric characteristics, biology); Yanushevich, Karelo-murm. krai, 1933, 5—6:61 (biology and utili- zation). — Gadus morhua maris-albi Evropeitseva, Rasovyi analiz belomorskoi treski, 124. Leningr. Gos. univ. , 1937 (biometric characteristics, feeding, spawning, growth rate). — Gadus maris-albi Il'in and Pevzner, Sborn. posvyashch. Knipovichu, 1939:316 (biometry, comparison with the Murman and White Sea winter cods, growth, feeding). 184 Е, TD tS oe tit РТА 17—22 ША 16—19)onll-rakers 19-22, vertebrae 52-55*, The head is large and broad, its length 25.0- 28.3% of body length, the width of the interorbital space 18.4-24.1% of head length. Barbel short, equal or greater than the diameter of the eye. Caudal peduncle short and high, its length 9.2-11.6% of body length, depth 4.9-6.0% of body length. Body and unpaired fins are high. Appressed rays of first dorsal finreach beyond the origin of the second dorsal fin from тю sits length, The horn-like processes at the forward end of the swim bladder are usually longer after the curve toward the mid-line and have a curve to the sides at the tip, in young ones short and with a curve to the mid-line only (Figure 27 j, k). Coloration of peritoneum from leadened black to blackish. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 46.7-51.2, antedorsal distance 29.8—32.8, length of pectoral fin 13.8—-14.8, length of pelvic fin 9.3-11.9, 177 height of first dorsal fin 12.2-13.7, height of first anal fin 11.5-12.3. In per cent of head length: length of snout 34.8—39.0, horizontal diameter of eye 16.2-20.2, length of upper jaw 40.2-44.5, length of lower jaw 47.5-53.0. Coloration dark, sometimes almost black, often with ill-defined spots and stripes. Length most often 20-35 спа, not exceeding 60cm (7 specimens). This form does not have too great a distinction from G. morhua mor- hua, as can be seen from all stated above (see comparative notes); there- fore there is absolutely no basis to consider it as a separate species (Il'in and Pevzner, 1. с. ). DISTRIBUTION. White Sea, where it keeps primarily in coastal zones and in the inlet of Kandalaksha Bay, also found in adjacent regions—at SolovetskiIslands**, In spring and summer it predominates in Kandalak- sha Bay, and G. m. morhuan, hiemalis is found only occasionally, while in regions closer to the entrance, the number of the latter increases. It does not undertake large migrations, remaining, as far as is known, in Kandalaksha Bay and in portions of the White Sea adjacent to it. BIOLOGY. Spawning (according to observations of Evropeitseva on 1935—1936) occurs in the coastal zone and in the inlets (Pirju-, Umba-, Sos- поуКа-, Kolvitsa,-, Pil'skaya inlets) of Kandalaksha Bay at shallow depths, from 1.5 to 12 meters, with soft (sandy-muddy) and hard (rocky) bottom. Spawning occurs beneath the ice at negative temperatures from —0.5 to —1.0°С; it commences in March andperhaps earlier, is most intensive at the end of March and the beginning of April; the end of spawning stretches to the end of May and evento June, They first begin to spawn at the age of 3 years, more infrequently at 2 years; the main mass of spawning cod con- sists of 3-, 4-, and 5-year old specimens. The oldest age of spawning cod is 9 years. In addition, spawning cod on the spawning grounds spawned from the 14th of May to the 15th of June, 1935, and the 15th to 18th of April, 1936; the escape of larvae from the eggs at that time was not observed, which bears witness to a more delayed hatching in this form as compared with the ocean- ic. The eggs in the adult ovaries are unequal in volume and dimensions; in addition to very small eggs, set on pedestals and seen only under the mic- roscope, there are also large eggs which are transparent or semi-transpar- ent, and non-transparent eggs of smaller diameter. Apparently, a partial * According to the data of Evropeitseva, I D 12-16 (13.7), ПШ 16-22 (19.1), III 15-21 (18.3), ГА 18-25 (21.7), ПА 15-21 (17.8), gill-rakers 18-24 (21.4), vertebrae 49-53 (51.2) (without the last vertebra which was counted by us). Similar values were obtained by Ilin and Pevmer. ** Number 9521 and 10090 of the collections of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences SSSR. 185 178 egg-laying occurs in this form of cod. The fecundity is not high: from 57.5 to 840 thousand, the mean about 60 thousand eggs*, which obviously reflects the smaller dimensions of the White Sea cod. . Young measuring 9-15cm are caught quite often in Pirju Inlet. At a young age (9—15cm in length) it keeps to coastal strips and feeds primarily on Harpacticus sp., benthon- ic crustaecans, shrimp larvae, amphipods, brachyura and other organisms. Somewhat larger fish (15-25 cm) eat mainly Nereis pelagica, then Caprella sp., young fish, sticklebacks, decapods, schizopods. Large fish measuring 25-50cm (4 and more years) feed basically on fish, mainly sticklebacks, then echinoderms (Ophiopholis aculeata), amphipods and decapods. Inthe spring, fish 15-25cm eat mainly amphipods, then po- lychaeta and schizopods. In large fish the role of fish feeding (Gasteros- teus aculeatus) is most important, thenfollows Sagitta, schizopods and amphipods. In comparison with oceanic cod this one has a delayed growth with smal- ler annual gain in growth; but compared with а. morhua morhua п. hiemalis, it grows somewhat faster. From the investigations of Evropei- tsevathe growthrate and the growth increment in this form as derived from scale studies are as follows: Age (years) 1 р 3 4 5 6 7 8 Growth (mm) 74 143 206 2669“ 31L5/9350.4 39833429 Gain in growth (mm) 74 69 64 57, 1147. 41 Ste yy COMMERCIAL VALUE very little. The catch is usually conducted pri- mitively with rod and line. *1е. Gadus morhua ogac Richardson—Greenland coastal cod (Tables XII, LIV) Gadus barbatus (non Г.) Fabricius, Fauna Groenl., 1780:146. — Gadus ogac Richardson, Fauna Вог. -Americ., Ш, 1836:246 (coast of Greenland). — Gadus ovak Reinhardt, kngl. Danske Vidensk, Selsk. , Nat. Afh., Vil, 1838:127. — Gadus ogat Kroyer, Voy. Scand. Lapponie, 1847, pl. 19.— Gadus ogac Dresel, Proc. Ч. S. Nat. Mus., VII, (1884), 1885:246 (shores of Greenland, Godhavn); Smitt, Scand. fish. , |, 1893:497 (coast of Greenland, comparison with specimens from the Atlantic Ocean and Baltic Sea); William- son, 26th Ann. Rept. Fish. Board Scotl., pt. 3, (1907), 1909:97 (skull); Vladykov, Contrib. Canad. biol. fisher. , (п. s.), VIII, 1-8, 1933:28 (Hudson Strait, Hudson Bay, James Bay); Schultz a. Welander, Copeia, 1935 (3):131 (structure of swim bladder). ID 14-15, ПО 19-20, 111 D 19-20, I A,21-23, ПА 18-21, gill-rakers 20—30, vertebrae 56**, Head elongate and broad, its length 25.0-25.2% of body length, width of interorbital space 22.6-23.1% of head length. The up- per jaw is elongate, 44.0-—46.6% of head length. Barbel shorter than the diameter of the eye. Caudal peduncle short and high, its length 11.5-11.7% of the body length, height 4.6-4.9% of body length. Body and median fins are high, rays of the first dorsal when appressed pass beyond the second dorsal. Horn-like processes of the anterior end of the swim bladder usual- ly shortened and curved toward the center line with a slight bend at the tip (Figure 27 о). Peritoneum leadened black or blackish. Eyes large, the hor- izontal diameter of the eye 21.4-23.1% of head length. Snout and jaws elon- gate. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 45.8—49.2, antedorsal * According to B.S, Il'inand В.Е. Pevzner, from 23.4 to 467.1 thousand eggs. ** According to Vladykov (8 specimens), I D 14-16, ПО 16-21, DIP D 16-19, ГА 19-21: ША 17-20: 186 179 distance 31.7—32.0, length of the pectoral fin 15.3-16.0, length of pelvic fin 11.5-11.9, height of first dorsal fin 13.6—-14.4, height of first anal fin 10.5-12.1. In per cent of head length: snout length 37.0-39.4%, length of upper jaw 44.0—46.6, length of lower jaw 53.1-53.8. Coloration dark black- ish from the top, below yellow with marble-like markings. The tips of the unpaired fins are black, pectoral and pelvic fins dark brown or black. Bar- bel black, lateral line dark. Length 35-45 ст and somewhat more but less | than in the typical form (2 specimens). DISTRIBUTION. At the western shores of Greeniand to 72.5-73.5° north latitude, Hudson Bay, James Bay, Hudson Strait and perhaps southward along Labrador. At Cape Isabel (Boothea, Richardson, 1.с.), if it is not Boreogadus agilis. BIOLOGY. Stays along shore. Spawns at the shores of Greenland (Richardson, 1.с.), occurring in February-March under the ice. In June the mass of young the size of sticklebacks keeps at the shores. Feeds on fish and amphipods. COMMERCIAL VALUE negligible, but plays a material role in local catches. COMPARATIVE NOTES. At the shores of Greenland G. morhua has a form (subspecies) ecologically and morphologically analogous to G. morhua maris-albi; both differ from the typical form in the same characteristics — deeper body and fins, deep and short caudal peduncle, broad forehead, etc. This form differs from G. morhua maris-albi only by the large eyes, somewhat longer jaws and snout, and structure of the horn-like processes of the swim bladder. This form cannot be a sep- arate form as there is no material distinction between it and the typical form; the hiatus existing between them in some characters is due to the few specimens that have been examined in this case just as in the preceding researches (Dresel, 1.с.; Vladykov, 1.с.). *1f. Gadus morhua macrocephalus Tilesius — Pacific Ocean Cod (Tables XIII, LV) Gadus macrocephalus Tilesisus, Mém. Acad. Sci. Petersb., II, 1810:350 (Bering Sea). — Gadus morhua Pallas, Zoogr. rosso-asiat. III, 1811:181 (ex parte: Pacific Ocean between Kamchatka and North America). — Gadus pygmaeus Pallas, 1.с.:199 (coast of North America, Саре 111). — Gadus pseudo- morrhua Bleeker, Ме4ег1. Tijdschr. Dierk, Iv, 4-7, 1873:151 (description from figure). — Gadus auratus Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1873:30 (Unalaska, golden-brown coloration),— Gadus Brandti Hilgen- dorf, Mitth. Deutsch. Gs. Natur, -Volkerkunde Ostasiens, I, 1875, pt. 7:3. — Gadus callarias Figenmann a. Eigenmann, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., VI, 1892:358 (Alaska, Puget Sound); Smitt, Scand. fish., I, 1893: 472 (ex parte: northern part of Pacific Ocean), — Gadus callarias var. macrocephalus Smitt, ryby vostochnykh morey, 1904:217 (Sea of Japan, western shores of Sakhalin, Genzan, Ризап). — Pollachius brandti Jordan a. Metz, Mem. Carnegie Mus., VI, 1, 1913-14:64(Fusan).— Gadus callarias macro- cephalus Rendahl, Ark. Zoologi, XXII A, 10, 1931:60 (Avachin Bay at Petropavlovsk on Kamchatka). — Gadus morhua macrocephalus Berg, Rybypresnykh vod, II, 1933:746. DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Steindachner и. Kner, Sitzungsber. Akad, Wiss. Wien, math.-naturw. С1., LXI, 1, 1870:20 (DeCastris Bay); Jordan a. Gilbert, Proc..U.S. Nat.,Mus., Ш, 1880:453 (Bay of Puget Sound); Alexander, Rept. U.S. Fish Comm., (1888), 1892:450 (Yaquina Bay); Jordan a. Starks, Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., (2), V, 1895:849 (Cape Flattery); Grebetskii vestn. rybopr., XII, 6-7, 1897:323 (coast of Kamchatka, Commander Islands); Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. N. a. M. Amer., III, 1898:2541 (Bering Sea south to Oregon); Jordan a. Gilbert, Fish. Bering Sea, 1899:486, 508 (coast of Alaska, Aleutians, Pribilov and Commander Islands); Jordan a. Starks, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., XXXI, 1906:526 (Port Arthur); Evermann a. Goldsborough, Fish. Alaska, 1907:348 (Bering Sea and coasts of Alaska and Kamchatka); Jordan, Tanaka 187 a. Snyder, Cat. fish. Japan, 1913:406 (Bering Sea, Kurile Islands, Tulen Island, Kamchatka, Hokkaido, Sakhalin); Jordan a. Metz, 1.с., VI, 1, 1913-14:65 (Chinnampo, Port Arthur); Jordan a. Hubbs ibid., X, 2, 1925:326 (Kushiro, Osaka ?); Cobb, Rept. U.S. Comm. Fisher., App. VII, 1926:389 (from Cape Flattery to St. Lawrence Island and around it, biology, commercial importance, description of the industry); Inaba, Rec, Oceanogr. Works Japan, III, 2, 1931:51 (vicinity of Asamuchi, Ishikawa, Mutsu Bay, spawning); Smitt, vestn. dalnevost. fil. an, 1-3, 1933:79 (eggs, larvae); Mori а. Uchida, Journ. Chosen Nat. Hist. Soc,, 19, 1934: 22 (Chin-kay, Genzan and western shores of Korea); Moiseev, Rybn. khoz. Kamchatka, 1934:94 (biology); Schultz а. Welander, Copeia, 1935 (3):131 (structure of the swim bladder); Polutov, Rybn.khoz. Kamchatka, 1935:1 (eastern coasts of Kamchatka, biometrics, biology, commercial importance); Vinogradov, ibid., 1935:45 (Aleutian Bay, feeding); Andriashev, Issled. morei SSSR, 23, 1935:135 (Bering Sea and Commander and Aleutian Islands, coasts of Kamchatka and Koryakland, northward to the Bay of St. Lawrence); Schultz a. Delacy, Mid-Pac, Magaz., Jan.-March, 1936:65 (Bering Sea, south to Oregon, bibliography); Andriashev, issled. morei SSSR, 25, 1937:257 (distribution, size); Polutov, Vestnik dal'nevost, #1. АМ, 27, 1937:95 (migrations); Morsaev, Izv. tikhookeansk. nauchno-issled. inst. morsk. rybn. khoz. i okeanogr., 14, 1938 37 180 (western Kamchatka); Maturbara, Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. Tokyo, VI, 5, 1938:249; ibid., VIII, 1, 1939 (age, size, weight); Morsaev, Rybn. khoz, 1940, 3:27 (western shores of Kamchatka, distribution, migration, fecundity); Polutov, rybn. khoz., 1946, 6:37 (Avachin Bay, measurements, maturity, feeding, migration catch); Krivobok, Materialy, k poznaniyu treski yaponskogo morya, APKH. TNIRO, No. 961 (Sea of Japan, biometry, biology, commercial value): Suvorov and Shchetinina, Treskai ee promysel у vodakh Tikhogo ckeana (materials on the biology ofthe cod in the Sea of Okhotsk), apkh. TNIRO, No. 676 (Sea of Okhotsk, bio- metry, biology, utilization); Shurin, Materialy po pitaniyu treski dal'nevostochnykh morei, arkh. TINRO No. 908 (Japan, Okhotsk, and Bering Seas, feeding). ID 12-16, ПО 15-19, III D 17-20, I 19-23, ПА 18-21, gill-rakers 18-23, vertebrae 53*. Head large and broad, its length 26.7-28.6% of body length, interorbital space 20.3-25.3% of head length. Upper jaw elongate, 43.2-47.7% of head length. Barbel longer or slightly shorter than the horizontal diameter of the eye. Caudal peduncle low, 3.4-4.5% of body length. Appressed rays of first dorsal fin scarcely reach the ori- gin of the second dorsal, seldom passing it. Horn-like processes at the anterior end of the swim bladder generally are short and bent only toward the mid-line with a slight outward curve at the tip, less frequently elongate and after the curve to the mid-line are directed forward with a curve at the tip (Figure 271,m,n). Peritoneum leaden-black or black. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 46.8-54.3, antedorsal distance 32.1-36.2, length of pectoral fin 13.5-15.4, length of pelvic fin 9.3-12.9, height of first dorsal fin 8.0-13.0, height of first anal fin 8.9-11.4. In per cent of head length: length of snout 33.4-—37.4, horizontal diameter of eye 15.8-20.6, length of lower jaw 50.2-55.6, length of barbel 14.4-20.7. Coloration sim- ilar to that of the Atlantic cod — golden yellow abberrations are also known. Size somewhat smaller than the Atlantic cod, average length of body in dif- ferent years varies from 45.5 to 90cm. Cod from the Sea of Japan are smaller than those from the Sea of Okhotsk. Average measurements of the body through the series of years for the first vary from 43 to 70cm, for the second from 62 to 80cm; measurements within the limits of the Sea of Japan diminish from north to south, the greatest known length is 1.2 meters, somewhat heavier in body weight than the Atlantic cod. * Number of vertebrae based on one specimen. According to Suvorov and Shchetinina (l.c.) for cod (100- 104 specimens) from the western shores of Kamchatka: ГО 13-16 (14.4), ПО 14-20 (17.18), III 17-21 (18.5), ГА 18-25 (20.9}, ПА 17-22 (18.7), gill-rakers 18-24 (20.1), vertebrae 50-55 (53.2 without the last vertebra which is counted by us). In cod from the Avachin Bay, vertebrae average 53.6, from the Sea of Japan 52,1 (Polutov). 188 181 DISTRIBUTION. Northern part of the Pacific Ocean and adjacent seas. Found occasionally along the Asiatic shores, beginning in the Yellow Sea (Darien, Chin-Kai, western Korea), at the western shores of the Sea of Japan, along the coast of Korea (Gensan, Pusan, in winter) and farther north, along the eastern shore of Hondo to the north of the Gulf of Toyama- Van and apparently southward (Sanin-do, Province of Tottori ?)*; at the northern and eastern shores of Hokkaido; around Sakhalin, along the Kurile Islands and all the coasts of the Okhotsk Sea around Kamchatka; in the Ber- ing Sea, in the open sea opposite the Asiatic shores north of Providence Harbor, along the harbors of the Chuckchi Peninsula to St. Lawrence Bay, at the Commander and Pribilof Islands and along the Aleutian Islands; at the Alaskan shores northward to the latitude of St. Lawrence Island, around St. Lawrence Island (Cobb, 1.с.), along the Pacific coast south to the shores of Oregon (Yaquina Bay). BIOLOGY. Pacific cod, regardless of its broad range, does not under- take such extensive migrations as the Atlantic cod. All of the known facts indicate that it migrates only short distances to and from the shores or from one bank to the other within the range of a limited region. A charac- teristic peculiarity appears to be the fact that in summer, as far as is known to us, it keeps separate and does not form such great aggregations ag do the Atlantic cod. It is found in greatest numbers at a temperature of 3—4°С (Sea of Japan); at higher temperatures it is found in lesser numbers and at 9°C it is no longer caught; at temperatures below 3°C there are les- ser quantities but occasionally it is caught at even negative temperatures (to -1.5°C) and under the ice (at St. Lawrence Island, Cobb, 1.с.). In the Bering Sea the greatest concentration takes place at the meeting point of warm and cold currents at temperatures from 0.5 to -0.2°C. In the summer months the main mass keeps near the shore and at banks at depths of 50- 100 meters; it is found in lesser numbers beyond the limits of the 100- meter isobath; in winter it retreats to depths of 150-200 meters, but gen- erally the winter period has been studied very little. In summer,cod is dis- tributed along the western shores of Kamchatka in two parellel rows at depths of 10-50 and 70-100 meters with separate concentrations of com- mercially exploitable size within each. At the end of September and the beginning of October the cod which heretofore have kept within the limits of the coastal strip begin to retreat to greater depths, mixing with cod coming from the second strip off the coast and proceeding into greater depths where they remain through the winter at depths of 150 to 250 meters. In January, in some places at depths of 180 to 230 meters, cod was caught in consider- able numbers (from 6.1 to 8.5 metric centner in one hour's trawling). Spawn- ing, just as in the Atlantic cod, apparently occurs almost everywhere, but in the absence of observations during the spawning period this is practically unstudied. As shown by Yrebnitskii and Cobb, spawning takes place in January-February; egg-laden cod are caught less often in March, and as presumed by Suvorov in April-May; and individual females with unshed eggs were caught in the latter half of May, but generally there are known cases of finding such females throughout the summer. At the western shores of Kamchatka fish close to spawning condition were found from * As indicated by Okada and Matsubara (Keys to the Fishes and Fishlike Animals of Japan, 1938:442), it is also found farther south — at the shores of Guandun Province [Canton]. 189 182 December to April, in March — already discharging eggs. At the shores of Japan spawning occurs from December to February. Isolated sporadic observations indicate spawning occurs at the Commander Islands, along the eastern coast of Kamchatka from Cape Lopatka to KaraginskiiIsland and without pinpointing exact localities — at the shores of North America. Fe- cundity varies from 1,809 to 5,722 eggs, mean average about 2.5—5 millions. In Kronotskii Bay the main mass of spawning cod consists of 5 and 6 year olds. The growth of Pacific cod in various places of its great range is unequal. From data quoted by Krivobok, Suvorov and Schetinina growth occurs as follows (in cm): Age (in years} 4+ Sy ak 6+ 7+ Bering Sea: Navarinsk Region 54.3 61.4 11.3 77.9 Olyutorsk Region 45.7 54.2 64.1 12.2 Sea of Okhotsk 46.1 55.8 67.0 15.2 Japan Sea 40.6 50.4 60.8 68.6 From these data it is seen that cod from regions farther south have a more retarded growth rate than northern cod, which are also slightly larger in dimensions, thus indicating a preference for cold and their northern ori- gin. Longevity of cod is 10 to 12 years; 8 year olds predominate in catches. The food is greatly varied: fish, crustaceans (large and small), worms, echinoderms, mollusks. The basic food of cod over 70cm in length is fish and then crustaceans; cod less than 70cm long feed mainly on crustaceans and to a lesser degree on fish (herring, Theragra, capelin, salmon, flounders, and sculpins). There are cases on record of finding even water birds (ducks) in the stomachs of Pacific cod. Generally Pacific cod is less fastidious in its feeding habits than the Atlantic cod. COMMERCIAL VALUE. Much less than the Atlantic cod. Our commer- cial catch of cod began comparatively recently. The maximal catch was 4, 180.6 thousand units (168 thousand metric centner in 1930); in re- cent years the catch has declined. The cod industry along the shores of North America began earlier (in the '60's of the last century) and gradually increased, reaching in 1916 (Pacific Fisherman, 1936:225) 3,892 thousand units (about 160 thousand metric centner); in recent years the catch has declined somewhat, and in 1931-35 the annual catch was from 1,264 to 1,676 thousand units (about 56-67 thousand metric centner), The catches of Japan, according to inaccurate and contradictory sources of in- formation, exceeded 1.5 million metric centner. The total catch of Pacific cod, judging by the approximate data quoted above, varies from 1.5 to 2 million metric centner, At the American shores cod is caught mainly in Alaska; at the shores of Canada there is no industry to be con- sidered. The trawl fishery for cod in the Pacific Ocean did not succeed due to the inability to find the cod in great numbers, and the fishing is conduct- ed from small vessels with hook and line, set lines and long lines. COMPARATIVE NOTES. Arriving in the Pacific and not finding much competition from many other forms as in the Atlantic Ocean, this form of cod had the opportunity to spread broadly to the south and form within its entire range a whole group of local forms, varying in size (growth) and some morphological characters, while forms in the southern portions of the range were much more warmth loving than closely related subspecies — G. 190 183 morhua ogac and а. morhua maris-albi, as well as the northern forms of G. morhua macrocephalus. Cod of the Japan Sea, judging from the small number of specimens in the collections of the Zoological In- stitute of the Academy of Sciences, differs from the Bering Sea cod by its much shorter barbel and some other features. Suvorov and Schetinina in- dicate a series of differences between cod of the Sea of Okhotskand cod of the Gulf of Peter the Great and the northern section of the Tartar Straits. Krivobok found differences between cod of the west coast of Sakhalin and the shores of the Maritime Provinces. Cod from the southern regions are con- siderably smaller than cod from the northern regions; they also have a slower growth rate and this, to a certain degree, indicates their origin in the more northerly regions where they have the best growth. The restric- tion of Pacific cod to a narrow range in habitat and its limited migrations offer broad possibilities for the formation of local forms. Gadus brandti Hilgendorf=Pollachius brandti Jordana. Metz appears to be undoubtedly Gadus morhua macrocephalus ac- cording to the number of rays, ratios between the lengths of the bases of the unpaired fins and other characteristics. 16. Genus GADICULUS Guichenot Gadiculus Guichenot, Expl. Sci. Algérie, Zool., V, 1850:101 (Туре: Gadiculus argenteus Guich.). The dorsal and anal fins are separated by spaces. First anal fin begins slightly forward of the second dorsal. Caudal fin has a small notch. The barbel on the chin is not developed. The lower jaw projects forward and is bent upward at an angle. The teeth are very small, located on the premax- illary and dentary and on the head of the vomer; on the latter in larger spe- cimens they are hardly noticeable. Lateral line continues without interrup- tion to approximately the middle of the third dorsal fin*. On the head along the canals of the sensory system** and along the lower jaw there is a row of pores. The mucous cavity on the skull is closed in front. The prootic in front is almost without a notch. The eyes are large; scales are large, about 60 in the lateral line. SKELETON. The skull is high (A), its greatest height contained about 21/2 times in the length of its base. The base of the skull is greatly curved under the forward end of the prootic; before and behind this curve the low- er edge of the bones of the base of the skull are placed in a straight line. The upper profile of the skull is straight, descending quite sharply at its * The lateral line on the body of Gadiculus, generally lacking scales, appears to be interrupted, in the form of individual pores. On one specimen examined which retained partial squamation, the lateral line extends to about the middle of the third dorsal fin, however, in the shape of an uninterrupted line. As to the structure of the lateral line on the caudal peduncle — it is difficult to judge inasmuch as it was absent on all examined specimens and only individual pores were visible. ** The sensory canals on the head of Gadiculus usually appear as broad, widely-opened mucous channels, owing to the fact that the overlying skin is often torn. Actually, as can be seen on less damaged speci- mens pores are distributed along these canals as in many cods. To count an exact number of them on the examined specimens happened to be impossible. 191 184 forward edge. The supraoccipital crest and frontal crest are quite high, straight, bifurcating in front, thus forming the rear walls of the mucous ca- vity. Its rear end is located over the rear end of the basioccipital and slight - ly behind. The mesethmoid has a large notch infront, gradually descending. The orbital space is high, oval in shape, its height contained less than twice in the length of its base. The notch in the prootic for the exit of the facial nerve is insignificant, the forward end of the alisphenoid, prootic and ascending process of the parasphenoid form a slightly curved almost verti- | cal line. The foramen on the opisthotic for the exit of the glossopharyngeal nerve is quite well developed. The skull from above (B) is quite broad in the rear section, narrowing toward the interorbital space, slightly spreading again in front; its greatest width is contained almost twice in its length; in the interorbital space, as inthe rear, the skullof а. argenteus thori is somewhat broader than С. argenteus argenteus, From each side of the skull there is a small notch in the lateral edge of the pterotic anda deep notch between the sphenotic and the frontal. The lateral ethmoids are stretched lengthwise, somewhat broadened in front, extending far forward from beneath the forward edge of the frontals. The forward edge of the me- sethmoid lies at a considerable distance behind the forward edge of the vo- mer. The crests of the sensory canals are raised high above the pterotics and frontals, very short; the crests on the rear portion of the frontals have a deep notch in the center. The mucous cavity is deep, not separated in half by a transverse partition; each side of it has a wide and short canal, formed by a narrow bridging between the edges of the lateral and central crests of the frontals. There are no parietal crests over the foramina of the recurrent dorsal branches ofthe facial nerves. The shaft and head of the vomer from beneath the skull (С) is flat, with one row of small teeth ona slight elevation along the forward edge of the head; the very apex of the head of the vomer is toothless and without elevation. The parasphenoid is thin, somewhat compressed from the sides; its lower surface is behind the for- ward end of the prootic, with a small lengthwise curve. The auditory region of the skull when viewed from the rear (D) is inflated from the sides; the lateral walls of the cranial box are rounded. The supraoccipital crest ex- tends quite high over the skull. The opercular process of the hyomandibu- lar is broad, short, more than twice as broad as the lower process; the pre- opercular process for its entire length is fused with the lower process, short. The fork of the posttemporal forms a wide angle; both limbs are of almost equal length. Parapophyses are long, quite wide at their base, sharpened at the tips. The description is givenfrom one skeleton of G. argenteus argen- teus and one of G. argenteus thori. DISTRIBUTION. One species is found at depths in the Atlantic Ocean opposite the shores of Europe and North Africa and in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea, divided into two subspecies (Figure 29). COMPARATIVE NOTES. The distinctions between the two forms wére shown to be transgressive according to the data of J. Schmidt, who distin- guished them by vertebral number. Transgressive distinctions between the two are seen in other characteristics, even from the small number of spe- cimens examined: in G, argenteus argenteus the unpaired fins have a somewhat lower number of rays and a shorter base, a greater antedorsal and anteanal distance, From the width of the skull these two forms differ 192 185 as much as inthe subspecies of Lota lota, Molva dipterygia and broad-headed and narrow-headed forms of Gadus morhua; the width of the skull in the interorbital space, expressed as percentage of head length, is much smaller in С. argenteus argenteus thanin G. argenteus thori. Distribution of these subspecies closely coincides with the distribu- tion of subspecies of Molva dipterygia. Gadus blennoides Pallas (Spicil. zool., 1774:47, pl. У, f.2)= Lep- togadus blennoides Gill (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1863:248) neither in the description nor in the figure has anything in common with the genus Gadiculus. This species is closest to the genus Odontogadus, This species was found by no one after Pallas. Diagnostic Key to the Subspecies 1 (2). Skull narrow, the interorbital width about 17.9% of the head length. Vertebrae 39-41. Mediterranean, Atlantic Ocean south from the Bay о Biscay) sd: i: oti las 1G. angenteus jargenteu,s Guich. 2 (1). Skull broader, interorbital space constituting 17.9-19.6% of head length. Vertebrae 41-43, Atlantic Ocean northward from the Bay of PSS CASE hese s he tee vk kbs) Gioargenteus thor. sehmidt la. Gadiculus argenteus argenteus Guichenot (Tables LVI LXX]I) Gadiculus argenteus Guichenot, Expl. sci. Algérie, Zool. V, 1850:102, pl. VI, f. 2a, b (opposite the coast of Algeria), — Gadus argenteus Belloti, Atti Soc. Ital. Scient. Natur., XXII, 1879:33 (at Naples); Vinciguerra, Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova, XIV, 1879:614 (at Genoa and Messina). — Mer- langus argenteus Vaillant, Exp. sci. "Travailleur" and "Talisman, " Poiss., 1888:302, pl. ХХУ, f. 7, 7a, pl. XXVI, f. 5 (Bay of Biscay, Atlantic coasts of Morocco and Sudan). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Giglioli, Espos. Intern. Pesca Berlino, Spez. Italiano, Appendice, 1880:96 (at Nice, Palermo); J. Schmidt, Mindeskr. Jap. Steenstr., 1914:1 (southward from the western shores of France, Gulf of Cadiz, the Atlantic shores of Morocco, Bay of Biscay). ТО 10, ПО 14, ШО 16, ТА 16, ПА 16, gill-rakers 26, vertebrae 39*. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 45.7, antedorsal distance 30.4, base of first dorsal fin 11.7, base of second dorsal fin 15.2, base of third dorsal 14.4, base of first anal fin 19.0, base of second anal 16.6, depth of caudal peduncle 4.8, length of head 29.6. In per cent of head length: length of snout 30.3, diameter of eye 39.7, length of upper jaw 41.4, length of low- er jaw 50.0, width of forehead 17.9. Coloration of large specimens dull silvery. Fishes of about 70mm in length have dots of dark chromatophores on the top and toward the back; head from the sides and belly silvery. In fishes about 25mm in length dark chormatophores are arranged in five short diffused transverse bands. The usual dimensions about 90mm (one speci- men), DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean south from the Bay of Biscay to the shores of Sudan, Gulf of Cadiz, opposite the shores of Morocco, at the Straits of Gibraltar. In the western part of the Mediterranean at the shores * According to J. Schmidt, vertebrae 39—41. 193 186 of Algeria, at Messina, Palermo, Naples, Genoa and Nice. The center of distribution of the subspecies, according to the research of the ''Thor Expe- is situated in the utmost western portion of the Mediterranean be- tween the Straits of Gibraltar and the Island of Alboran. dition, BIOLOGY. От. COMMERCIAL VALUE попе. ior 11 Is not materially distinct from the biology of G. argenteus Spawning takes place in the western portion of the Mediterranean Sea and on both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar. In the Mediterranean, adult females were found in December-—January. Gadiculus argenteus thori J. Schmidt (Tables XIV, LVII) Gadus argenteus (non Guich.) Gunther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), ХШ, 1874:138 (west of the British Isles, 55°10' north latitude, 10°59' west longitude); Holt and Calderwood, Sci. Trans. Royal Dublin Soc., (Il), V, 1895:434 (opposite the western shores of ireland); Collett, Arch. Mathem. Naturvidensk., XXIII, 7, 1901:3 (fjords, located within and near Christiania Fjord, within Trondheim Fjord, bibliography); J. Schmidt, Medd. Котт. Havunders., Fisk., I, 4, 1905:66; ibid., II, 2, 1906:16 (young numerous betweene Faroe and Shetland Islands, west of the British Isles, Skagerrak); Damas, Rapp. Procés-Verb., X, 3, 1909:208 (pelagic young northward of the Shetland Islands, and to the southeast of the Orkney Islands, in deep Norwegian fjords). — Gadiculus thori J. Schmidt, Mindeskr. Jap. Steenstr., 1914:1 (north from the western shores of France, to the coasts of Norway, Skagerrak). FIGURE 29, Distribution of the genus Gadiculus 1—G. 2— С. together with G. argenteus argenteus; argenteus thori. arscentveus I1D11-12, ПО 14-15; ШО 15-18, TA 15-19, ПА 17-19, vertebrae 42*. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 41- 5-44.8, antedorsal distance 28.0-30.4, base of first dorsal fin 11.6-14.3, base of second dorsal fin 15.0-16.9, base of third dorsal 13.8—16.4, base of first anal fin 19.0-21.8, „Базе of second anal 13.7-16.8, depth of caudal peduncle 4.2-5.2, its length 10.7-12.3, length of head 26.2-29.9. In per cent of head length: snout length 25,0- 31.8, diameter of eye 33.9-40.8, length of upper jaw 37.0-42.6, length of lower jaw 45.5-—50.7, width of forehead 17.9-19.6. Coloration of the largest fish dull silvery. In fishes about 75cm in length [this must be a misprint and should probably read mm] the head from above and behind with dots of dark chromatophores, sides of the head, and belly,silvery. In fishes about 25mm, dark chromatophores are placed in five diffused short transverse bands. Does not reach large size, 115-130, seldom to 150mm and slightly larger. DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean north from the Bay of Biscay in which it occurs, argenteus, west from the British Isles, between the Faroe and Shetland Is lands, northern part of the North Sea,deep * According to J. Schmidt, 41-43 vertebrae. 194 187 fjords of Skagerrak, opposite the shores of Norway to Trondheim Fjord and farther north to the Lofoten Islands*, perhaps entering the western portion of the Barents Sea. The center of distribution of this subspecies, judging from the results of the investigations of Danish expeditions, is located in the Atlantic Ocean opposite the northern part of the British Isles. BIOLOGY. Deep-water fish, staying at depths of 400-600 meters and more. It is very seldom found at depths of less than 200 meters; however, not descending beyond the limits of the continental shelf, Like other cod, not remaining solitary, but apparently occurring in small schools, Repro- duction also occurs at greater depths. Pelagic young were found almost throughout the entire range, even in Norwegian fjords, but were found in greater quantities over depths of 1,000meters and more. Spawning occurs in the spring with temperatures of 6-9° С and salinity of 35.3 parts per thou- sand. Pelagic young were found in April—May-—June. COMMERCIAL VALUE попе. 17. Genus MICROGADUS§ Gill Microgadus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1865:69 (Type: Gadus proximus Girard); Jordan a. Evermann, Fish М. а. М. Amer., III, 1898:2538. Dorsal and anal fins separated from each other by broad spaces. First anal fin begins at the end of the first or in front of the second dorsal fin. Caudal fin truncate of slightly notched. Barbel on chin small, shorter or slightly longer than the pupil of the eye. Lower jaw shorter than the upper. Palatine without teeth, teeth on only premaxillary, dentary and on the head of the vomer. Lateral line gradually descending beneath the second dorsal fin toward the middle of the body and continuing without interruption to the end of the third dorsal fin; interrupted on the caudal peduncle. Only pit or- gans on the head. Mucous cavity on the frontals not closed in front. A small notch on the prootic in front. Parapophyses of normal structure, with- out inflated tips and without any processes of the swim bladder entering into them. SKELETON. The skull is not high (A), its height contained little more than three times in Из Базе. The lower edges of the vomer, parasphenoid and basioccipital form a straight line (in M. tomcod) or a line with slight curves (in M. proximus); parasphenoid under the forward edge of the ргоойс. Due to the convexity of the prootic and opisthotic the rear portion of the base of the skull, especially in M. tomcod, is slightly rounded. The supraoccipital crest and frontal crest are not too high, terminating in the forward half of the skull, descending quite sharply to the mucous cavity, in the rear extending somewhat farther than the rear end of the basioccipi- tal, its upper edge rounded. The forward end of the mesethmoid sharp, descending almost vertically, especially in M. tomcod, straight, witha hardly noticeable or slightly rounded notch, located at almost a right angle to the upper edge. Orbital space not high, its height contained more than 3 times in the length of its base, In the forward edge of the prootic a shal- low notch through which exits the facial nerve. The edges of the notch above * No, 27135 of the collection of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences. One specimen from Senjen Island. 195 188 along the prootic are straight, curved only at the alisphenoid, slightly bent below. On the opisthotic a prominent foramen for the glossopharyngeal nerve. Skull from above (В) is as wide in the rear as in the forward section, the distance between the rear ends of the pterotic is contained less than twice in the length of the base of the skull, slightly wider in М. tomcod than in М. proximus. The lateral edges of the pterotic are located at a slight angle to each other, the lateral edges of the frontals appear almost a straight continuation without notches in the interorbital space, оп М. proximus converging somewhat in front, оп М. tomcod parallel with each other. Lateral ethmoids somewhat more expanded laterally than long- itudinally, extending farthest from beneath the forward edge of the frontals on the sides, extending front only in M. tomcod, in M. proximus con- cealed beneath the frontals. Forward end of the mesethmoid located almost over the forward end of the vomer. Crests over the sensory canals on the pterotic and frontals are broad, on the pterotic not too long, on М. proxi- mus touching the crests оп the frontals, on М. tomcod separated by a space. Mucous cavity broader than in Eleginus, connected by notches on the inner walls of the lateral crests of the frontals with the canals of the lateral crests open in front, edges of the lateral and central crests of the frontals not fused forward and not forming canals which are closed from above. Crests on the parietals in the form of small, hardly noticeable steps over the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve. Along the forward edge of the head of the vomer on the underside of the skull (С) are small crests behind which are located small teeth in one (М. tomcod) or intwo rows(M. proximus), The underside of the parasphenoid is rounded in front, with a small longitudinal concavity behind; from the sides the inflated opisthotic and prootic extend slightly downward (in М. proxi- mus anda little more in М. tomcod). The basioccipital and parasphenoid in М. tomcod are slightly broader thanin М. proximus, The audito- ry region, when looking at the skull from behind (D), is inflated from the sides and slightly downward. The supraoccipital crest along its upper edge extends upward in М. proximus more {Пап ш М. tomcod. The dis- tance between the outer edges of the epiotics is slightly wider in М. tom-. cod thanin М. proximus. Width of the first two suborbitals is equal to (in М. tomcod) or slightly greater than (in М. proximus) their length. Parapophyses are quite long, yet somewhat shorter than in Ele- ginus, and without inflated tips. In the structure of the other bones, as in the structure of the skull, close to Eleginus, Description based on two skeletons of M. proximus and one of M. tomcod, DISTRIBUTION. Two species, one at the Atlantic, the other at the Pa- cific shores of North America (Figure 30). Diagnostic Key to the Species 1 (2). Gill-rakers on the first arch 16-21. Length of the base of the second anal 12.0-12.5%of body length .... 1. М. tomcod (Walbaum) 2 (1). Gill-rakers оп the first arch 26-28. Length of the base of the second anal 16,1-16.7% of body length ... 2. М. proximus (Girard) 196 1. Microgadus tomcod (Walbaum) (Tables LV, БУШ, LXxXI) Gadus tomcod Walbaum in: Artedi, Gen. pisc. 1792:133 (according to: tomcod Schdpf, Schrift, Ges. Naturf. Freunde, VIII, 1780: 140). — Gadus frost Walbaum 1. с.:134 (frost-cod, frost fish, Pennant, Arctic zool., Supplement, 1784:114),— Gadus tomcodus Mitchill*, Trans. Ги. Phil. Soc. М. Y., I, 1815:368 (New York). — Gadus pruinosus Mitchill, 1. с.:368 (New York). — Gadus tomcodus fuscus Mitchill, 1. с.:369 (New York). — Gadus tomcodus luteus Mitchill, 1. с.:369 (New York). — Gadus tomcodus mixtus Mitchill, 1. c.:369 (New York). — Gadus polymorphus Mitchill, 1. с.:369 (New York). — Mor- rhua tomcodus Storer, Rept. fish. Мазз., 1839: 126 (Atlantic coast in the vicinity of Boston). — Morrhua pruinosa Storer, Mem. Amer. Acad. Art. a. Sci., (n.s.), VI, Il, 1858357, pl. XXVII, Е. 5 (from New York to the State of Маше). — Gadus tomcodus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., (1863), 1864:235 (from New York to Newfoundland). — Microgadus tomcod Jordan а. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М. Amer., Ш, 1898:2540, f. 890 (from Virginia to Labrador). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Jeffers, Contrib. Canad. biol. fisher., (n.s.), VII, 15-23, 1932:7 (from Belle-Isle Strait, in stream emptying into Pistolet Bay); Bigelow a. Welsh, Fish. gulf Maine, 1925:460 (biology). eccocce-eot. -------- 122. 2S FIGURE 30. Distribution of the genus Microgadus 1— М. tomcod; 2—M. proximus. 1012-13, ID 16—20, ШО 21-23, ТА 18-21, ПА 18-20, gill-rakers 16—21, vertebrae 54**. Parapophyses directed to the sides almost hori- zontally, broadened and elongate, the length of the largest somewhat ex- ceeding the length of two vertebrae (Figure 31, A). The lateral edges of the frontals are parallel. The hornlike processes of the anterior part of the swim bladder are but slightly curved towards the midline of the bladder. Second analfin shortened, its base constituting 12.0-12.5 % of body length. The unpaired fins are somewhat lower thaninM.proximus: the height ofthe first dorsal constitutes 11.0-12.3 $, the first апа110.5-11.6 %ofbody length. In per cent * Cited by Jordan and Evermann. *k According to Schults and Welander, I D 11-14 (12.9), ИО 15-19 (16.7), III 16-18 (17.0), ГА 18-23 (20.7), ПА 16-19 (17.5). 197 of body length: anteanal distance 39.8- 43.5, antedorsal distance 28.0-30.6, length of pectoral fin 13.6-14.3, length of pelvic fin 10.7-12.6, depth of caudal peduncle 4.7-5.1, its length 12.1-13.0, head length 20.3-21.6. In per cent of head length: snout length 31.6-33.8, lat- eral diameter of eye 15.6-19.5, length of upper jaw 37.4-40.7, length of lower jaw 45.3-48.0, width of forehead 26.0- 28.4, Coloration of body from above brown, greenish, or yellowish- brown with black spots and dots which spill over the pectoral, pelvic and anal fins. Belly light without spots. Length to 38 cm (5 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic coast of North America from Virginia to Labra- dor, Very common at the shores of the state of Massachusetts. BIOLOGY. Marine fish, remaining at the shore. Does not undertake large migrations, but remains locally; like navaga, enters brackish estuaries and rivers. During the winter it is found in great quantities under the ice in Belle- Isle Strait and in the mouths of rivers in the vicinity of Boston. Spawning oc- curs in shallow places, in salt or brack- ое оо ish waters. Spawning continues from the tenth: vartebeu’ November to February, its height in January. Fecundity from 25 to 44 thou- sand eggs. There are indications that the eggs adhere to submerged rocks, vegetation, etc.*, ,Development of the eggs occurs at a temperature of 6°C for 24 days, at 4.5°C for 30 days. COMMERCIAL VALUE very small but highiy prized for their taste quality. 189 FIGURE 31. Structure of the parapo- physes in the species of the genus Microgadus A—M. tomcod; B—M. proxi- mus. View of vertebral columns from a 8 The catch is usually conducted with nets, hook and line, drop line and long line. FIGURE 32. Structure of the horn- The annual catch exceeds 800 metric like processes at the anterior end of centner (1919) the swim bladder inthe species of the genus Microgadus A— М. tomcod; B—M. proximus. * Ryder's report [Rept. Ц. $. Fish. Comm., XIII, (1885), 1887:523, pl. XIII] that the eggs of М. tomcod have an oil droplet and were hatched in fresh water needs verification. According to kind information of T.S. Rass, larvae hatched from these eggs as described from the drawing of Ryder greatly differ from the larvae of cods and in no case could they be referred to them. Apparently the error occurred in identification by Ryder. 198 190 2. Microgadus: proximus (Girard) (Tables XIV, LIX, LXXI) Gadus proximus Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1854:141 (San Francisco). — Morrhua са- lifornica Ayres, Proc. Calif. Acad. Nat. Sci., (1854-1857), 1857:8 (San Francisco).-- Morrhua proxi- ma, Girard, U. $. Рас. К. В. Surv., X, Fishes, 1858: 142. — Gadus californicus Gunther, Cat. fish., IV, 1862:332 (San Francisco), — Microgadus proximus Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1865: 69 (description of the skull); Evermann a. Goldsborough, Fish Alaska, 1907:348, f. 129 (from Seattle to Unalaska). - Eleginus navaga (non Pall.) Evermann a. Goldsborough, 1. c.:347 (ex parte: stations 4218, 4219, 4220 and Port Townsend, at the Admiralty Islands in Alaska). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Jordan a. Gilbert, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., IV, (1881), 1882:65 (from Mon- terey to Puget Sound, very numerous north of San Francisco); Jordan and Jouy, ibid.:3 (San Francisco, Puget Sound); jordan and Starks, Proc. Calif. Acad. Nat. Sci., (2), V, 1895: 849 (Puget Sound); Jordan and Evermann, Fish. N. a. M. Amer., III, 18982539, f. 88 (from Monterey Bay to Alaska); Schultz a. Welander, Copeia, 1935, 3:135 (from Port Townsend, from the Admiralty Islands in Alaska); Schulta and DaLacy, Mid. -Pacific Mag., Jan.-March, 1936:63 (from Alaska to Monterey Bay, Bibliography). ID 12-15, ПО 16-18, ШО 21-22, ТА 23-25, ПА 22-23, gill-rakers 26—28*, vertebrae 58. Parapophyses are directed ventrally, narrow and not very long; the longest does not exceed the length of two vertebrae (Fig- ure 31, B). The lateral edges of the frontals are placed at a slight angle to each other. The horns at the forward end of the swim bladder are directed at a straight angle toward the mid-line (Figure 32, B), The second anal fin is elongate, its base constituting 16.1—16.7 % of body length. The height of the first dorsal,fin is 12,9-13.2 % of body length, height of first anal 13.0- 14.1%. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 39.1-39.9, antedorsal distance 28.2-31.9, length of pectoral fin 13.9-14.3, length of pelvic fin 9.2-9.9, depth of caudal peduncle 4.5-—4.9, its length 12,3-12.8, head length 22.4—22.6. In per cent of head length: snout length 27.8-34.8, horizontal diameter of eye 16.2-22.6, length of upper jaw 38.7-41.0, length of lower jaw 48.0—48.6, width of forehead 23.2-28.4. Coloration of upper half of body grayish brown, belly silvery white. Fins are of the same color as the body; dorsal caudal and second anal fins with small black dots. Usual size about 20cm, but reaches 30cm and more (2 specimens). DISTRIBUTION. Pacific coast of North America from Alaska (Unalaska**, if the identification of Evermann and Goldsborough is correct) to Monterey Bay. Very common along the coast of Washington (Puget Sound), Oregon, near San Francisco (Monterey Bay). BIOLOGY. Marine fish, It apparently does not undertake large migra- tions. Asin М. tomcod, it is found in greatly freshened waters 1. COMMERCIAL VALUE. In places it is caught in considerable quantities and very highly prized for its appealing taste. 3 * According to the data of Schultz and Welander, I D 11-14 (12.2), ПО 17-20 (18.5), III 18-20 (18.8), I A 20-25 (22.5), ПА 18-21 (19.7). ** According to Tanner [Rept. U.S. Comm. Fish a. Fisher., XVIII, (1892), 1894:5], if his identification is correct, it is found at the Pribilof Islands and in Bering Sea. Т According to information kindly furnished by Г.М. Shapovalov, it is caught together with fresh-water and brackish water fishes in San Francisco Bay during winter and spring, when the water here is greatly freshened, 199 191 18. Genus ELEGINUS G. Fischer Eleginus С. Fischer, Mém. Soc. Nat. Moscow, IV, 1812-1813:252, 257 (Type: Gadus navaga Pallas). — Tilesia Swainson, Nat. Hist. Classif. monocard. anim., II, 1839: 300 (Туре С. gracilis Tilesius, nomen praeoccupatum).— Pleurogadus Bean, im Jordan, Cat. fish. № Amer., 1885, (1887):130 (Туре: С. gracilis Tilesius). The dorsal and anal fins are separated by broad spaces. The first anal fin begins slightly before or directly beneath the origin of the second dorsal fin. The caudal fin is truncate or has a slightly noticeable notch. The bar- bel on the chin is developed very weakly and is equal to the pupil in length. Lower jaw slightly shorter than the upper. Teeth present on only the pre- maxillary, dentary and head of the vomer, palatines without teeth. The lat- eral line continues without interruption only to the beginning of the second dorsal fin, descending sharply beyond toward the mid-line of the body and continuing backward interrupted. Only pit organs on the head. Mucous cav- ity on the frontals not closed in front. А slight notch on the prootic in front. The parapophyses are long, with inflated tips into which enter the processes of the swim bladder, SKELETON. The skull is not high (A), the height contained more than 3 1/2 times in the length of the base. Parasphenoid with a slight curve be- neath the forward end of the prootic; before and behind this curve the bones at the base of the skull are ina straight line. A slight rounding of the rear portion of the base of the skull is caused by a downward projection of the opisthotic and prootic. The upper profile of the skull is almost straight, gradually descending forward. The crest on the supraoccipital and frontals is not high, terminating in front in the approximate middle of the skull, in the back extending to almost the rear end of the basioccipital, its upper sur- face straight with a slight curve in front anterior to the mucous cavity. The anterior end of the mesethmoid descends abruptly, almost straight down, with a hardly noticeable notch on top, placed at almost right angles to its upper edge. The orbital space is not high; its base exceeds its height more than 3 times. The facial nerve exits from the skull by a notch, the lower edge of which is straight and the upper with a small shelf at the junction of the prootic and alisphenoid. The glossopharyngeal foramen on the opisthotic is always well developed. The skull, when viewed from above (B), is quite broad in the rear, gradually narrowing toward the front, its greatest width contained a little less than 2 times in the length of its base. The lateral edges of the skull present almost straight lines which converge somewhat in front. Frontals without noticeable notches in the interorbital space. The lateral ethmoids project slightly to the sides and in front from under the frontals and are lengthened more longitudinally than.latitudinally. The for- ward edge of the vomer projects slightly from beneath the anterior end of the mesethmoid, The crests above the lateral line canals on the pterotic and frontals touch each other; they are broad, and on the pterotic they are not so long. Mucous cavity with small notches in the lateral crests of the frontals; the edges of the lateral and central crests of the frontals usually do not fuse and do not close it [the cavity] from the front, and do not form a bone formation over the sensory canals in front of Ц. If at times the edges of the middle and lateral crests do coalesce, this fusion is very nar- row and most often on just one side. On the parietals there are no crests 200 or weakly developed crests above the foramine of the recurrent dorsal bran- ches of the facial nerves. A crest and two rows of small teeth run along the forward edge of the head of the vomer on the skull when viewed from below (C). The lower surface of the parasphenoid is rounded in front, and farther back it is quite concave with the edges of the prootic and opisthotic project- 192 ing on either side. The basioccipital and parasphenoid are narrow. When the skull is viewed from behind (D), the sides of the cranial box are convex, bulging to the sides and extending slightly downward. The upper surfaces of the supraoccipital and epiotic present a straight line, above which rises the supraoccipital crest, but not high. The first two suborbital bones are longer than they are wide. The opercular process of the hyomandibular is long and narrow, considerably longer than any other; the preopercular pro- cess does not reach the end of the lower process; their edges and angles are parallel, The lower edge of the opercle has a deep notch and sharply elon- gate ends. Both forks of the posttemporal are long, the lower somewhat shorter than the upper. The postcleithrum is curved at its upper end, broad- ened above and below the curve. The parapophyses are long, all with in- flated tips with the exception of the shortened first three tofive (in Е. gra- cilis) ог one (in Е. navaga); the first 5 to 6 haemal arches have sim- ilar inflations on the sides. The first of them are broad, FIGURE 33. Distribution of the genus Eleginus 1—E. navaga; 2— Е. gracilis. Description given from 40 skeletons of Е. navaga andfrom 16 Е. 2. a. Liles: DISTRIBUTION. Two species — one at the northern shores of Europe and western Siberia, the other from the far eastern seas (Figure 33), COMPARATIVE NOTES. In the basic characteristic distinction between the general Microgadus and Eleginus — the structure of the vertebral 201 193 194 column — we observe great similarity between both Atlantic (M. tomcod and Е. navaga) and Pacific species (М. proximus ‘and Е. gracilis). In the first the parapophyses are longer and project less ventrally (Figures 31, 34) than in the latter. Externally, with the exception of the structure of the lateral line, the genera are almost indistinguishable. Diagnostic Key to the Species 1 (2). Inflations at the tips of the parapophyses begin with the sixth vertebra, only the first pair of parapophyses are shortened and without inflated tips.) 'Gll-rakers) 24-28) Mila о 1 Vary aoa (Pall) 2(1). Inflations at the tips of the parapophyses commence on the ninth ver- tebra, the first four pairs of parapophyses are shortened and with- out inflated’tips. Gill-rakers 20-23 "0 .2i° BE, “griacil?ts (Til, ) *1, Eleginus navaga (Pallas) — Navaga (Tables XV, LX, LXxX!I) Piscis e gadorum genere, russis navaga Koelreuter, Nov. Comment. Acad. Petrop., XIV, (1769), 1770:484, tabl. ХИ. — Gadus navaga Pallas, Zoogr. rosso. ~asiat., Ш, 1811:196 (Arctic Ocean, east tothe Ob). — Eleginus navaga С. Fischer, Mem. Soc.Nat. Moscow, IV, 1812-1813:252, 257; Lan- shin, Russk. 2001. zhurn., VIII, 4, 1928:17 (Mezen' Bay, biometry); Kuz'min~-Karavaev, Tr. inst, rybn. khoz. , У, 4, 1930:57 (White Sea, systematic characteristics, age, growth); Berg, Ryby presnykh vod. H, 1933:741. — Eleginus navaga navaga Esipov, Tr. nauchno-issled. inst. polyarn. zemled., zhivotnov. i promysl. khoz., ser. promysl. khoz., 15, 1941:44 (White Sea and its bays). — Eleginus navaga karaensis Esipov, ibid,: 145 (Kara Sea; Baydaratz Bay, Ob Bay, Malygin Strait). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Smitt, Scand. fish., I, 1893:481, Е. 119 (White Sea); Knipowitsch, Ezhegodn. Zool. muz Akad. Nauk. II, 1897:150 (shores of the eastern part of the Murman, White Seas, Kanin Peninsula, Kolguev Island, Yugorsk Shar, Novaya Zemlya); Varpakahovskii, Ryby bass. Obi, 1902:162, f.11 (northern part of Ob Inlet); Mikhailovskii, Ezhegodn. Zool. muz. Akad. Nauk, VIII, 1903:57 (mouths of rivers of Kolguev Is- land); Smitt, Ryby vostochnikh morey, 1904:221 (Suma Settlement, Solovet Island), Indiga River, Jugorsky Shar); Deryugin, Fauna Kol'skogozaliva, 1916:589 (Kola Bay, occasionally); Soldatov, Tr. plov. morsk, nauchn, inst. , III, 1923:63 (mouth of the White Sea, Barents Sea, Baidaratsk Bay and Kara Sea); Lanshin, Russk. zool. zhurn. , IX, 3, 1929:103(growth, fecundity); Kuz'min-Karavaev, Tr. Inst. ryb. khoz., V, 4, 1930:83 (ГуапоузКа- ya Bay on the Murman, young); Probatov, Mat. po nauchno-prom. obsled. Karskoi guby 1 г. Kary, 1934:78 Kara Inlet, lower waters of Kara and Sibireha Rivers); Khaldinov, Zool. zhu. ‚ХУ, 2, 1936:321 (Опера Bay, biology, places and time of spawning, artificial insemination, literature on spawning); Probatov, Uchen. zap. Permsk. univ. , II, 3, 1936:155 (biology); Sakhno, Za rybn. industr. Severa, 1936, 1:21, ibid., 2:40 (biology, com- mercial importance); Agapov and Toporkoy. Probl. Arktiki, 2, 1937:107 (on the coast of Novaya Zemlya); Burmakin, Tr. nauchno-issled. inst. ро[уаги zemled. ,zhivotnov. i promysl. khoz., ser. promysl khoz., 10, 1940:44 (northern part of Ob Inlet southward to mouths of Tembei River, bibliography); Manteifel, Navaga Belogo morya i ee promysel, izd. Polyarn. nauchno-issled. inst. morsk. rybn. khoz. i okeanogr. , 1945 (biology). ТО 12-16, ПО 14-21, III D 20-22, ТА 19-23, ПА 19-26, gill-rakers 24-28, vertebrae 57-60*. There is only one short pair of parapophyses without inflated tips, on the fifth vertebra; all other pairs of parapophyses are greatly elongated, with large inflated tips (Figure 34, A), There are large inflations on either side of the first four or five haemal arches, Pro- cesses of the swim bladder which enter into the inflated tips of the parapo- physes are long; the horn-like processes at the forward end of the swim * The number of fin rays, gill-rakers and vertebrae in navaga from Mezen Bay (according to data of Lanshin) and from Dvina and Onega Bays and from the summer shores (according to data of Kuzmin-Karavaev)are as follows: [see Table on p. 203.] 202 bladder are greatly curved (Figure 35, A). The antedorsal distance is 25.8-28.7 % of body length, depth of caudal peduncle 3.4—4.1%, length of head 19.9-—21.8 % of its length. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 42.0—46.2, length of pectoral fin 12.1-14.6, length of pelvic fin 7.1-9.2, height of body 14.3-17.3, length of caudal peduncle 11.9-13.9. In per cent of head length: length of snout 32.6-37.1, horizontal diameter of eye 12.6 -— 17.4, length of upper jaw 35.0-39.1, length of lower jaw 42.8—46.7, width of forehead 20.3-26.0. Coloration of the back and sides gray, with brown- ish or dark spots on the back; belly silvery-white. Usual sizes in the White Sea 15-23cm, but reaching 35cm and more; In Mezen Bay at the western shores of Kanin Peninsula — to 40-42cm,. Not always identical over the entire stretch of the region, for example: navaga of Dvina Bay are smaller than navaga from other White Sea bays. Apparently, in the other bays local races or schools are formed. DISTRIBUTION. All along the northern coasts of Europe and western Siberia from Kola Bay in the west to Ob Inlet in the east, White Sea, around Kanin Peninsula and Kolguev Island, Cheshskaya Inlet, at the western shores of Novaya Zemlya* north to Belus'ya, at Baidaratskaya, Kara Inlet and in the very northern portion of Ob Inlet. Found in greatest quantities in the Bays of the White Sea andin Cheshskaya Inlet. It is rare in Kola Bay and in the northern part of the Ob Inlet. Number of Number of specimens 104 105 specimens ID Il D шо ТА ПА Vertebrae Gill-rakers Pyloric caeca Onega Bay И Number of hy as Number of Limits Average i Limits Average у specimens specimens ID II D шо ТА ПА Vertebrae Gill-rakers Pyloric caeca The vertebrae were counted with the exception of the last, to which the rays are directly connected. * According to information kindly furnished by Г.Р. Savvatimskii, during his work on the eastern shores of the southern island in August~September 1935 they did not find any navaga. 203 BIOLOGY. A cold-water fish, al- though not to such a great extent as is Boreogadus saida. Appar- ently it does not undertake extensive migrations. Generally found at shal- low depths along shores with soft mud- dy bottom, Not found in the open sea and at depths. In winter it is found in great quantities under the ice, It is often caught in greatly freshened and at times completely fresh water, entering the mouths and tidal zones of rivers and traveling upstream. In winter before spawning it gathers in great numbers close to shore, at that time entering the mouths and upper parts of rivers into sections which are still under tidal influence. For Spawning navaga goes away from the shores and mouths of rivers to great- er depths (8-10 meters) with hard sandy or rocky bottom. Spawning sites of the navaga are distributed in FIGURE 34. Structure of the parapo- channels between islands or in depres- physes in the species of the genus sions between the shore and shallow Е banks where strong tidal currents A—E. navaga; B—E. gracil- play a great role. In the White Sea is. View of the vertebral columns navaga Spawns in the bays of Onega from beneath; above, over each of (near Shuy Island, Myag Island, at them is a view of the 10th vertebra. Glubokii Cape) and inthe Dvina (Unskaya Inlet, Руша Delta, Vagri Island, in the area of Dry Sea)* Besides these Spawning places, they are known at the shores of Kanin Peninsula, Mur- man(Ivanovskaya Inlet, 60° 22' north la- titude, 38° 40 east longitude) and un- doubtedly during winter gatherings of navaga are observed under the ice everywhere. Spawning occurs from the beginning or middle, and some- A 8 times even from the end of January, and terminates mainly about 15 days FIGURE 35. Structure of the horn- later, although individual adults are like processes at the anterior end found even later, Fecundity of the of the swim bladder in the species navaga is from 6 to 90 thousand eggs. ofthe genus Eleginus Navaga's eggs are not sticky** anddo A—E. пауара; B—E. gra- not appear to be pelagic, but sink to cilis. the bottom, Development of the eggs * [Sukhoe more in Russian. ] ** Indications of their adhesiveness (Vebel, Za rybn. indust. Severa, 1935, 5:24) is disputed (Sahno, 1.с.). 204 196 occurs only in salt water; in fresh water they perish. Indications of the spawning of navaga in rivers (Probatov, l.c.) are erroneous. The emer- gence of larvae from the eggs at an average temperature of + 2° С was ob- served on the 39th day. Under normal conditions with temperatures of about -1°C, the incubation period apparently continues about 4 months. Na- vaga reaches sexual maturity in the third or fourth year, The main mass of spawning navaga consists of twotofour-year-olds whose dimensions, accord- ing to data of Kuz'min-Karavaey, at this time (January) are as follows (in cm): Age (years) 2 3 4 Onega Bay (Rebald Island) 18.5 2-8 - Unskaya Inlet (summer shores) 18:3 Pale 31.4 Navaga from Northern Dvina estuary have slower growthandthe smallest size the fifth year reaching 16-17cm, as compared with 20-25 ста ш other regions, The greatest size and greatest age is attained by navaga of Mezen Bay and the west coast of Kanin Peninsula where the main mass caught is 6-7 years old and 16-28 ста long. Basic foods are amphipods, Mesido- thea and worms; feeds partially on small fish (stickleback, capelin, sand launce, saika, small cod, flounder, navaga) which play the greatest role in the sustenance of larger navaga. In summer, with the rise of water tem- perature to 10°C and higher, they eat very poorly. COMMERCIAL VALUE extensive. Main fishing grounds are Руша, Опе- ga and Mezen Bays of the White Sea and Cheshskaya Inlet. The industrial catch takes place at the mass gathering for spawning beneath the ice near shore. Fishing in commercial quantities begins in November, the greatest catches coinciding with the height of spawning — in January, after which hungry post-spawning navaga are caught and the catch figure drops rapidly. Un- fortunately, we do not have fulland exact statistical data оп the navaga catch. Fishing takes place mainly along the shores of Karelo-Finnish SSR in One- ga, Dvina and Mezen Bays, at Cheshskaya Inlet and inthe Pechora region, The total catch from 1898 to 1944 varied from 1.6 (1920) to 24.0 (1930) thou- sand metric centner (Manteyfel, l.c.). According to some informa- tion (Skvortsov, Biol. rybn. khoz., 1926, 1:16) it had reached in the past years over 40 thousand metric centners. The lowest catches were 1920-1923, but in succeeding years they grew and reached their former level. The increase in catch occurred mainly due to the development of the industry inthe Cheshskaya Inlet and Pechora region, In past years the greatest quantity of navaga was caught in Mezen Bay and along the western coast of Kanin Peninsula, but in recent years its numbers have greatly di- minished. The main methods of catch were with ryuzh* and partially with hook and line. COMPARATIVE NOTES. Е. navaga karaensis, described by V.K. Esipov from specimens from Ob Inlet and separated by him into a subspecies based on a comparison with specimens from the White Sea ex- amined and studied by С. А. Kuz'min-Karavaev, differs from the latter by having fewer rays in the second and third dorsal and both anal fins. In all other compared characteristics (number of vertebrae and rays in the first dorsal fin) there are no material differences. Judging by the lesser number of rays in the indicated fins in specimens examined by V.K. Esipov, it may be presumed that their distinction from the White Sea specimens is * [This is a local name for a type of net used in Northwestern Russia. ] 205 197 conditioned by the fact that the fleshy covers at the ends were not cut when counting the rays and the rays concealed within them were left uncounted*, As was indicated above,(page 64), without cutting the skin covers, the correct number of rays can be established only in the first dorsal fin. According to the number of rays in the first dorsal fin in the specimens of У.К. Esipov, there is no difference from the specimens of G. А. Kuz'min- Karavaev. All subspecies of gadoids (for example Lota lota, Molva dipterygia, Trisopterus minutus, Gadus morhua and others) differ greatly craniologically, particularly in the width of the skull. V.K. Esipov did not indicate such differences. Judging from all information fur- nished, navaga apparently do not possess these. Undoubtedly navaga, as was indicated above, falls into a group of taxonomically smaller forms, be- low the subspecies, To segregate these forms we must observe uniformity in methods of counting and measuring as used by one person in order to uti- lize for comparison data obtained by other workers. *2. Eleginus gracilis (Tilesius) — Far-eastern navaga, vakhnya (Tables XV, LXI, LXXII) Gadus gracilis Tilesius; Mem. Acad. Sci. Petersb., II, 1810:354, tabl. XVIII (Kamchatka). — Gadus wachna Pallas, Zoogr. rosso-asiat., Ш, 1811:182, 190 (coasts of Kamchatka, Avachin Inlet, Petropavlovsk, mouth of the Bol'shaya River. -Tilesis gracilis Bean, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., IV (1881), 1882:245 (Cook Bay, Kodiak Island, Norton Sound, Port Clarence), -Pleurogadus gracilis Bean in: Jordan, Cat. fish М. Amer., 1885:130.-Gadus gracilis Grebnitskii, Vestn. Ryboprom., XII, 6-7, 1897:324 (Avachin Inlet, Petropavlovsk, Bering Island, in freshwater lake on Bering Island). -Eleginus navaga Evermann a. Goldsborough, Fish. Alaska, 1907:347, f. 128 (ex parte: Letnik Bay in Alaska and, possibly, Petropavlovsk and Tar'inskaya Inlet on Kamchatka). -Eleginus navaga var. gracilis Smitt, Ryby vostochn, morei, 1904:221 (mouth of the Anadyr River, coasts of Kamchatka, Sea of Okhotsk, Sakha- lin, Hokkaido, at Vladivostok, Chemulpo).-Eleginus gracilis Chraniloy, Morph. Jahrb., 64, 1930:343 (anatomy). -Gadus navaga f. vegae Rendahl, Ark. Zoologi, XXIIA, 10, 1931:9 (Chukchi Peninsula: Pitlekai and Naitschkai), -Gadus navaga typ. Rendahl, 1.с.:9 (Port Clarence and Bering Strait). -Е1е - ginus navaga gracilis Berg, Ryby presn. vod., II, 1933:742.-Eleginus gracilis Schultz a. Welander, Copeia, 1935, 3:134 (structure of the swim bladder, distinction from Microgadus proximus). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Jordan and Metz, Mem. Carnegie Mus., VI, 1, 1913-14:64 (Chinnampo); Pravdin, Izv. Tikhookeansk. $. 1, 1928:189 (western shores of Kamchatka, Bol'shaya River 10 km from the mouth); Lindberg and Dulkeit, Izv. Tikhookeansk. st., III, 1, 1929:63 (Shantar Islands, Bol'shoe Lake on the island Bolshoi Shantar); Soldatov and Lindberg, Obzor ryb dal'nevost. morei, 1930:514, fig. 75 (Japan, Okhotsk and Bering Seas, Anadyr Gulf) Milovidova-Dubrovskaya, Dal'nevost. navaga 124. tikhookeansk. inst. rybn. khoz., 1933: 2-9 (biology); Mori and Uchida, Journ. Chosen Nat. Hist. Soc., 19, 1934: 22 (Gensan Tumen- Ula) Sato, Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Univ., (VI), (Zool.), VI, 1, 1937: 32(Akkeshi-Bay); Andriashev, Issled. morei SSSR, 25, 1937: 350 (distribution); Milovidova-Dubrovskaya, Vestn. Dal'nevost. fil. AN, 28, (1), 1938: 140 (young their mode of life and feeding ); Agapov, Tr. nauchno-issled. inst. polyarn. zemled. , zhivotnov. 1 promysl. khoz., ser. promysl. khoz., 16, 1941:100 (Anadyr Bay, egg studies). ТО 11-15, IL D,15-23, ШО 18-21, I A 20-24, И A:19=22, gill-rakers 20-23, vertebrae 60-64**. The skull is almost indistinguishable from the * Whether this necessary precaution was observed, V.K. Esipov does not indicate. С.А, Kuzmin-Karavaev did remove this skin cover. ** According to data of Milovidova~Dubrovskaya, from 100 specimens from the Bay of Peter the Great, I D (11) 12-15 (16), ПО (15) 16-23, III 17-22 (23), I A 20-26 (27), ПА (18) 19-23, P 18-20 (21), gill- rakers 14-24, vertebrae 57-64 (including the last). According to Schultz and Welander, I D 12-16 (13.7), II 17-20 (18.4). 206 198 skull of the preceding species, being of slightly different shape and narrow- er in its rear portion. The first four pairs of shortened parapophyses are without inflated tips; all other parapophyses are shorter with considerably less developed inflations at their tips than in the preceding species (Figure 34, B). The inflations on the first haemal arches are small. The processes of the swim bladder opposite the inflated tips of the parapophyses are insig- nificant; the processes at the forward edge of the swim bladder are just slightly curved (Figure 35, В). Antedorsal distance 27.1-30.8% of body length, depth of caudal peduncle 4.3-—4.9%, head length 21.4-22.6% of body length, In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 41.0—45.6, length of pectoral fin 12.0-15.1, length of pelvic fin 7.3-10.0, height of body 15.5-— 18.9, length of caudal peduncle 11.6-13.5. In per cent of head length: length of snout 31.2—35.9, horizontal diameter of eye 15.2-19.9, length-of upper jaw 33.7-39.0, length of lower jaw 42.6-46.3, width of forehead 21.9-27.0. Coloration a dirty greenish-gray, dorsum brownish- or olive -brown with marbled outlines formed by dark spots, belly silvery-white, fins yellowish or reddish with blackish-gray dots. Much larger than the havaga, at Kam- chatka usual measurement run to 35cm, reaching 40 and even 50cm; at Shantar Islands smaller, not exceeding 30cm. Like navaga, apparently di- vides into a group of races or schools. DISTRIBUTION. Northern portion of the Pacific. At the northern shores of eastern Siberia it is knownfrom Pitlyakei(on Chukchi Peninsula north- west of Bering Strait); at the shores of North America definitely known from Port Clarence (on Bering Strait) and LetnikBay. At present it is indicated from Norton Sound, Kodiak Island, Cook Bay; southward it is found to Sit- ka*, Very common at Kamchatka. Inthe Sea of Okhotsk southto Nemoro Strait on the eastern shore of Hokkaido. In the Pacific Ocean to Akkesi Bay on the southeastern shore of Hokkaido. In the Sea of Japan southward, ap- parently to the southern tip of Sakhalin and to Vladivostok; individual speci- mens were found farther south; at the mouth of the Tumen'-Ula River at Gensan (Korea) and even in the Yellow Sea (at Chemulpo **), Like navaga, they come to the mouths of rivers and sometimes enter into rivers — Anadyr, Bol'shaya(on Kamchatka) Amur, Suifun, Tumen'-Ula. In the Bol'shaya River, it was found within 10km of the mouth; in the Suifun River at Razdol!naya Village and even at Voroshilov-Ussuriiskii; on Bering Island in a fresh water lake 1. BIOLOGY. Studied less than navaga; judging by its more southward dis- tribution, less cold loving. Like navaga, it enters brackish and even fresh waters, occurring quite far up rivers and streams, but remaining within regions of tidal influence. In summer it remains at depths of 30-50 meters, in fall it comes closer to shore, In the Anadyr it is caught in the delta in October. In the Bay of Korf it occurs in commercial quantities with running sexual products atthe end of January. At Avachinskaya Inlet it is caught during winter on hook and line. At the western shores of Kamchatka it is caught in trawls at 40-60 meters in June. Found everywhere in Penzhinskaya Inlet; caught during June-July. In Tauiskaya Inlet itis numerous in October-Novem- ber and in early spring. It occurs in very large schools at Shantar Islands. * No. 1882 in the collections of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., delivered in 1847 by Mr. Voznesenskii. ** No. 8589 of the collections of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. 1 Records of У. Franz (Abh. math. -phys. Cl. К. Bayer, Akad. Wiss., Suppl. Bd., IV, 1, 1920:30) of finding it in Sagami Bay (Fukuura) are doubtful. ) 207 199 It is found in commercial quantities in the Amur Delta and around the west- ern and eastern shores of Sakhalin, It is caught all through the Maritime Provinces, especially in the Gulf of Peter the Great, where two-year-olds predominate in the catch. In places with a less intensive industry (western shores of Sakhalin, Kamchatka) 3 and even 4 year olds predominate in the catch. The age composition in different places can be seen from the follow- ing (data furnished by Milovidova-Dubrovskaya): Age (years) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Amur Bay 8.0 60.4 25.5 5.5 0.5 0.3 0.1 Posiet Bay 5.4 24.4 32.2 28.4 8.5 et 0.3 Decastris Bay Sal 48.1 35.5 те 1.5 0.7 Sakhalin, western shore 1.4 29.3 60.7 8.6 - Kikchik-Vorovskaya = 1.0 26.0 42.0 24.0 5.0 2.0 (western Kamchatka) Sexual maturity usually occurs in the second, less frequently in the third year, Growth in different parts of the range progresses unevenly (according to the observations of Milovidova-Dubrovskaya and Agapoyv, in cm): Age (years) т Z 3 4 5 6 {l Amur Bay 17.3 25.5. 30:2 34:0 7:31. 4:2 - Posiet Bay leat 21.6 ЗЕ 35.5 138.57 43:4 45.9 Ussuris Вау 16.0 25.3 29.7 34.0 37.6 41.5 40.7 Decastris Вау 14.5 23.5 29.0 32.7 36.7 38.0 - Sakhalin, wéstern shore 14.8 25.8 31.1 36.5 = = - Kikchik- Vorovskaya 16.9 28.4: 35.4 39.9 „42.8 46.9.4 ,92,0 Anadyr Gulf 16.8 $21.8; 24,9 28,1 32330) № 356 - Spawning occurs at some depth and at shore at temperatures from -1.6 to -1.8°С. There are indications that the eggs are adhesive. Fecundity varies from 25 to 210 thousand eggs. COMMERCIAL VALUE. If it were possible to catch when it comes in the winter, it could have almost over-all commercial value, but this is not pos- sible everywhere. In the Bay of Peter the Great in the period from 1910 to 1930 the annual catch was from 127 (1910-1911) to 16,300 metric centner (1929-1930). 19, Genus BOREOGADUS Ginther Boreogadus Ginther, Cat. fish., IV, 1862: 336 (subgenus, type: Gadus fabricii Richardson— Boreogadus saida); Berg, Fresh Water Fishes, II, 1933:739. Dorsal and anal fins separated by large spaces. The first anal fin begins beneath the origin of the second dorsal or a little farther forward. The cau- dal fin is strongly notched. Mental barbel short, not longer than pupil. Lower jaw projecting. Palatines without teeth, one row of minute, widely spaced teeth on head of vomer and on dentaries, two rows of teeth on pre- maxillaries anteriorly and one row posteriorly. Lateral line interrupted for its entire length, descending abruptly toward the longitudinal axis of the body beneath the origin of the second dorsal fin, with a strong wavy curve 208 200 beneath the posterior portion of the second dorsal fin. On the head there are only pit organs, Mucous cavity open in front, with two characteristic trans- verse crests behind it. A deep notch at the anterior edge of the prootic. Parapophyses short, without inflated tips. SKELETON. Skull low (A), its height contained three times or more in the length of its base. Bones at the base of the skull arranged upward along a straight line, parasphenoid without curvature. Posterior part of the skull base somewhat rounded at the bottom as a result of the convexity of opistho- tic. Upper profile of skull almost straight, descending anteriorly. Crest on supraoccipital and frontals low, with imperceptible termination in middle of skull, extending in the rear to the posterior edge of basioccipital or be- yond it, its upper edge straight throughout. Anterior edge of mesethmoid almost straight, without visible indentation and gradually descending, placed at an obtuse angle to its upper edge; upper edge of mesethmoid short. Or- bital space low, its height contained about three times in its base, lower in В. saida thanin В. agilis. Facial nerve exits from skull through a deep notch at the anterior edge of the prootics, the edges of which bear small protuberances at the juction of the prootic with the alisphenoid dorsal- ly and with the ascending process of the parasphenoid ventrally. The fora- men of the glossopharyngeal nerve on the opisthotic is small but always clearly noticeable, The skull from above (B) is quite broad, its maximum width contained less than two times in the length of its base. Lateral edges of frontals slightly convergent anteriorly. Lateral edges of pterotic rounded toward the ends, somewhat indented in the middle, almost parallel. Frontals narrower in В. saida thanin В. agilis. Lateral ethmoids expanded somewhat more in the transverse than in the longitudinal direction, project- ing considerably forward from beneath the frontals, projecting laterally the farthest at the anterior end of the frontals. The anterior edge of the vomer projects considerably from beneath the anterior end of the mesethmoid. Crest above the canals of the lateral line on the pterotic short, moderately broad, considerably broader on frontals, with raised edges. Mucous cavity not closed in front by coalesced edges of lateral and median crests, which thus do not form canals in front of it. Due to indentions on the sides of the mucous cavity, there is broad contact between it and the canals under the lateral crests of the frontals. A small elongate, lengthwise crest is found on each side of the skull above the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve on the parietal. Behind the mucous cavity perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the skull, there is a small crest on each side. Along the anterior edge of the head of the vomer on the lower surface of the skull (C) there is a small crest, behind which there is one row of small teeth, moderately curved at the tips; those at the sides are somewhat larger than those near the apex. The convex opisthotic and prootic rise on the side of the flattened posterior part of the parasphenoid; this bears a small longitudinal concavity; anteriorly, the lower edge of the parasphenoid is ob- lique. When the skull is viewed from behind (D), the opisthotic and prootic are convex, the auditory region of the skull bulges laterally and even slight- ly downward. The supraoccipital crest projects slightly upward, somewhat higher in В. agilis thanin В. saida. The lengths of the first two sub- orbitals are greater than their widths. Opercular process of hyomandibular shorter than the lower process, and narrow. Preopercular process quite broad. Lower edge of operculum with a deep notch and long pointed ends. 209 The posttemporal branches are quite long. Upper end of postcleithrum bent and broadened at the upper end. Parapophyses short, broad. The description has been compiled on the basis of 14 skeletons of B. saida and one of В. agilis. DISTRIBUTION. Two species in the Arctic seas. COMPARATIVE NOTES. In well-preserved specimens of B. saida from the collections of the Floating Maritime Scientific Institute and the Arctic Institute, tha lateral line has the same wavy curvature under the second dorsal finas B. agilis, a feature that could not be noticed in less well-preserved specimens from the old collections at the Zoological Insti- tute of the Academy of Sciences, Thus, as far as the main characteristic is concerned, there are no differences between these species, the only dis- tinction being that the body of B. saida is lower and considerably taper- ing caudad, the caudal fin is more deeply notched and less rounded at the tips of its lobes, the barbel is much smaller and, most important, the base of the third dorsal fin is larger than that of the second, while in B. agilis the base of the third dorsal fin is shorter than or equal to that of the second. Moreover, the lateral line in B. saida shows another curvature beneath the third dorsal fin, a feature absent in the specimens of B. agilis ex- amined. Craniological differences between them are insignificant. The vertebrae in B. agilis are slightly larger. It is possible that B. agilis is only a subspecies and that specimens of B. saida will be found in which the base of the third dorsal fin is equal to the second or shorter, while spe- cimens of B. agilis may be discovered in which the third dorsal fin is longer and the lateral line beneath it shows a curvature, Once it is proved that В. agilis is only a subspecies of В. saida and the latter is not dis- covered at the shores of Greenland and North America, the appellation B. agilis will have to be changed to B. saida polaris (Sabine, 1824), Key to the Species 1 (2). Base of third dorsal fin longer than that of second, Body considerably tapered caudad, Caudal fin with deep notch. . . ие. нее. а а оо eas aes 1. В. saida (Lepech. ) 2 (1). Base of third dorsal fin shorter than or equal to that of second. Во- dy gradually tapered caudad, Caudal fin with somewhat shallower ПОВ сое с Suan eu skiers « ese are Wel ee OLveainag) *1. Boreogadus saida (Lepechin) — Polarcod cod, Saika (Tables XVI, LXII, LXXII) Gadus saida Lepechin, Nov. Comment. Acad. Petrop., XVIII, (1773), 1774:512, tab. V (White Sea). — Merlangus polaris Sabine, Suppl. Parry's уоу., 1824: ССХИ (Baffin Bay). — Gadus fabricii Richard- son, Fauna Вог. Amer., III, 1836: 245 (North Greenland). — Pollachius polaris Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., (1861), 1862: 218. — Boreogadus polaris Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1863: 233. — Boreogadus saida Bean, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., IV, 1882: 243 (Providence Bay, Cape Lisburn, Norton Sound). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Smitt. Scand. fish, I, 1893:484, f. 20 (Iceland, Spitzbergen, White Sea, Taimyr, Chukchi Peninsula, Pitlekai, Alaska, in a fossil state in glacial clays of Sweden); Camerano, Os- 210 201 202 servaz, scientif. Spediz. Polare Savoia 1899-1900, 1903:609 (Teplits Bay on Franz Josef Тапа); Knipowitsch, Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, (8), Physics and Mathematics Division XVIII, 5, 1907:52 (ex parte*: р. 10d, Yenise Bay, р. 35, Zari Bay, р. 47, facing the mouth of Khatanga River, р. 49, facing the mouth of the Lena River, p. 54, Nerpch'ya Bay); Isachenko, the Fishes of the Turukhansk Region, 1912:100(Yenisei Bay, north of Cape Krestov); Deryugin, the Fauna of the Kola Bay, 1915:589 (occasionally enters Kola Bay); Thielemann Wiss. Meeresunters., Abt. Heig., XIII, 2, 1922: 215 (Barent Sea, at a depth of 19-320 June to July, at a temperature of -1.7-+4.0°С, feeding); Soldatov, Works of the Floating Maritime Scientific In- stitute, 3, 1923:65 (Кага Sea, White Sea, mcuth of North Dvina); Jensen, Rapp. Proces-Verb., XXXIX, 1925: 94 (western Greenland, spawning); Knipovich, Classification Fishes of the Barents, White and Кага Seas, 1926:157, fig. 120 (during the cold season of theyear at the western shores of Murman); Suvorov, Works of the Research Institute for the North, 34, 1927: 48 (Pesha River emptying into Chesk Bay); Rendahl, Ark, Zoologi, ХХПА, 10, 1931.15 (Taimyr Peninsula, east of Khatanga Bay, Pitlekai on Chukchi Peninsula); Esipov, Works of the Research Institute for the North, 49, 1931:162 (northern part of Barents Sea); Berg, Fresh Water Fishes, II, 1933:739; Taranets, Journal of the Far East Branch of the Academy of Sciences, 1-3, 1933: 77 (shores cf Chukotka, Anadyr Bay, one specimen in Olyutorsk Bay); Popov, Arctica. I, 1933:162 (Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea and Chukchi Sea, St. Lawrence Bay); Vladykov, Contrib. Canad. biol. fisher. , (n.s.) VIII, 1-8, 1933: 26 (Hudson Bay and Strait}; Probatov, Materials of a Scientific and Industrial Expedi- tion to the Kara Вау, 1934:90 (Кага Bay); Rass, The Karelo-Murmansk Region, 1934, 3—4:58 (spawning); Rass, Int. Rev. ges. Hydrob. Hydrogr., 33, 1936:255 (spawning); Klumov, Reports of the Academy of Scien- ces, Mathematics and Natural Sciences Division, 1937:135 (biology, importance to economy); Andriashev, An Investigation of the Seas of the U.S.S.R., 25, 1937: 346 (Distribution, fecundity); Kiseleva, Works of the Scientific Research Institute for Polar Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Industry, Industrial economic series, 10, 1940:103 (Ob Bay, biometry); Rass, Problems of the Arctic, 1945, 6:72 (ChukchiSea near Cape Schmidt, East Siberian Sea in the estuaries of the Kolyma River and in the Indigirka River, larvae). ТО 11-15 (12.8), ПО 12-17 (14.7), ШО 17-23 (20.1), ТА 14-20 (17.0), ПА 18-24 (20,9), gill-rakers 37-46 (41.4), vertebrae 53-58 (55.2), pyloric саеса 20-37**. Caudal fin with deep notch, with slightly rounded, almost pointed tips of the two lobes. Barbel small, sometimes scarcely noticeable, thin, villiform. Body low, considerably tapered caudad. Base of third dorsal fin longer than that of second dorsal fin. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 41.5-—49.5 (45.6), antedorsal distance 26.5-31.5 (28.6), distance between the base of pectoral and origin of first anal fin 16.5-23.5 (19.9), distance between base of pelvic and origin of first anal fin 16.5-—24.5 (20.9), base of first dorsal fin 7.5-12.5 (10.6), base of second dorsal 11.5- 16.5 (13.6), base of third dorsal 13.5-17.5 (15.8), base of first anal 12.5- 18.5 (15.4), base of second anal 13.5-18.5 (15.7), height of body 11.5-17.5 (15.0), depth of caudal peduncle 2.5-3.5 (2.9), length of head 22.5-26.5 (24.7). In per cent of head length: diameter of eye 25.5-32.5 (28.8), width of forehead 20,5-29.5 (24.4). Minute black dots and small hard protuberan- ces scattered on sides of body, head and fins, Coloring quite varied: dor- sal surface usually brownish, sides of body above lateral line slightly light - er, with a violet or yellowish hue; sides of body below lateral line and vent- ral surface silvery. Soldatov pointed out some differences existing between specimens of Po- lar cod from the Kara Sea and those from the White Sea. A comparison of the number of rays in the fins and the number of gill-rakers in specimens of Polar cod from the White Sea and the Kara Sea with those in Polar cod from the eastern part of the Barents Sea did not reveal any differences. * Tt was found that the remaining specimens belong to Arctogadus borisovi. ** The systematic characterization has been given on the basis of 70 adult specimens (90-170 mm in length) from the eastern part of the Barents Sea. E.V. Kiseleva (1.с.), who for comparison with her materials used the average number of rays in the fins of these fishes, incorrectly indicated the place where these fish were caught (Kara Bay). It is possible that differences might appear if a greater number of specimens were to be compared. Usual dimensions 12 to 16cm, individual specimens larger, one specimen reaching 32,1cm, / Wifi “te ky Alf, ie Y pS Uh Lig ye _ 1, 3 CE FIGURE 36. Distribution of Boregadus saida DISTRIBUTION. Circumpolar (Figure 36). Iceland, Spitzbergen, Kola Bay (seldom in winter), Barents Sea (small quantities in its southwestern part, common in the eastern), White Sea, Cheshskaya Bay, around Novaya Zemlya, Kara Bay, along the entire northern coast of Siberia, only in the northern part of the Bering Sea (Anadyr Bay and, partly, Olyutorskii Bay at the shores of North America). Does not occur inthe Sea of Okhotsk* at the Arctic shores and islands of North America, in Hudson Bay or at * The indication by Popov, Issledovanie morei SSSR (An investigation of the seas of the U.S.S.R., 14, 1931: 147) that B. saida occurs in the Sea of Okhotsk is erroneous; Andriashev (An investigation of the seas of the U.S.S.R., 22, 1935:137) proved that it was a young specimen of Th. chalcogramma. 212 203 Greenland*, The southern boundary in the distribution of Polar cod depends upon the seasonal distribution of ice and the cold water zone, While in sum- mer, only individual specimens are found in the southwestern part of the Barents Sea (State Institute of Oceanography, ''Perseus, '' page 1125, 71°30! north latitude, 38°00' east longitude, June 21, 1923, page 1126, 71°45' north latitude, 36°32.5' east longitude, June 21, 1929; page 1127, 72°00' north latitude, 35°00' east longitude, June 22, 1929), in winter this species appears here in greater numbers. During the low temperature period caused by glaciers, it was spread farther south, down to the southern end of the Scan- dinavian Peninsula (it was found in the glacial clays near Lund). The belief in discontinuous distribution of Polar cod is erroneous (Klumov, l.c.), since it is found, as has been pointed out, in the southwestern part of the Barents Sea, as well as along the entire northern shore of Siberia (collections of the Russian Polar Expedition of 1900—1903 and of the Hydro-Geographical Ex- pedition to the Northern Arctic Ocean, Starokadomskii, 1914, kept in the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR). BIOLOGY. Fish of the cold regions that prefer staying under compact ice or at its edge. Larger schools, like those of Eleginus navaga, usually stay near the shores; it is found in great numbers far from the shores among floating ice, where these fish are quite mobile and swim fast be- tween blocks of ice and hide in cracks. Occasionally these fish are found in warmer water zones having a temperature of 6.2° С (Soldatov, l.c.). They withstand well admixtures of fresh water and feel at ease in completely fresh water, often moving far upstream in the rivers. This happens when Polar cod are massed near the shores, namely in the fall and especially in the winter during the spawning period. It is not quite clear under what condi- tions these fish spawn, but it seems that, like Eleginus navaga, they move at that time farther off shore; although these fish are known to spawn occasionally in fresh water as well**, The eggs are pelagic. Spawning takes place from October to March (near Cape Zhelaniya, according toG. A. Kluge, it starts in October, in Cheshskaya Bayin February, inthe Barents Sea apparently in January and February, in Alaska and Eastern Siberia in February). Fecundity, as compared with other species of the family, is low — several thousand eggs. Sexual maturity is reached at 3-4 years, when the specimens attain a length of 190-200mm:; at the age of 1+ years they measure 75-100mm in length, at 25 years 144-158mm and at 35 190- 200mm. These fish feed mostly on crustaceans, especially Euphasiidae and Calanidae (С. finnarchicus), less frequently on amphipods and Cran- gonidae, and only exceptionally do they hunt for small fish (Thielemann, Leu): ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE, In spite of the fact that saika is always caught together with Eleginus navaga and sometimes is landed in mass during a storm, its economic importance has been nil. It has been used as а food only in recent years. The resources of this species are apparently large and almost untouched. It plays an important part in the feeding regime of belukha [beluga(syn)] (Delphinopterus leucas) and, toa lesser Kendal (Proc. Portl. Soc. Nat. Hist., II, 1909:207) mentions В. saida at the shores of Labrador} Vladykov (1. с.) believes that this is not В. saida but С. morhua (as indicated by the number of gill-rakers). ** In the Kia and Torna Rivers emptying into Cheshsk Bay (Zenkevic, Journal of Zoology, Ш, 4, 1933: 20). The eggs were probably squeezed out under the pressure of the mass of fish when the net was landed. 213 extent, in that of a number of other aquatic mammals, suchas Phoca 204 hispida, Hystriophoca groenlandica, Erignathus barbatus and some other Arctic animals (Klumov, Rybn. khoz. SSSR, 1935, 5:18). 2. Boreogadus agilis (Reinhardt) (Tables XVI, LXIII, LXXII) Gadus agilis Reinhardt, Kngl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk., Nat. Afh., УП, 1838:115. 126 (at the shores of Greenland). — Boreogadus agilis Svetovidov, Doklady Akademii Nauk, I, 6, 1935:427 (northern gulfs of Greenland). — Schultz a. Welander, Copeia, 1935, 3:138 (Godhavn Harbor, Greenland). ТО 13-14, ПО 16, II1D19-20, ТА 18-19, ПА 19-22, gill-rakers 40- 42, vertebrae 52. Caudal fin with a notch rounded at the tips of the two lobes, Barbel small, well perceptible. Body higher, becoming tapered posteriorly but not as suddenly as in the previous species. Base of third dorsal fin shorter than or equal to base of second dorsal fin. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 42.7-47.1, antedorsal distance 25.8-—28.5, distance between base of pectoral and origin of first anal fin 21.8-26.2, dis- tance between base of pelvic fin and first anal fin 23.6-29.1, base of first dorsal fin 12.3-13.6, base of second dorsal 16.9-17.6, base of third dorsal 15.2-16.9, base of first anal 18.0-18.1, base of second anal 15.3-17.2, height of body 18.7-19.6, depth of caudal peduncle 3.2-3.7, length of head 20.7-21.8. In per cent of head length: length of snout 27.3-30.6, diameter of eye 22,9-27.3, length of upper jaw 43.5-45.0, length of lower jaw 54.5- 57.4, width of forehead 22.2-23.4. There are minute black dots and small hard tubercles on the sides of the body, the head and fins. Length of long- est specimen known 37 cm (3 specimens), DISTRIBUTION. This species is known from a small number of speci- mens in the gulfs of the western part of Greenland (Godhavn Harbor). BIOLOGY. Like the preceding species, these fish live in ice area and are extremely active. 20. Genus ARCTOGADUS Drjagin Arctogadus Drjagin, Zool. Anz., 98, 1932:151 (Туре: A. borisovi Drjagin); Berg, Ryby presnykh vod S.S.S.R., II, 1933: 746. The dorsal and anal fins are separated by wide spaces. The first anal begins beneath the origin of the second dorsal fin. Caudal fin has a shallow notch, Barbel on chin quite long, not less than the pupil of the eye. Jaws of equal length or lower projecting; large teeth on vomer, premaxillary and dentary; teeth on the palatines. The lateral line is interrupted for its entire length, in the shape of a shallow arch in the forward portion of the body, des- cending sharply to the midline of the body beneath the origin of the second dorsal, On the head only pit organs, Mucous cavity оп the frontals not closed in front; in its rear portion two short .iansverse crest-like processes, A quite deep notch on the forward edge of the prootic. Parapophyses of nor- mal structure, SKELETON. Skull quite high (A), its height contained about 25times in the length of its base, the upper profile gradually descending toward the front. The lower edge of the vomer, parasphenoid and basioccipital present 214 205 an almost straight line with a slight curve on the parasphenoid beneath the forward end of the prootic; a slight rounded appearance at the rear of the base of the skull is caused by the convexity of the prootic and opisthotic. The crest on the supraoccipital and frontals is not extremely high, its rear end extending somewhat beyond the rear of the basioccipital, terminating im- perceptibly in the front; in the middle of the skull the upper edge of the crest is slightly rounded. The forward edge of the mesethmoid is straight, with- out notches, descending shallowly, placed at an obtuse angle to the upper edge. Orbital space high, contained about 15 times in the length of its base. Quite a deep notch for the facial nerve in the forward edge of the prootic; the edges of the notch have rounded ridges at the juction with the alisphenoid from above and with the parasphenoid from below. The foramen on the opis- thotic for the glossopharyngeal nerve is small, but аиЦе evident. The skull from above (B) is quite broad; the distance between the rear edge of the pte- rotic is more than half the length of the base of the skull. The lateraledges of the pterotic are placed at a slight angle to each other, The lateral edges of the frontals narrow sharply toward the posterior third and are almost pa- rallel with each other in the interorbital space. The lateral ethmoids are greatly lengthened longitudinally, extending considerably on the sides from beneath the frontals and reaching a quite considerable distance back from the front end of the frontals and extending an even greater distance forward, The forward end of the mesethmoid is located somewhat behind the forward end of the vomer. The sensory canal crests are not extremely broad; they are along the pterotic for its entire length. The edges of the lateral and medial crests of the frontals are not fused, the mucous cavity is not closed in front, and there is no bony canal which is closed over in front of it nor are there any notches in the crests bordering the frontals from the sides. There is a small crest over the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve and somewhat behind it along the parietals from each side of the skull. The shaft and head of the vomer on the skull from beneath (C) are rounded; two rows of strong and long teeth run from the forward end of the head in a continuous line; in the second row the teeth are somewhat larg- er than in the first. The parasphenoid in the forward portion from beneath is rounded, in the center it is flattened, and in the rear it has a small long- itudinal concavity. From each side of the rear portion of the parasphenoid the inflated prootic and opisthotic extend downward. The lateral walls of the skull when viewed from the rear (D) in the otic region are greatly in- flated from the sides and somewhat projected downward, In the rear above the skull the supraoccipital crest projects somewhat. The first two subor- bitals are large, the width of the second is somewhat more than its length. The opercular process of the hyomandibular is narrow and short, shorter than the lower process. The opercular is narrow, its lower edge has a deep notch and elongate tips. The upper end of the postcleithrum is slightly curved and broadened. The parapophyses are quite long and narrow, the first haemal arches are not too broad, Description based on one skeleton of А. borisovi. DISTRIBUTION. Two Arctic species. 215 206 1 (2). 2 (1). Ня И Diagnostic Key to the Species Pelvic and pectoral fins short, do not reach the beginning of the first anal fin by far, are contained 1.5-1.8 times in the length of the head. Eyes large, about 3.9-5.3 times in the length of the heady® ..... о Во Tes, OL Visa Ded aor Pelvic and pectoral fins considerably longer, almost reaching the origin of the first anal fin and contained in the head length only 1.3 times... Eyes still larger, 3.2 times in. head lengtn** а eens fe eto eh офи ен рее 2ap-Ae Dean yi1,(UNichols \andi Maxwell) Arctogadus borisovi Drjagin — Eastern Siberiancod, devyati- perstka [Translator's note: common name means 9-fingered cod] (Tables ХУП, ..LXIV,,, LXxXH) Gadus saida (non Lep.) Knipowitsch, Zap. Akad. Nauk, (8), fiz.-mat. otd., XVIII, 5, 1907:52 (ex parte: st. 14 opposite Cape Sterlegov, st. 44 Taimyr Bay, st. 46 northeast of Taimyr Peninsula, st. 50 north of Novosiberian Islands, st. 58 Nerpich'ya Inlet.— Navaga Borisov, Mat. Yakutsk, kom. Akad. Nauk, 27, 1928:7 (delta of the Lena River opposite Sagastyr'Island).— Arctogadus borisovi Drjagin, Zool. Anz., 98, 1932:151, abb. 1 (Kolyma Delta at Sukharnoe, Laptev lighthouse at the mouth of the Kolyma, Lyakhov Island, Delta of the Lena); Berg, ryby presn. vod, II, 1933:747, 868, fig. 762 (Kolyma Delta, Lyakhov Island, Lena Delta); Popov, Arctica, 1, 1933, fig. (Foka Bay west of the shores of Taimyr). FIGURE 37. Distribution of Arctogadus borisovi ID 11-12, ПО 18-21, ШО 21-24, IA 20-24, ПА 20-23, gill-rakers 32-34, vertebrae 59, Lower jaw equal to the upper or slightly projecting * In fishes with lengths exceeding 45cm, 4.7-5.3 times, in fishes 14-17 cm, 3.9-—4.3 times. ** In specimen 22cm in length. 216 207 forward, On the dentary one row of large teeth, on the premaxillary two rows of considerably smaller and much more closely placed teeth; teeth in the outer row of the premaxillaries somewhat larger than the inner row. Large fish usually have, in addition to these, still smaller teeth between the rows of the premaxillary and an outer (rarely inner) row of teeth in the low- er jaw. Onthe vomer and palatines one row of large teeth, from the exter- nal, less frequently from the internal, side of which on large fish there are smaller teeth. All large teeth are hooked backward at the end. Pectoral and pelvic fins short, do not reach the origin of the first anal fin by far. Body not high, depth contained about 5 times in its length to the base of the caudal fin. The eyes are large, contained 5 times in the head length, In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 48.0—53.1, antedorsal distance 30.5-34.7, base of first dorsal fin 9.8-11.1, base of second dorsal fin 15,2- 17.2, base of third dorsal fin 12.3-15.3, base of first anal 15.9-17.9, base of second anal 12.3-13.6, depth of caudal peduncle 3.1-3.5, its length 8.8— 10.5, head 24.7-27.1. In per cent of head length: diameter of eye 18.9-21.2, snout length 33.7-36.2, length of upper jaw 46.3-51.2, length of lower jaw 53.7-59.6, width of forehead 17.5-20.7. Head, back and upper portion of the sides of the body dark olive in color, brownish or yellowish in spots; lower portions of the sides of the body gray, breast and belly light gray with numerous black dots. Fins dark gray, anal somewhat lighter, Reaches 55cm and more in length, DISTRIBUTION, (Figure 37). Indicated in the description from the del- tas of the Kolyma; Lena and Lyakhov Island, this species was later found in the Gulf of Foka (southwest of Cape Cheliuskin). Presently it may be con- sidered that the eastern Siberian cod is also found in the Kara Sea at Cape Sterlegov (75° 49' north latitude, 89°35' east longitude), at Cape Svyatoi Nos (northeast of the mouth of the Yana River), at the northern tip of the New Siberian Islands (Nerpich'ya Inlet), northwardfrom there (77° 26'30" north latitude, 138°47' east longitude)* and at Cape Billings**, BIOLOGY. Studied very little. Like navaga and saika, it is found in salt as well as fresh water at the mouths of rivers. Judging by its distribution, along with A. pearyi this is the most Arctic of all cod species. Condi- tions of propagation are unknown but apparently, as in navaga and saika, spawning occurs in salt water. COMMERCIAL VALUE none at present, but apparently, along with saika, could be an object of a small industry. COMPARATIVE NOTES. The location of the lateral line beneath the se- cond dorsal fin is quite variable. Sometimes it is iocated in almost the cen- ter of the body, but more often considerably lower. 2. Arctogadus pearyi (Nichols and Maxwell) Boreogadus pearyi Nichols and Maxwell, Copeia, 1933, 1:26 (Lincoln Bay and the north coast of Greenland), Тр 12, 11D 20, 1D 21, 1A 23, ПА 22. Scales small, about 155 trans- verse rows. Lower jaw projecting slightly. Teeth sharp, slightly hooked, * All of these specimens are kept in the collection of the Zoological Institute of the Academy cf Sciences. *k В. Number 2687 of the collection of the Zoological Museum of Moscow State University. (217 208 not very closely spaced, in two rows on the upper and in front on the lower jaws; row of closer spaced, unequal sized teeth on the vomer and palatines. Pectoral and pelvic fins long, reaching almost to the origin of the first anal fin, The pectoral fin is contained 1.3 times in head length, the pelvic fins 1.1 times. Body very shallow, its depth contained about 7 times in its length to the base of the caudal fin. The eyes are very large, contained only 3.2 times in head length. The head is contained 3.6 times in body length to the base of the caudal fin. In head length the snout is contained 3.2 times, in- terorbital space 4.2 times, upper jaw 2.5 times, barbel 6.5 times, length of caudal peduncle 2.5 times, the longest ray of the first dorsal fin 1.6 times, first anal fin longest ray 2 times, the lobes of the caudal fin 2.5 times, The length of the barbel is contained in the diameter of the eye 2 times, depth of caudal peduncle 2.3 times. The upper jaw extends to the forward edge of the pupil. Coloration pale, the fins somewhat darker than the body. Only two specimens are known. Description based on a specimen 22.4 ста in length (according to Nichols, and Maxwell), DISTRIBUTION. Lincoln Bay at the northern tip of Greenland. BIOLOGY. Unknown, but apparently does not differ materially from the biology of A. borisovi. ; COMPARATIVE NOTES. A. pearyi is the only species in the Gadinae absent from the collections of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences. This species is very close to A. borisovi, differing only by its longer pectoral fins and the greater size of the eye. Gadus glacialis Peters (Die Zweite Deutsche Nordpolarfahrt in den Jahren 1869-1870, II, 1874:172), known from one specimen 12.0cm in length from the very close (Sabine Island at the eastern shores of Greenland) places, undoubtedly, be- longs to the genus Arctogadus (there are teeth on the palatines) and ap- parently is identical to А. pearyi; its eyes are contained 3.3 times in head length. 21. Genus THERAGRA Lucas Theragra Lucas in: Jordan a, Gilbert, Rept. Fur-seal invest., Ш, (1896-97), 1899:486 (Туре: Gadus chalcogrammus Pallas); Jordan a. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М, Amer., Ш, 1898: 2535. The unpaired fins are separated by broad spaces. The first anal fin be- gins anterior to the origin of the second dorsal fin. Caudal fin has a slight notch. Barbel оп chin small. Lower jaw projects forward somewhat, Teeth оп the premaxillary, dentary and head of vomer, Lateral line with a sharp curve beneath the first portion of the second dorsal fin, without interruption in the forward portion and interrupted for its entire length behind the curve, straight in front of and behind the curve. Pores on the head along the ca- nals of the sensory system: 12 pores in the preopercular-mandibular canal, 9 pores in the infraorbital canal, 2 pores in the supraorbital canal and 1 pore in the supraoccipital commissure. The mucous cavity on the skull in front is closed. The notch at the forward edge of the prootic is quite deep. The parapophyses are of normal structure, The suboperculum and postcleith- rum are greatly thickened. 218 209 210 SKELETON. The skull is low (A), the length of its base almost 4 times greater than the height. The bones lying at the base of the skull are placed in almost a straight line, parasphenoid only slightly curved beneath the prootic. The upper profile of the skull from the rear is almost parallel to the base, in front it gradually descends to the mesethmoid. The crest on the supraoccipital and frontals is not high; its upper edge along the supra- occipital is straight, curved along the frontals, terminating forward in ap- proximately the middle of the cranium box forward of the mucous cavity, in the rear extending not farther than the rear end of the basioccipital. The forward edge of the mesethmoid is without a notch, somewhat inflated, des- cending gradually, placed at an obtuse angle, somewhat rounded on top to the upper edge. The orbital space is not high, the length of the base being 23 times the height. The foramen of the facial nerve is quite a deep notch in the forward end of the prootic; the edges of this notch where the prootic joins the alisphenoid from the top and where it joins the ascending process of the parasphenoid below have angular or rounded ridges. The foramen of the glossopharyngeal nerve on the opisthotic is small, hardly noticeable. Skull viewed from above (B) is broad in the rear, its width contained about 2 times in the length of the base, quite narrow in the interorbital region. Lateral walls of the pterotic are rounded, placed almost parallel to each other. The lateral edges of the frontals are concave, sharply narrowing in the interorbital region. Lateral ethmoids stretched greatly lengthwise, ex- tending on the sides from beneath the frontals, extending far forward and still farther back of the forward edge of the frontals. The forward end of the vomer extends forward from beneath the forward edge of the mesethmoid. The crests above the sensory canals on the pterotic and frontals are quite broad, with elevated edges. The mucous cavity is quite deep; there 1$ а longitudinal partition dividing it in two sections; the partition is not too high and does not reach the edges of the cavity. Forward of each half of the mu- cous cavity there is a short canal formed by fusion of the lateral crests with the median crest. On the parietals from each side above the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve are small crests, lengthened more longitudinally than laterally, their edges not rising above the surface of the parietals. The quite flattened head of the vomer on the skull from beneath (C) is toothless at its very tip and lies in almost the same plane as the surface of its shaft. Teeth are located in several (3-5) rows along only the rear half of the forward edge of the head of the vomer. The parasphenoid is thin and narrow, rounded from beneath in front, flat in the rear witha small longitudinal concavity. The lateral walls of the cranial box when the skull is viewed from behind (D) in the auditory region are somewhat inflated; the lower half of the rear portion of the skull is almost semicircular, being somewhat flattened only in the area of the parasphenoid. Above the upper edge of the supraoccipital and epiotic at the top of the skull the supraoccipi- tal crest rises slightly. The first suborbital is small, much smaller than the second. The opercular and preopercular processes of the hyomandibu- lar are equal in length to the rear portion of the lower process; the rear edges of the lower and subopercular processes are almost parallel. The operculum is slightly thickened, its lower edge has quite a deep cavity and a greatly lengthened and sharpened rear end. The suboperculum and the upper broadened tip of the postcleithrum are greatly thickened; the suboper- culum is large, broad. The posttemporal is normally developed, not 219 thickened, with a long fork. The parapophyses are quite elongate, the an- terior ones quite broad, the first haemal arch not very wide. The ostistia especially in front are much shorter than in Pollachius, Description given from one skeleton of Th. chalcogramma chal- cogramma, FIGURE 38. Distribution of Theragra chalcogramma DISTRIBUTION. One species on both shores of the northern portion of the Pacific and adjacent seas with a natio at the shores of the central por- tion of North America (Figure 38). Diagnostic Key to the Forms 1 (2). 1D 12-14, ПО 12-—18;) DI D 20-21, I-A: 19-23, ПА, 2b=—23 00a as le). ta. Th). chalcogr amma, (chaleogr amma (Rally) er Dai 13, ПО 12-15, ШО 14-19, ТА 15-19, ПА 15-19. 2. tbs T hs а santaa chalcogramma n., fucensis (Jord, et, Gilb. ). *la. Theragra chalcogramma chalcogramma (Pallas) — Mintai (Tables XVII, LXV, LXXII) Gadus chalcogrammus Pallas, Zoogr. rosso~asiat., Ш, 1811: 198 (Sea of Okhotsk and at the shores of Kamchatka). — Gadus periscopus Cope, Proc. Amer. Phiols. Soc. Phila., 1873:30 (shores of Alaska). — Gadus minor Déderlein, in: Steindachner и. Déderlein, Beitr. Kenntn. Fisch. Japan, IV, 1887:21 (Tokyo). - Pollachius chalcogrammus Jordan, Cat. fish, М. Amer., (1885), 1887: 918. — Theragra chalco- gramma Jordan а. Gilbert, Rept. Fur-seal invest., Ш, (1896—1897), 1899:486 (Bering Sea and adjacent waters), — Eleginus navaga (non Pallas) Evermann a. Goldsborough, Fish. Alaska, 1907:347 (ex parte: st. 4277 and 4278 and Alitak-Bay). 220 РИ DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY. Grebnitskii, Vestn. rybopr., XII, 6-7, 1897: 324 (Copper Island); Jordan and Evermann, Fish М. а. М. Amer., Ш, 1898:2535, f. 887 (Bering Sea and neighboring waters); Evermann and Goldsborough, 1. c.:346 (Bering Sea, southward from the Aleutian Islands and Alaska); Mori and Uchida, Journ. Chosen Nat, Hist. Soc., 19, 1934:22 (Seyishin, Gensan); Schultz and Welander, Copeia, 1935, 3:131 (Alaska, comparison with the southern form); Kamiya, Journ. Imp, Fish. Inst., XXI, 3, 1935:27 spawning, development and structure of the eggs); Andriashev, Issled. morei SSSR, 22, 1935:136 (Bering Sea); Uno, Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., Tokyo, V, 1936:173 (age studies); Andriashev, Issled. morei SSSR, 25, 1937:340 (northward to between the Chuckchi Peninsula and St. Lawrence Island, biology); Sato, Journ. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Univ., (VI), Zool., VI, 1, 1937:32 (Akkeshi Bay, plentiful in winter); Uno, Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. Tokyo, VI, 1938: 296 (age studies); Suvorov, Mintai i ego promyslovoe znachenie (biology, commercial value). ГР 12-14, ПРО 12-18, Ill D 20-21, ТА 19-23, ПА 21-23, gill-rakers 34-40, vertebrae 50*, Pectoral and pelvic fins are long, the pectorals а1- most reaching or going beyond the origin of the first anal fin; the pelvics do not reach or just about reach the origin of the first anal. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 40.4—44.1, antedorsal distance 27.3-—29.2, length of pectoral fin 17.5—21.4, length of pelvic fin 9.5-11.8, height of body 9.8—15.1, depth of caudal peduncle 3.0-3.5, its length 11.2-12.4, length of head 21.8-24.2. In per cent of head length: length of snout 33.1-36.4, hori- zontal diameter of eye 20.7-25.7, length of upper jaw 39.0-—40.7, length of lower jaw 52.3-55.6, width of forehead 15,8-—20.3. The dorsum is olive, the sides silvery with 2-3 stripes of dark spots, copper-olive along the edges. Dorsal fins olive, pectoral fins dark, pelvic and anal ashen colored, caudal light olive. Average sizes about 60cm (from 572 specimens from Anadyr Bay, Andriashev, 1.с.), reaches 75cm. DISTRIBUTION. Very common in Japan, Okhotsk and Bering Seas. The utmost limits of distribution to the south along the Asiatic coast appears to be Korea (Genzan) and Yamaguchi Province on the southwest coast of Hondo Island in the Sea of Japan**, The utmost northern location is in the Strait between Cape Chukhotsk and St. Lawrence Island; it was not found farther north. In the Sea of Okhotsk common atthe westernshores of Kamchatka, at the northern portion of the Island of Hokkaido and at the eastern shore of Sakhalin, found in lesser quantities at northern coast of the Shantar Islands. Widely distributed at the shores of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. South of Alaska along the shores of North America it is represented by a closely related form'Th. ‘chalco'igramma chalcogramma п. '‘fucensis, BIOLOGY. Keeps with cod, but usually at greater depths (from 180 to 200 and even 300 meters, in the Bering Sea from 30 to 150 meters), It is found in schools as a rule at temperatures above or close to zero, although there are cases known of finding it in small quantities at negative tempera- tures, Spawning at the shores of Kamchatka apparently occurs in the spring and beginning of summer; by the second half of July spawning is finished, though isolated specimens with undischarged sexual products are found until the middle of August. In the Sea of Japan at the shores of Japan spawning occurs during February-March-April. The incubation period during the development of the eggs at 9-11°C is equal to 7-8 days. Sexual maturity in mintay in the Sea of Japan occurs upon reaching three years, at the shores * According to Schultz and Welander, the fin formulae of 30 specimens from the shores of Alaska are as follows: ГР 11-13 (11.9), ПО 14-18 (15.4), ШО 15-20 (17.7), ГА 17-22 (20.1), ПА 16-21 (18.7); 1-2 first rays in III D, ГА and II A concealed under the skin, apparently not counted. ** У. Franz's (Abh. math. -phys. Cl. К. Bayer, Akad. Wiss., Suppl. Bd. IV, 1, 1910:30) record of finding them at Yokahama is doubtful. 221 212 of Kamchatka, 4. For spawning it comes toward shore to lesser depths and after releasing the eggs departs for the depths, while males and smaller specimens remain at lesser depths a little longer than the females and older age groups. In July and August at depths of less than 55 meters at the shores of Kamchatka,males dominate, at depths of 80-235 meters, females. Young age groups (two and three year olds) 18—27 cm in length were found in July at depths of 180-200 meters; in August at lesser depths, 100-135 meters; in September in shallow water of about 60 meters. In September large min- tay also comes close to the shores. The commercial period at the shores of Japan is from November to March-April. Usual food 15 Mesidothia and amphipods, chinoecetesopilio was also found in stomachs. In the south- ern regions it is greatly diseased bynematodes and poorlyfed; in the north- ern regions it is less diseased and better fed. COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE, Comparatively small, With the poorly developed cod industry and still lesser navaga industry, the catch of mintay at the shores of Kamchatka (Kikchik-Kola region) does not exceed 7% of the total cod catch and about 2% of the total navaga catch, In statistics the catch of mintay is practically not considered, About 3.5 thousand metric centner was caught in 1928 in the Maritime Provinces, Mintay is considerably more utilized in Japan, where in 1931—1936 over 900 thousand metric centner were produced, Under-utilization of the reserves of mintay in our waters is explained by the presence of more valuable fish, by its poorer quality than the cod and by prejudice against it because of the heavy infestation with parasites, mainly nematodes, COMPARATIVE NOTES. Gadus minor Doderlein, judging from all of its characteristics (ID 11, IID 12, ШО 19, ТА 19, lower jaw longer than upper, dorsal and anal fins divided by broad spaces, anal opening lo- cated between the verticals of the end of the first and the beginning of the second dorsal fins), is Th. chalcogramma. Within the limits of its range, Th. chalcogramma falls into the group of as yet unstudied local forms, forming morphologically well isolated forms in the Japan Sea anda fjord form in the harbors of the Chukchi Peninsula (Andriashev, 1.с.). Jor- dan and Gilbert described one such form found at the shores of North America, 16. Theragra chaleogrammay;ohalcogramma п. fucensis (Jordan a. Gilbert) Pollachius chalcogrammus fordan a. Gilbert, Proc, Ч. $. Nat. Mus., Ш, (1880), 1881:454 (Puget Sound, Monterey Bay); Jordan а. Gilbert, ibid., IV, (1881), 1882:66 (occasionally in Seattle, rare at San Francisco), Pollachius chalcogrammus fucensis Jordan a. Gilbert, ibid., XVI, (1893), 1894: 315 (Puget Sound and Tacoma). Theragra fucensis Jordan а. Evermann, Fish. М. а. М. Amer., Ш, 1898: 2536 (from Vancouver to Monterey Вау). — Eleginus navaga (non Pallas) Evermann а, Goldsborough, Fish. Alaska, 1907:347 (ex parte: Puget Sound, Port Townsend). DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY, Schultz and Welander, Copeia, 1935, 3:135 (Puget Sound, Port Townsend); Schultz and DeLacy, Mid, -Pacific Mag., Jan. ~-March, 1936:65 (Puget Sound and coast of the State of Washing- ton, bibliography). I'D 11-13 (11.4), ПО 12-15 (13.2), IIE D.14-19 (16.4), ГА 15-19. (17:8) ПА A 15-19 (17,3)*. Differs from specimens from Bering as well as Sea of * From Schultz and Welander, 27 specimens from Puget Sound. 222 213 214 Okhotsk by fewer rays inthe fins, andapparently some other characteristics. Measurements are the same as in the typical form. DISTRIBUTION. Along the shores of North America from Monterey Bay to Vancouver and perhaps even farther north. The boundary of the range with basic form is not known. Usually very common and very numerous in Puget Sound, south to San Francisco and in Monterey Bay - rare. BIOLOGY. Аз inthe basic form, a marine fish; has not been studied more closely. COMMERCIAL VALUE minor, 22, Genus MICROMESISTIUS Gill Micromesistius Gill, Proc. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phila., (1863), 1864:231 (Type: Gadus poutassou Risso). — Brachymesistius Gill, ibid.:233 (Type: Gadus poutassou Risso). The dorsal and anal fins are divided by spaces. The space between the first and second dorsal fins is greater than the diameter of the eye, space between the second and third dorsal fins is greater than the base of the se- cond dorsal fin, beginning of the first anal fin is forward of the origin of the first dorsal. Caudal fin with a small notch. The lower jaw projects for- ward slightly. Barbel on the chin undeveloped. Teeth on premaxillary and dentary, 1-2 teeth on either side of the head of the vomer. Lateral line straight, running parallel with the dorsum above the midline of the body, uninterrupted for its entire length. On the head along the lateral line canal system there are pores: 12 in the preopercular-mandibular canal, 9 in the infraorbital canal, 3 in the supraorbital canal and 1 in the supraorbital com - 11155иге. The mucous cavity is closed infront. The facial nerve exits from the side of the skull through a foramen. Intestine without pyloric саеса. SKELETON. The skull is not high (A), the length of its base is more than 3}times its height. The parasphenoid has a small curve beneath the forward end of the prootic; the vomer in front and basioccipital in rear of this curve are placed in straight lines with the front and rear ends of the parasphenoid. The upper profile of the skull presents an almost straight line descending gradually forward. The crest on the supraoccipital and frontals is not high, almost straight along its upper edge, witha slight inflation at the junction of the supraoccipital and frontals, in front at about the middle of the skull [the crest] gradually transforms into a series of ridges which bound the rear end of the mucous cavity, terminating in the rear over the rear edges of the basioccipital or slightly in front of it. The forward edge of the mesethmoid descends gradually without a notch, placed at an obtuse angle to the upper edge. The orbital space is elongate and low, its height contained about 25times in its length. The facial nerve leaves the skull through a foramen, limited in the front by the alisphenoid and ascending processes of the parasphenoid. The glossopharyngeal foramen on the opis- thotic is hardly noticeable. The skull is quite narrow in the rear (B), its width contained a little over twice in the length of its base, and it is even narrower in the interorbital space. The lateral edges of the pterotic are slightly rounded, almost parallel to each other. The edges of the frontals narrow sharply in the interorbital region, widening somewhat at the forward 223 end, Lateral ethmoids extend scarcely from the forward ends of the frontals on the sides, and are basically located in front of it. The forward end of the mesethmoid lies quite far back of the forward end of the vomer., The crests above the sensory canals on the pterotic are short and narrow, long and wid- er on the frontals, their edges joined with the edges of the frontals through the aid of a bony bridge, one on each side, thus forming in this spot an al- most closed bony canal, The mucous cavity is deep; the longitudinal parti- tion dividing it into two parts does not reach the top in the rear portion, The lateral crests of the frontals in front of the mucous cavity fuse with the me- dian crests and form short canal on each side of the forward section of the frontals which communicate with the mucous cavity. There is a crest on either side of the parietals covering the foramen of the recurrent dorsal branch of the facial nerve. The head of the vomer from beneath (C) is great- ly flattened; its apex lies in the same plane as the shaft, only the edges of the head protrude slightly, with sparse hook-like teeth; the apex of the head of the vomer is toothless. The parasphenoid is narrow, greatly compressed from the sides forward of the prootic, the lower surface flattened, even somewhat longitudinally concave inthe rear, The prootic and episthotic are convex, due to which the lower portion of the cranial box when viewed from the rear (D) is hemispheric. Above the skull in the rear only the sup- raoccipital crest rises, the parietal crests are not seen. The first two sub- orbitals are equally well developed, the second are almost equal in length as wellas in width, The opercular and lower processes of the hyomandibu- lar are of almost the same size. The lower edge of the opercular is almost without a notch, its rear end is slightly elongate, its forward end rounded. The upper end of the postcleithrum is curved and broadened. The para- pophyses are short and narrow, the first haemal arch is small. Description based on one skeleton of M. poutassou and one of M. australis. DISTRIBUTION. Two bi-Polar species, one of the Atlantic and Mediter- ranean shores of Europe, the other at the utmost southern tip of South America (Figure 39). Diagnostic Key to the Species 1 (2). 23-36 gill-rakers on the lower limb of the first gill arch, 27-33 оп the entire gillarch. .. кл. Me posmtas sou’ (Risso) 2 (1). 33-39 gill-rakers on the lower limb of the first gill arch, 42-43 on the entinevar chs i) tas: liek he, 6 Qos eal ee Me ase radi si Мос na: *1. Micromesistius poutassou (Risso) — Putassu (Tables XVIII, LXVI, LX XII) Gadus merlangus (non Г.) Risso, Ichth. Nice, 1810:115 (Mediterranean Зеа). — Merlangus роц- tassou Risso, Hist. nat. Europ. тема. , Ш, 1826:227 (Mediterranean Sea). — Merlangus vernalis Risso, 1.c.:228.-- Merlangus pertusus Cocco, Giorn. Sci. Lett. Sicilia, XXVI, 1829:140. — Merlangus albus Yarrell, Brit, fish., ed. Il, IH, 1841:247.— Gadus potassoa Duben, Vet. Akad. Handl., 1844: 88. — Merlangus communis Costa, Fauna Regni. Napoli, Pesc., 1850:7. — Gadus merlanostomus Nilsson, Scand. fauna, IV, 1853:556.— Micromesistius poutassou Gili, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci, Phila., (1863), 1864:231, -—- Boreogadus poutassou Malm, Goteb. Bohusl. Fauna, 1877:486 Skagerrak, 224 Kattegat to Island of Vingo). - Gadus poutassou Vinciguerra, Апп. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova, XVIII, 1883:465, t. II, f. 1-2. DISTRIBUTION, BIOLOGY, Erhardt, Fauna Cycladen, 1859:91 (Cyclod Islands); Apostolides, Peche Grece, Athen., 1883:29; Smitt, Scand, fish., I, 1893:511; Jensen, Med. Котт. Havunders., Fisk. ВЯ, 1905: 8, Е. 4 (north to 69°31' north latitude, 47°06' west longitude); Hjurt, Rapp. Proces-Verb., X, 1909:60, Е. 17 (spawning, biology); J. Schmidt, ibid.:82 (spawning, biology); Damas, ibid.:210 (biology); Johnsen, Bergens Mus. Arbok (1918-1919) 2, 1921:51 (one specimen length 200mm, caught 27 June 1909 at the coast of Murman); Tortonese, Boll. pesca, piscicult., idrobiol., XI, 2, 1935:232; Boldovskii, Dokl. Akad. Nauk., XXIV, 3, 1939:305 (western part of the Barents Sea, eastward to 40° east longitude). iF wages 1900 о 2000 4oookn FIGURE 39. Distribution of the genus Micromesistius 1— М. poutassou; 2—М. australis. ID 12-14, ПО 12-14, ШО 23-26, ТА 33-39, ПА 24-27, gill-rakers 21-33 (23-26 оп the lower limb of the gill arch), vertebrae 57*. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 30.5-—33.3, antedorsal distance * According to J. Schmidt, 56-60 vertebrae. 225 216 29.5—31.1, length of pectoral fin 12.4-14.6, length of pelvic fin 5.8-6.2, length of the base of the first dorsal fin 8.0-9.1, length of the base of the second dorsal fin 8.0-10.3, length of the base of the third dorsal fin 13.8- 14.8, length of the base of the first anal fin 32.3-37.9, length of the base of the second anal fin 15.5-16.5, height of first dorsal fin 9.6-11.9, height of first anal fin 6.7-7.8, depth of caudal peduncle 3.7-4.9, its length 9.4-10.8, length of head 22.1-23.8. In per cent of head length: length of snout 31.3- 35.0, diameter of eye 25.9-28.7, length of upper jaw 40.6-43.5, length of lower jaw 54.1-57.9, width of forehead 10.5-13.5. Coloration bluish-gray on back, lighter on the sides, silvery; belly milk-white. Small blackish- brown round spots on the body, more numerous in the area of the pectoral fin; small dark spot, sometimes absent, at the base of the pectoral fin. Length to 35cm, seldom larger. DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean at the European shores, north to the western section of the Barents Sea (south of Bear Island*, to the east to 40° east longitude) and the southern and southwestern shores of Iceland (judging by the currents and otoliths, almost to 69° 31! north latitude and 7° 6' west longitude, almost to the Island of Jan Mayen) along the Scandinavian Penin- sula, to the east in Skagerrak and adjacent parts of Kattegat to Vingo Island. Around Great Britain and Ireland, south to the Straits of Gibraltar in west- ern portion of the Mediterranean, occasionally at the shores of Italy, Greece and the Cyclad Islands. BIOLOGY. Leads а pelagic mode of life, primarily over great depths (at 1,000 to2,000meters), at 100-200 and more meters from the surface, but also found in the very upper layers of water; the young are found near shore, Spawns in places located near the 1,000 meter isobath. In the At- lantic Ocean these places are distributed in a strip along a thousand meter isobath from the southern shores of Iceland, west from the Faroe Islands, Great Britain and Ireland, along the Bay of Biscay. Spawning also occurs in the Mediterranean, There is no spawning in the North Sea, Skagerrak and opposite the shores of Norway, although the adults are found there. Such a distribution of spawning grounds is defined not only by depths but also by the presence of corresponding temperatures and salinities. Spawning oc- curs at high temperatures — not lower than 8-9° С and a salinity not below 36.2 parts per thousand. These conditions are not satisfied, for example, at depths opposite-the coast of Norway, due to which there is no spawning. Spawning is very prolonged, continuing from the end of winter to the end of spring — beginning of summer and, possibly, to a lesser degree almost throughout the year. The main spawning period in the Atlantic Ocean, ap- parently is February—April. Feeds primarily on pelagic crustaceans (Co- pepoda, Schizopoda). Often found in stomachs of cod at the shores of Ire- land. At the end of the first year of life at the shores of Iceland reaches a length of about 18cm, at the end of the second year, —24-25 ста, at the end of the third year — about 26 and at the end of the fourth — about 29cm. COMMERCIAL VALUE none. Not caught in great quantities. COMPARATIVE NOTES. Some authors accept Merlangus vernalis Risso as a synonym of О. merlangus merlangus,. If we accept the fin ray count of M. vernalis inI A according to Canestrini (36), then it would be wiser to refer itto М. poutassou. Merlangus pertusus * No. 24310 of the collection of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (March 1931, "Persei''), 226 Cocco, D'Ancona (Arch, Zool. Ital., XV, 1930:293) and other authors refers itto М. poutassou., PWN те тоте тв 105 australis Normani(lablevL Vib) Micromesistius australis Norman, Discov. Rept., XVI, 1937:51, f. 22 (off Patagonia and the Falkland Islands). ТО 12-13, ПО 13-14, ШО 25-26, I A 35-36, II A 27-29, gill-rakers 42—43 (on lower limb of the first gill arch 33-34)*. The gill-rakers are much more numerous than in the preceding species. The teeth are some- what weaker. In per cent of body length: anteanal distance 28,2-31.4, ante- dorsal distance 30.6-32.3, length of pectoral fin 14.7-15.7, length of pel- vic fin 6.9-7.7, base of first dorsal fin 6.7-6.8, base of second dorsal 7.9- 8.4, base of third dorsal 15.7-17.9, base of first anal 31.7-34.3, base of second anal 18.0-18.2, height of first dorsal 10,5-10.9, depth of caudal ped- uncle 3.7-3.9, its length 10.0—-11.0, head length 21.0-21.8. In per cent of head length: snout length 33.4-33.6, diameter of eye 27.4—29.1, length of upper jaw 40.0—40.2, length of lower jaw 54.5—55.2, width of forehead 14.6-14.9. Length of known specimens from 7 to 51cm (2 specimens). DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic Ocean off the shores of South America (Pata- gonia) south to 45° south latitude and around the Falkland Islands. The range of distribution, apparently is broader than the indicated limits, BIOLOGY. There are known only 33 specimens caught at depths of 133- 485 meters. COMPARATIVE NOTES. Craniologically the species does not differ. The structure of some bones, such as the operculum, the shape of which is usually quite variable, cannot be considered as material distinctions, Ex- ternally, M. australis differs by its slightly larger eyes, somewhat longer pectoral and pelvic fins, etc., but basically a sharp identifying cha- racteristic appears to be the number of gill-rakers, the difference in quan- tity of which in both species is so great that it gives no room for doubt as to the individuality of the species. * According to Norman, ID 11-13, ПО 10-14, III 22-26, I A 35-38, ПА 21-25, gill-rakers 35-39 (on the lower half of the gill arch). 227 INDEX OF LATIN NAMES NOTE: The Arabic numerals refer to the page numbers of the Russian original, which appear in the left-hand margin of the translation. abyssorwm, Gadus 125 abyssorum, Molva 125 Aeglefinus 155 aeglefinus, Gadus 155, 157 aeglefinus, Melanogrammus 65, 156, 157 aeglefinus, Morhua 157 agilis, Boreogadus 178, 199, 200, 204 agilis, Gadus 204 albidus, Gadus 102, albidus, Phycis 102 albus, Merlangus 215 aldrichu, Phycis 110 Algoa 67 ambiguus, Merluccius 131 americana, Morrhua 165 americanus, Brosmius 75, 77 americanus, Enchelyopus 108 americanus, Phycis, 110, 111, 112 angustimanus, Merluccius 130, 435 Antimora 67, 68, 69 Arctogadus 73, 204 arenosus, Gadus 165 argentata, Motella 87 argenteola, Motella 90 argenteolus, Gadus 82, 83 argenteolus, Gaidropsarus 86 argenteus, Gadiculus 182, 185 argenteus, Gadiculus argenteus 183, 184, 185 argenteus, Gadus 185 argenteus, Merlangus 185 Asthenurus 70 Auchenoceros 70 auratus, Gadus 179 australis, Gadus 136 australis, Merlucciua 129, 130, 131, 186 australis, Micromesistius 213, 214, 216 Austrophycis 67 barbata, Morhua 139 barbatus, Gadus 139, 178 barbatus, Gaidropsarus 81, 85 bibus, Gadus 139 bilinearis, Meriuccius 129, 131, 133, 135 bilinearis, Stemodon 135 biskayensis, Gaidropsarus 81, 85 biskayensis, Onus 85 blennoides, Batrachocephalus 97 blennoides, Batrachoides 97 blennoides, Gadus 102, 184 blennoides, Leptogadus 184 blennoides, Phycis 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 107 borealis, Motelia 90 borealis, Phycis 107 Boreogadus 73, 197 borisovi, Arctogadus 201, 204, 205, 20s. 208 228 Brachygadus 137 Brachymesistius 212 brandti, Gadus 179, 182 brandti, Pollachius 179, 182 brasiliensis, Phycis 112 а, Urophycis 65, 105, 106, 107, Bregmaceros 70 Bregmacerotidae 63, 66, 69 Brosme 71, 78, 224, 225, 227 brosme, Brosme 73, 75, 77 brosme, Brosmius 75 brosme, Enchelyopus 75 brosme, Gadus 73, 75 Brosmiculus 67 brosmina, Lota 120 Brosmius 73 Brosmus 73 byrkelange, Gadus 125, 126 byrkelange, Molva 125 californica, Morrhua 190 californwus, Gadus 190 callarias, Gadus 165, 173, 179 callarias, Gadus morhua 77, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 178 Calloptilum 70 capelanus, Gadus 141, 142 capelanus, Morhua 141 capelanus, Trisopterus minutus 65, 117, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142 capensis, Gaidropsarus 81, 84, 86, 88 capensis, Merluccius 129, 130, 131, 136 capensis, Motella 86 carbonarius, Gadus 152 carbonarius, Merlangus 153 carbonarius, Pollachius 153 carpenteri, Gaidropsarus 81, 85, 88 carpenteri, Onus 88 carpenteri, Onus 88 caudacuta, Motella 94, 95 caudacuta, Rhinonemus 94, 95 chalcogramma, Theragra 209 chalcogramma, Theragra chalcogramma 210, 212 chalcogrammus, Gadus 208, 210 chalcogrammus, Pollachius 210, 212 chesteri, Phycis 100, 101, 103, 104, 107 chesteri, Urophycis 103 chuss, Blennius 108 chuss, Phycis 108 chuss, Urophycis 105, 106, 107, 108 Ciliata 71, 80, 88, 89, 116 cimbrica, Motella 94 cimbrius, Enchelyopus 92, 93, 9% 95 cimbrius, Gadus 94 eimbrius, Gatdropsarus 9 cimbrius, Onos 94 cimbrius, Onos (Rhinonemus) 94 cimbrius, Rhinonemus 94 eirratus, Phycis 113 cirratus, Urophycis 106, 107, 118 colias, Gadus 139 colinus, Gadus 152 communis, Lota 118 communis, Merlangus 215 communis, Motella 82 compressa, Lota 120 compressus, Gadus 120 Couchia 80, 88 dalwigkii, Physiculus 67 dekayt, Phycis 111, 112 dipterygia, Molva 125 ginny ete, Molva dipterygia 116, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127 dipterygius, Gadus 125 earlli, Phycis 113 earlli, Urophycis 106, 107, 118 edwardii, Coucha 94 Eleginus 73, 105, 188, 191 elongata, Lota 126 elongata, Lotta 126 elongata, Molva dipterygia 65, 116, 121, 422, 123, 126, 127 elongatus, Gadus 126 Enc ЕВ 71, 80, 92, 116 ensis, Gatdropsarus 81, 88 Epicopus 127 Erethmophoridae 67 Erethmophorus 68 esculentus, Merluccius 131 esmarkii, Gadus 143 eamarkii, Trisopterus 138, 139. 148, 144 еихтиз, Gadus 144, 148 euxinus, Odontogadus merlangus 65, 145, 446, 147, 149 fabricii, Gadus 198, 200 filamentosus, Phycis 108, 110 filifer, Leptophycis 68 fravescens, Brosmius 75 flavesny, Brosmius 75, 77 floridanus, Phycis 110 floridanus, Urophycis 105, 106, 107, 110 frost, Gadus 188 fucensis, Pollachius chalcogrammus 212 fucensis, Theragra 212 fuceasis, Theragra chalcogramma chalco- gramma п. 210, 212 fuliginosus, Gadus 97 furcatus, Phycis 101, 102, 103, 104 fusca, Motella 82 fusca, Onos 82 fuscus, Blennius 97 fuscus, Gadus 82 fuscus, Gadus tomcodus 188 fuscus, Onos 82 fuscus, Raniceps 97 Gadiculus 73, 182 Gadidae 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70 Gadiformes 62, 63, 68 Gadinae 70, 71, 137 Gadoidei 65, 67 gadoides, Blennius 102 Gadulus 137 Gadus 72, 160, 161 Gaidropsaridae 70 Gaidropsarus 71, 77, 78, 80, 116 gaylt, Epicopus 131 gayi, Meriuccius 129, 130, 131, 133, 135, 137 glauca, Ciliata 90 glauca, Couchia 90 glauca, Motella 90 gmelini, Batrachoides 102, 103 gracilis, Eleginus 65, 191, 193, 194, 196 gracilis, Eleginus паопва 195 gracilis, Eleginus navaga var. 196 gracilis, Gadus 191, 196 gracilis, Pleurogadus 196 gracilis, Tilesia 196 gracillipes, Laemonema 69 guttatus, Gaidropsarus, 81, 83, 85 guttatus, Onos 83 guttatus, Onus 83 Halargyreus 67 Haloporphyvrus 67 heteroglossus, Gadus 165 hiemalis, Gadus callarus 171 hiemalis, Gadus morhua 171 hiemalis, Gadus morhua morhua n. 65, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 171, 177 Homalopomus 127 hubbsi, Merluccius 129, 130, 134, 188 huntia, Molva 120 Hydronus 127 Hypsirhynchus 67 inosimae, Lepidion 67 jago, Raniceps 97, 98 japonicus, Physiculus 67 jubatus, Gadus 82 kamensis, Lota lota 117. 118 karaensis, Eleginus nacaga 193, 1% kildinensis, Gadus callarias 175 kildinensis, Gadus morhua 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 195 kleinenbergi, Erethmophorus 68 Laemonema 67, 68 Laemonemodes 67 lanatus, Merluccius 131 Lepidion 67 lepidion, Lepidion 68 Leptogadus 184 Leptophycis 68 leptura, Lota lota 115, 116, 117, 119, 121 limbatus, Phycis 101 linnei, Aeglefinus 157 linnet, Lota 118 linnet, Merlangus 146 ldinneit, Merluccius 131 linnei, Molva 123 linnei, Pollachius 151 longipes, Gadus 108 Jongipes, Laemonema 67, 68 Lota 70, 72, 97, 1113, 115, 116 lota, Enchelyopus 118 lota, Gadus 118 lota, Lota 113, 184 lota, Lota lota 65, 115, 116, 117, 118 lota, Lotta 118, 120 lota, Molva 118 Lotta 124 Lotella 67, 68 Lotinae 64, 70, 71, 73, 97 lubb, Enchelyopus 73 lubb, Gadus 75 luscea, Aforhua 139 luscus, Gadulus 137, 139 luscus, Gadus 139 luscus, Trisopterus 137, 138, 189, 142, 144 luteus, Gadus tomcodus 188 lycastomus, Gadus 151, 152 macrocephalus, Gadus 179 mucrece phalus, Gadus callarias 179 mucrocephalus, Gadus callarias var. 179 macrocephalus, Gadus morhua 117, 161, 162, #63, 164, 165, 179, 182 macro phthalma, Motella 84, 88 macrophthalmus, Gaidropsarus 81, 84, 85 macrophthalmus, Onos 84 macrophthalmus, Onus 84 macrophthalmus, Phycis 126, 127 Macruridae 63, 68, 71 maculata, Motella 82 maculata, Onos 82 maculosa, Lota 119 maculosa, Lota lota 115, 116, 117, 119, 120 maculosea, Molea 120 maculosus, Gadus 120 maraldi, Gadus 131 maraldi, Merluccius 131 maraldi, Uraleptus 67, 134 marginata, Lotella 68 marginatus, Phycis 108 marginatus, Physiculus 68 maris-albi, Gadus callarias 176 maris-albi, Gadus morhua 65, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 172, 173, 176, 179, 182 mareccanus, Trachinoides 131 maximowiczi, Lotella 67 mediterranea, Mora 67 mediterranea, Motella 82 wediterraneus, Gadus 82 mediterraneus, Gaidropsarus 65, 77, 79 81, 82, 84, 85 mediterraneus, Onos 82 nediterraneus, Onus 82 mediterraneus, Phycis 101 mediterraneus, Urophycis 101 megalokynodon, Gaidropsarus 80, 81 megalokynodon, Motella 81 Melanogrammus 72, 156 Melanonus 67, 68 Melanosoma 68 melanostomus, Gadus 215 Merlangus 127, 144 merlangus, Gadus 146 merlangus, Odontogadus merlangus 145, 146, 149 Merlucciidae 70 Merluccinae 70, 71, 72, 122 Merluccius 62, 72, 127 merluccius, Gadus 131 merluccius, Merluccius 65, 127, 129, 130, 131, 135 Мет из 127 Microgadus 73, 105, 186 Microlepidium 67 microlepis, Antimora 67, 69 Micromesistius 73. 212, 213 minumus, Gadus, 97 minor, Couchia 90 minor, Gadus 210, 212 minuta, Morhua 140 minutus, Brachygadus 140 minutus, Gadulus 140 minutus, Gadus 137, 139, 140 minutus, Trisopterus 137, 138, 141 minutus, Trisopterus minutus 117, 133 139, 140, 141, 142 miztus, Gadus tomcodus 188 Molua 121 Molva 71, 72, 116, 121 molva, Gadus 123, 126, 127 molva, Lota 123, 126 molva, Molva 65, 422, 128, 125, 127 230 molea, Molua 124 Molvella 88 Mora, 67 Morhua 137, 160 morhua, Gadus 160, 165, 179 morhua, Gadus morhua 65, 117, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165 Moridae 62, 63, 66, 67 Morrhua 160 morrhua, Gadus 173 Motella 77 Muraenolepidae 62, 63, 65, 66 Muraenolepidoidei 65, 66 Muraenolepis 66 Mustela 77 mustela, Cillata 88, 98, 92 mustela, Enchelyopus 90 mustela, Gadus 90, 94 mustela, Onos 90 mustella, Gadus 82 mustella, Motella 90 тияеЦа, Опоз 82 mustellaris, Gaidropsarus 82 nanus, Gadus 165 navaga, Eleginus 65, 192, 198, 194, 196 navaga, Gadus 191, 193, 196 niger, Raniceps 97 novae-zealandiae, Gaidropsarus 81, 84 novae-zealandiae, Motella 84 ®bensis, Lota vulgaris var. 118 Odcntogadus 72, 144, 145, 151, 184 ogac Gadus 178 ogac, Gadus morhua 117, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 176, 198, 182 ogat, Gadus 178 Onogadus 77 Onos 77 Onus 127 ovat, Gadus 178 pacifica, Motella 81 pacificus, Gaidropsarus 80, 81. 84, 86 pactficus, Onus 81 pearyi, Arctogadus 206, 207, 208 pearyi, Boreogadus 207 peregrinus, Leptophycis 68 peregrinus, Pssudophycie 68 peregrinus, Physiculus 68 periscopus, Gadus 210 pertusus, Merlangus 215 se 64, 70, 74, 98, 100, 101, 106, 107, #1 Pphycis Gadus 101 phycis, Lotella 67 hycis, Phycis 65, 100, 101, 112 hysiculus 67 Pleurogadus 191 polaris, Boreogadus 200 polaris, Boreogadus saida 200 polaris, Merlangus 200 laris, Pollachius 200 ollachius 72, 149 pollachius, Gadus 151 pollachwus, Merlangus 151 pollachius, Pollachius 149, 150, 151 ‘polymorphus, Gadus 188 potasoa, Gadus 215 poutassou, Boreogadus 215 poutassou, Gadus 212, 215 poutassou, Merlangus 214 ast ret Micromesistius 213, 214, 215, 2 productus, Gadus 134 productus, Merlangus 134 productus, Merluccius 129, 130, 181, 134 prozima, Morrhua 190 proximus, Gadus 186, 190 proximus, Microgadus 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192 pruinosa, Morrhua 188 pruinosus, Gadus 188 pseudomorrhua, Gadus 179 Pteridium 68 punctata, Morhua 165 punctatus, Gadus 107 punctatus, Morhua 157 purpureus, Gadus 153 purpureus, Merlangus 153 pygmaeus, Gadus 179 quinguecirrata, Motella 90 rhacinus, Physiculus 68 Raniceps. 62, 70, 71 ranina, Phycis 97 raninus, Blennius 97 raninus, Gadus 97 raninus, Raniceps 65, 96. 97 raptor, Molva 123 rastrelliger, Physiculus 68 regalis, Enchelyopus 107 regalis, Phycis 107 regius, Blennius 107 regius, Urophycis 65, 104, 105, 106, 107, 113 reinhardti, Gaidropsarus 81, 87 reinhardti, Motella 87 reinhardti, Onos 87 reinhardti, Onus 87 rhacinus, Physiculus 68 Rhinonemus 92 рай, Onus 131 rostratus, Phycis 111 ruber, Gadus 131, 165 rupestris, Gadus 165 saida, Boreogadus 65, 198, 199, 200, 202 saida, Gadus 200, 206 Salilota 67 schmidti, Lepidion 67 scotica, Brosmius 75 septentrionalis, Ciliata 90, 91 septentrionalis, Gaidropsarus 92 sept enrionalis, Motella 92 septentrionalis, Onos 91, 92 sey, Gadus 152 sinuatus, Merluccius 131 smiridus, Merluccius 131 231 Stomodon 127 Strinsia 68 tacaud, Gadus 140, 141 tenuis, Gadus 111 tenuis, Urophycis 104, 105, 106, 107, iii, 412 tenuis, Urophycis (Emphycis) 111 Theragra 73, 208 thori, Gadiculus 185 thori, Gadiculus argenteus 4183, 184, 185 Tilesia 191 tinca, Phycis 102, 108, 112 tinca, Strinsia 68 tomcod, Gadus 188 tomcod, Microgadus 186, 187, 183, 189, 190, 192 tomcodus, Gadus 188 tomcodus, Morrhua 188 torsk, Blennius 75 torsk, Gadus 75 Trachinoides 127 tricirrata, Motella 82, 83 tricirratus, Gadus 82 tricirratus, Onos 82 trifurcatus, Blenniws 97 trifurcatus, Raniceps 97, 98 trifurcus, Gadus 97 Tripterophycis 67 Trisopterus 72, 187 trowbridgti, Homalopomus 134 typus, Pollachius 451 Uraleptus 67 Urophycis 64, 67, 71, 104, 106, 4107, 416 vegae, Gadus, navaga Г. 196 vernalis, Merlangus 215, 216 vertagus, Gadus 165 virens, Gadus 152 eirens, Merlangus 153 virens, Pollachius 149, 150, 151 viridis, Algoa 68 culgaris, Brosmius 75 vulgaris, Gaidropsarus 79, 80, 81, 83, 86, 87 vulgaris, Lota 118 gulgaris, Merlangus 146 culgaris, Merlucctus 131 vulgaris, Molea 123 vulgaris, Motella 80, 82, 86 vulgaris, Onos 86 zernoevi, Gaidropsarus 82 222 EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES The lettering on tables showing skulls and their separate bones (Roman numerals XIX-LXVII) are as follows: A-skull in lateral view C-skull from ventral view B-skull in dorsal view D-skull from posterior view als— alisphenoideum p-—parietale boc —basioccipitale pal—palatinum cl—cleithrum pel—postcleithrum eoc—exoccipitale(occipitale lateral) plv-os pelvis epo—epioticum pro—prooticum eth.l—ethmoidale laterale prop—praeoperculum f—frontale ps—parasphenoideum hy—hyomandibulare pt—posttemporale iop—interoperculum pto—pteroticum meth—mesethmoideum spho—sphenoticum op—operculum soc —supraoccipitale opo—opisthoticum uhy—urohyale v-—vomer The length of vertebral columns (Roman numerals LXVII-LXXII) are indicated in tables XXI-LXVII of the corresponding species. 232 aBiejue ‘yore 18 3814 э43 348 м yO], “UID 8']е YIUaT 'ИУелэриэа фо jseoo ay} ye ®э6 HOeTG ‘(*1) snaueds a pa = =e : . . . : ; ; 5. = re esdoipie5-z ‘рэЗлетиэ ‘yore 118 331] э43 ISU эЧ3 OT, “UID E*EE Ч38чэ] ‘eYIequay ‘вэб ззиэлея *([INW) эм а I ЯЛЯУ т, 233 "рэ8летиэ ‘youe Ит8 33иу эЧ3 348 ы эЧз о1. “wo OZ Yue] ‘puejury jo Aeg ‘vag эптея ‘(*1) зпт1ашто sndodjfayougq—zg ‘рэ8тетиэ ‘yore 18 13} ay WSU эЧ3 ОТ, ‘мо Zz Ч38иэ] ‘eas чыом I] ATAVL (1) етэззци езето-т 234 ‘ито 62 Ч38иэ] ‘ээ1М ‘bag ивэивыэирэи ‘(uunig) зэрточиэта зт>2Ача-2г ‘мо 6е Чч18иэ] °вэсЧумом °(*Т) зпитаетх sdaodiuey-]T Ш УтТЯУТ, 235 ‘WO 9°2ф Ч38иэ1 ‘еАеТэя Isp) Wo JaATY 1Ареиу ‘(zyJNYOS 3э sqqnH) елиз4эт езот езо1-2 “WO 6*65 YIBUAT AI ЗЛЯУТ *IDATY елоЧоэа эЧ: Jo wed зэмоТ] ( 7) 8207 F307 е301-т 236 *‘(pue[s] uafuas) soroys иет8эмлом ay} зе иеээо эпвиету ‘(‘uueg) е1т8Азэзатр ershsaydip eaTOW-zZ “wo TILT W8ueT ‘eas sjuateg ‘(°Т) влом eATOW-J Л FTMaVL 237 *(зэл^У) snyonpoid snroon{iaw-zZ IA ЗУ "ито 92 Ч33чэт шо ф'82 Чз8чэт "Е ТоЕТТ Ni To9%@ ‘иеээо OTTO "АвзтЯ Jo АеЯ ‘иеээо овиецу ‘(*Т) snroonjiaw зптоой1тэи-т 238 orque py ‘UID с'/т yBUaT ‘(рие[$ uafuasg) Авмлом JO 35802 ay] Ie UBIDO ‘(‘SSTIN) TINLe Usa зплэзЧозт: 1-2 ‘wo фе Чз8иэТ ‘Avosig Fo Aeg ‘чеээо эвиезу *(-т) snosn, snirazydostij—-T ПЛ АУ 239 ‘UID g'g] Чз8иэТ ‘иипзея ‘вэ$ чета ‘(*‘ихграом) питхиэ snS8ueyiaw зпреЗозиоро-ё ‘шо ‘2 Ч38иэ] ‘лодтеч еАвузимэзечя ‘вэб ззиэлея ‘(*1) зп8ие1эш зпЗиелэщ 5пре8Зозпоро-т INA ATAVL 240 (J) зитчоеттеч затчое теа-в XI ATEV.L "WD g'TE YWUeT “eas GON "MD с'с/ YIBUEeT ‘вап8егу ‘аецыпу{ ‘вэб squaieg *(°Т) заэлтл зптчоетоа-т 241 "WD Gps YBUe] ‘етИ1 и1э15еэ ueULMy ‘eas ззиэтея ‘T епчлош епчлош snped-Z ‘Wid 6'96 yBUeT ‘ети] ulejsea ‘авимиу| ‘vag ззиэчеа *(*Т) зпитуэ[Зэе 5пш ие Зои эу-т X ау 242 ‘UID €°6S UIBUST ‘“pUue[s] "рим Uo эочи8оу{ ayeT ‘ur8nfieqg з1зизитрттх епчлом snpedH—-z ‘Wd g'og Ч38иэ] ‘чИТел, ‘eas эрея ‘1 зететео enyiow зпреэ-т IX УТ 243 ‘yory эе8о enyiow snpey-z ПХ ATaVL "WD 8 ‘62 YIBUeT ‘puelusei5 jo yseoo "UID O'Op YIBUST ‘BYOIOS ‘vag эмчм U19}SOM JUL ‘ulsnfieaqg тате-=зт1ещш enyIoW зиреэ-т 244 enyiow snpey-z IX ATV L *uld ¢°69 Ч38иэ7Т "ито ZTE ywuaT *heg eomauy ‘uedef jo veg ‘И, snteydaoo1oem "еЧзчетерие ‘vag ay ‘Aal[e@l Stjewary ‘а enyIow enyIow зпреэ-т 245 ‘ULDE */е YIBUST “eyse[y ‘eas Зимэя ‘(preityg) зпштхоза 'зпрезототу-2 "WD ©’ т Чз8иэ1 ‘(рие1з uafuag) Аемлом fo зэлоЧз ay} до иеээо эпиец\у *(зртичоб *[) TIOY} snajuaszie зп1потреэ-т AIX ATAV.L 246 (TIL) ЗИ тэва8 зпат8этз -2 AX ATEVL ‘UID 8'66 Ч38иэ] ‘эВ soysAOIjog eau ‘Aeg urpeyyes ‘авшт] muy “то с*12 YUST “IaATY ела YWON ey} Jo your ‘eas ээлчм ‘(°’Пзеа) eSeAeUu зпит8этя-т 247 "md 0°/е YISUeT "‘pue[Usaiy JO 35805 Ulajsam ayy *(*Читэч) $1118е зпреЗоэлоя-2 ‘WO /*оТ Ч38иэ] “You ay} WoF siazauMIOTIyY < ‘лэлгЯ ечоиатб ‘АеЯ еле ‘eag erey ‘("dey) ертез зпреЗоэзоя-т a TAX ATAVL 248 BWUIPIZOOL[VeYO вл8етэч 1-2 TAX AaTaVL ‘WD 3°67 Ч38чэ1 "WD OTS Ч38чэ1Т “HUEg yYsutAvA ‘YsIoOYYO Jo eas “(‘[[ed) PUUeIZOOTeYO ‘QOUIEUYNS Ieau зэлгЯ ео ay} Jo е{эа ‘urseliq тлозтлоа зпрезозэ1\-т 249 stdaTo1otm BIOWIWUY—-Z WAX ATaVL ‘UID O'EP YIBUST "Те ‘uedef Jo yseoo ‘ивээО ЭЦтое4 ‘ИеэЯ “шло ['SZ WIBueT ‘риетзТ теэя JO YMos vag sjuatEY ‘(ossty) Nosseynod snijstsamos1oIW—]J c 250 T ABLE XIX Uraleptus maraldi (Risso). Lotella phycis (Temm. et Schl.). Mediterranean Sea, Messina. Length of Pacific Ocean, Tokyo. Length of skull skull 35.5 mm. 32mm. 251 T ABLE XX “A eth ps als ro opo fc vy A Physiculus japonicus Hilgend. Laemonema longipes P.Schmidt. Pacific Ocean, Kagoshima Bay. Length Sea of Okhotsk. Length of skull 74.5 of skull 38 mm. mm. 252 T ABLE ХХ! uh He у р Brosme brosme (Mull.). Barents Sea, Teriberka. Length of skull 49.5 mm., length of vertebral column 226 mm. 253 T ABLE XXII prop pi Gaidropsarus mediterraneus (L.). Black Sea, Gelendjik. Length of skull 29 mm, length of vertebral column 142 mm. 254 TABLE XXIII ue \ : ps als pr 9 opo р why Ciliata mustela (L.). North Sea. Length of skull 31 mm, length of vertebral column 200 mm. 255 T ABLE XXIV io \ Prop 7 у) . uhy а pe Enchelyopus cimbrius (L.). Baltic Sea, Gulf of Finland. Length of skull 21.5 mm, length of vertebral column 140 mm. 256 T ABLE XXV Me? eth № als pro opo boc Raniceps raninus (L.). North Sea. Length of skull 40 mm, length of vertebral column 152 mm. 257 T ABLE XXVI Ау Phycis phycis (L.). Atlantic Ocean, Madeira. Length of skull 39.5 mm, length of vertebral column 168 mm. 258 T ABLE XXVII ` Prop Phycis blennoides (Brunn). Mediterranean Sea, Nice. Length of skull 43 mm, length of vertebral column 174 mm. 259 TABLE XXVIII Prop Phycis chesteri Goode et Bean. Atlantic Ocean off the coast of North America (44°01'N, 59°02'30"E.). Length of skull 28 mm, length of vertebral column 124 mm. T ABLE XXIX Urophycis regius (Walb.). Atlantic Ocean, New York. Length of skull 35 mm, length of vertebral column 179 mm. 261 T ABLE XXX ’ И 7 : als = pro 20 lhe Urophycis chuss (Walb.). Atlantic Ocean off the coast of North America, Chesapeake Bay. Length of skull 24 mm, length of vertebral column 116 mm. 262 T ABLE XXXI at ~sprop uhy Urophycis floridanus (Bean et Dresel). Gulf of Mexico off the shores of Florida (Pensacola). Length of skull 17.6 mm, length of vertebral column 74 mm. 263 TABLE XXXII pel : lu ~hy uhy prop Urophycis tenuis (Mitch.). Atlantic Ocean off the coast of North America. Length of skull 53 mm, length of vertebral column 222 тт. 264 TABLE XXXII “prop Urophycis brasiliensis (Каир). Atlantic Ocean off the coast of South America, Length of skull 41 mm, length of vertebral column 185 mm. 265 TABLE XXXIV ‘uby pe Lota lota lota (L.). Shchelitoe Lake between the Pechora and Indiga Rivers. Length of skull 68.5 mm, length of vertebral column 372 mm. 266 TABLE XXXV Lota lota maculosa (LeSueur), North America. New York. Length of skull 98 mm, length of vertebral column 461 mm. 267 TABLE XXXVI als _ pro a \ Koo Molva molva (L.) Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Iceland. Length of skull 87 mm, length of vertebral column 403 mm. х ‘op WG at Molva dipterygia dipterygia (Pem.), Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Norway (Senjen Island), Length of skull 78 mm, length of vertebral column 167 mm. ‘uhy 269 ta YL why cn pi Molva dipterygia elongata (Otto), Atlantic Ocean near the coast of Spain, Vigo. Length of skull 78 mm, length of vertebral column 342 mm. 270 TABLE XXXIX ; *sop uhy Merluccius merluccius (L.). Mediterranean Sea, Length of skull 36.5 mm, length of vertebral column 123 mm, 271 TABLE XL pt Merluccius productus (Ayres), Pacific Ocean near the coast of California (Station 3103, Albatross). Length of skull 49.8 mm, length of vertebral column 172 mm, 272 Spho soc TABLE XLI ean \ 3 / 4 \ 7 ry : 4 / и ethl PS gis pro 40 boe 0 у “op Merluccius bilinearis (Mitch.), Atlantic Ocean near the coast of North America (Woods Hole, Massachusetts), Length of skull 45 mm, length of vertebral column 166 mm. 273 TABLE XLII uhy ь < pe?" „ Trisopterus luscus (L.), Atlantic Ocean, Bay of Biscay. Length of skull 33 mm, lengthofvertebral column 127 mm, 274 TABLE XLII SoC им Wd pt.’ Trisopterus minutus minutus (Mull.). North Sea. Length of skull 34.5 mm, length of vertebral column 135 mm, 275 TABLE XLIV om LY \ Uuhy at Trisopterus minutus capelanus (Risso), Mediterranean Sea, Palermo. Length of skull 30 mm, length of vertebral column 107 mm. 276 TABLE XLV x 4 uby С pt Trisopterus esmarkii (Nilss.), North Sea, 11 miles from Aberdeen. Length of skull 29.5 mm, length of vertebral column 111 mm, 277 TABLE XLVI ype / / pe Odontogadus merlangus merlangus (L.). Atlantic Ocean, Iceland. Length of skull 31.5 mm, length of vertebral column 111 mm. 278 TABLE XLVII -еро ---29 _ --@06 pt’ Odontogadus merlangus euxinus (Nordm.). Black Sea. Length of skull 34 mm, length of vertebral column 124 mm. 279 TABLE XLVIII vt Pollachius pollachius (L.), North Sea, Length of skull 57 mm, length of vertebral column 185 mm, 280 TABLE XLIX | ; op ) uby pee Pollachius virens (L.), Barents Sea off the Murman coast. Length of skull 80.5 mm, length of vertebral column 304 mm. TABLE L Y i “uh Melanogrammus aeglefinus (L.). Barents Sea, Murman coast, off Dal'nezele- netskaya Bay. Length of skull 113 mm, length of vertebral column 411 mm, 282 TABLE LI ks ot “uby Gadus morhua morhua Г.. Barents Sea, Murman coast, off Dal'nezelenetskaya Bay. Length of skull 134 mm, length of vertebral column 433 mm. TABLE ТИ aby ae Gadus morhua kildinensis Derjug. Mogilnoe Lake on Kildin Island, Length of skull 118 mm, length of vertebral column 387 mm. 284 TABLE Г Gadus morhua maris-albi Derjug. White Sea, Kandalaksha Gulf. Length of skull 68 mm, length of vertebral column 214 mm. 285 TABLE LIV pt. Gadus morhua ogac Rich. Greenland, Disco Bay. Length of skull 51.5 mm, length of vertebral column 171 mm, 286 TABLE LV uhy © ‘op Gadus morhua macrocephalus Til. Sea of Japan, Sovetskaya Gavan', Length of skull 109mm, length of vertebral column 354mm. 287 TABLE LVI a x ‘G why ы Gadiculus argenteus argenteus Guich. Mediterranean Sea, Naples. Length of skull 25 mm, length of vertebral column 56 тт. 288 T ABLE LVII pto AW, ду Gadiculus argenteus thori J. Schm. Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Norway (Senjen Island). Length of skull 25 mm, length of vertebral column 56 mm. 289 TABLE LVIII Microgadus tomcod (Walb.). Atlantic Ocean off the coast of North America, New York. Length of skull 47 mm, length of vertebral column 218 mm. 290 TABLE LIX uhy и р” Microgadus proximus (Gird.). Pacific Ocean off the coast of North America, Sitea. Length of skull 50 mm, length of vertebral column 189 mm. 291 TABLE LX a uby pt’ Eleginus navaga (Pall.). Kara Bay, mouth of the Sibircha River. Length of skull 42.5 mm, length of vertebral column 173 mm. 292 TABLE LxI ‘ и etht аб pro bot pel ‘uhy LAN Eleginus gracilis (Til.). Sea of Japan, Bay of Peter the Great. Length of skull 51.5 mm, length of vertebral column 200 mm. 293 TABLE LXII hy pt’ Boreogadus saida (Lep.).Cheshskaya Bay, mouth of the Indiga River. Length of skull 35.5 mm, length of vertebral column 150 mm. 294 TABLE LXIII и etal ps als pro opo uby \ “р Boreogadus agilis (Reinh.). Greenland. Length of skull 34 mm, length of pte vertebral column 126 mm. 295 T ABLE LXIV als pro obo = ae pal Arctogadus borisovi Drjagin. Delta of the Kolyma River, Sukharnoe village. Length of skull 73.5 mm, length of vertebral column 300 mm. 296 T ABLE LXV ruby Theragra chalcogramma chalcogramma (Pall.). Sea of Japan. Length of skull 84 mm, length of vertebral column 315 mm. 297 T ABLE LXVI “ ‘Dt Micromesistius poutassou (Risso). Barents Sea south of Bear Island. Length of skull 48 mm, length of vertebral column 177 mm. 298 TABLE LXVII Nop Micromesistius australis Norman. Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Falkland Islands (52°31'15"S., 63°25'W.). Length of skull 68.2 mm, length of vertebral column 298 mm. 299 TABLE LXVIII И о х С CE < ОО SSS СО | О аа ORE 7 (LEER RR ее 2 а EE < OSGI SHES ss 1-Brosme brosme, 2-Gaidrops us rius, phy. cis, 7=Phy cis blenn od T ABLE LXIX ll ese 3 Зе НЕЕ 5 : IEE RMR KEES SBE Ce TABLE LXX Me НЕНСИ ‚ Феи А М а Lo | (EEL CRC UES ‚ Mk, ERS ‚ KG КК у1геп $. TABLE LXXI L СЧ начаее Le 303 TABLE LXXII ce le = KKK EGGS аа а а baba ва аа аи ~ «5 1-Eleginus gracilis, 2-Boreogadus saida, 3-Boreogadus agilis, 4-Arctogadus borisovi, 5-Theragra chalcogramma chalcogramma, 6-Micromesistius poutassou. 304 \ von We Pk ae RON Ey (Ua sty Pt A У ary het Um рый bouts | | Fi j К A a Le Е ne | й i | Ail ant Hap | у М ом | а И oa м оч i A Pe ly м И м ИН, Ny ede 7 АХ Hh ie у ВИО А Дни dh и fi shy MS SESE eI НОВ PRINTEDINU.S.Ao GAYLORD ee rms ete ee ae Fi Aiea ng yao eases а Saeed eT manne ante Boas SiR pas acre ae AY tr IEE A ревет I ELAS Pept AR I NEI oe aa abet Nasty eet ater eta Feige ate ре GLYN if LEAL NS a paket ai nero отл, зы Nc nase Ch T= IRI печ Я TS Ty Arion O Wa? m= epee Ns lA О Ag Ey aha MO pete A I 8 yd ao Sys ea мии AE AT re ря щек три mb ae ieee eared a> taint Scena ee Aenea ep a em aN ke NA Site ed aed рее аким Teper aPD heat abe ль рута квру ete ete ete Sere у-ва, п Kamien TREY IM Ae DEAE Ae pS pat Upon ses Ld PA eee ere Ee cere ера coat И, Pan ar Mee а = ое ом арен ие жд пыле у № Bod a or кор ое aerate» a + Spence ral «Че eat oes Site AN RA ANS ode орион 0 арду ур maa Ae ON ORES rN ha 0 ВАНО де и Bye ВУ дрен seer НЫ Ня белье фра oa) я ищи рая обе: пери м ak ный Someta Fae Reg are Pe! Mp aE bet DNA hm LY AS EM am ео arr nen «ар AN Be