/ ^

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'Um.. c/k /<r/-^'

GARDEIII& rOR THE SOUTH,

OR HOW TO GROW

VEGETABLES AND FEUTTS.

BY THE LATE

WILLIAM N. WHITE,

OF ATHENS, G"A,

WITH ADDITIONS BT MR. J. VAN BUKEN, AND DR. JAS. CAMAK.

REVISED AND KEWIiY STEREOTYPED.

ILLUSTRATED.

NEW YORK:
ORANGE JUDD AND COJMPANY,

245 BROADWAY.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the; year 1868, by

OKANGE JUDD & CO.,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the
Southern District of New- York.

LovEJOY, Son & Co.,

Electrotyteiis & Stekeottpees,

15 Vandewater Street, N. Y.

CONTEISTTS.

Publishers' Preface 6

Preface to the Revised Edition 7

From the Preface to tlie First Edition 8

CHAPTER I.
Formation arid Management of Gardens in General 11

CHAPTER II.
Soils— Their Characteristics 20

CHAPTER m.
The Improvement of the Soil 25

CHAPTER TV.
Manures 30

CHAPTER V.
Manures— Their Sources and Preparation 42

CHAPTER M:.
Rotation of Crops . . 60

CHAPTER YH.
Hot-beds, Cold Frames, and Pits 67

CHAPTER ^^II.
Garden Implements 73

CHAPTER ES.
Propagation of Plants 87

CHAPTER X.
Budding and Grafting 112

CHAPTER XL
Pruning and Training 122

CHAPTER XH.
Transplanting 134

CHAPTER Xm.
Mulching, Shading, and Watering 140

CHAPTER XIV.
Protection from Frost 152

CHiVPTER XV.
Insects and Vermin 156

CHAPTER X\^.
Vegetables— Description and Culture 161

CHAPTER X^TI.
Fruits— Varieties and Culture 334

3

PUBLISHERS' PREFACE.

Gaedentng foe the South had long been out of print,
and in 1865 its distinguished author made an arrangement
with the publishers to produce a new and enlarged edition.
A number of the engravings were made at once, with a
view to the immediate jjublication of the work. Its au-
thor wished to make it especially full, as regarded South-
ern fruits, and delayed completing his manuscript until
the American Pomological Society should have met in
186G, in order that he might, compare notes with his po-
mological friends. This meeting was postponed until 1867,
and before this took place the author was removed by
death. The incomplete manuscript of the work was
placed in the hands of Mr. J. Van Buren, of Clarksville,
Ga., an eminent pomologist and friend of the aiithor, who,
as a labor of love, compiled and mainly wrote out that
portion relating to fruit culture. The publishers would,
on behalf of Southern fruit-growers, express their thanks
to Mr. Van Buren for the kind office he has pei'formed,
as well as to Dr. Jas. Camak, who revised the other por-
tions of the work. The manuscript of Mr. White contained
tables of chemical analyses of most of the plants described,
but as they were not from the most recent authorities, and
would increase the size of the work more than they Avould
add to its value, they have been omitted. The original
plan of Mr. White included a treatise on ornamental
gardening for the South, but this could not be properly
included in the jDresent volume. It is believed that the
work will be more valued by his many friends, as well as
by pomologists generally, for the portrait which is given
of its lamented author.

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION.

The revised edition of Gardening for the South was
mainly prepai-ed by our lamented friend, W. N. White,
the author of the first edition, whose siidden death left
the work in an incomplete state. At his special request,
made while on his death-bed, we have undertaken to finish
the work begun by him, to the best of our ability, and
while we do so, we ask the indulgence of the reader to
pass over and forgive any imperfections he may detect,
for we feel conscious of our inability to present to the pub-
lic as perfect and interesting a work as would have been
done had the author been permitted to have finished it.

The necessity for a new and revised edition must be
apparent to every reader, as the former edition was pub-
lished in 1856 ; since which time the discoveries, improve-
ments, and progress in Agriculture and Horticulture have
been very great.

Ten years' additional experience in Agriculture and Hor-
ticulture, by the talented author of the first edition, is our
warrant for recommending the present work to the fiivor
of the public, as few men were more ardently devoted to
the culture of the soil than he was.

Should opinions and facts be found stated in the present
work at variance with those in the former edition, it will
be attributed to the experience alluded to above, for with
him it was always a pleasure to acknowledge an error
when it was found to be such. Many and valuable ad-
ditions have been made to all the departments, and more
particularly to the lists of varieties, both of vegetables
and fruits, together with the imjDroved methods of culti-
vation, as the object of the author was to present to the
public a practical work adapted to the soil and climate of
the Southern States.

J. Vak Btieex,
De. Jas. Camak.
7

FROM THE PREFACE TO TOE FIRST EDITION.

I have thought that, upon a subject so accordant with
my tastes as is horticulture, I might j^repare a work
adapted to our climate and useful to the public. The re-
peated inquiries made of me, as a bookseller, for a practi-
cal treatise on the subject, and these inquiries growing
more frequent with the manifest growth of the gardening
spirit among us, led to the undertaking. Yet written as
it has been, in the intervals of trade and subjected to its
constant interruptions — now advancing but a line at once,
again a page, or an article — suspended totally for nearly
two years, then hastily finished, looked over, and printed
under circumstances that rendered the author's revision
of the proof impossible — ^many defects of style, and errors
of the press, are manifest. These, if the woi'k contain the
information sought, practical men will readily excuse in a
first edition.

To claim much originality in a modern work on garden-
ing, would display in its author great ignorance or great
presumption. If it did not contain much that is found in
other horticultural works, it would be very defective.
Gardening is as old as Adam, and what we know to-day
of its principles and operations have been accumulated,
little by little — the result of thousands of experiments and
centuries of observation and practice. Hence, from tlie
gardening literature of our language, have been selected,
for this work, those modes of culture which considei'able
experience and observation has proved adapted to our
climate. The species and varieties of plants foimd here
8

FROM THE rUEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION", IX

most desirable for use or ornament, have been selected and
described. This mass of material has been modified and
increased by jiretty copious garden-notes of my own.
Still, it has been my object, to make a useful and reliable,
rather than an original work. Where an author's language
suited my purpose, it was at once incorporated into the
text. If the expression is sometimes changed, it is gene-
rally to make it more concise. * * * *

The necessity of a Southern work on gardening is felt
by every horticulturist in our midst. Our seasons differ
from those of the Northern States in heat and dryness, as
much as the latter do from those of England. Treatises
perfectly adapted to their climate we ai'e obliged to fol-
low very cautiously. English works require the exercise
of a still greater degree of judgment in the reader, the
climate of England being still more cool and humid.
Again, our mild winters admit of garden work .nearly ev-
ery day of the year. All the heavy operations of trench-
ing, manuring, laying out, pruning, and planting trees,
shrubs, and hardy ornamental plants, are at that season
most conveniently performed. In this pai'ticular aspect,
our climate is much like that of the south of England.
Hence, while the calendars of operations, in works pre-
pared for the Northern States, seldom agree with our
l^ractice, those in English Avorks are often foufid to coin-
cide with it. But even where the time of performing cer-
tain operations is the same in both countries, the long,
dry summers, and still milder winters of this climate, often
render necessary a peculiar mode of performing the same.

We need then works upon gardening specially adapted
to our latitude and wants. But with the exception of the
valuable matter scattered through our agricultural and
horticultural periodicals, Homes' " Southern Farmer and
Market Gardener," written some years since, and briefly
treating of the kitchen garden department merely, is the
only work containing anything reliable ou the subject.
1*

X GAKDENIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

The chief original features then, of this work, are, that
it endeavors to give more or less information upon the
whole subject of gardening ; and information, too, that is
practically adapted to our climate, habits, and require-
ments. In the fruit garden department, especially, a good
deal of new matter is to be found. Throughout the en-
tire work, processes are frequently described, and meth-
ods of culture given, which are suited only to climates
and seasons like our own. Those varieties of plants and
trees are pointed out which experience has proved are best
adapted to our orchards and gardens. * * * 4s

Unusual prominence is also given to the general subject
of manures, as they are the foundation, not only of suc-
cessful gardening, but of profitable husbandry. Besides
the various works consulted, the experience of hoilicul-
tural friends has been freely communicated. Valuable
hints have been derived from Rev. Mr. Johnson and Mr.
Thurmond, of Atlanta, Prof J. P. Waddel, Dr. M. A.
Ward, and Dr. James Camak, of Athens, Right Rev.
Bishop Elliott, of Savannah, Dr. J. C. Jenkyns and Mr.
Affleck, of Miss. ; and especially from J. Van Buren, of
Clarksville, Ga., whose successful efforts to make known
and diffuse native Southern varieties of the apple, rendered
him a public benefactor. It is hoped we shall yet see a
work on fruit trees from his pen.

If this treatise, with all its imperfections, shall in any
degree inci-ease the love of gardening among us ; if it
shall cause orchards to flourish, shade trees to embower,
and flowers to spring up around any Southern home, the
author's purpose is accomplished.

GARDENII& FOR THE SOUTH.

CHAPTER I.

FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS IN GENERAL.

SituatiODi — The situation of the flower-garden and lawn
should be immediately adjacent to the dwelling, in order
to yield the highest degree of pleasure. The most satis-
factory arrangement is to form the lawn directly in front,
and the flower-garden on the side, sufficiently near to he
overlooked by the drawing-room windows, while the sides
of the dwelling, in part, and its entire rear, including the
kitchen and servants' yard, are sheltered and concealed
by trees. A dwelling thus embayed in well-grown trees
is always regarded with pleasure. As neither the fruit or
kitchen garden, especially the latter, can be considered
ornamental, they should not, though near the dwelling,
be placed obtrusively in view. Near they should be, for
if either is distant, time is lost in watching its progress ;
it is in danger of being neglected ; and even if this is not
the case, its choicest products may gratify the palate of
any one besides its owner. A good arrangement is to
place them in immediate connection with the pleasure-
ground, proceeding from the shrubbery to the fruit de-
partment, and thence to the kitchen garden. The latter
should also have an indei^endent approach. It should be
11

12 GAI^DENING FOR THE SOUTH.

near the stables, in order tiiat it may he copiously replen-
i.shed with manure without too much labor.

Much, however, depends upon tlie soil. The best at
command, in the vicinity of the dAvelling, should be
chosen. Proximity to water is also highly important,
especially if it can be readily employed for irrigation.
Low situations are more liable to late and early frosts, but
their abundant moisture renders them desirable for sum-
mer crops. A diversity of soils and exposures in the same
inclosnre is desirable.

Care should be taken that the productiveness of the
kitchen garden be not diminished by the proximity of
large trees, which are injurious by their drip to all plants
beneath them, and by their shade and extended roots to
those more remote. The small, fibrous roots of trees ex-
tend far beyond their branches, and one is not safe from
these devourers much short of the length of the stem
which they nourish. If trees exist too valuable to be re-
moved, dig a deep trench near them, and cut off all roots
that extend into it. This will jDrobably relieve the ad-
jacent crops from their injurious effects.

Aspect and Inclination. — A light exposure to the south
is generally to be recommended. Gardeners take pride in
having early crops, and this compensates in some measure
for their shorter duration in such an exposure. A north-
eastern aspect is to be avoided, as our worst storms are
from that direction. A north-western exposure, though
cold and late, is less liable to injury from late and early
frosts, as vegetation in such situations is sheltered some-
what from the rising sun, and does not suffer so much if
it becomes slightly frozen. It is not the frost that injures
l)lants so much as the direct heat of the sun falling uj)on
the frozen leaves and blossoms. Hence an easterly as^^cct
is generally objectionable for tender plants.

Cabbage, cauliflower, strawberries, spinach, lettuce, and
other salads, are much more easily brought to perfection

rOKMATIOX AXD SIAXAGEMEXT OF GAKDENS. 13

in a northern aspect. Many of these run np to seed im-
mediately if exposed to the full sun. Of fruit trees the
apple succeeds well on a northern slope. The soil, too, is
usually richer, and Avill retain its fertility longer, other
tldngs being equal, in such an exposure. It is a great ad-
vantage, if the garden slope at all, to have it slope in
more than one direction, thus giving a choice of exposure,
and generally also of soil, as it is thereby adapted to both
late and early crops. But when the drainage is good, a
level is to be preferred, as by the aid of the fences any
desired exposure can be obtained for j^articular plants.
Indeed, in southern climates nothing after quality is more
to be regarded than the inclination of the soil.

Whatever be the situation or aspect, a garden must be
as level as possible. Any considerable inclination in a
southern latitude subjects the richest portion of the soil
to the danger of being washed away by its violent storms.
In the rich, mellow soil of a garden cultivated as it should
be, if there be much perceptible slope, a single storm will
often cause a loss of manure and labor that will require
considerable expense to repair. If the ground is not level
at first, it is necessary to resort to hillside ditching or to
throw it at once into terraces of convenient breadth. To
do this the eye cannot be trusted ; a leveling instrument
is required. The steeps of these can be clothed with
blue grass, or strawberry plants, to prevent them from
washing.

Each terrace must be so raised just at its edge, that it
will retain all the Avater which falls upon it, permitting
none to flow over even in the heaviest storms. Any ex-
cess of water shoidd be carried off by proper underdrains,
if needed, and not suffered to run off the surface. Sur-
face ditches are a poor substitute. Terracing is not very
expensive. The horizontal line is first determined with a
level and staked off. A feAV turns of the plow are made
on the hillside just below the stakes, and the earth thrown

14 GARDENING FOU THE SOUTH.

up with a shovel to the staked line. If more earth, is re-
quired, the plowing and shovelling must be repeated until
a sufficient bank is formed to retain the water. During
the first year, occasional breaks in the bank may happen
from violent storms, but if well repaired, after the banks
become settled, they will rarely be broken over by the ac-
cumulation of water, particularly if proper underdrains
or surface ditches are provided.

Size. — A garden shovild be proportioned to the size of
the family, and their partiality for its different jDroducts.
A small garden with a suitable rotation of crops, and well
manured and cultivated, will yield more pleasure and profit
than an ordinary one of three times its size. An active,
industrious hand can take care of an acre, provided with
necessary hot-beds, cold frames, etc., keeping it in perfect
neatness and condition ; or if the j^low and cultivator be
brought into requisition, as they should be in large gax-
dens, four times that amount can be under his care, pro-
vided there is not much under glass. In market gardens
Henderson allows seven men to ten acres.

If but little room can be allowed near the house, cab-
bages, carrots, turnips, potatoes, and the common crops,
can be grown in the field, if icell enriched, and be culti-
vated mainly with the plow. The fruit garden should be
in a separate compartment, as the shade of the trees is
very injurious, and the exhaustion of the soil by their
roots still more so. Dwarf pears ujion the quince stock
are the least hurtful, and may be admitted into the vege-
table department along the walks.

ForiUt — The form will often dei:)end upon the situation
of the garden or the inclination of the ground. When a
matter of choice, a square or parallelogram is most con-
venient for laying out the walks and beds. A parallelo-
gram extending from east to west gives a long south Avail
for shading plants in summer, and a long sheltered border

FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GAKDENS.

15

for forwarding early crops. An oblong shape has the
further advantage of giving longer rows for the plow or
cultivator.

Laying out. — A convenient plan is given in figure 1,
showing the hedge enclosing the whole; and the adjacent
border, b 5, which should be about twelve feet Avide. The
remainder of the space is taken up with walks and the
plots, a a a a. The walk next the boundaries should not
be less than four and a half feet in width. The long cen-
tral walk should be at least five or six feet wide, and in
large gardens still wider, so as readily to admit a cart.
In this case the main walk '^^^^^^^^'^^f^r^^WMiy
should proceed as in the figure,
from the entrance until near
the farther border, where a
larger portion than in the

plan should be taken off the

adjacent plots, to lorm a cir- ^m^mims^-'--'-
cular tiirning place, around an ^^=- ^■'

arbor or tool-house. If the ground is to be cultivated,
with the plow, the central cross-walk should be omitted,
making two instead of four oblong plots. In this case
the borders should be made of sufficient Avidth to give
room enough for all those vegetables that will not admit
cultivation with this implement.

The other vegetables may be successfully cultivated in
these two plots in long rows. Where only the spade and
hoc are used, these plots may be further subdivided into
smaller ones by walks three to four and a half feet wide,
extending from the borders to the main Avalk ; and a por-
tion of these should be laid out each year by very narrow
alleys into beds four feet wide, for onions, beets, carrots,
etc. The earth should be dug out of the main walks, four
inches deep, and spread evenly on each side over the ad-
jacent ground. The walks may be filled with gravel, so
as to be dry and comfortable, or fresh tan, if accessible,

-GARDEN PLAN.

16 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

will answei" very well, and Avill keep out the weeds for
two years, when it should be used as a dressing for the
strawberry beds, and its place filled with a fresh supply.
No more walks or alleys should be made than are required
for convenience in gardening operations. *

Box is the best edging wherever it succeeds, which it
does admirably throughout most of the South. All main
walks should be wide enough for two persons to walk
abreast, for which not less than four and a half feet are
required.

Fencing" t — ^The objects of fencing are to procure shelter
for delicate plants from cold winds, also shade for those
that require it, and, above all, to keep out of the garden
intruders of all kinds, that the owner may enjoy its fruits
witliout molestation. A high, close board fence, or a stone
or brick wall, answers a tolerable purpose; but the only
thing to be relied on is a living hedge. The Osage Orange,
the Pyracantli, the Cherokee and single White Macartney
roses, tlirive in the South, and are all good for this purpose.
Osage Orange plants may be raised from seed, or bought
at the nurseries for five or six dollars per thousand. The
Pyracanth, or Evergreen Thorn, {Cratmgus pyracantJia)^
will make a hedge as effectual as the Osage Orange, and,
as it is an evergreen, is much the more desirable. The
blossoms in spring are very showy, and it is covered in
winter with bright scarlet berries, and hence it is often
called the Burning-bush. It grows freely from cuttings
in sandy soil, but these cuttings should remain in the nur-
sery-bed a year, to become well rooted before use. Mr.
Nelson gives the following directions for planting and
trimming a hedge, which apply equally well to Osage
Orange and Pyracanth :

" Planting. — First dig a trench where the hedge is in-
tended to be grown, two spades deep, throwing the sur-
face to one, and the subsoil to the other side ; then throw

roKMA.Tiox AND ihanageme>;t of gakdens. 17

the surface soil down on the bottom of the trench, and if
it is very poor, add a little manure, or good surface earth.
Autumn is by far the best time for transjilanting, and it
can safely be done as soon as the leaves are dropped. Cut
down the j^lants to within four inches above the roots be-
fore planting. Several authors recommend planting in
double rows, but I decidedly prefer a single one. Assort
the plants in two parcels, those of large and those of
small size, and lay the smaller ones aside for the richest
ground. Stretch the line firmly, and place the plants in
as straight a line as possible, one foot apart ; fill up the
trench with earth, leaving about two inches above ground ;
press the earth not too firmly, but water plentifully, and
after that, level the whole nicely."

"Trimming. — It is perfectly useless to plant a hedge
and leave it to be killed by weeds, or grow without trim-
ming. A young hedge will require the same amount of
labor as a row of Indian ,^"^4,^%

corn. The plants having '

been cut down so much, will,
of course, start vigorously
the ensuing sj^ring. A good ^>.
hedge ought never to be -
trimmed in any other than in "^^ '

. , , . ^ ^_ Fig. 3.— SECTION OF HEDGE.

a conical shape, as in figure 2.

When trimmed in a conical shape, every shoot lolll enjoy
the full benefit of air, light, and moistifre, and by this
simple and natural method, a hedge can be shorn into a
strong wall of verdure, so green and close from bottom to
top, that even a sparrovo cannot, xoithout difficulty , pass
through it. In order to make a hedge so thick and im-
pervious as above mentioned, it is necessary to go to
work even in the first summer, Avith a pair of hedge
shears, pruning the young growth, when about three
months old, at the same time laying down some of the
most vigorous shoots to fill up any vacant places found

18 GAKDETifING FOR TUE SOUTH.

near the grouncT ; these shoots may be fastened to the
ground with hooked pegs. They may be considered as
layers, will soon send up a number of sprouts, making the
hedge impenetrable for pigs, and nearly for rabbits. The
young twigs may be trimmed in a wedge shape, not more
than one foot high, and at the base, six inches broad. The
next season the hedge may be allowed to grow one foot
higher, and three or four inches wider at the base. This
pruning is most readily given with a reaping hook, (a
sharp sickle without teeth), making the cut with an up-
ward stroke. Thus the management must be continued
until the hedge has attained the intended height, allowing
an addition of four inches broader at the bottom for ev-
ery foot more in height. A hedge, regularly trimmed
twice a year, in June and November, with the exception
of the first years, when it requires a little more care than
afterward, will continue imjienetrable for fifty or even one
hundred years."

The Cherokee rose, {Hosa Imvigata)^ by planting the
cuttings by the side of a plank or wire fence, two feet
apart, will grow Tip and cover it in a short time, and ef-
fectually repel man and beast ; but it grows so rampant
that it requires constant shortening-in. It is also apt to
die out at the bottom, and become unsightly, and is in all
respects much inferior to the single white Macartney,
{Rosa hfacteata), an evergreen, and very easily gi'own from
cuttings. It is very thorny, and of beautiful foliage. It
never dies out at the bottom, whether pruned or not, and
south of Virginia, is very hardy, and of luxuriant growth,
A satisfactory fence can be made with this, by setting
good chestnut or cedar posts, eight feet apart, planted
about two and a half feet in the ground. Bank up the soil
to form some twenty inches high along the line of the fence,
then fonn the usual paling fence, or nail a good Avide bottom
board, and finish the fence v/ith heart pine six inch planks, or
with stout wire, strained through holes in the posts. The

FOBMATIOX AJfD MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS. 19

wire fence may be four feet liigh. The roses should be
rooted cuttings, and may be planted at first, even eight feet
apart, and by layering and training the bottom shoots, if
the ground is kept in good order, in three years they wUl
repel every intruder. It is better, wjiere plants are abun-
dant, to set them oixt four feet apart. This hedge requires
less pruning than any other to keep it impenetrable. Af-
ter the posts and slats have decayed, the bank it-
self, grown over with roses, will repel all intrusion. The
roses should be set at about the original level of the
ground, and not at the top of the bank. My own hedge
of Macartney rose, when three years old, trained on a
common fence of rails and paling, formed a barrier per-
fectly secure, and very ornamental. I see but one objec-
tion to it. It is in summer always in blossom, and there-
fore attracts all the bees in the neighborhood. In my
fruit-garden I have thought that the injury done to peaches
and grapes by wasps and bees has been much greater since
the hedge has grown up than before. It is a fine bee
plant. In a more northern climate the sweetbrier might
answer as a tolerable substitute.

The American Holly makes an efficient and beautiful
hedge, but is slow of growth and very hard to transplant.
It can, however, be safely planted by selecting a mild,
cloudy day the last of February, or early in March, cut-
ting off the top as directed above by Mr. Nelson for the
Osage Orange, and exposing the roots meanwhile to the
air as little as possible. Thousands of yards can be
thus planted Avith little loss.

For an ornamental hedge about a cemetery lot or else-
where, the Irish Yew and the Tree Box are decidedly the
best plants that can be used. The narrow-leaved variety
of Tree Box grows naturally, just the right shape, and
needs very little trimming after two or tlu'ce years. The
Tew likes shade.

The Japan Quince planted by the side of a common

20 GAKDEXING FOE THE SOUTH.

picket or plank fence will, in a few years, make a good
enclosiire for a fruit or vegetable garden, and in flower is
very ornamental.

After hedges are established, a trench should be cut on
the garden side, two and a half or three feet from their
base, sufficiently dee]) to keep their roots fi'om extending
into the beds and injuring the crops.

CHAPTER II.

SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.

Soils. — In all climates the character of the soil is of
as much importance as situation or aspect. Soils are of
two classes. They may be composed of matter derived
directly from the decay of rock, like clay, loam, sand,
lime, and other earthy and alkaline matters. Such a soil
is classed as inorganic. Soils may likewise originate from
the action and decay of plants and animals (organized be-
ings,) as for example, peat, mould, and shell-marl. Such
a soil is classed as organic. A good soil is the result of
the proper union of both these classes.

The mechanical texture of a soil is likewise especially
to be regarded, as on this depends the proj)er retention of
manure and moisture. There are two grand divisions of
soils, the heavy and light, which pass into each other by
imperceptible gradations.

The best classification of soils is that of Schtibler, a Gev.
man, and is founded entirely upon the relative proportions
of the chief constituents of all soils, viz., clay, sand, lime,
and humus. He classes them as follows :

Argillaceous Soils. — Tliese contain over fifty per cent
of clay, and are readily known by their tenacity and

SOILS — ^THEIR CHAEACTBRISTICS. 21

greasiness to the feel, caused by the predominaBce of the
clay in them. They are difficult to work, and in dry
weather bake like brick and are not permeable to light
dews and rains. In drying, they crack, exposing, in sum-
mer, the large roots of plants to the air and sun, and
breaking the smaller ones. After heavy rains they become
so saturated that they are for a long time unfit to work,
and the plants therein die from excess of moisture. In
short, they are very cold when they are wet, and very
hard when they are dry. The crops are full ten days later
in coming to maturity, than in a good, sandy loam. Or-
dinary clays contain about twenty-five per cent of sand.
If less than fifteen j)er cent, they are only fit for brick-
making and jiottery.

Clays are rich in alkalies, and have the property of re-
taining potash, phosphoric and silicic acids, and all salts
necessary to the growth of plants; also of condensing am-
monia and other gaseous matters. Hence they retain the
virtues of manure better than most other soils. AVhere
there is present lime and organic matters in sufficient
quantity, clays, not too stiff", are excellent for wheat.

A Sandy Soil is in texture the opposite of the preced-
ing and the lightest of all soils. It contains not over ten
per cent of clay. Such soils are harsh to the feel, lack
cohesion, permit the water that falls upon them to pass
instantly through them, and, as they heat up quickly, the
crops raised in them soon suffer from drought. In them
vegetation is early, but less vigorous and sustained. They
do not readily combine with manures, the soluble parts of
which are leached into the subsoil, or are washed out by
the rains ; so that, if manure be not constantly applied,
they will yield but a moderate crop. Gravels are, in this
respect, from the coarseness of their particles, still worse
than sands, and are very properly called " hungry soils."
Indeed, the fertility of a soil depends in a very great de-
gree upon the fineness of its particles. Sand is sparingly

22 gaede:n^ing for the south.

soluble in water containing alkaline matter in solution,
and in this state forms a portion, and sometimes an impor-
tant portion, of the food of plants. It is soluble silica, in
other words, dissolved sand, which the plant of wheat or
maize has extracted from the soil and deposited upon the
exterior of its stem, that gives the stalk or straw its stiff-
ness, and the lack of which in sufficient quantity subjects
it to the attacks of rust. Silica usually forms a small
proportion, too, of grains, legumes, and succulent roots.

For garden purposes, the only kind of sand suitable is
that which is fine and has been rounded by moving water.
The angular pai*ticles of road sand form hard, impermea-
ble masses, and it should never be employed. {Lindley.)

A loamy sand is a better soil than the jireceding, and
contains from ten to twenty per cent of clay. These light
soils are best adapted to tap-roots and bulbs and for strik-
ing cuttings, while those heavier are better fitted for
plants with fibrous roots.

A sandy loam contains between twenty and thirty per
cent of clay, while all soils containing from thirty to fifty
per cent of clay are classed as ordinary loams.

In a garden designed for the cultivation of a variety of
plants, both a light and a moderately heavy soil are desira-
ble. But the best soil for general pui'poses is a loam of
medium texture, rather light than otherwise, arising from
a suitable admixture of the two, as they reciprocally cor-
rect the defects of each other. Where the other essen-
tials are present naturally, or added by man, such a soil
is suitable for the production of nearly all garden crops.
Any soil, by judicious culture, draining, and ameliorators,
or amendments, can be converted into such a loam.

Lime in greater or less proj^ortions is generally present
in soils, commonly as a carbonate. It is sparingly solu-
ble in water, and is especially, when combined with acids,,
as in the sulphate (gypsum,) or the phosphate of lime
(bone earth,) an important portion of the food of our

SOILS — THEIR CIIAKACTERISTICS. 23

most useful plants. There are some plants, however, as
the Kalmia, to wliich its presence, to any appreciable extent
in soils, is injurious. Any one of the foregoing soils that
contains from five to twenty per cent of lime is classed
as marly ^ (as a marly clay, a marly loam, etc.) When it
contains over twenty per cent, it is classed as calcareous.
A small percentage only of lime is required for the suc-
cessful growth of plants. Marly soils, other things being
equal, are the best adapted to fruit trees and wheat. They
are also classed as ai'gillaceous, loamy, sandy-loamy, and
loamy-sandy marls, etc., according to the relative amounts
in them of clay and sand ; while if they contain above
five per cent of humus (vegetable matter in a state of
decay,) they are classed as humus marls, which may be
also argillaceous, if containing fifty per cent of clay ; loamy,
if from thirty to fifty percent; and sandy, if less than
thirty per cent of clay.

Calcareous /Soils (which contain more than twenty per
cent of carbonate of lime) also are classed in_ the same
manner with marly soils, according to the relative amounts
of clay, sand, and humus they contain — as argillaceous, or
loamy calcareous, etc.

Organic /Soils. — Shell marls, though of organic origin,
are naturally classed with the calcareous soils. The other
organic soils are mainly of vegetable origin, reslilting from
the decay of plants, and are named humus soils. This
last class is of three orders: 1st. Soluble mild humus,
that is, vegetable mould in a fit condition for the nourish-
ment of the plants which grow in it, such as thoroughly
rotted peat, black or leaf-mould. 2d. Acid humus, which
contains a free acid, injurious^ if not destructive, to most
plants. 3d. Peat or other fibrous vegetable matter, which,
though free from acidity, is not yet in a proper condition
to impart nourishment to plants. Humus soils may be
argillaceous, loamy and sandy, and also contain, or be des-
titute of, calcareous matter.

24 GAKDENIKG FOE THE SOUTH.

Humus has the property of 2iroclucing a constant sup-
ply of carbonic acid by slow combination with oxygen.
It aids greatly in keeping a soil in an open state, so as to
allow water and air to pass freely through it, and by vir-
tue of its porosity it condenses and retains gaseous mat-
ter within, and it absorbs saline substances. Thougli such
a soil freely parts with a superabundance of water, yet in
dry weather it imbibes from the atmosphere large sup-
plies of moisture. Schiibler found that 100 j)ounds of
dry humus would hold 190 pounds of water without los-
ing a drop. In dry weather 1,000 grains of it spread up-
on a surface of fifty inches absorbed from the atmosphere
in three days 120 grains of moisture. Of silicious sand
the same amount absorbed nothing ; sandy clay, 28 grains ;
loamy clay, 35 ; stiff clay, 35 ; garden mould, 52. Hence
the best defence we have against drought is an abundant
supply of decayed organic matter in a loamy soil. Clay,
sand, humus, and lime, will neither of them, if pure, sus-
tain a healthy vegetation ; but properly mixed, constitute
the main ingredients of the richest soils in the world. As
good loam contains sufficient lime, therefore loam, peat,
and sand, in varying proportions, are constantly employ-
ed by gardeners as the essentials for proper development
of the plants they wish to grow therein.

Where true peat cannot be obtained, leaf-mould from
the woods, black muck from the swamps, well decomposed
and sweetened by exposure, or" thoroughly rotted turf
mixed with powdered charcoal, are the best substitutes.*

The depth of a soil is quite as important as its texture.
If not naturally deep, it must be made so by trenching.
Deep soils retain a constant suj-tply of moisture in dry
weather, so that the plants do not suffer ; they do not be-
come too wet in rainy seasons, as the earth drinks in and
retains the rain below the surface ; hence they are not so

(Rural Cyclopedia, Dr. Lindley.)

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 25

liable to v,-as]i away. If equally I'icli, tlicy furnish plants
Avitli a more abundant supply of food tlian shallow soils.
Especially for all tap-rooted plants, a deep soil is indis-
pensable. In the preparation of your garden, then, see
that the ground is dry, deep, and rich. Good vegetables
will not grow in a wet soil ; a shallow soil will not fur-
nish them with a regular supply of moisture ; and the crops
growing upon a poor soil never repay the labor bestowed
upon it.

CHAPTER III.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL,

A soil may be improved in texture, in depth, and by the
addition of such constituents necessary for the growth of
plants as may be wanting.

The texture of a clayey soil can be rendered more per-
vious by thorough draining, deep trenching, and by the
application of sand, ashes, lime, and unfermented manure.
Any clayey, retentive sulisoil will be greatly benefited by
good underdrains. A wet soil is always cold, as water
has a much greater ca]iaeity for heat than has earth.
The same quantity of heat that will warm the earth four
degrees will wavin water but one. Water, also, is a bad
conductor of heat downwards. Boiling water can be
gently poured over cold water v\-ithout heating the latter,
except a very little at the surflice. Xow, if the soil in
spring be saturated with water colder than the summer
rains, unless it bo removed by drainage, they cannot de-
scend to carry warmth into the ground; neither v/iil the
wet soil conduct the atmospheric heat downwards with
much rapidity. But draw off the coLl water by proper
2

26 GARDENHSTG FOE THE SOUXn.

drains, and the -s^-armer water can percolate through and
raise the temperature of the soil. As the -warmer \vater
settles, the porous space it occupies v>all admit Av^arm air.
{Thompson.) Drainage, also, hy admitting the atmos-
phere, renders the soil much more friable. Soils ■well
drained have likcAvise been found to suffer far less from
summer drouglits than before. Undcrdrains should be
not less than three feet below the surface, and four feet
is much to be preferred.

Trenching renders the upper stratum of soil more light
and friable, acting as drainage, but im]:)erfectly. Its great
utility is in increasing the quantity of soil to A\hich the
roots of plants find access.

Ashes and lime each have the i^roperty of rendering
heavy soils lighter, and light soils more tenacious, and
both more jDroductive, especially for potatoes, turnips,
beets, and peas, which delight in calcareous soils. In cold
climates, plowing clay lands deeply in the fall, and expos-
ing them to the action of the winters frost, is very bene-
ficial, but in sections where there is little frost and abun-
dant and heavy washing rains, it is "worse than useless.
Tui-ning under coarse vegetable or carbonaceous matter,
as straw, leaves, pine straw, corn-stalks, a crop of cow-
peas, clover, or any other green crop, bog or leaf-mould,
decomposed peat, and cA^en tan-bark itself, so deeply be-
neath the surface as not to interfere with cultivation, will
by the slow decomposition of these materials much increase
the fertility of a clay soil by improving its texture. It is
most improved by drainage if needed.

The freqiTcnt working of the soil Avith the hoe and
spade, thereby admitting the ammonia and fertilizing
gases of the atmosphere, is itself A'cry beneficial to clay
soils, if done when the earth is dry. A clay soil is ex-
ceedingly mjured if worked while wet. It is so difficult
to work, and so liable to bake into a hard crust after ev-
ery rain, that it will well repay, where materials for the

THE JAIPEOVEMENT OP THE SOIL. 27

purpose are at all couveiiient, to lay out a good deal (jf
time and labor in improving its mechanical texture.

The texture of a sandy soil is much more easily improv-
ed than a clay, as the pei'centage of clay required to con-
vert any sand into a loam is not very large and can easily
be added. Fortunately, too, in sandy soils, clay is gene-
rally near at hand, often lying but a fevr inches beneath
the surface. A few loads of stiff clay, scattered thinly
over the surface in autumn, are worth more applied to
such a soil than any manure, for the clay will render ma-
nures permanent in their eifect, which else would leach
through without benefit to the crops. The effect of the
clay itself is lasting. Lime, as before observed, stiffens
the texture of a sandy soil, and gypsum has the same
effect. Ashes, leached or unleached, are also an excellent
and profitable dressing to such a soil, but the best of all
applications is a good clay marl. Peat, vegetable manure,
and carbonaceous matters of all kinds, such as refuse
charcoal, are good applications to these sandy soils, as
they enable them better to retain the fertilizing proper-
ties of the manure applied, though they do not much affect
the texture of the soil. Sandy soils very often rest upon
a clay bottom, so that the thorough ti'enching which a
garden should receive will often greatly improve its tex-
ture. "Working such a soil while wet, and the continual
use of the roller, will also render it more tenacious. But
clay is the great improver, and it is astonishing how small
a quantity of fine clay will cement a loose sand into a
good loam.

To conclude, in regard to the texture of soils, choose or
make for your garden a loam of medium texture a little
inclined to sand, and the finer its particles the better.
Clays and sands both become objectionable as tbey depart
from this friable, loamy texture, and the first step in their
improvement is to bring them to this condition. A medium
consistency best agrees with vegetation.

28 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

, The depth of soil in the garden is as likely to need im-
provement as its texture. A deep soil is necessary that
the roots may penetrate it freely in search of food, and be
able to endure our summer droughts. The roots of a
strawberry have been traced five feet down in a deep,
rich soil. The difference in the freshness and growth of
plants raised upon trenched soils, and those growing upon
soils prepared m the common manner, is remarkable. In
lawns, the color of the grass will indicate very exactly
the greater or less dej^th of the soil. The depth of soils
may be increased by subsoil plowing, or trenching.

Trenching is the mode of imjiroving the dejjth of the
soil in smaller gardens, and is usually performed in this
manner: At one end of the plot to be trenched, you dig
with the spade a trench three feet vride, and two I'eet deep ;
you throw the earth out on the side away from the plot
to be trenched. Shovel the bottom clean, and make the
sides perpendicular, leaving a clear open trench across
the plot. Open another trench the same width, and put
the surface spadefull of that into the bottom of the former
trench, and the next spadefull upon that, until opened to
the same depth as the Jirst one, adding meanwhile the
necessary manures and amendments. When the plot is
entirely trenched in this way, the last trench will remain
open, which must be filled with the earth thrown out from
the first one, which finishes the work.

Most subsoils are, however, so poor that this mode of
trenching will do more harm than good, except in worn-
out soils or in old, overrich gardens. It is, in general, a
better plan to remove fiom the first trench opened all the
rich surface mould, and place it on one side; then trench
the subsoil to the required depth, throwing out enough
earth at one end of the trench to give room to operate,
leaving it still at the bottom. If the subsoil is stiff, it
will be greatly improved by intermixing with it while
treuchiugj as "amendments," leaves, straw, tan-bark,

THE IMPROVEMENT OP TUE SOIL. 29

sa"w-dust, or any other vegetable refuse, putting the
coarsest materials at the bottom. Now cover the loosen-
ed subsoil with surface mould from the adjacent strip,
which is next to be trenched, and loosen the bottom of
this strip also to the required depth, adding araeudments
as before. Proceed thus until the plot is finished, cover-
ing the subsoil of the last strip with the surface mould
taken from the first one opened. If the soil is too light,
clay should be added to it while being trenched. If it
needs drainage, the drains should be laid at the same time.
Drain tile forms the most perfect mode of drainage where
they can be obtained at a reasonable rate. They should
be laid deep^ below the bottom of the trenches.

Trenching is an expensive operation, but " nothing,"
says Mr. Barry, " is so expensive and troublesome, as an
ill-prepared soil." This process is found to be of great
advantage in England, where there is no lack of moisture,
and still more so by the market gardeners of the North ;
while in our own dry, warm climate, it is, as I know by
trial, absolutely indispensable. Ground thus prepared is
not so liable to wash away, as it will readily soak up the
heaviest rain, if properly terraced. There is no point of
greater importance than this. Poor ground deeply mov-
ed sometimes yields better than rich with shallow tillage,
and when the ground has been prepared once in this man-
ner, it will feel the benefit forever after. Increasing the
depth of the soil in this mode is to all intents and pur-
poses increasing the size of your garden ; for one-fourth
of an acre thus prepared will yield in a dry season as
much as an acre will with shallow tillage ; and the growth
of the plants in a good season will be fully doubled.
Trees, especially, feel the benefit of tliis preparation, and
all fruit-gardens should be tlius ju'eparcd. No matter how
deep you may work the soil for trees or plants, their fibers
will penetrate it, and feci the good effect.

Trenching should be performed in the fall — the coarse

30 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

manure dug in at that time. At the top it should be well
manured with well-rotted dung, charcoal dust, ashes, or
other good manure, dug in shallow, taking care to level
the ground while trenching, so as to prevent washing.
Another good coat of compost should be added just be-
fore planting in the spring.

Subsoil plowing is much cheaper and ansv/ers a very-
good purpose when the spot to be pi-eparcd is large. A
common turning plow goes first, and plows as deep a fur-
row as practicable. It is followed by the subsoil plow in
the same furrow, M'hich should loosen the soil, without turn-
ing it up, to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches, unless
it is a stiff clay or gravel.

CHAPTER IV.

MANUEES.

Anything which, by being added to tlie soil directly or
indirectly, promotes the growth of plants, may be consid-
ered a manure. Strictly speaking, manures are the arti-
ficial food supplied to plants. Those substances, that, when
added to the soil, jji'omote plant-growth more by changing
its texture, correcting its acidity, and otherwise modifying
its condition than by the nourishment they directly afford
to jilants, we shall, borrowing a French term, call amend-
ments. Such are sand, coal ashes, lime, clay, mai'l, old
plaster, etc., when applied to soils that need them. Many
of these substances, like marl, lime, rubbish, rotten chips,
broken charcoal, etc., act both as manures and amend-
ments.

Manures may be classified into organic, inorganic, and

MAJSTTJEES. 31

mixed ; into nitrogenous, carbonaceous, earthy, and saline ;
and into general and special. Organic manures include
those both of animal and vegetable origin; inorganic ma-
nures are derived from minerals.

Manures may have a two-fold action — directly assisting
vegetable growth by entering into the composition of
plants, and by supplying them with moisture and nutri-
tive gases which they absorb from the atmosphere. Ma-
nures may also indirectly assist the growth of plants
either by destroying vermin or weeds ; by decomposing in
the soil, and rendering available any stubborn organic re-
mains therein ; by protecting plants from sudden changes
of temi^erature ; or they may act as amendments by im-
jn-oving the texture and jDhysical condition of the soil.
All the above properties probably never are combined in
any one manure, each being characterized by superiority
in some one of the above quahties.

The manures most generally applicable are those com-
posed of substances which directly enter into and are es-
sential to the growth of plants. What are these sub-
stances ?

" Plants," says Liebig, " contain combustible and in-
combustible ingredients. The latter, which compose the
ash left by all parts of plants on combustion, consist, in
the case of our cultivated plants, essentially of phosphoric
acid, potash, silicic and sulj)huric acids, lime, iron, mag-
jiesia, and chloride of sodium." It is now fully establish-
ed " that the constituents of the ash are elements of food,
and hence indispensable to the structure of the different
parts of the plant."

The few ashes that remain after burning a plant are all
that it got necessarily from the soil. From eighty-eight
to ninety-nine per cent of the weight of the j^lant has es-
caped into the air, from which, and from water, the plant
has derived it immediately or remotely. The composition
of their ashes varies in different parts of the same plant

32 GARDEXIXG FOR THE .SOUTH.

and slightly in the same species "u-lien grown on diflerent
soils; but they are always a vakiahle manure for the
sj^ecies from which obtained, and, slowly dissolving in the
soil, they furnish the roots with just tbe salts required to
nourish the growing plant.

But, in general, over nine pounds in every ten have dis-
appeared under the action of fire. The combustible por-
tions which have been expelled are carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and a little nitrogen, which have been derived
from carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, which are, as
elements of food, equally indispensable as the substances
of which the ashes of plants are composed.

The incombustible constituents of the plant come from
the soil alone, and are taken up by the roots.

After the gaseous constituents of jilants are driven off
by combustion, the small j^ercentage of ashes remaining,
we have stated, consists of silicic and phosphoric acids,
potash, sidphiir, lime, magnesia, iron, chlorine and soda,
(the two latter generally unite as chloride of sodium), all
of which, in greater or less proportions, enter into the
composition of our field and garden crops. These earthy
or saline constituents are found within the cells of plants,
or deposited as a lining to the cell-walls, or entering into
their substance. They are useful to the plant itself, and
useful in the plant's pi'oducts as affording food to man.
Some of them are always present in the azotized substances
foi-med by plants. Thus sulphur and the phosphates are,
with ammonia, necessary for the formation of albumen,
fibrin, and caseine, which are essential constituents of our
blood.

Of these substances Lime, Potash, Soda, Phosphoric
Acid, Sidphnr, and Chlorine, are all the gardener will
have occasion to supply, the others being always present
in suflicient quantity in all cultivated soils.

Lime generally occurs as a carbonate. Partially solu-
ble in water, it is an important portion of food to most of

MAIifUEES. 33

our cultivated plants. It is indispensable to such plants
as beets, potatoes, peas, beans, fruit trees, and vines, but
to Kahnias and coniferous trees it is injurious. It is
of special value when combined witli phosphoric acid, as
in bone eartlis, or with the sulphuric, as in gypsum. Lime
in the soil enables it better to absorb and retain heat.
It is of great value as an application to cold, tenacious
soil-s, rendering them of more open texture, and making
the organic matters tlierein available to plants. It, on the
other hand, makes light soils more adhesive, acting as an
amendment. It decomposes organic matters, whether
vegetable or animal, and forms with them a partially solu-
ble compound peculiarly fitted for the food of plants.
But as it has the property of setting free ammonia, it
should never he applied in connection xcith fresh animal
manures. Mixed with stable manure or gaano., it would
speedily free them from nearly all their ammonia, that indis-
pensable and most costly constituent of the food of plants.

This will not happen to any gi-eat extent, and there will
be little loss, if the mixture takes place in, and both the
lime and manure are entirely covered with tlie soil, which
will at once absorb whatcver«amnionia the lime sets free.

The great value of lime, aside from the small quantity
directly available to plants, is in hastening, as above stat-
ed, the decomposition of decaying matters in the soil, and
rendering them assimilable by plants. The old black
mould of kitchen gardens and other soils rich in humus,
it Avill suddenly render wonderfully productive, and they
will consequently speedily become exhausted, unless new
supplies of organic manures are added. Lime alone, ad-
ded to a soil, will speedily exhaust it if the crops are re-
moved and no return of manure is made.

Potash is another alkaline substance indispensable to

healthy vegetation. It occurs in all plants, and this, and

lime and soda, are regarded by Liebig as specially destined

to serve as bases for the organic acids of vegetation.

2*

34 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Caustic potash acts iiijon decaying matters like lime. As
a manure, it is always used in the form of a salt, generally
as a carbonate, but also as a chloride and a nitrate. As
a carbonate, it is found in wood ashes, which are every-
where considered as a most valuable manure, and which
add great efficacy to all composts to which they are ap-
plied. The abundant potash from burning the brush and
timber is one cause of the great fertility of freshly cleared
lands. Chloride of potassium exists in soapboilers' refuse,
which is a good manure, chiefly from the presence of this
salt therein. Nitrate of potash (saltpetre) is the most
useful of the salts of potash, promoting the vigor of plants
and rendering their tissues solid. Potash, like lime, should
not be combined with animal manures, but in composts
of vegetable refuse will be found very useful, particularly
as an a])iDlication to vines and fruit trees. Upon turnips,
cabbages, and other members of the cabbage tribe, it has,
when applied in the form of soapsuds, an immediate good
effect. {Lindley.)

Soapsuds is also most excellent as a manure for roses.
Potash has the same effect as Ihne upon the texture of
soils, in rendering adhesive* ones more friable, and light
ones more adhesive. Soils, in cultivation, if not manured,
soon part with so much of their soluble potash, that rest
and fiiUowing are required to render available that which
exists naturally in all clayey soils, but not in a soluble
form to the extent required by growing plants. After
ammonia and phosphoric acid, potash is the most likely to
be of benefit to the soil.

Soda is present in the structure of plants, but in smaller
quantities than potash, for which it is regarded by Liebig
as a natural equivalent. Some plants which naturally
grow in a soil containing a salt of soda will grow equally
well if a salt of potash is present, while, if both are ab-
sent from the soil, they will not thrive. Hence if a soil
contain enough alkaline matter for many plants, it does

BIANUEES. 35

not mncli matter whether it be potash or soda ; but in
general it will be more productive if both these alkalies
are present. For plants which naturally inhabit the sea-
shore, such as asparagus and sea kale, its presence in the
form of common salt (Chloride of sodium) is indispensa-
ble. {Lindley.) The nitrate of soda is similar in its
beneficial action upon plants to the nitrate of potash, but
it is not yet settled whether the good effects of these salts
are owing to their nitrogen, or in part to their alkali.

Phosphoric Acid. — Next to ammonia, this is usually
the most necessary application to soils, because the first
element exhausted. "Where not present in sufficient quan-
tity, its supply, artificially, is even of more urgent neces-
sity. A supply of ammonia may, in some measure, be de-
rived from the atmosphere, but the phosphates must be
restored by man. The presence of the phosphates in the
soil is required that ammonia may have its full effect.

" In wild plants, the phosphates are less abundant than
in cultivated crops. The latter produce a large quantity
of blood, forming food in a short space of time ; hence
more phosphates are required. All plants that are useful
for animal food have gi'eat power of taking up the phos-
phates, and cultivation increases this power. Evergreen
and perennial plants extend their vegetating processes
over many years, and do not in a given period require so
large a quantity of the phosphates as the ordinary culti-
vated plants, and their falling leaves restore much of the
inorganic matter to the soil. But cultivated plants are
mostly annual and herbaceous, grow rapidly, and require
an abundance of phosphates, which are annually removed
with the crop. If the crop, like that of wild plants, was
left upon the soil, the plants in their decay Avould restore
all they had taken. Phosphoric acid is present in the
blood, is a constituent of the brain and nerves, and enters
largely into the bones of the animals that consume these
plants or their seeds and roots. Providence never per-

36 GARDENING POR THE SOUTH.

mits food-plants to grow, unless all the elements are with-
in their reacli that are necessary to nourisli and develope
the bodies of the beings that are to feed upon them. Tliose
manures are most vahiable wliicli furnish the materials
necessary for forming the azotized compounds required
for the food of man and animals. Hence the great value
of manures containing ammonia and the phosphates Avliich
do not exist abundantly and are annually required and
taken away by the crops," {JBalfour, Liebig.)

"Alkaline and earthy phosphates form," says Liebig,
" invariable constituents of the seeds of all kinds of grass-
es, of beans, peas, and lentils." It is said, in the ash of
tea-leaves, they amount to 17 per cent.

Bones, certain mineral substances, and the phosphatic
guanos, contribute to furnish the necessary supply. Tlie
apparent effect of phosphates applied to the soil is to stim-
ulate vegetation and to promote the formation of" roots.
If used for tiie drainage of pots in the form of broken
bones, or at the bottom of vine borders, the roots soon
find their way down to, and extract nutriment from them.

The phosphates, like all other plant food, to be of ser-
vice, must be within the reach of the roots of plants.
Fertility is not to be measured by the quantity of plant
food a soil contains, but only by that jjortion which exists
in a finely divided state, as it is only with such portions
that the rootlets of plants can come in close contact. An
ounce of bone in a cubic foot of soil produces no marked
eifect upon its fertility if unbroken. Dissolve it and let
it be distributed through the soil, and it will suffice for the
food of 120 wheat plants. The most abundant applica-
tion of earthy phosphates in coarse powder can, in its ef-
fects, bear no comparison with a much less quantity,
which, in a state of minute subdivision, is dispersed
through every part of the soil. A rootlet requires, where
it touches the soil, a most minute portion of food, but it

MANURES. 37

is necessary for its very existence tbat this minute supply
should be at that precise spot. {Liehig.)

Phosi^hates, then, to produce their best elFect, must be
made soluble, as it is only in this state that they can pene-
trate every portion of the soil. Broken bones dissolve
and part with their phosphoric a<;id very slowly in the
soil, but what good effect they j)roduce continues a long
time. If finely ground, the present good efiect is much
more evident. By mixing them in this state with sul-
phuric acid, it combines with a portion of the lime, cou-
A^erting it into gypsum or sulphate of lime ; while the rest
remains in combination witli the phosphoric acid as a bi-
phosjihate (superphosphate) of lime. This is soluble in
water, and when ajiplied to the soil is diffused through it,
and can be readily, and if not in excess, soon totally
absorbed, by the rootlets of growing plants, and conse-
quently its good effects i;pon the soil will soon disappear.
One peck of bones, thus prepared, will have as much pres-
ent effect as IG bushels of ground bones undissolved.
{Lindley.)

The soluble phosphates, in estimating the values of ma-
nures, are now regarded as the most important ingredient,
next to ammoniacal salts, and, as before stated, are often,
indeed, more necessary to supply.

Sulphur. — Plants contain, either deposited in their roots
or seeds, or dissolved in their juices, variable quantities
of compounds containing sulphur. In these, nitrogen is
an invariable constituent. These are always accompanied
by alkaline phosphates and alkaline earths, and for both,
in each seed there exists a fixed and unchangeable rela-
tion; whenever the percentage of phosphoric acid in-
creases or diminishes in any seed, there is the like increase
or diminution in the compounds of sulphur. In the seeds
of cereals and in those of leguminous plants, two of these
compounds exist, and a third in the juices of all plants,

38 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

but in the greatest abundance in the juices of those plants
we use for the table. {Liebig.)

This sulphur is obtained from the sulphates naturally
contained in or applied to the soil, especially from gypsum,
or sulphate of lime. Gypsum, it is believed, acts in two
ways, being sparingly soluble in water ; it acts directly
as food for plants, supplying them with sulphur and lime,
and indirectly, by its action on the volatile carbonate of
ammonia which it unites with and fixes. "When they meet
in solution, a double action takes place ; both substances
are decomposed, and their elements unite in the forms of
carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia. The latter salt
is not volatile, and the ammonia is thus retained in the
soil for the use of the crops. Gypsum is very beneficial
to green crops, as the cabbage, potato, also to maize, and
especially to clover, peas, and other leguminous crops.
{Lindley.) A bushel of it has been known to yield an
extra ton of clover hay to the acre when aj^plied broad-
cast. Gypsum is very useful to sprinkle on manure heaps
and upon the contents of privies, to fix the ammonia con-
tained therein.

Sulphur alone may sometimes be used to advantage as
a manure. It is not soluble in water, but when finely di-
vided, it will slowly unite with the oxygen of the air.

Sulphur is destructive to most insects, and found very
serviceable to sprinkle about green-houses and vineries for
the prevention of mildew.

Cblorinc. — In districts remote from the sea, the chlo-
rides of sodium, calcium, and magnesia, wlien applied to
the soil, are useful to vegetation. These compounds are
frequently found in the sap of plants. As nearly all soils
contain more or less of common salt, the application of
any chloride is seldom absolutely essential, but is fre-
quently very serviceable, esj^ecially to certain crops.

Chemistry has endeavored to ascertain by analyzing
the ashes of plants Avhitih of these substances is most im.-

MANURES. 39

portaut to a given plant. As a result of these inquiries,
plants have been divided into four classes, according as
one or another inorganic element is found to predominate
in their ashes.

1. Sllex Plants. — Those that abound in silica, as the
grasses, equisetums, etc.

2. Alkali JPkoits. — ^Those that contain alkaline salts in
large proi^ortions, as beets, potatoes, and the vine. Pot-
asli salts are necessary to all land plants, especially to
conifers and other trees, while soda salts, particularly its
chloride, to all marine plants.

3. Lir)\G Plants. — Those that contain the earths, espe-
cially lime and magnesia, as clover, peas, beans, etc.

4. Phosphorus Plants. — Those that contain the phos-
phates, as the cereals, wheat, corn, rye, onts, fruits.
All food-bearing plants contain more or less of the phos-
phates in their ashes, as cabbages, turnips, onions, etc.

Phosphates of lime and potash are the inorganic sub-
stances most likely to be needed in soils, as they are soon-
est exhausted. The salts of lime, as the carbonate and
sulphate, after these, are generally next valuable. Lime,
however, is injurious to heaths. Nitrogenous manures, so
generally serviceable, are injurious to conifers and stone
fruits. {Lindley.)

An analysis of stable manure shows it to contain all the
elements required for the food of plants ; every part of it
has been formed of vegetable products, and is ready when
rendered soluble to enter into and minister again to their
growth.

The decayed parts of any plant rendered soluble, and
likewise its ashes, are among the best manures for plants
of its own species. Vineyards have been kept fertile by
digging into the soil the fresh prunings of the vines, and
indeed are said to have increased in richness from the
slight manuring their own leaves afford. So forests, we
know, arc enriched by the falling leaves.

40 GABDEIflNG FOR THE SOUTH.

It is by putrefaction that all animal and vegetable re-
mains are rendered available to plants, but if they are al-
lowed to decompose without care, the loss is immense ; the
soluV)le parts are washed away, the gases pass off into the
air, and a large proportion of the manure is dissiijated.

The Indirect Action of Manures. — Some manures
ameliorate the soil by absorbing and retaining moisture
from the atmosphere. This property is as beneficial to
a clay as to a sandy soil during drought, as at such times
clays are often baked so as to be impervious to the dew,
and suffer nearly or quite as much as more sandy soils.
The best aborbents of moisture are stable manure, thor-
oughly decomposed tan-bark, and the manure of the cow
and pig, in the order named. After these come sheep and
fowl manure, salt, soot, and even burnt clay is not Avith-
out its virtue. All these absorbents are much more effec-
tual when finely divided, and the soil itself is a good ab-
sorbent in proportion to its richness, fineness, and the
friability produced by frequent culture. In the power of
retaining moisture absorbed, pig manure stands preemi-
nent ; next that of the horse, then common salt and soot.

Some manures are beneficial in absorbing not only mois-
ture, but nutritious gases from the atmosphere, which they
yield to the roots in a concentrated form. All animal and
vegetable manures have the power of attracting oxygen
from the air during decomposition. Charcoal and all car-
bonaceous matters have the power of absorbing carbonic
acid gas in large quantities, supplying constantly to the
roots of plants an atmosphere of carbonic acid, which is
renewed as quickly as it is abstracted. The same sub-
stances are especially valuable for their power of absorb-
ing ammonia. Charcoal will absorb ninety times its vol-
ume of ammoniacal gas, which can be se^^arated by simj^ly
moistening it with water.

Decayed wood absorbs seventy times its volume, wliile

MANUKES. 41

leaf-moukl, perfectly rotted tan-bark, and in foct all vege-
table manures, are exceedingly valuable in this respect.

Manures indirectly assist the growth of plants hy de-
sircyiity weeds and predatory vermin. This is not a prop-
erty of animal and vegetable manures, (except that guano
repels most insects). They foster these enemies of the crop,
l)ut salt, lime, and ashes, applied to the surface of the soil,
are very destructive to nearly all insects, while the roots
of weeds and grasses, if composted with ashes or lime, are
completely destroyed and converted into an excellent ma-
nure.

Another indirect action of manure in assisting the growth
of plants is in decomposing and rendering available any
stubborn organic substances in the soil. Stable manure,
and all decomposing animal and vegetable substances,
have a tendency to promote the decay of any organic re-
mains in the soil. All putrescent substances hasten the
process of putrefaction in other organic bodies with which
they come in contact. Even peat and tan-bark, mingled
loith staJile dung and kept moist, are converted into good
manure ; common salt in small proportions has a similar
septic property, and the efficacy of lime in this respect is
well known.

Ashes are of equal value, but not so easy to obtain in
sufficient quantity. Neither ashes or lime should ever be
mixed with manures that are rich in ammonia, such as
cotton seed or animal manures, as they would cause great
waste of ammonia by setting it free and permitting it to
be lost in the atmosphere.

Inorganic substances are sometimes released from their
combinations, and rendered soluble by the application of
carbonaceous manures. Ashes from which the soluble
potash has been leached, if composted with swamp muck,
are enabled to furnish i)lants with a further sui)])^,^ By
composting the two, the value of both is greatly increns-
ed. Such a compost may be mixed with ammoniacal ma-

42 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

nures, not only without loss, but with decided benefit, and
the ammonia will be retained.

Another indirect agency of manures is in protecting
plants from sudden changes of temperature. There is no
doubt that rich soils and those abounding in animal and
vegetable remains, are less liable to change their temjjcra-
ture with the incumbent atmosphere than those of poorer
constituents, for the decomposition of manures gives
warmth to the soil. Corn can be grown in high latitudes
upon rich land only ; upon a poor soil it would perish.

The last indirect effect of manures upon plants is by
improving the texture of the soils in which they grow.
Decomposing in the ground, they leave interstices as they
become less in bulk, making it more light and porous.
The effect of manure in rendering a stiff soil light and
friable is very well known. It is equally true that vege-
table manures give to sandy soils greater tenacity, ena-
bling them better to retain moisture and ammonia.

Manures, then, shoidd be adapted to soils and circum-
stances. Cohesive and binding manures are most suitable
for open sands ; those of open texture, for stiff clays ; those
that readily attract and retain moisture, for dry soils ; heat-
ing, dry, strawy, and turfy manures, for wet or clayey
soils ; and those of slow decomposition for hungry gravels.

CHAPTER V.

MANURES— THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION.

Having considered the modes in which manures act up-
on tlie growth of plants, a still more important inquiry
remains, viz. : What manures can we obtain and render
available ? The scarcity of manures with us is a great dif-
ficulty in gardening. Uut a small amount of live stock is

MAJEURES. — THEIU S0UKCE3 AXD PREPAKATIOISr. 43

kept in proportion to tlie number of acres in cultivation.
What is thus obtainable is not well husbanded, and is
needed for corn and cotton. Still, on most country places,
enough is wasted to supply not only the garden, but to
leave a surplus for the field crops. In to"v\m, wherever a
horse and cow can be kept, enough can be made for a large
garden, while even a pig, if kept at work in his pen, with
tlie aid of soapsuds from the house, will convert some
fifteen loads of weeds, yard sweepings, chips, tan-bark,
and leaves, into a valuable manure.

Of Saline and Earthy Manures the most available arc
ashes, leached and unleacbed, which should be most care-
fully saved, as potash is one of the elements drawn most
largely from the soil, and this ashes supply most cheaply.
They contain besides j^otash, ^jhosphoric and suljihuric
acids, manganese, chlorine, soda, magnesia, carbonate of
lime, and soluble silica. They may be applied directly to
any crops, and especially to fruit trees. Composted with
swamp earth and other vegetable matter, they correct its
acidity, and form an excellent manure for all crops, and in
connection with lime form the best compost for orchards.

Lime may be applied in this compost for trees and for
all garden crops. Shell lime is the best to employ, as it
contains some phosphate of lime, which is still more valua-
ble. If lime is used alone, mix it intimately with the sur-
face soil, but do not plow or spade it in. Its eflect in im-
proving the texture of soils, we have already considered.
In soils of but moderate fertility and free from carbona-
ceous matters, it is often more injurious than useful.

Lime rubbish from old brick walls, and the plastering
of old houses, contains nitrate of lime. This salt furnishes
nitrogen abundantly to plants. This rubbish also contains
a portion of hair and silicate of lime, and is a very power-
ful manure. One ton is su^flicieut for an acre.

Common salt, on lands so distant from the sea that the

44 GAEDENlNCi TOR THE SOUTH.

spray docs uot reach tlicm, is a very beneficial manure.
It is the cheapest mode of supplying plants with soda and
chlorine, and of course is beneficial to apply to asparagus
and other marine plants. The refuse salt which has been
used for bacon is the most valuable, as it contains in addi-
tion the blood and juices of the meat, which greatly in-
crease its virtues. It may be directly applied to aspara-
gus without injury, and at the rate of six or eight bushels
per acre applied in autumn, it benefits all garden crops,
keeping the soil moist and free from insects and worms.
It is well to supply it at the same time with lime, in the
lime and salt mixture hereafter described.

Gypsum. — Of this a very small quantity will suffice.
One bushel per acre yearly is all that is needed. In ab-
sorbing ammonia from the manure heap, charcoal dust and
leaf-mould are much cheaper. It is the cheapest way of
supplying the soil with what suljDhur is required.

Marl 5 where it can be obtained, may be applied with
advantage, especially to sandy soils. It is generally bene-
ficial in proportion to the quantity of lime it contains.

Some marls contain both phosphate of Ihne and potash
in considerable quantities, and hence are of increased
value. Before largely applying it, experiments should be
made on a small scale, as some marls, upon trial, are found
to be injurious.

Soot is rich in ammonia ; very little of this can be pro-
cure<l, but it should be carefully preserved and applied in
small quantities to cabltage and other plants infested with
insects. It drives these off, and its ammonia also promotes
the growth of the plants.

The Nitrates of Potash and Soda are applied in a finely
powdered state duiing wet we:ith'.'r by English cultivators,
and are found useful upon clays and loams, but of no bene-
fit on light, sanly soils.

Burnt i'lay has been found to possess considerable value

MANUIIES. THEIU SOUKCES AZSTD PREPAKATIOX. 45

as a manuie. By burning, it loses its adhesiveness, which
in its natural state prevented air from permeating it, and
"water from passing off. Its saline constituents, and those
also of the roots of the plants it contains, are s<?t free,
Avhile it is rendered permeable to the air and freely admits
the advancing roots of plants. The burnt particles ab-
sorb ammonia from the air, and hold it in their pores until
■washed out by showers into the soil to act as nourishment
for the crops. It may be prepared in connection with
charcoal, as hei'eafter shown. There is some loss of or-
ganizable matter which is moi'e than made vip by chemical
changes produced.

Organic Manures, beginning with those of ve|:etable
origin. The very best is cotton seed cake, where it can be
obtained. Properly prepared, it is scai-cely inferior in
strength to guano itself It may be applied with advan-
tage to any crop.

Charcoal renders the soil light and friable, gives it a
dark color, and additional warmth for early crops. The
bed whereon charcoal has been burnt is ahvays marked
by a most vigorous growth of plants when it becomes
sufficiently mixed with earth. It contains also small quan-
tities of salts of potash and other fertilizing salts.

It absorbs both carbonic acid and ammonia from the
air, and yiehls them to the roots of plants. It is most
marked in its effects on plants which require abundant
nitrogen. As it is indestructible, its beneficial effects last
ns long as it remains in the soil, supplying the rootlets of
plants with carbonic acid, which is renewed as fast as ab-
stracted. Its good effects begin to be seen when the dust
is applied at the rate of forty bushels per acre. Charcoal
is invaluable for destroying the odor of decaying animal
matter, retaining all the gases in its own substance ready
to yield them up for the use of plants. Hence, the best
application of this substance is not directly to the soil, but

4G GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

to compost it witli putrescent animal matters, urine or
night soil, of wliicli it will absorb all the odor and fertil-
izing gases given off during their decomposition. Com-
posted with the last named substance, it becomes pou-
drette, and is second only to guano as a fertilizer.

In striking cuttings or potting jDlants, fine charcoal is a
valuable substitute for sand, plants rooting in it with great
certainty. Plants will flourish in powdered charcoal alone
with considerable vigor, and, added to the other materials
used in potting, it is found greatly to promote healthy-
growth in most plants.

Fine charcoal can be obtained in considerable quantities
from the old hearths where it has been burned ; also from
the refuse of smith's shops, founderies, and machine shops.
All the refuse of the garden that will not decay, pea-brush,
trimmings of trees, cabbage and corn stalks, together with
tan-bark, saw-dust, and fresh shavings, may be collected, the
coarser materials placed at the bottom and set on fire when
the heap is building; then covered with the finer, beating
all well together, cover it well with short, moist rubbish,
weeds and clods. Bermuda grass turf is the best mate-
rial for this purpose if you are troubled with it, and it is
better if it has been obtained from a clayey loam. After
the heap is well on fire, clayey turf, together witli the clay
of the soil, may be added to the top, and a large quantity
of the charcoal mixed with burnt clay is thus prepared.
At first there is great difficulty to keep the piles on fire,
and strict attention is required. Thrust a stake in diifer-
ent places, that the fire may run through the entire heap,
and if it breaks out in any of these, stop them anew with
rubbish and brush, cover with earth, and make holes in a
new i^lace. When the smoke subsides, the heap is char-
red enough. When finished and the fire put out, store it
up for use. The mixture thus prepared has been found
beneficial in every instance, and is a most valuable ma-
nure, especially for roses, producing invariably an abxm-

MASTLTllES. THEIR S0UECE3 AND PEEPAEATIO:!T. 47

dance of fibroiis roots, clean, healthy, vigorous growth,
and luxuriant blooms. {Paul.)

Beside charcoal, there are many other vegetable sub-
stances of great vaUio as absorbents of the fertilizing salts
and gases that would otherwise escape from animal ma-
nures. Carbonaceous matter of every sort should be pro-
vided for this purpose. Gather the leaves of trees of all
kinds, including pine straw. They contain many substances
necessary for the growth of the plants from which they
fall, or available to other plants. Throw them into the
stables and yards, moisten them and sprinkle them with
the lime and salt mixture, and if kept in a damp state and
turned over once or twice, they form the best manure
known for all kinds of trees and shrubs, and indeed afford
all the necessary constituents, organic and inorganic, of all
cultivated plants.

Swamp Muck is another valuable absorbent. Gather
the black earth of swamps, place in piles and let it dry out
the superfluous moisture, and haul it to the compost heap
or yard. Swamp muck, by its elasticity, keeps the soil
light and open, and is excellent both for absorbing and re-
tainmg moisture therein. It may be reduced with ashes
or lime, either of which will destroy all its naturally acid
properties. The salt and lime mixture is the best and
usually the cheapest for this purpose, but leached ashes
mixed with carbonaceous matter have an additional part
of their potash rendered soluble and available for plants,
and should be used thus where obtainable.

The Lime and Salt Mixture is thus prepared. Take
three bushels of unslaked lime, dissolve a bushel of salt
in as little water as possible, and slake the lime therewith.
If the lime will not take up all the brine at once, (wliich it
will if good and fresh burned), add a little more of the
brine daily, turning and adding until all is taken ujd.
Keep it under cover until wanted for use. Of itself it

48 GAKDEXING FOR THE SOUTIL

supplies plants -with chlorine, lime and socla, and acts like
lime or ashes in reducing stubborn vegetable matters and
correcting their acid properties.

With a load of swamp earth, mix a bushel and a half
of the lime and salt mixture intimately while it is in a
moderately moist state, and in thirty days it will be de-
composed. Upon a layer of this earth six inches thick,
spread a coat of fresh stable manure, each day coveiing it
with ten times its quantity of jjrepared muck, which will
absorb all the gases and salts. Let the pile accumulate
until four feet high, and tlien turn it all over, mix it again,
and cover the whole with a thick coat of prepared muck.
If too dry to ferment, add water, and in three weeks it
will be fit for use, and will be found equal to common sta-
ble manure, and is entirely free from insects of all kinds.
In reducing composts of all kinds, the heap must be kept
moist or no fermentation will be produced. Keeping it
" alwiiys moist but never leached " is the way to produce
a strong compost.

A thick layer of the muck shoiild be kept also in the
hog-pens and stables to absorb the urine, removing the
solid manure from the latter daily, and the muck at the
end of each week. Upon this muck also the house slo])S
of all kinds should be poured, and where charcoal is not
employed, a bushel every three days should be thrown
into the privy to destroy the offensive gases produced.
The muck, whether prepared Vv'ith the above mixture, with
ashes or lime, will retain all the virtues of the animal ma-
nure. Neither lime nor ashes, unless in excess, when thus
combined Avith vegetable matters, will drive off the am-
monia.

Leaf-mould, or the black sui-face soil of the Avoods, is
of still more value. This is free from the acid properties
of swamp muck, and may be sup])lied directly to most
plants in the flower-garden, many of which will not flour-
ish unless this material is present in the soil. It is of still

MANUEKS. — THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION. 49

more importance for potting plants in the green-house.
For the kitchen and fruit garden it is best composted like
s"wamp muck "svith fresh animal manure. It is indispensa-
ble in garden culture.

Tan-bark is another material abounding in carbon,
which may, to some extent, be used as an absorbent of
animal manure. It may be beneficially applied directly to
strawberries, to which it answers the double purpose of
mulching and manure. But the crowns of the plants
must not be covered ; and for all purposes it should be
obtained as much decomposed as possible. Tan may be
applied directly to Irish potatoes when ready to cover in
the furrow. After they are dropped and the manure ap-
plied, a coat of old tan, composted with ashes or the lime
and salt mixture, may be given, and finish j^lanting by
covering this with earth. It improves the yield mate-
rially and the quality also, as all carbonaceous matters do.
Wliere swamp muck or leaf-mould can be obtained, it is
hardly worth while to use tan as an absorbent of animal
manures.

It is not of sufficient value to be worth hauling far. In
trenching, it may, with other coarse matters, be mixed
Avith the bottom soil to lighten its textitre and act as a res-
ervoir of moisture. For corn it may, after composting
with ashes, be mixed with the surface soil, when, if not in
excess, it will be of some service to the crop.

It is very difficult to reduce, but if kept moist, the lime
and salt mixture will do it. It may be strewed in the
stock-yard six or eight inches thick, and sprinkled pretty
thickly with the mixture. The treading of the stock will
mix it. Let the whole be turned over in a moist state
once or twice, and in the course of the winter it will be-
come a valuable application to the plants that do well with
fresh manure. There are abundant elements of fertility in
tan, but it is more difficult to render them available than
with any other vegetable substance ; and it is, ui^on the
3

50 GAEDEJnifG FOR THE SOUTH.

whole, quite a dangerous article to experiment with. Re-
duced thoroughly by composting it with stable manure,
using in this case no lime, and then mixed with decayed
leaves and plenty of sharp sand, it makes a tolerable com-
post for growing those plants which requu*e peat, such as
Azaleas and Rhododendrons. Tan, properly composted,
will prove of most use in light soils deficient in vegetable
matter, nnd when less decomjjosed, for ojiening the texture
of close, heavy clays.

Decayed chips, saw-dnst, shavings, etc., are best applied
to Irish potatoes, as directed in the case of tan-baric.
They should be covered with soil to promote a more
speedy decay. They have much the nature of tan-
bark Avithout its acidity, and may be likewise, when some-
what decayed, composted with stable manure and used as
peat. All these substances are valuable for burning clay
or for charring, and then to be incorporated with urine,
night soil, or superphosphate of lime. In the case of tan-
bark, this is undoubtedly the safest and most profitable
way to use it.

Green Manures are various crops, raised to turn into
the ground in a fresh state for fertilizing it. For this pur-
pose all the weeds of the garden should be emi^loyed while
green, unless they are thrown to the pigs. Over any
vacant spots in the garden not wished to be used in au-
tumn, rye or barley can be sown, which will keep the soil
from washing, and when large enough may be either cut
for feed, or turned into the soil as the plots are wanted for
use. Spinach should be sown in considerable quantities,
as it grows all winter,^nd, spaded into the soil in spring,
adds a good deal to its fertility. The seed can be saved
in any quantity Avith little trouble.

But the most fertilizing plants for this purpose are
leguminous plants, like the Cow-pea, as they draw nourish^
ment largely from the atmosphere, and afibrd a great
amount of foliage for turning under as manure. This class

MATSrUKES. — THEIR SOURCES AOT) PREPARATION, 51

of pl<ants is also quite rich in ammonia. This mode of
manuring was practised by the ancient Romans, and is
specially adapted to warm climates where vegetation is
rapid and luxuriant. A good vetch that would make its
growth in the winter months to be tunned into the soil in
the spring would be a most desirable addition to our cul-
tivated plants. The spotted Lucerne, (Californian clover),
is the best plant for this purj^ose on soils already pretty
good.

Animal Wanures. — This is the most important class,
and the greatest attention should be paid to collecting,
preserving, and economizing them. All animal manures,
when compared with the preceding class, are more rich in
nitrogen, and more easily decomposed and rendered
soluble ; but though the effect of this class of substances is
much more obvious, it is not so lasting.

Its value consists in part of certain volatile and soluble
substances, which, in the common mode of preserving ma-
nure, are dissipated in the air or washed away by heavy
rains. In this climate it is necessary to shelter manure from
the sun and rain. All animal matter is either directly or
indirectly derived from vegetable substances ; hence, every
portion of the same that can be rendered soluble is a
valuable food for plants. Among the most important ani-
mal substances employed as manures are iirine, and dung
of all kinds. The first of these is almost invariably wast-
ed, though in the case of the cow, it is of more value than
the solid excrements. It should be carefully saved by
bedding the yard and stables with swamp muck, wood
earth, or some other absorbent. Urine is particularly rich
in ammonia. Tiiis may be absorbed by the muck or by
sprinklmg the floor of stables and the manure heap fre-
quently with fine charcoal or gypsum; this substance,
sprinkled upon the floors of stables, forms a compound
like the urate of commerce, so powerful that 500 pounds
will amply manure an acre. If you can obtain no other

52 GARDENII^G FOR THE SOUTH.

absorbent, tan-bark is not Avithout its value, but the weeds,
sweepings of walks, and other refuse of the garden, particu-
larly leaf-mould and the dai'k top-soil of pastures, are to
be preferred. Urine may be diluted with three times its
bulk of water and f»ermitted to grow stale, and be ap^^lied
at night or in moist weather directly to the growing crops.

The principal animal manures are those of the horse,
the hog, the cow, and the sheep. Of these horse manure
is most valuable in its fresh state. That of the hog comes
next, then that of the ox, while the cow is at the bottom
of the list, because most of the enriching substances in
her food go to the formation of milk, leaving the manure
comparatively weakened. The richer the food given to
animals, the more powerful is the manure. If animal ma-
nures are employed in a fresh state, they should be mixed
intimately with the soil, and given to such coarse feeding
crops as corn and the garden pea. But nearly all plants
do better if the manure is composted and fully fermented
before use. Pig manure, used alone, is considered j^er-
nicious to the growth of the cabbage and tui-nip tribe, arid
gives an unpleasant taste to many other vegetables, but
composted with muck or mould, it is much more beneficial
as well as more durable.

In managing animal manures, decomposition must be
promoted — the volatile parts must be preserved from dis-
sipation in the air, and the soluble j^ortions from being
washed out by rains. That it may ferment, it must be
kept in a body, that heat may be generated and its natural
moisture retained, while beneath it a layer of some ab-
sorbent substance should be placed, to receive and retahi
its soluble parts, and as fast as it is thrown from the sta-
bles, it should be covered with layers of muck to retain
the ammonia. Horse manure, especially, should not be
exposed at all ; it begins to heat and lose ammonia almost
immediately, as may be perceived by the smelL Mix it
with other manures and cover it with absorbents as soon

MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION. 53

as possible. Keep the stable bedded with muck, and over
tliis a good bed of leaves.

The Manure of Birds is richer than that of any other
animals ; as the solid and liquid excrements are mixed to-
gether, it is particularly rich in nitrogen and the phos-
phates. Three or four hundred weight of tlie manure of
pigeons, fo"\vls, turkeys, etc., is of equal value with from
fourteen to eighteen loads of animal manure.

Peruvian Guano is a manure of this class. It is the
manxTre of sea-birds, which has acciimulated in tropical
latitudes where it seldom or never rains. These birds feed
upon fish entirely ; hence, the manure is remarkably rich
in nitrogen. Guano is this substance with the water evap-
orated, and contains from 7 to 18 per cent of ammonia.
When it can be bought pure and the freight is not over 25
per cent on its cost, it is for many cvoiis one of the cheap-
est manures to be obtained, as it is so easily applied — the
labor of applying other manures often approaching the
price of guano. It is well to apply about two hundred
weight per acre with one-half the usual quantity of other
manure. Guano should never, in a fresh state, come in
contact with seeds or the roots of plants, as it is sure to
destroy their vitality.

The great value of guano is in forming liquid manure ;
one pound of guano to five gallons of water applied once
a week will add wonderfully to the growth of any plants
watered with this mixture. For very delicate plants
twice the above quantity of water should be given. If
guano is not to be had, the manure of fowls is a good sub-
stitute. This liquid is especially valuable in the flower-
garden. It must be poured upon the roots, and not ujDon
the leaves or collars of the plants. On lawns, a poimd
sprinkled upon each square rod will restore their verdure.
A great advantage of supplying guano, is that no seeds
of weeds are scattered in the soil.

54 GAEDENIJTG FOR THE SOUTH.

The Peruvian is the only guano rich in ammonia.
There are other giianos which contain little ammonia, but
are rich in phosphates, some of them as much so as bone
phosphate of lime. Among the best of these are the Co-
lumbian and Sombrero varieties. K these are finely
ground and mixed in equal proportions with pulverized
Peruvian guano, the mixture is really more valuable as a
manure for most plants and soils than the same amount of
pure Peruvian, for ammonia, to be useful, requires the
phosphates to be present, and the cost is much less. The
mixture contains a sufficient proportion of ammonia for
its phosphates, and its efiect is more lasting. If the phos-
phatic guano is by the addition of sulphuric acid convert-
ed into a superphosphate, its value is greatly increased.
This mixture is better than the Peruvian guano for main-
taining the beauty of lawns, and for the whole cabbage
tribe it is greatly superior.

Bones are, when properly prepared, still more useful
than most of the phosphatic guanos. They contain sixty-
six parts of earthy matter, mostly phosphate of lime,
and thirty-four parts of gelatme. Gelatine is rich in ni-
trogen, so that in bones are united the most desirable or-
ganic and inorganic manures. Aj^plied whole, bones de-
compose too slowly to be of much value, and would be
greatly in the way of tillage. They may be broken small
with a sledge-hammer or crowbar, in a large wooden mor-
tar, lined at the bottom with a thick iron plate. When
beaten small, the fine dust can be sifted out, and the re-
mainder moistened and thrown up in heaps, to ferment a
few months. Bones can be dissolved by boiling them in
strong lye, or, better, by mixing them Avith wet, unleached
ashes, and when dissolved and dried by mixing with woods
earth, burnt clay, ashes, or sand, can be apj)lied broadcast
or in the drills. The best way to treat bones is to dis-
solve them in sulphuric acid, forming sixperphosiDhate of
lime. A carboy of sulj^huric acid, costing about four

MANURES. -T-THEIR SOURCES AND PREPARATION. 55

dollars, at wholesale, in the cities, and containing one hun-
dred and sixty pounds, will dissolve three hundred to four
hundred and eighty pounds of bones. The bones should
be previously ground or finely broken. Put about sixty
pounds of bone-dust or phosphatic guano in a tub, and add
water enough to wet the mass, say about 40 lbs. See that
it is well moistened. Add 20 lbs. of siilphuric acid, which
is usually enough, and briskly stir the mass. If, after
standing a day or two the bones are not sufficiently dis-
solved, add more acid and water, pouring it on gradually,
and after a Uttle the bones will entirely dissolve and form
a pasty mass with the acid and water. When the mass is
dried, it will assume the apj)earance of a granulated pow-
der, and it is then fit for use. It may also be used diluted
with thirty times its bulk of water as a liquid manure,
but it is more convenient to mix it with saw-dust, woods
earth, or fine charcoal, and apply it dry. Never mix a
superphosphate with lime, ashes, or any alkali, for by so
doing it is converted again into a phosphate, and your
labor and sulphuric acid are lost. One cwt. of bones with,
say half the amount of sulphuric acid, will be enough for
an acre.

The acid has converted the bones into a superphosphate
of lime, which is very soluble, and is readily taken up by
the plant. This is the most valuable of all manures for
the turnip, and the quantity needed for the acre is so lit-
tle that the expense is less than that of almost any other
application.

The addition of guano renders it still more valuablie.
It may be used three days after its preparation, but im-
jiroves if kept longer. Fifteen bushels of compost may
be prepared from 1^- bushels of bones and the absorbents
required ; and two bushels of this applied to an acre will, for
the present, equal in efiect 16 bushels of half-inch bones.
{Lindley.) If bones ai-e coarsely broken and mixed with
hot stable dung in the formation of a hot-bed, they will

5G GAEDE]yiN"G FOE THE SOUTH.

generally be found perfectly fine when the material of the
bed is removed. They can also, at any time, be further
broken up by composting with hot stable manure, cover-
ing the mass with absorbents to retain the ammonia of
the gelatine and manure.

]Vig"ht Soil and chamber slops should be composted as
before directed with charcoal, or the black mould from
woods. Gypsum may be added to the mixture ; all smell
is thus destroyed, and an offensive nuisance is converted
into a valuable application to any crop. Where charcoal
is freely used, this substance becomes perfectly inodorous.
Guano and poudrette are the best possible manures for
the cabbage tribe and other plants that need phosphates
and nitrogen. Both these manures are exceedingly pow-
erful, but their effects do not last beyond one season. The
fertilizing properties exist in the right proportions to be
taken up at once by the plants, and nearly all their nutri-
tive properties are exhausted the season they are applied.
K in a hole or dry ditch are deposited all the leaves or
vegetable refuse that can be collected, and over this is
poured daily the house slops, and all smell prevented by
the timely application of charcoal or woods earth, a com-
post is formed exactly similar in its constituents to farm-
yard manure, and containmg all the eight substances by
A\^hich plants are artificially fed. {Lindley.)

Liquid Manure. — Almost any manure may be applied
to the soil with benefit in a liquid state. It generally im-
plies urine or the drainings of dung heaps and stables,
chiefly consisting of urine and the dissolved excrements
of animals. Diluted more or less as required, it can be
applied about once a week to plants in any stage of
growth, and is particularly useful to those grown in pots.
The soil should not be oversaturated with it, and it should
be used alteraately with pm-e water. Do not give it to
plants in a state of rest.

MANURES. THEIR SOURCES AND TREPARATION. 57

There are several other substances which, when they
can be obtained, should be carefully applied. Among
these, the most available are the offal of slaughtered ani-
mals, their carcasses, hair, and bristles, leather, refuse from
the tanners and shoemakers, woollen rags, fish, blood, etc.
All these contain the elements required by growmg plants
in a very concentrated state. The hair, bristles, etc., may
be applied directly to any crop. These matters are very
powerful, and a small quantity will suffice. Slaughter-
house offal, and the carcasses of any animals that may
have died, should be buried deeply in a pit, with absorb-
ents beneath, and covered with muck or loam. In a year
it will become a most valuable manure.

The following table from Boussingault gives a compre-
hensive view of the jDroportion of nitrogen contained in
the most common manures, and of their quality and equiv-
alents, referred to farm-yard dung as the standard. Thus
ten lbs. of fresh cotton-seed cake is equal in value to one
hundred lbs. of fresh or wet faiin-yavd dung, as far as the
nitrogen in each is concerned. To form a perfect table
of equivalents, the phosphates, potash, etc., must be also
taken into consideration. The ammonia merely indexes
the value. As a manure it is worth in the markets of the
world about 14 cents a pound, according to Prof S. W.
Johnson. Insoluble phosphoric acid is valued by him at
4^ cts., and soluble phosphoric acid about 10|- cents per
pound for application to ordinary crops. Potash is not
generally so deficient in soils as to be worth its market
price to be used as a manure, unless in the form of wood
ashes. Phosphoric acid in a soluble state is the only sub-
stance that approaches ammonia in money value for use as
a manure.

3*

58

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

Farm-yaril dun^

Duni; from an Inn yard

Dnns: water

Withered leaves of carrots. .

do. do. do. oak

O.vster shells

Oak saw-dust

Oil cake of cotton seed

Solid cow dnng

Urine of cows

Mixed cow dung

Solid horse dung

Horse urine

Mixed (horse dung)

Pig dung

Sheep dung ,

Poudrette of Belloni

Pigeon's dung

Guano from England

Idem

do. imported from France.

Dried muscular flesh

Liquid blood

Fresh -bones

Featiiers

Cow hair flock ,.

Woollen rags

Horn shavings.

\^'o()d soot.

Vegetable mould .

Azote in
100.

2. OS
1.54
2.94
1.57
0.40
0.72
4.52
2.30
3. SO
2.50
2.21
12.50
3.02
3.37
2.99
4.40
9.02
6.20
7.05
15.73
14.25

17.61
15.12
20.26
15. 7S
1.31
1.03

Wet.
X41
0.79
O.Ofi
0.S5
I.IS
0.32
0.54
4.02
0.32
0.44
0.41
0..55
2.61
2.74
0.63
1.11
3.S5
8.30
5.00
5.40
13.95
13.04
2.95
5.31
15.34
13.78
17.98
14.361
1.15

quality

according

to state.

Dry

Wet.

100

100

107

107

78

2

1.50

212.5

80

293

20

80

36

135

231

1000

117

80

194

110

Equivalent
according
to Male.

Dry_
100

94
127

66
125
488
256

32

84

51

132: 102.51
113 137. 5I

652.5

185

157.5

277.5

902

462 2075
323! 1247
36111349
S07|:J487
730|3260
79513045
11326
903 3835
775 3-145
1039 4495
809.3590

67 287.5

.53'

1514

66

58

65

44

21 '/j

31!'2

28

12'/4

1354

12i4

11
13

149
189

Wet.
100"

51

68

47

34
125

74

10
125

91

98

73

54
63
36
103^

5
80
74
2854

3

SI4

3

2^4

3
35
33

€0mp0StSi — The composting of manure should take
place, as a general thmg, as fast as it is made. In the gar-
den, out of sight, there should be a compost heap for re-
ceiving all kinds of rubbish that can have the least value
as fertilizers. Make a shallow excavation of a square or
oblong form, with the bottom sloping to one end. Into
this collect the litter and sweej^ings of the yards, decayed
vegetables of all kinds, brine, soapsuds, and slops from
the house, woollen rags, leaves, green weeds, and garden
refuse. After it has accumulated a little, turn it over, ad-
ding a little of the salt and lime mixture, and keep tlie
whole inodorous, by covering it with rich mould or black
earth from the woods. If the heap is formed entirely of
vegetable materials, ashes or lime should be added ; but
if it contain animal matter, they would do harm by set-
ting free the ammonia. The heap should not be deep.

MANTEES. THEIK SOTJKCES AJO) PREPARATION. 59

but, like all other manure heaps, should be kept "always
moist, but never leached," by the addition of liquids from
the house and kitchen. K this compost be for a sandy
soil, the addition of clay would be very beneficial.

Composting is the best way of rendering available all
sorts of refuse organic matter, but do not introduce those
antagonistic in their effects. For instance, never compost
lime with animal matters which, in their decomposition,
form ammonia.

Special Composts are prepared for different species of
plants, and they are of great utility in floriculture. Cora-
posts for plants in pots are made up of loam, leaf-mould,
sand, peat, and manure. The loam is the decomposed
turf from a rich, old jaasture, which should not rest upon
clay, and the upper three inches only are taken. It
should lie one year before using. Leaf-mould is the dark
surface soil of the woods, formed from decayed leaves.
Sand should not be from roads, but fine surface or river
sand. The manure is unfit to use if less than a year old,
and improves by frequent turning, and lying two years.
Peat is the black soil from swamps, mingled with very fine
sand. It should be exposed a year and frequently tux-ned
before using. Black woods earth, mingled with one-third
pure sand, is the best substitute. The proportions of the
most common comj)osts are given in the following table :

Number of
Compost.

Loam.

Leaf-
rnould.

Sand.

Peat.

Manure.

1

1

3

2

3

o

1

1

3

3

1

1

1

4

1

o

5

4

4

1

6

4

1

1

7

3

2

1

8

4

2

1

9

1

1

1

10

1

1

1

1

60 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

CHAPTER VI.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

The same crops cannot he grown from year to year
upon the same soil without decreasing in productiveness.
All plants more or less exhaust the soil, but not in the
same degree, nor in the same manner ; hence, as different
plants appropriate different substances, the rotation of
crops has considerable influence in retaining the fertility
of a soil. If the same kind of plants is continued upon
the same soil, only a portion of the constituents of the ma-
nure applied is used ; while by a judicious rotation every-
thing, in the soil or in the manure, suitable for vegetable
food, is taken up and appropriated by the crop. How-
ever plentiful manure may be, a succession of exhausting
crops should not be grown upon the same bed, not only
because abundance is no excuse for want of economy, but
because manure freshly applied is not so immediately bene-
ficial as those remains of organized matter which by long
continuance in the soil have become impalpably divided
and diffused throiigh its texture, and of which each suc-
ceeding crop consumes a portion.

Some crops are so favorable to weeds, that if continued
long upon the same bed, the labor of cultivating them is
much increased, while if raised but once in a jjlace and
followed by a cleaning crop, the weeds are easily kept un-
der. Besides, many crops planted continually in the same
soil are more liable to be attacked by the insects and
parasites which are the peculiar enemies of those plants.

Many insects injurious to plants deposit their eggs in
the soil which produced the plants they have infested,
ready to commit their depredations upon the succeeding
crop ; but if this is changed to a distant locality, they
often perish for want of their proper food. So, many

ROTATION OF CROPS. 61

parasites leave their seeds or spores in the soil, to the in-
creased injury of the succeeding crop, if of the same
species.

Again, different plants derive their principal nourish-
ment from different depths of soil. The roots of plants
exhaiist only the portions of soil with which tliey come
in contact. Perpendicular rooted plants throw out few
side roots, and derive most of their nourishment from a
considerable depth, while fibrous-rooted plants seek their
food near the surface. Plants of the same species extend
their roots in a similar direction, and occupy and exhaust
the same strata of earth.

Different plants by means of their roots act differently
upon the physical nature of the soil. Surface roots
spread abroad their tufted fibers, which in their decay
break up and lighten the surface soil, while the roots of
clover have a somewhat similar effect upon the deeper
strata.

The most exhausting crops are, in general, those which
are allowed to perfect their seeds, as they extract from
the soil all the essentials of the plant, from the root to the
seed. The seeds of many species draw from the soil more
largely its ammonia, phosj^hates, etc., than the total
amount extracted in the formation of all other parts of the
plant. Root crops are generally less exhausting, and
plants cultivated for their leaves are usually still less so.

A rotation was formerly thought necessary from an
idea that each plant throws off from its roots into the soil
certain matters which are injurious to others of the same
species afterward grown upon the soil. It was also thought
that there were some tribes of plants, the fig for instance,
of which the acrid juices from the root injured the soil
and the plants grown near them, while of others, as le-
gumes, the sweet juices were beneficial to the soil and the
adjacent or succeeding crops. These views are not now
considered tenable.

62 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Enough lias been stated to show the necessity of a
change of crops, and the following are found the best
rules to observe in practice :

1st, — Crops of the same species, and even of the same
natural order, should not succeed each other.

2d. — Plants with perpendicular roots should succeed
those with spreading and superficial roots, and vice versa.

3d. — Crops which occupy the soil for several years, like
asparagus, rhubarb, etc., should be followed by those of
short duration.

4th. — ^Two crops alike favorable to the growth of weeds
should not occupy the soil in succession.

5th. — Crops abstracting largely from the soil the sul-
phates, phosphates, and nitrogenous principles, should not
follow each other immediately, but be succeeded by those
which draw less from the soil and more from the atmos-
phere. These exhausting crops should follow and be fol-
lowed by those which bear and will profit by heavy ma-
nuring.

6th. — Plants grown for their roots or bulbs should not
follow those grown for the same puqDose, and still less
should plants grown for their seeds follow each other di-
rectly in succession.

The following are found in practice to be convenient
crops to succeed each other in rotation, beginning after an
application of manure, viz. : Onions, lettuce, cabbage, car
rots, manure ; or, turnips, celery, peas, potatoes, manure.

The followhig is also a very good rotation :

1. The cabbage tribe to be followed by

2. Alliaceous plants, as onions, leeks, etc., to be follow-
ed by legumes, as beans or peas. Peas may be followed
the same year with celery.

3. Tap-rooted plants, as carrots, beets, parsnips.

4. Surface roots, as onions, potatoes, turnij^s.

5. Celery, endive, lettuce, spinach, etc.

Celery is excellent to precede asparagus, onions, cauli-

EOTATION OF CROPS. 63

flowers, or turnips ; old asparagus beds for carrots, pota-
toes, etc. ; strawberries and raspberries for the cabbage
■liribe ; cabbage for the tap-rooted plants ; j^otatoes for the
cabbage tribe.

In these rotations it is not necessary to apply manure
to every crop. For the bulbous roots, as the onion, and for
plants cultivated for their leaves, as spinach and asparagus,
the gTound can scarcely be too rich ; and the bulk of the
manures may be applied to thera and the cabbage and tur-
nip crops, while for plants raised for seed it is best that
the foliage should not be stimulated into too great luxu-
riance by fresh manurmg.

In practice these rules should as far as possible be fol-
lowed, but it is often necessary to vary from them or let
a part of the soil lie, for a time, idle. Rotations in gar-
dening become less necessary if the ground is trenched
deeply and manured liighly. Vacant ground thus treated
may be filled at once with any crop ready for planting.

To get the highest possible results from a garden, there
must be not only a general rotation of crops year by year,
but a number of sub-successions each year, as fast as the
crops are removed. One-fourth of an acre thoroughly
manured and kept perfectly free from weeds, upon
which a constant succession of crops is kept up, will
yield more than an acre managed in the common way.
It is not, however, always necessary to wait imtil the crop
occupying the soil is removed before another is put in.
Simultaneous cropjjing, that is, making two crops occupy
the ground at the same time, as in field culture the cow-
pea in corn-fields, can often be resorted to in the kitchen
garden. In tlie fruit garden, De CandoUe says the vine
and the peach can with advantage be grown together, the
light shade of the peach not injuring the vines.

Directions to meet all circumstances cannot be given,
still the following Jiints may be suggestive of the best

64 GAEDEJnXG FOR THE SOUTH.

methods to secure in the kitchen garden satisfactory re-
sults.

For instance, in the fall a portion of the garden may be
occupied with spinach ; this should be heavily manui-ed,
and may keep the ground until time to plant melons and
other vines, when just enough of the ground may be
deeply dug to form the melon hills, and the crop will be
ready to remove before the melons begin to run. The
melon crop may be followed by one of turnips. All such
plants as radish, lettuce, and other small salads, need take
up no room ; they can, any of them, be raised between
the potato beds or drills, or between melon hills, rows of
corn, etc., and they will come to perfection before the potato
or other crops require the ground. Radishes can be raised
between the rows in the beds of all kinds of plants that
are slow in coming up, as carrots, parsnips, etc., and will
be ready to remove by the time the others come up.

Any vacant spot that occurs early in summer should be
occupied with plantings of extra early or sweet corn, po-
tatoes, beets, kidney beans, for preserving for winter use,
and cucumbers for pickling. Those coming later in the
season may be occupied by sweet potatoes until July, then
corn, cow-peas, or rutabaga turnips. Where the early
onions grow, both in the alleys and in the centre of the
bed, before much of the croj) is removed, may be planted
with late cabbages or Siberian kale. Cabbages Avill head
if the winter sorts be j^lanted as late as the early part of
August, and Early Yorks put out in September, if in rich,
moist ground, and well cultivated. Sweet corn may be
planted until August. Still later, every unoccupied corner
should be covered with turnips and winter radishes, Avhich
may cover nearly the whole garden, being sown in di'ills
between the rows of plants not yet quite ready to be re-
moved. After the frost has come, any vacant spaces
should be immediately sown with spinach, onions, and
other crops for early spring use, or with barley or rye for

EOTATION OF CROPS. 65

the coTV. The secret of successful cultivation, says Down-
ing, is an abundant supply of manure. A small extent
of ground well manured and trenched deeply, by these
sub-successions, will produce an enormous amount of
vegetables, while only the same surface needs to be hoed,
manured, and kept free from weeds, as if it produced but
one croj^. To be sure, more manure and more labor are
needed, but nothing like the amount which would be re-
quired to produce the same crops without these sub-suc-
cessions. Many other sub-successions will occur to a
thoughtful gardener, but to derive the full benefit of them
the grounds should be trenched at least thirty inches deej)
when the garden is formed.

Profits of Gardening. — The results of the above mode
of procedure, in the case of the garden of the Retreat
for the Insane, at TJtica, New York, were published by
Dr. Brigham. The land was good and yearly manured. The
product was as follows on one and one-fourth acres of
land: — 1100 heads lettuce, large; 1400 heads cabbage,
large ; 700 bunches radishes ; 250 bunches asparagus ; 300
bunches rhubarb ; 14 bushels pods marrowfat peas ; 40
bushels beans ; sweet corn, 3 plantings, 419 dozen ; sum-
mer squash, 715 dozen ; squash peppers, 45 dozen ; cucum-
bers, 756 dozen ; cucumber pickles, 7 barrels ; beets, 147
bushels ; carrots, 29 bushels ; parsnips, 26 bushels ; onions,
120 bushels; turnips, 80 bushels; early potatoes, 35
bushels ; tomatoes, 40 bushels ; winter squash, 7 wagon
loads; celery, 500 heads — all Avorth 621 dollars in Utica
market, but sui^plied one hundred and thirty persons
with all they could consume. Only one man was required
to do all the necessary labor.

The supply of Northern markets with early fruits and
vegetables is becoming yearly more and more profitable
to all points which have direct steam communication with
their great cities. Charleston, Savannah, and Norfolk, now
ship very largely asparagus, peas, snap beans, cucumbers,

66 GAEDEiSmSTG FOR THE SOUTH.

Lima beaus, squashes, okra, and of fruits the apple and
peach. The pear and the Delaware grape will be still more
profitable in time. Chicago, Cincinnati, St. Louis, etc.,
■will soon largely receive similar supplies by railroad from
Southern points.

Forwarding Early Crops. — Early crops in the open air
should be planted in a sheltered sitiiation, on a dark-color-
ed, silicious soil. It may be brought to a proper state by
the admixture of sand and charcoal. Crops, on the con-
trary, may be retarded by planting in a border sheltered
from the sun, and of a lighter color and more aluminous.
There are many plants which do much better if sown in
the fall. Rhubarb, parsley, etc., come up more freely if
suffered to be in the ground all winter. Potatoes, too,
may be early planted, and if they come- u^), should be
sheltered by a covering of straw or litter, added from time
to time to keep them from frost. Cabbage, cauliflower,
broccoli, etc., sown in autumn and transplanted, may be
kept out all winter in boxes made by nailing four pieces
of boards together, eight inches wide. Cut the pieces 12
inches long at the bottom, and 10 at the top ; nail them
together at the corners. After the frosts begin to be se-
vere, throw in a handful of loose straw, which will pre-
vent the sudden freezing and thawing of the plants.
Great care should be taken to produce early crops, as they
are less liable to be injured by insects or weeds, and very
much increase the satisfaction of gardening. Early plants
may be obtained by sowing them in a box set in a wai'm
window, or may be raised in autumn and protected in
winter in a cold frame or pit, or grown any time during
winter in a hot-bed for those more delicate, or in a cold
frame under glass for the hardier kinds. Such plants,
when set out in the spring, need to be gradually hardened,
and then require shading a few days until established.
Radishes sown under glass without heat early in January
are generally fit for use early in March. But to forward

HOT-BEDS, COLD-FRAMES, AND PITS.

67

plants Avitli any success requires suitable structures for
the purpose.

CHAPTER VII.

HOT-BEDS, COLD-FRAMES, AND PITS.

Frames or Hot-Beds are most usually employed for
forwarding plants. The frame for general use has from
three to five sashes, (see fig. 3), and is made for con-
venience about four and a half or five feet wide, and the

Fig. 3. — nOT-BED XSO FKAME.

length depends on the number of sashes, which are usually
about forty inches wide. Use the smallest glass you can
obtain, certainly not over seven by nine ; a smaller size is
preferable, as it is not so liable to be broken, and can be
more readily repaired. These sashes are made without
cross-bars, tlie glass overlapping like the shingles of a
house, and resting on bars extending lengthwise of the
sash. The lap of each pane of glass need not be over
half an inch, and if the glass is set in the sash when
freshly painted with two coats of paint, no puttying

68 GAEDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

is necessary, if the sash is well made. The frame should
be made of inch and a half plank as high again in the
back as in the front, to give the sashes the proper slope to
the sun, and sufficient inclination to carry off the wet.
The front, of course, is towards the south. Let the back
and front be nailed to corner posts, so as to admit the ends
to fit in neatly, which ends are to be made fast to the posts
by common carriage bolts, in order that the frame may be
taken asunder to store when not in use. All joints in the
sides and ends should be tongued and grooved to prevent
the admission of cold air or the loss of warm air from the
bed. Each end should be made an inch and a half higher
than the back and front, and grooved out one-half its
thickness, to permit the sash to slide and leave the other
half to support the outside. At the corner, also, of each
sash, let another piece of scantling be placed, and on the
top of these, narrow strips the length of the sash are to
be nailed, for the sash to slide uj^on. Between the sashes,
nail an inch strip a little thicker than the sash to the nar-
row plank on which they slide, and put on the sash ; and
upon this strip, in cold Aveather, lay another narroAV strip,
projecting over the sash a little, to cover the joint and
keep out the cold. Provide for the bed a full supply of
good horse manure from the stable, mixed with moist
litter, preferring that which is fresh, moist, and full of heat.
If there is not sufficient litter in the mass the heat Avill
not be lasting ; so as a substitute add oak-leaves or tan-
bark. There should be at least one-third litter in the heap.
Shake it up and mix it well together, sprinkling with
water if dry, and throw it into a compact heap to ferment.
In two or three days if warm, or if cold in a week, turn it
over, and if dry and musty in any part, water again. Let
it be two or three days longer, and then work it over
thoroughly, as before, and water if necessary. In a dry,
sheltered situation opening to the south, mark out the
dimensions of the bed, making it fully a foot longer and

HOT-BEDS, COLD-FEAMES, AND PITS. G9

wider than the frame each Avay. Throw out the earth
about ten or twelve inches deep. Then begin to form the
bed by spreading a thin layer of the prepared manure
upon the ground, mixing the long and short well together.
TJiJon this spread other layers mixed in the same manner,
beating each layer with the back of the fork, but not too
heavily, to keep it level, and equally firm throughout.
Stakes should be placed at the corners to work to. The
edges should be kept true and the corners firm, to do
which the outside of each layer must be first laid down,
and to make the manu^re keep in place a proper admixture
of long litter is required. Continue until the bed is three
feet above the surface, then spread the fine manure that is
left, evenly over the top, and water freely. As soon as fin-
ished let the frame and glass be put on with care, and keep
them close until the heat rises and a steam appears upon
the glass. As soon as the heat rises, give air at noon each
day, but keej) closed in the evening and at night, unless
the heat is very violent, when a little air should be given.
In three days, if the manure was sufiiciently moist, the
bed will be ready for use. If it has settled unequally,
raise the frame and level the surface. Place in the frame
six inches of fine, dark-colored, sandy garden-soil, spread
it evenly, and put on the sash. When warmed through,
sow in pots plunged in the mould, or in small drills from
one-eighth of an inch to an inch deep, varying in depth
with the size of the seeds, and cover by sifting fine earth
on the surface. Water gently by sprinkling with tepid
water through the fine rose of a watering pot. When the
plants appear, they should have air every day freely (un-
less absolutely freezing) which will bring them up strong,
and prevent their dropping ofi" by excess of confined
moisture. There are very few days which wiU not permit
opening the bed, not by sliding down the sashes, but by
raising them at the back, holding them open by a trian-
gular block to slip in so that they can be opened from two

70 GAEDENIiq^G FOR THE SOUTH.

to five inches. Open the bed in the middle of the day, as
above, but close early that the plants may not become
chilled. During warm, gentle rains, the sash should be
opened, but closed very carefully during cold or heavy
washing storms. About 60° is the proper temperature ; it
should not rise above 75°. Such a bed as this is invalu-
able for striking cuttings of all kinds, in which case there
should be an inch of clear river sand or charcoal spread
over the surface. Annuals of all kinds for the flower
garden, tomatoes, peppers, cabbage and lettuce plants, etc.,
will be ready, if the bed is made in January, for trans-
planting quite as soon as they can be removed with safety.
Make the bed six or eight weeks before the plants Avill be
required. The quantity of manure required to form a hot-
bed varies with the season and external temperature, a
larger bulk bemg needed in January than at a later season.
Even a small bed should have the mass not less than five
feet long by four feet wide, to maintain the proper heat.
If the soil whereon it stands is clayey the whole bed should
be made above ground, as the water settling in the trench
would check the heat of the entire bed. If the bed is
made early in the season it will require the application of
fresh materials at the sides or " linings " to keep it at the
proper temperature.

The best substitute for stable, manure in forming a hot-
bed is spent tan, but to keep it in its jiosition a plank bin
or a brick pit is reqiiired. It takes more time for the heat
to rise, but it is longer continued, milder and more manage-
able than stable manure, and is quite sufficient for a seed
bed. A little slightly fermented stable manure is needed
to be added to the center of the bed, as it will start
fermentation sooner.

In sowing the bed let the more tender plants, as egg-
plants, peppers, etc., be sown under the same sash, and
separated by a thin plank partition under the cross-bar
from the rest of the frame. The finer and more delicate

HOT-BEDS, COLD-FEAMES, AIs'^D PITS. 'jl

seeds -vrill roquire the sasli above tliem to Ibc shaded until
the plants appear, or each jDot may be separately covered
until the seeds are up. At night, if cold, cover the bed
with plank shutters, old carpets, or mats. Gradually, as
the plants grow strong, accustom them to the air as the
season grows mild. This can be done by opening the frames
entirely during the day, and leaving them exposed dur-
ing mild nights, or by transferring them to the cold frame.

Cold Frames are made just like those for the hot-bed,
only the box need not be over 15 inches high at the back,
and are excellent for wintering nearly hardy plants of all
lands, and also for forwarding the more hardy plants, as
hardy annuals, cabbage, lettuce, etc. Indeed, they are
quite as indispensable as the hot-bed, and less expensive,
as they require no manure, but rest directly on the soil.
They are also of great service in hardening off" hot-bed
stock, which should be transferred to them before it is
set out in the open ground. In very severe weather, the
heat may be kept in by earthing up the sides and covering
the sash with mats duiing the night. Air should always
be given when the weather will admit, or the plants will
grow up yellow and spindling. In managing frames, the
secret of success is to give plenty of air. Plants raised
in cold frames are generally more hardy'and desirable than
those from a hot-bed, unless the latter are repotted early,
and when reestablished, transferred to the cold frame, to
harden them. A cold frame or jiit covered with tiffany (a
prepared thin cotton cloth) is even better than one covered
with glass, for the purj)ose of hardening off young stock.

Frames of all kinds should be painted of a light color,
every year, both for the preservation of the wood and for
the destruction of insects and their eggs, that are con-
cealed in their crevices and angles. A frame for raising
seedlings or striking cuttings need not be over 18 inches
deep at the back, to 9 inches in front, as it is important to
keep the seedlings near the glass.

GAEDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

4. — SECTION OF FIT.

Pits. — Fig. 4 shows a section of a lean-to pit, in which
tall plants may be set upon the bottom, while a stage may
be put in to bring small plants near the glass. All pits
should be built of brick, and those with the walls built
hollow above the surface are preferable. In a pit 6 feet
wide the back should be about 15 to 18 inches higher than
the front. Pits are also useful in protecting delicate plants
in summer, from heavy rains and scorcliing suns, and for
bringing up many seedlings in the spring that do not
require artificial heat. In all cases ample provision must
be made for drainage, as
plants will not flourish
in damp, confined air.
When a pit is desired
merely to j^reserye plants
during the winter, it is bet-
ter that the glass should
face rather to the north, that is from north-east to north-
west, in order that growth may not be excited, and the
l^lants thus kept perfectly at rest daring the winter. If
the pit faces any other quarter the air within gets heated
and the plants keep on growing late in the autumn, are
stimulated into temporary growth too early in the spring,
and are much more in danger of destruction by frost.
The pit should be kept as dry as possible and ventilated
daily when the frost is not too severe, and to protect the
roots of plants from frost and to i:)rcvent the necessity of
frequent waterings, the pots should bo plunged in some
dry material, as sand or tan-bark. Very little water should
be given to plants in their dormant state, for tliey cannot
assimilate it. Many plants, as geraniums, etc., in such a
pit Avill require but one or two waterings during an entire
winter. Plants thus managed will endure a very low
temperature, and start into more vigorous growth in sjDring.

At night, if cold, and during severe weather by day, it
will be necessary to cover the glass with mats or shutters,

GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

to prevent the frost from penetrating and the heat from
being lost by radiation.

CHAPTER VIII.

GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

The principal implements employed in gardening are
the following :

1. implements for Preparing and Operating upon the
Soil.

Subsoil Plow. — This is of great service in large gardens;
it answers as a tolerable substitute for the spade in trench-

Fig. 5. — SUBSOIL PLOW.

ing for orchards and market gardens, doing the work more
cheaply and expeditiously, but not so well. It requires a
powerful team to manage it. One form is shown in fig. 5.
TuE oxE-iioRSE TuRXixG Plow is vcry efficient in
deeply Stirling the soil among plantations of trees and
the larger garden crops. The whijSetrees should be short
that the trees and plants may not be injured. A strong
animal is required, and the plow must not come too near
the trees and plants. The common plantation plows are
also quite useful in garden culture.

Y4

GAEDENEN'G FOR THE SOrXH,

Fio;. 6. — HARROW-TOOTHED CULTIVA-
TOR.

The Cultivator supersedes in a great degree the ne-
cessity of liand-lioeiug among the main crops .m market

gardens. By passing it
over once a week be-
tween the rows, all the
hoeing required is a nar-
row strip of a few inches
in the row. The first
working of the season
should be with a narrow
plow, to stir the soil
deeply ; then keep it
light with the cultivator. The teeth are made of various
shapes. That given in figure G has harrow teeth.

The Wheelbarrow is indispensable in the smallest
garden. In carrying manures, applying comi:)OSts, mov-
ing soils, and gathering crops, it is of constant service.
The handles and frame should be of tough wood, but the
sides and bottom may be of poplar or any light material.
The Garden Roller. (Fig. 7.) — This consists of two
cast iron sections one foot in width
and twenty inches in diameter,
with an iron handle. Weights can
be attached to the inside to make
it heavier. Being made in two
sections, the earth is not scraped up
while turning around. It is very
useful in keeping grass lawns
smooth and velvety, and is valu-
able to follow the putting in of all
seeds in sandy soils. Lawns should
be rolled when the ground is moder-
ately soft with rain, after each mowing
stitute, for a small plot of grass, is a

Turf Beetle, made of plank three inches thick,
eighteen inches long, and ten wide, Avith a handle inserted

Fi2

7. — GARDEN ROLLER.

A tolerable sub-.

GAEDEN IMPLEMEJSrrS.

75

ill the centre, (fig. 8). With this the lawn should be
beaten, when the turf is set, to a perfect level. If the han-
dle is slightly inclined towards the
operator, it is easier to bring down
the sole perpendicularly. This is
quite as eifectual a mode of smoothing
a lawn as by the use of the roller, but
much more time and labor are re-
quired.

The Pick. — This is indispensable
in trenching hard clay subsoils which
the spade cannot penetrate. It con-
'^ sists of a wooden handle inserted in
a head composed of two iron levers
both pointed with steel, one of which

Fio:. 8. — ^TUKF BEETLE.

should come to a point
and the other be made
about two inches wide
for cutting roots or
any obstructions.

The Spade. — The
best are Lyndon's,
made of cast steel. A
large one is required
for lifting trees, trench-
ing, etc. A light six-
inch sj^ade (figure 9)
is very convenient for
removing small shrubs
and plants, which are
a little too large to be
lifted with a trowel.
The long - handled
shovels and spades are
perhaps best, except
for the small sizes.

Fio-. 9.— SPADE. Fig. 10.— MANURE FORK.

76

GAEDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

Shovels arc necessary for loading and spreading com-
posts and manures. The ronnd-pointed one is most con-
venient for garden purposes. Let it be of steel.

MxVNURE Forks (figure 10), with
from four to eight tines, are indispen-
sable for moving fresh, long manures
with celerity and ease.

Spade Fork. — A four-tined or as-
paragvis fork, also called a spade fork,
made of cast steel with wide tmes
cut out of a solid plate, as in figure 11,
is one of tlie most desirable of garden
tools. Witli this implement, in a
stony or stiff soil, spading can be
done more rapidly, Avith greater ease
to the Avorkman, and quite as effectu-
ally. It is also used to loosen the
earth, and for digging manure into
asparagus beds, or about trees, with-
out injury to or cutting the roots.
The Crowbar is nsed in the gar-
den, mostly for setting poles for
climbers, pea brush, or other fixtures
for training plants, and for removing
rocks and other obstructions.

Hoes. — These are of constant use in
gardenhig. They are of two kinds, the
draw-hoe and thrust-hoe, but the draw-
hoe is the most convenient. The most
useful are the round and square draw-
hoes, etc. ; made of a cast steel plate six
inches long and four wide ; the common
cotton hoe for ordinary use ; the triangu-
ar d raw-hoe (fig. 12) for digging furrows Fig. 12.— TniANGu-
and sowing seeds ; and the narrow semi- ^^^ °^^'

circular or narrow square turni}) hoes with sharp edges for

SPADE FOUK.

GAEDEX IMPLEMENTS.

77

scraping the surface and killing weeds. For breaking np

the crust which
forms after a rain,
the scuffle hoe, fig.
13, is of great use.
This lioe, the six-
inch spade, and the
trowel, are the fa-
vorite tools for the
personal use of
amateurs, being all
light and in con-
stant requisition.
The handles of all
hoes should be
smooth and light,
and there should
be no extra weight
about the imple-
ment.

The Gaeden"

Fig. 14.-STEEL RAKE. -^^^^ (gg^^j.g ^4)

is indispensable for levelling and finely pulverizing the

ground preparatory to sowing small

seeds after it has been spaded or

hoed. The best are those hammered

out of a solid bar of steel, as they

never lose their teeth or get out

of order.

The Potato Hook is useful for
many of the purposes of both hoe and
rake, as for loosening the earth among
young plants, for covering seeds in
drills, and also for digging out Irish
and sweet potatoes without cutting them. This is also
called the hoe-fork ; one form is shown in fig. 15.

13. — SCUFFLE nOE

Fi"-. 15. — noE-FORK.

78

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

Deh^l Rakes oe Maekeks are made of wood, and the
teeth placed at a greater or less distance for sowing differ-
ent seeds. In using, the first drill is guided by stretching

a line, and afterwards
the first tooth is kept
in the drill last made
to guide, and thus all
the rows in a long
bed can be made per-
fectly parallel. Sev-
eral different sizes are
Fig. 16. -DOUBLE MARKER. rcquircd. That re-

presented in figure 16 has a set of teeth on each side, at
nine and twelve inches apart. By using every mark, or
every other one, four different distances may be marked
with this.

The Dibble is very convenient in transplanting cab-
bages and all those plants that readily
succeed when moved. It is usually made
of a stick of hard wood about fifteen
inches long ; the point should be a little
blunt. The hole is made with the imple-
ment, the plant is put in, and set by again
inserting the dibble so as to press the
eai'th against the roots. Figiu'e 17 shows
two forms.

The Trowel is an indispensable
implement for removing flowers and other -^'S- 17.— dibbles.
tender plants, as they can be taken up with a ball of earth
attached, without injury or mutilation to the roots. It
should always be of polished steel.
The blade is shaped like the curved
portion of the section of a cone, as
in figure 18.
The Transplanter consists of the two parts, a and h,
fig. 19, hinged together on one side at c. When a plant is

GAEDEN IMPLEMENTS.

79

Fig. 19.— TEANS-
PLANTEU.

to be taken up, the trans23lanter is sunk into the ground
with the foot to the required depth. The handles are then
pressed apart, which compresses the earth
closely about the root of the plant
operated upon, wliich with the ball of
earth enclosed, can be readily removed
bodily and with no more disturbance than
if i)lanted out from a pot. The hole in
which it is set must be previously pre-
pared for receiving it.

The Garden Reel and Line. — The
line should be a good hemp cord ^ of an
inch in diameter. The axis of the reel is
fastened in the earth. It is indispen-
sable where neatness and regularity are
desired in the rows and plats. It can be
easily and quickly wound up when not in use. Figure
20 gives the form usually sold by the imj)lement dealers ;
a wooden one can be easily made.

The Level is necessary in laying
off terraces and di-ains. A frame
shaped like the letter A inay h^ used
Avith a 2)lumb line attached at the
point, and long enough to reach be-
low the cross-bar. Make a mark
upon the cross-bar, at the place where
the line hangs when both legs are
upon a level surface. A spirit level,
W'hich may be screwed on to the
cross bar, is more convenient.

Screens for sifting earth, for filling flower-pots or
covering small seeds, are best made with rather stout
wires, and the meshes should be of two or three sizes,
varying from f of an inch to an inch in diameter ; the
frames may be square or round.

Fig. 20.— REEL & LINE.

80

GAKDENIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

31.— PRUNrNG SAW.

2, Cutting Implements, for Operating on Plants,

The Peuxing-Saw (fig. 21) is from fourteen to eighteen
inches long, has fine
teeth, and a hooked
handle, for hanging njion
a limb, while in the tree.
It is also used in cutting off large stocks for grafting. One
with a blade tapering nearly to a point A\ill be found
convenient.

The Bow-Saw (figure 22) has a narrow blade, stiflen-

ed with an arched
back, the blade of
which can be made
more or less stiff, by
Fig. 23.-BOW-SAW. tightening the screw

on which the back turns, is the best for gardening pur-
poses, and indispensable for sawing off stocks horizontally,
near the ground. A small tenon saw is very convenient.
Hand Peuning-Sheaks. — Vai-ious patterns are made,
one of the latest of which is given in figure 23. They
are useful in clipping hedges, shortening in peach trees,

Fig. 23. — PKCKISG SHEARS.

and cutting out small, dead branches. One man, with
thcra, can do as much as four with a pruning-knife. Small
sizes are made for ladies, and are very highly finished.

Pole Pkuking-Sheaes are fastened to a long handle,
and worked vrith a cord passing over a pulley. They are

GAKDEN IMPLEMENTS.

81

used for removing dead branches, or those infested with
insects, from high trees. Branches an inch in diameter

can be cut off Avith this in-
strument. They are best
with a sliding centre. Figure
24 shows one of the several
forms.

Hedge Sheaes (figure 25)
are needed for giving an even
face to a hedge in pruning it,
and also for trimmmg box
edgings.

Pkuning-Scissors are also
made with a sliding centre
Fig.24.— poLEPRUNiNG-sHEARs. ^ud Spring. They cut as
smoothly as a pruning-knife, and are very convenient for
ladies to use when
pruning rose-bushes.
ViNE-ScissoKS are
used in thinning
grapes, when they
are too much crowd-
ed in the bunches.

Prunixg-Knives. — Those of English make (Saynor's)
are the best. One of moderate size, about four inches
long, is most convenient for the pocket. Another, of

larger size, for
heavy work, is de-
sirable. For some
uses those with a
Fig. 26.— PRUNrs-G knife. blade more curved

than in figure 26 will be found convenient.

The Buddixg-Knife has a broad, flat blade, the edge
of which is rounded outwards, to make the incision in the
bark more readily. It has an ivory haft, thin and smooth
4*

Fig. 25.— HEDGE SHEARS.

82

GARDENING FOll THE SOUTH.

at tlie end, for raising the bark. Figure 27 shows the
most common form.

Fk

-BUDDING KNIFE.

The Grafting-Tool (figure 28) is much employed in
cleft-grafting large
stocks. It is used
lor splitting the
stock, and has a
sharp edge, curved
inwards, to cut the
bark in splitting.
The wedge part is ^^s- 2S.-grafting-tool.

used to keep the stock o^Den while the scions are inserted.
The Lawn-Scythe, with snath, is very necessary, to
keep the grass smooth shaven and of that soft
green, velvety appearance, so desirable. Those
made of a thin plate of steel, welded to an iron
back, are light and durable, and may be whetted
until the blade is within half an inch of the back,
without grinding. Where there is much extent
of lawn, a Lawn-Mowing Machine, drawn by one
or two horse-power, will be found convenient.
The Bush-Hook (figure 29) is useful about
old rose hedges, and is valuable for clearing up
the undergrowth in opening
new lands.

The Grass-Edger (figure
30) is used for trimming the
edges of grass plots. A long
handle is attached, and it is
pressed forward, guided by
a line or the eye of the operator.

Fig, 29.— Busn- Fig. SO.

nOOK. GRASS-EDGER

GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

83

3. Instruments for Designating, Watering, etc.

Tallies. — Those for common use, to last a single sea-
son, are most readily prepared from the white pine of
which most dry-goods boxes are made. The wood is very
soft. For marking trees or grafts, a small tally, three-
quarters of an inch wide hj three inches long, notched at
one end for attachmg the Avire, is commonly used.
The name of the variety should be marked on it with
a lead pencil, immediately after the tally has been
brushed over with a tliin coat of white
lead. If marked while the paint is wet,
it can be read as long as the tally lasts ;
otherwise it will soon be effaced.

Another kind is made, about six or
eight inches long by an inch wide, of the
same material, and marked in the same
manner, to be stuck in the beds of flowers
and vegetables, to mark the different
varieties. Zinc labels are very dm-able.
They may be cut in any desired shape
out of slieet zinc. Write on it with an
ink made of two parts fine verdigris, two
sal ammoniac, one lampblack. After this
is made fine in a mortar, add twenty
parts water; bottle and shake it oc-
casionally some days before using. It
will keep for years, if the bottle is kept
cork do-svTiward, to prevent the ammonia
from escaping. The labels should be
fastened to the limbs Avith a stout Avire. Orchards should
be maj^ped, that the names may be ascertained should the
tallies get lost or become effaced.

Folding-Ladders are very convenient in gathering
fruit. The rounds are fastened by pivots at the ends on
which they turn, and when the ladder is folded up, they
lie in grooves made in the side-pieces. Figure 31 shows
the ladder both open and closed.

I

31. — FOLDINa
LADDER.

84

GARDENING FOK TIIK SOUTH.

The Standing-Ladder is also indispensable in the fruit
garden. It should be made light, with flat steps.
The supports are two sticks of light timber fixed
to the top, with hooks and straps, to be expanded
or contracted at pleasure. It should be six
or ei2;ht feet high.

The Orchardist'S Hook is a light rod with
a hook at the end, with a movable piece of wood
which slides upon the rod, as in figure 32. The
branches to be gathered from are brought near
by the hooked end, and retained in place by-
hooking the sliding-piece over another branch.
Gauden Engines. — These are made of wood
or iron in many forms, and act upon the princi-
ple of the forcing j)ump. The tubes should be
made very strong, or they will be likely to burst

in case of any obstruction. They are very convenient for

watering on an

extended scale, as

in plantations of

strawberries, etc.
Watering-Pots

are well - known

implements, very

necessary in a

garden or green-house (figure 33

per.

Fie;. 33. — watering pot.

The best are of cop-
There should be two or
three roses of different fineness
Hang them so the water can
run out, when not in use. Tin
ones should be painted oc-
casionally, to prevent rusting.
In the French watering-pot,
figure 34, by the peculiar
construction of the handle,

Fig. 34.— FRENCH WATERING POT. the Weight is more easily

GAEDEN IMPLEMENTS.

85

35. — ^VIKS SHIELD.

balanced in the hands, which enables the user to empty
with far less muscular exertion than with a pot upon the
old plan.

Hand Syringes are useful in watering plants in gar-
dens or in pots. They will also be found very necessary
in the jiit or green-house, in
washing the foliage of plants.
They should be made of copper,
with several caps of greater or
less fineness. There should also
be an inverted or gooseneck cap,
for washing the under side of
leaves. They are made of any desired size, wp to a gallon.
Insects may be expelled fi-oni plants by using an infusion
of tobacco or sulphur-water for sprinkling them.

Yixe-Shields (fig. 35) are for protectuig young plants
from the cucumber and squash bugs. The top may be
covered with millinet. They should be about eight or
ten inches high, and made bevelled,
60 that one can be set within the
other Avhen put away. They are
made with or without a pane of
glass in the top. Put around any ^^; 'J— -*i^
half-hardy plant, with a lock of

1 „„ • .1 ,1 (V 1 Fig. 30.— HAND-GLASS.

hay m them, they afiord a very ^
good protection during winter. With a movable top,
containing a pane or two of glass, they ai'c a tolerable
substitute for the next described.

The Haxd-Glass. — The frame is made either of hard
wood or cast iron. It is made in two parts, to give air
readily to the plants. Its mode of construction is readily
seen in figure 36. It is used for pi-otecting and forward-
ing vegetables, etc.

Bell-Glasses (figure 37) of difierent sizes are cheajjer,
and in protecting and forwarding small plants are as use-
ful as the hand-Qflass,

86

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fig. 37. — BELL-GLASS.

Plant-Protectors. — These are made as follows : Cut
up a three-fourth inch plank, at least a foot wide, into
lengths of twelve or fifteen inches. These are the covers
or tops, which are to screen your plants from sun and frost.
Raise them above the plants you wish to protect, by nail-
ing them at each end to a narrower bit of thick plank,
say nine inches in width, and of
the same length as the width of
the cover, as at «, figure 38.
They are also made by tacking
together at the edge two pieces
of plank a foot square, as at b.
They may be braced with strips
of lath, where dotted, if desired.
When you fear a frost, put these
over the hills of beans, cucumbers, etc. It will protect
them perfectly. If you wish to transplant your cab-
bages, or anything in your flower-garden, do not wait
for a " season," but do it any day, just at night, in fresh-
dug soil, giving the roots a good watering. Cover them
daily with the protectors,
taking them off at night,
that they may be freshened
with tlie dew. After a
couple of days it will be ^
sufficient to stand the pro- ^ —

, ^ -, ^, ,1 Fig. 38.— PLANT PROTECTOK.

tector on edge on the south "

side of the plants, to keep off the mid-day sun. In
three or four days the roots will be established. They
are also of use when the weather is so dry that hills
of melons, squashes, etc., will not come up. Water
the hills with a fine rose watering-pot, and lay the
protector over the hills, and the young seedlings will soon
make their appearance. When above ground, take off
the protector and let the dew fall upon them at night, and
in a day or two dispense with it entirely. They are ex-

PKOPAGATION OF PLANTS. 87

cellent, also, to put over tlie patches of newly planted
flower seeds, causing them to come up much sooner. Re-
jriove them when necessary to admit mild rains, and en-
tirely when the plants appear.

Shingles, sharpened so as to enter the earth easily, are
very useful to protect plants, newly set out, from the di-
rect rays of the sun ; two of them, inserted at right angles
to each other, with the point of the angle to the south, and
inclined so that the tops come a little over the plant, will
screen it completely from the sun, and at the same time
allow the night dews and gentle rains to refresh the plants.

CHAPTER IX.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS.

There are two modes of pi'opagating plants, viz., hy
seed and hy division. Species are propagated by seed,
but varieties, except in the case of annuals, generally by
division, as they do not always continue true from seed.
There are also two modes o'i propagating hy division ; in
the one, the plants root in the ground as suckers, layers,
and cuttings, and in the other they are made to unite with
another plant, as in budding, grafting, and inarching.
"While all plants are naturally multiplied by seed, most
kinds also allow of propagation by division, as by taking
offsets, or parting their roots, by suckers, cuttings, run-
ners, layers, etc. Propagation by seed often produces
new A'arieties, which are only to be perpetuated by division
of their roots, cuttings, layers, or by budding and grafting
upon stocks.

Propagation by Seed. — The most healthy and vigorous
plants are generally produced by seed, though many varie-

88 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

ties can only Le perpetuated by propagating by division
The following conditions are necessary, says Thompson,
for successful projDagation by seed : 1st. That the seeds be
perfectly ripened. 2d. That they have been properly kept
until the period of sowing. 3d. That they be sown at
the proper time ; and, finally, that the sowing be per-
formed in the proper manner. And it may be added that
to accomplish the object of sowing, the seeds sown must be
of just the kind intended to be used, and true to that kind.

The Maturity and Soundness of Seeds are necessary, to

ensure the growth and perfection of the young plant.
These can generally be determined by their external and
internal appearance. If in cutting the larger seeds the
substance of the seed be of the natural color, and the em-
bryo be fresh and perfect, it will probably germinate. So
if externally they have a clear color and a fresh, plump
appearance, they -will be likely to grow. The soundness
of those that sink in water when good, (and most seeds do,)
may be tested by putting them in warm water. Nearly
all sound seeds will sink in this fluid in a short time. Of
the finer seeds, a skillful eye will determine the quality
with the microscope. But the surest test is, planting a
few properly in a pot, protecting the surface from dryuag
with a square of glass, and keeping it in a warm room,
or plunged in a hot-bed or in a pit, giving it the heat nat-
urally required by the species for germination.

Seeds are more often unsound from mouldiness or age,
than xTom not having been properly ripened. They should
be stored where they Avill. be least afiected by the presence
of moisture and the changes of temperature. About 40°,
but not lower, is said to be the best. Many oily seeds be-
come rancid, and will not vegetate when sown.

Generally, seeds should be kept dry, but acorns and
chestnuts thus kept soon lose their vitality and must be
kept until planted in rather dry loam, or slightly dampen-

PEOPAGATION OF PLAiH'S. 89

ed moss, well packed. Nearly all seeds keep better in
closely packed dry soil, the air being thus mostly exclud-
ed, than hermetically sealed in bottles. In close stopped
bottles or jugs, the air often becomes saturated with the
moisture and exhalations from the seeds, which, in the im-
pure, damp, close atmosphere, soon become completely
spoiled. But peas, beans, and other seeds, where liable
to insects, after they are well dried, should be put in bot-
tles well corked, and a few drops of spirits of turpentine,
of chloroform, or a bit of camphor, put in with the seeds.
Either of these is fatal to these insects. For most seeds
it is sufficient that they be gathered, when fully ripe, in
dry weather, and thoroughly dried before they are thresh-
ed. If any moisture then appears, dry them further, and
store in paper bags where they will be free from damp
and vermin. In the first column of the following table
is given the time that certain seeds will keep, according
to Vilmorin ; the second column gives the earlier table of
Cobbet. It is generally best to select fresh seed, as seeds
lose their vitality very soon.

Years. Yea?-s. Years.

Artichoke 5— 3 Dock 3— l|Peniiyroyal — 2

Asparagus 4 — 4: Endive 9 — 4iPotato (Sweet) 2 — 3

Balm — 2!Es;g Plant — T^Potato (Irish) — 3

Basil 6— SiFennel 5— 5; Pumpkin 5—10

Bean 6— 2 Garlick — 3 Purslane S— 2

" (Kidney) 3— 1 jGourd 5—10 Radish 5—2

Beet 0— lOiHop — 2;Rampiou 5— 2

Bora5:e 3 — 4|Horseradish — 4!Rape — 4

Broccoli 5 — 4|Hyssop — 6 Rhubarb 3— 1

Burnet 2 — (i; Jerusalem Artichoke. — SiRosemary 4— 3

Cabbage 5— 4 Kale 5— 4|R'ie — 3

Calabash 5—^1 " (Sea) 3— 3iRuta-baga 5—4

Camomile — 2'Lavender — 2 Sasro — 3

Capsicum 4— 2|Leek 2— 2:Saisify.'. 2— 2

Caraway 2 — 4 Lentil — 3 Samphire — 3

Carrot 4 — liLettuce 5 — 3 Savory 3 — 2

Cauliflower 5 — 4l Mangel Wurzel 5— lOlScorzonera 2— 2

Cclerv — 10; Marjoram 2 — 4jShalot — 4

Chervil 2— (iiMarigold — 3,Skirret 2—4

Cives 2—3 Melon 5— lOlSorrel 2—7

Com 2— 3 Mint — 4:Spinach 5— 4

Corn-Salad 5— 2:Mustard 5—4 Squash 5—10

Coriander — 3'Nasturlium 5— 2|Tansy — 3

Cress 5— 3|Okra — 4 Tarragon — 4

" (AVinter. 3— Onion 2— 2 Thyme 2—2

" (^Vater) 4— [Parsley 3— elTomato 5—2

Cucumber 5— 10, Parsnip 2— 1 Turnip ..5—4

Dandelion —10 Pea (English) 4— llWomiwood — 2

so GARDENIKG FOR THE SOUTH.

The Time of Sowing all indigenous seeds in any locality
is most favorable when they naturally fall from the plants.
Hardy annuals, likewise, do much better if sown in au-
tumn, or quite early in the spring. If not in the ground
early, they flower late and badly. There are some excep-
tions, as in the case of haws and cedar berries, which hang
until swallowed by birds, and sprout more freely after
having undergone the digestive process. Some exotics
of a hardy character likewise succeed best when sown at
the thne the seed falls, vegetating in autumn, growing
slowly through the colder months, and progressing rap-
idly when spring opens. Others coming from a different
climate, starting into growth in autumn, would perish
during the winter months ; but kept and sown when the
temperature of* the air and soil in spring is suitable
for vegetating them, they will advance rapidly as the
weather becomes more and more favorable to growth.
In some cases where it might be best to sow at the
natural period, if the aim was simply to continue the spe-
cies, other motives render it necessary to sow at other
times. A succession of flowers or a continued supply of
vegetables during the season may, in tlie case of annual
or biennial plants, make repeated sowings at proj^er inter-
vals desirable.

Trees and shrubs it is well to sow, if practicable, at the
natural period, but it is desirable the seedlings should not
make their appearance above ground iintil a favorable
season for growth. This is most readily secured in the
case of seeds that do not keep well dry by stratification
or mixing them with soil in autumn, but not encouraging
growth until spring. This is done by placing a layer of
seeds ujion the surface of the soil, then a layer an inch or
two thick of sand or light soil, and so on, the whole being
laid so as to form a cone, over which is spread a covering
of soil to protect from wet and frost. This should be
done where least likely to invite the attacks of mice and

TKOPAGATION OF PLANTS. 91

Other animals. Small quantities of seeds of this kind may
be stratified in boxes and flower pots, covered from rats
and mice and placed in a cool situation until spring. Holly
seed requii-es to be kept thus two years. When vegeta-
tion begins to take place, the seeds, still mixed with the
earth in which they have lain, can be sown in soil properly
prepared. The larger seeds can be taken from the soil
and planted out in the drills at proper distances.

Seeds must be sown in the proper manner.^Seedsmen
are often blamed for selling bad seed, when the sole fault
is Avith the planter. That seed may germinate, moisture,
air, and a certain degree of warmth, varying with each
variety, are necessary. Chickweed will vegetate at 32°
F., but for most seeds of plants of temperate climates the
best germinating temperature is about 60° F.; of half-hardy
plants 70° F.; of tropical plants about 80° F.; but some
require 100° F.

Light must also be excluded until the root can derive
nourishment from the soil. The first efiect of air, heat,
and moisture upon the seed, is to change its starchy mat-
ter into the proper food of the embryo. If at this time
the seed be withered by exposure to heat without sufficient
covering, it will perish. It often happens that seeds are
planted in a fresh-dug soil, and the above change in the
properties of the seed takes place, but the earth not being
pressed upon it, the seed dries up and the embryo perishes.
Others, again, are buried too deeply, and though the seed
sw'clls, yet sufficient air and warmth are not obtained to
give the embryo life. The seed should be just so far
covered as to exclude light, and afibrd barely sufficient
moisture for its wants. The first thing in sowing is a
suitable prej^aration of the soil, so that the young roots
thrown out may easily penetrate it. It must be made
more or less fine for diffi^rent seeds. Peas and beans do
not require the soil to be as finely pulverized as small
seeds. The seeds must also be firmly fixed in the soil, and

92 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

pressed by the earth in every part, in order to retain moist-
ure sufficient to encourage vegetation ; but they should not
be so deeply buried as to be deprived of air, or have their
ascending shoots impeded by too mucli soil above. In all
cases, seeds should be sown in fresh-dug soil, that they
may have the benefit of the moisture therein, but they
should never be put in when the soil is really wet, as the
ground will bake and the seed perish. Moist weather in
summer is excellent for putting in seeds, provided the
ground is still friable. Just before a light rain is the best
possible time for sowing turnips and other summer-soAvn
crops.

Seeds of most kinds should be sown in drills or rows.
In these they can be placed at any required depth, while
if broadcast, some will be uncovered, and others too
deeply buried in the earth. In drills you can know also
where to look for the young jDlants ; they can have the
soil dug around them ; they will thus grow much faster,
and are much more easily thinned and cultivated. When
the seeds are planted, the earth should generally be press-
ed upon them with a roller, by treading with the feet,
in the case of large seeds, by smoothing the surface
with the back of the spade, or by walking over them on a
board for the smaller kinds. Pressing the earth upon
them will retain the moisture about them, and hasten
their vegetation. "When they come uj), keep them free
from weeds, and thin them as hereafter directed in treat-
ing of each plant.

A great deal of the subsequent growth of the j)lant de-
pends upon their not being sown too thickly, or at least
thinned properly as soon as the young seedlings appear.
A plant raised among a lot of crowded seedlings is very
apt to die before it has made its fourth leaf This seldom
happens if the seeds are sown thin, and a little powdered
charcoal is mixed with the earth.

Some seeds, which, like those of the carrot, adhere to-

PROPAGATION" OF PLANTS. 93

gether, must be rubbed in the hands with dry sand to in-
sure a more equal distribution in the drill. Others, like
the beet, are covered with a hard shell, and others still with
a tough skin. Both these may be soaked in water until it
is somewhat softened, and by notching into the latter,
germination is hastened. For broadcast sowing, very
small seeds are often mixed with fine soil in order to en-
sure their being scattered more equally.

Among the other most frequent causes of failure in seeds
are being sown in too dry earth and sowing them too deep.
Excessive moisture is also to be guarded against, and giv-
ing them too much or too little bottom heat. M. Appelius
observes that seedlings raised in hot-beds or frames fre-
quently cause disappointment from bad management.
Asters, Stocks, Phlox, Petunias, Pansies, etc., do better
in a very gentle hot-bed, and produce stronger plants less
likely to die off. When the dung of a hot-bed has given
off its first heat, it begins to absorb moisture from the
earth with which it is covered. And as the earth of the
bed generally slopes to the south, the greater part of the
water given runs off toward the front, and at the back of
the bed the earth in which the seeds are sown is often too
drJ^ Hence seeds that vegetate slowly and need constant
damp, as Phlox and Pansy, should be sown at the fi'ont
of the bed, and those that grow more readily at the top
or back. The time required for certain seeds to germi-
nate at a temperature from 52° to 65° is, according to M.
Appelius: garden cress, 2 days; spinach, 3; cabbage,
tiirnip, and lettuce, 4 ; peas, endive, poppy, melons, cucum-
bers, mustard, 5 ; lupine, lentil, horseradish, radish, onions,
(often also in 15 days), leeks, G; barley, rye, maize, broc-
coli, beans, beet, 7; wheat, thyme, marjoram, and some
kidney beans, 8 ; marrowfat peas, 9 ; vetch, sugar beet,
tobacco, hemp, 10 ; tomato, sea-kale, scorzonera, carrots,
savory, basil, stocks, celery, 12 (turnip rooted celery some-
times 20) ; anise, fennel, 13 ; sunflower, artichoke, burnet,

94 GAEDElJaXG FOR THE SpUTH.

14; balm, clover, 15; lavender, purslane, 16; sage, pep-
per, 20 ; joarsnip, j^arsley, asparagus, 21 ; and potato in
28 days. It seems that seeds lighter than water do not
germinate so soon as those heavier.

Though seeds will vegetate with due supplies of heat
and moisture, a fertile soil is necessary for their further
progress. Fine, light, rich mould favors the vegetation
and early progress of most seeds, though many, after they
are a little advanced, flourish best in strong, heavy loam.
A compost of peat or leaf-mould, fine sand, and well rot-
ted manure, should be prepared, and if all the finer seeds
are covered therewith, one great difficulty in growing
fine vegetables on stilF soils 'will be removed, as well as
their early maturity secured. Even in dry weather one
can generally bring up seeds by digging and finely pulver-
izing the earth ; then soak it well with water that has
been some time exposed to the air to raise its temperature ;
then sow the seed in drills of the proper depth, and sift
over the bed a coat of this compost. In the case of large
seeds, as corn, beans, etc., after the ground is prepared,
only the hills or drills need to be thus soaked, and then
covered with the compost.-

Special directions for managing seeds requiring peculiar
care will be given hereafter.

Seeds must not only be properly managed, but there is
no pleasure in growing them unless of the right kind, as
it is very vexatious to sow Early Yorks when you think
you are sowing Drumheads, and vice versa. The way to
avoid such mistakes is either to raise your own seed, care-
fully label them, or to know of Avliom you buy. Your
own eye in the case of many seeds will not assist you at
all in discriminating.

Seed must not only be of the right sort, but true to that
sort. Early York cabbage seed may be sown, or Scarlet
radish seed ; yet, from having been planted near to some
other varieties, the seed is crossed with them and the most

PROPAGATION OF PLA2JTS. 95

valuable qualities of the variety lost. The cabbage may
be late or long-legged, and not head, at all, or the radish
tough and misshapen.

PrcserviDg Seed. — The very finest plants should be
chosen for this purpose, that is, those most true to their
kind and most perfect in shape and quality. In the cab-
bage, for instance, a small, short stem, well formed, head
with few loose leaves ; in the turnip, large bulb, small neck,
few, short and slender-stalked leaves, and solid flesh. In
the radish, high color (unless white,) small neck, few and
short leaves ; and in tlie case of flowers, seed should be
saved only from those most perfectly developed.

Great care should be taken to preserv^e the varieties un-
mixed, for, as just stated, if varieties of the same species,
or very similar species, are planted near each other, they
will cross and produce untrue seed. In this way, it is
true, valuable varieties often originate, but the chances
are that the produce will be worthless. There can be no
cross between a cabbage and a carrot, because they are
of totally diflerent families, and there is no similai'ity ; but
all the varieties of cabbage will cross with each other,
with Brussels sprouts, in short with all others of the genus
Brassiea. So of corn ; in a few years the early varieties
from tlie North, planted in Southern gardens, become so
intermingled with the oi'dinary sorts, that the early char-
acter is lost. The difliculty of keeping seeds pure renders
it advisable not to save seeds of two varieties of any spe-
cies the same year, excejDt in large gardens. Many kinds
of seed it is more advantageous to buy of the regular
seedsmen, than to grow and save them at home. The
finest seeds in the world are grown where an amateur
makes one or two species of plants, like Ti-uffaut with
Asters, a specialty, using every possible care for their im-
provement.

Crossing and Hybridizing. — These terms are used by
many as meaning the same thmg; strictly speaking, hy-

96

GAEDENIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

FLAX FLOWER.

hridizing is when two distinct species are made to fonn a
union, while crossing is where the same takes place with
varieties of the same species. To make the matter plain,
we must give the structure of the flower. The organs

concerned in the produc-
tion of the fruit or seed
are the stamens, which
correspond to the male
organs, and the j^^^tll or
pistils, which are tlie
female organs. These
two are for ^he most part
in one flower, and difier
greatly in number in tlie
difierent families. The simplest case is where both kinds
are in one flower, as in fig. 39, which represents a flower
of the flax split down, to show the arrangement of its
parts. In figure 40 all of the flov/er is removed, except
the stamens and pistil, which are en-
larged. The central body is the pistil,
and is surrounded by five stamens, Avhich
are shorter. It will bo seen that each
stamen is composed of tw^o j^arts ; a
slender portion, the filament, which bears
a two-lobed body, the anther, Avliich pro-
duces a fine fertilizing jDOwdcr, the 7:>oZ/e;?.
The pistil has an enlarged base, the ovary,
which contains the ovules, which are to
become seeds ; above this is iisually a
prolonged portion, the style. The styles
may be one or several ; in the case of the flax there are
five, each one of which is surmounted by a stigma, that
part which receives the fertilizing powder, or pollen.

The stamens and pistils are not always found together
in the same flower. In Indian corn they are separated,
but on the same plant the tassel containing the stamens

Fig. 40. — STAMENS
AND PISTILS.

rEOPAGATIOIvr OF PLANTS. 97

or male orgrms, while tlic silk and eai* are the pistillate
l^arts; such plants are called inoncecious. In other in-
stances, as spinach, the flowers which contain the stamens
are not found upon the same individual plant with those
that bear the pistils. These are called dioecious plants.

Cross breeding, where both sexes are united in the same
blossom, is accomplished by removing the stamens and
dusting the pistil with the pollen of a different variety, a
simple process ; but from the resulting seed a new variety,
partaking somewhat of the qualities of both parents, will
be produced. Care is required in the process. A blossom
must be selected not fully expanded, and all the anthers
be cut out and removed. Protect the blossom with a
loose bag of gauze to keep off the bees. As soon as the
blossom is fully expanded, collect on a camel's hair pencil
the pollen from a full blown flower of the variety selected
for the male parent, and apply it to the stigma or point
of the pistil. The conditions are a careful extraction of
the anthers before they are advanced enough to fertilize
the pistil, and to apply the selected pollen w^hen in perfec-
tion, that is, in a powdery state, upon the stigma while
still moist, and to prevent natural fertilization from pollen
carried by insects or by the wind. Cross bi-eeding often
takes place naturally. If difierent varieties of corn are
planted near together, often three or four kinds and colors
of grain will be found upon one ear from natui-al inter-
mixture.

But there are limits to the power of crossing plants.
Those between two varieties of the same species, as be-
tween two kinds of corn or pear, are common enough, and
these are fruitful and produce perfect seeds. In the same
genera, also, certain nearly allied species are capable of
fertilizing each other; tlie offspring in this case is called a
hybrid, and does not always produce perfect seeds. Thus
the different species of the strawberry, also those of the
gourd and melon family, readily intermix. So also do
5

98 GAEDENIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

those of tlie rose. But no one has succeeded in crossing
the apple with the pear, or the gooseberry with the cur-
rant, though in both eases they are species of the same
genus. Still less will such totally different plants as
oranges and iDomegranates intermix.

Our flower-gardens in modern times have been greatly
enriched by cross breeding and hybridizing. Thus have
originated a great number of new and beautiful roses,
rhododendrons, azaleas, camellias, fuchsias, dahlias, etc.,
so beautiful in color and perfect in form and habit. There
is no doubt of their great utility here. Cross breeding
and hybridizing, it is claimed, are processes equally useful
in fruit-growing ; but it is certain that very few artificially
cross-bred fruits are yet in cultivation, and of true hybrids
it is doubtful if there are any which are valuable. It is
certain that those most successful in producing improved
varieties have not generally resorted to cross breeding.

True hybrids rarely produce perfect seeds, and those
that do, revert to one of the parents after a few genera-
tions. From not being subjected to this drain on their
vitality, they frequently bloom more freely, and the blos-
soms remain longer ia perfection than those of plants that
seed freely. Seed-bearing is the greatest tax upon the
vigor of a plant to which it can be subjected. Hybrid
varieties are increased and continued in existence by prop-
agating them by division.

Propagation by Division,— Every other mode of prop-
agating plants, ex(?ept by seed, whether it be by bulbs,
tubers, runners, suckers, parting the roots, layers, cuttings,
budding or grafting, is effected by a division of the plant
to be increased.

Bulbs. — Propagation by division, in the case of bulbs or
tubers, is analogous to sowing seeds. The new bulbs may
be separated when the leaves of the mother-plant decay.
The onion, hyacinth, tulip, etc., are generally taken up

PEOPAGATION OP PLANTS- 99

and stored in a moderately diy, airy place, until it is the
proper season for gro"svth, and are thought to grow better
in consequence of their surplus moisture being evaporated.
The corms or bulbs of the crocus, thus treated, produce bet-
ter plants and stronger flowers. Removal gives an oppor-
tunity for changing the soil before the bulbs are reset.
There are, however, many scaly bulbs, as the lily, that are
injured if long out of the ground, and if not planted again
at the proper season, the strength of the plant is much
diminisJied. Bulbs generally like a light, rich, sandy soil,
well pulverized, and most bulbs and tubers require to be
planted more deeply than seeds.

Tubers may be taken up when mature, and kept until
the proper season for replanting. They may generally be
cut into as many pieces as they have eyes, and each eye
will produce a plant. The tubers of the Chinese yam have
no visible buds, but if cut into pieces and planted, buds
will push out from the wruikles that appear upon its surface.

Runners are thrown out by the strawberry and many
other plants. They spring from the crown of the plant,
deriving from it their nourishment, and at a greater or less
distance from the parent plant throw out a bud above and
small projections or rudiments of roots, which, in favora-
ble conditions, strike into the soil and help to nourish the
young plant above. The growing jjoint of the runner
extends to form another new plant beyond. Runners
cannot well take root in dry weather, but in contact with
moist soil the roots soon strike. To facilitate the rooting,
the joint is often pegged down, or a small stone placed
over it a little behind the bud, which preserves the earth
in a moist condition as Avell as keeps the joint close to the
soil. If it is desired to obtain as many plants as j^ossible,
do not permit the parent-plant to waste its vigor in pro-
ducing flowers and fruit, but cut off the flower stalks as
they appear. If strong plants are desired, stop each run-

100 GAKDEOTNG TOR THE SOUTH.

ner after it has matle one or two plants. The iictv j^Uxnts,
when well rooted, are ready for removal at the proper
season.

Suckers. — These i^i'oeeed cither from the root or from
the stem, or collar of the plant. Hoot suckers are pro-
duced from those plants which send out stray horizontal
roots, as the sucker is in fact a bud from one of these
roots which has pushed its way through the soil and be-
come a stem. As this stem generally forms fibrous roots
of its own above the point of junction with the parent-
root, it may be slipped off and planted like a rooted cut-
ting.

Root suckers are thrown up by some plants, like the
currant, close to the main stem ; by others, like the plum
and paper mulberry, at considerable distance. Ras^^ber-
ries, poplars, roses, lilacs, and many other shrubs and
trees, are thus readily propagated, the offspring with the
roots that propeidy belong to it being carefully separated
from the parent and replanted in suitable soil. The roots
of the parent-plant should be injured as little as possible.
Remove the soil, and if the sucker springs from a large
I'oot, detach a slice of it with the sucker instead of sever-
ing it. The supply of nourishment being diminished by
separation from the iDarent-jjlant, the head of the plant re-
moved must be cut in, except in the case of coniferous
plants, to prevent evaporation.

The great objection to plantmg suckers is, that plants
grown from them have a much greater tendency to throw
out suckers, and thereby become exceedingly annoying in
gardens, by encroaching on other plants, than if propagat-
ed by other methods.

Stem Suckers spring from the stem of the old i>lant
where its base is beneath the surface. Shoots originating
at this point frequently strike root and become rooted
suckers. In plants in which this natural tendency is not

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 101

sufficiently strong, it may be increased by earthing them
up well "with good mould, whicli may be kept moist by
mulching. The quince and other plants are propagated
in this manner.

Propagation by Slips, — This is the mode in -which many
small undershrubs, like box, sage, rue and lavender, are in-
creased. They are dug up in spring or fall, and the young
shoots, with some portion of root attached, slij^ped off
with the thumb and finger, and if small, they are planted
a year in nursery rows. Many kinds of plants grow from
slips of the young branches with little or no root attached.
The number of young plants to be obtained by division
can be increased in some cases by sprinkling fine soil
among^them that the lower branches may strike root in
it, or taking up the plant and resetting deeper than before.
Box edging when overgrown, if taken up in spring, partly
divided and replanted so that the base of each shoot is
covered, can, after rooting, again be divided into as many
plants as there Avere shoots. Stem suckers are often called
slij)S.

Parting the Roots is the ordinary way of increasing
herbaceous perennials with annual stems, such as phloxes,
chrysanthemums, etc., which can be taken up in spring or
autumn, and divided by hand, or Avith the trowel, knife or
spade, into a nmnber of plants with a portion of root to
each.

Propagation by Layers, — A layer is a branch or shoot
bent down into, and covered with, the soil, in order to
make it take root. Meanwhile it is fed by the parent
stock with whicli its communication is, however, partially
obstructed to make the returning sap form roots, instead
of going back into the stock. With some plants a suf-
ficient "check is given by simply bending and projicrly
covering it with earth ; the branch is held in its place
by hooked pegs until it takes root. But in general this is

102 GAKDENi:!^G FOK TUE SOUXn.

not enough. The most common way of obstructing the
return flow of sap is when the shoot is bent into the earth
to half cut it through near tlie bend, the free portion of
the wound being called a tongue. This is kept open
by a bit of twig, or piece of crock. Such layers are in
fact cuttings, only partially sejjarated from parent-j^lants.
The incision is made through the bark at the base of a
bud. The object of the gardener is to induce the layer
to emit roots into the earth at the tongue. There are
other modes of effecting this.

With this view, he twists the shoot half round, so as to
injure the wood vessels ; he heads it back so that only a
bud or two appears above ground, and when much water-
ing is required, he places a handful of silver sand around
the tongued part, then pressing the earth down with his
foot, so as to secure the layer, he leaves it without further
care. The intention of both tongueing and twisting is to
prevent the return of the sap from the layer into the main
stem, while a small portion is allowed to rise out of the
latter into the former. The effect of this operation is to
compel the returning sap to organize itself as roots, in-
stead of passing downwards to form wood ; the bending
back is to assist this object, by j^reventing the expenditure
of sap in the completion of leaves. The bud left on the
tongue favors the emission of roots, as a tendency exists in
nearly all plants to throw out roots at the joints, and the
silver sand secures the drainage so necessary to cuttings.

The old mode of forming the tongue, and the best, un-
less the shoot is brittle, is shown in the figure, where
the tongue is shown upon the underside of the layer.
" A plan," says the Gardener's Monthly, " which is now
much in vogue Avith the best propagators, is to cut the
tongue 071 the upper surface. On bending down into the
soil, the tongue is then twisted on one side, and the young
shoot intended to form the future plant may then be lifted
up and bent towards the parent as rapidly as one pleases,

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS.

103

without any clanger of it snapping oif. There is another
advantage in this Avay of layering. It is often necessary,
in the stereotyped way, to place a chip or something be-
tween the tongue to keep it open. By this, the twisting
of the tongue aside keeps it always separate from the old
cut. Again, by this mode, very green shoots can be oper-
ated on, — magnolias, for instance, in June, and plants be
got well rooted by fall, instead of waiting for the wood to
ripen in August, when we have to wait for another year

Fig. 41. — LAYERING.

before our layer is sufficiently rooted to take from its
parent. Another method of forming the tongue is to
make the cut upon the side, as in figure 41.

Instead of forming a tongue to make a shoot throw out
roots, the branch may be split in the centre for two inch-
es, more or less according to its size, and the parts sepa-
rated with a bit of wood. Roots will be thrown out
along the edges of the split. The returning sap may also
be arrested by ringing ; in which case a ring of bark is
removed from the branch for the purpose, or by a Avire
twisted tightly around it pinching the bark.

When the roots are thrown out naturally wherever
a joint touches the earth, as in the verbena, the branches
only require pegging down to make them fonn new plants.

104 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Where it is difficult to get the shoot to be layered down
to the soil, a portion of the soil may be raised to the plant,
as the Chinese gardeners practice in a pot, the earth in
wliich should be kept steadily moist.

Another mode of layering is by insertion of the grow-
ing point in the soil. "When the shoots of a raspberry or
gooseberry are of some length and firmness, if the grow-
ing points are inserted in well-dug soil, they will foi'm a
nice bundle of roots and a good bud ready for trans^dant-
ing in autumn. This is worthy of trial Avith many other
plants.

The grape is best layered by digging a trench and lay-
ing therein a thrifty cane in the spring ; let remain until
young shoots, three or four inches long, are formed ; then
gently draw a little of the soil into the trench covering
the parent-cane, and as the shoots increase in strength,
fdl up the trench, and each young sJioot Avill make a fine
plant by autumn.

In general, the best season for layering is before the sap
begins to rise in the spring, or from the last of June, dur-
ing summer on wood of the same season's growth. A
good time for roses is after the first bloom is over. Lay-
ered at this time, they will generally be fit to take up the
ensuing winter, but most plants require twelve months,
and some two years, before they will root. In nurseries
the gi-ound is prepared around each stool by digging and
manuring, and the branches laid down neatly, so as to
form a circle of rays around the stool, with the ends ris-
ing all around the circle to about the same height.

tdttini^Si — A cutting is a part of a plant detached from
the parent-stock, Avhich, placed in proper conditions, will
emit roots and become in its turn a new plant. It may be
a portion of the stem, the branches, or the root, and some-
times even a leaf.

In a cutting, as in a growing j^lant, tAvo forces are in
constant activity, those of absorption and of evaporation.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 105

Its life cannot be long continued, unless these correspond
with each other. A cutting, from the lack of roots, absorbs
feebly from the soil ; hence evaporation must be diminislied
to correspond, and the base of the cutting must be in con-
tact with a substance more or less humid. Evaporation
is diminished by planting in a northern exposure, shading,
the use of bell-ghasses, etc. The more herbaceous or im-
mature a cutting may be, the greater care is required to
protect it from excessive evaporation.

Cuttings of hardy deciduous trees and shrubs should
be taken oif after the leaves fill, or before the sap rises in
the spring. Those that strike readily in the open ground
in mild climates may be planted out to form the callus,
and be ready to enter into growth with the opening spring.
In more northern climates they may be prepared for plant-
ing, and stored in moistened moss or damp earth, and
kept from frost. The callus will be forming, and they
will be ready to plant in early spring. Generally, cuttings
should not be taken when the sap is in full flow, as moist-
ure is then rapidly evaporated and the cutting exhausted
before roots are formed. They should be taken when the
plant is dormant, or when a new shoot has been made
with leaves so fully formed and matured as to be in the
act of forming abundance of woody tissue.

In selecting cuttings, they should come from healthy
plants, from shoots of average strength, well nourished,
but not over vigorous, as the latter are more quickly ex-
hausted when deprived of their usual supply of nourish-
ment. Horizontal branches growing near the ground,
especially those which recline upon it, have a greater ten-
dency to throw out roots. Upright shoots from near the
summit are generally, but not always, less likely to suc-
ceed. The willow and poplar strike freely from old wood,
and trunks of considerable size, if planted, will emit
roots, but of most trees the best plants are made from
well matured shoots of the current year's growth. In the
5*

106 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

case of hard-wooded plants that are hard to strike, it is a
nice matter to select a portion of shoot in which the wood
is neither too old and hard, from which roots will not be
readily emitted, or too young and soft, as in this case they
will damj) off. Rose cuttings strike most readily when
not quite fully matured. The jDroper state of firmness dif-
fers in different sppcies. The age at which a cutting of
any species will strike best or strike at all, is determined
by experiment, but when once ascertained, it is invai-iably
the same. The proper age of an untried species may be
proximately determined from that of the most closely re-
lated species in which it is known, and will often prove
to be right if the species are nearly allied.

Some cuttings require little prepai*ation. A willow may
be sharpened and driven into the soil and will take root,
and in some mstances has done so, if planted bottom up-
wards. Currants and gooseberries, cut into suitable
lengths, will emit roots not only from the callus, but from
any part beneath the soil. Of these, as of cuttings of all
deciduous trees, the buds on the part of the cutting be-
neath the soil must be removed before plantuig, or they
will push and become shoots. Cuttings of which the
leaves have fully performed their office, and the Avood is
ripened early in the season, if made and planted out in
warm, moist soil, will form roots before winter, and be
ready to push into vigorous growth in spring. Such cut-
tings, planted in August or early in September, are nearly
a year in advance of spring-j^lanted cuttings.

Cuttings of plants, difficult to strike, may have a ring
of bark taken out just beneath a joint, at mid-summer,
which will cause a swelling of the branch above the ring.
The branch is cut off in aUtumn at the base of the swell-
ing, the top shortened, and it is planted as a cutting, or
it is buried in the soil for the swelling to soften, and plant-
ed early in the spring. With plants that are not very free
to strike, it is from the joints only that roots can be ex-

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS.

107

pected to grow ; hence, in making cuttings, the shoot is
divided just below a, joint, and it is considered best to
choose a joint between the young wood and that of the
previous season. The cut should be quite smooth, for if
the shoot be bruised, the returning sap will not be able to
reach the wound in sufficient quantity to make it heal over
and form the callus quickly, and the cutting will be likely
to fail. "When the callus is properly formed, there is lit-
tle difficulty in striking cuttings. To form the callus, they
may be mixed with damp sphagnum moss, or old tan, and

kept in a dark cellar until
about to push roots. Cuttings
may be placed loosely in a
common preserving bottle,
with a wet sponge, the water
drained out, and the bottle
stopped with a cork, which has
a half-inch hole in the top to
admit air. This may be kej^t
where the atmosphere ranges
from temperate to summer
heat, and the callus will form
very quickly.

Preparation. — The way to
prepare cuttings for planting
is best shown by an illustration. Figure 43, ^, shows a
cutting formed from a lateral shoot, and has been cut off
from the main branch with a heel attached. Such cuttings
are sometimes torn out and the bottom smoothed Avith a
sharj) knife, and present a larger surface for the absorp-
tion of moisture. At -S is a deciduous, woody cutting,
as commonly prepared. At C is shown a mode in
which grape cuttings are sometimes prej)ared ; the two
extremities of the fragment of branch at the base are
furnished with buds. This is a mode which greatly
favors the emission of roots. Figure 43 is a cutting

Fig. 43. — DIFFERENT FORMS OF
CUTTINGS.

108

GARDENING POU THE SOUTH.

of a geranium readj for insertion in the soil. lu this
case tbe lower leaves have been removed ; they should Lo
clipped but very little farther from tlic base than -where
the cutting is to be inserted in the
soil. The leaves being kept near
the moisl! surface, do not evaporate
as rapidly as "when elevated much
above. The petiole (or leaf stalk)
should be cut off as close to the
stem as can be done ■without injury
to the bark. If much of it is left
and buried in the soil, it is apt to
rot and produce decay in the cut-
ting itself. If an old leaf or two
is left, it vi'ill elaborate more sap
for the formation of new roots than the very young ones.
Cuttings of succulent plants, like the cacti, geranium, etc.,
require to dry a little that the wound may heal over be-
fore inserting in the soil.

The grape is often propagated from a single eye — a

Fig. 43. — GERANIUM CUT-
TING.

Fig. 44. — THREE FORMS OF GUAPE CUTTINGS.

mode now very much in use for new varieties. These
cuttings, shaped in one of the forms shown in fig. 4i, are

TKOPAGATION OF PLANTS. 109

planted in small pots under glass, the surface kept damp,
and bottom heat applied. They soon take, and form the
best vines.

The substances in which cuttings are struck are various.
Many plants, as crysanthemums, currants, etc., will root
in common garden soil. Powdered charcoal, brick dust,
and even jiure water are employed, but the most useful
substance is pure silver sand, white, clean, and fine. Sea
sand must not be used, unless all saline matter is washed
out. Sand contains little food for plants, and they need
little until the roots are formed, but it is free from matters
which induce decay. It is porous and gives ready pas-
sage for the young rootlets, and, being fine, retains moist-
ure by capillary attraction.

Some plants will strike roots if the ends of the cuttings
are kept in water of the proper temperature. Bottles,
vials, and jars, are used to hold the water, but as light is
rather an obstacle to the ready formation of roots, if the
vessel is transparent, it should be shaded. As soon as the
roots begin to appear, the cuttings should be taken from
the water and planted in fine soil, which riiust be kept
moist, and the plants cai'efully shaded until they take
fresh root.

Insertion. — Cuttings of hardy plants that strike readily
in the open air are sometimes inserted with a dibble, but
it is better to cut off by a line a straight edge in the dug
soil, and jilace the prepared cuttings against it ; press the
soil closely around them. These are usually set perpendic-
ularly. If the cuttings are long, they can be set in a slop-
ing direction so as to be within reach of atmospheric in-
fluences. If not herbaceous, they should be inserted so
deep that but two buds will be above the surface, and in
the vine but one. Herbaceous cuttings are mserted less
deeply.

When small cuttings are planted under glass, a pointed
stick of proper size is used. Many kinds may be planted

110 GAEDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

all over the surface of the pot, but most do better when
inserted near the sides or bottom of the pot, and take root
more readily. Tlie soil in all cases about a cutting must
be closely pressed against its extremity, or it will never
sti'ike root.

Temperature. — Many cuttings that rarely strike root in
the open ground do so freely when moist bottom heat is
applied. When the soil is but slightly warmer than the
air, the roots grow in proportion to the top, but if the
soil is constantly warmer, the disposition to produce roots
will be greater than to produce tops. In striking cuttings,
the object is to produce roots, and then leaves will follow ;
hence the temperature of the soil should be somewhat
higher than that in which the species naturally commences
growth, in order to secure good roots, without which
there can be no vigorous leaf-buds. This stimulus should
be applied to soft-wooded plants almost immediately ; oth-
ers may require some delay until the callus is formed. De-
ciduous shrubs in a dormant state should at first be placed
in a temperature very little higher than would excite and
swell their buds on the parent tree. Increase the bottom
heat gradually, keeping the soil warmer than the atmos-
phere. From 50° to 60° is about right for the soil at this
period, and about 50° for the atmosphere for hardy and
green-house plants, increasing the bottom heat to 05° or
70° very gradually, Avhen the roots commence growth, and
care should be taken to prevent its falling lower until root-
ed, when it may gradually be lessened until but little
above that of the air of the place in which they are grow-
ing.

Moisture. — ^The cutting, while rooting, must be kept in
a suitable state of moisture. In vine cuttings, and oth-
ers, nearly covered with soil, all that is required is to keep
that in such an equable state of moisture that the cutting
can have as much as it can appropriate, and no more. A

PKOPAGATION OF PLANTS. Ill

cutting requires more moisture iia the soil than if it were
a rooted plant.

To recapit^^late ; the principal points to he attended to
in making cuttings are to cut off the shoot at a joint, with-
out harming the stem ; to select shoots with well matured
buds ; to fix the end which is to send out roots firmly
in the soil ; to keep up an equable degree of heat and
moisture ; to cut off part of the leaves and shade the
whole, to prevent evaporation, without too much excluding
light, of which a portion is needed to stimulate the cut-
ting into growth ; to keep the soil moist but not too
dam]). It is well to transplant them into small pots,
supplied with water regularly and moderately as soon as
they begin to grow. Cuttings of slow-growing plants are
those most liable to fail. An excess of heat, cold air,
water, and light, are all injurious to tender cuttings.

Pipings. — Cuttings of plants with tubular stems, like
the pink, are called pipings. The upper part of a shoot,
when nearly done growing, is pulled out of the socket
close above a joint, leaving the part pulled out with a pipe
like termination. These pipings usually have their leaves
or " grass " trimmed a little, and are struck in sand about
an inch apart, with a bell-glass closely fixed over them.
If well watered at first, they will not require it again for
some time. They are planted about f of an inch deep,
and treated like other herbaceous cuttings. Under a north
wall they succeed finely.

Root CuttingSt — Many shrubs and plants are in this
way most easily increased. Pyrus Japonica, blackberry,
rose, apple, pear, quince, elm, mulberry, osage orange,
etc., if their roots are cut in pieces some three to nine
inches long, and planted vertically with the end nearest
the stem up, and covered slightly with eai'th, will soon
fonn buds and throw up shoots. Many herbaceous plants,
as sea kale, horseradish, Japan anemone, etc., are thus in-

112 GAEDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

creased. Of these the cuttings are made short, and, except
the second named, planted horizontally.

CHAPTER X.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

Budding is the art of making a bud unite to the stem
or branch of another tree indeijendently of its i^arent. It
is a cutting with a single eye inserted in another tree
called a stock, instead of in the ground. The operation
may be performed at any time after the buds of the new
wood are sufficiently matured. These must be j>erfectly
developed, which is seldom the case until the shoot has
temporarily ceased to lengthen, wliich is indicated by the
perfect formation of the tei'minal bud. If the buds are
desired very early, their maturity may be hastened by
pinching the tops of the shoots.

The ordinary time for budding, north of Virginia, is
from the middle of July to the middle of September, and
the buds in general remain donnant until spring. Roses
are, however, budded earlier, and allowed to make some
growth. In the South, buds are inserted at any time
Avhen the bark will rise, fiom June to October. Those
put in early will make a fine growth before autumn, in
favorable seasons. A very necessary condition to success-
ful budding is that the bark rise freely from the stock, and
this must be in a thrifty, growing state, as when pushing
into new growth a day or too after a fine rain. If the
weather is too cold or the soil too dry, the bark will not
rise. Such trees as make most of their growth early in -the
season must be budded before they cease to grow. Young-
shoots, when the Inids are in a proper state, are cut below

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

IIJ

tlie lowest plump biul. If to be budded immediately, all
the leaf is cut oiF, except the leaf stem, which is left for
convenience of inserting, and in order to attract the sap
into the buds. If tlie buds are to be preserved any time,
the Avhole leaf with half of the leaf stem is removed to
l^revent evaporation. If this is done as soon as they are
cut, they may be preserved, several days in a closely cov-
ered tm box, or tightly corked
preserve jar, if in a cool jjlace,
and indeed, if the wood is well
ripened, though the footstalk of
the leaf will drop^ the bud Avill be
in perfect condition some Aveeks.
No water need be given if there
are several cuttings in the box, as
the air becomes sufficiently satu-
rated with moisture from the cut-
tings themselves.

The strings used for tying are
taken from bass-mats, which
should be wetted before use, until
perfectly pliable. Better strings
are made of white woollen yarn,
as they are more elastic, and
the color reflects the heat. The
pruning and budding knives are the only implements re-
quired for the operation. The condition of the budding
knife is of importance to success. It should be made thin,
and the edge kept perfectly smooth and keen. It is fig-
ured in the chapter upon tools. The mode in wh^ -i bud-
ding is performed is shown in figure 45.

Having the implements, stocks, and buds in the proper
condition, take the shoot in the left hand, and the bud-
ding knife in the right. Insert the edge of the knife in
the shoot, half an inch above the bud to be taken off.
The bud is taken off with a drawing cut, parallel with the

114 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTU,

shoot, removing the bark and the bud attached, with a
slight portion of the wood beneath the bud, half an inch
above, and tliree-fourtlis of an inch below. The English
remove this slight portion of the wood, taking great care
not to injure the root of the bud ; but it does not succeed
so well in this climate as if a small portion of wood be
left directly" under the bud. Select, then, a small portion
of the stock, smooth and free from branches, and make
two cuts through the bark, one across the end of the
other, in the shajDe of a T, as in the figure. Then raise
the bark on the two edges of the perpendicular cut with
the smooth ivory haft of the budding knife ; insert the
bud gently beneath the parts raised, not forcing it down
like a wedge so as to rub off the cambium of the stock,
but pressing very little against the stock until so fully in-
serted that its own cambium can be applied directly to
that of the stock where it is to remain ; cut off the top
of the bark attached to the bud square, that it may fit the
cut across the stock ; then wind the bass pretty tightly
about the stock, commencing below the end of the bud,
and pass it closely around up to the bud. The shield
should here be firmly pressed, that the base of the bud may
closely rest upon the alburnum ; bring the tie pretty close
to the under side of the bud, making the next turn wider,
so that the point of the bud and the leaf stalk may be
seen between the turns of the tie ; continue binding closely
until the cross incision is covered, then fasten witli a knot.
Cover every part of the incision, excejit the bud and leaf
stalk attached, which should remain uncovered. Do not
tie it so tightly as to cut into the bark, but so as to exert
upon it a moderate pressure. The bud is put upon the
north side of the stock, when practicable, and when not,
a little paper cap may be tied to the stock, to project over
the bud, so as to admit the light, but exclude the direct
rays of the sun. The success of the operation depends
on its being performed rapidly, and with fresh, healthy

BUDDING AXD GRAFTING. 115

buds ; cleaiJ, smooth cuts ; the bark rising cleanly and
freely from the wood ; the exact fit of the bud to the in-
cision ; and close, secure tying, to exclude the air and wa-
ter. If the operation is performed in moist Aveather, and
the bark of the bud is joined closely to the wood of the
stock, success is almost certain. If the stocks are in a
proper state, the upper edges only of the slit need be raised
with the haft, and the bud being gently pushed to its
place, will raise the bark smoothly before it, and the inser-
tion be more firm than if the bark had been entirely raised
with the haft. It is an operation requiring much exactness,
but may be done in one minute ; the point where a beginner
will most likely fail is in the proper removal of the bud.

As soon as the bud has taken, the ligature may be loos-
ened, and should be entirely removed when it begins to
cut into the bark. If the leaf stalk, after a few days, drops
oiF, it indicates the bud has taken ; if it withers or adheres,
the bud is likely to be dead or dying. The buds must be
frequently examined, and the ties loosened, if becoming too
tight, as they will in growing stocks. If it is desired to
start the bud into immediate growth, soon after it has
evidently taken, the stock may be shortened to within
ten or twelve inches of the bud, and all shoots rubbed
off as they appear, excej^t that from the inserted bud.
When this has grown three or four inches, the stock is cut
off again near the budded shoot, and when this has grown
some inches, the stock is cut off close to its base. When
it is desired that the bud should remain dormant, cutting
back the stock is delayed until just before the flow of sap
starts in spring. Buds that are not permitted to push
until spring soon overtake the others in growth.

Budding is the most rapid mode of increasing rare va-
rieties, of which every bud is almost sure to make a good
plant if the operation is quickly and skillfully performed.
It is the easiest method of propagating apples, pears, and
most other fruit trees. In the case of peaches it is almost

116 GAKDENIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

universally aiiplied, and also Avith those roses tliat will not
succeed readily from cuttings. Budding and grafting can
be performed only upon plants of the same, or nearly re-
lated, species. Thus a peach can be budded on a plum, as
they are both stone fruits, and belong to the same natural
group of plants, but no art could make the jjeach floiuish
on the apple or j^ear as a stock.

Crraftiag"t — This differs from budding in its being the
transfer of a shoot, "with several buds upon it, from one
tree to another, instead of merely employing a single bud.
It is jierformed by bringing portions of two growing shoots
together, so that the soft wood of the two may unite to-
gether. The shoot to be transferred is called the scion,
and the tree which is to receive it is called the stock. The
stocks are of all ages and sizes, but they must be sound
and healthy. The scions employed are generally shoots
of the preceding year's growth, Avhich may be cut at any
time after the leaves fall, and may be buried in a dry soil,
with the upper extremities slightly projecting on tlie north
of a wall. They must be jDrotected from heavy rains, or
the buds will start too early. Amateurs can best keep all
they wisli in a corked preserve jar, or a tin box, or closely
covered bucket. Examine them occasionally, and if too
much moisture is present, leave the cover off a few hours.
The drier the better, if they do not begin to shrivel.
Keep in a cool place.

Scions of healthy, close-jointed wood should always be
chosen. If they are to be sent to a distance, those of
rather large size and close joints should be selected, en-
veloped in a little thin paper slightly dampened, and the
whole covered tightly with oiled silk. In this way, they
will go a thousand miles in perfect safety. The but and
extremities of scions should both be rejected. The tools
required are, a grafting-knife, saAV, and chisel ; but, for
whip-grafting, the knife only is employed. Two kinds

BTJDDIlSrG AISTD GEAFTIIfG. 117

should be used, one to prune and pare the stock, and the
other to prepare the graft.

GraftinJ? Wax. — A composition of very good quality is
made of four parts rosin, two of beeswax, and one of tal-
low. Melt it altogether, turn it into cold water, and work
and pull it thoroughly until it turns whitish ; just as chil-
dren do molasses candy. A wax for cold Aveathcr will
work better with a little less rosin, and in warm with a
little more. The stiifness of the wax is increased or di-
minished by emj^Ioying less or more of tallow. In cold
weather keep the composition in warm water, and in warm,
in cold water. In putting it on, the hands must be
slightly greased, to keep it from sticking to them, but
grease the scion and stock in operating as little as possible.

In applying the wax, be careful to cover the scion on the
sides and the cleft in the stock, forming a cap over the top,
and press it closely and tightly around the graft, so as to
cover every crack, and carefully to exclude the air and
water. Cloth, saturated in a composition made a little
softer by a greater addition of tallow and beeswax, is
more convenient than the wax itself, especially for whip
grafting. Take any thin, half-worn calico or muslin, tear
it into narrow strij)S, roll them loosely into small balls,
and soak them in the hot composition until every pore is
filled. "VYhen wished for use, it is unwound from the
balls, and torn into smaller strips, of the proper length
and breadth required by the size of the stock; this,
wound two or three times around the stock and graft, se-
cures it perfectly, and is the most convenient way of
applying wax.

Modes and Time of Grafting. — The modes of grafting
most usually practised are Avhip and cleft grafting, and
they are practised on the stem and branches, or the roots
of trees. Root-grafting can be 2:)erformed at any time in
this climate, or from the fall of the leaf until the buds be-

118 GAEDEXING FOR THE SOUTH.

gin to open. The peach, grafted in this way early in the
season, succeeds perfectly at th^ South, but generally fails
north of Virginia. Stone-fruits of all kinds must be
grafted earlier than apples, pears, etc., as their sap seems
to lose all agglutinating properties after its first flow.

Graft them just as the buds are about to swell, but for
most other si^ecies the best time for gi"afting, except in the
root, where the scion will be j^rotected by the earth cov-
ering it, is while the buds are swelling in the sj^ring. K
put in before that time, the alternate freezing and thawing
to which they are exposed often destroys the vitality of
the graft. A23ples, jiears, etc., may be grafted until
they blossom, if the scions are kept perfectly fresh, and
have not started. Grafting succeeds perfectly well just
before the second growth, early in August, if the sap is
thrown into the graft, by rubbing off the other shoots as
they appear; but it is just as well to wait until spring,
there being no gain in the growth of the graft over those
put in .it the usual season.

Whip, or Splice Grafting. — This mode is applicable to
all small stocks, and succeeds best where the scion and
stock are exactly the same size. Both stock and scion are
cut off Avith a sloping cut about an inch and a half long
on each, so as to match precisely, if of the same size ; or,
if not, at least on one side. A tongue is then made by
slitting the scion upward, and the stock downward, which
is raised on each and fitted into the slit of the other —
holding the scion firmly in its place ; bind it closely with
the cloth covered with the composition. The engravings,
figures 4G and 47, (next page,) show the different steps of
tlie operation. It is the neatest, most expeditious, and
most successful mode of grafting, where the stocks are
of the jjroper size. Stocks, three-fourths of an inch in
diameter, or even an inch, may be grafted in this way, but
for inch stocks cleft grafting is preferable.

BUDDIXG AXD GRAFTING.

119

Cleft Grafting is the more common mode. It may be
practised on large or small stocks, biit
ifor the latter whip-grafting only should
be employed. The top of the stock
is cut off carefully with a fine saw, and
pared smoothly with a sharp knife.
The stock is then split with the graft-
ing tool, and held open with the chisel
of the same, figure 48. A common
knife will answer for splitting, and the
split may be kept open for insertion
with a wooden wedge or a large nail of
which the point has been ground down
to a Avedgc shape. Sharpen the lower
part of the scion into a smooth wedge,
one and a half inch long, more or less,
according to its size and that of the
split in the stock. The exterior side
of the scion when sharpened should be
slightly thicker than the other, that it

may be sure to make a close fit there, figure 49. Let the

scion have two or more buds,

of which one should be on

the wedge and inserted just

below the top of the stock,

figure 50. This often grows

Avlien the others fail. The

main point is that the inside

bark of the scion and that of

the stock should exactly cor-
respond, and meet at their

edges at least in one place.

To effect this, it is usual to

set the scion so that its upper

extremity falls a little without the line made by the con-
tinuation of the stock on the side in which it is inserted. It

Fig. 46. Fig. 47.

SPLICE GRAFTING.

120

GAKDETVLN'G FOK THE SOUTH.

is better as in figure 51 to set it a little -witliin or towards
the heart of the stock, and the base of the scion a little out,
and when the scion and stock cross each other, a meeting
of the edges will be certain, and even a novice will thus
succeed. One or two scions are set in the stock according
to its size ; the wedge is then withdrawn, and
the whole carefully covered with the composi-
tion so as to exclude all air and moisture.

Root Grafting. — Both the whip and cleft
modes are successfully applied in root graft-
ing, but sj)lice grafting is more generally in
use. In root grafting fruit trees, the best
stocks for the purpose are seedlings which arc
cut off at tlie collar and grafts inserted in
one or the other of these modes, according to
the size of tlie stock. If such stocks cannot
be got, roots of thrifty trees may be em-
ploj^ed, but are more apt to produce diseased
trees. This work can be performed at any
leisure time during the winter, and A\hen the
winters are mild and open, they should be
set out in the open ground at once and
covered about an inch above the point of
junction with soil.

In colder latitudes they are packed closely in small
boxes with sandy earth among the roots, and kept in a
cool cellar until they can be planted in spring. In root
grafting, either waxed cloth or twine is used to hold the
scions in place.

In grafting, as in budding, always have sharp instru-
ments ; make the cuts clean and smooth ; bring the inner
bark, that is, the active young parts, of stock and scion
in close contact, by a jiermanent pressure of the stock up-
on its scion ; tlie top of the scion should be cut oif next
to a buil, and have a bud just beneath the shoulder where
it unites with the stock j every portion of the wound

Fiff. 51.

EUDDIXG AXD GRAFTIXG.

131

should bo perfectly covered witli the composition, and the
stock and scion must corresjjond, not only in their nature,
but in their habits of growth.
Inarching, or Grafting by Approach. — This mode is
practised with Camellias and Magnolias. A
branch is bent and partly cut through, as in
figure 52, and the heel, thus formed, is slipped
into a slit made downward in the stock to re-
ceive it ; the parts are then made to meet as
exactly as possible, and are bound with bass
strings, as in figure 53, and covered with graft-
ing clay, or with the composition. In five or
six months the union is complete, and the in-
arched plant may be separated from its parent,
which is done with a sharp knife so as to leave
a clean cut. The head of the stock, if not
removed before, is then cut away, and the

plant is ready for removal.

There are several other modes of budding and grafting,

but the above are most useful and commonly joractised.
The advantages of these operations

are, the rapidity with which a valuable

kind may be propagated, wliich will not

grow from seed or cuttings: trees of

worthless fruit may be changed into

more valuable varieties; seedlings can

be brought into early bearing ; foreign,

tender fruits may be rendei'ed hardier

on hardy, native stocks; a kind of fruit

may be grown in a soil not congenial to

it, as the pear by grafting on the quince ;

several varieties of fruit may be grown

upon the same tree ; and, finally, by graft-
ing on dwarf-growing stocks the trees

may be so dwarfed as to afibrd many

ripening in succession within the limits of a small garden.
6

Fiff. 53.

122 GAEDElSriKG FOE THE SOUTH.

Experience shows the graft and stock mutually influence
each other. The efiect of the stock upon the graft in im-
proving its product, is evident in such pears as succeed on
the quince, their size and flavor being much improved.
The graft in turn affects the stock, increasing or diminish-
ing its vigor. The Newtown Pippin will roughen the
Lark of auy other apple stock. A Collins pear, grafted
upon the branches of another variety, is very likely to
cause the death of the whole tree.

CHAPTER XI.

PRUNING AND TRAINING.

Pruning. — This operation is generally performed more
at random than any other in gardening, yet is one of the
most important and most delicate. Not even a twig
should be removed from a tree without some definite ob-
ject. This work above all others requires care, knowl-
edge, and judgment, and should never be left to ignorant
operators. In their hands the results can hardly fail to be
injui-ious, but performed by those who base their practice
on the laws of vegetation, it contributes to ensure a regu-
lar production of beautiful and perfect fruit, and still
more to prolong the life and fruitfulness of trees.

The benefits of skillful prunmg, as stated by Du Breuil,
ai'e:

1st. — It permits one to impose upon its subject a form
corresponding with the place it is designed to occupy.
Thus to standard fruit trees is given the pyramidal form,
or that of the vase. Trees thus managed produce larger
and more abundant fruits thi^n those left to grow at ran-
dom, and occupy less sj^ace. Trees upon an espalier or

PEUNTNTG AND TEAINHTG. 123

wall, and vines upon a ti-ellis, are made to develop theii-
wood with symmetry and regularity, and occupy usefully
the whole surface they were designed to cover.

2d. — By pruning, all the main branches of the tree are
furnished with fruit bearing branches duly exj)osed to air
and light in their whole extent. An unpruned peach tree
will produce fruit only at the extremity of each branch,
but by pruning, all parts of the tree are made fruitful

3d, — By pruning, fructification is made more equal.
By suppressing each year the superabundant flower-buds,
and thinning the branches themselves, one preserves for
the formation of new flower-buds for the following year
the sap which would have been absorbed by the parts re-
moved.

4th. — Finally, p'runing renders the fruit larger, and of
better quality. A large part of those nourishing fluids
which would have suj)plied the suppressed parts, are turned
to the benefit of the fruit on the remaining branches.

Lindley adds that the time in wliich a fruit ripens may
be changed by skillful pruning. If raspberry canes are
cut down to three eyes in the spring, a late summer or
autumn croi? will be produced. By removing the flower-
buds of remontant roses, fine autumn blooms are obtained.

Time for Pruning. — Pruning is performed at two pe-
riods during the year. Winter j^runing is that given to
trees while vegetation is in repose, and summer pruning
includes all that a tree or plant receives in its stages of
active growth.

Winter Pruning. — This may be performed at the South
directly after the foil of the leaf, and in mild weather
through the winter months, until vegetation is about to
commence ; at the North, from the time the severe frosts
are over, until the sap begins to move, that is, in Febru-
ary and March. If pruned before the heavy frosts, the
cut, being exposed to their severity, does not heal readily,

124 GAEDEXESTG FOK THE SOFTII,

and the terminal bud is often destroyed. Pruning must
not be undertaken while the branches are frozen, as the
wood cuts with great difficulty, and the wounds are torn
and commonly heal badly, and the nearest bud generally
perishes. If delayed until the shoots begin to start, all
the sap from the roots, that has been absorbed by the parts
of the tree cut off, is lost. A great many of the expand-
ing leaf and flower-buds will be broken off, and finally the
sap, in full flow, pours from the wounds and the tree is
greatly weakened thereby.

Pruned at the proper season, the tree throws all its force
upon the remaining buds, developing those which would
else be dormant. Wliere, however, a tree is too vigorous
to fruit well, a late spring pruning, when the shoots begin
to lengthen, will check its vigor and cause the formation
of fruit buds.

The vine, currant, and gooseberry, may be pruned at
any time between the suspension of growth and the first
flow of sap. In general, it is best to prune plants in the
order in which vegetation commences ; first apricots, then
peaches, just as their buds begin to swell, plums and
cherries, then j^ears and apples. Stone fruits should bo
lightly pruned, as they are aj^t to be injured by the issue
of gum from the wounds.

Summer Pruning. — Shoots may bs removed at any
time, if the tree seems to be throwing its strength in a
wrong direction. This is better accomplished by disbud-
ding, that is, removing those buds which would produce
unnecessary shoots, or j)inching the extremities of those
shoots which are making too much wood.

Pinching, or removing the growing point with the fin-
ger and thumb, is the most essential operation in the sum-
mer management, both of fruit trees and ornamental
plants, Tlie tendency of the sap is to the growing points,
and especially to those more elevated and exposed to the
light. The upper buds, if the tree or plant is near to and

PETTNTNG AISTD TRA.INING. 125

shaded by others, are the only ones to develop, and, con-
sequently, it shoots upward rapidly, while the stem is not
proportionally developed, au4 few side branches are thrown
out. Such a tree must not only be cut back severely at
the winter pruning so as to shorten the leader to perhaps
one-third of its growth, but it needs looking to in summer,
or it will push upward as strongly as before. To
strengtlien its side branches, then, it is necessary to pinch
in early, while they are in active growth, the leader or
any other shoot that is evidently receiving an undue
amount of sap, which operation checks the flow of sap to
that point, and directs it to where it is more needed.
When a side shoot shows a disposition to outgrow the
leader, the defect is remedied by pinching, with no loss
of wood or growth to the tree. Pyramidal forms can only
be secured in this way by summer pinching, keeping the
lower limbs always the longest. In the same way early
bearing is promoted, for the check given to the growing
point concentrates the sap, and, unless the shoots again
start into growth, it is likely to form fruit buds. Bushy
specimen plants in the green-house and flower-garden are
not to be seen in plants left' to themselves. The stems
are soon naked, and, if cut back, they soon grow up as
bad as before. If the leading and other dominant shoots
are pinched back, leaving the side shoots unchecked until
ripe, when they may be cut back a little to make them
branch, they will be as healthy and full of bloom as those
at the upper part of the plant. Pinching should be per-
fonned at once as soon as a shoot shows itself out of j)ro-
portion. Further directions as to the summer manage-
ment of particular trees and plants will be given hereafter.
ImplementSt — The implements required in pruning are
the common pruning knife, a small saw with very fine
teeth, a socket chisel two or three inches wide, with a
long handle, and a pan* each of large pruning shears,
pruning scissors, and pole pruning shears ; these should

126

GAUDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fijr. 50.

divide the branch with a clean, smooth cut, and not
bruise it on the side next the stem.

Mode of Opcratinj? upon the Branches. — They should
be so cut that they will heal kindly. If it was desired to
cut off a branch as at fig. 54, it is cut as near to the bud
as possible, -without injury to it. The knife is entered

directly opposite to the base
of the bud, and comes out
even with the point of the
bud. In this way the bud
will not suffer, and the cut
quickly heals. In fig. 55
the cut is so far above the
bud that the shoot will die
down to near the bud, and
require to be again cut off that it may heal over. If the
cut is made, commencing too far below the bud, as at fig.
56, the bud is badly nourished and will be less vigorous,
and perhajis perish. In cutting off a branch it should not
be cut so close to the stem as to wound it, or make the
cut larger than the base of the branch, neither so long as
to leave a snag to decay slowly for years, if it do not send
out new vigorous shoots again requiring removal.

Considered mechanically, the great art is to make a
clean, smooth cut, so as to leave the bark in a healthy
state to cover the wound, and to prune so near a bud as
to leave no dead wood. Hence, if the branch be removed
with the saw, the cut must be smoothed over with the
knife. In cutting off large branches, the Avound should
be covered with grafting wax, or painted over with Mr.
Downing's preparation of shellac dissolved in alcohol, in
order to exclude the air.

General Principles of Pruning. — The secret of prun-
ing judiciously consists in 1st, " Calculating intelligently
the proportion one ought to establish between the

PKUNrN"G AND TRAINING. 127

branclies with fi-uit and those with none, and which serve
only to nourisli the tree. 2d, In establishing an equilibrinni
among the parts of the tree, so that neither side nor its
leader may grow out of proportion so as to weaken the
other side or the base by drawing to itself aU the saix"

Pruning is most commonly intended either to improve
the form of the tree by directing the growth from one
part to another ; to renew the groioth of stunted trees ;
to induce ox dimmish fruitfulness ^ to remove diseased
or decaying branches ; and in cases of transplanting, to
proportion the head to the roots.

In pruning to improve the form of the tree^ whether
fniit trees, or ornamental trees in pleasure grounds, the
object is to preserve its natural shape, so that it may be
an agreeable object on the lawn, or when combined with
others in a group. Lawn trees should never have the
stems trimmed up to bare poles, but the branches should
proceed from near the ground, so that when covered with
foliage they will nearly sweep the surface, and be one
mass of green from the base to the top. So in all kinds
of fi-uit trees, the branches should be allowed to proceed
from the trunk about a foot and a hatf from the ground.
Such trunks are screened from our burning sun, and are
much more healthy and fruitful than those with naked
stems five or six feet high. Every tree growing naturally
has its trunk sheltered from the sun. K it grow in the
open ground, this is accomplished by its own branches,
while in the forest all the trunks are sheltered by the
canopy of foliage above. If one part of the tree is dis-
posed to outgrow another, and thus destroy the balance,
it may be shortened in winter, and the shoots pinched off"
the next summer, until the sap is thrown in the right di-
rection into weaker branches that were left entii'e, and
the balance is restored. When it is desired that new
shoots of a branch should take an upright direction^ prune
to an inside hud. If you wish an op)en^ spreading top,

128

GAEDEJSING FOE THE SOUTH.

prune to an outside bud of the branch. If the branches
be cut at an inside bud, as at A, figure 57, the growth
from the upper buds will be as in figure 58 ; but if the
cut at an outside bud, -S, figure 57, the new branches will
spread apart, as shown in figure 59. To make a stem

,1

57. Fig. 58. Fig. 59.

rPvUNlNG TO I.MPKOVK FORM.

grow erect, iu tbc annual cutting back which young
trees require, select the bud intended for a leader on
opposite sides each successive year, and the tree will
grow upright. Selecting it two or tlirce years on the same
side, will cause the trunk to incline in that direction.
Symmetrical growth is not only agreeable to the eye, but it
assists in maintaining the equilibrium of vegetation, pre-
venting the sap from being drawn more to one side than
the other.

Pruninir to Renew the Growth.— When a tree has

PRUNING AND TKAINING. 129

stopped growing:, remaining stationary, it often happens
that if it is cut back in -winter to a few buds, the whole
force of the sap being made to act on these few biids,
vigorous young shoots will be produced, and these sending
down new woody matter to the stem, new roots are form-
ed, and the whole tree is renewed. In young trees where
the growth has not been cliecked, an annual cutting back
of the new growth is likewise necessary, and will strengthen
the branches on the lower parts of the tree, and thicken
up the trunk, enabling it to maintain an erect position.

Pruning to Reduce or Diminish Fruitfulness. — Every-
thing that is favorable to rapid, vigorous growth, is gener-
ally unfavorable to the immediate production of fruit.
Hence pruning, to induce fruitfulness, is performed after
vegetation has commenced. If a tree be severely j^runed
immediately after its leaves have put forth, it is so checked
as to be unable to make a vigorous growth the same
season, the circulation of the sap is impeded, and the
young shoots that would have made M'ood branches, had
the growth been unchecked, will become fruit spurs.
Pinching the extremities is, however, the usual mode of
pruning to induce fruitfulness. The same result is pro-
duced by prunmg the roots, w^hich also lessens the dimen-
sions the trees would otherwise obtain, by diminishing
the quantity of food they receive from the soil.

Pruning at Transplanting. — At this time all bruised and
broken roots and branches should be removed with a sharp
knife. When trees are taken from the ground, a greater
or less portion of the roots is destroyed or injured, and
the natural balance between the root and top is destroy-
ed, and the tree in this condition wnll either die or make
a slow growth. In England, the climate is so moist that
trees may be removed and leave nearly all the branches
as they were ; but under the hot suns and strong Avinds
of an American climate, a vigorous shortening in is req-
uisite.

6*

130 GARDEXmG FOK THE SOUTH.

As horticultural theorists strongly insisted that pruning
at transplanting was injurious, J. J. Thomas, Esq., author
of the Fruit Culturist, has settled the question by direct
experiment. Of six apricots, two years from the bud,
about seven feet high, five were cut back and one left un-
cut at transplanting. The most vigorous of the five made
21 shoots, from G to 21 inches long. The weakest had 9
shoots 6 to 7 inches long, not counting the shoots less
than G inches in length. The unpruned tree had on 7
shoots all less than 2 inches, and not one-twentieth part
of the amount of foliage to be found on other trees. Ex-
periments upon cherry trees, planted at the same time,
equally showed the necessity of pruning at transplanting.
Trees unripened when transj^lanted are so checked that
it requires years to restore them. In a southern climate
they must be more severely cut back, when planted out,
than in that of Macedon, N. Y., where the experiments
were made.

It matters very little how closely we pnme the top of
the trees ; only have good roots, and a single season's
growth will restore the balance. Do not leave more than
one or two buds to a branch of the previous year's growth
if the tree is of much size at the time of transj^lanting.
Coniferous trees, as the pines, firs, etc., are exceptions, for
if cut back at planting, the leader being lost, the form of
the tree is difiicult to restore. Hence those only of this
class should be j^lauted which have been taken U2) and re-
set annually in the nursery until a mass of fibrous roots
has been formed. These must be protected from the air
until the tree is reset. Broad-leaved evergreens, like
English Laurels, evergreen Oaks, may be cut back and a
portion of the leaves removed to lessen CA^aporation, with
the same advantage as deciduous trees. Indeed, many of
the broad-leaved evergreens, taken from the woods, cannot
be transplanted with any success, unless nearly all the top
is removed. Nursery-raised trees are taken up and reset

PKUNING AND TRAINESTG. 131

SO often, that tlicy can be replanted safely witliout cutting
in so severely.

M. Du Breuil, from wliose work we have already drawn,
bases the whole theory of pruning fruit trees upon the
following six general principles, which, in giving, we con-
dense :

I, — The vigor of a tree subjected to x>runing depends
in a great measure on the equal distribution of sap in all
its branches. That this equal distribution may take place —

1. Prune the branches of the most vigorous parts very
short, and those of the weak parts long. The feeble pai'ts
being pruned long, present a great number of buds and a
large surface of leaves, which attract the sap, and produce
vigorous growth ; while the vigorous parts being pruned
short and the surface of leaves diminished, growth in those
parts is also diminished.

2. Leave a large quantity of fruit on the strong part,
and remove the whole or the greater part from the feeble.
The sap which arrives in the strong part will be appropri-
ated by the fruit, and the wood there will make little
growth, while the feeble parts being deprived of fruit,
the sap will be appropriated by the growing parts and
they will increase in sizo and strength.

3. Send the strong parts and keep the toeaJc erect. The
more erect the branches are, the greater will be the flow
of sap and consequent growth ; hence, the balance may
be restored by bending down those disposed to make too
much growth.

4. Hemove from the vigorous parts the sujjerfluous
shoots as early hi the season as possible, and from the
feeble parts as late as possible. The fewer the young-
shoots are in number, the fewer the leaves, and the less the
sap is attracted there ; but leaving these standing on the
feeble parts, these leaves attract the sap and induce vig-
orous growth.

132 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTn.

5. Pinch early the soft extremities of the shoots on the
vigorous parts ^ and as late as possible on the feeble parts^
excepting always any shoots which may be too vigorous
for their position. By this practice the flow of sap to
that point is checked and turned to the growing points
that have not been pinched.

6. In training^ lay in the strong shoots 07i the trellis
early and leave the feeble parts loose as long as p>osslble.
Laying in the strong shoots obstructs in them the circu-
lation, and favors the weak parts -which are at liberty.
Giving also the feeble parts the benefit of the light in
training, and confining the strong parts more in the shade,
restores a balance.

II, — The sap acts with greater force and produces m,ore
vigorous grov:ith on a branch short pruned than on one
long pruned. The whole sap of the branch acting on two
buds must produce greater development of wood on tliem
than if divided among fifteen or twenty. Hence, to pro-
duce wood branches, we prune short, or if fruit branches
we prune long, because slender and feeble shoots are more
disposed to fruit. Hence, also, trees that are enfeebled by
over-bearing should for a year or two be pruned short,
until the balance is restored.

III. — The sap tending ahoays to the extremities of the
shoots causes the terminal bud to push with greater vigor
than the laterals. — When Ave wish a prolongation of a
stem, we should prune to a vigorous wood l:>ud, and leave
no pi-oduction that can interfere with the action of the sap
on it.

IV. — The more the sap is obstmcted in its circulation^
the more likely it will be to produce fruit-buds. Sap, cir-
culating slowly, is subjected to a more complete elabora-
tion in the tissues of the tree, and becomes better adapted
to form fruit buds. If we wish a branch to bear fruit, we
can obstruct the circulation of the sap by bending or

PKUNING AJSTD TRAINING. 133

making incisions ai'oiind the branch, or if wished to change
a fruit into a wood-branch, raise it into a vertical position
and prune it to two or three buds, on which we concen-
trate the action of the sap and induce them to grow
vigorously.

V. — The leaves serve to prepare ike sap absorbed hy the
roots for the nourishment of the tree, and aid in the for-
mation of buds on the shoots. All trees therefore, de-
prived of their leaves, are liable to perish. Hence, the
leaves should never be removed from a tree under the
pretext of aiding the growth, or ripening the fruit, as de-
prived of leaves trees cannot grow, neither can their fruit
mature.

VL — When the buds of any shoot or branch do not de-
velope before the age of two years, they can be forced into
activity only by a very close pruning, and in some cases,
as the peach, even this will fail. Hence the main branches
should be trimmed so as to secure a development of their
successive sections, and so shortened in as not to allow
the production of long, naked stems, leaving the interior
of the tree bare of shoots, and consequently improductive.

In order to induce trees to grow in any particular form,
it is not so much labor as continued attention that is re-
quired. A thorough pruning once a year will not pro-
duce the desired effect, but a little attention two or three
times a week during the growing season, will be sufficient
to examine every shoot in an acre of garden trees, and the
eye is very soon trained so as to detect at a glance the
shoots that require attention. {Du Breuil, Lindley,
Barry, etc.)

Training! — The principal objects of training are to
render plants more productive of fruits and flowers than
if left to grow voluntarily, also to form screens of various
running plants to keep any unsightly object from view.
The points to be attended to, are to entirely cover the

134 GAEDEXING FOE THE SOUTH.

wall or trellis, bending the branches backwards and for-
wards so as to form numerous deposits of returning sap,
and ensure the full exj^osure of the fruit-bearing branches
to the sun and air. The long shoots are shortened or
pinched to make them throw out side bi'anches, with which
the trellis is covered, without jDcrmitting them to cross
each other. Training flowering plants is necessary that
they may appear in elegant and symmetrical foi-m. It
should be regulated by a knowledge of their habits of
growth,and consists principally in checking over-luxuriance
of growth and tying them to stakes or frames. Direc-
tions for training the grape, etc., will be given hereafter.

CHAPTER XII.

TRANSPLANTING.

In the operation of transplanting, the main points to be
regarded are the proper preparation of the soil for receiv-
ing the plant; care in taking it up so as to avoid injury
to the small, fibrous roots ; setting it firmly so that its
roots may take a secure hold of the soil ; jDlanting with as
little delay as possible ; and, lastly, maintaining the bal-
ance as far as practicable between the top of the jjlant and
its roots, so that the former may not lose more by evap-
oration than the roots absorb, until again established.

Preparation of the Soil. — Plants, when removed, need
a freshly dug soil which affords a moist situation in which
the delicate fibers may be emitted, and therein quickly
establish themselves. If also well drained and trenched,
the effect upon present and subsequent growth is very de-
cided : a tree or vine thriving much better in such a situa-

TEANSPLANTESTG. 135

tion, than if the roots are put into a hole with none of the
surrounding soil loosened. The soil ought also be enriched
with fine manure, but no coarse, unfermented manures
should be applied where they will come in contact with
the roots. When the ground is in a suitable condition,
holes should be dug for the reception of the roots of the
plants. These had better be made square than round, as
a large hole in that form can be sooner made. The diam-
eter should be such that it will receive all the roots when
fully extended. The holes should be made too large rather
than too small. In digging the holes, throw out the best
soil on one side and the poor on the opposite. If the
ground has been prepared deeply, the holes may be made
just deep enough to receive the roots, which, in some cases,
are spindle-shaped and extend downwards to a considera-
ble depth, and in others run along the surface. For most
plants the hole should be deeper at the sides than at the
centre, le'aving the bottom convex and not basin-shajied.
It should have the bottom soil loosened, and in dry weather
be watered, but the water should be allowed to subside so
as to be moist, not wet, at the time of planting. It should
be left of such depth in all good soils, that the neck of the
plant may be as near the surfice as before, or but a trifle
above ; but La claiyey soils, ill drained, let it be somewhat
above on a broad, slightly elevated mound.

Taking up the PlantSi — In this operation avoid injury
to the roots / with the utmost care they will be mutilated.
A little attention will save a year's growth to a tree. The
roots are of two kinds, the main roots which support the
plant in the earth, and the small branching or fibroxis roots,
the fresh tips and numerous fibrils or root hairs of which
supply it with nourishment. These parts are of great
delicacy, and if injured or broken oS',the plant must throw
out others, or perish for want of nourishment. These
fibrous roots are tlie ones most likely to be destroyed or
injured in taking up, and in replanting to be squeezed be-

136 GARDENING FOR TUE SOUTH.

tween stones and hard lumps of earths, so that the circu-
lation is weaHy and imperfectly carried on through dis-
eased and defective organs. The roots of a tree therefore,
when transplanted, must be examined, and all those in-
jured, and all the small fibrous extremities in bad condi-
tion, sliould be cut back with a shar^) knife to the sound
parts before it is reset, in order to force the root to throw
out new fibres, which, in many plants, are produced in great
abundance from where a root has been cut back with a
clean cut. Roots, matted with fibers, should be disen-
tangled and soil introduced among them in j^lanting, so as
to separate them from each other.

While the plant is out of the ground, its roots should
be protected from exposure to the air, and, if not planted
immediately, should be covered with earth. Many trees
are ruined by lying out exposed to the sun for hours while
holes are being dug to receive them. Before the tree is
reset, the top also should receive the necessary pruning.

Replanting. — After the holes are ready and the tree
prepared, its roots should be laid upon the convex surfiice
to see if the hole is of the projjer depth, which may be
judged by the eye, or more exactly by laying a rod across
the hole close to the stem, resting on the level ground on
each side. If the neck of the plant is too high or too
low, make the necessary alteration, bringing the bottom
to the proj^er height, and convex as before. Hold the tree
lightly, — if it is in the same aspect as before, in resjiect
to the points of the compass, it certainly can do it no
hatm, and many cultivators think it important. Let the
roots be nicely spread over this convex surface, training
out the leading roots at distances as near equal as possible,
not bundling the small roots together, but separating them
with particles of fine soil. Then holding the stem firmly
and erect, save a slight inclination towards the side from
which the heaviest gales or most constant winds are ex-
pected, throw the finest, lightest soil, from that reserved

TRANSPLANTING. 137

by itself, down near the stem, letting it fall down towards
the extremities of the roots, and introduce it carefully
with the hand among the roots. Having thus covered the
lower roots, those above should alsi) be adjusted and cov-
ered with the same care, and when all are well covered,
water may be given with advantage, unless the soil and
weather are moist. K not watered, Avhen the roots are
well covered, the earth should be moderately pressed upon
them by treading the soil, (being careful not to injure
them,) if the ground is light and friable, but by no means
if wet. After watering or treading, the remaining soil
should be put on, leaving the collar of the plant covered
a very little deeper than before, (in the case of ti*ees some
two inches,) and the looser and drier this surface soil is,
the better will it resist drought. If the body of the tree
is held firm by tying it to a stake, it will prevent the loosen-
ing of the roots by the action of the wind upon the tops.
Checking undue Evaporation until the Plant is estab-
lished.— The maintaining the balance between the top and
root of the plant is best secured by performing the whole
operation at the proper season, in mild, moist weather,
and with as much despatch as possible, meanwhile jDrotect-
ing the roots from the air and sun ; by pruning severely
the tops of plants that admit the operation, thus lessening
the evaporating surface ; and by guardmg with the greater
care from injury the roots of conifers and other plants that
do not. Removing a large portion of the leaves will like-
wise diminish the evaporating surface, and is very neces-
sary in planting hollies and evergreen oaks. Shade
from the sun those plants that require such protection,
(and nearly all are thus benefited,) and water to sup-
ply the absorbing extremities of the roots Avith an abun-
dance of food, that the increased quantity imbibed by each
may, in some degree, make up for their diminished num-
ber. Mulching the surface thinly after a rain is also use-
ful in preventing undue loss of moisture from the soil.

138 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Preparation of Trees for Transplanting.— As a rule,
there is little gained by planting out large ti-ees. Small
trees, as Downing remarks, can be taken up with a system
of roots and branches entire, while the older and larger
tree, losing a part of its roots, requires years to resume
its former vigor. Trees, transplanted while small, will
prove more healthy, vigorous, and enduring ; but some-
times, for immediate effect, or to preserve a favorite tree,
it is necessary to transplant it when of larger size. This
is done by shortening in the leading roots at a distance
from the trunk, varying with the size of the tree to be
operated upon. A circular trench is dug in spring or be-
fore mid-summer around the whole mass of roots, partially
undermining them and cuttmg off all that extend into the
trench, which is dug at such a distance from the tree that
it encloses a sufficient ball of roots ; the trench may be
filled with poor earth, or covered with jjlank. The tree
v/ill be checked somewhat, and will fill the ball around it
with a mass of fibrous roots, and in the proper season can
be moved with safety. Many trees naturally tap-rooted,
and evergreens difficult to transplant, are, by being trans-
planted annually or biennially from their seedling state,
compelled to throw out a mass of fibrous roots, retain-
ing among them a ball of earth, and are thus ready to be
moved at any time without danger.

It is often desirable to jilant fruit trees before the leaves
naturally fall, in seasons when autumn frosts are unusually
late. A week or two before the trees are to be taken up,
pluck from them every leaf, and allow them to remain and
ripen their wood. After this time they can be taken np,
packed, and sent safely long distances without shriveling.
Meanwhile the ground should be prepared, the holes made,
and, after pruning, plant them out, giving them a good
watering before the last soil is thrown in. In this way,
where much planting is to be done, a month's time in au-
tumn is gained.

TKANSPL ANTING. 139

TransplantiH^^ Herbaceous Plants. — Most of these are
easily transplanted as soon as they have done flowering, or
before they begin to grow in the S]Dring. For annuals, when
the season is somewhat advanced, a damp,- cloudy day, just
before or just after a shower, or in the evening, is iha
proper time for the operation. Immediately after a very
heavy rain is not the best season, as the soil, if moved
while too wet, forms a crust abqjit the plant. In the case
of choice young p>lants, they should be taken up with a
trowel, removing them with a ball of earth, and the plant
wUl hardly be checked in its growth. Larger plants may
be taken up in the same way with the transplanter or
spade. Those not removed with a ball, may be grouted by
mixing up a quantity of rich loam in water to a semi-fluid
state, and inserting the roots therein. Plants that suffer
little in taking up, like the cabbage, may have a hole
made in the earth with a dibble and the plant inserted
therein, when the dibble is again inserted a little obliquely
near the stem, and the earth pushed up close to the roct.
All tap-rooted plants are moved with difficulty. Many
herbaceous plants, sweet potato slips for instance, can be
safely set out in dry weather in freshly moved soil, by
making a hole for their reception, setting the plants there-
in, and just covering the roots with fine soil ; then fill the
hole with water about the roots and cover them at the
surface with dry soil, to retain the moisture and tee]} the
surface from baking. The operation must be performed
in the evening.

All valuable herbaceous plants should be protected with
sun shades or plant protectors, when just planted, if the
sun comes out hot. These are described in the chapter
on Implements.

140 GAEDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

CHAPTER XIII.

MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING.

Mulching. — Mulching is placing litter of various kinds,
as leaves, pine straw, or strawy manure, upon the surface
soil over the roots of plants and shrubs. If leaves are
used, a little earth may be required to keep them in place.
Mulching is used as well to prevent moisture from evap-
orating from the soil in summer, as to prevent frost
from penetrating to the roots in winter. In summer a
mulch is usually applied to trees and shrubs newly trans-
planted, and to herbaceous plants that are impatient of
lieat about the roots. Irish potatoes, mulched, produce
more abundantly, and are of better quality. Strawber-
ries, thinly mulched, with the crown uncovered, are much
more productive and continue longer in fruit. Rhubarb
and other j^lants, requiring a cool soil, can thus be more
easily raised ; and so with many other crops. Summer
mulching should be applied directly after a rain, that the
moisture in the soil may be retained. It should not be
applied to potatoes or other tender plants until the danger
of frost is over, as the increased evaporation from damp
mulch will produce a white frost when there is none or
little elsewhere formed. Fruit trees, by having their roots
mulched, are kept in better health and vigor. Mulching
not only wards off drought, but, in this way, by keeping
the ground moist, and by the decay of the mulching sub-
stance, a good deal of food is conveyed to the plants.
Some authors are of the opinion that ground will become
contmually richer by being shaded. A supply of small,
fibrous roots is thrown out at the surface by mulched
plants, and thus is prevented the formation of tap-roots,
which are mimical to the production of blossom buds.
But the great benefit of mulching is that a steady perma-

MULCHING, SHADING, AHW WATEEING. 141

nency of moisture is retained, in spite of adverse cii'cuni-
stances, and without stagnation. In general, the coat of
litter for mulching must be thin, that the rain may not he
prevented from reaching the roots of plants.

Many plants, nearly hardy, can he kept through the
winter safely by a coat of dry litter over the roots, and
especially the crown of the plant, to turn off a portion of
the rain and to keep frost from jienetrating to their roots.
Verbenas, which would perish without this protection, are
often kept over safely under a cover of two or three inches
of leaves. So of other plants, where the object is to
jjrotect the root and crown, but not the foliage. Mulch-
ing has the disadvantage of being untidy in appearance,
and of affording shelter to insects and mice, and damage
also may occur from its being carelessly set on fire from a
cigar, or in cleaning up the garden, thus destroying the
plants it was intended to protect.

Shading! — In all glass structures during the warmer .
portion of the year, some provision must be made for
shading. This may be done by thin sheeting, but as this
is expensive from its rapid decay, it is usual to whitewash
the glass externally as often as may be necessary. The
autumn rains will soon wash it off when the season comes
in which more light and heat is desirable. The lime of
the whitewash, however, soon loosens the putty, so that a
preparation of thin flour sizing, thickened with a little
pipe clay, will be found better, though not as easy to re-
move. Where a glass is not needed, as for keeping camel-
lias, and other plants, in pots through the summer, a sort
of lattice, made by nailing laths upon a light, oblong
frame made for the purpose will be found useful. Laths
can also be tied together with coarse twine, being separated
by one or more knots, as greater or less distance is desired.
Mats and old salt and coffee sacks are often used, but
they exclude too much light, and are best employed to
prevent radiation, and thus keep out frost in winter.

142 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTn.

Water is beneficial to plants as a vehicle for conveying
all soluble matters, which form the food of plants, whether
they be animal, vegetable, gaseous, or earthy.

Other elements being present in sufficient quantity, the
growth and health of a plant will be more or less satisfac-
tory in proportion as it is or is not supplied with all the
Avater it can consume. The action of water is not, how-
ever, always beneficial. Injudiciously applied, it destroys
more plants than almost any other item of mismanage-
ment. In excess, it is always injurious. It fills the spa-
ces in the soil which would otherwise be filled with air,
and plants are choked and perish for want of this indis-
pensable element. A superabundance of water, for a time,
increases the growth of foliage and renders it tender and
succulent ; hence a good supply thereof is needful to plants,
the leaves of which are eaten, as lettuce and spinach.

But by this excess the production of flowers and fruits
is delayed. The odor of the former and the flavor of the
latter are weakened and impaired. The size of the fruit is
increased by abundance of water, and without it the straw-
berry, for instance, will not swell; but the increased size,
unless it ripens in a bright atmosphere or the quantity of
water is diminished as the fruit ripens, is partly at the ex-
pense of flavor. Fruit is not only impaired in quality, but
is very liable to crack or burst from excess of moisture, as
the plum, grape, or stanwix nectarine often do, or rot upon
the tree while still immature, as the peach, plum, etc.

An excess of water softens the tissues of plants, and
renders them much more liable to injury by frost. A frost
directly after warm and abundant rains, when plants are
full of sap, is much more fatal than the same temperature
in dry weather.

The temperature of the soil, if wet, is greatly lowered,
and its capacity for heat diminishes. The constant evap-
oration from wet soil so lowers the temperature of the
adjacent stratum of air, that frosts occur when there are

MULCHINGj SHADING, AKD WATERDTG. 143

none on dryer soils. The constant dampness of the atmos-
phere, produced by excess of water in the soil, diminishes
evaporation from the leaves of plants, and hence renders
the process of assimilation slower, and less food is taken
up by the roots. By diminishing the absorption of car-
bonic acid, it lessens the atmospheric supply of food. It
creates a tendency in the organs of plants to vary from
the normal type of growth, changing the flowers, for in-
stance, into green leaves and ill-formed shoots.

Succulent plants, those with fleshy roots, and those with
leaves that appear dry, and transpire but little, and in
which vegetation proceeds slowly, are most subject to in-
jury from excess of water. Plants growing in a clear light
are less endangered by an over supply, than if growing in
a shaded situation, as they can both assimilate and perspire
more. Plants in pots are most likely to be injured by in-
judicious watering, at times being drenched with too
much, and at others allowed to become too dry.

Where water exists in excess, it must be removed by
drainage. This is indispensable in pot culture. It is par-
ticularly to be attended to in the case of plants which are
to be kept through the winter in green-houses or pits.

The quantity of water that plants require varies with the
species of plant and with its condition, whether in a state
of growth or repose. A plant cultivated for its leaves re-
quu-es more water than if grown for its flowers, and still
less is needed if grown for its seeds or fruit. In propor-
tion, also, as the roots of plants extend into the earth, the
less water at the surface is required. Tap-rooted plants,
like cotton, when once established, are not apt to sufier
from drought ; but those with roots at the surface only,
need frequent watering. Perennial plants, also, in general
require less the artificial application of water than annuals.
The growth of the fonner is merely suspended by dry
weather for the time being, to be resumed when moisture
is supplied ; but if water and the food of which it is the

144 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTII.

veliicle be -withlield from annual plants, the douLle tax im-
posed upon them by nature of forming both roots and shoota
at the same time, can no longer be met. Growth being
suspended, the plant attempts to flower and ripen seed,
and thus, while imperfectly developed, it reaches the limit
of its existence and dies.

Plants with fleshy or fibrous roots are impatient of
abundant waterings, yet do not well resist drought. Bul-
bous and tuberous rooted plants, and those with fleshy
leaves, can support drought a long time and do well with
rare but abundant waterings. Germinating seeds and
young plants should have them light but frequent. In a
state of free growth, water abundantly ; while ripening
finiit, water rarely ; when transplanting, water freely.

The lighter the soil, the more frequent and copious must
be the supply of water. So as the temperature in summer
becomes elevated and the days are clear and the atmos-
phere dry, evaporation increases, while rains become less
frequent ; hence the more water will have to be artificially
supplied. At such times it must be given copiously, for
mere sprinklings bake the soil, and do more harm than
good.

When at rest, as in the winter of temperate climates
and in the dry season of the tropics, very little moisture
in the earth is required by perennials, unless marsh plants.
Bulbs in a state of rest will endure almost any amount
of dryness, and may even be exposed to excessive heat,
somewhat resemblmg, in this respect, a ripened seed.
Bulbs that have been kept dry for some time, when
again to be started into growth, should receive but little
water at first. If much is given, it will be absorbed with-
out being digested, and stagnating within, will destroy
the bulb. Hence, we plant bulbs in a light soil and on
raised beds, that the superabundant moisture may not de-
stroy the roots.

But a moderate decrree of water is needed when vegeta-

MULCHING, SHA.DING, AND WATEKING. 145

tion commences in the spring, for the earth is usually suf-
ficiently moist ; but when they have started into growth,
plants should be abundantly supplied, and the quantity
gradually diminished as the organization becomes complete.
As autumn approaches, evaporation becomes less, and the
supply of water should be diminished, both in the quantity
and frequency of application. Withholding water gradually
from plants that are to be kept through the winter will
cause them to ripen their shoots, and they will be more
likely to survive the cold season.

No plant, at any time, should receive more moisture
than it can consume either by assimilation, or rejection in
the form of perspiration. Plants with large, broad leaves,
like tobacco, squashes, etc., exjiose more surface to the
light and sun, perspire freely, and hence need more Avater
than those with small, pinnate leaves, like the acacia, or
than succulent, or fleshy plants, a class that requires but
little water at any time, and is very impatient of an exces-
sive supply, especially in winter.

Watering artificially is resorted to in order to maintain a
proper degree of humidity in the soil. This is indispen-
sable in hot-houses, etc., and with all plants in pots. With
these the protection of the glass assists in keeping the air
about the plants in a state of humidity.

But in open air culture, artificial watering can never be
so beneficial as natural rain, and is often, indeed, a real
disadvantage to plants.

Artificial watering, with all its disadvantages, must, to a
considerable extent, be resorted to in hot climates, or the
results of gardening will often be quite unsatisfactory.
•In giving it, the conditions of beneficial, natural water-
ing should as far as possible be observed. The rains that
are most refreshing to plants are those of mild tempera-
ture and which distil gently, bringing to the roots of
plants not moisture only, but ammonia and carbonic acid.
If rain did not bring with it fertilizing matters, it would
7

146 GARDEOTNG FOE THE SOUTH.

ill time wash out all the fertility of the soil and leave it
sterile. This is the effect of heavy, beating storms, which
carry away more of fertility than they bring ; while if the
soil be stiff they puddle the surface, rendering it, when dry,
impervious, preventing the access of atmosi^heric air and
the moisture of the dew and of any gentle rains that fol-
low.

Hence, in applying water, it should not be thrown upon
the soil with force from a coarsely perforated watering
pot, as its effects would be injurious in precisely the same
way as a washing rain. To tender plants and germinating
seeds it should be applied through a very fine rose. The
rose to a garden watering-pot should not permit a com-
mon pin to enter its perforations. For delicate seedlings
ill pots it is better to give water by sprinkling gently from
a wetted brush, both the plants and the soil. For
larger plants in pots or in the ground, the leaves may be
sprinkled, unless too succulent, but the main supply of wa-
ter should be given by jiouring it gently upon the sides
of the pot or upon the surface of the earth, and let it flow
gradually over and sink into the soil.

It is not best, in general, to water close by the stems of
plants. The roots take up food only at their extremities,
and generally extend as far as the branches. Both the
roots and leaves of plants require Avater, and receive it in
natural watering. But the rains that fall upon a tree do not
fall upon its trunk, but roll off all around it, and drop pre-
cisely where the extending roots are ready to take it up.
Watering directly at the base of a plant, close to its stem
and collar, will be likely to rot or mjure that vital part, and
small, delicate plants are pretty sure to damp off. T^us
applied, much of the water never reaches the absorbing
extremities of the root. As a plant increases in size, the
farther from the stem should the water be applied.

Vines trained to verandas, or growing up under the
eaves of dwellings, often suffer from the want of water ap-

MULCIIIXG, SHADING, AND -WATEEESTG. 147

plied to the foliage. Trained against the walls, evapora-
tion goes on very rapidly from the heat reflected upon
them, and but very little rain fills upon the foliage.
They also hecome covered with dust and their pores chok-
ed therewith. AYhen the sun shines warm and brightly,
plants should be watered only about the roots, for if ap-
plied to the foliage, the drops, remaining thereon, act as
so many burning glasses, and scorch the leaves, covering
them with brown spots wherever the water rests. But
in the spring, when the earth is moist, if the air is dry, and
indeed at all times when the atmosj^here is dry, and par-
ticularly when plants become covered with dust, they will
be greatly refreshed by syringing or sprinkling the foliage
in the evening or morning, if their leaves are not suscep-
tible of change by humidity.

Plants in pots should be watered frequently and little
at a time. K the ball has become dry, do not deluge it
at once, as it will flow directly through the pot or out at
the sides, carrying with it the richness of the soil, while
the ball still remains dry. Give it a little water, and when
that soaks up, give, a few minutes after, a little more, until
the entire ball is in a suitable state of humidity. The
drainage must be good, or if much water is given to plants
in pots, the soil will become heavy, water-logged, and im-
pervious to the atmosphere.

The best water to use is rain water, caught in open cis-
terns, as it is well aerated and abounds in ammonia and fer-
tilizing gases. If spring or well water must be used, add
a very little guano, say a pound or two to twenty gallons
of water, giving the smaller quantity to delicate plants,
and the larger to gross feeders, and before using let it
stand a few hours. Manure from the hen roost in double
quantity may be substituted for guano. For sj^rinkliag
the foliage, pure water is better.

The temperature of water, too, must be regarded. The
good effects of bottom heat in hot-beds, or of artificial

148 GAEDEATITG FOR THE SOUTH.

heat in green-houses, are often entu-ely counteracted, and
plant growth brought to a stand, by watermg with cold
water. It is not only the lowering the temperature of
the roots of plants, but the suddenness of the change
that is injurious and often fatal. Water should always
be applied a few degrees warmer than the soil, that growth
may be j^romoted and not checked.

As to the time of day at which water should be given,
unless applied quite freely, it does little good in the heat
of a summer's day, as the hot atmosphere drinks up the
moisture before the plant can imbibe it. The effect of
rain can be best secui-ed by watering just at night, when
the falling dew will, in some measure, prevent evaporation
from the plants, and they get fully refreshed during the
night. But in the sj)ring of the year, to water in the even-
ing in dry weather darkens the soil, and, therefore, increas-
es radiation. Evaporation is also greatly increased ; the tem-
perature sinks rapidly, the plants are chilled, if not frozen,
and make less growth than if not watered at all. So, also,
in autumn, for the same reason, at those times water only in
the morning, and the heat of the soil will not be materially
lowered, the sun's rays communicating fresh warmth.

It should be the great object of the gardener to avoid
the necessity of watering, by shading the earth or the jjlants
themselves, by mulching, top-dressing, or sun shades. Seeds
will come up much more satisfactorily in the oj^en ground
if shaded, than if one depends upon watering. If water-
ing is resorted to at all, it should be given copiously and
the supply kept up until the plants are established. After
watering, the ground should be stirred about the plants, if
up, as soon as it is sufficiently dry, and never allowed to
become hard. A mulching of leaf mould is desirable, to
keep the surface in a j^roper state, and if applied when the
surface is wet, it will prevent the necessity of repeated wa-
terings.— {De Candolle, Lindley^ Mc^Ititosh.)

Summer Cultiyation. — If before seeds are planted, the

MULCHING, SHADIN'G, AND WATERING. 149

Boil be deeply moved and finely pulverized, the labor neces-'
sary in the subsequent culture of garden crops is greatly
diminished. Still the hoe cannot be dispensed with, and
the soil is stirred therewith among our growing crops, in
order that the earth may be kept in a light and permeable
state, so that the roots of plants may extend freely through
it in search of food. If kept in this condition, water de-
posited by rain and dew is imbibed more readily and sinks
more deeply into the soil, supplying plants both with moist-
ure and ammonia. Moisture from beneath is also more free-
ly supplied by cajDillary attraction from the subsoil if the
earth is kept in a light, porous state. Tlie atmosphere, la-
den with nutritive gases, freely penetrates the soil and de-
posits nourishment within reach of the young rootlets of
plants. By the same process weeds are destroyed, their
growth prevented, and there is also a thorough pulveriza-
tion and intermixture with the soil of the manures which
have been applied.

Judgment as to the time and manner of hoeing must be
exercised. Even hoeing may do harm — ^but there is more
danger that it will not be done sufficiently often, than per-
formed imperfectly. In a hot and a dry climate, hoe less
deeply than in those that are cold and moist, as hoeing fa-
vors evaporation, and this may prove injurious where the
sun is hot and the rains are not frequent. So in spring, hoe
more deeply and frequently than when the season becomes
advanced. A heavy, argillaceous soil should be more deep-
ly moved than one more sandy. Where a poor soil has
been recently manured, it should not be hoed too deeply, but
the compost should be allowed to remain intermixed with
the surface soil.

In practice the plants cultivated and their stage of ad-
vancement must also be considered. Plants with long tap-
roots, like beets and carrots, are benefited by deep hoeing,
which might be injurious to those with fibrous and spread-
ing roots. Among the latter, deep culture between the

150 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

rows is beneficial, so long as the plants are young and their
roots not extended ; but when they begin to shade much
of the surface, and to o^ccujiy most of the soil with their
roots, merely loosening the immediate surface, at the same
time destroying all weeds, will be quite sufficient.

All garden crops, then, should be frequently and deeply
hoed early in the season, and in the early stages of their
growth. Even to suppress the weeds which sjiring \ip freely
in the moist soil at that time requires frequent and thorough
hoeing. Of course hoeing, or moving the soil in any way, is
not to be undertaken while it is wet. When young seed-
ling plants first appear, the earth must be lightly stirred
about them, to break up any crust upon the surface that
may have formed. Take care not to injure the young
plants, though at this time the mutilation of a few roots, if
the most of them are unhurt, is easily repaired ; and the
plant is not so much injured by their loss as benefited by
that thorough pulverization of the soil, that permits the
free extension of the roots, and ojDens it to the air and
night dews.

At this time all weeds should be removed, and the plants
thinned to an inch apart, so as not to interfere with each
other. When they have made a little more growth, and
there is less danger of insects and other disasters, they
should be thinned to the proper distance and hoed more
deeply, taking care not to cover or injure the young plants.
After this continue to keep the soil light and open, of course
destroying all weeds.

In heavy loams, watering or dashing rains will frequently
puddle the surface, which bakes in the sun so effectually as
to exclude the atmosphere. The rains that follow flow off
without sinking into and moistening the soil. But a soil
which, soon after each rain, while not too wet, is freshly
hoed, will, at all times, present an open, porous, finely pul-
verized surface, ready for the absorption of plant food from

MULCHING, SHADING, AXD WATERING. 151

tlie atmosphere, and easily permeable to the roots of
plants in search of it.

As the plants increase in size, the ground is shaded by
their foliage, which, in a measure, prevents the growth of
weeds and protects the surface of the soil from being hard-
ened by the sun. At this time hoeing is less required, nor
can it be performed without considerable mutilation of the
branches and larger roots, and thus cutting off in part their
communication with the soil — injuries from which plants in
an advanced stage of growth, and under the burning heat
of summer do not readily recover.

It is not fully decided whether the soil should be fre-
quently stirred during droughts. Our present opinion is,
that in all warm climates it should, at such times, be un-
disturbed. If the earth be already loose and in fine tilth, the
air that enters into its pores will deposit its moisture there-
in. At night the dews are deposited much more heavily
upon freshly dug soil. But this deposit of atmospheric
moisture will avail little if the surface is often stirred, as
more water will be given off by day than is absorbed at
night ; and a plot frequently hoed during a drought would
at length become quite dry to nearly the depth it was cul-
tivated. However it may be in England, here no deposit
of moisture from night dews, or supply brought up by ca-
pillary attraction from beneath, can make good the loss of
water by evaporation from the soil in a hot summer day.
De Candolle says that in most hot countries frequent hoe-
ings are avoided, as they really have the evil of favoring
evaporation of moisture from the soil at the time when, the
heat being most intense, the water is naturally retained
therein by the hardening of its surface, and would act with
most activity in decomposing and dissolving the organic
matters it contains. The true course is deep, thorough cul-
ture early in the season and while plants are young. But
hoeing must not be performed in spring or autumn, at times
when the indications are that frosty nights wUl follow, as

152 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH,

tender plants are much more likely to be killed thereby from
the increased evaporation at the surface of fresh dug soil.
Through the summer, after each good rain, as soon as the
ground will do to work, stir the surface and kill the weeds,
leaving it in a light, friable condition, to be undisturbed, un-
less to destroy any weeds that appear, until another rain
renders further hoeing necessary. Continue this until the
plants approach blossoming, or begin to cover the ground,
after which hoeing, if performed at all, must be as shallow
as possible. A soil thus managed is always open to atmos-
pheric influences, and what moisture it may have or receive
is better retained.

CHAPTER XIV.

PROTECTION FROM FROST.

Late spring frosts are the terror of gardeners. In sec-
tions of country subject to them, tender plants should not
be planted early. As mulched or newly dug soils are much
more liable to the white frosts of spring, mulching should
not be applied to Irish potatoes, etc., until danger of frosts
is over, nor should tender plants be hoed when a change
to cold may be anticipated. If a frost is apprehended,
plants in hills are best protected with boxes, vine shields,
or plant protectors placed over them. Rows of beans or
potatoes can be secured by covering them with wide
plank placed on blocks two or three inches above the
plants. " Almost all the modes of jDrotecting plants are
founded on the doctrine of radiation, and hence the fact
should be kept constantly in mind that all bodies j^laced
in a medium colder than themselves are continually giv-
ing out their heat in straight lines, and that these straight

PKOTECTIOK FEOM FKOST. 153

lines, when the body is surrounded by air, may always be
reflected back upon the body from which they emanate by
the slightest covering placed at a short distance from them ;
while, on the other hand, if this slight covering be placed
close to the body, instead of reflecting back the heat it
will carry it off by conduction, that is, the heat will pass
off through the covering closely applied, and be radiated
from its surface." (Daniel.) Hence tlie covering or pro-
tection given is far more efiicient if it enclose a stratum
of air without actually touching the plant.

When plants are actually frozen, in many cases they
may be saved if they can be thawed gradually without ex-
posure to the sun. To effect this, if coverings are applied
before sunrise, or the plants are sprinkled repeatedly with
water until the frost is extracted, they generally escape
without serious injury. If a frosty night is followed by a
cloudy or foggy morning, injury to plants need not be ap-
prehended.

Fruit trees and vines in blossom, or with young fruit
set, are in some large districts so liable to suffer from late
spring frost, that fruit bearing, in the case of those first
to bloom, is the exception. The crop is lost perhaps two
years out of three. It is seldom in the most frosty locali-
ties that they are endangered more than two or three
nights in a season, all the fruit of the peach being rarely
killed until it begins to enlarge, and the blossom is on the
wane. Such trees are too large to admit of being cover-
ed. They can, however, be fully protected by smoke. Or-
dinary smoke in still, frosty nights, rises rapidly, and to
be of any service, it must settle over the trees in a mod-
erately dense cloud, acting as a screen and preventing
radiation. A heavy, damp smoke, not rising rapidly, in
which the trees are kept fully enveloped until some time
after sunrise, is what is necessary to protect a fruit garden.
A slight frost will do fruit blossoms little injury, and there
arc some, which, like those of the Forelle pear, will bear a
7*

154 GARDENIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

good many more degrees of cold than others. "When a
severe frost is pretty certain, billets of short, dry -wood, fat
light wood, and piles of wet tan, saw-dust, or other damp
trash, should be distributed about 2 rods apart over the fruit
garden, and the most to the windward. The tan or trash
should be distributed dui-iag the winter. About three
o'clock in the morning is soon enough to start the fires,
each of which is made Avith three or four of the billets,
being kindled with the light wood. "When well lighted,
put on and nearly smother it . with the wet tan. K it
again break out into a blaze, aj^ply more tan, and keep up
damp, smouldering fires, and a curtain of smoke over the
trees until the sun is well up and the frost fully extracted.
If the fruit is frozen hard as bullets, have no fears, but
keep up a dense smoke. By this mode of applying smoke
the peach crop can be saved every year. There is no
doubt about it. When a boy, thirty-five years ago, we ate
of pears thus saved by an uncle of ours, and have our-
selves since repeatedly j^racticed it and seen- it tried by
others. Our Gardening was the first English Avork, so far
as we know, in which this mode of protection was publish-
ed, though French authors, we find, allude to the process.
Boussingault saj-s it is as old as the Incas of Peru. The '
peach crop has thus been preserved, with the mercury as
low as 24° on the morning of March 27th, and the blos-
soms mostly fallen. Without such protection few good
varieties of the peach are safe with the mercury below
30°. The expense of the operation is but a trifle, com-
pared with the value of a fine crop of fruit in a locality
where all, not thus protected, is cut off.

Winter protection is also necessary for the preservation
of many valuable jjlants, the limits within which they are
naturally found being much narroAver than those Avithin
which they can be grown in perfection Avith a little pro-
tection. Besides ordinary bedding plants which are stored
during the winter in j^its or other structures, and again

BEOTECTION FROM FKOST. 155

occupy the beds and borders when danger of frost is over,
there is a large class of plants, that, with a slight protec-
tion where they stand, will pass the winter safely and
throw up much more vigorous shoots than if taken up
and replanted. A friend of ours succeeds perfectly with
tlie fig in Pennsylvania by bending down the limbs yearly
and covering them with earth ; and with no protection, in
Georgia, they are occasionally killed to the ground.

Ordinary herbaceous plants need no protection, unless
they have been divided or transplanted in autumn. Those
that are more tender may have their roots and crowns
protected with moss, straw, or coarse stable manure, not
placed so thick as to heat. Leaves, if enij)loyed, will re-
quire a little soil or brush thrown over to keep them in
place. Tender bulbs are protected in the same Avay. If
the foliage is evergreen, it must not be smothered with
too thick a covering.

Shrubby plants may have their roots well covered thus,
and then- stems bound with straw or moss. For small
shrubs, a few evergreen boughs thrown over them is a good
protection; larger ones may have their branches drawn
together and wound with straw. Tender roses may have
tan -bark or saw-dust 'banked up about their stems, to be
removed in spring.

Climbing plants, if tender, must be taken down and
laid upon the soil to be covered with leaves or earth.

There is some danger, where much litter is used, of
harboring vermin. Many thmgs are better protected by
bending a few hoops across the bed with three or four
laths lying on them, on which is thrown a cloth or mat-
ting in severe weather. Pansies, carnations, and stocks,
are thus generally protected, giving them light and air in
mild weather. Flower pots, sun shades, vine shields, and
wooden frames, covered with canvas or oiled paper, are
all useful in protecting low plants. Boxes and barrels are
convenient for larger ones. None of these must touch

156 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

the plant they cover, as they would conduct the heat away
from what they touched. The main object of these cov-
erings is to confine the air and protect the surface from
radiating heat.

All plants will endure more frost uninjured in a dry,
well-drained soil. In low, damp locations, plants, else-
where considered hardy, are frequently killed by frost.
They are also much more easily injured dii'cctly after a
mild term starts them into growth.

CHAPTER XV.

INSECTS AND VERMIN.

To these numerous and most destructive foes all our
gardens are exposed. No plant and no part of a plant is
exempt from their attacks. One devours its tender leaf
as it issues from the ground; another preys iq^on the root,
and the plant perishes ; another burrows into the stem,
boring it in every direction until it is broken off by the
wind. The caterpillar preys upon the leaves when it gets
more mature, while the black grub cuts off the young
plant just as it is shooting into growth. Some feed ui^on
the flowers, while others devour the matured fruit or seed.

Insects are on the increase in American gardens, partly
from the fact that the destruction of forest trees and wild
plants has driven them to the cultivated ones for food,
(the apple tree boner, for instance, originally subsisting on
the thorn,) partly from being constantly imported from all
other countries from which seeds and plants are brought,
and partly from the diminution of birds and other enemies
by which they are naturally held in check.

INSECTS AND TEEMIN. 157

Insects are the most extensive class of animals. They
are destitute of an internal skeleton, but possess a sort of
external one, serving both for skin and bones, and divided
into numerous segments connected together by slender
points of attachment. They all have six or more articu-
lated legs, and ai*e generally oviparous, or produced from
eggs. They possess sight, hearing, smell, and touch at
least, — senses in common with those of the superior animals.
They do not breathe through the mouth or nostrils, but
through vessels, for the reception of air, called spiracula,
placed along each side of the body.

Nearly all insects have four stages of existence. First,
eggs which hatch into larvae ; these change into piipro,
where they remain dormant for a longer or shorter period,
and from which they emerge at last as perfect insects.
Some insects, however, bring forth their young alive, as
well as deposit eggs. In others, as the Orthoptera, or
grasshopper family, the young has nearly the form of a per-
fect insect. Some insects are injurious to plants only in
one stage of their existence, others at all times, when not
in a dormant state.

A. knowledge of the habits and transformations of in-
sects is necessary to detect how and at what period of
their existence they can best be destroyed, or in what man
ner vegetation can best be shielded from their attacks.

By many insects plants are at once destroyed ; by others
wounds are inflicted that end in a diseased condition of
the parts affected, which is communicated to the whole
plant. Plants in a weak or diseased state are far more
liable to be attacked by insects than those which are
healthy and vigorous.

Various remedies are proposed when plants are attacked
by insects, among which those most generally applicable
are dusting the leaves with quicklime, sulphur, snuff,
soot, dust impregnated with the oil of turpentine. Also
sprinkling or washing the plants with water heated to

158 GAKDENIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

130° ; or witli infusions of aloes, tobacco, quassia, China
Tberries; also with soapsuds, especially that made from
whale oil soap, guano dissolved in water, fumigating with
tobacco smoke, etc.

A camphor and aloes preparation is also found service-
able for sprinkling plants, and was first recommended by
Dr. Batty, of Georgia, in the Southern Cultivator, and is
thus prepared : Put into a barrel of water a quarter of a
pound of camphor, in pieces the size of a hickory nut ; fill
with water and let it stand a day, and with this water your
plants, and fill the barrel for the next watering. The
camj)hor is slowly dissolved, and will last a long time. If
the camphor water is too weak, add to a barrel of water a
cupful or more of strong lye, and more will dissolve. Add
also a pound of cheap cape aloes to a gallon of lye (or
water in which a pound of saleratus or potash has been
dissolved) ; add a pint of this to a barrel of water, and
use as the camphor water. Camphor and aloes (especially
the former) are ofiensive to most insects.

Preventive measures are of more value than remedial,
in protecting plants from insects. Among those most
likely to be of value, are the following :

RotiltiOIl of Crops. — Each species of insect generally
feeds on the same species of jjlant, or at least on j^lants of
the same natural family ; hence a constant change of crop
prevents the forthcoming brood from finding their proper
food, and many of them perish. This is, however, more
applicable in the case of field crops, than in orchards and
gardens.

Decaying TreeSt — Destroy all decaying trees in the
neighborhood of orchards and gardens, as they are often
a refuge, and tend to propagate insects destructive to the
neighboring crops.

Scraping of the rough bark of trees, and washing them
with tobacco water, lime water, or a wash of lime, sulphur

INSECTS AND VERirry. . 159

and clay, or a solution of potash, destroys the hiding
places of insects, and many of the insects themselves, "which
infest trees.

Birds and other Animals. — The encouragement of in-
sectivorous birds and otlier animals, instead of their
thoughtless and injurious destruction, is one of the most
promising methods of lessening the insect tribes. A single
pair of breeding swallows, Bradley has calculated, destroy
over three thousand worms in a week. Toads live almost
entirely upon insects, and do not injure plants. A large
class of insects also live entirely npon insects that are
injurious to plants, and should be encouraged.

Lime and Salt. — Dressing the soil with lime, sowing
in autumn six or eight bushels of salt to the acre, turning
over the soil and exposing it to frost just before winter,
or during the winter months when the ground is open,
are all found to be beneficial. Rolling the surface soil
smooth when crops are planted destroys the hiding places
of many insects, and renders them less destructive.

Any insect j)eculiarly injurious must be watched as to
its habits, mode of feeding, and its transformations, in or-
der to discover where it may be most successfully attacked.

As healthy jjlants are less subject to attack, keep the
ground in good order, sow good seed, cultivate thorough-
ly, and the crop will be less endangered.

Fires. — Insects also may be destroyed and their increase
prevented by bonfires of brush, just after dark, which will
attract and desti'oy immense numbers of moths and
beetles.

" Erect a post in tbe centre^ of the garden, on which
nail a platform of planks some thirty inches square, which
cover with sand ; on this build nightly a fii-e of fat light
wood for some weeks, from the time that moths, millers,
and butterflies begin to infest the garden. Large numbers
will fly into the fire and be consumed."

IGO GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

Traps. — Hang up common j^orter bottles, though wide-
mouthed bottles are preferable, during the insect season,
with a few spoonfuls of sweetened water or molasses and
vinegar in them, to be renewed every second evening, and
hundreds of moths that would have been the parents of a
new race of destroyers will be caught. This is the most
promising mode of waging war also upon the melon-worm,
as well as the corn aiid boll-worm, and many other insects.
For filling the bottles, a better preparation still is a pint of
water to half a pint of molasses, the water having as much
cobalt dissolved in it as it will take up before mixing with
the molasses. Put a wineglassful to each bottle, and
emj)ty once or twice a week. Mr. Downing mentions an
acquaintance who, using the molasses and water only one
season, caught and exterminated three bushels of insects
in this manner, and preserved his garden almost free from
them. Mr. Robinson, of New Haven, caught over a peck
iu one night.

Hand-picking. — In some cases, the only effectual mode
is hand-picking. If the leaf-roller, the beetle, or the grub
is crushed under foot, by preventing rei^roduction, a thous-
and enemies are destroyed at once.

Descriptions of the principal insects, and the means of
destroying them will be found in that portion of the
work which treats of the j^lants which they attack.

Mice may be caught in traps, or poisoned with arsenic ;
but the latter is dangerous if fowls or children have access
to the garden.

Moles are often very troublesome in undermining beds
of cuttings or young plants in search of worms and insects.
They may be caught in various traps sold for the purpose,
but by putting tarred sticks in their burrows they will be
driven from them. Salting the soil is fatal to many insects
that are the food of the mole.

Hares and Rabbits are very destructive to trees and

VEGETABLES DESCKIPTION ANT> CULTURE. IGl

garden vegetables in all country places, and even in towns
we do not escape ; they can be repelled by a tight board
fence, or a close hedge of the Macartney rose. Choice
trees can be bound up in straw during the winter, or in an
envelope of chestnut bark slipped over the stem.

CHAPTER XVI.

VEGETABLES— DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

ARTlCKOKE—iOi/naraScolymus.)

The garden artichoke is a perennial plant, a native of
the south of Europe, where it has been in cultivation from
the time of the Romans. Columella mentions it, and says
its name — Cynara — is from cinere (ashes), because the soil
for artichokes should be dressed with ashes. The plant
resembles an overgrown thistle, but is more beautiful ; has
large pinnatifid leaves, three or four feet long, covered
with an ash-colored down. The eatable portion is the
undeveloped flower head, which is only fit for use befoi'e
it begins to open its bloom ; it is about the size and some-
what the shape of a small pineapple.

As the artichoke is a native of a hot climate, it is per-
fectly adapted to the temperature of the South, and is
hardy throughout the Union. It adds a pleasant variety
to our early summer luxuries, and should be in more gen-
eral cultivation.

There are three varieties : the Glohe^ the Oval Green^
and the Purple. The first has dull purplish heads with
scales turned in at the top, and is most esteemed, the edi-
ble parts being larger. The Oval Green is the hardiest
sort, and has a conical or ovate head, with pointed scales

102

GAEDE^^NG FOK THE SOUTH.

turned outward. The Purple is earlier than the others,
the scales pointed, tinted -with purplish red towards their
points, but is not so good when cooked. There is also the
large green, which grows larger than the common green,
and is most esteemed at Paris under the name Gros vert
de Laon. The base of the scales of this variety is quite
thick and fleshy.

The ash of the artichoke has been analyzed, and it is

found that potash and
phosphoric acid are the
most abundant constit-
uents, indicating the
application of ashes and
bone-dust as the best
special manures.

Propagation and Cid-
ture. — Artichokes are
propagated by seed, or
by oftsets from the old
roots. If by seed, sow
in early spring when the
peach is in full blossom,
in very rich earth, in
drills an inch and a half
deep, and a foot apart ;
they do still better by
sowing them earlier in a
cold fi'ame. Transplant
them when from six to
twelve inches high into
a rich soil. If the beds are thinned out by transplanting,
so that the plants are left a foot apart in the rows, the rest
may remain in the seed bed until fall. The finest heads
are produced in a rich, moist loam, and they should be
transplanted into such a soil. The best compost is a
mixture of three parts well-decomposed manure, and one

GO. — ARTICHOKE.

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION A^^D CULTUEE. 163

of leached ashes. They require an open exposure, free
from the shade and drip of trees, or the plants will spmdle
and produce worthless heads. The rows must be four feet
apart, and the plants three feet in the rows. Plants from
seed are better and more permanent than from offsets.

If propagated by suckers, these must be shpped off in
spring from the parent plant, retaining as many fibrous
roots as possible. They should be selected when the
leaves are eight or ten inches high, and be taken only from
those shoots which are sound and strong, and have al-
ready formed some roots. Uncover the old stools to the
origin of the suckers, of which from six to twelve will be
produced to each plant. Allow two or three of the best
of these to remain ; slip off the others with a heel, from
which trim off the rough part smoothly, retaining the
fibrous roots. Remove the large outside leaves, or their
exhalations will exhaust the plant before it gets rooted.
They are greatly invigorated if set in water three or four
hours before they are planted. Set them in rows, the
same distance as above, about four inches deep, in holes
made with a trowel ; press a portion of fresh soil about
their roots and Avater freely. AVhen this has settled away,
fill up to the surface with soil. Keep sun shades or shin-
gles upon the south side of them a few days, until estab-
lished, giving water, if needed, mitil they begin to grow.

The only other attention they require during the sum-
mer is the frequent use of the hoe. They will produce
heads the same year from June to October, and annually
thereafter from April to June or July, according to the
season. The quality is improved, though at the expense
of the quantity, by allowing only the head surmounting
the main stem to grow on each stalk, removing all the
laterals of the stem while young. As often as the head
is cut, the stem should be broken down close to the root,
to encourage the production of suckers before Avinter.
They should receive their winter dressing before the ground

164 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

freezes deeply. Cut away the old leaves mthoiit injuring
the centre or side shoots, dig the ground over, and throw
the soil in a low broad ridge over each row, putting it
close about the plants, but leaving the hearts clear. As
soon as the shoots appear four or five inches above the
surface, the ridges thrown up must be levelled and the
earth removed from about the stock to below the part
whence the young shoots spring. Remove all these shoots
but two, or at most three, leaving the most vigorous,
taking care to select those lowest down on the stock, as
the strong, thick ones from the crown have hard woody
stems, and produce but indifferent heads.

Although the artichoke is a perennial, yet after the fifth
year, the heads grow small and dry. The beds should in
consequence be broken up at this time, or as soon as they
begin to fail, and fresh ones be formed on another site.

As the newly-made beds come into flower after the sea-
son for the old plants is over, those fond of this vegetable
will prefer to make a new plantation every year.

Artichokes are made to attain a much larger size than
they otherwise would by twisting a ligature tightly
around the stem below each head, and thus preventing
the reflux of the sap.

The artichoke is much benefited by the application of
sea-weed or any other manure containing common, salt.
This is probably in a great measure because salt keeps the
soil moist.

Chards. — After the best heads have been cut, when old
plantations are to be destroyed, cut off the stems as low
as possible, and the leaves within six inches of the ground.
"When the new leaves are two feet high, blanch them, as
directed for Cardoons, which many think they excel.

For Seed. — Select a few of the finest heads and permit
them to flower. Bend over the stalk and tie the head to
a small stake, to prevent the water from settling among the
expanded scales. When the flower has withered, the

VEGETABLES — ^DESCRIPTIOlSr AISTD CULTURE. 165

seeds will be ripe. One ounce of the seed will produce
about six hundred plants, and for three and sometimes
five years will vegetate freely if kept cool and dry. Put
away in pajaer bags for use.

Properties and Use. — The artichoke is wholesome, yet
it contains but little nutriment, and is cultivated merely
to please the palate. The heads are sometimes pickled.
It is eaten by the French as a salad, with oil and vinegai-,
salt and pepper ; the bottoms are often fried in paste like
the egg plant. The English gather them when they
spread their scales and the flower appears about to open ;
the whole head is boiled and the scales pulled off, one or
two at a time, dipped in butter and pepper, and the mealy
part stripped off with the teeth. The bottom, when the
leaves are disposed of, is eaten with the knife and fork.
The flowers have the properties of rennet in curdling milk.

ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM.— (JTeZiVm^Aws tuierosus.)

This is a hardy, perennial species of sun-flower, a native
of Brazil, introduced
into England in ]617,
and was much esteem-
ed as a garden vege-
table until the Irish
potato took its place. ^'- GI.-jerusalem artichoke.
The crops obtained in good soils are enormous. The salts
found in the ashes are mainly potash and lime, the former
very largely.

Culture. — It flourishes best in a rich, light soil, with an
open exposure, but will thrive in almost any soil or loca-
tion. Plant in spring or fall, either small tubers or the
large ones, cut into sets of one or two eyes, four inches

166 GAEDENI]!>^G FOK THE SOUTH,

deep, in rows three and a half feet apart. Make the rows
run north and south, to admit the sun, and put the plants
eighteen inches apart in the rows. Keeji the ground free
from weeds and earth up slightly. They will be fit for
use in the fall. Take care to dig them up thoroughly, as
the smallest piece will vegetate. They will grow on land
too poor for almost anything else. If the top be cut off
one-half way down in August, it is said by some that the
size of the tuber will be very much increased by the ad-
mission of air and light. This is doubtful.

Use. — ^The roots are eaten boiled, mashed with butter,
and are considerably nutritive, nearly as much so as the
Irish potato. It has a moist, soft texture, and a tolerably
agreeable taste. It is, however, rather a second-rate dish.
They are better pickled in vinegar. The plant is most
useful in feeding cows and pigs, affording large quantities
of food from quite poor soils.

AS)'? K'RLGTJ^— {Asparagus officinalis.)

This plant has been cultivated as a garden vegetable
for at least two thousand years. Cato, 150 years before
Christ, gives a full detail of its mode of culture among
the Romans. Its culture originated probably in Greece,
for its name is pure Greek, and signifies a bud not fully
opened ; and it is known throughout Europe, by names
derived or corrupted from the Greek.

The wild asparagus is found on the sea coasts of most
pn.rts of Europe, Its stem is not thicker than a goose-
quill. From this wild plant, by the aid of manure and
culture, our delicious garden varieties were raised. Miller
has succeeded in effecting the same result in modern times.

There are only two varieties of any importance, the

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTI0:N- AND CULTURE. 167

green and the red-topped. The latter, with purplish green
shoots, is the one principally cultivated. There are some
sub-varieties, hut these derive all their merit from superior
cultivation. R. Thompson states there is really but one
sort of asparagus.

An analysis of asparagus by Thomas Richardson shows
the ashes to contain about tsV of soda, and nearly yVg- of
chloride of sodium, or common salt.

In other analyses the propoi-tion of soda is considerably
reduced. Asparagus, like some other plants, has the
j)ower of substituting the other alkalies, lime and potash,
in the place of soda. All the analyses exhibit large pro-
portions of chloride of sodium, or its elements, chlorine and
sodium, also of phosphoric acid. In asparagus, over three-
fifths of the inorganic elements of the plant are made up
of these constituents. This explains why salt and sea-
weed are found useful, and shows that the application of
bane manure, or superphosphate of lime, in connection
with animal manures, may be beneficial.

Culture. — Asparagus is pi'opagated only by seed, one
ounce of which will produce a thousand plants. Sow
quite early in spring on a bed of fresh and deep sandy
loam, the richer the better — as free as possible from all
shade of trees or shrubs. Draw the drills one foot apart,
and with a dibble make holes six inches distant, in which
drop two or three seeds. Let the seed be covered an inch
deep, and press the earth upon it. If unable to sow early,
shade must be given to the bed, for which purpose pine
boughs are well suited. These should be removed at
night and on cloudy days, and entirely as soon as the
plants are up.

Care must be taken to keep the seed-bed light and free
from weeds, though this operation must be delayed until
the plants come up. If two plants appear in the same
place, the weaker must be removed. Transj^lanted, these
will make pretty good plants by fall. When the stems

168 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

are withered, cut them down and spread well-rotted stable
dung over the bed two inches deep, which will increase
the vigor of the plauts the next year, and also protect
them from frost.

Let the plants remain in the seed-bed until they are
about to grow early in spring. To have this delicacy as
early as jiossible, choose a site where the bed can be fully
exposed to the sun. If you wish to prolong its season,
another bed may be planted on a northern exposure. The
subsoil should be dry, and if not naturally so, must be
well drained. It must be dug up thoroughly at least two
and a half feet deep, the poor soil removed, and its place
supplied with rich, light loam.

After taldng out the soil, the bottom should be covered
with at least six inches of well-rotted manure, as this can
never be reached after the roots are once planted. Inter-
mix as much more throughout the bed, except the top
four or five inches, as the manure should not come in con-
tact with the fresh roots. Bury your manure and mix it
well throughout the whole depth, as you can hardly make
the ground too rich. Asparagus will grow, it is true,
without all this trouble, but the size, sweetness, and ten-
derness of the shoots, will pay for doing the work in the
best manner.

The upper five inches should be light, rich, sandy loam
mixed with leaf-mould, and the top left as light as possi-
ble. So manured and deeply dug, the plants will send
down their roots too deeply to fear a drought. The i^lants
should be carefully taken up with a fork, and the roots
l^reserved uninjured. Select mild, cloudy weather, when
the ground is in good working order, for it must not be
wet. Lay the roots separately and carefully together,
that they may not be entangled and mjured while plant-
ing ; keep them, while planting, in a basket covered Avith
a little mould.

Plant your first row by straining a line eight inches

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 169

from the edge of the bed ; then with the spade cut out a
trench six inches deep with the side next the line perpen-
dicular, in which set the plants twelve inches apart, if
large heads are desired. Place the roots against the per-
pendicular side of the trench, and spread them out like a
fan against the cut without any doubling, keeping the
crowns all at the same level, at about two inches beneath
the surface, and cover them by drawing back the light
earth regularly over the plants. Draw the line agaiuki'Sf-
teen inches from the first, and proceed as above, leaving a
path of two feet wide a little below the level of the bed,
eight inches from every third row. Some plant lettuce
and radishes between the rows, but it is not advisable,
though a crop of cabbages may be made in the alleys.
After the beds have been planted, rake them smooth, and
do not tread between the rows. Keep the edges of the
bed smoothly trimmed and even. The beds are made
narrow to avoid the necessity of treading upon them with
the feet, as they should be left as light as possible, for,
lasting from ten to twenty years without working, the
rains will render them compact, and waUdng upon them
would be very injurious. If some of the beds are made
with but two rows, these, being narrower, will warm
through quicker and be earlier in the season.

Water them daily in dry weather until the plants are
well-rooted. All weeds must be removed as they appear.
As salt is an excellent manure for this plant, the weeds
may be easily kept down by its application. Old brine
or refuse salt, in which meat or fish has been packed, is
bettor than any other, as it abounds in the blood and
juices of the meat, which are a most valuable fertilizer.
Asparagus is a sea-shore plant, and salt will not hurt it,
but is life and nourishment to it.

Old beds have been covered an inch deep, and the plants
continued to thrive; but a sprinkling just sufficient to
make the soil look white is enough. As soon as the
8

ITO GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

plants have turned yellow in tlie fall, cut them down close
to the ground, but he careful not to do this early, or they
will throw up new shoots and he much weakened. Re-
move the stalks and all weeds, cover the beds with three
or four inches of good stable manure, and let it remain
until time for the spring dressing. If you have charcoal
dust at command, a layer of an inch thick over the manure
will be found quite useful in preventing the loss of ammo-
nia. When the weather grows warm and siDring has
fairly opened, and the ground is sufficiently dry, before
growth commences, with an asparagus fork dig in the ma-
nure placed on the beds in the fall, and loosen the earth
four inches deep, taking care not to wound the crowns of
the plants. Give the beds a top-dressing of salt, 2 lbs. to
the square yard, before growth commences, and water
freely in diy weather. Applications of Hquid manure are
likewise very salutary. A good liquid maniire for aspara-
gus is an ounce of guano and four ounces of salt to two
gallons of water. Guano or night soil composted with
cliarcoal, so as to be entirely inodorous, is also beneficially
applied at any time. Another slight coveriag of charcoal
dust, after the spring dressing, will be of service, and
make the shoots earlier. Until the bed is two years old,
the alleys should be also deeply dug and well manured,
as the plants will derive much nourishment from them.
After that period the roots will extend so widely that they
cannot be worked without injury.

When the bed is one year old, it may, if it has been
well treated, be sparingly gathered from. The plants will
not be injured if the shoots are of good size and but few
are taken. They wUl yield a full crop when two years
transplanted. Asj^aragus should be cut before the heads
lose their compact form, Avhen only four or five inches
above the ground. Remove the earth to the bottom of
the stalk, and cut it off sloping with a pointed knife, tak-
ing care not to wound any other shoots that may be near

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTIOlSr AJ<iD CULTUEE. 171

it, as tliey are constantly putting forth from the crowns.
Too many shoots should not be ciit from the beds, nor the
gathering prolonged too late. "Wlieuever the bed puts
up weak and small shoots, these should be allowed to re-
main, which will increase the size of those remaining, and
the future value of the bed. When green peas become
plentiful, the asparagus bed shoiTld rest. After the cut-
ting ceases, you may judge from the size of the summer
shoots the productiveness of the bed the coming spring.
These elaborate the food for the future crop. The manure
applied in autumn has but little effect on the next spring's
shoots, but from its influence the strong growth of the
succeeding simimer will prepare an abundant supply of
large shoots the second spring. The spring and autumn
dressings should be continued while the bed lasts, for the
top soil must be kept perfectly free and light, that the
shoots may readily push through it, and the surface left
rough, that it may catch and retain the winter rains so as
thoroughly to moisten the lower roots. Finally, good as-
paragus is not to be obtained without an abundant supply
of manure. The beds will, if thus treated, remain pro-
ductive twelve or fifteen years.

Asparagus can be forced by planting a hot-bed tJiickly
with thrifty roots ; it comes into bearii;>g in four weeks,
and afibrds asparagus for a month in the winter season.
Give plenty of air in mild weather.

For Seed. — Reserve some of the best shoots in the
spring, and mark them by placing a stake by each one,
and let them run up and ripen their seeds. Take shoots
with fine, round, close heads ; fasten them, as they gi'ow,
up to the stake, and the seed will ripen better. Gather
the seed when ripe, and wash ofi" the pulp and husk, which
will pass off with the water, if gently poured off, and the
seeds will sink to the bottom. Dry them thoroughly, and
store away for use. They are, for your own sowing, just

172 GAEDENLN'G FOR THE SOUTH.

as well kept and sown in the pvilp. Asparagus seed AviU
keep four years.

XJse. — The tender shoots thrown up in the spring when
from four or five inches long, are the parts in use, and are
very delicate and much esteemed, though not very nuti'i-
tious. They are excellent simply boiled, or as an addition
to soups when in season.

BASIL. — {Ocymum BasiUcicm, and 0. minimum.)

Two species are cultivated, Sweet Basil, {0. J^asil-
icum). and Bush Basil, ( O. minimicni). Both are annuals,
with small leaves and small white flowers, and natives of
the East Indies. Sweet basil is the species most cultivat-
ed, and was introduced into England in 1548.

Culture. — Basil likes a rich, light soil, free from shade.
The plants may be started early in March, under glass, in
gentle heat. They should be thinned when the young
l^lants appear, and transj^lanted when of sufficient size
where they are to remain. Basil is rather difficult to
transi^lant, but can be carefully lifted in tufts with the
balls of earth attached, in a moist time, with complete
success ; give water and shade until established. It can
also be sown on the borders where it is to remain, but if
sown too early in the open air, the seed is apt to rot or
the yomig plants to be killed by frost, as they are rather
tender. April is the month for sowing in the open ground.
Do not cover the seed deeply, but press the earth upon it.
Make the rows ten inches apart, and thin the sweet basil
to ten inches, and the bush, which is more dwarf, to five
inches in the row. Weeds must be kept under, and the
soil mellow, by frequent hoeing. Bush basil makes a very
pretty edging. It should be cut not too closely just as it

VEGETABLES — DESGRIPTTO.N AKD CULTURE. 173

comes into flower, and hung up in small bundles in the
shade to dry for -winter use ; thus cut, it will soon grow
up again. When thoroughly dried, it may he j)ounded
fine and kept any length of time in closely stopped bottles.

Seed. — Let some of the finest plants remain uncut, and
gather the seeds as they ripen. They will keep for six years.

Use. — The leaves and small tops are the parts employed,
and give a delightful flavor in cookery. They have a
strong flavor of cloves, and are used in soups and sauces,
and other high-seasoned dishes. They are much employed
in French cookery. It is the most agreeable of the pot
herbs, and the most useful, except parsley and sage.

A small sprig of basil, on account of its odor, is an
agreeable addition to a bouquet of flowers.

BEAN, ENGLISH SRQKD-iVicia Faba.)

The English Broad Bean is an annual from two to four
feet high, with white, fragrant, papilionaceous flowers, with
a black spot in the middle of the wings ; seed pods thick,
long, woolly within, enclosing large, ovate, flat seeds, for
the sake of which it is much cultivated in Europe. It is
a native of the East — some say of Egypt, but is probably
from Persia, near the Caspian Sea — and has been cultivated
from time immemorial.
; * VARIETIES.

i Mazagan, — Sweet and agreeable in flavor, and produces
well if planted early. Far the most productive variety
with me. Pods contain three or four beans, which are
small, oblong, and thick.

Long Pod, — Stems rise about three or four feet high ;
bears well ; the pods are long, narrow, and generally con-

174 GAEOENIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

tain four beans of good quality ; remains in use later than
the i^receding.

Broad Windsor. — Stems 3 to 4 feet high ; pods short,
but very broad, containing two beans, very large, roundish,
and flattened. Best for a late crop, as it is longest in use.

Dwarf Early. — This is very early and productive, but
has a long tap-root, and is not suited to' shallow soils.

Culture. — The early crops should be on a dry soil mod-
erately rich and warm, to promote their growth during the
winter. The latter crops should be on a deep, strong-
loam. They are to be sown in drills 2^ feet apart for the
Dwarf and Mazagan, and 3 feet for the others; jDut the
beans four inches apart in the row, and cover three inches
deep with earth, which should be pressed upon the seed.
If any miss, they may be supplied by transi^lantrng. This
bean will do well -wherever the winters remain open, and
the mercury does not, in ordinary years, fall below about
10° Fahrenheit, and should be jilanted from October to
February inclusive. In Virginia, and where frosts are se-
vere, they must be" put in as soon as the ground opens in
spring, but they are then not as productive as when they
can be planted during the months above named. No or-
dinary frost will injure them. When two inches high,
hoe between and draw the earth about the stems of the
plants. Continue this during their growth. When the
plants come into bloom, take oif two or three inches of
the tops of the stems, which will increase the crop and
hasten its maturity. The crop should be gathered before
they are full grown, while they are still tender and delicate.

To Save Seed. — Allow a portion of the crop to remain
until ripe. Thresh for use.

Use. — The English use these beans while young and
tender, as we do green peas. They must be cooked very
young, and in the same manner ; or may be boiled with
bacon. They are not likely to come into general use.

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTION AND CULTURE. 175

BEAIT, KID'S'EY—iP^iaseolus.)

These are tender, Leguminous annuals, mostly natives of
India, first cultivated in England in 1597. The species cul-
tivated are P. vulgaris, Pole or Ruiming Bean, with seed-
pods long, straight, and pointed, brittle while young ; J^.
nanus, the Bush Bean, is probably a sub-species of this, with
more acuminate leaves and larger bracts ; P. multifloms
is the Scarlet Runner ; and J*, lunatus, the large and small
Lima Bean, with broad, compressed, scimetar-sbaped pods,
and seeds broad and compressed.

The Asparagus, or Yard-long Bean, is a species of
Dolichos.

Of these species there are many varieties, which, for
convenience, we will class as dwarfs and ninning beans.
Those with edible j^ods, breakmg crisply, are called snaps.
Of Dwarf or Bush Beans the best are :

Early Moliawki — Pods long, beans large, oval, with dark-
colored specks ; it bears very well, is one of the earliest
varieties, and is least injured by frost. In good seasons,
fit for the tablq about five or six weeks after sowing.

Early Valentine. — Pods round, and continue crisp
longer than most other varieties. The beans are pink-
speckled on a salmon ground; bears well. Sown with
Early Mohawk, is about five days later.

Newin^ton Wonder. — Very dwarf, pods of medium
length, dark green color, thick and fleshy; seeds form
slowly, and the pods continue long crisp and fit for use;
seeds small, oblong, and light chestnut-colored when ripe.

Late Valentine. — Pods similar to Early Valentine,
equally crisp and tender, color dark brown, speckled ; a
better bearer, and grows more thrifty than the early sort.
One of the best. About ten days later than the Mohawk.

Royal Kidney. — Pods long, finely flavored ; seeds
white and large. Sown at the same time, is a fortnight

176 GARDENING FOR TDE SOUTH.

later than the Mohawk. This is one of the best for winter
use when ripe.

Yellow Six Weeks, China Red-eyed, and Turtle Soup,
are likewise good varieties.

Of Ruuning or Pole Beans, the best are :

Dutch Case Knife, with large, broad pods, and flattish,
kidney-shaped, white seeds, and is a good winter bean.

Algiers or Wax Bean is an early, running kind, with
pale yellow pods, free fx'om any tough lining, very tender
and soft when cooked; seeds medium-sized, roundish,
black. Excellent, but at the South soon stops bearing.

London Horticultural is also excellent, the pods con-
tinuing tender until the seeds are quite large ; the latter
are large and roundish.

In Southern corn-fields are grown several excellent
kinds, which are not described in our books. Three are
particularly desirable, viz :

White Prolific is a medium-sized, white, oval, kidney-
shaped bean, with roundish tender pods, and exceedingly
jirolific ; desii-able green or for winter use.

Dark Prolific resembles the last, but the seeds are of a
very dark dun color.

Black Speckled has the pods more flattened; seeds
roundish, of a dull white, black speckled, and skin rath'er
thick, but the pods are excellent to use green. Of very
vigorous growth, and best endures the summcj.' heats.
Not over two plants should remain to a pole.

Lima Beans are from the East Indies. There are the
green, the white, the speckled, and the small white or
Carolina. The white Lima is not quite so large as the
gi'een, but, bearing with greater abundance, is to be pre-
fen-ed. It is also not quite so hardy and productive as
the Carolina, but is much larger and richer flavored, and
is the most grown for city markets.

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION^ AND CULTURE. 177

Carolina or Butter bean closely resembles the white
Lima, but is smaller, earlier, liardier, and bears much more
abundantly, and though not quite so rich, is for general
culture the best running bean.

"Wood-ashes and bone-dust, or superphosphate of lime,
will supply the soil with the most necessary elements for
the bean crop, which, by the way, like most legumes,
draws most of its sustenance from the atmosphere.

Culture. — ^As beans are very easily destroyed by spring
frosts, there is no use in planting the main crop too early.
A few of the Extra Early or Mohawk may be planted at
the same time with early corn, and if there is danger,
protect them when they come up, by placing wide planks
over the rows an inch or two above the plants, supported
on blocks or bricks every cold night. The main early crop
is planted in Georgia the last of March, or early in April ;
at New York City, about the first of May. Planting
may continue imtil about eight weeks before the autumn
frosts occur. The soil for the early crop should be dry
and light ; if wet or tenacious, the seed often decays with-
out germinating, or comes up spindling and unproductive.
For the summer-sown crop, a soil slightly moist, but still
inclining to a sand, is to be preferred.

Plant in drills eighteen inches or two feet apart, and
the seed two inches apart in the row. Cover the seeds
about an inch and a half deep. A pint of seed will plant
about one hundred and twenty-five feet of rows. When
the plants come up, thin them gradually to six or eight
inches in the row, and they will be much more vigorous
and productive. The Late Valentine does best in hills
eighteen inches apart. Plant four or five beans to a liill.
Keep them always clean, and the soil light and mellow
with the hoe. Draw the earth carefully about their stems
when about to flower, making broad, low hills to protect
the roots from heat and drought. If well cultivated, the
same plants will continue to bear a long time. Do

178 ■ GAKDElSnXG FOE THE SOUTH,

not hoe any of the kidney beans, whether dwarf or run-
ners, when the foliage is wet, as the plants will rust and
be greatly injured, if not destroyed. Choose dry weather
for working them, and hoe shallow when the plants get
large. The value of the crop depends greatly upon their
being properly thinned in the drills while young.

Pole or running beans for snaps may be planted when
the main crop of bush beans is put in, or a few days later;
and at the South, a few hills should be planted monthly,
until July, to give a succession, for which nothing is bet-
ter than the corn-field varieties described. They should
be planted in rows about four feet aj)art, and the hills
from two and a half to three feet in the row. The hills
should be broad and raised some three inches above the
ground level. Put in the poles before planting, let them
be uniformly about ten feet long, and inserted well in the
ground. Put five or six beans around each pole, and
cover them an inch and a half deep, and when up, reduce
th€ plants to three in a hill, and where there are less than
that, plant again.

Lima beans require a rich, strong soil, and will thrive
on heavy loams, where the other running beans and
snaps would not flourish. They are still more tender
than snaps, and should not be planted until settled warm
weather, as the seed will rot in cool weather, and the
slightest frost will destroy them if they chance to vege-
tate. The tenth of Aj^ril is early enough in Middle
Georgia ; near New York City they plant a month later.
They may be forwarded by jDlanting in small pots in a
hot-bed to be transferred, by breaking the balls, to the
open ground when three inches high. Lima beans will
not thrive if too much crowded ; the rows must be five feet
apart, and the hills three feet in the row. The space be-
tween may be croj)ped early in the season with Irish po-
tatoes, etc. Wlien the plants begin to run, give them a
little assistance, if not inclined to cling to the poles. Lf

VEGETABLES DESCKIPTIOZSr AND CULTURE. 179

these are too high, the vines ai'C later in heaving, and the
crop out of reach in gathering. When they blossom,
pinch off the tips of the leading shoots, to hasten the
maturity of the crop.

In planting Lima beans, place the eye downward and
the narrow end the lowest, as the bean always rises from
the ground in that position, and if not planted right, it
has to turn itself over in the soil, and if prevented by any
obstruction from turning over, it is sure to rot in the
ground. Planted in this way, they come up sooner, bet-
ter, and more evenly. A quart will plant about four hun-
dred hills. The subsequent culture consists in keeping
the ground frequently hoed when the vines are dry. They
will continue in bearing until cut off by the hard frosts.

For Seed. — Gather both the Lima and kidney beans
when ripe and dry them thoroughly. The seed should be
kept pure by planting the varieties at a distance from each
other. Where subject to be destroyed by bugs, if saved
in paper bags, put them up in glass bottles or earthen jugs
well corked. Into each one pour, before corking, a tea-
spoonful of spirits of tiirpentine. The turpentine odor
will destroy the bugs, if the vessel is tightly corked, with-
out injuring the vitality of the bean.

TTse. — The tender, fleshy pods of snap-beans are a favor-
ite summer vegetable, very delicate, wholesome, and mod-
erately nutritive. They are boiled while green, and may
be preserved for winter use, by cutting them into pieces
and laying them down in salt. They will make their own
brine, and must be kept covered by it, or they will spoil.
Cook in two waters to extract the salt. Tlie Lima beans,
and the snaps also, when full grown, are shelled, and may
be preserved for winter use, and afford in proportion to
their weight, more nutrition than most other vegetables.
Wheat contams but 74 per cent of nutritive matter,
while kidney beans contain 84 per cent. They abound in
the constituents that produce muscle and fat, and will

180 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

supply better than most vegetables the place of animal
food. Gather them in their green state when full grown,
and dry them carefully in the sun. They are better gath-
ered thus than if delayed until ripe, and are also free from
bugs. Soak them over night before being boiled. They
can also be laid down with layers of salt like snap-beans.
They are very good gathered when ripe, and dried care-
fully in an oven in order to keep them free from insects,
which, at the South, are quite destructive. Snap-beans
are also pickled, whUe young, in the same way as cucum-
bers.

"SEET.—iBeia vulgaris, and B. Cida.)

The Common Beet, J3eta vulgaris, is a biennial plant, a
native of the sea coasts of the south of Europe, and is said
to have been cultivated for its beautiful red roots long be-
fore its edible properties were discovei-^d.

It was uitroduced into England by Tradescant, in the
year 1656. Its name is said to come from the resemblance
of its seed to the letter Beta, of the Greek alphabet.

The best varieties are the following :

Extra Early Turnip, or Bassano Beet.— The root is
oval; color, pale red. Downing truly says "it is the
sweetest, most tender, and delicate of all beets ; " but the
color boils out, so that it is not as beautiful as some oth-
ers, yet it is the best early beet and one of the easiest
grown.

Early Turnip-rooted is a week or two later ; the ex-
posed part of the root is brownish, red below ground, and
flesh of liurplish red, which becomes lighter in boiling ; ap-
parently coarse, but really tender, sweet, and well-flavorcJ.

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE. 181

Long Blood is the kind most grown for winter use. It
grows a foot or more in length, and four or five inches in
diameter, mostly beneath the earth. It is a good keeper
and very sweet.

Early Long Blood resembles this ; but about half the
root is above ground, and if not gathered and stored
early, is more exposed to injury from frost.

The London Horticultural Society, after a comparison
of many kinds, prefer the following :

Nutting's Selected Dwarf Red. — Leaves 9 to 12 inches
high, dark red. Roots, under ground, 9^ inches around ;
flesh dark red, and when baked, deep crimson ; of smooth,
close texture, sweet and well-flavored, of no earthy taste ;
the best sort.

Short's Pineapple. — Leaves 6 or 7 inches high, dark
purple stalks, tinged with dull orange. Roots 8 inches in
circumference; flesh, deep crimson. Baked, of a dull,
deep crimson, tender, mild, sweet, and well-flavored, but
with a slight earthy taste. Both these are small kinds.
The large-growing, coarse beets are never good.

Culture. — The beet, being a native of the sea-shore,
abounds in soda, which can be supplied, when deficient,
by an application of common salt the autumn before plant-
ing. This, and leached or unleached ashes, will afibrd
nearly all the inorganic elements of the crop.

The main summer crop of beets should be planted when
the peach and plum are in full blossom. A few Bassano
or Early Turnip should be planted a few weeks earlier,
and of other kinds successive beds may be made whenever
the soil is in a suitable state, from January until the sum-
mer droughts come on. Advantaare should be taken of
the rains that usually occur about the last of July, or
early in August, to put in a crop for whiter. This crop
should be put in earlier the farther northward the locality.
At New York, the main crop is planted as early as the

182 GAEDEXIXG FOE TDE SOUTH.

middle of June, about tliree and a half months before
killing frosts. This last jilanting often proves a failure
in the dry autumns of a Southern climate. It generally
will succeed in rich, fine soil.

When the surface soil is rich and the bottom jDOor, it
will be difficult to make the beet, carrot, and other tap-
rooted plants jjroduce fine, smooth roots. This difficulty
will cease if the ground be deeply and thoroughly worked,
minglmg the soil and making it uniform throughout, and
taking care to place at the depth of one foot below the
surface a layer of good manure.

The best beets grow in sandy bottom lands, but any soil
will answer for them if deeply and thoroughly worked
and well manured. This is necessary with all tap-rooted
plants, and especially with the beet. Beet seed is some-
what slow in vegetating, and the later sowings may be
soaked in water twenty-four hours before planting, and
the drills well watered upon the seed, which is then cov-
ered with light soil pressed gently upon the seed ; a good
method of j^lanting all smnmer crops. Make the beds
four or four and a half feet wide, for convenience of culti-
vating ; sjDade them up at least a foot deep, — eighteen
inches is still better ; mix in a good supply of well-rotted
manure throughout, if the ground requires it. Rake the
ground even and smooth, and mark out the rows twelve
inches apart across the bed ; draw the drills an inch and a
half or two inches deep, in which drojD the seed two inches
apart, and press the earth gently upon it. When the
plants are up, thin them to eight or nine inches apart, fill
any vacancies by transplanting, and keep the ground
around them loose and fi-ee from weeds until matured.

In planting crops of beets, carrots, and parsnips, particu-
larly the two latter, sprinkle a few radish seeds, if you
like, and the ground is rich, in the rows to distinguish
them. The radishes will be up in a week, and the ground
can be hoed or weeded without any danger of destroying

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTIOlSr AND CULTUEE. 183

the young plants. Drills can also be made between every
two rows of beets, making a drill every six inches, which
can also be sown with radishes or lettuce plants, which
can thus be grown abundantly between other crops with-
out loss of room. But a rich soil is required to bring
forward both crops to perfection.

For early beets it is well to prepare a good bed under
glass in which the rows should be marked out a foot apart.
The ground should be deeply spaded and thoroughly ma-
nured. Mark out joxir rows for the beets, and between
the first two draw a drill in which you can sow your early
York cabbage ; between the next two you can raise all the
Butter-lettuce you wish to- set out for heading. In the
rows of beets themselves, you may sprinkle a few radish
seed; then a row of later head-lettuce, tomatoes, egg
plant, peppers, etc. The drills retained for the beets should
be sown in this climate with the Bassano beet about the
tenth of January. By the time the hard frosts are over,
the beets, cabbages, etc., will be fit to transplant. Thin
out to six inches apart, planting out those pulled up in the
open ground. Li transplanting the beet, a deep hole
should be made with a dibble, and the root not bent.
Those that remain in the bed will soon come into use, and
by the time they are gone, the transplanted ones will come
on for a succession.

The winter crop should be secured as soon as the first
killing frosts occur, as the sweetness is lost by remaining
in the soil. The roots should be taken up, dried a little,
and stored away in casks with layers of dry sand, where
they will keep in good condition until spring. The mangel
wurtzel beet is much cultivated in some countries for feed-
ing stock, and is very good for the table when young and
tender, but in our long season it loses its sweetness before
■winter. Here the sweet potato, rutabaga, and other tur-
nips, are more promismg.

184

GAKDENING FOK TnE SOUTH.

The Swiss Chard, or White Beet, Beta Clda, is also
called the Sea Kale Beet. There are two varieties, the white
and the green, which receive their names from the color

of the foot-stalks of
the leaves. Either of
these is good. The
plant very much re-
sembles the common
beet, but the leaves
and their stalks are
much larger, thicker,
more tender and suc-
culent, and less cajsa-
ble of resisting frost.
The root of this
plant is small, coarse,
and of no value ; only
the leaves and their
stalks are employed,
esj)ecially the latter,
"which are cooked and
eaten as asparagus.

The ' culture is ex-
actly the same as the
common beet, except
the plants should be
twelve or more inches
apart. The soil may
be richer and not so
deej^, and the plants
are more benefited by
copious watering, especially with liquid manure. For
winter use, the leaves may be covered with litter
and afford blanched leaf stalks all winter. If the soil
be moist and kept mellow and free from weeds, it will yield
bountifully. Salt is a beneficial manure .fur this crop, ap-

63.— SWISS CHARD.

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AISTD CULTURE. 185

plied while preparing the ground, as it keeps it moist. It
is singular that a plant of so easy culture, and yielding
during the entire season after May a supply of the most
delicate greens, has not come into more general cultivation.

For Seed. — Select a few of the finest looking roots,
those smooth and well-shapecl. Plant the difierent vari-
eties as far apart as possible ; indeed, it is better to save the
seed of only one kiud the same year for fear of intermix-
ture and degeneracy. Keep them free from weeds, and
tie the seed stalks to stakes to support them. Gather and
dry the seed as soon as ripe, and put away in paper bags.
Keep dry, and it will be good for ten years.

TTse. — The young and tender tops of the common beet,
and the leaves and stalks of the chards, are boiled as sum-
mer greens, or of the latter the midrib and stalk may be
peeled and boiled separately from the rest of the leaf and
prepared as asparagus, for which they are an excellent
substitute. In gathering, the largest outside leaves should
first be taken, and the inner ones left to increase in size,
taking care to gather them while still perfectly green and
vigorous.

When common beets are thinned, the young beets pulled
up, if cooked, tops and bottoms, are very sweet and deli-
cate. When well grown, the roots give an agreeable va-
riety to our table vegetables, being tender, sweet, and
considerably nourishing. They also make an excellent
pickle. If eaten moderately, they are wholesome, but in
too large a quantity produce flatulence and indigestion.

When old, the addition of a little powdered sugar to
the roots, when prepared for the table, restores some of
their lost sweetness. The leaves are said to abound in
nitre ; the roots are full of sugar, and a variety, the Sugar
Beet, is largely cultivated in France for its manufacture.

18G GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

BORECOLE. — {Brassica oleracea, var. acephela.)

This plant, known also as Kale and German Greens, is
the easiest cultivated, and one of the most valuable of the
cabbage tribe. It has large curled or wrinkled leaves,
forming an open head, and such a hardy constitution that
it resists the severest frosts, which serve only to improve
it. It remains green and eatable all winter without the
least protection at the South, and in the Northern States
requires only a slight covering. The best varieties are :

Dwarf Green Curled, very popular in northern cli-
mates, because from its small size it is completely protect-
ed by winter snows, and gives a good crop in a small space.

Buda Kale, with purplish leaves, somewhat glaucous,
cut and fringed ; very hardy ; may be blanched like Sea
Kale ; taller than the preceding.

Turner's Cottager's Kale is a new kind, very popular
in England, and promises well here ; it stood the winter
of 1859-GO at Philadelphia ; grows two and a half feet
high ; leaves green, not so much curled as the Dwarf.

Culture. — Raised from seed, like the rest of the cabbage
tribe, which may be sown in April with the winter cab-
bages and treated in the same manner. Transplant, if the
Dwarf Green Curled, into rows eighteen inches apart and
twelve inches in the row. Give it a good soil. The other
sorts require about the same sj)ace as winter cabbages.
Borecole may be sown as late as the middle of August in
the place where it is to remain, and managed like the Ruta-
baga turnip. Like the cabbage, it is visited by the Aphis
or Cabbage-louse, and caterpillar, for which see Cabbage.

Seed. — Manage some of the best plants as cabbage.

Use. — The outside leaves can be cut off for use when
from 7 to 9 inches long, but they will be coarse and rank
until mellowed by frost. The better way is after frost to
cut off the hearts, not square across, but with a sloping
cut, in order to threw off the rain, and the stem which is

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTIOX AND CULTUKE. 187

left Avill throw ui) fresh sprouts for a succession. For
winter and spring greens this vegetable is nearly equal to
the Savoy cabbage, after the frost has rendered it sweet
and tender.

BROCCOLI.— {Bmssica olcracea^ var. Botrytis cymosa.)

This is a biennial plant of the cabbage tribe, resembling
cauliflower, from which it diifers in its undulating leaves,
its larger size, and the color of some of its varieties.

It is supposed to have originated from the cauliflower ;
it is a hardier plant, but not so delicate in flavoi*. It has
been cultivated about two hundred years, and was intro-
duced into England from Italy. Broccoli is raised more
easily than cauliflower. The Early Purple Cape broccoli,
producing large, brownish heads, very close and compact,
is the best of over 40 sorts.

It requires the same special manures as cabbage and
cauliflower, and for cultivation sow, transplant, and man-
age nice late cauliflower. To protect from insects, see
Cabbage.

Use. — The same as cauliflower, to which it is inferior
and where that succeeds, will hardly be worthy of culture,

BRUSSELS SPROUTS.

{Brasska oleracea, var. hullata gcmmifera.)

This plant is a hardy variety of the Savoy cabbage,
producing an elongated stem, often four feet high and
crowned Avith leaves similar to the Savoy. Small, green
heads like cabbages spring from the axils of the stem leaves,
which, dropping off, leave the little heads arranged spirally

188

GAEDEMING FOE THE SOUXn.

around the stem Jis the plant proceeds in growth. Brus-
sels Sprouts are raised from seed, which may be sown in
April. Set the plants in rows two feet by one and a half

feet apart, and treat in all
respects as directed for win-
ter cabbage. Cut off the
leaves at the top of the stem
some ten days or a fortnight
before the little heads are
gathered, and xise for gi-eens.
It will stand the winters
without protection south of
Virginia, but the product is
rather small, and the j^lants
are very subject to the Aj)his
during the winter.

For Seed. — Cut off the
top of the stem and permit
the flower stalks to spring
from the little heads only.
Keep at a distance from all
the other varieties of Bras-
sica, in order to have pure
seed.

Use. — The top boiled for
winter greens is very delicate in flavor and similar to the
Savoy. But the little sprouts after they have been touched
with frost, which very much improves them, are the parts
most used. The sprouts are fit for use all winter.

Fi?. C3.— BRUSSELS SPROUTS.

'S\i'KWEJY,—{Potenum sanguisorha.)

A hardy, perennial. Rosaceous plant from Britain, of
which the young leaves taste and smell like cucumbers,
and are put into soups and salads. The leaves are green

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTION AND CULTTJEE. 189

all winter. Propagated by seeds or pai'ting the roots.
Sow in anturan or early in spring, in drills eight inches
apart, and thin to six inches in the drill. Make new
plantations once in three years by dividing the roots.
Seldom cultivated.

CABBAGE. — {Brasaica oloracca, var. cwpitata.)

This is a Cruciferous biennial plant, quite hardy, found
wild on the coasts of England, France, and many other
parts of- Europe. The wild variety is known as Sea Cole-
wort, bears but a few leaves, and is far from palatable,
unless boiled in two waters to remove its saltness. The cul-
tivated variety was probably introduced into England by
the Romans, and the common name doubtless comes from
the Latin Caput^ or head. This is one of the most useful
crops in cultivation. Cabbages are eatable almost from
the time they leave the seed-bed until they have acquired
a hard, close head ; it is a crop that can be put on every
bit of otherwise idle ground. Tliey can be planted be-
tween beds and rows of anything and everything else, to be
eaten as greens when young, or left to head on the coming
oif of other crops, and if there should be a superabun-
dance above the wants of the family, nothing is better
for the cow and the pig. For early cabbage it is neces-
sary to rely iipon English seed, as the seed of the early
varieties saved in this country grow later by our cul-
ture, soil, and climate. For late cabbage, the American
seeds are superior to the imported, and i)roduce finer and
larger heads. No seed for late cabbage is better than our
own, if saved from fine, large heads. But all the late
cabbages in hot climates, without proper care, are prone
to run into coleworts or " collards."

190 GAKDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

The best varieties are as follows :

Early ¥ork, which has been in use over a century as
the best for the earliest crop. Stem short, head oval, a
little heart-shaped, very firm, and of fine, delicate flavor;
its small size enables it to be grown in rows a foot apart
each way, giving over 40,000 heads to the acre.

Large Early York, or Landreth's Large York, succeeds
the above. It is of larger size, not quite so early, and
more robust, and bears the heat better, and will often con-
tinue in eating all summer.

Early Battersea has a very short stem, is about 3 feet
in circumference, or about 26 inches when the outside
leaves are removed. The ribs boil tender. If cut close
to the ground, the sprouts it throws up, if all but one or
two are removed, will form new heads late in the season.
Early Sugar Loaf, Early Emperor, Early Nonpareil, and
Early Vanack, are nearly allied to this.

Early Winnigstadt. — Stem dwarf, head large, broad at
the base, sharply conical, heart firm, boiling tender. Sown
late, it proves a good winter cabbage.

Early Wakefield and Early Oxheart are also excellent,
quite early sorts, and like the Battersea.

Early Dutch is an excellent variety that connects the
early and late sorts, and is one of the very best in culture.
It is succeeded by the winter cabbages, such as

Flat Dutch, v/hich is a large, spreading, short-stemmed
variety, flat on the top, close headed, firm in texture, and
if headed late, keeps well, and is of better flavor than

Bergen, Avhich is also a drumhead cabbage, but larger,
and a little coarser; one of the best for late keeping.

The Drumhead resembles the Flat Dutch, but is less
dwarf

Green Glazed, in this climate, is more capable of resist-
ing the caterpillar and other insects, but it is a coarse va-
riety with very loose heads.

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTUKE. 191

Red Dutch is used jDrincipally for pickling, and should bo
sown at the same time "with the drumheads. Early York
and Flat Dutch are the best of the above kinds.

SAYOY CABBAGES.— (5. olevMca, mr. buUata-major.)

These differ from the preceding in their Tvrinkled leaves.
The varieties are hardy, being rendered more sweet and
tender by frost. The only two worthy of culture are :

Curled Savoy. — An excellent winter variety, much im-
proved in sweetness and tenderness by frost. It does not
head finnly, but is very fine flavored, and even the outside
leaves are tender and palatable.

Drumhead Savoy is almost as large and firm as the
drumhead cabbage, and keeps ' very well. The head is
round, flattened at top. It is nearly as delicate as the
curled variety.

The Savoys are not as certain a crop as the other cab-
bages, but far superior in delicacy. They are nearly equal
to cauliflowers.

Culture. — An analysis of different varieties of the cabbage
shows them all to contain a very large projoortion of nitro-
gen ; after evaporating the water, drumhead cabbage gives
of nitrogen 17.899 parts in a hundred ; Savoy, 20.763 ; red,
10,212; turnip-rooted, 19.052. "We also find this plant
remarkably rich in phosiihorus and sulphur ; hence its un-
pleasant smell in decay, like that of animal matter. It
abounds also in soda and potash. Hence, common salt, to
yield soda and chlorine, wood ashes for potash, bone for
phosphoric acid, and gypsum, to add sulphur and lime, to-
gether with a soil saturated with manure of animals,
especially the liquid excretion, all come in play in making

192 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTU.

fine cabbages. Frequent stirring the soil, too, will rob
the atmosjAere of its ammonia for the same purpose.

The genus to which the cabbage belongs, {JBrassica^
embraces also the Turnip, Borecole, Broccoli, Cauliflower,
Brussels Sj^routs, etc., and the following observations ap-
ply to the whole of them.

For the seed-bed the soU should be a moist loam, but
more dry in the case of plants which are to stand the
Avinter. For final production most plants of this genus
like a fresh, very rich, moderately clayey loam. A moist,
cool bottom suits them admirably ; such of them as are
to stand the winter in the open ground should be grown
in a lighter soil, not over rich. Good, well-decomposed
stable manure is usually employed in preparing the soil
for this genus. Pure hog manure is by some considered
objectionable, as it is said to cause any of the cabbage
tribe to become clump-rooted and lose their regularity of
shape. A plentiful application of salt the aiitumn before
planting, say at the rate of eight or ten bushels per acre,
is very beneficial to this tribe, as it destroys the cutworm
and keeps the soil moist and cool. Bone-dust, and espe-
cially superphosphate of lime, has a very surprising efiect
upon them, far more than analysis would lead one to
suppose.

The ground is advantageously dug twice the depth of a
spade, and should be well pulverized by the operation.
All of the cabbage tribe are particularly benefited by fre-
quent and deej:) cultivation ; they especially like to have
the soil about them thoroughly worked while the dexo is
0)1 them. There will be a very great difference in the
growth of two plots of cabbages treated alike in other
respects, one of which shall be hoed at sunrise, and the
other at midday ; the growth of the former will surj^ris-
ingly exceed that of the latter. But the cabbage tribe
cannot be hoed too much for their benefit even if daily.
The situation must be open and free from all shade or drip

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 193

of trees ; if shaded from the midday sun, it is an advan-
tage, but it must not be by trees. In the shade of trees
and other confined situations, they are much more subject
to be infested with caterpillars, and to grow weak and
sjiindling. In planting out, any of which the roots are
knotted and clumped should be rejected.

Early York cabbage seed may be sown early in
September or October in the open ground, watering
in the evening when dry, as it usually is this month.
The seed should be sown in drills, six inches apart, and
one inch deep, and the ground deej^ly dug ; water the
drills before covering the seed, unless the ground is moist.
Cover with fine, rich soil, pressed lightly upon the seed.
Tlie plants will appear in about a week, and a little soot
should be scattered over them to prevent the attacks of
insects. When large enough to ti'ansplant, they can be
set very thick in a cold frame or box, to stand over the
winter. Cover over with glass, or boards if you have
not glass, during severe weather, but give air every mild
day, and set out when the weather grows mild m the
spring.

From Washington southwards, a still better way than
putting the plants in a frame, is to throw a piece of
ground into high ridges, two feet apart, running east and
west. On the south side of these ridges, set out the
plants a foot apart, so that they will be shielded from the
cold north winds, and enjoy the full warmth of the sun.
Plant on the sides of the ridges and not in the trench.
When the Aveather grows severe in December, cover
slightly with straw or litter ; remove it when mild weather
returns, and cultivate as usual, gradually levellmg the
ridges, and you will have cabbages earlier than by any
other mode ; the ground should be good. If you raise
your plants in the cold frame, they will bo ready to trans-
plant from the 20th to the last of February. They will
be very liable to be eaten off by the cutworm when
9

194 GAKDENIXG FOE THE SOrXH.

transplanted. There are two modes of preventing tliis.
The best method is to sow the ground intended for cab-
bage, the autumn after being spaded up, with salt at tlie
rate of eight bushels per acre. If you have not already
sown your cabbage plot with salt, there is another plan to
keep off the cutworm, equally successful. Throw your
ground into ridges and trenches sixteen inches apart ; let
these trenches be at least six inches deep. In the bottom
of these transplant your cabbages, one foot apart. Some
use a dibble, but a trowel is much better, as it does not
leave the soil hard. Prepare your ground in dry weather,
but choose a moist day for transplanting. It is a good
plan to wet the roots before planting out. When they
get rooted, stir the soil gently about them, but do not fill
up the trenches until the plants are so large that there is
no danger of the worm. This method of protecting cab-
bages was pointed out to me by a negro gardener several
years since, and I have tried it repeatedly. The worm
will not go down into the trenches to destroy the plants.

When the plants get strong, the ground should be
deeply and repeatedly hoed. Do this while the dew is
on, and retain its ammonia in the soil. The cabbage is
partial to moisture, so hoe it fj'oquently, and when you go
out in the morning, you will find the plot moist with dew,
while the unstirred soil around is dry as ever. The only
secret in raising early cabbage is, set your plants in rich
ground and stir the soil. On poor ground (and even on
rich, if half tended) they will run into collards. Stir the
soil, and less manure is required.

K the fall sowing has been neglected, sow the seeds in
January or early in February, in a cold frame, as directed
in the article on the Beet ; or they may be sown in the
open ground when the heavy frosts that freeze the soil are
over, covering them with litter, if protection is needed
against unseasonable frosts, to be removed when the
danger is over. Transjilant and cultivate as above.

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION A^D CULTURE. 195

For the middle crop to last through the summer, the
seed can be sown as above, or any time until the middle
of April, The cultivation is the same, except that the
I^lants should be set about sixteen to eighteen inches
apart. The varieties are the Large York, Battersea, and
Early Dutch. These will not head unless the ground be
rich, rather moist, and, above all, diligently worked.

The late crop, Red Dutch, Savoys, Flat Dutch, etc., sow
about the first of April. It is sown the 1st of May near
New York, but, sown at that season in the South, it is
not certain to come up. If seed of any of the cabbage
tribe be sown after the weather grows warm, it must be
watered in the drill, or covered with rich, fresh earth,
which must be pressed upon it by walking on a board,
and it must be shaded by a covei'ing of boards or pine
bnish during the day, removing it at night, until the
plants get a little established. If the weather is warm
and wet, the covering may be dispensed with. They
should not be transplanted until July or August. Let the
ground be well spaded, and thoroughly manured. They
must be set in the ground up to the first leaf, no matter
hoici long the stem may he, or they will not head. They
also require a rich soil, but not from fresh manure. The
manure for the cabbage crop should be thoroughly de-
composed, or the plants will be covered with ajohides or
cabbage lice. The best way is to throw the ground into
ridges from two to two and a half feet apart, making the
trenches between more or less deep, according to the
length of the stems ; wet the roots thoroughly, and
transplant in moist weather, doing it carefully with
a trowel, and when the ground gets dry, draw the earth
level, which should just reach up to the lower leaves, not
all at once, but gradually. If you have not late plants,
sow Early and Large Yorks, or Winnigstadts, in July here,
or June northward, and good heads of a smaller size can
be produced.

196 GAEDEXIIfG FOE THE SOUTH.

After tbe late cabbages are transplanted, let them be
well cultivated by deep and frequent hoeing, and do not
strip off the lower leaves if you wish them to head.

Insects. — Many remedies are employed to keep off the
green worm, so destructive to the cabbage tribe. An in-
fusion of tobacco or of the ripe berries of the Pride of
China tree, sprinkled on them once or twice a week from
a water-pot, is said to be effectual. Sprinkling with ashes
is a good practice ; also to coop a brood of chickens near,
as they destroy the worm without injury to the cabbage.
Break off a leaf at night and place it on the top of the
head. In the morning early, most of the worms will be
on the under side of this leaf. Brush them off into a dish
of soapsuds. Repeat this daily until the worms are de-
stroyed. Aphides are not so apt to be troublesome when
the plants are in vigorous growth; an apjilication of
strong soapsuds generally destroys them. Wetting the
leaves with water raised to the temperature ©f ISO'^F., it
is said, will kill them without injury to plants. Dry
charcoal dust mixed with Scotch snuff and dusted over
them is another remedy. Air-slaked lime in which a
few drops of spirits of turpentine have been diffused, will
generally drive away both the aphides and the green worm.

The small, black Flea-beetle, or Turnip-flea, frequently
attacks the young plants, and it is sometimes nearly impos-
sible to drive them away. In some localities the plants
have to be raised in boxes elevated five or six feet from
the ground to escape them.

To preserve Cabbage. — Heel them in in a dry situation,
up to their lower leaves on the north side of a fence or
building, and cover slightly with plank, straw, or pine
brush, to keep them from freezing and thawing daring
the winter. It is not the fx'ost, however, but the sun upon
them, while frozen, that does the injury. In Virginia and
northward, dig a trench on a gentle slope, and lay two or
three bean poles in tlie bottom ; on these, beginning at the

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 197

upper end, lay the cabbages, head downward, a little
sloping, so that tlie water may run out from the heads.
Cover now with earth a few inches thick, forming a sharp
ridge about their roots, which should be made firm by
treading or beating. Begin at the lower end and dig out
as wanted for use.

Seed. — Set out some of the best heads in the sj)ring at
a distance from turnips and all other members of this
family, or they will intermix. Of the late varieties, home-
grown seed, if pure, is the best. Support the stems as
they rise by stakes, and gather the seed before it scatters.
Seed will keep four years.

Use. — Cabbage, as an article of food, is not so remark-
able for its fattening properties as for its power of supply-
ing strength for labor by producing muscle and bone,
which it owes to its richness in blood-forming material,
abounding in nitrogen, phosphates, and sulj^hur. Hence
it is very nutritious for, and much relished by, laboring
people in all parts of the world, but is apt to disagree
with those of quiet and sedentary habits. With the latter
it is inore wholesome and digestible if eaten imcooJced,
Many persons can eat "cold slaugh" with impunity that
are unable to use boiled cabbage without great inconven-
ience. It is by many much relished when made into
sauer-kraut, and is also pickled.

CARDOON.-^(Ci'««ra Cardunculus.)

The Cardoon is a perennial plant, a native of Candia,
introduced into England in 1658. It resembles, and is a
species of artichoke, but is of larger size, some five feet in
height, with the leaves sj^reading out widely. In conti-
nental Europe, it is considerably cultivated, but it is a

198 GAEDENIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

fancy vegetable, raised mostly as a curiosity, and of no
great merit as an esculent. In France the Toui-s Cardoon,
a very spiny, thick or fleshy-ribbed variety, is most culti-
vated, and, being the least liable to run to seed, is the best
sort. The common spineless variety is the only one of
which seed is usually offered in America.

Sow in drills five feet apart when the sj)ring frosts are
over, and at intervals until within four months of killing
autumn frosts, as the early sown ones may run to seed.
Other crops may at first occupy the space between the
drills. Plant the seed an inch deep, and thin the plants
gradually until they are eighteen inches apart in the drills.
Those taken up may be reset to fill vacancies or to enlarge
the plantation. The soil must be light, deep, well pulver-
ized, and tolerably rich. Keep the ground loose about
them, hoeing up all the weeds. When the i^lants are
eighteen inches or two feet high, they must be blanched.
The decayed leaves must be removed, and the rest closed
together by strmgs or bass matting. Then bind up the
plant carefully with twisted bands of hay or straw, be-
ginning at the root. Select a dry day, or the plants will
rot. Biiid uj^ two-thirds of the height of the stem ; then
dig and break the ground and earth up to nearly the same
height. As the plants grow, continue to tie and eai'th up.
Watering liberally in hot weather is the only way to keep
them from seeding. When the plants are blanched eight-
een inches or two feet, they are fit for use. They will
blanch fully in about two or three weeks. Do not let the
earth get between the leaves or they will decay.

For Seed. — Leave a few full-grown plants unblanched
to stand the winter, and they will shoot up to seed the
next season.

Vse. — The stalks rendered white and tender by blanch-
ing are used in stews, soups, and salads, the leaves and
stems being white and crisp for two feet in length. The
plant is not very nutritious.

TEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE. 199

CAULIFLOWER. — {Bmsma oleracea, var. Botrytis cauliflora.)

This plant is a biennial, and was introduced into Eng-
land from the Island of Cypress, in the early j^art of the
seventeenth century. It is a kind of cabbage with long,
pale green leaves, surrounding a mass or head of white
flower buds — in short, " a giant rose wrapped in a green
surtout," but much more like a mass of fresh curds tlian
a rose. Since its introduction, it has been much improved
by the skill of the gardener. The seed is generally im-
ported from Eui'ope.

There are several varieties, of which the Walcheren is
the best ; a dwarf, rather broad-leaved variety, which re-
sists better summer droughts and winter's cold than the
others. The London and Asiatic are also cultivated.

Cauliflower requires the same manures as cabbage.
There is much less difficulty in its cultivation near the
sea-shore than inland. Tlie ground should receive a
dressmg of common salt.

Culture. — Cauliflowers are sown at two periods for the
early and late crop. For the former sow early in Septem-
ber thinly in drills six inches apart, in rich, light soil, and
if the ground is too dry and hot, Avater the seed in the
drill before covering ; cover with fine, light soil, and shade
with a mat until the seeds are just beginning to come up,
(not longer.) When the plants are three inches high, in
the colder localities, they are taken up carefully and pot-
ted singly in small pots, three in a pot where the quart
size is used. Instead of potting, they may be set out in
a cold frame or pit four inches asunder, to remain until
spring opens, giving them meanwhile all the air the
weather will admit to harden them. They will stand
light frosts without inj ury. As early as safe, remove the
sashes entirely a few days, take them up from the bed
with a transplanter with balls of earth, or, if in pots, di-
vide the ball carefully if it contains more than one plant,

200 GARDEXIXG FOB THE SOUTH.

and set them out iu very rich ground 20 by 24 inches
apart, inserting- their stems iu the earth nearly to the first
pair of leaves ; shield them with j)laut protectors from
heavy frosts.

In milder localities, as the coast and middle section of
the more Southern States, the plants, when taken up, are
set out in rows where they are to remain, four inches
apart in the row and the rows four feet apart ; they are
protected during frosts and heavy stonns by hoops and
mats, or by a covering of four j^lanks a foot wide to each
row. These are supported by rafter-like supports, every
5 or 6 feet, to which one of the planks is nailed on each
side, while the others are movable and are taken off in
all mild weather, but the plants are kept covered in severe
frosts and storms. The ends are closed with plank. In-
stead of plank, white cotton cloth, prepared with linseed
oil, affords a su^itable covering. They must have air and
light at all times when practicable. Slugs must be watch-
ed, whether wintered thus or m a hot-bed. They may be
driven off by sprinkling the soil and plants with quick-
lime. As early as may be safe in February, prepare the
soil between the rows, which, during the winter, should
have been protected from treading by a coat of leaves,
or a few old plank, and plant another row therein with
the plants 20 inches apart. Thin the plants that were
wintered to 20 inches, taking them uj) with a transplanter,
and plant out tliose not required for the intermediate row
in a plot i:>repared for the purpose. Shade a little with
plant protectors until established, if there is danger of
their flagging ; afterwards cultivate them as cabbages.

For the late crop sow in the manner above directed, at
the same time with winter cabbage, from April to July.
An ounce of seed will yield three or four thousand plants.
The seecl-bed should be of light, rich soil, and when the
plants are two or three inches high, they should be taken
up and set out in a bed four inches apart, shading them

VEGETABLES — DESCKITTION AND CULTURE. 201

until again established, or, if the weather is too dry and
hot, thinned to that distance in the seed-bed. They should
be talcen up with balls of earth in a transplanter and
planted out at the same time with winter cabbage, in
rows 20 by 24 inches apart. Protect them from the cut-
worm and insects in the same manner. If possible, give
them a plot of moist bottom soil, made very rich with
well-decomposed manure. Water freely when needed,
which, in dry weather, is every other day at least ; if with
liquid manure, so much the better. ' Let them never suf-
fer from drought ; they will show when they need water
by their drooping leaves. Soapsuds is an excellent appli-
cation. Keep the ground hoed thoroughly about them,
especially the day after each watering, that it may not
bake.

The hills should be hollowed about the cauliflower like
a shallow basin, to retain moistiu'e. The head may be
blanched by bending the leaves and confining them loosely
with a string. They will head in succession during the
autumn. To protect them fi'om insects, see cabbage.

TSHien a cauliflower has reached its full size, which is
shown by the border opening as if about to seed, the plant
should be pulled, and if laid entire in this state in a cool
place, may be kept several days. It should be pulled
in the morning, for if gathered in the middle or evening
of a hot day, it boils tough. "When there is danger of
severe frost injuring the cauliflowers that have not already
headed, they may be protected by pine boughs or empty
boxes or barrels where they stand, or pulled up with the
earth attached to the roots, and removed to a cellar or
out-buUding, Avhere they will flower in succession. In the
low country this will hardly be necessary, and the spring
crop is, I believe, more certain with them.

Fo7' Seed. — Set out, in spring, some of the finest heads,
with fine, close flower-buds, and proceed as with cabbage.
It is very liable to intermix with the other Brassicas ; so
9*

202 GA^J^E^^xG for the south.

that it is best to depend upon foreign seed. Seed will
keep three or four years.

TTse. — The heads or flowers boiled, generally wrapped
in a clean linen cloth, are served w^ as a most delicate
dish. " Of all the flowers in the garden," says Dr. John-
son, " give me the cauliflower." It is one of the very
best of vegetable products, and so prized wherever known.
It is nutritious and wholesome even for invalids, beside
being a very ornamental addition to the table.

To CooJc. — Cut off" the green leaves, and look carefully
that there are no caterpillars about the stalk; soak an
hour in cold water, with a handful of salt in it; then boil
them in milk and water, and take care to skim the sauce-
pan, that not the least foulness may fall on the flower. It
must be served up very white, with sauce, gravy, or
melted butter. — Mrs. Hale.

CAEROT.— (-Drtwcws Carota.)

The carrot is a hardy. Umbelliferous biennial, found wild
in Great Britain, as well as in this country, growing in
sandy soil or by road-sides. The root of the wild plant
is small, white, dry, woody, and strong flavored ; while
that of the cultivated variety is large, succulent, and
generally of a reddish yellow or pale straw color. The
cultivated carrot is, however, thought to have been brought
into Europe from the island of Crete, where it was early
cultivated. It was carried to England by Flemish refu-
gees in the days of Elizabeth, and the leaves were thought
beautiful enough to be used in ladies' head-dresses. Cul-
tivation has changed a wild, worthless plant into a most
nutritious root.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 203

M. Vilmorin, of Paris, lias done the same in our day,
and fiom the wild plant by selecting seed, in three gener-
ations produced roots as large as the best garden carix)ts,
the flavor of which, by most of those who have tasted
them, is considered sn^jerior to the old varieties. — {JBon
JTardinier.)

The best varieties for the garden are :

Early norn, which is very early, high colored, and
sweeter than other varieties. It does not grow very long,
and may be known by its conical root shortening abruptly
to a point. It will grow closer together, and is better on
shallow soils than other kinds, except

Early French Short Horn, which is an earlier and
superior variety of the above, and for an early croj) the
best.

Altringham. — Color, bright red, and growing with the
top an inch or two above ground, which sometimes freezes
in very severe winters, if left in the ground, as is usual
with this crop in Southern gardens. Of excellent quality.

Long Orange. — Is paler in color, and of great length,
the root not above the ground. It is next in quality to
the above, and best for winter use where the crop is to be
left in the ground.

Analysis shows that lime, potash, soda, sulphuric acid,
and chloride of sodium or salt, abound in the ashes of this
plant. The salt and lime mixture, composted with leaf-
mould or swamp muck, a little plaster of Paris, bone-dust,
and wood ashes, are the special manures needed.

Culture. — Carrots like a light and fertile soil, dug full
two spades deep for the long varieties, as they require a
deeper soil than any other garden vegetable. The manure
should be put as near the bottom as possible, not less
than eighteen inches from the surface ; but the soil should
be fertilized by a previous crop, if fine, smooth roots are
desired.

204 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

In the Southern States carrots, for the early crop, may
be sown in October or the first of ll^ovember, and again
from January to April inclusive, after which the seed
comes up badly. At ISTew York, the late crop is sown in
June for winter use, and for the garly crop they sow in
September, and protect it a little with litter through the
winter.

Late sown seed do not vegetate freely. Sow in drills
fifteen iuches apart ; cover the seed half an inch deep with
fine soil, and for the late crop, if the groimd is dry, water
the seed before covering, and after a few hours press the
earth upon the seed with a roller or plank. Thin the
young plants to six inches apart. In short, the culture
of the carrot is just that of the beet, Avhich see. Six
hundred bushels have been j^roduced from one acre. The
carrots need not be pulled at the South, but may be left
safely in the ground to draw as wanted for use during the
Avinter. In severe weather, they may be j)rotected by a
covering of litter; but it is hardly necessary, except for
the Altringham. At the ISTorth, they are stored in cellars
or in piles, covered with straw and earth, like the potato.

For Seed. — ^Leave some of the finest roots, protected
wdth litter, where raised, to blossom and seed the next
summer; save only the principal umbels. Each head
should be cut as it turns brown, dried in the shade, rub-
bed out, and dried in paper bags. The seed will not vege-
tate if more than two years old.

Use. — The carrot is a very wliolesome food for man or
beast. It is a valuable addition to stews and soups, and
is also boiled plain, pickled, and made into puddings and
pies. Boiled or grated, it is an excellent poultice. The
grated root is often added to cream to improve the color
of winter butter. One carrot, grated into cold water,
will color cream enough for eight pounds of butter, with-
out any injury to the flavor. One bushel of boiled car-
rots and one of corn are said to be worth as much as

VEGETABLES — DESCIIIPTION' AXD CULTURE. 205

two bushels of corn to feed to pigs. They are excellent
for feeding horses and milch cows, and for this purpose
are the most profitable of all roots in deep, fertile soils.

CELERY. — {Ajnum gravcolens.)

Celery is a hardy, biennial, Umbelliferous plant, a native
of Britain, where the wild variety, called Smallage, is
found growing in low, marshy grounds, and by the sides
of ditches, and is a coarse, rank weed, with an unpleasant
smell and taste.

There are several varieties, some of which have hollow
stalks. None but those which are solid are worthy of
notice ; among the best are :

Red Solid. — The hardiest variety, for winter use, with-
stands frost, and is distinguished by its color from the

White Solid, which is more crisp and delicate in flavor,
and a general favorite, on account of its color.

Seymour's White seems to be an imjjrovement on the
old Red and White Solid, producing larger and finer
stalks, which are solid, flat at the base where they over-
lap, and foi'm a crisj), Avell blanched heart ; quality best.

Curled White. — Leaves dark green, curled, resembling
parsley, and, like that, useful iu garnishing ; hardy for win-
ter use, but not as fine flavored. Useful to stand over
the winter to use for soups in the spring.

Early Dwarf Solid White. — Dwarf, thick-stemmed,
with a full heart, blanching promptly ; quality excellent,
and giving more well blanched substance than the taller
sorts.

The soil for fine celery must be rich in potash, lime,
phosphoric acid, and chloride of potassium. But it will

206 GARDEXING FOR THE SOUTH.

not do to depend upon special manures alone, without tlie
addition to the soil of ■well rotted animal manures.

Celery flourishes best in a soil moist, friable, and rather
inclining to lightness. It must be quite rich, without the
aj^plication of heating manure. It likes a cool, moist, but
not wet soil. There are several modes of cultivation.
The common mode is to sow the seed in April thinly in
drills eiglit inches apart. As celeiy is a long while vege-
tating in the open air, it is desirable to sow the early croj)
under glass. Let the seed-bed be very rich, and if not
sufliciently moist, sprinkle the drills well before covering,
and cover thinly with light, sifted soil. Shade the bed on
sunny days, but admit mild rains and warm dews, but
keep all close in cool weather until the young plants make
their appearance. Unless managed as directed for fine
flower seeds, celery will not readily come up. Water
must be given from a fine rosed pot if the soil is dry.

[The manuscrij^t of the author gives no directions for
the cultivation of celery. The old way is to plant in
trenches, a foot deep, Avell manured at the bottom, and
to earth up gradually, as the j)lants make their growth.
This plan is now abandoned by our best growers, and in
the lack of Mr, White's directions, we give those of a
well-known authority, Mr. Peter Henderson, taken from
his valuable work called " Gardening for Profit." — J^ubs.l

Celery may be jjlanted any time from middle of June
to middle of August ; but the time we most i:)refer is
during July, as there is but little gained by attempting it
early. In fact, I have often seen plants raised in hot-beds
and planted out in June, far surpassed both in size and
quality by those raised in the open ground and planted
a month later. Celery is a plant requiring a cool, moist
atmosphere, and it is nonsense to attempt to grow it early,
in our hot and dry climate; and even Av^^en grown, it is
not a vegetable that is ever very palatable until cool
weather. This our market experience well proves, for

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTION AND CULTURE. 207

although we always have a few bunches exposed for sale
in August and September, tLere is not one root sold then
for a thousand that are sold in October and November.
Celery is always grown as a " second crop" by us, that is,
it follows after the spring crop of Beets, Onions, Cabbage,
Cauliflower, or Peas, which are cleared off and marketed,
at latest, by the middle of July ; the ground is then thor-
oughly plowed and harrowed. No additional manure is
used, as enough remains in the ground from the heavy
coat it has received in the spring, to carry through the
crop of Celery. After the ground has been nicely pre-
pared, lines are struck out on the level surface, three feet
apart, and the plants set six inches apart in the rows. If
the weather is dry at the time of planting, great care
should be taken that the roots are properly " firmed."
Our custom is, to turn back on the row, and press by the
side of each plant gently with the foot. This compacts
the soil and partially excludes the air from the root until
new rootlets are formed, which will usually be in forty-
eight hours, after which all danger is over. This practice
of pressing the soil closely around the roots is essential in
planting of aU kinds, and millions of plants are annually
destroyed by its omission. After the planting of the
Celery is completed, nothing further is to be done for six
or seven weeks, except running through between the rows
with the cultivator or hoe, and freeing the plants of weeds
until they get strong enough to crowd them dowm. This
will bring us to about the middle of August, by which
time we usually have that moist and cool atmosphere
essential to the growth of Celery. Then we begin the
" earthing up," necessary for blanching or whitening that
which is wanted for use during the montlis of September,
October, and November. The first operation is that of
" handling," as we term it, that is, after the soil has been
drawn up agauist the plant with the hoe, it is further drawn
close around each plant by the hand, firm enough to keep

208

GAEDENnfG FOR THE SOUTH.

the leaves in an upright position and prevent them from
spreading, which will leave them as shown in fig. G4.
This being done, more soil is drawn against the row,

(either by the plov/or hoe, as circumstances require), so as
to keep the plant in this upright position. The blanching
j^rocess must, however, be finished by the spade, which is
done by digging the soil from between the rows and bank-

ri?. 05. — CELERY EARTHED UP.

ing it up clear to the top on each side of the row of Celery,
as in fig, G5. Three feet is ample distance between the
dwarf varieties, but when "Seymour's Superb," " Giant,"
or other large sorts are used, the width between the rows

VEGETABLES DESCKIPTION AND CULTURE. 209

miTst be at least 4^ or 5 feet, which entails much more
labor and loss of ground. For the past eight years I have
gro-\vn none but the dwarf varieties, and have saved, in
consequence, at least one-half in labor, and one-third in
ground, while the average price per root in market has
been always equal and occasionally higher than for the
tall growing sorts.

My neighbors around me have at last got their eyes
opened to the vahie of the dwarf sorts, and I think that a
few years more will suffice to throw the large and coarse-
flavored sorts, such as " Seymour's Superb," and " Giant,"
out of our markets.

The preparation of the soil and planting of Celery for
whiter use, is the same in all respects, except that, what is
intended for winter need never be " banked up" with the
spade. It merely requires to be put through the handling
process, to put it in a compact and upright position pre-
paratory to being stowed away in winter quarters. This
should not be done before the middle of September, or
just long enough before the Celery is dug up, to keep it
in the upright position.

We have, however, another method which we have
found to answer very well for the late crop, and it is one
by which more roots can be grown on the same sjDace and
with less labor than by any other. It is simply to plant
tUe Celery one foot apart, each way, nothing fartlier being
required after planting, except twice or thrice hoeing, to
clear the crop of weeds until it grows enough to cover
the ground. No handling or earthmg m^ is required by
this method, for, as the plants struggle for light, they
naturally assume an ui^right position, the leaves all assum-
ing the perpendicular instead of the horizontal, which is
the condition essential before being put in winter quarters.
This method is not quite so general with us as jDlanting in
rows, and it is perhaps better adapted for private gardens
than for market ; as the plant is more excluded from the

210 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

air, the root hardly attains as much thickness as by the
other plan.

Our manner of preserving it during the -winter is now
very simple, but as the knowledge of the j^rocess is yet
quite local, being confined almost exchisively to the Jersey
market gardeners, I will endeavor to put it plain enough,
so that my readers "may go and do likewise." In this
locality we begin to dig xip that which we intend for winter
use about the end of October, and continue the work
(always on dry days) until the 20th or 25th of November,
which is as late as we dare risk it out for fear of frost.
Let it be understood that Celery will stand quite a sharp

m'ii\>^

Fig. GG.— CELEKT STOKED FOR WrNTEB.

fi'ost, say 10 or even 15 degrees, while 20 or 25 degrees
will destroy it. Hence experience has taught us, that the
sharp frosts that we usually have during the early j)art of
November, rarely hurt it, though often causing it to droop
flat on the ground, until thavred out by the sun. It must,
however, never be touched when in the frozen state, or it
is almost certain to decay. The ground in which it is
placed for winter use should be as dry as possible, or if
not dry, so arranged that no water will remain in the trench.
The trench should be dug as narrow as possible, not more
than 10 or 12 inches wide, and of the depth exactly of
the height of the Celery ; that is, if the plant of the

VEGETABLES DESCEIPTIOK AND CULTURE. 211

Celery be 2 feet in lengtli, the depth of the drain or
trench should be 2 feet also. The Celery is now placed in
the trench as near perpendicular as possible, so as to fill it
up entirely, its green tops being on a level with the top
of the trench. Figure G6 repi'eseuts a section across a
trench filled with Celery in the manner just described.
No earth -whatever is put to the roots other than what
may adhere to them after being dug up. It being closely
packed together, there is moisture enough always at the
bottom of the trench to keep this plant, at the cool season
of the year, from wilting. That which is put in trenches
about the 25th of October is usually ready to be taken
up for use about the 1st of December, that a couple of
weeks later, by 1st of January, and the last (which we try
always to defer to 15th or 20th November) may be used
during the winter and until the 1st of April. For the
first lot, no covering is required, but that for use during
the winter months must be gradually covered up, from the
middle of December, on until 1st of January, when it will
require at least a foot of covering of some light, dry
material — hay, straw, or leaves — the latter perhaps the
best. I have said the covering up should be gradual.
This is very important, for if the full weight of covering
is put on at once, it prevents the passing off of the heat
generated by the closely packed mass of Celery, and in
consequence it to some extent "heats," and decay takes
place. Covered up in this manner, it can be go^ out Avith
ease, during the coldest weather in wintei', and with perfect
safety. These dates of operations, like all others named
throughout, are for this latitude ; the cultivator must use
his judgment carefully in this matter, to suit the section
in which he is located.

To save Seed. — Leave some plants where grown ; in the
latter part of February, take them carefully, cut off the
outside leaves, and remove the side shoots, and plant
them out in moist soil, dh.e foot apart. Select those which

212 GAEDEXIXG FOR TUE SOUTH.

are solid and of middling size. Tie the seed-stalks to
stakes, to preserve them from being broken off by violent
winds. After the flowers open, while the seed is swelling,
if dry weather occurs, water at least every other night.
When the seed is dry, it may be rnbbed out and stored in
a dry jjlace. They vrill keep good four years.

Use. — Celery has some little nutriment, but is cultivat-
ed chiefly as a luxury. The sweet, crisp stalks, used raw,
with a little salt, form a most grateful salad. It is also
used as a seasoning, and is a great improvement to soups
and gravies. A few plants for this purpose are as neces-
sary and wholesome as onions. The unblanched leaves
and seeds are sometimes employed in flavoring. The
blanched stalks form a pleasant conserve, with the addi-
tion of suorar.

CELEE,IAC. — {Apmm </raveolens, i-ar. ncqoaceiim.)

Celeriac, or Turni2>rooted Celery, is a variety of celery
which forms at the base of its stem an irregular knob,
which is the part used, either cooked or raw, in salads. The
roots have been grown to three or four pounds weight. It is
eweeter, but not so delicate as common celery, and is not
much in use, except in climates so cold that the common
sort can not be easily preserved through the winter,
while this can be stored like turnips.

The young plants of celeriac are raised exactly like those
of celery. When six inches high, they are fit for final trans-
planting. Set them in rows two feet asunder, and eight
inches apart in the rows upon the level ground, or in
drills drawn with the hoe three inches deep, as they re-
quire but little earthing up. Wlien arrived to nearly

VEGETABLES ^DESCRIPTIOiN^ AXD CULTURE.

their full size, they must be covered oyer with earth to
the depth of four inches. In dry weather they should

Ibe watered j)lenti-
fully every even-
ing, as they like
even more water
than celery. The
only additional at-
tention required
is to keep them
free from weeds.
The plant is more
easily cultivated
than celery.

Saving Seeds. —
The directions for
celery are in every
respect applicable
to celeriac.

Use.— The stalks
are used for sea-
soning soups, etc.,
the same as cel-
ery, from which
they can hardly
"be distinguished.
The roots are nice
boiled tender, cut
in slices and dress-
ed like turnips. They n re often made into a salad, after
boiling them, and are used in seasoning soups or meat pies.

Fi<T. 67.— CELERIAC.

214 GAKDEISfTXG FOR THE SOUTH.

CHICK-PEA.— (C^'cer arktum.)

This is an annual Leguminous plant from southern Eu-
rope, of which there are three varieties, one with white
and one with yellow seeds, both of which have white
flowers ; and a third variety has red seeds, and rose-colored
floAvers. It is sown like peas early in spring, in drills three
feet apart. The pods should he gathered before they are
quite rij^e. The seeds are largely used in soups, purees,
etc., in France and southern Europe. They are less nour-
ishing than the common pea, and not very digestible. In
shape they somewhat resemble a ram's head. They suc-
ceeded quite well in Georgia, as far as growth was con-
cerned, but on gathering, they were found each to contain
a worm which made them worthless for use when ripe.
Seeds of this plant were distributed under the name
" Garbanza " by the IJ. S. Patent Office.

CHIVES, or ClVES.—{AUiin)i ScMnoprasum.)

A hardy, perennial plant of the onion tribe, growing
wUd in the meadows of Britain, as some varieties of the
same genus do in this country. The bunches are made
up of a mass of little bulbs, and produce pretty j)urplish
flowers early in summer.

Culture. — Any common soil will answer. Divide the
roots in autumn or spring, and plant them on a bed or
border, in little bunches of ten or twelve ofisets, in holes'
made with the dibble ten inches apart. If kept free from
weeds, they will speedily make large bunches, a few of
which will supply a large family. Cut the tops smoothly
ofi" near the surface, when wanted, and fresh ones wiU

VEGETABLES — ^DESCKIPTIOlSr ATSD CULTURE. 215

soon spring up. Chives make a very pretty edging for
beds in winter and spring. Renew every four years by
taking up and dividing the roots.

Use. — It is an excellent substitute for young onions in
winter and sirring salading, and is also used like leeks and
onions in seasoning soups, gravies, etc. The leaves, cut
up fine and mixed with meal and water, are often fed to
young chickens as a preventive of disease. The little
bulbs may be taken up and stored, and are a tolerable
substitute for small onions.

CHERVIL. — {Scandix cevefolium)

An annual Umbelliferous plant, a native of southern
Europe, with finely divided leaves, somewhat resembling
parsley. Formerly it was much cultivated. There are
two sorts, the plain and curled.

It is propagated from seed, which is sown early in
spring, and every three or four weeks imtil autumn. The
summer sowings must be in a shady situation. Make the
drills very shallow and nine inches apart, and cover lightly
with the back of the rake. ^Vhen the leaves are three or
four inches high, they are fit for use. Keep them closely
cut, and they will afford a succession for some time. Keep
the soil light and free from weeds, and let a few shoots re-
main uncut to run up to seed.

Use. — The young leaves have a milder flavor than pars-
Joy, and are used in soups and salads, and also boiled.
" Chervil should be eaten," says an old writer, "with oil
and vinegar, being first boiled, which is very good for old
people that are dull and without courage ; it rejoiceth and
comforteth the heart and increaseth the strength." It is
now nearly out of use.

216 GAEDENlIirG FOR THE SOUTH.

CORN.— (^t^a Mays.)

Indian Corn, or Maize, is a native plant, found distrib-
uted in all the milder climates of America at its discovery.
It is of more universal culture than any other plant on
this continent, and can be made to produce more food per
acre than any other grain. The best garden varieties are :

Extra Early — ^ith short ears, small cob, and large
grains, which are of excellent flavor. It can be grown fit
for the table in six weeks from the time of planting.

Eight-rowed Sugar. — Ears of larger size, grow two or
more on a stalk, remain in a milky state, and fit for the
table a long time ; . grains, when dry, are small and shriv-
elled ; of very sweet and excellent flavor when boiled.

Stowell's Evergreen Sweet Corn. — A twelve-rowed va-
riety with ears larger than the Eight-rowed. The grains
resemble the Sugar Corn, but are thinner vrhen dry. It
produces well, and is quite as good.

The common Dent corn of the South better endures
intense summer heat, and will supply green corn for
the table when the preceding sorts fail from drought. It
is less injured by the corn-worm, which eats into the end
of the ear, than Sweet or Sugar corn.

Maize likes a soil abounding in soluble silica. Gypsum
and ashes, experience has proved the best special manures.
Sweet corn has much less starch than the other varieties,
but much more sugar and extract. It has also a greater
portion of dextrine and gum.

Culture. — In the Northern States, a dry soil and a hot
season arc required to produce large crops of corn. At
the South, we raise far better crops in moist seasons, and
on moist bottom lands. Rich, deep loam afibrds the plant
plenty of moisture and nourishment, which the corn likes.
The Extra Early and Sugar corn will bear thick planting.
Plant the first crop in the open air when the peach is well

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTIOJf AND CULTURE. 217

in bloom, and every three -weeks thereafter to July at
Xew York, and until August in Georgia, selecting the
early sorts for the first and last plantings.

The early croi) may be forwarded a month, by planting
a few hills in pots under glass, on a large scale, in boxes,
thus : " Prepare boxes about 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and
5 inches high. Make one of the sides so that it can be
easily removed. Fill these boxes with loam mixed with
some manure. Then prepare some strips of board 2^
inches wide, 5 inches long, and as thin as the blade of a
lioe. Put these down endwise into the loam, so as to di-
vide the loam into squares, 2} inches square and 5 inches
deep. (As these squares are each to contain a hill of
corn, it will be seen that the thin strips are to prevent the
roots of one hill from interfering with those of another.)
Place these boxes in a sunny place, well pi'otected from
the west wind, and about a month before the usual plant-
ing time, plant 4 kernels of corn in each one of these
squares. By planting time, that corn will be 5 or 6 inches
high. Having prepared the ground and opened the hills,
take the hills of corn from the boxes in the hand, put them
into the prepared hill, press the earth around them, and
the corn is at once planted and hoed the first time. It
Avould be well to use some phosphate of lime or hen ma-
nure, so as to cause the corn to start immediately. In a
short time the corn will be as large as usual when hoed
the second time." — {JSTew Englcmd Fanner.)

The ground for corn should be deeply plowed or spade-
ed, then laid off in hills three feet apart each way, for
Sugar and Early corn, lea\ang three or four plants in a
hill, while two plants in hills five feet apart is near enough
for large Southern corn. If the ground is not rich, place
a shovelful of decayed manure to each hill. Fresh dung
can be immediately applied to corn, if spread before plow-
ing, and weU turned in. Plant four or five grains to a
hill, and cover two inches deep. When they are up, thin
10

218 GARDEXIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

as above. Hoe deeply and often while young, and draw
the earth each time a little about the stalk ; but after the
plant is six inches high, shallow surface culture, killing
the weeds and loosening the surface without cutting the
main roots, is all that is needed.

Corn is a gross feeder, and cannot get too much raanui*e.
A sprinkling of guano about the hill is beneficial, if it
does not touch the seed. Growth is much improved by
giving the plants, at their first hoeing, a teaspoouful of
gypsum to each hill, or a pint of ashes, or as much of the
charcoal poudrette. Chickens, birds, and squirrels can be
prevented from pulling up the corn, by soaking it in wa-
ter twelve hours before planting, then stirring the seed
briskly in a vessel containing a little tar mixed with warm
water; thus giving each grain a thin coat. After which,
for convenient handling, it is to be rolled in as much ash-
es, gypsum, or lime, as it will take up. One-half bushel
of corn requires a pint of tar and a gallon of wai'm wa-
ter, with as much ashes as will stick to the grain. It is
efi^ectual against birds, squirrels, etc., while the seed vege-
tates freely, if previously soaked.

The Coen-wokm, {Heliothes ?) comes from the egg of
a tawny yellowish moth deposited in June, and after, in
the silk or apex of the ears of Indian corn while in the
milk. The caterpillar, at first scarcely visible, increases
rapidly, and, sheltered by the husk, feeds voraciously up'
on the tender grains at the end of the cob. It is thought
to be identical with the boll-worm of the cotton plant.
Injury may probably be warded ofi" by catching the first
brood of moths in wide-mouthed bottles, or plates, contain-
ing a gUl or more of molasses and vinegar. These, being
set upon a board some six inches square, fastened upon a
stake, raised above the jilants, are found to attract the
moths from a great distance, and, alighting on it in their
eagerness to feed, its adhesive nature prevents escape.

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTIOlSr AND CULTURE. 219

The light vrood. fires avouIcI also probably serve the same
i:)urpose.

Where the worm has eaten tlie ear, a secure retreat is
afforded to many other insects, and as the dampness from
the exuded sap favors the growth of nioukl, the remainder
of the ear is thus destroyed.

The worms are brown, or green striped with brown,
and from half an inch to over an inch in length. They
are in some seasons quite destructive in the South, prefer-
ring the Sugar corn to the ordinary field varieties.

Tii^ Bill-bug, or Cokx-boeer, {Spheno2:)honis), is
about linlf an inch in length, of a reddish-brown or red-
dish-black color. The head is furnished with a long bill
or trunk, whence its name. It is destructive to Southern
corn crops, where abundant. The bug cats into the corn-
stalk just at the surface of the ground, and deposits its
egg. The grub, when hatched, devours the substance of
the stalk, and at length is transformed into the pupa, or-
chrysalis state, remaining in the stalk until spring. The
best remedy is to burn the cornstalks and roots, by which
their number, the succeeding year, is greatly lessened.

I^or Seed. — Select the best ears from stalks that bear
more than one.

Use. — Indian corn is prepared in a greater variety of
ways for the table than any other grain. In fact, the
modes of preparation alone would almost fill a volume.
That from the garden is mostly boiled green. Green corn
can be very easily preserved for winter use, by cutting off
the kernels after boiling, and drying in a shaded, airy
place. Or, cut the corn off the cob, and put it in a stone
jar, with a handful of salt to a pint of corn. When the jar
is full, put a weight on it. When you wish to use it, re-
move a little of the top, and wash and soak it over night.
Sugar corn is the best for this pixrpose.

220 GAKDEIS^NG FOE THE ROUTII.

COPvN BALKD.—iFedia oUtoria.)

Corn Salad, Fetticus, or Lamb's Lettuce, is a small an-
nual plant, a native of English wLeat-fickls. It has long,
narrow leaves of a pale glaucous hue, and very small, pale
blue flowers. It has long been cultivated in English gar-
dens as a winter and spring salad. There is also a round-
leaved variety with leaves thicker, and of a darker green.

Culture. — Com salad likes a loam of moderate fertility,
not too heavy. It is raised from seed, one quarter of an
ounce of Avhich will sow a bed four feet by fifteen. Sow
seed of the preceding year's growth, at intervals from
Arfgust until frost, in drills six inches apart. Thin the
plants as wanted for consumption to four inches in the
drills, and keep free from weeds by frequent hoeing.
Gather the leaves to eat while young, taking the outer
ones, as with spinach. It will be fit for use all winter,
where the ground keeps open. A spring sowing may
.be made among the earliest crops, put in for later use
when desired. Allow some of the plants to shoot up to
seed, which, as they shed easily, is shaken out upon a
cloth spread under the plants. It keeps six years.

ZTse. — It is used durmg winter and early spring, to in-
crease the variety of small salads, and as a substitute for
lettuce. In France it is boiled like spinach. There is a
species ( V. eriocarpci) with larger leaves, cultivated solely
to use in this way.

COW-PEA.— (iio/u'/ws.)

Several species of Dolichos are largely cultivated in
most southern climates, the vines of which are used for
forage, and the seeds employed not only for stock feeding,
but the finer kinds are used largely as substitutes for kid-
ney beans as food for man.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE. 221

Of these the most in use are DoUchos Sinensis and D.
sesqia'pedalis, Asj)aragus or Yard-long beans Avith edible
pods from one to two feet in length, cultivated like pole
beans ; and J), tmguiculattis, under which the cow-peas
are included. These have either erect or twining stems,
according to the variety, aud are mostly grown in the
field, either broadcast or between the rows of corn when
last worked. None of them are much in use north of
Virginia, they being a Southern institution.

CRESS, LWKBlQh.'S.—iBarharea mdgans).

A biennial Cruciferous plant with yellow flowers, the
radical leaves of which are lyre-shaped, and the uj^per
ones pinnatifid, and cultivated in some gardens as a win-
ter salad. Often called water-cress at the South.

Sow either in drills or broadcast in a moist place, the
last of August, September, or early in October, giving
water in dry, hot weather. Let the plants remain six or
eight inches apart. Preserve a few good plants for seed.

Use. — It is generally liked as a winter or early spring
salad, somewhat like the water-cress, but more bitter.

The Winter Cress, JB. prcecox, resembles the foregoing,
but is a perennial plant with larger leaves. The iise and
culture are the same. Less bitter than the former.

CRESS, (jKRjyElSi.—iLepidium sativum.)

Cress, or Peppergrass as it is called, from its pungent
taste, is a hardy Critciferous annual, probably from Persia,
and has been cultivated in England since 1548.

There are three sorts, of which the common Curled and
the Normandy are the best; the broad-leaved sort is
coarse and inferior.

222 GAEDE^^^-G for the south.

Culture. — Cress likes a ligbt, moist mould, and in sum-
mer a shady border is to be preferred. It is projiagated
from seed, ^vhich, to keep up a succession of young and
tender j^lants, must be sown every week or two. Give it
rich earth, that it may grow rapidly. It is best when an
inch high, but is generally allowed to get two or three
times as high before cropping. Begin to sow for winter
and early sjjring use in September and October, in a shel-
tered situation ; and again as soon as spring opens,
sow in the open ground, in drills six or eight inches apart ;
cover lightly, and pat over the bed with the back of the
spade to press the earth upon the seed. Keej) the ground
clear, and water in dry weather. It can be had all winter
by the use of the cold frame or hot-bed ; give plenty of
air. A few rows left uncut will produce seed abundantly.

Use. — The young and tender leaves give to salads a
warm, pungent, and agreeable taste. It is generally used
in connection with lettuce and other salads.

CTICTJMBEB,. — [Cucumis sativus)

This is a tender, trailing annual, with rough, heart-shaped
leaves, and yellow flowers, growing wild in the East In-
dies, etc. It is one of the earliest garden products men-
tioned in history, and was cultivated from the earliest
times in Egypt. — {JVumhcrs xi., 5.)

It has always been a vegetable jDcculiarly grateful and
refreshing to the inhabitants of warm climates. It was
j)robably early brought into Europe from the East, as it
was in high esteem among the Romans, wdio so well un-
derstood its culture, that it appeared on the tables of the
wealthy in winter. In England, it was introduced as early
as 1573. The best varieties are :

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTION AiVD CULTURE. 223

Early Cluster, named from the fruit growing in clusters.
The fruit is about five inches long, very productive.
Early Russian is a smaller and earlier variety of this.

Early Short White Prickly, growing five or six inches
long, with white prickles, remaining green longer than
most other varieties ; productive.

Early Frame. — Six to ten inches long, much used for
forcmg ; productive and good.

White Spincd, or White Spined Long Green, is of fine
form, deep green color, which it retains well; a good
hearer, and of the best quality.

Long Green Prickly. — Dark green color with black
spines, grows about ten inches in length and bears abun-
dantly ; excellent for pickles.

Gherkin. — C. Anguria^ a different species with small
and prickly fruit, and leaves much divided, or palmated ;
a great bearer, but used only for pickling.

There are many other varieties, some of which grow
two feet long, crisp and well flavored, but the foregoing
are the best for family culture.

Culture. — The seed may be planted here about the first
of April, or as soon as it can be done with, safety, as this
plant is very tender and Avill not bear the least frost. If
the soil be deeply trenched, the plant is much less suscep-
tible to drought. After the groimd is prepared, dig out
holes fifteen inches decj) and the same in diameter, six
feet apart each way, and partly fill them with well-decom-
posed manure. A little guano, or fowl manure, sprinkled
in the bottom of the hills, will be very beneficial. Do
not use fresh manure, or the plants will die out. Cow
manure and leaf-mould are excellent. Cover over the ma-
nure with rich, mellow loam. Raise the hills a little above
the surface, and put eight or ten seeds in the hill ; cover
an uich deep, and when they get rough leaves, pull up the
poorest plants, and leave but three in the hill. Old seed

224 GARDENING FOR TUE SOUTH.

is much better tlian new, as the plants will run less to
vines and bear better.

As soon as the vines get rough leaves, nip off the ex-
tremities, to make them branch out, and they will fruit the
sooner. This is called sto2>2)ing. Cucumbers are very-
subject in cool, dry seasons to attacks of insects, especially
the striped bug and the cucumber flea. Dry wood ashes
or air-slaked lime, dusted thoroughly \\\)on the plants
when the dew is on, will generally repel them, and bring
the plants forward. But warm rains will soon bring up
the plants beyond the reach of the depredators, or, if not,
put over the hills boxes covered with millinet. Hoe fre-
quently, until the plants cover the ground. The Early
Cluster should have the hills about four feet apart.

After the first planting, succession crops for pickles are
put in up to July near ISTew York City, and in Georgia
until August. At the South, the melon worm makes its
aj^pearance in July, and unless the cucumbers are gathered
while small, they will be injured by this insect.

Cucumbers can be very much forwarded by planting
them in boxes covered over with glass. Two seven-by-
nine panes are large enough to cover a hill, and such hills
will not be troubled by the bugs, while the seed can be put
in four or five weeks earlier than otherwise. The seed can
also be planted in pots under a frame, or in a green-house,
to be turned out, when the weather gets favorable, into
the open air, and they will scarcely show they have been
moved. Or they can be raised wholly without removal,
in hot-beds made as directed in a former chapter. They
do best when started in pots placed in a small hot-bed,
and transplanted when the leaves are two or three inches
broad into new beds of a larger size. They must have
plenty of air, and be placed near the glass, or they will
be drawn iip. If they begin to grow long-legged, give
them more air. The temperature of the seed-bed should
range between 65" and 85°. Always water the plants

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 225

with tepid water, about noon, unless in mild days, when
it may be done in the morning.

Liquid manure, especially guano water, is very bene-
ficial. In planting in the bed for fruiting, do not break
the ball of earth ; take them out of the pots carefully at
night, water gently, keep the sash down the next day, and
shade at noon-day, to keep them from withering. It is
necessary the beds should be shaded with a mat, during
the middle of the day, when the sashes are kept down,
until the plants get well established.

Stopping in the frame is still more important than in the
open air. The temperature now must be kept between
70'' and 90°, by external coatings of fresh dung, if neces-
sary. The shoots must be trained regularly over the sur-
face of the bed. Leave only two or three main branches
to each plant, removing the others as they appear. K the
plants that have been stopped have extended their runners
three joints without showing fruit, they must be stopped
again. The vines should blossom in a month from the
time of planting. Impregnate the pistillate or female
blossom (which may be known by its having fruit attach-
ed,) by taking the staminate blossom and placing its cen-
tre within that of the pistillate blossom. They may be
gathered in about two weeks after impregnation. Three
plants are sufficient for one sash of the usual size.

For Seed. — Choose some of the finest fruit of each va-
riety growing near the root. Do not raise the plants near
other varieties, or the seed will mix and deteriorate. Let
them remain until they turn yellow, and the footstalk
withers ; cut them off and keep in the sun until they be-
gin to decay; then wash the seed from the pulp, and
spread it out to dry. It will keep eight or ten years, and
is even better when three or four years old, as the plants
are less luxuriant and more productive.

Use. — Cucumbers are a very popular, but not very
wholesome vegetable. They are of a cold, watery nature,
10*

226 GARDENIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

and many persons of weak constitution cannot eat them
without joositive injui-y. They possess scarcely any nutri-
tive properties, but their cooling nature renders them to
most palates very agreeable, and persons in good health
do not find them injurious. They are eaten raw, fried,
stewed, and pickled.

CHINESE YAK— {Dioscorea Batatas.)

A perennial plant brought from China to France in 1850
or 1851 by M. dc Montigny, the French Consul at Shang-
hai. It has annual stalks or vines, and perennial tuberous
roots. The leaves are heart-shaped, triangular, pointed
above, and seven or eight nerved. The length and
breadth of the leaf are abovit equal ; it has a smooth and
glossy surface, and is of a deej) green color. Its footstalks
are half the length of the leaf, furrowed, and of a violet
color. Its flowers are dioecious, and of a j^ale yellow
color. The twining stems tvirn from left to right, and
grow, if staked, at least ten or twelve feet high, and de-
velope from the axils of the leaves small tubers, the size
of a large j^ea or kidney bean, which droj) from the stem
at maturity.

Culture. — The small, axillary tubers afford the readiest
mode of i^ropagatinglhe jilant, though the largest product
seems to have been obtained where the root tubers were
cut in sections and inch or an inch and a half long. These
should be planted in rich ground deeply trenched, the
deeper the better, and then laid off in low ridges or beds
eighteen or twenty inches from centre to centre. On the
top of this ridge a furrow, three inches deep, is made with
the hoe, in which the sets are planted. This should be
done early in the spring, and where the seasons are short,

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 227

the plants slioukl bo started in pots to be planted out
when danger of frost is over. Keep the youug plants
free from weeds, and cultivate like sweet potatoes, excej^t
no earthing up is required. The plant likes moisture, and
. growth is arrested in dry weather. It is found to produce
larger roots if not staked, and the plant is allowed to fall
upon, and shade, the ground. Watering in dry weather
is beneficial. The crop should not be gathered until after
the autumn frosts, and roots will be found somewhere be-
tween ten and thirty-six inches below the surface. The
whole root should be extracted, as the lower part is al-
ways the largest and most starchy. This should be re-
served for the table, while the upper or slender part should
be kept for propagation. It is a difiicult matter to take
them up without breaking, as they often grow three feet
long. If not required for immediate use, the roots may safely
remain in the ground until spring, or may be taken up
and stored. The deep trenching required in preparing the
soil, and the great labor in gathering the crop, Avill pre-
vent its extensive cultivation.

JTse. — The roots, which are oblong and tapering, are the
edible part. The maximum size to which they grow is
two inches in diameter, the larger end tapering upward
to the size of the finger. They are covered with a brown-
ish-fawn-colored skin, pierced by numerous rootlets. Un-
der this is a cellular tissue of a white opal color, very
crispy, filled with starch, and a milky, mucilaginous fluid,
with scarcely any woody fiber. When cooked, it boils or
bakes quickly, and becomes dry and mealy, and is gener-
ally preferred to the Irish potato, which it resembles
in taste. Each plant often produces several tubers, but
generally only one, ranging in weight from eight ounces
to three pounds. It is more nutritive than the Irish po-
tato, which it may possibly rival in esteem wherever labor
is cheap and it is desirable to obtain a large amount of
food on a little space.

228 GAKDEXlIfG FOK THE SOUTH.

The other yams, Dloscorea sativa and alata, are culti-
vated on the Gulf coast to some extent, and in the same
manner as the sweet potato, except that the vines are sup-
ported by a stake or pole.

D. acideata sometimes gro"ws three feet in length, and
often weighs thirty pounds. The roots are cut up into
small sets and planted in rows two feet apart and eighteen
inches in the row, and by forwarding them in pots upon
hot-beds have been grown in Europe as far north as Paris.

EGG TLA'NT.—iSolanum Melongena.)

The Egg Plant, or Guinea Squash, is a tender annual
from Africa, introduced into England in 1597. It derives
its most common name from the white variety, which, when
small, bears a close resemblance to an egg. When first
introduced, it was not regarded with much favor, but is
now rapidly working into general esteem.

Large Prickly-Stemmed Purple is the largest variety,
often growing to a diameter of eight inches, shape slightly
oval, and dark purjole color.

Long Purple is perhaps the best kind for flimily use, as
it is ten days earlier than the other varieties, and though
not growing so large, is very prolific in fruit.

Striped Gaudeloupe is a variety the French cultivate,
M'hich has a white fruit, striped and marbled with violet.
A large, white, edible variety has- just come into use in
Philadelphia. The Xew Scarlet, with tomato-shaped,
scarlet fruit, and the common "White, are only grown for
ornament, not being considered wholesome.

Culture. — Egg plants require a light, loamy, rich soil, to
bring their fruit early to perfection. They like the soil

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION' AND CULTURE. 229

mamired with half decayed leaves, Avell dug in. To have
them early, sow in a hot-hed, or in a cold frame under
glass, the latter part of February, or early in March, The
rows may he six or eight inches apart, made shallow and
the earth pressed upon the seed. Keep the sash carefully
closed until the plants are up, and then give air in warm
days. They succeed best with a small frame to them-
selves, as they like a higher heat than is desirable for
other plants. As very few plants are required, they may
be planted in a small box without bottom, placed on the
ordinary hot-bed and covered with a square of glass. Prick
them out, when two inches high, into small pots, and after-
wards transfer them to larger ones, as directed for the
tomato. They can thus be planted out with the ball of
earth entire. Do not put them out until settled warm
Aveather, for if the plants get chilled while young, their
grov>-th is so checked that they may never fully recover.

The plants, when young, are often destroyed in a day
or two by a minute flea. Keep them closely covered un-
til Avell out of the seed-leaf, and, if attacked, sprinkle them
Avith a solution of aloes or quassia, and dust them with
lime and sulphur.

It is hardly worth Avhile to sow the seed in the ojDen
ground, as they would be so late in coming into use.
Prepare the final bed for egg plants by making trenches
three feet apart, burying in them old cabbage stumps,
corn stalks, and other A^egetable refuse, and coA^ering them
with soil twelve inches deep, in which plant out the egg
plants tAvo feet apart in the roAV. Water abundantly vm-
til established. Keep the ground well hoed and free from
weeds, and earth itp the plants a little from time to time.
TAveh-e to twenty plants will be enough.

For /Seed. — Allow one of the largest fruits from a i^ro-
lific plant to ripen seed. It Avill keep three or four years.

ZTse. — Egg plant is used by the French in various ways
in soups, and stews, but generally cut in thin slices, and

230 GAKDEXIXG TOR THE SOTTTII.

fried in batter. They are not commonly liked at first,
but after a few trials become very agreeable to most
tastes, and are esteemed a delicacy. Thoy are fit for use
when some two or three inches in diameter, and continue
so nntil the seeds begin to change color. They are not
unwholesome, but cannot be very nourishing, as they con-
tain a veiy large proportion of water. Before frying,
they should be cut in slices a quarter to a half of an inch
thick, and piled on a plate "vrith alternate layers of salt,
in order to remove the acrid taste.

ENDI VE.— ( Ciclioriu in Endivia.)

Endive is a hardy annual, a native of China and Japan ;
fii'st cultivated in England in 1548. The root leaves are
numerous, large, sinuate, toothed, and smooth. The stem
rises about two feet high, producing generally blue
flowers. The best varieties are :

Large Grcen-Curled. — A fine, hardy variety, with long,
beautifully curled leaves. It is the best for salads.

Broad-leayed Batavian has thick, plain, or slightly
wrinkled foliage. It is pi'inciiially used for cooking, and
making a larger head is preferred for stews and soups,
but is not much used for salads.

White-flowered Batarian is a new variety which blanch-
es very white and tender ; flowers white. These two
sorts are also called Scaroles. Besides the above, there
is another species, chicory or succory ( C. Intybus,) a
good deal used as a winter salad in Europe, but it is
mainly cultivated for the root, which is dried and ground
for the purpose of adulterating coflee. It is a hardy per-
ennial, which in many places is a common weed.

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AXD CULTUKE. 231

Culture. — Endives delight in a liglit, rich soil, dug
deeply to admit its tap-roots, and to serve as a drain for
any superfluous moisture in the -winter standing crop.
The situation should be open, and free from the shade of
trees.

If desired in summer, sow as early in the spring as
possible. The main crop is sown near Philadelphia the
1st of July ; here in August or September for fall and win-
ter use. Sow at this season, if possible, everything just
before a shower ; draw a furrow the depth of the hoe, in
the bottom of which scatter the seed thinly, and cover
slightly with earth, pressing it upon the .seed. Plant in
the evening, if dry, and before covering water copiously
with the fine rose of a water-pot in the drill ; do not press
the earth upon the seed until morning ; shade during the
day, and continue watering in the evening until the plants
get rooted. The drills should be twelve or fifteen inches
apart. Hoe freely and keej) the ground free from weeds ;
thin the plants when two inches high ; those removed
may be transplanted to another location; choose moist
weather for this purpose, trim the leaves a little, and water
moderately every evening, until the plants get established
and during very long droughts. Those left in the seed
bed make the best plants. They should be thinned to 1,2
or 15 inches in the drill, or planted out that distance
apart, the JBatavian requiring the most space.

In about three months after sowing, as they grow stocky
and full in the heart, the leaves being about eight inches
long, tie lap the leaves of a few every week or so to blanch,
and render them tender and remove their bitter taste.
Perform this in dry days. The curled sort will some-
times blanch j^retty well if neatly earthed up without
being tied, but it is better to tie it. The broad leaved
from its loftier and looser growth needs a bandage. Fold
the leaves round the heart as much as possible in their
natural position, and tie them up with a string or shred

232 .- GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

of bass; then cover them entirely with sand in the
form of a cone, making the surface smooth and firm.
This must be done in dry, but not frosty weather, as the
plants will rot if the leaves are wet or frozen. They may
also be blanched under garden pots like sea-kale, or by
merely tying them closely, winding the string several
times round the plant and closing the top, so as to ex-
clude the rain, drawing the earth around the base to sup-
port it. This is the best mode in hot weather ; in autumn
they will blanch in ten days, in winter they require nearly
twice that time. Succory to blanch is taken up and
planted in boxes of mould, which are carried into a cellar
or dark room and watered when necessary. The blanched
leaves will be supplied all winter. Endive needs no pro-
tection in our Southern winters. At the North it is taken
up Avith earth about the roots, and wintered in frames.

For Seed. — Let some of the best and most vigorous
plants remain till February, and transplant if you wish to
use the ground, in rows eighteen inches apart. Support
the stems by stakes, and gather the seed vessels as they
ripen. Dry them thoroughly on a cloth, thresh, and pre-
serve in paper bags. The seed will keep four years.

Use. — Endive is cultivated for its stocky head of leaves,
which, after their bitterness is removed by blanching, are
used in autumn and winter for salads and stews. It
possesses a good deal of the virtues of the dandelion ; it
never disagrees with the stomach, but suits every consti-
tution. The French use it in a variety of forms, raw,
stewed, boiled, etc., but it is chiefly employed as a salad.

VEGETABLES DESCEIPTION AXD CULTURE. 233

GARLIC— (-^.^^iuw sativum.)

This is a hardy perennial from Sicily and the south of
France; it has been cultivated at least three hundred
years. There are two sorts, one with large and the other
with small bulbs ; each bulb consisting of a half dozen or
more small bulbs or cloves.

CitUure. — Garlic likes a dry, light, rich soil, but not
freshly manured ; the manure should be put on the pre-
ceding crop. Prepare the ground as directed for the rest
of the onion tribe, and mark it off into drills eight inches
apart. Plant the cloves four inches distant in the di'ills,
and two inches deep, and see that they are put in right
side up. Keep the ground free from weeds, and light by
frequent hoeing ; plant from October to March.

A few roots may be taken up the latter part of May
fo'.- use as required, but do not lift the croj) until the leaves
are withered. Break down the seed stalk if it rises, to
prevent it from running to seed, which Vv'ould lessen the
size of the bulbs.

"When the leaves turn yellow, take up the bulbs and dry
them thoroughly in the shade, tie them together by the
tops, and lay them up for winter in a dry loft as you
would onions. If the ground is not needed for another
crop, they may remain to be drawn as wanted.

Use. — This plant lias a well-known, strong penetrating
odor, which is most povrerful at midday. In medicine it
is an excellent diaphoretic and expectorant; a diuretic
when taken internally, and has a reputation as an anthel-
mintic or woi-m destroyer. Some nations use it very
extensively for seasoning soups and stews, and indeed it
enters into almost every dish; but in this country it is not
very much liked. Still, a very slight, scarcely perceptible
flavor, or, as the French have it, a soicr>gon (suspicion) of
garlic is not repugnant, but rather agreeable to most
tastes. The juice is a good cement for broken china.

234 GAKDEKIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

This plant is likewise known as the Ground-nut, Pindar,
and Pea-nut. Although not exactly belonging to the
kitchen garden, a few hills should be allowed a place for
the sake of the little folks. It is a trailing, annual, Legumi-
nous plant, a native of South America, from whence it was
transported to Africa and our own country. It is one of
the few plants which rij)en seed under ground. The yel-
low, pea-shaped floAver springs from the part of the stem
near the surface of the earth, and after being fertilized,
the flower stem elongates, growing from four to eight
inches, turning downward until the small tubercle which
is to be the future seed-pod reaches and penetrates the
earth. The seed of the ground pea abounds in a fine oil,
which is sometimes expressed for table purposes. This
oil renders it a very valuable crop for fattening hogs,
being for this purpose fully equal to, and probably better
than corn. The vines are greedily eaten by most farm
animals.

Culture. — The ground pea thrives and produces best on
a light, sandy, tolerably fertile soil, with a good clay sub-
soil. Like clover, it possesses a long tap-root, which ex-
tends deep into the earth, drawing thence the nutriment
which is beyond the reach of many of our cultivated crops.
The soil should be deej) and mellow and well broken uj),
so as to be ready for planting soon after the heavy frosts
are over. The last of March or the first of April is a suit-
able time. They succeed well as far north as Virginia,
beyond which they may be started early in hot beds, and
transplanted to the open ground when the weather be-
comes mild.

For field culture, they may be planted in the pod, two
iu the hill ; but for the garden should be shelled. It is
best to drop about four in a hill on the level ground, the

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 235

rows being laid off three and a half feet wide and the hills
two feet asunder ; cover them two or three inches.

When they come up, thin them to two in a hill, and, if
there be any vacancy, transplant. It is better to plant
them level than on ridges, as they are less liable to suffer
from drought. As they continue growing all the season,
it is well to get them started as soon as the severe frosts
are over. The only after-culture they require is to keep
the ground clean and mellow, and a slight hilling up when
they are laid by. They will produce from twenty-five to
seventy or eighty bushels per acre, according to soil and
culture, and are as easily cultivated as corn.

HORSE-RADISH.— (-Z\r«si!«?''««"i Armorada.)

Horse-radish is a Cruciferous perennial plant, grow-
ing naturally in moist places in England, and various
other parts of Europe. Its flowers are white, and appear
in panicles in May. It has long been an inhabitant of the
garden.

Culture. — Horse-radish delights in a deep, rich mould,
moderately and regularly moist; the roots are never of
good size if grown in poor soil, or under the shade of trees.
It seldom produces seed, and hence is proj^agated by sets
provided by cutting the roots and offsets into lengths of
two inches. The tops and crowns of the roots make the
best sets, as they are earlier and make a finer groAvth than
those from the centre of the root. Each set should have
two eyes. The finest crops are made by trenching the
ground two feet deep, and j^lanting the cuttings with a
long, blunt-pointed dibble. It maybe done late in the
fall, or if in spring, the earlier it is planted, if the ground

236 GAEDENIJfG FOE THE SOUTH.

is suitable, the "better. The rows should be eighteen
inches ajoart, the plants twelve inches in the row, and
planted eight or ten inches deep. After the beds are
planted, smooth the suvfoce and keep clear of weeds, and
avoid treading uj^on the beds, as they should be kept as
light as possible. If planted in March, a crop of radishes
or lettuce may be taken oif the ground before the plants
make their appearance. They speedily root and send up
long, straight shoots, those appearing in April that were
planted in autumn. The only cultivation is to keep them
free from w^eeds, and remove the decayed leaves in
autumn. Hoe and rake the bed over in autumn, and also
the following spring. By the next fall, the roots are
ready to take up as wanted. If the jslants throw up suck-
ers, they should be carefully removed as they appear.

If any manure is applied to horse-radish, it must be put
at the bottom of the trench before planting, or the plant
will send out side shoots in search of the manure, which
would greatly injure the crop.

To take them up, a trench is dug along the outside row
down to the bottom of the uj^right roots, which are cut off
nearly level with the original planting. The earth from
the next row is turned over upon them to the desired
depth, and so on until finished. The pieces of roots left
will send up new shoots, and the same bed will produce
well in this way five or six years, when the site of the
plantation should be changed ; when this is to be done
every piece of root should be taken up, for the smallest of
them will vegetate and prove troublesome if left. The
best roots come from fresh plantations.

TIse. — Horse-radish scraped into shreds with vinegar is
a well-known and desirable accompaniment to roast beef.
It is also used in fisli and other sauces and chicken salads,
and is thought to assist digestion. The shreds pickled in
strong vinegar and closely stopped in glass bottles will
keep for years.

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AOT> CULTUKE. 2o7

'H_0'P,—{IIumi!lus Lnpiilus.)

The hop is a plant of the Hemp or Nettle Family, with
a perennial root, throwing out many herbaceous climbing
stems, and is found growing wild on the banks of rivers
in Europe, Siberia, and our own country. It was culti-
vated in England, m or before 1525, when the old dog-
gerel states :

" Hops, heresy, pickerel, aud beer,
Were ferouglit into England in one year."

A few roots should be in the gai-deu, as they are useful in
making yeast and beer.

Culture. — ^It is propagated by dividing the roots in au-
tumn and spring. It being dioecious, care should be taken
to get sets from the pistillate plants ; iio produce the crop
in perfection, there should be a male plant in the vicinity.
Give the plant a deep, rich soil ; put two or three plants,
six inches apart, in a hill, makmg with the plants, when
set, a triangle, and the hills six or eight feet apart. Keep
the ground free from weeds, and well stirred. Manure
them every year. Give them poles twelve or fourteen
feet long, and two or three poles to each hill. Gather
when of a straw color, and the inside of the hop is cover-
ed with a plentiful yellow dust, and the seeds are brown ;
dry thoroughly, and put them up in bags for use.

Use. — The j)rincipal use of the hoj) is in the preparation
of yeast, etc. The young shoots and suckers are boiled
and eaten as asparagus. It is very largely cultivated
in fields, to be used in the manufacture of ale and strong
beer. Its medicinal qualities are tonic and soporific. In
gardens it is often grown as a screen, to hide unsightly
objects, the plants being set twelve inches asunder in a
row, and staked, or trained on a trellis.

238

GAEDE^^^rG fok the south.

JAPAN PEA .— (%« liispida.)

This is an erect-growing, rough-hairy, annual Legumin-
ous plant, with a woody stem, growing some three feet
high, branching near the ground, with ternate leaves, re-
sembling those of the Kidney bean. There are three
varieties ; those with white, red, and yellow seeds.

They are planted at the same time with Kidney beans
in rows 3 feet apart and 2 feet in the row, leaving but one
plant in the hill; cultivate as corn. The peas, when ripe,
after soaking over night, are prepared for the table like
Kidney beans, and are largely used for preparing the soy
sauce of Japan and China.

KOHLRABI.— (-Z?/'«sszca oleracca var. Caulo-rajM.)

This i^iant, called also Turnip Cabbage, from the turnip-
like foi-m of its stem, is but yet
little cultivated. The edible part
is the enlarged short stem, which
is of a globular form, with a few
leaves on top. Its culture is the
same as the cabbage, except that
in hoeing care must be taken not
to throw dirt into the heart of
the plant, or the bulb cannot
foim. Kecj) the soil flat in hoeing.
The Early White Vienna, and
Early Purple Vienna, are the
best for the garden. It is cul-
tivated exactly like the Ruta-baga turnip, for which, when
cooked young, it is an excellent substitute. When full
grown, it is used for feeding stock. It is very hardy, and
needs no winter protection in the more Southern States.

Fisr. OS. — EonLrvAEi.

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTION A^D CULTURE. 239

LEEK. — {Allium Porrum.)

The leek is a hardy biennial of the onion tribe, found
wild in Switzerland, but has been cultivated in gardens
from the earliest times. It is mentioned in the Scriptures
with the onion as one of the vegetables of the Egyptians ;
and at tlie present day is often associated with the name
of St. David, the patron saint of the Welsh, This plant
endures the extremes of heat and cold without injury.

Ashes, bones, gypsum, and common salt, will supply the
requisite inorganic materials for this or almost any other
garden crop. A compost of guano, gypsum and charcoal
would be very beneficial.

Varieties. — There are two in common use ; the Scotch,
which is the larger and hardier, and the London, which
by many is considered the better of the two, both tall,
with thick stems, and broad leaves. The Large Rouen
Leek, with dark green leaves and a short stem, sometimes
grown to the thickness of a man's arm, is now most liked
in France. Its stem is said to grow large enough for use
sooner than any other, and it is now much esteemed.

Culture. — The leek is raised solely from seed, which may
be sown at any time during autumn, winter, and spring,
until the middle of April. February is the best month
for the purpose, if but one crop is raised.

The soil for leeks, as for the others of the onion tribe,
should be light and rich, — the blackest and most fertile soil
of the garden — ^but the manure api^lied must not be rank.
The same guano compost may be applied as for onions.
They are generally sown broadcast, but it is a much
neater method to sow in drills. Make the drills in the
seed-bed eight inches apart, and about an inch deep, and
scatter the seed rather thinly. Press fine earth upon the
seed, as directed for onions. Some gardeners thin them
out, and allow them to remain in the seed-bed, but the
leek is so much improved by transplanting that this plan

240 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

cannot be recommended. When the plants are three or
four inches high, they must be weeded and thinned to one
or two inches apart, and frequently watered in dry
weather. The seed-bed must be kept clean and light by
weeding, or the use of the hoe whenever required, until
tlie plants are six or eight inches high, when they will be
fit for transplanting. They must then be taken away from
the seed-bed, the ground being preyiously well watered,
it" not already soft and yielding.

Having j^repared beds four feet wide by spading in a
quantity of well-rotted manure, lay it off in little trenches
twelve inches apart, and as deep as the hoe will conven-
iently go. Dibble holes three inches deep, and nine inches
apart in the bottom of the trenches, in which set out the
plants. Press the earth to the roots and neck only, and
not to the leaves. The tops and roots may be slightly
trimmed and shortened. Some prefer planting them, as
is best for shallow soils, on the level surface of the pre-
pared bed, by inserting them in holes made with the dib-
ble nearly down to the leaves, with the whole neck be-
neath the surface, that it may be well blanched. Choose
a moist time for transplanting, and give a little water
should they droop. A portion may remain in the seed-
bed, six inches apart in the rows, but they do not grow as
large as the transplanted ones.

The beds must be hoed occasionally, to keep them free
from weeds and loosen the soil. In dry weather they
should be freely watered. By cutting off the leaves a lit-
tle about once a month, the neck will swell to a much
larger size ; earth them up gradually, if they stand on a
level ground, and, if in the trenches, the earth should be
drawn by a hoe, little by little, into the trenches, as the
plants increase in growth.

If a very early crop is desired, they may be planted in
September, and the plants will be ready to set out the
middle of February ensuing, and will come into use in

VEGETABLES — DESCKIPTION AND CULTUKE. 241

June or July. Leeks can be planted between almost any-
other crop by giving six inches extra room.

For Seed. — Some of the finest roots of last year's
growth may be transplanted in February eight inches
distant in a row. When the seed stems arise, they must
be supported by tying them to stakes. The heads should
be cut when changed to a brownish color, with about a
foot of the stalk attached, for the convenience of tying
them into bundles of three or four to dry. When dry,
they may be hung up in a dry place, and kept in the head
imtn wanted, or threshed out and stored in paj^er bags ;
the seed will keep two years.

Use. — The whole plant is much used in soups and stews,
but the most delicate part is the blanched stems. From
its mild, agreeable taste, it is esteemed by many above the
onion.

'L'Ei^'LlJ^.—iErvum Lens.)

The garden lentil is an annual Leguminous plant culti-
vated in France for its flat seeds, of which two are con-
tained in each pod. Lentils are planted at the same sea-
son with snap beans, in warm, sandy soil. If planted in
one too rich, they grow vigorously, but produce few seeds.
Sow in drills 20 inches asunder, covering lightly, and
manage them like the snap bean. Harvest when the stems
begin to turn yellow, and the pods of a dark color, bvit do
not beat them out of the pod until required for use, as in
this condition they remain longer fit for use and sowing.

Green or dry they are cooked like beans, and when dry,
should be boiled two hours and a half Soak in water be-
fore boiling. When done, add butter, pepper, and salt.
11

242 GAEBENIXG FOK THE SOUTH.

They are an excellent addition to soups, being very nutri-
tions. Like beans and peas, but in a greater degree, they
are apt to be unwholesome for those of weak digestion.

'LETT'UC'E.—iLactuca sativa.)

Lettuce is a hardy, annual. Composite-flowered plant,
generally considered a native of Asia. The Cos lettuce,
however, came from the Greek island of Cos, in the
Levant. It has been cultivated in England since 1562.

Of the tw^o great families of lettuce, the Cos varieties,
w^hich grow itpright and of an oblong shape, and require
blanching, though more esteemed in England, do not gen-
erally succeed so Well in this country, except at the
South, where they may be sown early in October. The
cabbage varieties are more hardy and free growing, and
better adapted to our common gardens.

The following are good cabbage lettuces :

Hammersmith, or Hardy Green. — Leaves thick, dark
green ; the wrinkled and concave seeds, white ; stands the
winter better than any other sort, but in summer soon
runs to seed.

Butter, or Early Cabbage. — Heads small, white, crisp,
and closely cabbaged ; leaves pale yellowish green ; ex-
cellent for hot-bed culture, or open air ; early and hardy.

Brown Dntch (yellow seeded). — Heads much larger;
equally tender and excellent, and closely headed ; with
brownish green leaves.

The next thi*ee varieties, if sown at the same time with
the above, will come into use about two weeks after them :

Royal Cabbage. — Black seed ; heads larger, and leaves
of a darker green than the early cabbage ; equally firm
and crisp.

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTION AND CULTURE. 243

Philadelphia Cabbage i — Of the same season as the
preceding, and equally good.

Victoria Cabbagd — Withstands the heat rather better
than the two preceding, and produces large, white, crisp
heads ; perhaps the most desirable of the three.

After these come on :

Curled India. — Leaf of a light yellow green, and very
much curled ; a very distinct sort ; heads large and close,
but not so fine and crisp as the other varieties, but will
continue to head much later.

IVeapolitan. — Very dwarf; leaves curled and serrated
on the edges ; head large, firm, blanching white, crisp and
excellent ; seeds white. It soon begins to head, and does
not run to seed as readily as most kinds. In England
it is considered the best summer cabbage lettuce.

The best Cos lettuces are :

White Paris Cos. — ^Very large ; leaves pale green, obo-
vate, hooded at top, closing over and blanching a large
heart without tying ; becoming white, tender, crisj:), and
excellent ; seeds white. Seeds should be saved only from
those with leaves round, concave„,and inclined to hood or
turn inwards. The best summer sort.

Paris Green Cos. — Yery like the last, but the leaves are
of a darker green until blanched ; but the heart is white,
crisp, and excellent. Hardier and better for autumn sow-
ing than the last, and by some thought of equal excel-
lence. These two lettuces scarcely require tying for
blanching, and are always good.

CiiUiire. — In raising good lettuce three things are
necessary — good seed, good soil, and frequent hoeing ; and
of these the first is perhaps the most important. There is
generally no difficulty in making lettuce seed vegetate,
but if it is not saved from good heads it will not produce
heads, even with the best culture. Lettuce likes a g6od
mellow soil, enriched with well-rotted manure. Good

244 GAEDEXING FOR THE SOUTH.

heads will not grow on poor ground. Lettuce may be
sown in autumn for six or eight weeks before the hard
frosts come on, and transplanted into frames for winter
cutting, or, protected with a little straw, it will stand
through the winter in the open air and be planted out for
heading in early spring. Plammersmith and Paris Green
Cos are best for autumn sowing, and at the South yield
small salad in mild weather through the winter. A sec-
ond sowing should be made at the first opening of spring,
and then at intervals until the summer's heat comes on.

If there has been no fall sowing, a little should be sown
the latter i>art of winter under glass, for which select
Hammersmith or Early Cabbage. Give it plenty of air,
but keep it covered nights and cold days, and as the
weather grows mild, leave off the glass altogether a little
while before setting out in the open air. Fall-sown But-
ter lettuce may also be transplanted under glass at nine
inches aj)art, and the table be kept supplied in this way
with fresh heads all winter. Plenty of air must be given
ihdm, and they should be covered in freezing weather only.
For a fall heading, a crop can be sown at the same time
with turnips, in a shady situation, which being transplant-
ed, will give good heads. The fall and summer sowings
do much better if thinned to a suitable distance, and al-
lowed to head where they stand, as lettuce plants are im-
patient of transplanting in hot weather ; but they may be
safely moved if shielded by sun shades.

Lettuce should be sown in drills eight inches apart. An
ounce of seed will produce about ten thousand plants.
Let the seed be very lightly covered, and if dry weather,
press the earth upon it by Avalking over it on a board, or
patting it with the back of the spade. Beds about four
feet wide are most convenient. If the lettuce comes up
too'thickly in the drills it must be thinned, as the plants
begin to crowd, to two inches apart. Transplant into

VEGETABLES — ^DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 245

the ground where they are to remain, when the plants show
four leaves. The Early Cabbage may be planted nine
inches apart each way ; but the other varieties will not do
with less than a foot. The soil into which they are to be
removed to head must be rich, light, and mellow. Trans-
plant in moist weather wdth a trowel, disturbing the roots
as little as possible, "Water the plants until established.
Kabbits are very fond of lettuce, but can be kept off by
dusting the young plants wuth ashes. After the young
plants get established, give them frequent hoeings ; and
if good seed was sown, there can be but little danger of
not being rewarded with beautiful crisp heads.

Seed. — Some of the finest and most perfect heads of the
early sown crops should be selected. Each variety must
be kept separate, and all imperfect heading plants near
them destroyed. Tie them to stakes, and gather the
branches as fast as they ripen. Dry the seed in the shade,
and thresh and store in paper bags. Lettuce seed cannot
be relied upon when more than two years old.

ZTse. — Lettuce is the most popular of all salads, and it
is also sometimes used in soups. Boiled, it is quite equal
to spinach. It is fit to boil from the time it is large enough
until the seed stalk begins to shoot up. Its juice contains
a narcotic j^rinciple somewhat like opium, which is in
small proportion when young, but increases with the
age of the plant. This princij)le has not the constipating
effects of opium. A tea prepared of lettuce leaves is
sometimes used in cases of diarrhosa. For a common
salad, let the leaves be carefully picked early in the morn-
ing, washed and drained before sending to the table, and
provide salt, oil, sugar, and vinegar, that each person may
season to his taste. The finer salads require hard-boiled
eggs, mustard, and other condiments.

24G GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

MARJORAM..— {Origa7iuvi Onites^ and 0. Marjorana.)

There are four species, two of which are sufficient for
the garden.

Pot Mai'joram, 0. Onites, is a perennial Labiate jDlant
from Sicily. It is propagated generally by dividing the
roots early in the spring, and may be by seed. Plants
should be set in rows twelve inches apart, and ten inches
in the row, in a light, dry soil, and a warm situation.

Sweet Marjoram, 0. Marjorana, is a tender biennial
commonly grown as an annual ; a native of Portugal, and
has been cultivated in England since 1573. It has small,
acute leaves, and flowers in small, close heads. Sow in a
slight hot-bed early in spring, and transplant when the
frosts are over into rows nine inches apart and six inches
asunder in the row ; or it may be sown in shallow drills
in the open air after the ground becomes warm. As the
seed is small, cover lightly with fine earth and thin out
the plants to the proper distance. The leaves, green or
dried, are used for seasoning soups, stuffings, etc.

MARIGOLD, OR POT MARIGOLD.

{Calendula offioinalis.)

A hardy annual, a native of France, Spain, and the
south of Europe. Its bright yellow flowers give it a place
in the flower-garden. A few plants only are needed by
any family.

There are two varieties, the single and double; the
former of which is a little the higher flavored. Sow in
autumn or early in sj)ring on a good mellow soil, in drills
one foot apart, or broadcast ; when the plants are up, thin

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE. 247

them to twelve or fifteen inches apart, or transplant them
that distance, if more plants are desired. Water until estab-
lished. The flowers, during the summer, must be gather-
ed, dried thoroughly in the shade, and put up in paper
bags. Leave a few fine flowers for seed. The darkest
colored ones are the best. The flower is a valuable ingre-
dient in soups. The plant is now but little used.

MELON. {Cucumis Melo.)

The melon, or musk-melon, is a tender, trailing annual,
of the same family as the cucumber, squash, etc. It is sup-
posed to be from Persia, but has been cultivated in all
-warm climates so long, that it is difiicult to assign, with
certainty, its native country. It has been cultivated in
Southern Europe at least four hundred years. It is the
richest and most delicious of all herbaceous fruits. In
England its culture is a diflSicult and expensive process,
but in this country the most luscious melons are raised
almost without trouble.

Melons may be arranged in two classes, the green-fleshed
and the scarlet-fleshed, the colors of the latter shading
through orange to yellow. The varieties are very numer-
ous. The best for garden culture are the green-fleshed.

BeechWOOdi — One of the best and most productive of
its class ; ripens quite early, about twelve days after the
Christiana. Fruit medium size, oval, netted ; skin, green-
ish yellow; flesh, pale green, rich, melting, and very
sugary.

Citron. — " Small, roundish, flattened at the end, regu-
larly ribbed, and thickly netted ; skin, deep green, be-
coming pale greenish yellow at maturity; rind moder-

248 GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

ately tliick ; flesh, green, firm, rich, and high flavored.
Pretty early." {Doicning.) Best for general use.

Skillman'S Fine Netted. — " Earliest of the green-fleshed
melons. Small, rough-netted, flattened at the ends. Flesh
green, very thick, firm, sugary, and of the most delicious
flavor." {Downing.)

Uoosainee. — A Persian melon. Fruit oblong, oval, and
of good si2;e ; skin, light green, netted ; flesh, pale green-
ish white, tender, sweet and rich ; bears well ; rather late.

The pine-apple is one of this class, and one of the best
for forcing. Good and productive.

Christiana. — Scarlet-fleshed; an orange-fleshed variety
from near Boston ; a week or ten days earlier than the
citron ; round ; skin dull yellow when ripe ; very good,
but inferior to all the green-fleshed sorts, though valuable
from its earliness.

Netted Cantaloupe. — Fruit rather small, round, pale
green, netted ; flesh, orange red, sweet and rich ; the best
of the scarlet-fleshed, which are never equal to the others.

There are also several varieties of winter melon culti-
vated in Spain. The best of these are said to be Melon
d^hiver d chair blanche, which will keep in a dry room
until February; green-fleshed, juicy, sweet and good:
Melon d'hiver d chair rouge / like the last, but red-fleshed,
and does not keep so well: Melon de Valence-, large,
egg-shaped, thin rind, shaded green, white-fleshed, juicy,
and very sweet, and an excellent keeper.

An analysis of the melon shows it to contain about ""jj^,,
of water.

Culture. — The melon likes a rich, sandy soil, well ma-
nured, and deeply dug. If the soil is clay, it should be
corrected by the addition of charcoal-dust, sand, or leaf-
mould from the woods. The most luscious melons are
grown on new land, fresh from the woods. They like,
also, soil manured by cow-penning. In selecting seed, get

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTION AND CULTUEE. 249

the oldest to be had, and take great care to get that which
is perfectly pure, for the seed of melons raised in proxim-
ity to gourds, cucumbers, pumpkins, etc., will produce
new vai-ieties, destitute of flavor. All plants of this fam-
ily are exceedingly liable to intermix, to their great
detriment. They will deteriorate, if planted within one
hundred feet of each other.

Plant in the open ground when the frosts are over, a
little later than the genei'al corn crop is planted. In sec-
tions where the seasons are too short for it the melon is
planted in pots in a hot-bed, and the maturity of the crop
may be hastened every where in this way. When the
ground is warm, the balls are taken from the pots, and
set where they are to remain, protecting them with sun-
shades a little at first, or with hand-glasses, if cold. Have
about three plants to each pot. In the open ground, plant
in hills six feet apart, and ten seeds to a hill, an inch deep.
Thin to three, and finally two, in a hill. Make the hills as
for cucumbers. Superphosphate of lime has an almost
magical efiect in improving the size and hastening the
maturity of the melon. The insects are the same as
attack the cucumber, and a little guano sprinkled around
the hill, not too near the plants, and intermingled Avilh the
surface soU, will also by its pungent smell drive off the
bug and flea, and also prove a very valuable fertilizer of
the plants. "Watering with guano water for the same
purpose is very beneficial. Until the vines touch, keep
the ground about them fresh dug, mellow, and free from
weeds. When the vines begin to run, and show the first
blossom, they must be stopped by pinching off the ex-
treme bud, as in the cucumber. This will render them
earlier and more prolific in lai-ge fruit. Their whole
culture is like that of the cucumber, and they may be
forced in the same manner. In sections where the melon
worm destroys the later grown fruits, get them into bear-
ing as early as may be. This is a green worm, the prog-
11*

250 GARDEOTXG POB THE SOUTH.

eny of some moth, which crawls up from the ground, eat-
ing its way into melons, squashes, cucumbers, etc., admit-
ting the ail', and causing them to decay at once, and fill
the atmosphere about them with a most disagreeable and
sickening odor. I know no remedy ; but when the first
fruit is attacked, early in August here, the vines are
removed and other crops put in.

To Save Seed. — Select of each variety some of the
earliest and best melons; wash the seed from the pulp,
dry them in the shade, and put away in paper bags.
They will keep ten years. Old seed is more prolific in
fruit than new. Be sure and plant the oldest seed to
be had, if it appears well preserved ; seeds will not be true
if the varieties are within one hundred feet of each other.

Use. — ^The melon as a palatable and luscious fruit, very
cooling in hot weathci', maintains a high rank. It is usu-
ally eaten with salt alone, though many like the addition
of sugar and spices. That it is wholesome is proved by
its constant use while in season as an article of food
among the people of Southern Europe. The musk-melon
contains but a trifle more water than the beet, and is
quite as nourishing. It contains albumen, casein, dex-
trin and sugar, which, combined with citric, malic, and
tartaric acid, give its peculiar rich flavoi'. The green
fruit may be cooked like the egg-plant, and is also made
into manoroes.

MUSHROOM.— (-l£'«^w!'s campestris.).

"The mushroom," says Loudon, "is a well-known native
vegetable, springing up in open pastures in August and
September. It is most readily distinguished when of mid-
dle size, by its fine pink or flesh-colored gills and pleasant
smell. In a more advanced stasre the ixills become of a

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTIOIf AISD CULTUEE. 251

chocolate color, and it is then more apt to be confounded
Avith other kinds of dubious quality ; but the species which
most nearly resembles it is slimy to the touch, having a
rather disagreeable smell ; further, the noxious kind grows
in woods, or in the margin of woods, while the true mush-
room springs up chiefly in open pastures, and should be
gathered only in such places,"

Some of the sjiecies of this genus are very poisonous.
The mushroom is remarkable for its close assimilation in
taste to animal matter. It is beginning to be extensively
cultivated in this country near our large cities.

• Culture. — Beds may be readily constructed at any time
of the year, except between April and September, when
the temperature is rather too high for successful culture,
unless in the cool cellar of some outhouse. But November
and December are the best months for the purpose. Mush-
rooms are propagated by spawn, which may be obtained
for commencing from the seedsmen of our large cities.
After a little spawn is obtained, it may be increased as fol-
lows:— Take a quantity of fresh manure from high-fed
horses, mixed with short litter ; add one-third cow's dung,
and a good portion of loamy mould. Incorporate them
thoroughly, mixing them with the drainings of a dung heap,
and beat them until the whole becomes of the consistency
of a thick moi'tar. Spread the mixture on the level floor
of an open shed, and beat it flat with a spade. When it
becomes dried to the proper consistency, cut it into bricks
about eight inches square ; set them on edge and turn fre-
quently until half dry, then dibble two holes about half
through each brick, and insert in each hole a piece of good
spawn ; close it with a moist composition similar to that of
which the bricks were made, and let them remain until
nearly dry. Then somewhere under cover place a bottom
of dry horse-dung six inches thick, and place the bricks,
spawn side up, one upon another. The pile may be made
three feet high ; cover it with warm horse-dung sufficient

252 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH,

to diffuse a gentle heat through the whole. The heat
should not be over 70°, and the pile should be examined
the second day to see that it does not overheat. When
the spawn is diffused entii'ely through the bricks the proc-
ess is finished. The bricks should then be laid separately
in a dry place, and if l<ept perfectly dry, retain their
vegetative power for many years. One bushel of spawn
will plant a bed four feet by twelve.

Beds for mushrooms may be made anywhere in a dry
situation under cover. Make them four feet wide and from
ten to fifteen feet long, according to the wants of the fam-
ily. A small shed might be erected for the purpose, but
the back of a green-house is a very good situation, as they
do not need much light. Space must be left for an alley,
and if the shed be ten feet wide, it will admit of a bed on
each side.

Mushrooms, like other fxuigi, abound in nitrogen ; hence
this substance is necessary to their nourishment, and unless
substances, like horse dung, rich in nitrogen, are supplied,
it is useless to attem2:)t their culture. Earthy materials
are added to prevent the escape of ammonia, which would
pass off in fermentation, and the substances used are beat-
en and trodden to render the mass compact, that fermenta-
tion may be slower and more lasting. The process of
making the beds is as follows.

A suificient quantity of the droppings of hard-fed hors-
es, pretty free from litter, must be obtained, which, while
collecting, must be kept dry, and sj>read out thinly and
turned frequently to prevent violent heating. When the
rank steam has escaped, the bed may be built. The site
should be dry. Dig out the earth six inches deep, the size
of the bed, and if good lay it aside for use. Fill this
trench with good fresh dung for the bottom, and lay on
this the prepared dung, until tlie whole is six inches thick
above the surface; beat it down firmly with the back of

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 253

the fork, and build up the sides with a slight but regular
slope. Let the bed slope downwards towards the walk,
lay over it three inches of good clayey loam ; place anoth-
er layer ten or twelve inches thick of prepared dung, and
in the same manner continue imtil the bed is two and a
half or three feet thick. Cover the bed with clean litter,
to prevent drying and the escape of the gases, and let it
remain ten days, or until the temperature becomes mild and
regular ; about 60°, and certainly not less than 50°, is the
proper degree of warmth. Here skill and practice are most
required, for on the treatment at this precise point, the
success of the bed depends. If the manure has a brown color,
and is so loose and mellow that when pressed it will yield
no water, but has a fat, unctuous feel, without any smell
of fresh dung, the bed is in a right state. If it is dry and
hard, or sloppy and liquid, it is not in the proper condition.
In the first case moderate watering may restore it, but in
the latter the superabundance of water will probably spoil
it, and it is better to commence anew. When the bed is
ready, break the bricks of spawn into lumjDS the size of a
walnut, which plant regularly six inches apart over the
surface of the bed, including its sides and ends, just beneath
the surface of the manure. Level the surface by gently
smoothing with the back of the spade. Fine rich loam,
rather light than otherwise, is then put on two inches thick.
Lastly a covering of straw from six to twelve inches, ac-
cording to the temperature. If the bed gets too hot, take
oft' most of the covering. When the bed appears too dry,
sprinkle it gently with soft tepid water in the morning.
The water should be poured through the rose of a water-
ing-pot upon a thin layer of straw, laid on for the purpose,
and when the earth becomes a little moistened, the straw
should be removed, and the dry covering replaced. In
warm weather it will need frequent sprinkling, but in win-
ter very little.

As cow-manure, though it contains less ammonia, retains

254 GARDENING FOK THE ROUTH.

its heat longer than that of the horse, a mixture of the tn'o
may be safely employed.

In four or five weeks after spawning, the bed should be-
gin to produce, and if kept dry and warm will last several
months. A gathering may take place two or three times
a week according to the productiveness. If it shoiild not
come on in two or three months, a little more warmth
or a sprinkling of water will generally bring it into plen-
tiful bearing, unless the spawn has been destroyed by over-
heating or too much moisture. In gathering the mush-
rooms detach them with a gentle twist and fill the cavity
with mould ; do not use a knife, as the stumps left in the
ground become the nurseries of maggots, which are liable
to infest the succeeding crop. Gather before they become
flat, when half an inch or more in diameter, and still com-
pact and firm.

Use. — This "voluptuous poison" has been cultivated
and in high esteem among epicures since the time of the
Romans. They are employed in catsups, pickles, and rich
gravies, and considered by those accustomed to them very
delicious. Dried and powdered they are preserved in close-
ly stopped bottles for times when they are not to be pro-
cured fresh.

MUSTARD. — {Sinapis alba, and S. nigra.)

The leaves of the White Mustard, {S. alba) are used for
salads, and the seed of the Black Mustard, {S. nigra) fur-
nishes the well-known condiment. Both are hardy annual
Cruciferous plants, and succeed in any good common loam,
but where sown in September to stand the winter, as is com-
mon in the South for early greens, the soil should be rather

VEGETABLES — DESCRlPTIOlSr AND CULTURE. 255

dry. White Mustard may be sown any time of the year
for a salad, in the same manner as cress, whicli see. It
must be used when the seed-leaf is just expanded, for if
it gets into the rough leaf it is fit for nothing but greens.
For use, cut them off with a sharp knife. They should be
used soon after gathering. Mustard for greens or for seed
should be sown broadcast or in drills eighteen inches apart,
to be finally thinned to about a foot in the drill. The
leaves at the South are gathered the latter part of winter
or in early spring. Keep the ground free from weeds.
When grown for seed, gather when the pods change color,
and thresh when dry.

Use. — The tender leaves of both species are used for
salads, and should be more- cultivated for this purpose.
They are also much cultivated for greens. The seeds
of the white variety, ground, form the Durham or London
table mustard, but the flour of the black sort is that from
which our American table mustard is, or ought to be,
made. The seeds may be ground in a common spice mill
or crushed by a roller on a table. In this country the flour
is usually sifted after grinding, but the French do not sep-
arate the husk, and thus make a brownish, flour, more pow-
erful and palatable than the other. Mustard is a very
agreeable condiment, assisting digestion and promoting ap-
petite. The seed used whole is an excellent seasoning to
various kinds of pickles. It is also much used in medicine,
both by the fliculty and in domestic practice. It is an ac-
rid stimulant, and in large quantities acts as an emetic.
The jiroper dose for the latter is from a teaspoonful to a
tablespoonful in a glass of water. Mustard is a local
excitant applied to the skin in a cataplasm, made of the
ground meal with vinegar or lukewarm water ; if mixed
with hoil'mg water the acrid principle will not he developed.

256 GAEDEXING FOE THE SOUTH.

NASTURTIUM, or INDIAN CRESS.

{Tropczolum majus and T. minus.)

There are two species, the Large Nasturtium {T. majus)
and the small Nasturtium {T. mimis) both from Peru,
where they are perennials, but are here treated as annuals.
The large species was introduced into England in 1G81.
The stalks are long and trailing; the leaves have their
petioles fixed at the centre. Flowers helmet-shaped,
of a rich, brilliant orange, and continue from their first
appearance all summer ; and if not so common would be
thought very beautiful. The small sort is preferable for
the garden, being productive and needing no support.

Culture. — Nasturtiums flourish in a moist soil, but do
best in a good, fresh loam. If the soil is too rich, the plants
are luxuriant, but do not bear so abundantly, and the fruit
is of inferior flavor. Give them an open situation. Sow
in spring when the ground gets warm ; put the seeds an
inch deep and four inches apart, covering them three-fourths
of an inch. The seed must be of the preceding year's
■growth. They may be sown by the side of a fence or
trellis. If more than one row is sown, they sliould be at
least four feet apart. Thin the plants, when they are well
up, to a foot in the drill. Hoe the ground well, and keep
down the weeds. If sown in the open ground, support
them as you would j^eas with lattice or brush. Give the
plants a little assistance in fastening themselves to the
trellis. Water in dry weather. Gather the fruit when
full grown, but while still fresh and green.

For Seed. — Let some of the berries mature, gather them
as they ripen, spread them to dry and harden, and stoz'e
in paper bags.

Use. — The flowers and young leaves are used in salads,
and have a warm taste like water cress. The flowers are
used in garnishing dishes. The fruit, gathered green and
pickled, forms an excellent substitute for capers.

VEGETABLES — ^DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 257

0'KRA-—{I^i^isciis esculentus.)

This is an annual Malvaceous plant, a native of the
West Indies, and mucli esteemed and cultivated wherever
its merits are known. There are several varieties — the
round, smooth green, and the long fluted or ribbed white,
which grow tall ; also the dwarf. There is no great differ-
ence in quality, but the dwarf sort is best for gardens.

Okra likes a good, dry soil. Any soil will produce it
that is good enough for the cotton plant, which belongs to
the same natural family. The pods are not as pleasant or
early on over-rich soil. It is not planted until the frosts
are over, as it is tender, though it often comes up from self-
sown seed. The time of planting cotton or snap beans is
a very good guide, though some may be put in as an exper-
iment two weeks earlier. Make the drills three feet apart,
sow the seed rather thinly, and thiu out to two feet apart
in the drill. Those thinned out may be transplanted and
will make productive plants. No seed should be allowed
to ripen on those stalks from which the pods are gathered
for eating. As fast as the pods become hard or unfit for
use, cut them off, for if left on, the stalk will cease to be
productive. If not allowed to ripen seed, the plants will
continue bearing through the season. The dwarf okra
may stand about fifteen inches apart in the drill, and it is
well when any plant begins to fail in productiveness to
cut it down to a foot from the ground and it will soon
throw up bearing shoots.

To Save Seed. — Leave some of the earliest plants to ri-
pen seed, if you would have this vegetable in good season.
Shell out the seed, and stow away in paper bags.

Use. — The pods gathered in a green state, and so tender
as to snap easily in the fingers, are the parts employed in
cooking. If old, they are worthless. They are very
wholesome, considerably nutritious, very mucilaginous, and

258 GARDENIKG FOR THE SOUTH.

impart an agreeable richness to soups, sauces, and stews.
They are also simply boiled in salt and water, and served
up with butter, pepper, &c. Okra can be preserved for
winter use, by putting down the pods in salt like cucum-
bers, or by cutting them into thin slices and drying like
peaches. When dry, put up in paper bags. The seed is
sometimes used as a substitiite for coffee, which it is not
very likely to supersede.

THE O'NIQ'S— {-"Allium Gepa.)

The genus Allium contains several of the most useful
plants of our gardens. In it, besides the proper onions, are
included the Garlic, Leek, Rocambole Shallots, and Chives,
which are treated of in their several places.

Varieties. — There is a great number of varieties of
onions, among which are :

Large Red, a hardy variety raised abundantly in the
Northern States for export. It is deep red, medium size,
rather flat, and keeps well, and is the strongest flavored.

Yellow Strasburg. — Large yellow, oval, often a little
flattened, very hardy ; keeps exceedmgly well. Best for
winter use at the South. Flavor strong.

Yellow Danvers. — Middle size, roundish oblate; neck
slender ; skin yellowish-brown ; early and good ; keeps well.

SilTer-skinned. — Of smaller size but finer flavor, silvery
white, flat, and very much used for pickling on account
of its handsome appeai-ance and mild flavor.

Potato Onion. — This derives its name from forming a
number of bulbs on the parent root beneath the surface of
the soil. It ripens early, but does not keep until spring. A
sub-variety with smaller bulbs is said to produce bulbs on

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE.

259

the stem like the Top Onion. It is very prolific, and af-
fords a supply before other kinds arc ready. Plant the

offsets in rows a foot apart
and ten inches in the row,
three inches deep, from Oc-
tober to March.

Fig. 69.— POTATO ONION.

Top or Tree OHion.— (^1/-

Imm Cepa. var. viviparnm.)
Is said to have originated in
Canada. It produces little
bulbs ("buttons") at the top
of the seed stems ; hence its
name "Ti-ee Onion". This is the easiest to manage of any
of the onions, is of good, mild flavor, early and productive
"with little care, so that it is a favorite in climates too cold
and too warm for the other varieties. Plant the buttons
from October to March in drills one foot apart and six
inches in the drill. Plant
the apex of the button just
beneath the surface of the
soil. The small top bulbs
are fine for pickling.

Ciboule or Welsh Onion,

{Allium fistulosum) .—Of two
kinds, white and red ; is quite
distinct from the common
onion and does not bulb. It
is sown in Sejjtember for
drawing early in spring.
Flavor strong, very hardy.
Thompson describes 20 sorts of onion, of which the fore-
going are the best. Of these the first two and the Top
Onion are to be prefeiTed for general use.

Culture. — Onions are raised from seed or sets, which
may be planted from October to April, but February is

Fig. 70.— TOP ONION.

260 GAEDEXIZS'G FOE THE SOUTH.

the best month for the purpose. They all require a rich,
friable soil and a situation enjoying the full influence of
the sun, and free from the shade and drip of trees. If
the soil be poor or exhausted, an abundance of manure
should be applied some time before planting and thor-
oughly incorporated with it; for rank, unreduced dung
is injurious, engendering decay. If applied at the time of
planting, the manure must be thoroughly decomposed,
and turned in only to a moderate depth. If the ground
be tenacious, sand, or better still, charcoal dust, is advan-
tageous ; ashes and soot are particularly beneficial. Com-
mon salt, at the rate of six to eight bushels per acre, is an
excellent application to this family of plants. In digging
the ground, small spadefuls should be turned over at a
time, that the texture may be well broken and pulverized.

The common onion, A. Cepa, a Liliaceous plant, is prob-
ably a native of Asia and Egypt, has been cultivated
from the most remote antiquity, and is one of the most
useful of our garden crops.

Ashes, bone-dust, gypsum, and the salt and lime mix-
ture ■will supply nearly all the inorganic constituents of
this crop ; and where they do not already exist in sufficient
quantities in the soil they may be supplied in addition to
animal manure. An experienced cultivator states that when
sufficient manure cannot be obtained, four hundred pounds
of Peruvian guano composted with five bushels of bone
dust, dissolved in sulphuric acid, and enough charcoal dust
to divide the mass, will be found to produce a maximum
crop. Guano water and spent lye well diluted are excellent
liquid manures. They do not require a change of soil,
being an exception to the general rule that plants like a
rotation, as they have been grown in Scotland a century
in the same spot without any diminution of the crop.

The onion can be grown in great perfection at the South.
In the hot climates of Spain, Portugal, and especially
Egypt, the finest onions in the world are produced, the

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 261

roots being milder and of greater size than in most coun-
ti'ies.

It is a good plan to make the beds just wide enough for
three rows, say thirty inches wide, with a narrow alley be-
tween, which may be filled with sweet corn or cabbages,
after the crop is laid by.

But in common gardens beds four feet wide and the
rows thereon twelve to fourteen inches wide are most con-
venient. The soil of the beds must be finely dug, the sur-
face rolled smooth, and all the clods beat fine that may
have escaped the spade. The drills should be drawn very
shallow, as the best onions grow upon the surface of the
ground. For this reason, it is well to roll the bed, or beat
it smooth with the back of the spade, before making the
drills. Some soak the seed twenty-four hours before plant-
ing, but to little advantage. Do not sow very thickly —
only one or two seeds in a place. A seed every inch is
quite thick enough, as thinning out, when too thick, is apt
to injure the remainder. Cover the seeds about half an
inch with fine sifted soil, and press down the earth upon
them by a roller, or walking over them on a plank.

When they come up, thin them out gradually in the
drills, to six inches apart. Keep the bed clean and free
from weeds, and stir it frequently, but not deeply, with a
hoe. Do not hill the earth up against the bulbs ; but draw
it away from them with the fingers, as they keep better
if grown pretty much above the ground. There is no
crop more easily raised or preserved, if the ground is rich
enough, and the bulbs made to grow upon the surface.
After the young onions have got a good start, it is best
to drop the hoe entirely and resort to hand-weeding. In
dry weather, a thorough drenching in weak liquid manure,
or soapsuds, is excellent. For pickling, the white kind
should be sown much more thickly, and thinned out until
about one or two inches apart in the row, which will cause
them to ripen early, before they have become too large.

262 GARDENIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

If onions grow thick-necked, and do not bulb properly,
bend down the stems about two inches above the neck, to
the ground, without disturbing the roots. This is needful
only in very wet seasons.

When very large bulbs are desired, the seed may be
sown quite thick, in pretty good soil, and not thinned out
at all. Little bulbs or sets will form about the size of the
button onion, which may be taken up when the tops die,
and preserved in a dry loft until time for preparing the
bed, and then may be planted, instead of the seed, eight
inches apart in the drills. If they throw up a seed stalk,
it must be promptly broken off, or they will form no bot-
toms. These sets, planted out early in the year, will form
fine large bulbs in May or June ; while those raised from
the seed do not ripen until July. Hence the latter are
better keepers. Besides, they are better flavored, and
more solid. The little bulbs of the top onion are managed
like these sets.

When the crop is ready for harvesting, it is known by
the drying i\p and change of color of the stems.

The Onion-fly, {Anthomya ceparum^ is a native of
Europe, of late years becoming common in many American
gardens, and wherever found is very
destructive to the crop. The jDarent insect
is a small ash gray fly, about half the size
of the common house fly. The female
lays her eggs on the leaves, when they
are very young, close to the earth. As
soon as the maggots hatch, which is when
the young plants are about the size of
a quill, they descend between the coats
of the onion to its base, feeding upon the bottom part
of the bulb, which soon becomes rotten, when the worm
leaves it, to enter the earth and complete its transform-
ations. Figure 71 represents the larva of the natural

VEGETABLES — ^DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

263

size at a and at b, magnified several times. Figure 73
shows the way in which the insects work upon the young
plant. In figure 73 the perfect insect is given, the natural
size of Avhich is indicated by the cross lines, and in the same
figure the magnified pupa or chrysalis
is shown at d, and the actual size at c.
These insects increase so rapidly that
unless destroyed at their first appear-
ance, which is shown by the leaves
droojjing and turning yellow, it is al-
most impossible to eradicate them.
Such i^lants should be at once pulled up,
and with the soil in which they grew,
burned, which will prevent their in-
crease. Aj^plications of soot or salt upon
the beds, of lime-water, stale urine, and tobacco Avater, are
also employed, and beds strewn with fine charcoal are said
to be less liable to attach. It is diflicult, hoAvever, to reach
the insect, except by pulling up the bulb. It is said that

Tis:. 72.

Fi^. 73.

removing the earth from the onion bulbs as soon as growth
has well commenced will prevent the fly from depositing
its eggs, and the onion, being nourished by its fibrous
roots, ripens and keeps better.

To preserve them. — Pull them on a dry day, dry them
thoroughly in the shade, and stow them in a loft where

284 GARDENING FOU TnE SOUTU.

they can have plenty of air. When thoroughly dry they
can be strung in ropes, made by braiding the tops togeth-
er. From two to five hundred bushels per acre is the
usual crop.

Jfhr seed. — Select the largest and finest bulbs and plant
out in the fall, abc*wt twelve inches apart, in beds of com-
mon garden soil, not too rich. Keep them free from weeds ;
and when they throw up seed stalks, support them by
poles laid horizontally on stakes, six or eight inches aboA'e
the surface of the beds. Home-grown seed from good
bulbs is as good as the best imported. It will keep three
years, but the fresh grown seeds are preferable. Onion
buttons are grown in the same manner upon the Top Onion.

ZTse. — Onions are among the most useful products of the
garden. They are used especially as a flavoring ingredi-
ent and seasoning for soups, meats, and sauces ; for which
purpose they have been emj)loyed from time immemorial.
They contain considerable nutriment, and are tolerably
wholesome, esj)ecially if boiled. Onions, like all other
vegetables, need to be slightly salted while cooking, or
their sweetness will be mostly lost. Raw, they are not
very digestible, and they are the same if fried or roasted.
Eating a few leaves of jiarsley will destroy in a measure
the unpleasant smell they imj)art to the breath.

OE.ACH. — {Airiplex Ilortensis.)

A hardy annual, of the same natui-al family as the beet
and Jerusalem Oak, {^Chenopodiaceoi) a native of Tar-
tary, and was first cultivated by English gardeners in 1548.
The stem rises three or four feet high, with oblong, various-
ly-shaped leaves, cut at the edges, thick, pale green, and
glaucous, and of slightly acid flavor ; flowers of same color

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 265

as the foliage. There are t^vo varieties, the pale green,
and the red or purple leaved, the latter of which is just
now coming i-nto fashion as au ornamental plant, on account
of the fine color of its foliage.

Culture. — Orach flourishes Lest in a rich, moist soil.
It is raised from seed sown in drills, fifteen to eighteen
inches apart. Sow very early in spring, or in October,
which is a good time in mild climates. Two or three
sowings may be made in spring for a succession. The
plants soon make their appearance ; when an inch high, thin
them to four inches asunder. Those removed may be re-
planted, being watered occasionally imtil established.
Hoe them in a dry day, keeping the ground loose and free
from weeds. Once established, it sows itself

TJse. — The leaves and tender stalks are cooked and
eaten like spinach, to which they are preferred by many.
They must be gathered while young, or they are worth-
less. The seed should be gathered before fully ripe, as
they are liable to be blown away by wind.

PARSLEY- — {Tctroaelinum satisum.)

Parsley is a hardy, biennial, Umbelliferous plant from
Sardinia. There are two varieties used in garnishing:
the Common Parsley, with plain leaves, which is the
hardier sort, and the Dwarf Curled, which is much hand-
somer and longer in running to seed.

The Xeapolitan or Celery-leaved is grown by the
French for the leaf-sta,lks, which they blanch and use like
celery.

The Hamburg Parsley {var. latifollum) is cultivated for
its fleshy roots, which are eaten like parsnips.

Parsley is raised only from seed, which may be sown
12

266 GAKDElSriNG FOR THE SOUTH.

in autumn or spring, until the weather and soil are too
dry and hot, when it will come up readily. It is hest to
sow it i^retty early, as the seed remains long in the soil
before vegetating. The beds must be made annually, if
the plants are allowed to run to seed ; but if the seed
stalks are cut down as often as they rise, the plants will
last many years. Many sow parsley as an edging to
other beds or compartments. If in beds, it is better to
sow in drills ten inches apart. Any good garden soil is
rich enough for this plant. Pulverize the bed by thorough
spading, and rake it level before making the drills. Sow
the seed moderately thick in drills half an inch deep, and
l^ress fine soil upon it. The plants will not come up in
less than three or four, and sometimes six weeks. K sown
late give it a shady border. Should the bed get weedy
before the j^arsley appears, pull the intruders out by hand.
As soon as the rows can be seen, hoe between them, and
draw a rake crosswise to break the crust which has been
formed, and the plants will grow vigorously. They will
be fit for use when two or three inches high. When they
get strong, thin them out to three inches, and finally to
nine inches aj^art, being cai'eful to reject all i)lants from
the seed bed that are not nicely curled. If they gi-ow
too rank in summer, cut them near the collar.

Soot is the very best manure for parsley, but it should
be sparingly applied. A bed six feet long by four feet
wide is large enough for almost any family. It is best to
appropriate to it such a bed, where it will sow itself and
yield a constant succession of new plants. The j^lants
should have the stems cut down, if growing rank, three
or four weeks before heavy frosts are expected, that fresh
growth may be thrown up for winter and early spring
use. It is well to protect the plants with a little coarse
litter in cold climates, but this is not necessary south of
Virginia.

Hamburgh Parsley is grown in drills one foot apart, the

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 267

plants ten inches in the drill, in a good deep soil, and is
otherwise managed like carrots.

Neapolitan Parsley. The seeds are sown in early spring,
and when the young plants are four inches high, they are
planted out in rows or shallow trenches two feet apart,
and the plants nine inches in the row. They are otherwise
treated like celery, but need less moisture.

To save Seeds. — Allow some of the finest curled plants
to throw up seed-stalks ; let them stand eighteen inches
apart ; when the seed ripens it may be stored in a dry
place. It will keep good several years, and it is smgular
that seed four years old will come up more quickly than
that gathered six months before sowing.

Use. — Parsley is a very agreeable and useful plant,
affording a beautiful garnish. It is also used for its aro-
matic properties in seasoning soups, stews, and meats.
The green leaves eaten raw diminish the unpleasant smell
of the breath after eating leeks and onions. It can be
dried in summer, pounded fine, and put away in bottles ;
but this is of no use in mild climates, where fresh, green
parsley can be had all M'intcr from the garden.

'PA'RB'Nl'P.—{P<-(stinacea sativa.)

This is a hardy, biennial, Umbelliferous plant, of which
the wild variety is found in various parts of Europe, and
it is not rare in this country as a weed. It has long been
cultivated. In its wild state, it is said to hare poisonous
properties ; but it is rendered by cultivation sweet, pala-
table, and very nutritious for man and beast. The garden
parsnips have smooth and light-green leaves, while those
of the wild variety are dark-green and hairy ; but the two

268 GAT^DEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

do not differ so much as the wild and cultivated car-
rot. By ten years' culture, Prof. Buckman iii England
succeeded in producing the garden variety from the wild
sort. Thfs plant is of the hardiest nature, being improved
by remaining in the ground exposed to frost during the
winter. The best variety for the garden is the Hollow-
crown or Sugar Parsnip. Its roots are smoother, more
handsome, and better flavor£d than the other varieties.
It is distinguished by the cavity which crowns the I'oot.

Parsnips like a rich, sandy loam, the more deeply dug
the better. They do exceedingly well on rich bottom
lands, but do not succeed well in stiff clays. The manure
should be applied to a previous crop.

Parsnip seed can be sown any time in spring before the
hot, dry weather comes on, which will i^revent it from
vegetating freely. Scatter the seed thinly in drills fifteen
inches apart, and when the plants appear, thin them to
ten or twelve inches asunder. The culture in other
respects is the same as that of the beet. The roots in cold
climates are taken up and stored, if required for use in
frosty Aveather, but the flavor is improved by exposure to
the winter frosts, and they arc commonly left where grown
until spring, when if taken up before growth commences
they will keep some weeks.

For Seed. — A few of the best roots may be taken up
and set out two feet apart in a border ; but they do better
to remain undisturbed. The seeds cannot be depended
on for more than one yeai*.

Use. — The parsnip is a very Avholesome and nourishing
root, though its peculiar sweetish taste is disliked by many
l^ersons. It is, however, an agreeable addition to our sup-
ply of winter vegetables. Its fattening properties are
great, and it is therefore an excellent root for feeding all
kinds of farm stock. Cows fed upon it will yield milk
abundantly, and butter of the best quality.

VEGETABLES — DESCPJPTIOX AND CULTURE. 269

'P'EA.—{Lat7iyriis Pisu77i.)

This is a hardy Leguminous annual, probably from the
Levant, where the gray field variety is found wild, but it
has been cultivated from time immemorial. It is a climb-
ing plant, producing its seeds in pods, Avhicli usually grow
in pairs. The pea is now one of the most desirable culi-
nary plants. Xumerous varieties have been originated,
differing in the color of tlie blossoms, height, time of ripen-
ing, and also in productiveness. Among the best are :

Prince Albert, or Early Keat. — Grows about 2^ or 3
feet high. A small, white, very early pea, bearing moder-
ately well ; pods containing from eight to ten peas in
each. The true sort is the earliest variety groAvn.

Extra Early. — This celebrated early pea comes into
use about five days after the preceding, and with the
Cedo-JSTulli. The whole crop ripens at once. It is toler-
;ibly productive ; 2|- feet high.

Daniel O'Rourke, as I have received it, is very simi-
lar to this. Sangster's No. 1 is said to be the same as
Daniel O'Rourke.

Cedo-iVulli comes into use with the preceding, and is a
much finer pea. It has a longer pod, wliich is better filled.
The vines arc taller, and it bears about twice as many
pods to the stalks as the Extra Early ; the most prolific
of early peas, and continues long in bearing ; 3 feet high.

Eari'y Emperor ; said to be as early as Prince Albert ;
the pods and peas somewhat larger, and a more produc-
tive sort.

Early Frame, known also as Early May, Early "War-
wick, Michaux de Ilollande, etc., grows about 4 feet high,
with small, round pods, containing some five or six peas
of fine quality, which when dry are small, very round
and white. This is the parent of the preceding sorts, not
quite so early, but more productive, and one of the two

270 GAKDENIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

hardiest for planting in late autumn, to grow through
the winter, in mild climates.

Early Charlton. — Also called Early Hotspur, Michaux
Ordinaire, is of more vigorous growth, and larger foliage ;
5 ft. high, with broad, flat pods, containing six or seven
peas of excellent quality and larger size than the Early
Erame/ ]nst as hardy and fit for use a few days later.

Early Tom Thumb is the most dwarf sort known, being
only ten or twelve inches high, and of good flavor; it re-
quires no sticks.

Bishop's New LoBj?-Pod is also a very productive
dwarf sort, of excellent quality ; grows 1^ to 2 feet, with
straight, cyliudric pods, containing six or seven large pe.as.

The foregoing are for the early crop ; for tlie middle

season :

Fairbank's Champion. — This is the very best large
pea ; a wrinkled marrow, of the highest excellence ; groAv§
about 4 feet high, and bears very well. Pods long, some-
what curved, slightly flattened, and containing seven or
eight large, siigary peas, which when dry are somewhat
shrivelled and of a bluish cast.

Dwarf Blue Imperial. — About 3 feet high; pods long,
curved at the extremity, and containing eight or nine
good peas, of a bluish cast.

Victoria is an early, fine flavored, white, wrinkled mar-
row, about 3 feet high, and j)roductive of fine large jjods.

Napoleon is a fine blue, wrinkled marrow ; the earliest
of this class, and quite productive.
The most desirable late sorts are :

Large White Marrowfat, growing 4 or 5 feet high,
with broad pods, containing about eight large peas of
excellent quality ; round and white when dry. The Tall
White Marrowfat grows over six feet high.

VEGETABLES DESCKIPTIOIC AND CULTUKE. 271

Black-cycd Marrowfat seems to bear the smnmer heat
better than most kinds, aud is of good flavor.

Hair's Dwarf Mammoth grows 2 feet high, with a large,
wrinkled seed, of a bluish green color, and the highest
flavor. Like Bishop's Long-pod, and Allen's Dwarf, the
jTeas should be planted from four to six inches apart in
the row, as they branch much. An improvement on
Knight's Dwarf Marrow.

Knight's Tall Marrow. — This sort grows G or 7 feet
high, with large, dark glaucous green leaves, large, broad,
well-filled pods; seed large, thin skinned, tender, and
sugar J, wrinkled, and of a bluish cast ; productive. The
rows should be six feet apart.

The Sngar Peas are without the tough interior lining
to the pod when young, and they will snap in two as readily
as the pod of the kidney bean, like which they are prepared
for the table. There are two sorts : the Dwarf Sugar
about 3 feet high, with small crooked pods; and the
Large Crooked Sugar, with large, bi'oad, flat, crooked
pods. The stems grow about 6 feet high.

As some families prefer white, others blue, some dwarf,
and • others tall sorts, it will not be difiicult to make a
selection from the foregoing list. There are some fifty
sorts in the catalogues, but many of them are synonyms.

Potash and phosphoric acid are large constituents of the
ash of the pea. Ashes and bone-dust, or superphosphate
of lime, especially the former, are likely to be the special
manures most needed.

Culture. — A moderately rich and dry calcareous loam
is best suited for the early pea and the dwarf varieties.
The late peas and the lofty growers do better in heavier
soil, and a cool, moist' situation. The manure should be
applied early the preceding autumn, to be well reduced by
the time the crop of peas is ready to feed upon it. In
poor ground, fresh stable manure is better than none.

272 GAKDENIXG FOK THE SOUTU.

If the ground, however, be -extremely rich, there will he
more vines than fruit. The soil must be deep, so that the
roots may penetrate deeply to obtain moisture in time of
drought, that the vines may not mildew. If the vines
mildew or get too dry after they begin to blossom, the
pods will not fill well. On this account it is found to be
of advantage to plant in a furrow some six inches deep,
as they contiuue much longer in bearing than when plant-
ed shallow.

The early crop may be planted as soon as the ground
Avill do to woi-k in the spring. And in the Cotton States,
where the wintci's are mild, Early Frame and Charlton
Peas may be planted from the last of November until
March ; Prince Albert, etc., in February ; and the later
kinds until early in April, and for a fall crop in August,
to come into use in October.

Near New York City they are planted from as early in
March as the ground opens, until late in May. The dis-
tance of the rows apart will depend upon the variety.
They should not be nearer to each other than the height
to which the sort planted generally attains. Tom Thumb
may be planted only fifteen inches apart from row to row,
but as it is a branching sort, the plants may be five or six
inches in the row. It is usual to plant in double rows,
from nine to twelve inches asunder, leaving the distance
above directed between each pair of roAvs. The sticks
are set midway between the double rows, supporting
the 'vines of both. It is maintained by many that from
its more full exposure to the air and sun a single row will
produce as much as two. The tall later sorts are far more
fruitful if the rows are put twenty or thirty feet apart,
and the space between occupied with other crops.

It is best to plant the early crop in rows running east
and west, that the sun may warm the ridge of soil drawn
up to the roots ; but the rows of the main crop should run
north and south. Early peas should be planted in the

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTIOX AND CULTURE. 273

drills, about an iuch apart ; the medium growei's an inch
and a half; while for the tall kinds, as Knight's Tall Mar-
row, and the Mammoth, two inches are not too much. A
quart of seed of these varieties will plant not quite fifty
yards of double rows, while a quart of early j^ens will
phmt nearly seventy yards twice as thickly. The soil
Avith which they are covered should -be chopped fine, if
lumpy, and in planting pressed upon the seed. Better
delay a little than plant when the ground is wet. After
the peas are about two inches high, hoe them well, draw-
ing the earth a little toward them, and loosening the soil
between the drills, destroying every weed. Rej^eat this
once or twice, before brushing, which should be done
when the plants are six or eight inches high, or as soon as
the tendrils appear. This may be done by sharpened
branches of trees prepared fan-shaped, and of a height
l^roper for the pea to which they are to be applied, or
stakes may be driven do\vn every six feet each side of the
drills, and lines of twine stretched from one to the other.
Pea brush is, however, the best, as the vines lay hold of it
more readily. It should be jilaced firmly in the ground,
betAveen the drills. After brushing, draw up the earth on
each side, to help support the vine. Market gardeners do
not employ brush or twine, but let them fall over and
bear what they will. This does tolerably well "Avith the
early varieties, if the spaces between the roAA^s be filled
with straw or leaA-es.

Peas are forced by planting under glass in pots, to be
transplanted, when the season permits ; but in mild lati-
tudes this is needless, as the pea Avlien young AA'ill surviA-e
a temperature but tAV'O degrees aboA'e zero if not in a state
of rapid growth. If a hard frost occur Avhen the plants
are in bloom the crop is lost.

Seed. — The plants of the rows intended for seed should
not be gathered from for any other purpose. "When the
pods begin to dry, gather and dry them thoroughly, and
12*

"<4 GAKDEXII\"G FOR TUE SOUTH.

store the seed in bottles, pouring into each a little spirits
of turpentine, as directed for preserving beans. The bean
and pea bugs belong to the genus Uruchiis of Linnoeus,
a family devouring the seed of many Leguminous j^lants,
and the eggs of both species are deposited by the parent
beetle in the soft jDods, and directly over the seed. The
maggots "svork their way into the seed, where they obtain
their perfect form. The pea bug does not usually destroy
the germ, but its congener, the species that infests the
bean, is much more destructive, several often inhabiting
a single bean, and leaving nothing but the outer skin and
a mass of yellow dust. Spirits of turpentine aj^pears to be
fatal to them.

Some think that peas are earlier if the seed has been ob-
tained from a more northern locality than the one in
which they are planted. The garden pea is very whole-
some, and an almost universal favorite. To have them in
perfection, they should be freshly gathered, and by no
means allowed to stand over night before use. They can
be shelled and dried in the shade, and form a tolerably
agreeable dish in winter, but they are much inferior to
those freshly picked. Green or dry they are very nutri-
tious, abounding in flesh-forming constituents.

PEPPER.— (CapswMTw.)

This genus {Ccqysicum) of plants belongs to the
Solanum family, and several species are in cultivation,
all of which are natives of tropical regions. Some of
them have been cultivated in England 300 years, C. an-
num^ or Guinea Pepper, having been introduced there in
1548. Those most in use are :

Bell Pepper, — This was brought from India in
1759 ; of low growth, with large, red, bell-shaped fruit.

VEGETABLES — DESCKIPTION AXD CULTURE. 275

Its thick and puljjy skin renders it best for pickles ; more
mild than most varieties. It is a biennial.

Cayenne, or Long Pepper. — Is a perennial, with small,
round, bright red, tapering fruit, extremely pungent. Of
this there is a large and small fruited sort, both excellent
for pep^Dcr sauce, and to grind as a condiment.

Large Sweet Spanish is a large, mild variety of an-
nual pe^^per, much used in j^ickling.

Tomato Pepper is of two sorts, i-ed and yellow, both
tolerably mild ; fruit tomato shaped.

Culture. — Capsicum likes a rich, moist loam, rather light
than otherwise. Guano and fowl manure are excellent
fertilizers for peppers.

For early plants, sow the seed in drills, one inch deep
and six inches apart, under glass, in February, at the
South, or in March and April in the Northern States, and
transjilant after the frosts are entirely over, when three
or four inches high, into good soil, in rows eighteen inches
apart each way. Sow at the South, also, in the open ground,
as soon as the settled warm weather comes on, say the
last of March or first of April, and thin them out to the
proper distance. An ounce of seed will give two or three
thousand plants. They should be transplanted in moist
weather only, and must be watered until well established.
Shading a few days at midday, after transplanting, is veiy
beneficial. Cultivate and earth up their stems a little.

Seed. — A plant bearing the earliest and finest fruit
should be selected. The varieties should be grown as far
apart as possible. When ripe, the pods are hung up to
dry, and kept until the seed is wanted for sowing.

Use. — These plants are very much used in all hot
climates, where they enter as a seasoning into almost
every dish. The large kinds for pickling should be gathered
when full grown, and just before turning red. They are

2TG GARDEXIITG FOK THE SOUTH.

also dried, when ripe, and used for seasoning. Cayenne
and the other small kinds are ground for table XTse, or made
into pepper sauce by the addition of strong vinegar.
Peppers are often rubbed ujjon meat to drive away insects.
The daily use of this plant in hot climates is decidedly a
preventive of bowel complaints, for which reason it is so
universally cultivated in tropical regions.

POTATO {IRISH.)— {Solanum tuberosum.)

The Irish potato is a jDerennial plant, with a tuberous,
subterranean stem, of the same genus with the ea-jr-
plant, and nearly allied to the tomato. It is reported to
have been brought into England from Virginia by
Raleigh, in 158G, but as he never visited Virginia, he prob-
ably obtained it from some other portion of this conti-
nent. Though called the Irish potato, it is really a native
of the western coast of South America, where it is still
found wild, both " on dry, sterile mountains, and in damp
forests near the sea," whence roots have recently been ob-
tained differing very little from the cultivated varieties.
Notwithstanding its excellence and complete adaptation
to the English climate, it appears to have come slowly in-
to use. llaleigh planted it on his Irisb estate near Cork,
but it is only within about a hundred years that its culture
has been general, even in Ireland. In 1780, very ^ew indi-
viduals in America raised as large a crop as five bushels.
Of the numerous varieties at this time, the best, perhaps,
for garden culture we name below. Varieties, however,
run out after a few years' culture, and those newly raised
from seed take their place, and there are many the popu-
larity of which is local.

VEGETABLES — DESCKIPTION AXD CULTURE. 2(7

Fox Seedling". — A medium-sized, round, white potato,
of fine flavor when it first matures, but does not keep for
winter.

Ash-Leaved Kidney. — Kidney-shaped, thin-skinned, of
good, form, with few eyes. In planting, cut it lengthwise
through the centre ; very early.

3Icrcer. — Long, kidney-shaped, flattish, full of eyes,
and often knobbed, spotted with pink at the small ends.
It is early and productive.

Prince Albert. — Oblong, a little flattened, yellowish,
white eyes, few, and scarcely sunk in the smooth skin ;
ripens with the Mercer. Several varieties have been dh-ectly
imjjorted from South America, and others originated from
these, by Rev. C. E. Goodrich, of Utica, N". Y. We
cultivated, several of his kinds for some years, and were
pleased with their quality and freedom from rot. Among
them were the Black Diamond, Garnet Chili, Pale Blush
Pink Eye, New Hartford, and Rough Purple Chili.
They are more hardy tlian the old sorts, but none are
entirely free from rot. [The Early Goodrich, one of Mr.
G's. seedlings, and the Sebec, are among the most prized
early varieties at the North, and the Early Rose, a des-
cendant of the Garnet Chili, is of excellent quality, and the
earliest yet known. — Ecl.'\ At tl)e South a potato is re-
quired that will continue growing through the long sum-
mer. The common sorts ripen early, and commence new
growth, so that it is very difficult to keep them in their
dry, mealy state. Starting the buds has the same effect
upon these tubers as upon the grains of wheat which lose
their starch by conversion into sugar and dextrine, mak-
ing both the flour and tuber, when cooked, far less pala-
table and nourishing.

Potash and phosphate of magnesia are indicated by anal-
ysis to be the most important inorganic elements of the
plant. Wood ashes will furnish most of the constituents
required from the soil.

278 GAKDEinXG FOR THE SOUTH.

Culture. — The Irish potato Hkes a cool, moist climate
and soil like those of Ireland. The soil should be well en-
riched with vegetahle and not with animal manure. The
best i)otatoes in this country are grown in the cool and
hilly sections of the North, and the best there are grown
by simply turning over a meadow sward ; ujjon this the
rows are laid off shallow, and the clover sods are often so
tough with matted roots when jilanting (having been
ncAvly turned over), that earth is Avith difficulty obtained
to cover the jDotatoes. Soon decomposition commences,
a gentle heat is given out, and by the time the potatoes
are ready for the first working they can be ploAved with
ease. At the second Avorking, when the plants are laid
by, the soil is mellow as an ash heap, the young plant the
meauAvhile being supplied Avith moisture and the very
food required to perfect its tubers and render them fari-
naceous and nutritive. In our gardens we cannot obtain
such a soil, but Ave can very much improve the yield, and
especially the quality of our Irish potatoes by imitating
it as nearly as j)ossible. We can dig into the soil vegetable
matter to decompose, such as leaves, garden refuse of all
kinds, and pine straAV. Even tan bark is not a bad appli-
cation to the jDotato crop, but if used must be accompanied
with plenty of ashes or lime to correct its acidity. One
reason for the application of vegetable manure to this
plant is the superior quality of the tubers produced.
Liebig first remarked tliat ammoniacal manures injure the
quality of the potato, though they increase the size and
quantity. If manured with strong animal manure the
tubers are moist and Avaxy, Avhile if grown upon a soil ma- ,
nured witli ashes, lime, and an abundant supjjly of carbo-
naceous manures, such as decaying vegetable matter, the
produce is far more starchy and nutritive. Potatoes en-
riched with strong dung are far more liable to rot than
if manured with leaves, ashes, and lime.

The roAVS should be from tAvo to two and a half feet

VEGETABLES — BESCEIPTION AXD CULTUEE. 279

asunder, and the sets from six to twelve inches in the
row, the greater distances for the tall-growing sorts.
ExperinKjnts in England have proved that there the best
crops are secured when the sets are planted six inches
deep, or in light sandy soil not less than seven inches.
The sets should be cut a week before j)lanting, and allowed
to dry. A medium-sized tuber will make five or sLx sets.
After the ground has been well prei:)ared by plowing
or spading, dig a trench eight inches deep, the width of
the sj^ade, and in the bottom of this form a slight furrow
vriih a hoe, that the sets may be in a line. In this furrow
the sets are placed (for Mercers eight inches apart). Cover
with a good coat of manure of the kinds before directed,
to which manipulated guano, or superphosj^hate of lime
and gypsum, may be added with advantage. The earth is
hauled over them, leaving the surface some two or three
inches below the general level, that the plants may receive
and retain near them all the rain that falls. After the
plants come up, hoe them well,Hbut do not disturb the
ground if there is any apprehension of even a slight frost.
When all danger of frost is over, they should, if possible,
receive a good mulching of leaves directly after a good
heavy rain, and some trash may be laid over to keep the
leaves in place. The leaves must not be put on too early,
as if applied before the frosts are entirely over tlie evaj)-
oration from a bed of damp leaves so lowers the tempera-
ture at their surface that a frost scarcely perceptible else-
where may prove fatal to tender 2)lants thus mulched.

If the leaves are not to be obtained, keep the soil free
fi'om weeds by flat culture, until the tops cover the
ground. The early crop may alternate with Lima beans,
making the rows five feet apart in this case, and they will
be ready for digging when the beans are fit for use Avhich
are planted in hills betw^een the potato rows. This crop
should be planted as early in the spring as possible. At
the South, in January or February, and at the North iu

280 GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

March or April. The main croj^ may be put iu three or four
weeks later, but if they escape spring frosts the early
planted crops are best. In colder climates the sets are
often kept in a warm room covered with damp moss until
they have grown a half inch, and then if planted out with-
out being dried, in a warm situation, are considerably
earlier. A teaspoonful of gypsum dusted over the plants
when they appear above ground is very beneficial. Never
work the crop after the blossom buds appear.

When the tops begin to die, dig the crop, and store in a
cool, dry place. Sprinkle them with lime when dug, and
they are less in danger of rot. This disease often attacks
them while growing, beginning at the haulm, and descend-
ing to the tubers, which soon become a mass of rottenness.
It is caused by the fungus, Sotryt'is infestans, but is
thought to be gradually disappearing. If potatoes are
allowed to remain in the ground until they begin to grow,
they become waxy and Avorthless, and those that are
stored will not remain eatable, unless the sjirouts are
rubbed off as they appear.

TTse. — The tubers of the Irish potato, consisting chiefly
of starch, and having no peculiarity of taste, approach
nearer in their nature to the flour of grain than any other
root. Hence the potato is almost universally liked, and
can be continually used by the same individual without
becoming unpalatable. It is a good supporter of res2:)ira-
tion, and adapted for the formation of fat, but is deficient
in nitrogenous or muscle-forming elements. Sustained
labor cannot be performed on this diet without the ad-
dition of other food better adapted to the formation of
flesh. Potatoes are boiled, baked, roasted, or fried. When
long kept, the best ones are selected, boiled, and mashed,
before going to the table. Starch can be manufactured
from potatoes, as may ardent spirits.

VEGETABLES DESCKIPTION AXD CULTURE. 281

POTATO, SWEET— [Coiivohuhis Batatas.)

This valuable plant, first cultivated in England in 1597,
by Gerard, is the potato mentioned by Shakespeare and
his cotemporaries, the Irish potato being then scarcely
known. " Let tlie sky rain potatoes," says FalstaiF, allud-
ing to this vegetable, -which was at that time imported
into England from Spain and the Canary Islands, and
considered a great delicacy. The sweet potato is a tender
I^erennial plant, of the Morning Glory family, a native of
China and both Indies. It has small leaves, with three to
five lobes, according to the variety, with herbaceous
vines which run along the ground, taking root at inter-
vals. Its roots are long, spindle-shaped or oval, often
very large, and abounding in starch and sugar. Its nutri-
tious properties and agreeable flavor have brought it into
general use in all parts of the globe, where the climate is
warm enough to admit of its successful cultivation. The
following are the most common varieties, and perhaps as
good as any.

Small Spanish. — Long, grows in clusters, purplish
color, very productive, and of excellent quality, but if not
well grown, is fibrous ; flesh, white.

Nansemond is a larger variety, and good at every stage
of growth ; the best for the North.

BriniStoaCt — Sulphur-colored, long, of large size, and
productive ; keeps well with us, and is one of the best
sorts ; very dry, and excellent.

Red Berniuda is of the Yam family ; leaves, many-
lobed ; the best early potato ; productive.

Common Yam. — Leaves many-lobed ; root yelloAV,
large, oblong, and somewhat globular; the best long-
keeper, and very productive. Has something of the pump-
kin flavor.

282 GAnDElSlNG FOR THE SOUTH.

Hayti Yanio — Larger in size, white flesh, not so sweet,
but more farinaceous. Keeps equal to the last, and is dry
and floury ; the most jirolific of all.

Culture. — Sweet j)otatoes like a rich, sandy loam, per-
fectly friable, and, as indicated by analysis, abounding in
potash. The soil should be well enriched. A dressing
of wood ashes would be very beneficial to this crop.
Next to potash it demands a supj^ly of the phosphates.
They do well on fresh lands, if well broken up and friable.
At the South, the Spanish potatoes are generally planted
where they are to remain, like the Irish potato, whole or
cut up into sets. But both these may, and the yams must,
be propagated by slips, as they grow larger and yield
more abundantly.

To raise slips, select a sunny spot sheltered by fences
or buildings, and lay it off in beds four feet wide, Avith
alleys of the same Avidth between them ; slope the beds a
little towards the sun, dig them well, and add plenty of
well-decomposed manure, if not already rich. Do this in
Georgia in February, or early in March. At the North, a
gentle hot-bed Avill be required, and it will be found very
useful in every locality, in order that the slips may be
ready as soon as all danger of frost is over.

Choose smooth and healthy-looking potatoes, and lay
them regularly over the bed an inch or two apart, and
cover them about three or four inches with fine soil; rake
the bed smooth, and it is done. In large operations, ten
bushels of potatoes should be bedded for every acre of
ground.

While the slips are sprouting, prepare the ground to
receive them. It should be rich, or made so with well-
rotted manure, and thoroughly and deeply broken up with
the ploAV or spade. Lay it off" just before the sli2)S are
ready, in low, parallel ridges or beds, the crowns of
which are three and a half feet asunder, and about six
inches high, on which plant out the slips with a dibble

VEGETABLES — DESCKIPTIOK AND CULTUKE. 283

eighteen inches apart, one plant in a place. Choose for
this operation such a day as you would for cabbage
jilants, or do it in the evening. The sweet potato is
readily transplanted, and if holes are dug in the mellow
bed, deep enough to admit the plant, and the slij^s, set
xipright therein, have the earth washed in about their
roots by pouring water upon them from the open spout
of a water-pot, finishing the operation by covering over
with a coat of dry, mellow earth, brought up and pressed
pretty closely about the slips to keep the moistened earth
from baking, very few will die, even if they are set out at
mid-day ; but as the plants woiild be checked, a cloudy
day, or just at night, should be selected for the operation.

This is an excellent mode of transjilanting all jDlants,
and is of great use both in the vegetable and flower-gar-
den. If the slips are not washed in as above when taken
up in dry weather, it is of great advantage to grout them,
as well as all other plants you wish to transplant. This is
done by immersing the roots in water thickened with rich
earth. It refreshes the slips, and gives them a thin coat-
ing of earth as a protection against the atmosiDhere.
Draw the slips when about three or four inches high, by
placing the left hand on the bed near the sprout to steady
the root, and prevent its being pulled up with the sprout,
which is loosened with the right hand, taking care not to
disturb the fibrous roots of the mother potato, for this
continues to afford a succession of slips, which may be
successfully transplanted in Georgia until the first of Jidy.
At the North, they should not be put in later than the first
of June.

After the piece is planted, go over it again in a few days
to plant over any place where the slips may have failed.
As soon as the ground gets a little Aveedy, scrape it over,
loosening the earth and covering up the Aveeds, but be
careful not to injure the young slips. Faithful cultivation
and frequent moving the soil are as beneficial to this crop,

£84 GAEDENIXG FOll THE SOUTH.

while young, as to any other. At one of the hoeings just
before being laid by, the ground should be deeply moved
with the plow or spade, but not close to the plants. They
should be laid by before the jjlants run a great deal, after
which they should be undisturbed. Be careful not to
cover the vines, but if they become attached to the soil,
loosen them up from it, so that the vigor of the plants
may be thrown into the roots and not into the running
vines. Make the hills large and broad, not pointed. In
hoeing, draw the vines carefully over towards you while
you draw up the earth and cover the weeds ; then lay
them carefully back, and finish the other side in the same
manner. At this time fill the spaces between the rows
with leaves and litter while the ground is wet, to retain
tb.e moisture. After the vines have covered the ground
too much to use the hoe, any large weeds that appear
should be pulled up by hand.

The Yam potato can also be raised from seed, but
the Spanish variety, like the sugar cane and many other
plants long propagated by division, rarely produces seed.

Just as soon as the toj^s are killed by frost, the potatoes
should be gathered. In field crops they can be plowed up
and gathered by hands Avhich follow the plow, depositing
the potatoes in small heaps, but in the garden the jDOtato
can be gathered with the hoe or the potato liook, an im-
plement much used in gathering crops of the Irish potato.
It is better to do this in a dry day, and many prefer to
dig their potatoes just before the frost kills the vines,
thinking they keep better.

To keep sweet potatoes, it is necessary, at the North,
to store them in a dry, Avarm place, in well-dried sand.
At the South, they are safely stored in hills containing
thirty or forty bushels each. Let the potatoes, when dug,
dry in the sun through the day, and in digging and hand-
ling, they should not be bruised. Elevate the bottom of
the intended pile about six inches with earth, furnished by

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTIOX AND CULTUEE, 285.

digging around it a circiilar trench. On this put pine
RtraTV two or three inches thick, or dry leaves, on which
place the potatoes piled in a regular cone. If the weather
is good, cover them only with pine or other straw for two
or three days, until the potatoes are well dried, befoi-e
their final earthing np. Let the covering of straw be
three or four inches thick ; then cover it over with large
strips of pine bark, commencing at the base, and cover a^
shingling unto the top, leaving a small aperture. Cover
four or five inches thick with earth over all, except this
aperture, which must be left open for the escape of the
heat and moisture generated within. — {Peahody.)

Some cover this opening with a piece of pine bai'k, to
keep out the rain, but a board shelter is preferable. It is
well to protect the hills from rain by a temporary roof of
plank. When the weather gets warm, in the spring, take
up the potatoes, rub ofi" the sprouts, and keep on a dry
floor. If put up with care, they will keep until July.
One important step toward their certain preservation is to
gather them carefully from the ground, as the least bruise
produces rapid decay.

For Seed, some of the finest roots of tlie most produc-
tive hills can be packed in barrels, and covered with sand,
in a dry, -warm place, free from all exposure to frost. A
small garden crop is best kept in barrels with dry sand or
leaves ; if the latter, a layer of leaves at the bottom, then
a layer of potatoes, then a layer of leaves, and so on until
the cask is filled. Use dry leaves, and store in a dry place.
Use. — This root is deservedly a favorite at the table,
and the most wholesome grown. In nutritious properties,
it excels all other roots cultivated in this country, except
the carrot. Weight for weight, it contains more than
double the quantity of starch, sugar, and other elements
of nutrition, that are found in the best varieties of Irish
potato. For feeding stock, three bushels are equal to one
cf Indian corn, yielding, on the same land, five or six

286 GARDENIJ«^G FOK THE SOUTH.

times the food that is produced by this most profitable
grain,

A good baked sweet potato is almost as nutritive as
bread. They are better baked than boiled. They are also
used for pies and puddings, and sweet potato rolls are ex-
cellent. In short, the modes of cooking this A^aluable
vegetable are innumerable, but perhaps the very best is
Marion's mode of roasting in the hot ashes.

PUMPKIN.— (C»ci<?-5/to Pepo.)

A trailing annual, from India and the Levant, with
globular or cylindrical fruit. It has become so crossed
that it is difficult to say of some varieties to which species
they should be referred.

The best variety for family use is the Cashaw, a long,
cylindrical, curved variety, swollen at one extremity, of
fine, creamy yellow color, very solid and excellent to use
as a winter squash, and quite as valuable as any for the
other purposes. Pumpkins are not as particular about
soil as melons and cucumbers, but will grow well on any
tolerably rich ground. It is not best to grow them in the
garden, as they will mix and corrujit the seed of the other
varieties. They like a soil freshly reclaimed from the
woods ; the field is the proper place for their cultivation.
Plant when the main crop of corn is put in ; let the hills
be ten feet apart. Hoe frequently and keep clean. Let
only one plant remain in each hill. Do not earth up the
plants, but keep the soil about them light and loose with
the hoe, until the vines prevent further culture.

ZTse. — In France, as well as in Xew England, the pump-
kin is much used for stews and soups. The best, such as

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AISTD CULTUEE. 287

Cashaw, are good substitutes for the winter squash, and
make an excellent pie. They are also a vakiable food for
cattle. They can be preserved by boiling and drying the
pulp in an oven, or by cutting in strips and drying by the
fire, or will keep very well whole, if in a cool, dry place,
free from frost.

RADISH.— (-??«i'^i«"«s sativus.)

This is an annual Cruciferous plant, grown in England
as early as 1548, being one of the plants mentioned by
Gerard. The lower leaves are lyrate ; stem about two
feet high, with pale violet flowers ; the root fleshy, spin-
dle or globular-shaped, of various colors. There are two
kinds of radish, the spindle-rooted, and the globular or
turnip-rooted. These are again divided into early and
late varieties, among which we will notice :

Early Scarlet Short-Top. — Root long and spindle-
shaped ; leaves very short. It is the earliest, most crisp
and mikbflavored, and requires less space than the other
varieties. Much esteemed for its bright color. The root
grows paitly above ground. Long Scarlet Early Frame,
and Salmon, difier very slightly from this.

Scarlet Turnip-rooted. — Turbinate ; scarlet-colored ;
flesh white and tender ; not equal to the last, but bears the
licat better. A sub-variety has rose-colored flesh. An-
other, the Furple Turnip-rooted^ diflfers only in its exter-
nal skin, which is purple.

White Turnip-rooted has a white exterior, and a round
bulb, terminating in a small, fibrous root. Flesh, white
and mild.

Oval (or Oblong) Rose-colored. — Root oval or oblong ;

2SS GAKDEXIXG FOK THE SOUTH.

crimson skin, and tender, rose-colored flesh. The best of
all in quality ; good for forcing and the early crop.

Yellow Summer. — This is a turnip-rooted variety, named
from its color, and will stand the heat better than any
other variety.

Black Winter or Spanish,— Turnip-shaped, black, and
very large ; sown in August or September with turnips.
It can be gathered and stored for winter. The flesh is
white, hard, and hot. The White Spanish is white outside,
and the flesh milder than the Black.

Chinese Rose-colored Winter.— Conical ; bright rose-
colored ; flesh sohd ; texture fine ; rather hot.

White Chinese. — Outside white ; bulb inversely turbi-
nate ; flesh milder than the last three, tender, and excel-
lent ; the best winter sort. The Scarlet Oval Rose and
White Chinese are the best sorts.

Culture. — Radishes like a rich, sandy loam, dug a full
spade deep, but succeed in any good garden soil. Their
culture is very simple. If manure be freshly applied, it
should be at the bottom of the soil, or the roots will fork.
They are often sown in beds four or five feet wide, thinly
broadcast; but it is better to put them in di-ills about
eight or ten inches apart, an inch deep, scattering the seed
thinly, Avhich may be in beds devoted to this crop, or made
between the wider rows of beets, parsnips, onions, carrots,
as well as spinach, peas, beans, Irish potatoes, yielding
large crops, and taking up no room available for other
purposes.

From the first of November until March a succession
of the Oval Rose, or Scarlet Short-top varieties, can be
grown under glass. All that is required is a bed of good,
rich loam, watering them occasionally, and giving air ev-
ery day, when it does not absolutely freeze. Let the sash
be off every mild rain, and let the earth come within

VEGETABLES— DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE. 289

seven or eight inches of the glass. On open ground crops
can be made for fall use, if desired, by sowing in succes-
sion, after the summer heats are over, until about the time
of the first frosts. With the first opening of spring, com-
mence planting in the open ground, and sow every week
or two until the dry, hot weather comes on. In the low
country South, they may be gi'own all whiter, with no
other protection than a little litter thrown over the beds
in severe frosts. As birds are very fond of the seed, it is
sometimes necessary to protect the beds with nets. Rad-
ishes are of such rapid growth, that they will generally
take care of themselves after planting in a good soil, but
hoeing once will hasten their growth.

For Seed. — Some of the finest and earliest can remain
where grown, or be removed to another bed and inserted
up to their leaves. Water frequently until established,
and while the flowers are opening. Let the roots be three
feet apart, and do not permit any others to flower near
them, if pure seeds are desired. When the pods turn dry,
gather, dry, thresh out, and save in paper bags. The seed
will keep three years.

Use. — The tops used to be boiled for greens. The seed
leaves, when they first appear, are used as a salad, with
cress and mustard, and the seed-pods, gathered young,
fonn a good pickle, and are a substitute for capers.

There is a species, Maphanus caudatus, or Rat-tailed
radisli, of which the pod grows a foot or more in length,
with a peculiar pungent but delicate flavor, and it may
be eaten like the root, or pickled. It is from Java.

But of the common species the roots are the parts
mainly used. They are much relished, while young and
crisp, for the breakfast table. They contain little beside
water, woody fiber, and acrid matter ; so they cannot be
very nourishing or wliolesome. When young, and of
good varieties, they are much more digestible than when
older and more fibrous.
13

290 GAKDESnXG FOB THE SOUTH.

RAMPION. — {Campanula Mapunculus.)

This is an English biennial plant, related to the Canter-
bury-bell, with a long, white, spindle-shaj^ed root, lower
leaves oval lanceolate, with a panicle of blue bell-shaped
flowers in June. It has a mUky juice.

Cnlture. — Sow the seed in April or May in a rich,
shady border. It likes a moist, rich soil, not too stiff.
The seed must be very slightly covered, but fine earth
should be pressed upon it. As the jilants grow, thin them
to four inches apart, and pull them before they run to
seed.

To save seeds, allow some of the best plants to remain.

Use. — The root is eaten raw like a radish, and has a
pleasant, nutty flavor. Cultivated only by those in search
of variety.

RAPE, OR COLZA.— (-5?'«ssicrt JVapus, var. oleifera.)

Rape, or Colza, is a biennial plant of the cabbage tribe,
a native of England, with glaucous radical loaves and
yellow flowers, appearing early in spring. It is often
called Kale.

Culture. — Sow at the same time with cresses and mus-
tard in late winter and spring. Sow in drills or beds, and
follow the culture directed for white mustard. Kape,
sown like turnips the first of September, will survive the
frosts and aSbrd an abundance of fine greens the latter
part of winter and early in sj^ring, wherever the tui'nip
will stand the winter.

Seed. — A few plants sown in August and September,
and kept over, will flower and seed the next year abund-
antly.

VEGETABLES — ^DESCEEPTION ATSTD CULTUKE. 291

Use. — The seed leaves are gathered young for a small
salad with cresses and mustard. Later it is used like
mustard for greens. This plant is much cultivated in Eu-
rope for the oil expressed from its seeds.

Rape, Edible-rooted, or French Turnip, B. Hapus,
var. escule7ita, is another variety with edible roots, some-
times cultivated as a substitute for the turnip. The root
is white, carrot-shaped, about the size of the middle finger.
It is much grown in Germany and France. [This is not
the French Turnip of the North, and is the Teltow of the
Germans. — Ed.]

Culture. — It is raised from seed, which may be sown in
August or September, and requires the same treatment as
turnip. It likes a sandy soil, and if grown in too rich
earth, it loses its sweetness. In dry weather, the beds
must be Avatered regularly until the plants get three or
four leaves. To save seed, see " Turnip."

Use. — It is much used in continental cookeiy, and en-
riches all the French soups. Stewed in gravy, it forms an
excellent dish, and being white and carrot-shaped, when
mixed with carrots upon a dish, it is very ornamental.
In using, there will be no necessity of cutting away the
outer rind, in which the flavor chiefly resides. Scraping
will be qmte sufficient.

The garden Rhubarb, or Pie-plant, is a perennial of the
same natural family as the common dock. The varieties
now cultivated are hybrids, and have supplanted the
original species, Rheum Hhaponticum^ palmatmn^ and xin-
dulatum, excelling them in size, earliness, and delicacy of
flavor. The best sorts are the Early, which is of but me-

292 GAKDEXING FOE THE SOUTH.

dium size ; Myatt's Liunoeus, rather early, and yielding-
large crops of large leaves, and the Lest flavored of all ;
Myatt's Victoria, which is two weeks later ; stalks very
large, and good ; Downing's Colossal, and Cahoon's Mam-
moth, very large varieties, of good flavor.

Rhubarb is i-emarkable for the quantity of phosphates
and soda it extracts from the earth. Crude soda might be
added to the soil. Guano and bone-dust are very beneficial.

Rhubarb succeeds best in a rich, deep, rather light loam,
and in a situation open to the air and light. Trench the
ground two spades deep. It may be raised from seed, but
thus grown, sports into new varieties. It is best j^rop-
agated by dividing the roots, reserving a bud to each
piece. These may set about two inches deep in rows tliree
feet apart, and from eighteen to thirty inches (according
to the sort) in the row. All the culture required is to
keep the surface soil light and free from weeds. The jjlan-
tation may be made in the fall, after the leaves are killed
by frost, and protected by litter, or as early in the spring
as the weather and soil permit. It should not be disturb-
ed after growth commences. Pluck no leaves the first
year, after which the crop will be abundant. Make a new
plantation about once in five years. If a plant or two in
summer dies out, as it is apt to do in the South, it is best
to remove the next autumn the old plant together Avith soil
in which it grew, and supply fresh soil. New plants to re-
set the vacancy can be obtained by uncovering an old crown
and cutting from it a bud with a piece of root attached.

To obtain the largest product, the flower stems should
be broken oflT when they appear, for the plant is weakened
by permitting it to seed. A yearly surface dressing of
well-rotted manure sliould be given, for the stalks, to be
good, must be quickly grown.

Forcing. — This plant is forced by placing a large flower
pot over the roots, and covering with stable manure. The
more common way is to surround the plant with a small

VEGETABLES — ^DESCEIPTION AND CULTURE. 293

"barrel without a head ; a cover is placed over it at night
and ill cold days, aud it is then surrounded Avith a pile of
stable manure built up in as sharp a cone aa it can be nlade
to form. If the root is good, it will soon fill the barrel with
shoots. The plant should be permitted to rest after this
crop through the season, and others be selected for the pur-
pose the next year. This operation, at the North, is com-
mon enough, but at the South it is generally death to the
plant.

Use. — The leaf-stem, or petiole of this plant, when the
external skin is removed, is cut up in thin slices, and hav-
ing an agreeable acid, is used exactly like the apple for
pies, tarts, and sauce, at a time that fruits cannot be
obtained. Gather them while young, just as they attain
their full size, before they lose their fine flavor. They
should be gently slipped from the root without using a
knife.

This plant is in almost universal use in England, France,
and the Northern States, and succeeds perfectly well in
Middle Georgia. "We hope to see it common in Southern
gardens wherever it will succeed.

'R.OGKKBQiL'E- {Allium Scorodoprasum.)

This is a hardy, perennial, Liliaceous plant, of the onion
tribe, from Denmark, and is sometimes called Spanish
Garlic, and Great Shallot. It has its bulbs and cloves
growing in a cluster, fonning a kind of compound root.
The stem also bears bulbs at its summit. These are often
sold for onion buttons.

Culture. — It is best propagated by the root-bulbs, those

294 GARDEXTNG FOE THE SOUTH.

of the summit being slow in production. The planting
may he made at any time in the fall, winter, or spring.
Insdrt the bulbs in drills eight inches apart and six inches
in the drill, with the dibble, about two inches deej). Keep
clear of weeds, and cultivate and store like garlic. A
very few roots are sufficient for any family.

Use. — The bulbs are used in the same manner as garlic,
and are preferred for cooking, being of much milder flavor.

ROQUETTE.— (-Srassica eruca.)

This is an annual plant from France, of which the
leaves are used as a salad. Sow thinly in drills a foot
apart, as soon as spring opens; here in February and
March. Water frequently, if necessary, which will lessen
the acrid taste of the young leaves ; gather young. Not
much cultivated.

^hl&TEY .—{Tragopogon porrifolifoUus.)

Salsify, or Vegetable Oyster, is a hardy, tap-rooted bi-
ennial, a native of various parts of Eui-o2:)e, with long
tapering root of a fleshy, white substance, the herbage
smooth and glaucous, the flower-stem three or four feet
high, and the flower of a dull purple color. It belongs to
the Composite Family.

VEGETABLES — DESCKIPTION AND CULTUEE.

295

Salsify likes a light, mellow soil, dug very deeply, as for
carrots and other tap-rooted plants. Sow early in spring,
|f,|' and for a succession until the summer
Wf heats come on, rather thickly, in drills
' ' an inch deep and a foot apart. An
ounce of seed will sow a square rod.
Scarlet radish may also be sown thinly
in the same drills. When an inch high,
thin the plants, and continue by degrees
until the plants are six inches apart. If
the soil is deep and moist, they will grow
all summer and not run up to seed. Wa-
tering in dry weather, especially with
guano water, will greatly invigorate the
plants. Cultivate the soil, and keep it
free from Aveeds, as for beets and car-
rots. The roots may be drawn and
stored in sand, but where the winters
are open should remain in the ground
all winter, to be pulled as wanted.

For Seed. — Leave, or transj^lant some
of the best plants in spring, which will
produce seed abundantly. Gather and
dry in the heads, where they may be
kept until wanted.

Use. — The stalks of old plants are
sometimes cut in the spring, as a substi-
tute for asparagus. The roots are boiled
or stewed like carrots, and have a mild,
sweet flavor, being wholesome, palatable,
and tolerably nutritive. They are most-
"■ ' ■" ■ ly cooked to imitate oysters, to which

the flavor has some resemblance.

296 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

SKYOnY.-iSatureja.)

Tliis is a genus of Labiate plants of wliicli there are
two sjiecies in cultivation ; the Summer Savory, Satureja
hortensis, a hardy annual ; and Winter Savory, Satureja
montana, a shrubby perennial — ^both natives of Italy,
and cultivated for their warm, aromatic flavors.

Both may be propagated by seed. Sow in sj^ring, as
soon as the ground is a little warm, moderately thick, in
shallow drills, and cover lightly. For Summer Savory,
the rows should be twelve inches apart, and the plants
thinned to six inches; the thinnings may be transplanted
to the same distance. Winter Savory requires more room ;
the plants should be a foot ajjart, in drills fifteen inches
asunder. This can "be propagated also, by slij^s, cuttings,
or division of the roots. All the care required is to keep
free from weeds. Seed can be gathered as it rij)ens from
a root or two left uncut for the purpose.

Use. — The leaves of these herbs are much employed in
soups, salads, stuffings, &c,, on account of their agreeable
I^ungent flavor. They are also said to possess the desirable
power of " expelling fleas from a bed." Formerly, they
were much used in medicine. Gather when they come
into bloom, and dry for winter tise in the shade, pound in a
mortar, pass through a sieve, and put up in bottles closely
stopped, and they Avill retain their fragrance any length
of time.

SC0EZ02?ERA.— ('S(»r^(?ne?-« Hispanica.)

Scorzonera is a hardy, tap-rooted perennial, a native of
Spain, and cultivated in England since 1576. The stem is
two or three feet high, few-leaved, branched at the top.
The flowers are yellow.

VEGETABLES — ^DESCEIPTIOX AND CULTURE, 297

Culture. — It is raised from seed, which must be sown
yearly. The soil, like that for most root crops, must be
mellow, deep, and fertile. Sow any time in spring, in drills
a foot ajjart, and cover the seed half an inch deep. In
the South it is better to sow two or three different times,
as the early sown may run to seed, and the late sown may
not vegetate. When the plants are three inches high,
thin them to eight inches in the drill. In short, to culti-
vate and save seed, see Salsify.

Use. — The roots are carrot-shaped, biit with a black
skin. They are white within, are agreeable to the taste,
and nutritive, but before use, the bitter outer rind must
be scraped off. They are then boiled and used like salsify
or carrots. Tlie roots continue good all winter. The
plant is too similar to salsify to render its cultivation
an object where that is grown.

SCTJEVY GRASS.— (C<?c7i^eana officinalis.)

A hardy, Cruciferous, annual plant, found near the sea
shores of most temperate climates.

It is propagated by seed sown as soon as ripe, or very
early in spring. Sow in shallow drills, eight inches apart,
and thin to four inches. Keep free from weeds, and water
in dry weather. Used as an addition to salads, like
cresses, and medicinally in scurvy.

SEA KALE. — {Cramhe maratima.)

This is a hardy, Cruciferous perennial, a native of the

dry, shingly shores of Great Britain. The plant is smooth,

of a beautiful glaucous hue, covered with a fine meal, and

with la^rge, sinuated radical leaves. The flower is of a

13*

298

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

rich •white appearance, and a honeyed smell. It has
probably been cultivated in gardens one hundred and
fifty years, but not very generally until the beginning of
the present century, though the English j)easantry have
been in the habit of gather-
ing the blanched shoots as
they pushed through the
sand, and boiling them as
greens, fi'om time immemo-
rial. Though a native of a
cool climate, it succeeds
jDcrfectly in middle Georgia.
Culture. — The native soil
of sea kale is a deep sand,
mingled with matter from
the sea. It likes a deep
mould, or sandy loam, and if
poor, -well-jDutrified dung
and half-decayed leaves may
be added. Upon the richness
and proper preparation of
the soil the luxuriance of the
plant depends. The situation
must be free from all shade
of trees. Sea kale is propa-
gated by seeds, or offsets, or
cuttings of the root ; but the
best plants are raised from
seed. Sow the seed in a Avell-
prepared soil, rich, or made
so with well-decomposed manure, and shaded by a fence,
or building, from the midday sun. Draw the drills one
foot apart, and scatter the seed thinly along the drills.
The beds should be about four feet Avide, for convenience.
Sow very early in spring. If the outer coat of the seed
be bruised, not injuring the latter, the germination will

Fio

To. — SEA KALE.

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTION AND CULTURE. 299

be accelerated. The plants are very slow in appearing ;
never less than three weeks, often four or five mouths, and
sometimes a full yeai'. Water plentifully in dry Aveather,
and keep the seed-beds free from weeds during the season.
Thin the plants, as they appear, to an inch apart, and, as
they grow strong, to two or three inches, and keep free
from weeds. In the autumn, when their leaves decay, clear
them away, and earth them up about the crowns with an
inch or two of soil from the alleys, or leaf-mould from the
woods, and cover over the whole bed, four inches deep,
with long litter, and leave it to stand until the time of
transplanting.

As early as possible the spring ensuing, prepare the per-
manent bed for those you wish to transplant. Those
raised where they are to remain succeed best.

Let the soil be light, and well enriched with good com-
post. Leaf manure is better than hot dung. Dig it up
deeply and thoroughly, at least two feet deep, and lay it
ofi" in beds three feet wide, with alleys between, two feet
in width. Upon each of these beds plant two rows of
plants eighteen inches apart, and the same distance in the
row. Take up the plants very carefully with the trowel,
so as not to disturb the roots. If you plant cuttings of
old plants, put two in each place, to guard against failures.
In all cases, be careful in transplanting that the roots
are not broken or dried by exposure" to the sun and
air. During the dry, hot weather of summer, the beds
should be liberally watered, the first season after replant-
ing, as ujjon their summer growth depends the next
season's crop. Keeji the soil clean, and after the plants
get well rooted, dig over the ground between the rows,
making the soil as fine as possible.

The commg autumn, the earthing-up must be a little
increased ; give a coat of leaf-mould, or compost manure,
and over this a thick coat of leaves, which will bring the
plants on early in the spring. The next spring remove

300 GAKDENIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

tlie Utter, and dig in some of the manure into the alleys,
and then, if you blanch with pots, spread over the beds
about an inch deep of clean sand. The shoots may be
blanched, and a few cut for use, but sparingly, as the
plants must not be Aveakened. The better way is not to
remove the covering of leaves until you have gathered
what you desire. On a portion of the bed to produce
early, the winter covering of compost and leaves m^ust be
yearly applied.

Another portion must be left uncovered until the shoots
begin to rise, and then covered with eight or ten inches
of sand, for a later crop. Each spring give it a dressing
of salt, like asjDaragus, and dig over the surface of the
bed, as before. Retain for each plant only four or five of
the best suckers, at regular distances around the stem ;
suffer none of these to seed, if you would not greatly
injure the next year's growth.

Sea kale, though eatable without blanching, as spring
greens, is vastly improved when blanched. This may be
done by earthing-up the crowns eight or ten inches with
sand, or light mould, or by retaining the coat of dry
leaves put over the beds in autumn.

This covering may remain until the cutting ceases in
the spring, when all covering must be removed at evening,
or in cloudy Aveather. The shoots will raise the covering
when in a fit state for cutting. The courses of leaves
should be from five to twelve inches thick, according to
the age of the plants, and as directed above, may remain
on all winter. But a large flower pot, with the hole in
the bottom stopped, and light at the edges carefully
excluded by a coat of litter, is the best of all modes of
blanching.

For Seed. — A plant that has not been blanched or cut
from must be allowed to run to seed in the spring. A
single plant will jjroduce an abundant supply.

Use. — Sea kale comes on early in March, when vege-

VEGETABLES — DESCKIPTIOISr AND CULTURE. 301

tables are scarce, and affords a very wholesome and agree-
able table luxury. The young shoots and leaf stalks,
before unfoldmg, are boiled and dressed like asparagus,
are employed in sonps, and also make an agreeable salad.

SHALLOT, OR "ESQR ALLOT. —{Allium Asoolonicum.)

This is a plant of the onion tribe, which derives its
botanical name from growing wild at Ascalon, in Syria.
It has a strong taste, but as the strong flavor is not
offensive, like the garlic, and does not remain so long npon
the palate as the onion, it is often preferred. The root is
bulbous, similar to that of garlic in being divided into
cloves, included in a membrane. It rarely sends up a
flower-stock, and hence is often called the barren onion.

The best sorts are the Common and the Long-Keeping,
of which last the bulbs have been kept two years. The
" Big Shallot" of our gardens is Rocambole.

Culture. — It is propagated from the offsets of the roots*
Prepare the beds as for the rest of the onion tribe, but it
will do with not quite as rich a soiL Let the soil be made
pei'fectly light and friable. The last of September is the
best time for planting the early crop, but tliey may be
planted any time during the autumn and winter. The
early planted ones come into use early in May. Make the
beds four feet wide, and mark them off in drills an inch
deep, ten or twelve inches distant, and put the offsets out
gix inches apart in the drills. Do not cover deeply ; leave
the point of the clove just even with the surface of the
earth, and press the soil around. Keep the ground free
from Aveeds, but bo particular, in hoeing, not to earth up
the bulbs. The leek is the only member of the onion
tribe that is not injured by gathering the earth about its

302 GAEDENIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

stem. Take up the bulbs when ripe, dry in the shade,
and preserve as garlic. They may be kept until the next
spring.

Use, — The shallot, though more pungent than some
members of the onion family, is preferred by many in
seasoning gravies, souj^s, sauces, and other culinary prep-
arations, and is by some considered almost indispensable in
the preparation of a good beefsteak. It can be pickled in
the same manner as the onion.

SKIRRET.— ('S'mm sisarum.)

Skirret is a perennial Umbelliferous plant from China,
known in Europe since 1548. It grows a foot high,
with pmnate lower leaves. The root is composed of
several fleshy tubers, the size of the little finger, joined at
the cro^Ti.

Culture. — Skirret likes a deep, rich, rather moist soil,
with the manure applied at the bottom. The situation
should be open. It is propagated by seeds, or by oiFsets
of established roots. Seedlings produce the best roots.
Sow in sprmg, when the ground becomes warm, in drills
an inch deep and ten inches apart. When the plants are
an inch or two high, thin to six or eight inches apart.
Cultivate like salsify, and keep clear from weeds. They
will be fit for use in August, but can remain in the ground,
to use as wanted, all winter. Slips of the old roots may
be set out nine inches apart and cultivated in the same
manner. Leave some of the plants in the ground, and
they will throw up seed-stalks and ripen seed during the
summer following.

Use. — ^The tubers are boiled and are very sweet, some-
what like the parsnip, and are thought more palatable by

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTIOJf AND CULTUKE. 303

some, but are disagreeable to many. They are boiled,
and served up with butter, or cold, with vinegar and oil,
and are also cooked, like salsify, in batter. It was
formerly esteemed as " the sweetest, whitest, and most
pleasant of roots."

SORREL.— (^«mra.)

The sorrels are perennial plants belonging to the same
family as dock and rhubarb. There are three species cul-
tivated, viz : Humex acetosa^ or common English garden
sorrel, of which the Belleville variety is best ; H, scuta-
tus / French or RoundJeaved Sorrel, a trailing plant,
with more acid leaves than the last; J?, montamis,
Mountain Sorrel, like the last, a native of France. Of this
last there are two varieties, the Common Mountain, and
the Green Mountain Sorrel. The first has pale green,
blistered leaves, less acid than the common English, and
does not run quickly to flower. The Green Mountain Sor-
rel is earlier than this, and is the latest to flower, pro-
ducing freely dark green leaves of considerable acidity.
The flowers of the first and last species are dioecious.

Sorrel will grow from seed, or dividing the roots early
in sj^ring. Sow in drills fifteen inches aj^art, and as they
come up, thin them to one foot in the row ; or part the
roots in the autumn or spring, and set them out at the
same distance. Water them occasionally until well estab-
lished. Keep the plants free from weeds ; cut down the
stalks occasionally in the summer, and cover the crowns
with a very little fresh earth, that they may send up large
and tender leaves. "When, in two or three years, the
plants begin to dwindle, replant them in fresh soil. For
seed, let some of the stalks run up, and gather when ripe.

304 GAIlDE^^NG foe the south.

TTse. — Sorrel is much used by the French in soups,
sauces, and salads, and also cooked as spinach, and when
cooked in this "way Avith turnip toj^s is thought to improve
their flavor. Some use the leaves in jsies as a substitute
for rhubarb.

SFINJICH. — {Spiiiacia oleracea.)

Spinach is a hardy annual of the same family with the
beet, ChenopodiacecB, and has been cultivated in Eng-
lish gardens since 15G8, and probably long before. Some
refer its origin to "Western Asia. The leaves are large,
stems hollow, and the male and female flowers produced
on different j^lants. Its name, Sjnnacea, is derived from
the Latin, spina, a thorn, on account of the prickly seed
of one variety.

There are four sorts, three of which are smooth seeded,
and the other prickly.

Round-leaved has large, roundish, and fleshy leaves,
and is the sort commonly used for spring and summer
crops, but late in the season it soon runs to seed.

Flanders has smooth seeds, and large, hastate leaves,
six inches broad ; a hardy, good, winter sort.

Lettuce-leaved. — Leaves rounder than the last ; fleshy,
or thick, and of a dark green color; nearly or quite as
hardy as the last.

Prickly-seeded, or Winter Spinach. — Leaves smaller
and thinner than the other sorts, triangular shaped, and
very hardy.

Culture. — For the winter crop, a light, dry, but fertile
soil is preferable ; while for spring sowings, to have them
long in use, a rich, moist loam is desirable. The lime and

VEGETABLES — DESCKIPTIO>r AND CULTURE. 305

salt mixture with superphosphate of lime Aviil supply most
of the inorganic elements required by spinach. Give them
an open situation. The earth should be well pulverized
before sowing, as fine tilth greatly promotes vigorous
growth. Spinach is i^x'oijagated from seed so easily, and
is so valuable for winter greens, that no garden should be
without it.

The first crojD is sown at the South the first of October,
and in succession until winter sets in, and on the coast
through the winter months the sowings are continued.
At New York the first of September is the proper season.
For this cro]) the prickly is the hardiest, but the Flanders
and Lettuce-leaved are the best. Another sowing should
be made as soon as spring opens, and they may be
continued until the summer heats come on, when the
plants will quickly run to seed. Use the smooth-seeded
kinds for the later crops.

Sow thinly in drills an inch deep, about fifteen inches
apart, or eighteen inches for the larger varieties. Sow in
moist weather, or if dry, water the seed in the drill before
covering, for if moisture be wanting during the early
stages of vegetation, not half the seed will come up. Thin
them by degrees, separating them at first only an inch or
two as the plants grow fit for use. Thinning should com-
mence when they attain four leaves an inch or so in
breadth. The plants must finally stand for the prickly
spinach, five inches, and the round leaf, eight inches in the
drill. Keep the rows frequently hoed and free from
weeds. Hoe in diy weather. Spinach kept clean and
thinned properly is not so liable to die out in winter.
During severe weather a thin covering of straw or evci--
green brush is essential for the protection of the winter
crop north of Washington, and is very beneficial south of
that point. Regular gathering greatly promotes the
health of the plants. The outer leaves only should be
used, leaving the centre uninjured to supply successive

306 GAEDENTN^G FOK THE SOUTH.

crops. At the end of the winter, the soil between tlic
rows of the winter standing crop should be gently stirred,
to assist their production in early spring. For summer
spinach and all other plants cultivated for their leaves, the
soil cannot be too rich.

For Seed. — Some of the latest plants of the standing
crop should be allowed to run up to seed ; let these plants
be eight or ten inches apart. Spinach is dioecious, and the
male plants may be removed when the seed begins to
form. Wlien ripe, pull the plants, dry thoroughly on a
cloth, and beat out and store the seed in i^a^jer bags.
Si^inach seed will keej) three years.

Use. — Spinach and German Greens are the best plants
to raise for a supply of early spring greens. Spinach
eaten freely is laxative and cooling ; it is not very nutri-
tive, but very wholesome. It is so innocent that it is per-
mitted to be eaten in diseases where most vegetables are
proscribed. The leaves are very tender and succulent,
and of a most beautiful green when boiled. The juice is
often used for coloring various culinary preparations.

SPINACH, NEW Z'^KLL'S'D—i.Tetragonia expansa.)

An annual plant brought by Sir Joseph Banks from
ISTew Zealand, in 1772, with thick, succulent, pale green,
pi-ocumbent, deltoid leaves, and with small, green, incon-
spicuous flowers. It grows four or five feet high, and is
of the same natural fimily as the ice plant.

Culture. — ^New Zealand Spinach may be sown early in
April. The best soil is loam, deeply dug, and enriched by
a liberal suj^ply of manure. Make the drills three feet
apart, and scatter the seed about six inches apart in the

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTION AND CULTURE, 307

drill, and cover tliem an inch deep. Thin out the plants
to twenty inches apart. Keep the grovind thoroughly-
tilled and free from weeds, that the plants may make a
luxuriant growth. In five or six weeks the young leaves
will be ready to be picked. Preserve the leading shoot,
and the branches will continue long in bearing, as in
autumn they survive a pretty heavy frost. Twenty
plants are enough for a family. Seed may be gathered as
it ripens, dried carefully in the shade, and put up in paper
bags.

It is used as a substitute in summer for the common
spinach. Swiss Chard is a better one. The seed vessels
make a good pickle.

SQ,X7ASH. — {Cucurhita Melopepo.)

The squash is a tender trailing annual, and was first
brought to England in 1597. It is a native of the Levant.
It is a much esteemed garden vegetable, and in some of
its varieties can be had for the table the greater part of
the year.

Summer SquasheSf — The best are the Early Bush Scol-
lop, which is small, and either white or golden yellow in its
two subvarieties ; both good ; the Summer Crookneck,
also a bush variety ; bright yellow, covered with warts ;
Bergen, small, bell-shaped, striped dark green and white ;
used green, like the preceding, and when the shell hard-
ens, becomes still better, being very dry and rich, and
keeps well.

Winter Squashes are of many varieties; as Valparaiso,
or Cocoanut, as it is named from its shape. It has a
rough, grayish coat, flesh deep orange, very dry, and
sugary ; it is the best of all, but a great runner, and bears

308 GARDENING TOR THE SOUTH.

but moderately. Boston Marrow, Bell, Canada Crook-
neck, and Hubbard, are all good -winter sorts. The last
is a new variety of great excellence, related to the Valpa-
raiso. The Cashaw PumiDkin is a good substitute for the
winter squash.

Vegetable Marrow Squashes are in England the favor-
ite sort, and used from the time the blossom drops until
matured. The Custard Vegetable Marrow is now the
kind preferred there. From a single trial they do not ap-
pear productive.

Culture. — ^The squash is planted at the same time as the
cucumber and melon. Put six or eight seeds in a hill,
and thin out to two or three when they get \x^. The
bush squashes should be five feet apart, and the winter vari-
eties at least ten. For cultivation, see Cucumber. Squashes
are much better grown in rich soil ; do not plant them
near the cucumber or melon, if you would not have worth-
less seed from all the plants in their vicinity. Gather
summer kinds while the finger nail can easily penetrate
the rind ; they must be plucked as soon as fit for use, or
the fruitfulness of the vines will be much impaired. To
keep winter squashes, they must be put away in a cool,
dry place, free from frost.

The Squash BuSf, Coreiis trlstis. This insect is of a
rusty black color above, and yellowish beneath ; of a foul,
disgusting smell ; of quick motions. It eats the leaf and
stem, and at length destroys the stem. It lays its dark
colored eggs in patches upon the under surface of the leaf,
to which they adhere strongly. As soon as hatched, the
young enemy in little swarms commence feeding i;pon the
leaf, upon its under side, which soon withers. They are
quite timid, but may be found in the cool of the day con-
cealed under the leaves or clods of earth, and should be
sought for while the vines are young, daily, in the morn-
ing, and crushed before they become nimierous. {Harris.)

VEGETABLES — DESCIIIPTION AND CULTUKE. 309

Another squnsh bug is the Coccinnella horealls, a
species of Ladybird, which with its larva feed upon and
destroy the leaves. Most of the ladybirds are beneficial
in freeing plants of Aphides, but this is an exception.
The color is dull yellow, and upon the thorax and wing
cases are nineteen black spots, counting as two those
divided by the suture of the wing. The eggs are laid in
groujDS upon the under surface of the leaf Successive
broods are hatched through the summer. The remedy is
hand picking.

The squash vine borer is the larva of ^ger'ia cucurhitce,
an orange-colored moth, with black spots, which deposits
its eggs near the roots of cucumber and squash vines,
often several upon a single plant. When hatched, the
larva is a small, white worm that bores into the substance
of the vine and soon destroys it. It is very troublesome
in Southern gardens. A few ashes placed about the
roots of the vine are said to be the best remedy.

Use. — The squash is a A'ery wholesome and tolerably
nutritious vegetable, prepared for the table in the same
manner as the turnip for Avhich it is an excellent sub-
stitute to eat with fresh meat. To be fit for use after
being boiled tender, the summer sorts must be squeezed
between two plates, for when full of water, as often
served, it is not fit to be eaten. The Avinter squashes
should be boiled dry ; they make a good pie, like the
pumpkin and the sweet potato.

T ANY AH. — {Calocasia esculenta.)

This is a large-leaved, tuberous rooted, perennial plant
of the Arum family, much cultivated at the Sandwich
Islands, and forms the principal ingredient in the favorite
2^oi, a food much in use there, and remarkable for its fat-
tening properties.

310 GAnDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

It is cultivated somewhat near Charleston, and along
the coast, and is perfectly hardy here, and probably near
the coast as far north as Washington. The foliage is
quite striking.

Culture. — It may be planted in any rich, well-drained,
low spot. Select the eyes or buds, and j)lant like the
)iotato. The small roots are the ones generally reserved
for this purpose. There are two distinct kinds, named
from their color the pink and the blue, of which the latter
is thought by many to be the most farinaceous, but others
prefer the taste of the pink variety. The sets may be
put oiit in March or early in April, and the most attention
required is to keep the soil clean and mellow. The rows
may be three or four feet apart, and the plants two feet in
the rows. It comes to maturity the autumn after plant-
ing, and may remain in the bed until wanted. It keeps
better than either the sweet or Irish potato. It is pre-
pared for the table by simple roasting, and eaten with
salt. By many they are much liked, as they are quite
farinaceous.

TARRAGON". — {Artemisia Dracunculus)

This is a perennial plant, of the same genus as the
wormwood, but its fragrant smell and warm aromatic
taste have introduced it into the kitchen garden.

Culture. — This plant does not require a rich soil, and as
it is a native of a cold climate, it is best to give it a bleak
winter exposure. Poor, dry earth is necessary to perfect
its flavor. Tarragon is propagated by seed, slips, cut-
tings and parting of the root. The latter is the easiest
mode and most generally practiced. It may be planted
in early spring, the plants being ten inches apart. Give

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AJST) CULTURE. 311

a little water in dry weather until they are rooted. As
they run up, if seed is not desired, cut down the seed
stalks and they will shoot up afresh. Keep them free
from weeds. It has been cultivated here with success.
It must be taken up, divided, and reset every year, or it
will die out.

TIse. — Tarragon is used in salads, to correct the cold-
ness of other herbs. Its leaves are excellent pickled, or
for flavoring vinegar to be used for fish sauces, or with
horse-radish for beefsteaks.

Common Thyme, Thymus vulgaris, is a low, evergreen
undershrub, a native of Spain, Italy, and Greece, culti-
vated in English gardens since 1548, and probably earlier.
Its name. Thymus, comes from the Greek word for cour-
age ; as it was thought to renew the strength and spirits.
It has a j^leasant, aromatic smell, and a warm, pungent
taste. There are two varieties, the broad and narrow
leaved.

Lemon Thyme, Thymus citriodorus, is also a low, trail-
ing, evergreen shrub, seldom rising above four or six
inches high. It has a strong smell of lemons, which gives
it its common name, and is preferred for some dishes.

Culture. — Thyme is raised by seed, cuttings, and divid-
ing the roots. A light, dry soil is suitable. The root
slips may be set out in rows six inches apart each way.
The seeds are very small, and should be sown in moist
weather in spring, the soil for their reception made very
fine, and the seed raked in lightly with the back of the
rake. Press the surface gently with a board or the back
of a spade. Make the drills six inches apart and very

312 GARDEiaXG FOK THE SOUTH.

shallow. Water lightly iu hot, dry weather, both before
and after the plants are uj). Let them remain in the drills,
or transplant when two or three inches high. Thin the
plants to six inches apart, and keep free from weeds while
the plants are small.

Thyme is often used as an edging. A very small plot
is enough for any family.

JFhr Seed. — ^It bears seed abundantly, if permitted. The
spikes should be gathered as it ripens, before it is washed
out by the raiu. Dry upon a cloth in the shade.

ZTse. — The young leaves and tops are used in soups,
stuffings, and sauces. They can be dried and preserved
like other herbs ; but in mild climates this is unnecessary,
as it is evergreen.

TOMATO. — {Lycopersicum esculentum.)

The Tomato is a tender annual, a native of South
America, and some say of Mexico, and of the same natural
family with the Egg-plant and.Irish potato. It was intro-
duced into England in 159G, and v>ms long cultivated in
the flower garden for its beautiful red and yellow fruit,
which was not used for food, but by many considered pois-
onous. "As an esculent plant, in 1828-9," says Buist,
speaking of its use in this country, " it was almost detested ;
in ten years more, every variety of pill and panacea was
' extract of tomato.' " It is now one of the most popular
vegetables in cultivation, and springs up self-sown in all
our gardens. There are many varieties.

The Large Red is one of the best. It is patty-pan-
shaped, and extra large specimens are sometimes six inches
in diameter, or as large as a common bush squash. One
of the best flavored.

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 313

Gallagher's l^Iammoth is a variety of this, of larger size,
having few seeds, and of good flavor.

Large Yellow resembles Large Red in form, but is of a
somewhat diiFerent flavor and is a good sort for preserves.

Large Smooth Red is a new variety of the Large Red,
equally well flavored, and a favorite in the kitchen, as it
grows regular and free from knobs.

Fejee Island, a rather later variety with more solid flesh,
said to be a new kind from the Fejee Islands, came to this
place from Naples twenty years ago and is a good sort.

Cherry is excellent for pickling. It is named from its
size and shape.

Pear-shaped is of a pink color, firm flesh, and few seeds.
Much used for pickling, and excellent for the table. .

Early Red is a new French subvariety of Large Red,
at least ten days earlier.

The tomato likes a light, loamy soil, of moderate fertility,
as in a soil too rich it runs to vine, and the fruit ripens
late. For the early crop, sow at the first indications of
spring, some six weeks before corn planting time (early in
February here and at the North in March) in a hot bed, or
in boxes in the house.

Sow in drills eight inclios apart, and when the plants
come up, thin to two or three inches, and transplant into
the open ground when the frosts are ovei*. "While in the
seed bed give air at all times when there is no danger of
frost. It is better to sow quite early and transplant when
ready into small pots, and a couple of weeks after, when
these are full 'of roots, shift them into five-inch pots, in
which they may be kept until they blossom, if a late
spring or apprehension of frost renders it necessary.
Transfer them with the ball to the hill in the open ground
in a cloudy, damp time, in fresh-dug soil. If the weather
is dry they may be planted, the fresh soil pressed closely
about the ball, a plentiful watering given, finishing with a
14

314 GAEDEXING FOR THE SOUTH.

covering of 'light soil to keep the ground from baking, and
shade during the day until established. The Early Red
should be selected for the first crop, and when planted out
a warm exposure chosen. Let the rows be about three feet
apart and the plants eighteen inches in the row. In poor
soil less room is required between the rows. As they are
very tender, do not plant out until danger of frost is over,
and protect them by large flower j^ots or boxes, if there is
any fear of frost. For a succession, sow in the open ground
about corn planting time in a rich, sheltered spot, water
with tepid water in dry weather, shield them with a mat
or box in cold nights, and thin the plants while young to
three inches, and carefully transplant these, when ready,
Avith a trowel and ball into their final situation. Another
sowing or two should be made, to keep up a full succession
in the long summer of our Gulf States. The Large
Smooth Red is a good sort for the main crop.

As soon as the lower fruit is half grown, cut off the
upper part of the plant above the larger fniit, that its
growth may be stopped, and the fruit below will be larger,
and several days earlier. Ninety per cent of the fruit
grows within eighteen inches of the ground, but a large
portion of the vines grow above that height. Tomatoes
like the soil about them well hoed, and free from weeds.
Plants groAvn in the open air are more abundant in bear-
ing than those forwarded under glass. In well-trenched
ground, they will continue bearing until frost.

To Save Seed. — Select the largest early fruit, mash with
the hand, and wash the seed from the pulp ; spread out
upon plates and dry in the shade ; when drj'*, put them in
pai)er bags.

ZTse. — Few vegetables are prepared in as many different
forms as the tomato. It is pickled when green, and pre-:
served when ripe ; it is eaten raw or cooked ; it enters into
soups and sauces, and is prepared in catsups, marmalades,
and omelets. The French, and the Italians, near Rome

VEGETABLES — DESCEIPTIOST AND CULTURE, SI 5

and Naples, raised tliem by the acre, long before used by-
other nations, and, it is said, prepared them in an almost
infinite variety of ways. There are very few preparations
into Avhich it enters, which are not improved by the addi-
tion. A good supply should be prepared when in season
by stewing and putting up in patent cans for winter use.
On account of the acid of tiie fruit, earthen or glass jars
are best.

TVTHSIP.—iBrassica rapa.)

The turnip is a liardy biennial of the cabbage tribe, a
native of many parts of Europe, and has been cultivated
for centuries. It was held in considerable estimation by
the Romans. Cato is the first writer that mentions it.
" Sow it," says he, " after an autumnal shower, in a place
that is well manured, or in a rich soil." Columella recom-
mends its cultivation, " because that portion of the crop
not wished for the table will be greedily eaten by the
farju cattle." It is cultivated in all temperate climes, and
is now extensively grown as a field crop in England, for
feeding stock, and is considerably raised for the same pur-
pose in our Northern States,

Early White Dutch (Strap-leaved). — A round, flat tur-
nip, with short, narrow, straji-like leaves ; is the earliest
kind.

Early Red- Top Dutch (Strap-leaved,) differs from the
preceding only in the red color of the portion of the roots
which is above ground. Both of these, in a moist, cool
fall, are fit for the table six weeks after sowing.

The above are best for spring sowing, and also very
useful for the autumn crop.

White Globe is a beautifully shaj)ed, globular root, of
the largest size.

316 GARDENIJTG FOR THE SOUTH.

White ^^orfolk is anotlicr large field sort ; both are good
varieties, and much cultivated South, both for their roots
and for winter greens.

Yellow Dutch is very hardy, more so .than the forego-
ing. Sweet, fine-flavored, and very nutritious. It is of a
yellow color, round, handsome shape, firm and sweet, and
keejis well.

Yellow Aberdeen is perhaps the same as the last.

Riita Baga, or Swedes Turnip is a different variety,
{Brassica campestris var. ruta haga,) of which the foliage
differs from those preceding in being smooth and covered
with glaucous bloom. There are several varieties, all
hardy and good.

Purple-topped Swede. — The roots are very large, of an
oval, tapering form, and the greater their size, the sweeter
and more nourishing they become. It keeps until spring.

Skirving's Improved Swede. — This is of still better
form than the foregoing, tlie leaves not so largo, less
smooth, and free from bloom ; flesh fine, yellow, and very
nutritious.

Sweet German Turnip. — Called also White Ruta Ba-
ga and Cabbage Turnip, {Urasslca camjyestns Napa
JBrassica^D. C.,) resembles the last two, but the flesh is
white, very sweet, with somewhat of the cabbage flavor,
and is a good keeper. Roots large, but not as regular as
the preceding.

It is found that the most important fertilizer is j^hos-
phate of lime. Either bone dust, sujjerphosphate of lime,
or guano, all rich in phosplioric acid, seems to supply
everything this crop requires. Manured with either of
these, it is soon beyond the reach of insects and casualties.
For the spring crop guano or manures ricli in ammonia
are essential, but for the autumn crop the superphosphate
of lime seems to act more beneficially than any other ap-
plication. Manipulated guano, honestly prepared, is valu-

VEGETABLES — DESCKIPTI02T A.^D CULTUKE. 317

able at both seasons, and still bettei- is the mixture of
guano and superphosphate of lime.

Culture. — The turnip likes a rich, sandy soil. If raised
on ground manured by cow-penning, the crop rarely fails,
as the urine deposited in the soil aifords the phosphates
so necessary for this crop, and in such places it is far less
infested with insects. Soil fresh from the woods also suits
it. For the early crop seed gi'own north of the local-
ity in Avhich it is sown is generally preferred, but for the
main crop, pure seed from handsome shaped roots of home
growth is sufficiently good. In the more Southern States,
sow early turnips late in January, or through February,
and farther North as soon as the ground is in a suitable
condition, and the danger of its becoming again frozen is
over ; that is, Avhen the atmosphere begins to feel like
spring. Sow in di'ills fifteen inches apart, in fine, light,
w^ell-manurcd soil, in drills one inch deep, covering the
seeds half an inch, with fine soil pressed thereon. Keep
the soil free from weeds. As soon as the plants get a lit-
tle strong, thin out to two inches, and finally to six inches
in the row. If the ground is not kept light and well
worked, and the plants j^roperly thinned, it is a mere
waste of time and seed. The Early White Dutch is the
kind to be preferred. They do much better in drills than
broadcast.

For fall turnips, sow the Early White Dutch, etc., any
time in August and September, broadcast, or better in
drills, as directed above. If broadcast, thin them to about
twelve inches apart or more. If sown just before a rain,
they will come up at once. Soot, wood ashes, and un-
slaked lime are all useful to promote growth and drive
away insects. The Red-top is an excellent variety for a
general fall crop, and may be sown in October even, with
success in the more Southern States. The last of July or
the first of August is the time for sowing the main crop

318 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

of common turnips, wliile in Georgia the last sowing for
greens is made the first of November.

The varieties of the Ruta Baga and the Sweet German
are the best when planted for late winter use. These are
sown at New York the last half of June, or early in July ;
in Georgia, from the 1st to 20th of August. Sow iu
very rich, fresh-prepared soil. Let the drills be two feet
apart, and thin tbe plants by degrees until twelve or fif-
teen inches in the row. As soon as the plants appear,
loosen the earth about them. It requires a richer soil
than the other varieties. Fill any vacancies in the row
by transplanting ; these plants will make nearly as
large roots as the others. Keep the soil light and mellow
by the use of the hoe. Large crops can be tended with
the i^low and cultivator to great advantage. Li good
soil the yield is jmmense. The crop may be drawn as
needed. Some should be taken before they begin to grow
up to seed and stored in a cool place for late keeping.

The Twrnip Flea Beetle, Ualtica nemorum. — This
is a small, hai'd-shelled insect, of a smooth, shining,
brassy, or greenish-black color, about an eighth of an
inch in length. There are two yellow stripes down the
wing cases. The hinder legs are formed for leaping. It
attacks the turnij), and other plants of the same family,
both in its perfect and larva states. When the plants
have attained some size the injury to the crop is slight,
but they generally take the young plants while in the seed
leaf, and destroy the crop entirely in a few hours, whether
it be a small bed, or a large field.

The best remedies are preventive, such as to roll
the surface smoothly, so that the insects may find
no hiding places in the soil, to sow the seed in drills,
and in a fine, rich soil, and apply suj^erphosphate of lime
upon the seed in the drills, to apply plenty of seed, and
thin out the plants when in the rough leaf. Any thing

VEGETABLES DESCKIPTIOX AND CULTTJEE. 319

that will accelerate growth will soon place the crop out
of clanger from these little insects. Some sow radish seed
with turnips, as the flea prefers the young radish leaf. If
they once attack the plants, dusting them with lime ashes
and soot is sometimes useful, but when in great numbers,
it is scarcely possible to save the young crop.

To Save Seed. — Select a few of the best roots, shorten
the tap-root, and plant them two feet apart. Tie the
stalks to stakes, and keep them at a distance from all other
members of the cabbage tribe. Seed of the turnip should
be changed every few years, as the plant degenerates. It
keeps three years.

Use. — This is one of those useful vegetables, that can be
enjoyed with everything. The tops gathered in winter and
spring make the gi'eens so much prized by us all in early
spring. The roots are wholesome, though they disagree
with some stomachs. They are considerably nutritious
also ; four ounces of White Dutch containing eighty-five
grains of nutritive matter, and four ounces of Ruta Baga
containing one hundred and ten grains of the same. Any
ovex'-supply of this crop may be fed with great advantage
to cows and swine.

WATER CRESS.— (-ZVflwiiirfmm officinale.)

This is a hardy, perennial, English, Cruciferous plant,
growmg in running streams. There is but one variety in
use.

The Water-ci'ess likes a clear, cool, running stream,
fresh issuing from a spring, the nearer its source the bet-
ter, with the water about an inch and a half deep, with
a sandy or gravelly bottom. It must, of course, at first
be raised from seed, which can be sprinkled at the source

320 GAUDEXIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

of some gravelly stream. If once established, it will
soon propagate from, self-sown seed. If the stems get
choked with mud and weeds, they must be taken up and
the beds cleared and replanted. The shoots ought always
to be cut^ as breaking injures the plants.

They grow best in water not over two or three inches
deep, and if plants can be got, should be set in rows
parallel with the stream, eighteen inches apart.

Use. — Water-cresses are generally liked for their warm,
pungent taste, and are used alone or in mixed salads.

% "WATER WLJSS^—{!Oitnaius vulgaris.)

This is a tmijing annual, a native of the tropics, and of
the same natural family as the cucumber and musk melon,
but belongs to a distinct genus. It is a large, succulent,
and refreshing, but not high-flavored fruit, and is j^roba-
bly the melon mentioned in the Bible. The varieties are
numerous, and many of them not known out of a limited
locality.

Imperial « — Medium size, nearly round, skin pale green
and white, marbled ; rind thin, flesh solid, light red, crisp,
rlcli, and high-flavored; seeds small, reddish-brown; pro-
ductive.

Spanish. — Round, very dark green, thin rind, bright
red flesh, and black seeds; rich and sugary. {Buist.)

Mountain Sweet, — Large, oval, striped with light and
dark green ; sometimes with a neck ; flesh light red, quite
solid, and of fine flavor.

Ice Cream. — Large, round, early, and productive; skin
light green, rind lialf an inch thick; flesh white, crisp and
sugary, excellent ; seeds white.

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 321

Clarendon, — Large, mottled gray, with dark green
stripes ; rind half an inch thick; flesh scarlet, sugary, and
exquisite ; seeds yellow, spotted with black, and with a
black strij^e about the edge.

Souter is striped with pale and dark green, rind thin,
flesh red, and of best quality ; seeds white, with a russet
stripe about the edge ; form oblong to roundish.

Ravenscroft is oblong, dark green, faintly striped with
lighter green; rind thin, flesh red and sugary; seeds
white, Avith a brown stripe about the edge. The last
three are fine varieties of Southern origin. The otliers
are more cultivated in the North. The varieties intermix
if grown near each other. The Citron watermelon is a
small, round, pale-green, marbled sort, liked by many for
preserves. Seeds red.

Culture. — The watermelon likes a deep, rich, sandy
soil. Where tliis plant is most successfully cultivated, it
always grows upon sand. The hills should be not less
than ten or twelve feet apart in warm climates, and seven
or eight at the North. Do not plant until the ground is
wai-m, and cultivate exactly in the same manner as the
muskmelon and cucumber. It should not be grown
within one hundred feet of other melons, gourds, etc., if
you would gather pure seed. Protect from insects as
directed in the article, " Cucumber." The melon worm
does not annoy the watermelon.

Use. — ^This is a wholesome fruit, very popular in sum-
mer from its beauty and the refreshing coolness of its
juice. It is not very nutritious, as it contains ninety-five
per cent of water. It is not by any means as nourishing
as the muskmelon, and lacks its peculiar rich flavor.
The outer rind is used for preserves. In many parts of
Europe the juice is boiled into a pleasant syrup, or made
into beer.

14*

MEDICINAL HERBS.

A few roots of the most useful of these should be found
lu every garden. The medicinal properties of many of
them depend upon their aromatic qualities, and they are
never so fragrant and full of virtue when grown upon
ground highly manured. Chamomile, lavender, rose-
mary, rue, wormwood, and many others, lose much of
their strength when forced into rank gro^^'th. Common
garden soil, without manuring, is quite good enough.
Wlienever the plants begin to decline, take away the old
surface soil, and apjily fresh, or set out new plants in fresh
ground.

Medicinal, pot, or sweet herbs, as a general rule, should
be gathered when in bloom, and dried carefully and thor-
oughly in the shade. When thorouglily dry, press them
closely into paper bags, or powder them finely ; sift, and
keep in closely-stopped bottles.

Angelica, {Archangelica officinalis,) is an Umbellifer-
ous biennial plant, growing from three to five feet high,
and a native of many parts of Xorthern Europe. The
whole plant is powerfully aromatic. Its roots have a
fragrant, agreeable odor, and at first a sweetish taste,
Avhich soon turns acrid in the mouth. Its medical proper-
ties are aromatic, stimulant, and gently tonic.

Its stalks were formerly blanched and eaten like celery,
but it is mostly cultivated to make a sweetmeat from
them when young and tender. They are also candied by
the confectioners.

Sow the seed one foot ajiart in August or September,
and when they get about four inches high, the next spring,
322

MEDICINAL HERBS. 323

set them in rows t"»vo feet apart each way. Though the
plant is only a biennial, yet by cutting down the seed-
stalk -s\'henever it rises, the same plant may be preserved
several seasons. Angelica likes a moist, cool soil, such as
the banks of ditches.

AniSC) {PlmpineUa anismn,) is an Umbelliferous an-
nual, a native of Egypt. It is cultivated for its seeds,
and its leaves, Avhich are occasionally used as a garnish,
and for seasoning like fennel. The seeds have a fragrant,
agreeable smell, and a sweetish, pleasant taste. They are
useful wherever an aromatic stimulant is required.

The i^lant grows about 18 inches high. Sow the seed
•where it is to stand in spring, in a dry, light soil, and thin
out the plants, if too thick, to three or four inches apart.

Balm, {Melissa officinalis,) is a hardy, Labiate-flowered
perennial, native of Switzerland and the south of France,
but has long been cultivated in gardens. It has an aro-
matic taste, and a grateful, fragrant smell, a little like
lemons.

It is a square-stemmed plant, rising about two feet high.
It is used in making balm tea, a grateful drink in fevers,
and for forming a pleasant beverage called balm wine.
It is a great favorite with the bees.

Any garden soil will do for balm. It is readily propa-
gated either by slips, or by parting the roots in spring.
Plant ten inches apart, giving water if dry weather.

Bene, {Sesarrmm orientale,) is an annual plant, and
a native of Africa and India, Introduced into this coun--
try by the negroes. It grows from three to six feet high,
bearing numerous pods, filled "with smallish seed. These
are used for food in many parts of the world, and are also
cultivated for the oil with which they abound. It resem-
bles that of olives, and is nearly as good. The leaves abound
in mucilage ; one or two stirred in a half pint of water
will form a bland mucilaginous drink very useful in cholera

32i

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

infantum, dysentery, and summer complaints generally.

The leaves should
be freshly gather-
ed, and enough
may be added to
make the water
ropy without af-
fecting its color
or taste.

Sow a row in
spring, on the
edge of a plot or
border, and thin
out as the plants
require room. A
few plants will
furnish all the
leaves desired.

Boneset, or
Thoroii£?hwo r t ,
{JEupatorlumpcr-
foliatimi,) is a
Composite - flow-
ered perennial, a
native of most of
the United States,
which, if not
found growing
wild in the vicini-
ty, should be cul-
tivated, as it is
one of the best
herbs in family
practice. It has a
faint odor, an in-

Fig. 76.— BENE.

tensely bitter taste, and is slightly astringent. Its medi-

MEDICINAL HERBS. 325

cinal virtues are diaphoretic, tonic, and in larger doses,
emetic and aperient. It is principally used as a diaphoret-
ic in colds, catarrhs, and i-heumatism, in intermittent,
remittent, and inflammatory diseases, or given cold as a
tonic in dyspepsia.

Boneset can be raised by transplanting the roots, or
sowing the seed in spring.

Borage, {JBorrago officinalis,) is an annual European
plant. The tender tops, young leaves, and flowers, are
sometimes used as a salad by the French, and boiled by
the Italians.

Medicinally it was formerly thought endowed witli very
great virtues, and numbered among the four cordial
flowers.

Old Gerard says : " Those of our time do use the flowers
in salads, and to exhilarate and to make the minde glad.
There be many things made of them used for the comfort
of the heart, to drive away sorrow and increase the joy
of the minde." The plant is not much used now except
as an ingredient in the drink called " a cool tankard,"
made of wine, water, lemon-juice, and sugar, to which a
few of the tender leaves seem to give additional coolness.

Sow early in spring, broadcast, and a little tliinniug
and weeding is all the attention that will be needed.

Caraway, {Carum Cand,) is a native of England and
various other countries of Europe. It is a biennial. Um-
belliferous plant, well known to the ancients. Pliny men-
tions it. Caraway is cultivated for its aromatic seeds,
which are useful in confectionery, as in cakes, comfits,
etc., and the leaves are sometimes used in soups. The
roots are said to excel those of the parsnip, being formerly
cooked and used in the same manner. Medicinally the
seeds are used in an infusion for flatulence. Sow in au-
tumn, or early spring, and thin so as to give each plant
ten inches of room. * Keep free from weeds. Plants sown
in autumn will 2:ive seed the next season.

326 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

Chamomile; {Anthemis 7iobiIis,) is a hardy, Composite-
flowered perennial, a native of England, cultivated for its
flowers, which have a bitter, aromatic taste, and are in
small doses a useful touic, but given largely, act as an
emetic. An infusion of them improves digestion and
gives tone to the disordered stomach. The flowers are
sometimes chewed as a substitute for tobacco.

It is best propagated by dividing the roots m spring.
Keep the ground free from weeds. Plant nine inches
apart. As to vai'ieties, the single-flowered has the most
virtue, but the double-flowered is most cultivated, from its
greater j)roductiveness.

Clary, (Salvia sclarea,) is a Labiate-flowered biennial
from Italy. The leaves of this plant were formerly used
in soups, and its flowers are now made use of in a fer-
mented wine.

The medicinal virtues of the plant are cordial and as-
tringent, and it is used either in its fresh or dried state.
For propagation and culture, see " Sage," which belongs
to the same genus. Clary, however, must be yearly
renewed by fresh sowing. Tlim the plants to 15 inches
apart each way.

Coriander; {Coria^idrum sativum^ is an Umbelliferous
annual from the East, and also grows naturally in the
south of Europe. Some like its tender leaves for souj^s
and salads, but it is raised mostly for its seeds, which
have a pleasant aromatic taste, though the smell is dis-
agreeable. Coriander seed is carminative and stomachic.
It is often used to disguise the taste of medicines, but it is
principally employed in confectionery.

Sow tlie seed in spring or autumn, whei-e they are to
remain, in drills twelve inches apart. Thin the plants to
four inches, and keep free from weeds.

Dill; {Anethum graveolens^ belongs*to the same genus
with Fennel, and is a biennial, Umbelliferous plant, a

MEDICINAIi HERBS. 327

native of Southern Europe, cultivated for its seeds, which
have an aromatic odor, and a warm, pungent, and some-
what bitter taste. Medicinally, they are good for flatu-
lence and colic in infants. The leaves are sometimes used
for culinary purposes, and the seeds are occasionally added
to pickled cucumbers to heighten the flavor.

Sow the seeds either early in the spring, or soon after
they are ripe, in a light soil. Thin, if crowded, and keep
clean. The plants should be 8 inches apart.

Elecampane; {Inula Helenium^ is a native of England
and Japan. It is a Composite-flowered, perennial plant,
cultivated for its thick, fleshy, carrot-like root, which is
useful as an aromatic tonic and expectorant. Cut up fine
and fed with their corn, the root is a great relief to the
distemper in horses.

It is propagated by ofisets, or by parting the roots in
autumn or spring, but may also be grown from seeds
sown in the fall. It likes a moist soil, and the plants
should be fifteen inches apart.

Fennel, {Fceniculum viilgare,) is a hardy, aromatic,
perennial, Umbelliferous plant from the south of Europe,
growing -uT-ld on the banks of rivers, and perhaps quite as
properly belongs to tlie culinary as to the medicinal depart-
ment of the garden. It has a finely divided leaf, and tall,
umbel-bearing stems, crowned with small yellow flowers.

Cidture. — Fennel -will groAV in almost any soil. It is
propagated by oflsets, parting the roots, or by seed ; all
which modes maybe successfully practised at any time in
autumn or spring.

The best season, however, for sowing the seed is when
it ripens in the fall, in drills twelve inches asunder. The
seed may be sown moderately thick, about half an inch
deep, and the earth pressed upon them. When the young
plants are four or five inches high, thin them out to twelve
inches. Those taken up may be planted out to enlarge the

323 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

bed. Water them freely, if the weather is dry. Keep
the plants free from weeds, which is all the cultivation
required. If the seed is not desired, the stems should be
cut down as often as they run up ; for if allowed to ripen
seed, the old plants will last but a few years. But this is
of little consequence, as plenty of self-sown seedlings will
be ready to take their place. Eight or ten roots are
enough for any family. It should be kept within proper
limits, as it is much inclined to spread.

Use. — Fennel is a good deal iised, in continental Europe,
in soups, fish-sauces, garaishes, and salads. It is also con-
siderably used in England, but less with us. The Italians
blanch and eat the stalks of one variety called Finochie,
like celery. A little fennel seed sometimes gives an agree-
able variety in flavoring apple-sauce and pies. But it is
most \ised medicinall3^ The seeds are carminative and
stimulant, and in an infusion are excellent for the flatulent
colic of infants.

Horehouild, {Jlamfbiion vulgare^ is a hardy, Labiate-
flowered, perennial plant, a native of most parts of Europe,
growing in waste grounds, among rubbish, in wann, dry
situations. It has a strong arojnatic smell, and a bitter,
pungent taste, which is permanent in the mouth ; medici-
nally, horehound is a tonic, somewhat stimulant and diu-
retic, and, in large doses, laxative. It enters largely into
the composition of cough syrups and lozenges.

Sow the seeds in the spring, in any common soil. It
scarcely needs any attention. It may also be propagated
by dividing the roots. Plant eighteen inches apart.

Hyssop, {Uyssopus offieinalis^ is a Labiate-flowered,
hardy, evergreen undershrub, fi-om the south of Europe,
of which the leaves and flower-spikes are the parts used
medicinally. It has an aromatic odor, and a svarm, pun-
gent taste. It is stimulant and expectorant.

Hyssop is propagated by slips, or dividing the roots, or

MEDICINAL HERBS. 329

by sowing the seed in the spring. Ti'ansplant the young
plants to where they are to remain, or you may thin them
to six inches apart, and leave them in the seed-bed until
au.tumn before transplanting. It likes a dry, sandy soil,
and about eighteen inches space should be given to each
plant.

Lavender, {Lavandula vera,) is a Labiate-flowered
uudershrub, a native of the south of Europe, and hardy
south of New York. It is cultivated for its fragrant
spikes of flowers, which are used for the distillation of
lavender-water. Being dried, and put up in paper bags,
they are also used to perfume linen. Both flowers and
leaves are very aromatic. It has an agreeable pungent
bitterness to the taste, and its medicinal properties are
stimulant, cordial, and stomachic. There are three varie-
ties— the narroic-leaved, one sort with blue and the other
with white flowers, and the hroad-leaved lavender.

Lavender may be propagated by seeds, slips, or cuttings.
Sow the seed in drills ten inches apart, in spring, and
transplant the next spring to a dry soil of but medium
richness, and it will be more highly aromatic. Give each
plant about two feet of space ; for drying, gather the
flowers before they begin to turn brown at the lower part
of the spike.

Liquorice, {GlycyrrMza r/labra,) is a Leguminous,
hardy perennial, from Southern Europe, the saccharine
juice of the fleshy root of which is useful in catarrhs,
fevers, &c. Its taste is sweet and mucilaginous, and it is
much used as a demulcent, either alone or combined with
other substances.

A few roots of this plant, when once started, will be of
very little trouble in the garden. The plant is propagated
early in spring, by cuttings of the roots. Dig tlie soil at
least two feet deep. Take the horizontal roots of estab-
lished plants,, five or six inches long. Every shoot planted

330 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

should have at least two eyes ; make the rows three feet
apart, and the plant twelve to fifteen inches in the rows,
and cover the roots well with mould. Onions, lettuce, or
radishes, may be grown between the rows the first year ;
afterwai'ds keep the soil fi-ee from weeds, dress the surface
Avith manure every autumn, and at the end of the third
year take up the crop as soon as the leaves are fully
decayed, and dry the roots thoroughly. In shallow or
poor ground, it will not siicceed.

Mint, {Mentha.) — Three species of this genus of Labiate
plants are cultivated, all hardy perennials, natives of
Britain.

Spearmint, {Mentha vlrldis^ belongs rather to the
culinary than the medicinal department of the garden.
It is employed in sauces and salads, as Avell as dried for
soups in winter. A few sprigs of mint, boiled a little
time with them, and then Avithdrawn, are thought by
some to improve the flavor of green peas. It is also used
in pre^^aring mint-julep. Its medicinal 2:)i-operties are aro-
matic, stimulant, and stomachic. The leaves, boiled in
milk, are useful in diarrhoea. Its infusion is good to pre-
A^ent nausea. There are two vai-ieties, the broad and nar-
row leaA'ed, equally good.

Peppermint, {M. piperita^) has a strong, agreeable odor,
a pungent, aromatic taste, giving a sensation of coldness
in the mouth. Its medical properties are aromatic, stimu-
lant, and stomachic. The essential oil and essence are the
foiTHS in Avhich it is employed in medicine, and they are
also largely used in confectionery and cordials.

Pennyroyal, {M. Pulegium,) is more acrid than the
other mints, and its taste and smell are less agreeable. ■ It
possesses theu* Avarm, pungent flavor, and other general
properties, but is not so good a stomachic. The American
pennyroyal belongs to a diflerent genus, Sedeoma.

medicijS^al herbs. 331

All these sj^ecies require a tenacious soil, which is all
the better if moist, or even wet.

A border sheltered from the midday snn, but not
entirely secluded from its influence, is always to be
allotted them, as in such a situation they are most vigor-
ous and constant in production.

They are readily propagated by dividing the roots in
the winter or spring, or by cuttings planted in moist soil
during summer. Plant in rows nine inches apart each
way, and cover the roots about two inches deep. In
autumn clean off the old stems, and add tuo inches of
mould to the raked surface. Through the summer remove
grass and weeds. Make new beds every three or four
years.

Rosemary, {Jiosmarimcs officinalis) is a Labiate-flow-
ered, hardy, evergreen undershrub, a native of the south
of Europe. It has a fragrant, grateful odor, and a wann,
aromatic, bitter taste. Its medicinal virtues are tonic.

It was formerly believed that this plant gave strength
to the m^eraory. The tender tops are the parts used in
medicine.

Rosemary may be raised from seed, or by planting slips
or cuttings in the spring or autumn. Sow the seed in
drills sixteen inches apart. Transplant the next spring
or autumn. Two or three plants will be enough.

RU6) {Hxta graveolens,) is a perennial evergreen under-
shrub of the Rue Family from the south of Europe. It
flowers all summer, and is very Avell known from its peculiar
strong, unpleasant smell. Its taste is bitter and pungent,
and the leaves so acrid as to blister the skin. It is a very
powei-ful medicinal agent, too much so to be generally
used in family practice.

Rue is propagated by seeds, cuttings, or slips. It must
not have a very rich soil, nor be suffered to run to seed.
Sow the seed and cultivate as hyssop.

66.i GARDENING FOR TUE SOUTH.

Sage, {Salvia officinalis,) is a Labiate-flowered, hardy
evergreen iindersbrub, a native of the south of Europe.
It has been cultivated from the earliest times, "was classed
among the heroic remedies, and considered the best of
medicines for prolonging human life. An old Latin adage
is " Cur moriatur homo cui salvia crescit in horto ?" " Why
should a man die M'hile sage is growing in his garden ? "
It grows about two feet high, M'ith wrinkled ashy green
leaves, and terminal blue flowers in long spikes. It has a
fragrant smell, and a warm, bitterish, aromatic taste.

Culture. — Sago is raised from seed, slips, or cuttings.
It likes a dry, fertile soil. Sow the seeds on a gentle hot-
bed, or in the open ground, early in spring, in shallow
drills, eight inches apart. Press the earth upon the seed,
covering tlicm not over half an inch deep. Thin the
plants, when well up, to half a foot apart, planting those
taken up at a similar distance. Keep the soil light and
free fi-om weeds. In the autumn, or the next spring, plant
them out in rows eighteen inches each way. Layers and
rooted ofisets may be set out at once at this distance.
Cuttings of the outward shoots of the current year's
growth, planted out in a shady border, in moist weather,
readily take root ; set them in rows six inches apart. In
autumn or spring, take them carefully up and set them
out in their final stations. Trim the plants to a round,
bushy head. Gather and dry the leaves for winter use,
but do not trim the plants too closely, especially in
autumn or winter.

Use. — The leaves are used for seasoning stuffings,
sauces, and many kinds of meat, as well as to improve ,
the flavor of various other articles of cookery. Medici-
nally its infusion is given warm as a sudorific, or mingled
with vinegar and alum is an excellent gargle in sore
throat. It is stated by Bomare, that it was exported
formerly by the Dutch to China, and it was so much pre-

MEDICINAL HERBS. 333

ferred by the Chinese to their own tea, that they willingly
exchanged two boxes of it for one of sage.

Southernwood, {Artemisia Abrotmium^ is a hardy ever-
green, with fragrant, finely-divided leaves, nearly allied to
wormwood, both being sjiecies of tlie same genus, and
similar as to medical properties. Like that, it has a grate-
ful odoi-, but it is not much used in medicine from its
nauseous taste. As an ornamental evergreen, it is worth
cultivating.

For culture, see " Hyssoix"

Tansy, {Tanacetum vvlgare^ is a hardy. Composite-
flowered perennial, a native of Europe, long cultivated
in gardens. It was formerly used to give flavor to jDud-
dings and omelets.

Its medicinal properties are tonic and stomachic. It is
also a vermifuge. It was formerly of very general use in
the preparation of alcoholic bitters.

Divide the roots, and set out a few slips in autumn or
spring. After it is well rooted, be careful you do not get
too much of it. There are two varieties, the common
and the curled.

Wormwood, {Artemisia Absinthium^ is a native of
Europe, and is a hardy, Composite-flowered perennial,
cultivated much in gardens. Its odor is strong and fra-
grant, and its taste aromatic, but intensely bitter. It is
cultivated for the tops or extremities of the branches. Its
properties arc tonic and diuretic, and it is a vermifuge.

Wormwood likes a calcareous soil, and may be raised
either by cuttings, seeds, or dividing the roots. Culti-
vated same as hyssop, the roots being eighteen inches apart.
A dry, poor soil is necessary to bring out the peculiar
virtues of this plant.

Roman Wormwood, {A. Pontica,) is less nauseous than
the preceding, and generally prefen-ed.

334 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

CHAPTER XVII.

FRUITS— VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

ALMOND. — [Amygdalus communis.)

The almond is a native of Asia and northern Africa.
It is a tree of medium size, nearly allied to the peach in
habit and general appearance. The leaves are similar to
the peach, having glands like some varieties of the latter
fruit, and flowers of similar shape, but much larger and
more ornamental, varying in color from pure white to a
fine blush. The chief difference is in the fruit, the stone
of the almond being flatter, not so hard, and covered with
a woolly skin that oj:)ens sjjontaneously when the kernel
is ripe.

In southern Eui'ope, the almond is much cultivated, and
large quantities of nuts exported. The kernel is the j^art
used ; the sweet varieties, whether green or dry, form a very
nutritious article of food, and a most agreeable addition
to the dessert. Almonds are used in confectionery, cook-
ing, perfumery, and medicine. The bitter almond is the
kind used in perfumery and flavoring; it contains prussic
acid, which, though a violent poison, is not thought in-
jurious in the small quantities required for these purposes.

Cultivation. — A warm, dry soil is most suitable for the
almond, which is cultivated exactly like the peach, and is
subject to the same diseases ; it may be budded on the
almond, peach, or plum stock. The varieties are :

Common Almond # — Xuts one and one-fourth inch
long, hard, smooth, compressed, and pointed, with a ker-
nel of agreeable flavor. The hardiest and most produc-
tive variety, and is the common hard-shelled almond of
the shops ; flowers open before the leaves appear.

FBUITS. — ^VAEIETIES AND CULTUKE. 335

Long nard-Shellcd. — Nuts of the same size as the
former, with a larger kernel and better flavor ; flowers
large and rose-colored. The tree is quite ornamental,
when in bloom.

Ladies' Thin-Shelled. — The soft-shelled almonds of the
shops ; flowers are of a deeper color than the foregoing
variety. Nut oval, one-sided, pointed, with a porous,
light-colored shell, so tender that it may be crushed with
the fingers. Kernel sweet, rich, and highly esteemed.

Bitter Almonds. — Are of several varieties, differing in
the hardness of the shell, closely resembling the others,
except in the bitter kernel ; blossoms pale jnnk ; leaves
larger, and of a darker green than the other varieties.

THE APPLE.— (Pi/?'!'s Mains.)

The apple probably originated from the European Crab,
but centuries of cultivation and reproduction from seeds
of new and improved varieties have brought it to its
present state of perfection in quality, size, and beauty.

Where the apple can be grown and preserved in perfec-
tion, it is the most useful of fruits. Varieties can be
selected which will afford a succession through the entire
year.

They can be thus preserved in our own mountain region,
from which excellent fruit is brought as late as the month
of May. The best varieties are excellent dessert fruits.
For the table, they are prepared in many ways, as baking,
stewing, in pies, tarts, puddings, dumplings, jellies, and
preserves. They are also dried for Avinter use.

The best mode of proi:»agating the apple is by budding
or grafting on seedliuir stocks. For the raising of stocks,

336 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTn.

the seed should be sovrn in the fall, or early wmter, in good
soil, in rows eighteen inches ajjart ; transplant them in rows
four feet apart, and one foot apart in the row. If any of
the plants become infested with woolly aphis, Avash them
with tobacco water. The young grafted trees should be
jjlanted in the orchard when one or two years old, at dis-
tances of twenty-five to thirty feet apart.

Analysis shows that one-half the ash of the bark of the
a2-)ple, and over one-sixth of that of the sap-wood, is lime.

When this mineral is not abundant in the soil, the tree
cannot be kept healthy. Swamp muck or leaf mould,
composted with lime and bone-dust, or ashes, are the best
manures for the apple tree. The best soil for the apple,
in this climate, is a deep, cool, moist loam ; a northern, or
north-west aspect, is preferable to any other. One of the
greatest difficulties to be encoi;ntei'ed in the cultivation
of the apple is the sun-burning of the trunk, which can
be prevented by training the trees with low heads, so as
to shade their trunks from the rays of the sun.

By shortening in the branches of the young trees, when
transplanted into garden or orchard, they can be made to
put out branches aboiit two feet from the ground, which
is about the proper height to form a good top. The
apple tree needs but little pruning ; removing the water-
sprouts and such limbs as cross each other is aboxit all
that is required.

INSECTS INFESTING THE APPLE TREE.

Many insects injure the apple tree by attacking the root,
bark, wood, leaves or fruit. Of these only the most im-
portant can be mentioned,, with the remark that many of
them attack other fruit trees and even forest trees.

Apple Root-bli^ht, {Pem2)higiis pyri.) — Ui)on the roots
of the apple, wart-like excrescences are found growing, in
the crevices of which are contained minute, yellow lice,

FEUITS. — ^VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 337

often accompanied Avith larger winged ones of a black
color, having their bodies covered with white, cotton-like
matter. The wounds made upon the root by these insects
produce an increased flow of sap to the spot affected, and
these morbid enlargements are the result, Nursery trees
affected should have their roots soaked in soapsuds before
planting. Trees affected in the fruit garden may liave
their roots partly bared, and a liberal application of char-
coal dust, aslies, or soapsuds, poured upon the warty ex-
crescences. Their presence gives the affected trees a yel-
loAV, unheal tliy appearance.

Woolly Apllis, or Apple-tree Blight, [Eriosoma Icmigera^
is found upon the apple tree. The female is a small, egg-
shaped, dull reddish-brown insect, with a black head, dust-
ed with white powder, and with a tuft of white down
grooving from the hind part of the back, which makes a
colony of these insects look like a small patch of white
down. Each tuft contains a female and her young, which
last are of a pale color. In Europe, trees are often white
with these insects. Here they are generally found at the
base of twigs and suckers from the trunk, or where a
wound in the bax'k is healing. Scrape the bark of the tree,
if rough, and wash the tree, filling every crevice with a
solution of 2 pounds potash to 7 quarts of water, or Har-
ris' Composition, 2 parts soft soap and 8 of water, with
lime enough to make a thick whitewash. Sulphuric acid,
mixed with ten times its bulk of water, is also recommend-
ed. This is the " American Blight " of English authors.

Apple Bark-louse, {Asjyidiotus conchiformis.) — An ob-
long, flat, brown, oyster-shell shaped scale insect, fixed to
the smooth bark, which it sometimes nearly covers. Its
length is about one-eighth of an inch. Under each of these
scales are from a dozen to a hundred minute white eggs,
w^hich hatch in spring, and the young lice disperse them-
selves over the smooth bark, to which they attach theui-
15

838 GAEDENIJSTG FOE THE SOUTH.

selves and suck its juices. The females remain affixed,
and when dead, their dried relics protect the eggs during
the Avinter.

The Apple-tree Borer, {Saperda hivittata.) — The per-
fect insect is a c}lindrical, butternut-broun, long-horned
beetle, hoary white beneath, with two milk-white stripes
above, running the whole length of its body ; length
from three-fifths to three-fourths of an inch. The larva
is one of the worst enemies of the fruit groAver. It is
a large, cylindrical, white, footless grub, broadest ante-
riorly ; its head chestnut-brown ; mouth black. The in-
sect aj^pears early in summer, and dej)0sits its eggs one at
a time upon the bark near the earth. As soon as hatched,
the minute worm mines through the bark, feeding upon it
first and then upon the sap-wood, and finally upon the
heart. At first it pushes out its excrement through a hole
in the bark, which it afterwards closes. Trees are so
weakened by this insect that they are easily blown down
by the wind.

Remedies. — Wash the lower part of the trunk with soft
soap just before the beetle makes its appearance, or with
lye early in August, to kill the newly hatched grubs. If
the presence of the grub is manifested in the trunk by the
sawdust-like castings on the soil close to the tree, insert a
wire or small twig into the hole, pushing it gently forward
until the crushing of the worm is felt at the extremity.
Piling leached ashes or lime about the base of the tree is
beneficial. Unleached, they will sometimes kill young
trees. The various species of woodpecker destroy thous-
ands of these insects, and their presence in the fruit gar^
den should be encouraged. Trees that branch low are less
likely to be attacked by this insect.

The Apple Buprestis, or Thick-legged Apple-tree Borer,
{GJirysohothrlsfemoratd^) is another quite destructive in-
sect, infesting not only the apple, but the peach and white

FRUITS. ^VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 339

oak. The beetle is about lialf an inch long, flattened ;
color greenish-black, with a brassy polish ; two very dis-
tinct metallic spots on the wing cover ; eye prominent ;
head broad ; antennoe short ; thighs of the hind legs thick-
ened and dilated. The insects make their appearance from
abont the time the ap^^le blossoms, and continue some
two months. They may be seen running up and down the
trunk of the tree, and the eggs are deposited on the bark.
The larva has nearly the same habits as the common
borer, but differs greatly in appearance. It is a pale yel-
low, footless grub, with its anterior end enormously large,
round, and flattened. The remedies are the same as for
the common borer.

The Apple-tree Caterpillar, or Tent-caterpillar, {CUsio-
campa Americana,) is a black, hairy caterpillar, with white
lines, and along each side a row of blue spots. They live
in societies in large, cobweb-like nests in the forks of the
apple and wild cherry, which they fonn when the tree comes
into leaf. From these, after having perhaps deprived the
tree of all foliage, they finally disperse and spin oval
white cocoons, which they place in a sheltered situation.
The moth appears some eight weeks after the cateiiDillar
first comes, and is dull brownish-reel, with its fore wings
crossed by two white bands parallel to the hind margin.
The moth lays its eggs in large rings on the branches of
trees, which are hatched the ensiling spring. If any of
these clusters of eggs are found at pruning time, cut them
off and burn them. If any caterpillai's a2:>pear in the spring,
they may be removed by a round bush fastened to a pole,
which is put into the nest, and with a few turns, Avcb and
all are removed to be crushed by the foot. It is best to
search for and destroy the nest and its contents when very
small. Evening fires in the orchard will attract and de-
stroy the moth. This insect is very injurious.

The Handmaid Moth, {Datana ministra,) is a brow^n,

340 GAKDEXIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

hairy moth, vrhich deposits its eggs in June upon the un-
der sides of the leaves. The caterpillars are very de-
structive to the foliage.

The Palmer Worm, ( CJmtochilus poinetellus,) is another
very destructive insect in the orchard.

Apple-Worm, or Codling Moth.— (Crt/7^oc«7:>sa Pomo-
Qiella.) — The parent moth drops its eggs singly on the
calyx end of the young fruit, from which the young
worm, when hatched, eats its way to the centre. The
worm, when small, is white, Avith a black head ; the
larger ones arc flesh-colored, with brown heads. The
wings of the perfect insect are marked with large
brown spots, and shades of bro'.vn and gray. The worm
gnaws a hole through the side of the apple, and thrusts
out of it the refuse of its food. The fruit usually falls
prematurely, and the worm escajies into the ground, or
if not, crawls out upon the tree, hiding in crevices of
the bark, and, in either case, spins its cocoon and is trans-
formed into a pupa, in which state it remains through the
winter. The remedies are — scraping the bark in the
spring and burning the scrapings ; allowing swine to run
in the orchard to consume the fallen fruit ; or gathering
all that fall, and feeding them out or using them, destroy-
ing the insects within the fruit when cut open. A hay
rope or cloth wound around the limbs, or placed in the
forks of the tree, AVill attract the worms, which can be
removed towards spring, and the chrysalids burned.
Small fires in the orchard, early in summer, will attract
and destroy thousands of these moths.

Gathering the Fruit. — Those intended for keeping, or
sending to market, should be carefully picked from the
tree, and handled with care, to prevent bri;ising. Those
that fall of themselves must be kept separate, as the least
bruise will cause decay. They must be frequently looked
over, and every one the least decayed must be reihoved,

FRLITS. VAUIETIES AND CULTL'KE.

dn

or it will infect the others. They should be kept at a
uniform temperature, in a dry, cool situation. Choice
specimens may be wrapped in absorbent paper, and laid
singly on shelves. They should not be exposed to much
frost, and still less to extremes of heat. Specimens may
thus be kept in good condition until March. A fruit room
should be kept as cool as possible, and if the temperature
could be uniformly at o2°, no decay would take place.

In selecting varieties for cultivation, preference should,
as far as practicable, be given to those of southern origin.
Of northern vai'ieties, those classed as summer apples suc-
ceed very well here. Some of the early autumn varieties
also do well, and, of course, are summer apjiles with us.
But the winter apples, as a class, are entirely imsuited to
the Southern States. The last ten yeax's have developed,
with lis, a very large number of as choice and beautiful
varieties of winter apples as can be found anywhere, so
that, at this time, we can have an abundant supply dur-
ing the entire year.

VARIETIES.

Early May. — Fruit small, round :

Fig. 77.— EARLY MAT.

skin thin, yellowish-
green, when ripe,
with sometimes a
brownish-red cheek ;
stem short, in a shal-
low cavity ; calyx
small, closed, in a
shallow basin ; flesh
yellowish-white ; fla-
vor mild acid, but
rather astringent ;
begins to ripen from
the 10th to the 20th
of May.

342

GAIIDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

Early Harvest. — Fruit mcdiuin to large size, round,
sometimes flattened ; skin smooth, with a few white dots,
and of a pale yellow color ; stalk half to three-fourths of
an inch long, slen<lcr, in a moderate cavity ; calyx in a
shallow basin; flesh white, tender, juicy, crisp; flavor
rich, sprightly, and sub-acid. One of the best northern
varieties ; ripens from the 15th to the 20th of June.

Red June. — Fruit medium size, genei-ally oblong in
form ; skin smooth, green in the shade, changing rapidly,

Fig. 7S. — RED JUNE.

at maturity, to a fine dark crimson ; stem half to three-
fourths of an inch long, inserted in a moderate cavity ;
calyx in a shallow basin ; flesh white, tender, mellow,
and digestible, fine grained, slightly acid, moderately

FRUITS. VARIETIES AXD CULTURE. 343

juicy, but not rich. A fine fruit, and very productive ;
tree very liable to be attacked by the borer.

Jlllicn. — Fruit medium size, roundish, tapering some-
what to the eye ; calyx small, in a narrow basin ; stem
short, in a moderate cavity ; skin thin, yellowish- white,
beautifully striped and mai'bled with carmine ; the fruit
is of a delicate, waxen appearance ; flesh white, tender,

Fij,'. 79.— JULiEN.

juicy, and fine flavored. The best summer apple known ;
tree a fine groAver and very productive; i-ipens the middle
of July; rarely afiected by worms.

Maiden's Blnsh. — Fruit medium size, flat, smooth, and
fair ; skin thin, clear lemon yellow, with a fine blush to
the sun ; stalk short, in a wide, deep cavity ; calyx closed,
in a moderate basin ; flesh wliite, tender, sprightly, sub-
acid. Excellent for drying and culinary uses, and a fair
dessert fruit. Ripens the 1st of July.

344

GAKDENINO FOR THE SOUTH.

Bought — Large sizG ; oblate in form ; skin bright yellow,
thickly clotted with russet specks ; stalk rather long, in a
deep, narrow cavity ; calyx deeply siuik ; flesh white,
juicy, and very s.vect; tree a poor grower.

Yellow JuHCt — Fruit medium size; form rather flat j
stem short, in a deep cavity ; calyx large and open, in a
moderate basin ; skin thin, and of greeuish-yellow color ;

Fig. 80. — YELLOW JUNE.

flesh yellowish, tender and juicy. An excellent variety,
and worthy a place in every garden. Ripens from the
15th to the 20th of June.

Cane Creek Sweet. — Medium size ; ovate inform; skin
pale green; stem long and slender, in a deep cavity;
calyx closed, in a narrow basin ; flesh white, tender, and
sweet; when in perfection, juicy, but becomes mealy when
over ripe. Quality very good. Ripens July 15th.

FRUITS. VAKIETIKS AXD CULTURE.

345

Toccoa. — Above medium size, conical ; skin yellow,
shaded and striped with red ; flesh yellow, with a brisk
Spitzenhurgh flavor, moderately juicy; core large. A
native of Habersham County, Georgia. Ripens August
1st. A fine fruit, and healthy tree.

Aromatic Carolina. — Fruit large size ; oblate in foi-m,
tapering to the eye; stalk short and fleshy, in a deep,

I'ig. 81. — AKOMATIC CAROLINA.

wide cavity ; calyx in a wide, shallow basin ; color
green, striped with dull crimson, and covered with a white
bloom; juicy, and of a fine aromatic flavor. Tree a
vigorous grower, and very productive. Ripens July 15th
to August 1st.

Fall Pippin. — Fruit very large, roundish, flattened,
obscurely ribbed ; stalk three-fourths of an inch long, in
a deep, narrow cavity ; calyx small, in a deep, narrow
basin; flesh tender and mellow, with a rich, aromatic,
sub-acid flavor. A splendid apple here. Ripens in
August.

15*

346 GARDENING FOIl THE SOUTH.

Horse* — Size medium to large ; conical in form ; skin
thick, golden yellow, when thoroughly ripe, with a blush
cheek on the sunny side, a little russeted about the stem ;
stem short, and rather large, in a shallov*^ cavity ; calyx
in a narrow basin ; core large and liollow. seeds few ;

Fig. 82. — HORSE.
flesh yellow, firm, coarse grained, with a rich acid flavor.
Best known variety for drying. Ripens August 1st.
Tree vigorous, and very i^roductive.

Disharoon. — Fruit large, nearly round ; skin thin, pale
green ; stem about three-fourths of an inch long, slender,
inserted in a moderate sized cavity ; calyx open, of com-
mon size, in a small basin ; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy,
and of an excellent mild, acid, aromatic flavor. Ripens
in September. A native of Habersham County.

Buff. — Fruit of the largest size, roundish and somewhat
ribbed and angular ; skin thick, ground color yellow, but

FRUITS. VAKIETIES AND CULTUUE.

347

striped and shaded with dull red, marked with a fevr
greenish russet spots; stem three-fourths of an inch
long, in a medium cavity; calyx in a large, irregular

Fig. 83.— BUFF.

bashi ; flesh yellowish, and, when well ripened, tender
and good, sometimes indifferent. Ripens October to
March.

Habersham Pearmain. — Fruit medium sized, and of
ovate form ; stem short and slender ; calyx of moderate
size, in a slight basin ; color bright crimson, and very fair
and beautiful in general appearance ; flesh white, rather
dry, of firm texture, and of a brisk, sub-acid flavor.
Ripens middle of September. Tree of upright growth,
and very symmetrical.

. Meigs. — Fruit large ; regular oblong, narrowing to the
eye, sometimes slightly ribbed ; skin yellow, but mostly

J48

GARDENING FOi: THE SOUTH.

Fiff. 84. — MEIGS.

FiS. 85.— BTERS.

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AND CULTUKE. 349

covered Tvith a marbling of red, and sprinkled with
prominent yellow dots; calyx small, closed, and set in
a narrow basin ; stalk very short, thick, in a deep, narrow
cavity; flesh yellowish-white, tender, juicy, with a rich,
slightly sub-acid flavor. A fine native variety. Tree
thrifty, and less infested with woolly aphis than many
others. Ripens in September.

Byers, Buckingham, Batchelor. — ^This very popular
apple is known by fifteen or twenty names. Fruit large
to very large ; a little oblate in form, narrowing toward
the eye; skin rich yellow, nearly covered with bright red,
dark crimson on the side exposed to the sun, sprinkled
with white specks ; calyx small, open, in a rather deep
basin ; stalk very short and fleshy, inserted in a moder-
ate sized cavity, which is russeted ; flesh white, tender,
fine grained, juicy and rich, of a sub-acid flavor. Ripens
in October. A splendid fruit.

WINTER VARIETIES.

Walker's YclloWi — Large, oblong or oval; skin yel-
low, with a slight blush to the sun ; stem short, and set
in a deep cavity; calyx large, open, in a small basin;
flesh white, of finn texture, and acid flavor. Raised by
George Walker, Esq., of Pulaski Co., Georgia, where it
ripens in October, and keeps until February. A fine
Southern variety.

Callasaga. — Large, regular, and a little conical; skin
yellow, and nearly covered with crimson ; calyx small, in
a moderate basin ; stem short and fleshy ; flesh yellow,
tender and juicy, of a fine aromatic flavor. Ripens in
October. A first rate variety, a seedling from the Horse
Apple, by IVIiss Ann Bryson, of N. C.

Summcrour, or Nickajack. — Fruit large to very large,
of an oblate form ; color a yellow ground, striped with

350

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

dark red, sprinkled with russet specks ; calyx large and
open, set in a broad, shallow basin ; stem short, in a regu-
lar cavity ; flesh juicy, tender and rich, mild acid. Ripens
late, and keeps well until April. Originated by John
Summerour, of Burke Co., North Carolina.

Red Warrior. — Fruit very large, nearly globular, but
a little rhombic ; color yellow, striped and marbled with
light and dark red stripes, with russet specks and spots ;

Fig. 86.— NICKAJACK.

stem medium size, three-fourths of an inch long ; cavity
medium; calyx closed, in an even, deep basin: flesh
white, moderately acid, with abundant juice. From
Montgomery, Alabama. Keeps until March. A very
fine winter apple.

Cedar Falls. — Size medium to large ; a little oblate in
form; deep yellow, nearly covered with purplish-red,
with a large patch of russet around the stem ; flesh yel-
low, and of a firm texture ; flavor exquisitely aromatic,
sub-acid. Ripens November 1st, and keeps to February

muiTS. YAKIETIES AND CULTURK. 351

without shrivelling. A native of Forsyth Co., IST. C. A
No. 1 api^lc.

Oconee Greening. — Medium size, and resembles the

Fig. 87. — OCONEE GIIEENING.

Disharoon a good deal in external aj^pearancc, but keeps
well much longer, and is of a more acid flavor.

Great Unknown. — Size large ; regular in form ; color a
"waxen yellow, beautifully shaded and marbled with car-
mine ; stem slender, of medium length ; calyx open, in a
smooth basin ; flesh yellowish, very tender, juicy, and de-
licious. An early winter fruit, and every way worthy of
general cultivation. Origin unknown; found in the
orchard of S. McDowell, Esq., in Macon Co., N. C.

Webb's Winter. — Size medium ; form globular ; color,
greenish-yellow, shaded with dull red, with specks of
russet ; flesh yellow, juicy and tender, brisk, pleasant acid
flavor ; stalk long and slender, in an acute cavity ; calyx
small, in a regular, smooth, small basin. Ripens in Novem-
ber, and keeps well and good mitil February. The tree
has slender, drooping branches. From Mississippi.

352 GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

ChestOa, or Rabbit's Head, — Size medium ; conical in
form; color dark crimson on a greenish ground; stem
short, slender, in a moderate cavity ; fruit somewhat dis-

Figr. 88. — CHESTO-V, on kaubit's head.

torted about the calyx, so as to resemble the nose of a rab-
bit ; a patch of russet about the stem. Ripens in Novem-
ber, and keei)s until March.

Elarkec, — Size medium; form conical; color dark red
on a yellow ground ; flesh yellowish, hard, and Avith sufli-
cient juice; acid when first gathered, but becomes of
pleasant flavor in March and April. Tree thrifty and
very hardy. Origin, Macon Co., N. C.

Chestatec, — Medium to large; slightly conical; calyx
ia a hollow basin ; stem short and slender, in a deep cav-

FEUITS. VAKIETIES AND CULTUKE. Oi)o

Fiff. 89.— ELAllIiEE.

ri:r. 00.— cncsTATEE.

?,r>4.

GABDElSriNG TOU THE SOUTH.

ity, with spots and small specks of black ; flesh white and
juicy, rather too acid for a dessert fruit, but good for cook-
ing. Ripens in September, and keeps until December.

CattOOgaja. — Large to very large ; irregular and con-
siderably ribbed, broadest at the base ; yellow, mottled
with black specks, and sprinkled with flecks of green ;
stalk of medium length, slender ; cavity very deep ; calyx
in an open, deep basin ; flesh yellowish, with a mild, sub-
acid flavor. October to January.

CaSHak's Sweet. — Fruit medium to large ; nearly round ;
dull whitish-green, mottled witli green russet, the patches

Fiy,-. Dl. — camak's sweet.

of which are made up with small dots, with a dull blush
cheek toward the sun ; stem short and slender ; cavity
and basin broad; calyx closed; flesh firm and tender;
scarcely sweet; juicy and fine flavored; best. Keeps
iintil February.

Mangum. — Size small to medium ; regular, slightly
conical ; stalk small, in a narrow cavity ; color green,

FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

¥\<r. 93. — MAXGUM.

Fi"-. 9G. — .MOUNTAIX BELLE.

356 GAKDEXIXG FOK THE SOUTH.

nearly covered with dark red stripes ; flesh yellow and
firm ; of excellent quality, and keeps until March.

3Iountaill Belle • — Size medium to large; ohlate and
conical ; color, an orange ground, shaded and striped with
red ; stem short, in a wide, deep cavity ; calyx in a mod-
crate sized, smooth basin ; flesh white, hard, and juicy, a
little tough in texture, and of a fair, sub-acid flavor.
Ripens November to ]May. Second quality, but a famous
keeper. A native of Plabersham County, Ga., found in an
old Indian field by J. Van Buren.

Van Bureili — Size medium to large ; globular, and a
little conical in form ; color, yellow ground, shaded with
dark red ; with specks and patches of russet ; stem short
and fleshy, in a narrow, medium sized cavity ; calyx small,
and closed in a shallow basin; flesh yellow, juicy, and
quite tender for a good keeper. Ripens in October, and
keeps until April. A new and first rate winter apple,
found and named by Elijah Sutton, Esq., Habersham
Co., Ga.

Yahoola. — Fruit medium size; oblate inform; color,
dull green, speckled and streaked with russet ; stem long
and slender ; calyx medium size, in a moderate sized
basin ; flesh greenish- white, juicy, and of fair quality.
Ripens in September, and keeps until January 1st. Tree
with slender, wiry limbs. Origin, Lumpkin Co., Ga.

List of varieties recommended for cultivation iu the
Southern States :

SUSniER VARIETIES. AUTUMX VARIETIES.

Early Harvest. Buckingham.

Red June. Disharoon.

Julien. Myers' Nonpareil.

Aromatic Carolina. Autumn Wine.

Sweet Bough. Rome Beauty.

Red Astrachan. Meigs.

Toccoa. Chestatee.

FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 357

WINTER VARIETIES.

Summerour. Camak's Sweet.

Yan Biiren. Great Unknown.

Mangum. Webb's TViuter.

Cedar Falls. Mountain Belle.

Elarkee. Gladney's Red.

APKICOT. — {Pnimcs Armemaca.)

The apricot is a fruit somewhat resembling both the
plum and the peach. The tree is ornamental as well as
useful ; larger than the plum, with glossy, heart-shaped,
large leaves and white blossoms, which appear so early
that they are usually killed by spring frosts. But, as with
the nectarine, the great obstacle to its culture is the cur-
culio, which may be treated as in the case of that fruit.
In favorable seasons, the aj)ricot is very productive. The
apricot is a native of Armenia and other parts of Central
Asia. In quality it is second only to the peach, but,
coming earlier, it is very acceptable.

For jellies, tarts, and preserving in brandy or sugar, it
is much esteemed, and is excellent when dried as directed
for the peach. The apricot is generally budded on the
plum stock ; it is sometimes propagated on its own root,
and also upon the peacli. The plum is the hardier stock,
and makes the better tree. It may be root-grafted on the
Chickasaw plum. Those propagated by seed ai'e usually
very hardy and productive. On the peach stock, the tree
is liable to be destroyed by the borer, and the fruit is
inferior.

Apricots are apt to bloom so early in the spring that it
is best to plant them in a northern exposure, where they
will be retarded in blooming ; by the side of a building,

358 GARDENITS'G FOR THE SOUTH.

there is less danger of frost. It is just as necessary to
shorten in the young branches of the apricot as those of
the peach.

The best soil is a deep loam ; cultivate and manure the
same as the peach. The hardiest apricots are the Dubois,
Orange, and Breda. The best varieties are Dubois and
Early.

Dubois. — Fruit small, roundish oval, pale orange color,
moderately juicy, sweet, and good; very productive and
hardy. Ripens June 10th.

Larj^e Early, — Fruit medium size, oblong and com-
pressed ; suture deep ; skin slightly downy, pale orange
in the shade, ruddy in the sun ; flesh yellow, and separates
from the stone, rich and juicy ; kernel bitter. Ripens
June 10th.

Orange. — Fruit medium, roundish, with suture hol-
lowed at the stalk ; skin orange, with a ruddy tinge ;
flesh dark orange, rather dry, and somewhat adhesive to
the stone, which is small and roundish ; kernel sweet ; not
first rate, but good for pies and tarts, preserving or dry-
ing; a good bearer. Ripens June 10th.

Peach Apricot. — Fruit very large, roundish, sides
compressed, and with a distinct suture ; skin yellow,
but deep orange, mottled with brown, in the sun ; flesh
deep yellow, rich and delicious ; the best variety in culti-
vation ; stone rough. Ripens last of June.

Breda. — Small, roundish ; color deep yellow, darker in
the sun ; flesh deep orange, high flavored, rich, and juicy,
separating from the stone; kernel sweet; a native of
Africa ; hardy, productive, and line for the dessert or
preserves. Ripens middle of June.

Moorpark. — Large, roundish oval ; skin orange, with
a ruddy cheek ; flesh bright orange, free from the stone,
juicy, and of rich, luscious flavor; stone perforated;

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 359

hardly differs from the peach apricot, not quite so large,
and a little later. Ripens July 20th. Very productive.

HemskirkC. — Fruit large, roundish, but considerably
compressed on its sides ; skin orange, with a red cheek ;
flesh bright orange, tender, rather more juicy than the
Moorpark, with a rich, luscious flavor; stone small, and
kernel bitter. Ripens July 1st.

Royalt — Fruit round, large, slightly compressed ; skin
dull yellow, with a darker cheek, faintly tinged with red ;
with a slightly marked suture; flesh pale orange, firm and
juicy, with a rich, vinous flavor. Ripens July 1st.

THE BLACKBEEEY.— (^«*»s i-ilhsux, etc.)

"We do not consider it necessary for us to give any de-
scription of this fruit, as it is well known by everybody,
and is one of the greatest pests the planter and former have
to contend with, springing up everywhere along the
fences, in the field, the vegetable and flower garden. To
us of the South it is amusing to see the excitement gotten
up by Northern horticulturists about it. Their New
Rochelle, Doolittle, Kittatinny, etc., etc., are thrown for
in the background by the wagon loads that can be gath-
ered from almost any of our old fields.

The Blackberry is a tolerable dessert fruit, continues a
long time in bearing, and is also used for drying, for
tarts, pies, puddings, jams, and preserves. A very good
wine is made from the juice, which more nearly resembles
Madeira than any made from our native grapes. There
is a white variety, which diftei's from the black only in
color, and is occasionally found growing wild amongst
the black.

3G0 GAKDEXI>rG FOR THE SOUTH.

The Dewberry, (comi^vising both JRuhus Canadensis
and trivialis,) is also very common at the South ; is
running or trailing, and ripens its fruit some two weeks in
advance of the hl''h bush varieties, and the fruit is sweeter.

CHERRY.— (-P^'w/i 'IS vulc/aris.)

The Cherry, it is said, Avas brought from Asia by Lucul-
lus, the Roman General ; and from Rome its culture spread
over Europe. In cooler latitudes some of the varieties
are quite ornamental on account of their fine foliage and
early white blossoms, but it stops growing and drops its
leaves too early in our climate to be esteemed for this pur-
pose. By the older authors the Plum and Cherry were
placed in different genera, but the best botanists of the
present time consider them both as species oi JPninus, and
the old name Cerasus, as applied to the Cherry, is dropped.

In the Southern States but few varieties succeed well,
except the common Morello or Pie-Cherry. The trees of
the finer varieties grow very well for some three or four
years, and then commence splitting and dying on the
south- Avest side of the trunk ; we have seen a few that
grew and bore fine crops for a few years wdien planted on
the top of poor, rocky hills; the splitting of the bark ap-
pears to be caused by a too luxuriant growth. The trees
should be planted in poor ground, and have but little or
no manuring. Train the trees with low heads, so as to
shade the trunks and protect them from the sun. Cher-
ries are generally grafted or budded on the Mazzard or
wild European stock, though the Mahaleb or Perfumed-
cherry stock is preferable, as it dwarfs the tree, and is less
liable to split and sun-burn.

It is not probable that the finer varieties of the Cherry

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 361

•will ever be very successfully cultivated at the South un-
til we raise seedlings suited to the climate.

Of the varieties described below, the Elton, May Duke,
Sweet Montmorency, and common Morello, are the only
ones that have ever produced good crops with us.

May Duke* — Fruit roundish, medium size, and in clus-
ters ; skin lively red at first, dark red when ripe ; flesh
reddish, tender, melting, very juicy ; rich and excellent
■when fully ripe. Ripens early in May.

Doctor. — A heart Cherry, small, roundish heart-shaped,
distinct suture ; bright yellow and red, which are blended
and mottled ; flesh white, tender and juicy, with a sweet,
delicious flavor. Tree cracks at the South.

Rockport Bi^arreau. — Very large, heart-shaped ; skin
deep red, on amber ground; flesh pale yellow, fine, juicy,
with a sweet, rich flavor. Splits at the South.

Elton. — Very large, heart-shaped ; skin pale yellow,
with a mottled red cheek ; stalk long and slender ; flesh
firm at first, becoming tender, juicy, with a rich, luscious
flavor. Tree grows slowly, and is not disposed to split.
Kipens May 20th to June 1st.

Kentish. — Fruit small to medium, round, a little flat-
tened, grows in pairs ; skin bright red, growing dark
when rij^e ; stalk one and a fourth inch long, stout, and
set in a pi-etty deep hollow ; flesh melting, juicy, and of a
rich, spi-ightly flavor. A hardy variety, and excellent for
cooking.

Late Kentish. — ^Resembles the above, but is two weeks
later, a little larger, and excellent for cooking, preserving,
and drying.

Kirtland's 3Iary. — Very large, roundish heart-shaped ;
color light and dark red, mottled on a yellow groimd ;
stalk of moderate size ; flesh light yellow, half tender,
rich, juicy, with a sweet flavor.
16

363 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

Black Heart. — Largo, heart-shaped; skin glossy, dark
purple, changing to black when ripe ; stalk one inch and
a half long, in a moderate cavity; flesh half tender, juicy,
and of a rich, sweet flavor. A large, hardy tree, but dis-
posed to split.

Downer's Late. — Fruit medium, borne in clusters,
roundish heart-shaped, inclining to oval ; skin smooth, of a
soft, lively red color, mottled with amber in the shade ;
flesh tender, melting, with a sweet, luscious flavor.

Reine Ilorteuse. — Fruit large, bright red, tender, juicy,
nearly sweet, and delicious. Tree grows vigorously, bears
well, and if planted on poor ground is not inclined to
split. An excellent fruit.

■ Belle 3Iagllifique. — A large red cherry ; rather acid,
tender, juicy, and rich ; fine for cooking, and for dessert
when fully ripe. Tree of slow growth, but Ibears pro-
fusely.

English MorellO. — Tolerably large, roundish, nearly
hlack ; flesh reddish-purjjle, tender, juicy, of a pleasant
sub-acid flavoi\ The common Morello of this country is
smaller and inferior to the above. Ripens May 20th.

Plumstone Morello. — Large, dark red, rich and fine
flavor ; the best of all Morellos. Tree slow grower, and
has small, wiry shoots.

Sweet Montmorency. — Fruit of medium size, round,
and a little flattened ; skin, pale amber in the shade, light
red, slightly mottled in the sun; stalks long and slender,
inserted in a small, even depression ; flesh yellowish, ten-
der, sweet, and excellent. One of the best at the South.

CUR^ANT.—iliibes rubrum.)

The currant is a low shrub, a native of Great Britain
and the northern parts of Europe and America ; with
smooth branches, doubly-serrate, pubescent leaves, and

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AXD CULTURE. 363

yellowish flowers, -vvhicli ripen early in the spring. The
fruit ripens with the later strawberries and raspberries.
It succeeds and thrives admirably in our mountain sec-
tions, and will live and bear tolerably well here in a cool
northern exposure, but would probably die the first sea-
son nenr the sea-coast.

The fruit is of an agreeable acid taste ; when ripe it is
used with sugar at the dessert, and alsp alone, or mixed
with raspberries, for jams, jellies, and wine. It is used
both green or ripe for stewing, tarts and pies. In cool
climates it is the most easily cultivated and useful of
small fruits.

The Currant is propagated from cuttings, which should
be planted in the fall in a shaded place, but not under
trees ; the north side of a plank fence is an excellent situa-
tion, provided it is open to the morning sun.

The Currant requires a moist, rich soil, and should be
trained as a bush. All the pruning it requires is to cut
out the superabundant old wood, and to shorten that of
the last season's growth.

The varieties we have cultivated are :

Red Datcht — Fruit of large size, oblate, borne in clus-
ters, and less acid than the common red ; color, fine trans-
jiarent red.

White Dntchi — Large, yellowish-white, less acid than
the red varieties.

We could describe several other varieties, but not
having had any success with them, we only give those
with which we have succeeded.

THE FIG.— {Ficns Carka.)

•The fig is a large shrub, or a low, spreading tree, accord-
ing to the manner in which it is trained. Some varieties
grow to the height of twenty or thirty feet, in favorable

364 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

localities, but it generally does not reach above half that
height. The leaves are large, cordate, and deeply sinu-
ate, with three to five lobes, thick and pubescent on the
under surface. The blossoms are not apparent, but con-
cealed in the inside of the fleshy receptacle that becomes the
fruit, which consists of a pulp, containing numerous peri-
carps enclosed in a rind, which becomes variously colored
in the different varieties. Thoiigh the fruit is too sweet and
luscious for those unaccustomed to it, it with lise soon be-
comes a great favorite, and is perhaps the most wholesome
and nutritious of fruits. The fig is a native of Asia and
Africa, and has been cultivated from the earliest times.
It is perfectly at home in all the low country and middle
portions of the Southern States, and as universally
cultivated below the raoimtain section as the peach.
Large quantities of dried figs are imported into the United
States, and are even sold in our midst. These, at very
little expense, could be put up at home and even ex-
ported at a profit.

A good Avay to dry figs is to gather them when per-
fectly ripe ; boil them in a preserving kettle in a syrup of
nice sugar about five minutes. Take them out, dry them
in a warm oven, or a kiln made for drying fruits ; when
dry they can be packed in drums or boxes.

Imported figs are dipped in a hot lye made of fig wood
ashes, and dried on frames in the sun ; when dried here
they are apt to be infested with minute insects. The fig
is readily propagated by shoots, or cuttings from the
roots, planted in the fall or spring. Cuttings should be
eight or ten inches long, and include a small portion of
old wood at the base of each ; if jilanted in a hot bed in
January, they will make handsome plants the same sea-
son. Figs should be planted twelve to fifteen feet apart
in good, rich earth. The Celestial Fig is best trained as a
low tree. The best soil for the fig is a mellow loam of a
calcareous nature.

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 3G5

Ashes, marl, or composts prepared with mild hme form
the hest mamire. If the soil is too moist the fig contimics
its growth too late in the fall, wlien the new wood is
killed by the frost ; while yonng, it is best to protect the
tree during winter with branches of evergreens. I have
found that young trees will mature their fruit and wood
much more perfectly, and better endure the winter, if the
young shoots are broken off at the ends, and if all fruit
forming after that is removed, and no more growth is
permitted after the middle of September.

As a general rule, however, with the fig, the more it is
pruned the less is the crop. This, however, docs not ap-
ply to root pruning.

If from too rank growth of wood the tree drops its
fruit, cut off all the roots that project more than half the
length of the branches at any time daring winter.

The nomenclature of figs is still very uncertain, as few
are described with minuteness and accuracy. The names
of several of our common varieties do not ajDj^ear in the
books, or they are so imperfectly described, that we do
not recognize them.

DARK-COLORED VARIETIES.

Brunswick. — Fruit very large, long, pyriform, with an
oblique apex ; eye depressed ; stalk short and thick ;
skin, pale green, tinged with yellow in the shade, dull
brownish-red in the sun, and sprinkled with pale brown
specks ; flesh reddish-brown, pinkish at the centre, semi-
transparent, rich, sweet, and high flavored. If I have
the true variety the leaves are deeply cut, and generally
seven-lobed. Wood of strong growth, and very hardy.

Brown Turkey. — Fruit large, oblong or pyriform;
skin dark brown, covered with thick blue bloom ; flesh
red and delicious. Said to be very hardy and prolific.
It may be our common blue variety.

366

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fi- 94.-

Brown ISCbia. — Fruit medium to large, roundish obo-

vate; skin chestnut brown ;
flesh purple, sweet, and ex-
cellent ; leaves broad and
five-lobed.

Small Brown Ischia. —

Fruit small, pyriform, with
a short stalk; skin light
brown ; flesh inclining to
purple, high flavored ; leaves
less sinuate than in the other
sorts. This and the Brown
Turkey are generally con-
sidered the hardiest varieties.

Black Genoa. — Leaflets
narrow, and the leaf seven-
-BROWN iscniA. lobcd^ fruit large, long,

obovate, tapering to the stalk, Avhich is slender; skin al-
most black, glossy, covered with purple bloom; flesh
bright red, of excellent flavor.
This continued to bear fruit abund-
antly until frost, and like the
Brunswick is indispensable.

Celestial. — Fruit quite small,
pyriform ; stalk slender ; skin very
thin, dark colored, and covered
with purple bloom ; flesh liglit
red, and of delicious flavor.

In dry weather the fruit hangs
on the tree until it shrivels, im-
proving in sweetness and flavor.
Trees grow quite large, and are
very productive, yielding constant- -^'S- 9o.— celestial.
ly from July to October. Leaves five-lobed. May prove
to be the Malta of Downing, and others. Very hardy.

FEUITS. — VARIETIES AKX> CULTURE. 3G7

The Common Blue. — This is rather inferior in flavor to
the foregoing ; but is very hardy and productive. Fruit
large, oblong, bhiish-purple ; early, and produces two
croj^s.

PregUSSatta. — Fruit medium, roundish, flattened; skin
purplish-brown in the shade, dark brown in the sun ; flesh
deep red, high flavored, and luscious. This is usually
placed among the light-colored figs, but properly belongs
here.

■WHITE, YELLOW, AND GEEEX VARIETIES.

Lemon White, or Common White. — Fruit turbinate,
flattened ; stalk short ; skin pale yellowish-green ; flesh
white and sweet, not high flavored. Ripens quite early,
and is a good bearer. Its color renders it a favorite for
preserving.

White Genoa. — Fruit large, globular, a little length-
ened to the stalk ; skin thin, yellowish when ripe ; flesh
light red, and of sweet, delicious flavor. If protected, the
fruit is the first to ripen. A good bearer. Indispensable.

IVerii. — Fruit small, roundish obovate ; skin light green-
ish-yellow; flesh red, slightly acid, delicate and rich.
Has borne here some years, and is a very nice little fig.

Alicante. — A very large and delicious purple fig, bear-
ing abundantly early in the season, until frost, in the low
country, but not suited to this latitude, as it is more
tender than those described.

Black Ischia and White Ischia are said to be good.
The above list we know are. The White Marseilles, Gen-
tile, and Yellow Ischia are worthless. The Matanzas is
said to be a very desii'able variety, but as we have never
seen the fruit, we cannot give a description of it.

368 GAEDENING FOE TUE SOUTH.

GOOSEBERRY.— (fi*^s Grossularia.)

The Gooseberry, like the Currant, is a native of Eu-
rope. Gi'een, it is used for pies, tarts, and puddings;
ripe, it is a very agreeable dessert fruit. It is more im-
patient of heat than the currant, and cannot be expected
to thrive except among the mountains. It is, like the cur-
rant, propagated from cuttings, likes the same soil and
treatment generally, even in the Northern States, and in
our mountain region the finiit is liable to mildew, the
foreign varieties being much more subject to it than the
native varieties.

Houghton's Seedling and Downing's Seedling are the
best native varieties we have seen. Woods earth, or leaf
mould, and ashes, are the best manures for both the cur-
rant and gooseberry that we have tried.

THE GRAVE -iVitis.)

The vine was one of the first plants brought into culti-
vation. The foreign grapes are all varieties of ViHs vini-
fera, and came originally from Asia. Of native grapes,
we have Vitis Ziabrusca, of which Isabella, Catawba,
Concord, Diana, and Hartford Prolific, and many others,
are varieties; 'Vltls cordifolia and V. erst Iv alls include
the wild Summer, the Frost Grape, and of the cultivated
varieties, the Ohio, Warren, or Herbemont, Lenoir,
Taylor's Bullit, and a host of new ones of the same
class ; Vitis rotandlfolia includes the wild Muscadine,
or Bullace, of the South, and the Scuppernong, and, we
are almost inclined to add, the Mustang,

Our American grajses arc seedlings from the wild varie-

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 3G9

ties, removed some one, two, and three generations from
the original type. Foreign grapes do not sncceed in onr
climate in open air or ont-door cultivation. All the
foreign vai'ieties do well both North and South, in cold
graperies, under glass.

The grape is a cooling and refreshing fruit, of the
highest excellence ; green, it is used for pies and tarts ;
when ripe, it is a nutritious and most delicious dessert fruit,
and is also used for preserving and jellies. The dried
fruit, or raisins, are employed extensively for the dessert,
and in many preparations of cookery. The leaves are an
elegant garnish to other table fruits, but the chief product
of the grape is wine, which is superior to that made of
any other fruit.

Large quantities of wine are now made in the United
States, more especially in California, where most of the
foreign varieties succeed. In the Southern States, vine-
yard culture has proved a failure with all derived from
the Labrusca and ^stivalis specie-?. After one or two
fair crops, the vines become stunted and unfruitful, or if
stimulated by extra culture and manuring, both vines and
fruit mildew and rot. There are but very few varieties
■which can be depended upon with anything approaching
to certainty, and we shall only recommend such, as we
have thoroughly tested most of the celebrated varieties
cultivated in the jSTorthern States for the past six to ten
years.

We here insert the mode of culture of a vineyard of
the Catawba grape, together with the several methods of
training the vine, as laid down in the first edition of this
work, by Mr. AYhite, but our subsequent experience com-
pels us to say that we have been niucli disappointed in the
results :

"For vineyard culture of the Catawba grape, the
ground should be subsoiled with a plow, or deeply
trenched, A declivity should be worked into terraces,
IG*

370 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

with a slight inclination to the hill, that the water may
be collected there to be carried thence to the main drains.
The Catawba grape is planted by the vine-growers on
level ground, in rows seven feet apart, and four feet in the
row, but on hill-sides, three by five feet apart. The vine-
yard is laid off wath a line, and a state put down where
each vine is to grow ; then a broad hole, a foot deep, is
dug, in w^hich are placed two cuttings, six or eight inches
apart at the bottom, in a slanting position, but with the
top eyes only about an inch apart, and even with the sur-
face ; throw in a shovelful of Avell-decayed leaf mould,
that the cuttings may strike freely. Cover with an inch
of charcoal dust, or light mould, when the cuttings ai'e
planted. The cuttings should be short-jointed and well
ripened, each cutting having about four eyes, or buds.
Cut them off close to the lower joint, and about an inch
above the upper. The earth should be pressed closely
about the cuttings. The best time for putting them out
is the last of November or December. The finest vines
are raised from cuttings planted Avhere they are to remain.
Being undisturbed by removal, they are more thrifty and
long-lived. Remove all the cuttings but one, if more
than one succeeds, and use them to replace where others
have failed. During the summer, keep the ground clean
and light, by repeated hoeings, and pull off superfluous
shoots, leaving but one or two to grow at first, and one
eventually. Next spring cut the vine dowai to two buds^
one of which remove Avhen the vine shoots ; drive a
stake seven feet long to each plant. Chestnut, charred at
the end, is very good, but locust and cedar are the most
durable ; tie the young vines to the stake, remove all
suckers, and allow but one cane to groAV. Keep free from
weeds, and cultivate as before. The next spring, cut down
to three buds, and the year after, to five, and this year,
train two canes instead of one. The pruning should take
place from November to the last of February. The third

FRUITS. VARIETIES AXD CULTURE.

or fourth year, according to the strength of the vine, cut
down the weakest cane to a s-pnv of two or tlirce eyes,
and select the best shoot of the preceding year, cut it
down to six or eight joints, bend it over in the form of a
hoop, and tie to the stake, or fasten it to the adjoining
stake, in a horizontal position.

" The bow form, figure 9G, is the best. Training the

vine in this form cliecks the
flow of sap, and causes the
buds to break more evenly,
retarding growth and increas-
ing productiveness,

"From this bow the fruit
is to be produced the cm-rent
year, and the bearing wood
of the next year from the
spur left for this purjiose.
The next winter, this bow is
to be cut away, and the bow
for the next crop is formed
from the best branch of the
new wood of last year. Keep
the old stalk within eighteen
inches of the ground. Tie
the vines carefully, without
bi'eaking them, in damp
weather, when the buds arc
swelling, the last of February
or early in March. In the summer remove the suckers,
and pinch off lateral shoots, leaving but two for the next
year.

"The object is to throw the strength of the vine into
the fruit and the next year's bearing branches. The vine-
yard should be heavily manured once in two or three
years. Wood ashes and gypsum arc good a])plications,
and are thought to prevent the rot. The trimmings of

Fia:. 96. — boav tkaixixg.

372 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

the vines, dug in, are found to be beneficial; but leaf
mould, well rotted, with the addition of lime and ashes, is
tlie best application. Vines highly manured and allowed
to grow rampant, covering a large space, will produce a
weak and worthless vine, and continue in bearing but two
or three seasons." We have only copied the foregoing
remarks for the purpose of giving a system for the benefit
of amateurs and those desirous of experimenting, and not
as our own views, as we tried all methods with the
Northern varieties, and found all to fail, in the prevention
of rot and mildew.

If vines ai-e protected by a coping of boards, so as to
protect them from the rain and dew, a few varieties suc-
ceed very well for two or three years. Vines planted by
the side of a building, so as to be j^artially protected by
the projecting roof, ripen perfectly for a few years, while
those exposed decay.

WinCi — There is no more art or mystery in making
wine than in making cider. The grapes are crushed
between wooden rollers, which run sufficiently near each
other to crush the grapes, but not the seeds.

To make red wine, the crushed grapes should stand
about twenty-four hours, before pressing, so as to extract
a portion of the coloring matter from the skins, Avhen they
may be pressed by means of an ordinary screw press. To
each gallon of juice, one and a half pound of good clari-
fied sugar must be added ; if made from the pure juice
of the graj^e, the wine will be thin, weak, poor, acid, and
astringent stufi", not better than hard cider. All the best
foreign wines have a large portion of brandy added; such
as the Madeira and Sherry have near twenty per cent. In
February or March following, the wine should be racked
off into clean casks, if intended for still wine, or bottled,
if for foaming wine ; at the time of bottling, a table-
spoonful of No. 1 clarified sugar must be put into each

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 373

bottle, which should be Avell corked. Some recommend
rock candy to be added. We have found nothhig better
than good clarified sugar.

VARIETIES.

Catawba. — Clusters, of medium size, shouldered, some-
what loose ; berries, large, round ; skin, rather thick, jjale
red in the shade, but deep red in the sun, with lilac bloom ;
flesh, slightly pulpy, juicy, sweet, with an aromatic, rich,
musky flavor. Kipens last of August.

Concord. — One of the best of the iSTorthern varieties,
but the juice is too weak and thin to rnuke a good wine.
Clusters, large, loose, and well shouldered ; berries, very
large, juicy, sweet,''with but little aroma ; a fair dessert
gi-ape ; color, black, with a heavy bloom. Vine very
vigorous, and the fruit is less liable to rot and mildew
than any other Northern variety.

Perkins. — Does very well at the South, and is next to
the Concord in exemption from . disease ; berries, large,
and slightly oval ; color, a pale, dingy pink ; flesh, hard,
but not pulpy, sweet and good, but destitute of aroma ;
is a very good dessert fruit. Vine vigorous and pi'oduc-
tive.

Clinton^ which succeeds well here, is but one remove
from our wild Summer-grape ; clusters, medium size,
shouldered, compact, similar to its parent ; berries, round,
below medium size, black, covered Avith bloom, juicy,
with large seeds, and some acidity, and tough pulp.
Ripens a little later than Isabella, but improves by hanging
upon the vine.

Warren, or Hcrbemont's Madeira. — When this grape
does perfect a crop, and the fruit is thoi'oughly ripened, it
is the most delicious of all the American grapes. Unless
protected by some kind of covering, it rarely produces a
crop of fruit, being very liable to the rot. This grape

374

GAEDENIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

becomes eatable tbe middlo of August, but should not be
picked before the 1st of October, if to be eaten by a con-
noisseur. Few persons have ever seen it when perfectly-
ripe, and fewer still have ever tasted it.

The Scuppernongi — We consider this very peculiar
grape one of the greatest boons to the South. It has

Fi^-. 97. — THE scuppei:noxg.

very little resemblance to any of the grapes of the other
sorts. It is a rampant grower, and requires little, if any,
care or culture ; grows well in any soil south of the
Potomac River ; has none of the shaggy bark peculiar to

FRUITS. VARIETIES AXD CULTURE. 375

Other vines, and bears only from the old, and not from the
current shoots, as do other grapes. The leaves are cor-
date, or heart-shaped, coarsely serrate, smooth on both
upper and under surfaces. It blooms from the 15th to
the last of June, and ripens its fruit the last of September
and beginning of October. It has no diseases, in wood,
leaf, or fruit, and rarely, if ever, fails to produce a heavy
croj). "We have never known it to fail.

It will produce a greater weight of fruit than any other
variety in the world. The clusters vary in size from two
to twenty berries, and the berries in size from three-fourths
of an inch to one inch and a quarter in diameter.

Vines, six years transplanted, have this year given us
an average of three bushels to each vine, and we shall be
disapi^ointed if they do not double every year for many
years in the future. It is the s\veetest and most luscious
of any grape we have ever seen or tasted ; makes a fine,
heavy, high-flavored, fruity wine, and is peculiarly adaj^ted
to making foaming wines. The vine should be ti'ained on
an arbor or scaiFold, and should have ample room to
spread; for, if it becomes matted, it dies in the interior,
and fails to produce fruit ; give it room to spread itself,
and it will do so, both in vine and fruit. The directions
before given for making wine apply also to this ; it re-
quires one and a half pound of clarified sugar to one
gallon of juice.

We are credibly informed that a vine of this variety is
growing near Mobile which has produced two hundred
and fifty bushels of grapes in a year, and we know that
vines ten years old have given and will give thirty bushels
per vine. A bushel of this grape will give from three
to three and a half gallons of juice, according to ripeness.

The aroma given off by this grape, when ripening, is
of honied sweetness, and very fragrant and delicious ; it
can be detected for some considerable distance. Neither

3TG» GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

insects or birds ever attack the fruit ; 'i^ossums and coons
are fond of these grapes, as they fall from the vine.

We do not hesitate to recommend this variety to our
friends at the South, and pledge our reputation, as a
poniologist, that he Avlio plants it will never regret having
done so.

MULBEERY.-(ilf«-«s.)

This genus includes two species worthy of cultivation,
both hardy, deciduous trees, ripening their fruits in May
with the later strawberries. The fruit is of very agree-
able flavor, and of abundant sub-acid juice. An agree-
able wine may be made of the juice. All the species of
Mulberry are of the easiest culture, and are generally prop-
agated by cuttings of the branches or roots. The former
should be shoots of the last season, having one joint of old
Avood ; they may be three feet long, and buried half their
length in the soil. The tree requires little or no pruning.

The soil should be a rich, deep, sandy loam. The fruit
falls when ripe; hence, when the tree commences bearing,
the surface below should be kej^t in short turf, that the
fruit may be picked from the clean grass.

Black Mulberry, {3Iorus nigra,) is a native of Persia,
and is a slow-growing, low-branched tree, with large, tough
leaves, often live-lobed, producing large and delicious fruit,
frequently an inch and a half long, and an inch across ;
black, and fine flavored. Tree a very poor grower.

Red 3Iull)Crry, {Iforus rubra,) is a native of our woods ;
leaves large, rough, and generally heart-shaped ; fruit an
inch long, sweet and pleasant, but inferior to the black.
The vigorous growth and fine spreading head of this vari-
ety makes it worthy of culture as an ornamental tree. It

FRUITS. VAEIETIES AND CULTURE, 377

is the most tenacious of life of any tree we have ever met
with ; tAveuty-seven years since we dug one up in our gar-
den, and annually ixp to the present time shoots put up
from fragments left in the ground, and thus far we have
heen unable to exterminate it. If the cherry is planted
near the house, and the Mulberry a little more distant,
the latter will often attract the birds from it.

DowEing's Everbearing was originated by Charles
Downing, of Xewburgh, I^. Y., fi-om the seed oiMorus mul-
ticaiiUs. Tree very vigorous and productive ; an estimable
variety, and surpassed by none except the black English,
and possessing the same rich, sub-acid flavor. It continues
in beai'ing a long time. Fruit one and a quarter inch
long, and nearly a half inch in diameter. Color maroon,
or intense blue-black at full maturity ; flesh juicy, rich,
and sugary, with a sprightly vinous flavor.

NECTARINE. — {Amygdalus Persica, var. Icevis.)

The Nectarine is merely a peach with a smooth skin ; it
is impossible to distinguish the tree from the peach by its
leaf and flowers.

Nectarines usiially produce nectarines from tbe seed ;
but the Boston Nectarine originated from a peach stone.

The tree is cultivated and pruned like the peach, and is
propagated by grafting or budding on peach stocks. The
great difiiculty in raising Nectarines (and the same is
true of the ajiricot and plum), is the curculio. The smooth
skin of these fruits oflers an inviting place for this insect to
deposit its eggs. The injured fruit may be known by be-
ing marked with a small, semicircular scar, as if cut by a
baby's nail.

It is useless to plant either the Nectarine, Apricot, or

378 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Plum, especially iu sandy soils, unless the trees are daily
jarred, and the insects collected on sheets as they fall, and
immediately destroyed. A limh may be sawed off a tree,
and the stump hit a few smart blows with a mallet ; if
gently shaken, the insect will not let go its hold. Or
another plan is to plant the trees by themselves, and ad-
mit i^oultry and hogs to eat the follen fruit, which Avill, if
other fruit gardens are not near, protect the croj). The
borer infests the Xectarine as well as the Peach. Aside
from the curculio, the nectarine is as hardy and easily
raised as the peach, though scarcely equal to the best
peaches in flavor. It requires the same soil and treatment
as the peach. The best varieties are:

Ilunt's Tawny. — Leaves serrate ; flowers small ; fruit
medium size, roundish oval, Avith a swollen point; skin
pale orange, dark red in the sun, mottled with russet
specks ; flesh orange, juicy, melting, and rich ; a good
bearer. Ripens July 10th. Free.

Violet native, or Early Violet. — Glands reniform;
flowers small, fruit large, roundish, pale yellowish-green,
with a purplish-red cheek, mottled Avith brown; flesh
whitish-red at the stone, melting, juicy, and delicious.
Ripens July 20th.

ElrilSfC. — Glands reniform ; flowers small, fruit medium,
roundish oval ; suture slight ; skin pale green, Avith deep
violet or blood red cheek, and minute brown specks ;
flesh pale green, pale red at the stone ; melting, juicy,
and rich ; stone oval, rough, and pale colored. Ripens
July 25th.

Downton. — Glands reniform ; fruit large, roundish oval ;
skin pale green, flesh-red at the stone ; melting and de-
licious. Ripens July 25th.

Boston. — Glands globose ; flowers small ; fruit large,
roundish oval ; skin bright yellow, Avith a deep red cheek ;

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 379

flesh yellow, not rich, but sweet and pleasant. Ripens
last of July. Cling.

IVew White I — Glands reniform; flowers large; fruit
large, nearly round ; skin white, witli slight tinge of red
in the sun ; flesli white, tender, juicy, vinous, and ricli ;
stone small. Ripens AugiTSt 1st.

Stanwicki — A European variety ; skin j^ale greenish-
white, shaded into deep violet in the sun ; flesh white,
tender, juicy, and rich, sweet, and without the slightest
prussic acid flavor. Ripens August 1st. Free.

The best clingstone nectarine is the Early Xewington,
and the best of all nectarines is said to be the Stauwick.
Temple's is said also to be a fine variety.

NUTS.

Tbere are several kinds of Nuts worthy of cultivation
by every planter, many of which are ornamental shade
trees, besides being valuable for the fruit they yield. For
convenience, we class them under one head.

Chestnut, ( Castcmea vesca). — The Chestnut is a very
large forest tree, and common to both continents. The
Sj^anish Chestnut or Marron, produces a very large, sweet
nut, and is propagated by grafting on our common chest-
nut. There are several varieties of this, of which "Mar-
ron de Lyon " is the best. It will bear the second year
from the graft. Chestnuts are difficult to transplant
when taken from the woods. The improved varieties are
much superior to the wild sorts. The cliestnut as a shade
tree is very efiective in landscape gardening.

Shell-hark Hickory, {Carya alba). — This tree is fotnid
in fertile soils all over the United States, producing the
common thin-shelled, white hickory nut. The tree is very

380 GAEDENLN'G FOR THE SOUTH,

regular and beautiful for ornamental purposes. There is
considerable difference in the size and flavor of the nuts
of different varieties. It is generally cultivated by plant-
ing the nuts in the fall ; these should be slightly covered
with leaf mould.

Filberts, {Corylus Avellana,) are generally raised from
layers. They should not be allowed to sucker ; but trained
to form low heads near the ground, which should be kept
tolerably open by thinning out the small spray, and short-
ening back the young shoots every sj^ring. Of the varie-
ties,

Cosford is a large, oblong nut, with a thin shell, and of
fine flavor. Prolific.

Frizzledi — Known by the frizzled husk ; nut medium
size, oval, compressed ; husk hairy ; shell thick ; kernel
sweet and good. Productive.

White Filbert. — Like the last, but with a light yellow
or white skin ; husk long and tubular ; nuts ovate.

Madeira Kut, {Juglaus Megia^) is a fine, lofty tree,
with a handsome, open head, producing the well-known
nuts of the shops. It is produced from the seed, or by
grafting. Likes a rich, moist soil. Juglaus Prmpar-
turiens is similar to the above, but bears fruit when three
years old, and is valuable on this account for the garden.

Black Walnut, {Juglaus nigra,) should have a place
in the grounds of the amateur, as it is not only a fine shade
tree, but is valuable for its fruit and timber.

Pistachio Nut, {Pistacla vera,) an ornamental tree, pro-
ducing agreeable flavored nuts, is much cultivated in
Southern Europe.

The tree is dioecious, so that to produce fruit the male
and female trees must be planted together. The nuts are
oval, the size of the Olive, slightly furrowed, with a mild-
flavored, oily nut. The tree grows to the height of fif-
teen or twenty feet. Xuts of this variety have been dis-

FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 381

tributcd in various jDarts of the Union by the Patent
Office. The tree will probably succeed in the low coun-
try.

OLIVE— {Oka Europea.)

The Olive is a low-branching, evergreen tree, rising to
the height of twenty or thirty feet, with stiff, narrow,
bluish-green leaves. The fruit is a drupe, of oblong, sphe-
roidal form ; hard, thick flesh of a yellowish-green color,
turning black when ripe. The tree is a native of Greece
and the sea-coast ridges of Asia and Africa ; it has been
cultivated from time immemorial for the oil expressed
from its ripe fruit. Where cultivated it answers all the
purposes of cream and butter, and enters into every kind
of cooking. Unripe olives are much used as pickles,
which, though distasteful at first to most j^ersons, become
by custom exceedingly grateful, promoting digestion, and
increasing appetite. The ripe Olive is crushed to a paste,
when the oil is expressed through coarse hempen bags in-
to hot water, from which the pure oil is skimmed off. If
the stone is crushed the oil is inferior. Lime and jDotash
should be applied as fertilizers, should the soil be deficient
in these substances.

Propagation and Culture. — Olive plantations are gen-
erally formed from the suckers which grow abundantly
from the roots of old trees.

It grows readily from cuttings and seeds. Knots and
tumors form on the bark of the trunk, which are removed
with a knife, or planted like bulbs an inch or two deep,
when they take root and form ncAV trees.

The cultivated Olive may perhaj^s also be grafted on
our Olea Americana, or Devil Wood, which abounds on

382 GAEDENIKG FOE THE SOUTH.

our sea-coast. Tlie best trees are from seeds which com-
mence bearing in five or six years, but are not remuner-
ative untU ten or twelve years old. The trees produce fifteen
to twenty pounds of oil per year, and their longevity is
greater than that of any other fruit tree. The dry lime-
stone soils of Florida would probably become exceedingly
valuable if planted with the Olive.

It should be tried wherever the Orange will survive the
winter. In planting, the trees are set from thirty to forty
feet ajiart. The European varieties are many, but we
enumerate only a few.

Olea angulosa is a hardy variety, with scanty foliage ;
fruit reddish, with long stem ; it is preserved in some
places.

" Oil of medium quality," says Gonan, but very good
according to others.

Olea amygdalina is the variety most commonly culti-
vated ; fruit almond shaped ; is often pickled. Oil very
sweet.

Olea Cranimorpha, or Weeping Olive, is a large and
fine tree, with drooping branches ; fruit small, crooked,
pointed, very black.

Olea Spherica has fruit more round than any other
variety. Oil delicate.

Olea Oblonga yields fruit best for pickling ; oil fine and
sweet. Produces abundantly. Tree hardy.

THE ORANGE, LEMON, ETC.

The Orange, ( Citrus Auranthan^ is a native of Asia.
The rich golden fruit displayed among its dark, glossy,
evergreen foliage renders it the most beautiful of fruit
trees. The tree grows to the height of twenty to thirty

FEUrrS. — ^VARIETIES AND CULTUKE. 383

feet, with a round, symmetrical lieacl ; the bark of the
ti'unk is of an ashy-gray, while that of the twigs is green.
The leaves are of a fine, healthy, shining green ; its blos-
soms are delicately fragrant, and as the tree is in all stages
of bearing at the same time, in flower and rii^e golden
fruit, nothing can surjDass an Orange grove in attractive-
ness. The wild, bitter-sweet orange is found in various
parts of Florida as fir north as 29° ; its occurrence is said
to be indicative of a good soil. It may have originated
from the Seville orange introduced by the Spaniards. The
orange at this time is extensively cultivated iu Florida,
and somewhat on the coast of Georgia and Carolina.

Lime is essential to the healthy growth of the tree ; the
best soil is a deep fertile loam on the banks of rivers.

The wild orange taken from the woods is generally
used as a stock to graft the most desirable varieties upon.

The scale insect. Coccus Hisperidmn^ and others, prove
annoying to those who attempt to cultivate the orange in
green-houses, but can be destroyed by washing the leaves
and wood with a strong decoction of tobacco heated
nearly to boiling heat ; the warm liquid irritates the in-
sect, so that it looses its hold, permitting the liquid to
enter between it and the wood or leaf

There are about forty varieties of oranges cultivated, of
two principal classes, viz. : The Sweet or China Orange,
and the Bitter Seville or Wild Orange. The latter class
is much the more hardy, but of no value as a dessert fruit.
They are used in cooking, preservmg, wine making, and
for flavoring. Of the sweet oranges, the Maltese has a
thick and spongy rind, red and delicious pulp, but some-
times with a trace of bitterness. The glands which
secrete the oil are prominent.

St, Michaels. — Small, with thin, smooth rind, and
small glands ; pulp light colored, and of a luscious, sugary
taste ; often seedless. The most delicious of all oranges.

384 GAEDENIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

Mandarin. — Is a small, flattened fruit, with a tliin rind,
parting freely from the pulp, frequently separatmg itself;
pulp dark orange, juicy, and rich.

Havana, or Common Sweet Orange, is a well-known
variety of good size and rough rind ; pulp yellow, and
well filled with delicious juice.

Ber^amot. — Has small flowers and pear-shaped fruit.
The leaves, fruit, and flowers are all very fragrant, and
much used by perfumers.

Otaheitan Orange. — Is a very small variety, and makes
a beautiful bush in the green-house ; fruit small and round ;
color pale orange ; flesh rather dry, but sweet and pala-
table ; has winged leaves same as the common orange.

The Lemon, ( Citrus Zimonium,) is cultivated like the
orange, but has longer, lighter colored leaves, with naked
petioles or footstalks ; flowers tinged with red exter-
nally ; fruit oblong, with a swollen point ; pale yellow
color, with an acid pulp. Used mostly for flavoring,
and lemonade and other cooling drinks. The trees are
usually very productive.

The Lime, ( Cltms Limetta). — Has smaller flowers than
the lemon, which are white ; fruit small, round, and pale
yellow color, with a slight protuberance at the end ; very
acid. Used for the same purposes as the lemon. The
green fruit makes a delicious preserve.

Citron, {Citrus Medico). — Has large, oblong, wingless
leaves ; flowers tinged Avith red or purjile ; the fruit is very
large and lemon shaped, with warts and furrows. Rind
thick and fragrant, pulp sub-acid. Used for jDreserves.

Shaddock, {Citrus Decumanci). — Has leaves winged
like the orange ; flowers white ; fruit globular, and very
large, weighing often six to eiglit pounds ; rind very thick ;
pulp dry, sweetish, or sub-acid, but not very desirable,
except for its showy appearance.

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 385

PEACH. — {A-mygdahis Persica.)

The Peach is a native of Persia, Avhence its cultivation
has proceeded Avestward ; but it has nowhere found a soil
or climate more congenial to it than in these Southern
States. Indeed, the peach is the fovorite, and in many-
instances the only, fruit tree cultivated by our planters. It
requires a soil of but moderate fertility ; its enemies and
diseases are but few, and the return so speedy that there
is no excuse for being without good peaches. We entire-
ly escape the yellows and the curled leaf, I believe, except
in the case of ISTorthern imported trees, which generally
recover, though checked for a season. The peach borer is
very abundant, but from the luxuriant growth of the trees
it seldom causes their death. The worm in the fruit is
very annoying, especially in the white-fleshed varieties ;
it is best prevented by ijermitting pigs and fowls to con-
sume all the flxllen fruit of the orchard as it drops.

The Peach-Troc Borer. — {TrochiUwin exitiosum) —
The moth comes abroad from midsummer until October.
Its body is of steel-blue color, with an orange band around
the middle of the abdomen of tlie female. Her wings are
blue, while those of the male are clear and glossy. The
eggs are deposited the latter part of summer, at the base
of the trunk, on the soft bark ; when hatched they bore
their way under the bark, sometimes proceeding upwards
along the trunk, at other times downward into the root.
Its presence is made known in spring by the effusion of
gum ; as it does not penetrate the wood, it is easily traced
by its holes under the bark. The worm is soft, white,
with a tawny, yellowish-red head, and sixteen feet, grow-
ing to over half an inch in length. It forms a tough,
pod-like cocoon on the side of the root, jutting just above
the surface. Remedies are various. Haul the earth from
the collar of the tree, clean away the gum, and cut out
17

386 GAEDENING FOR THE SOCTH.

the grub with a knife and kill it ; or pour scalding water
into his haunts from the spout of a tea-kettle, which will
kill the grub and benefit the tree ; leave the basin about
. the root of the tree open, and reexamine a few days later,
as some of the worms may have escajjed. Where the
mercury does not usually sink below 8° during the
winter, it is best to leave the collar of the tree uncovered
and exposed to the action of frost during winter. In
spring, a small mound of ashes, or slaked lime, or even
earth, should be placed about the base of the trunk, which
will render the borer less likely to attack the tree. These
should be spread over the surface in autumn. The trees
should be closely examined ui autumn and spring.

A somewhat serious difficulty in jjeach culture is the re-
sult of bad priming. It is the tendency to overbear and
break down the limbs from the excess of the crop. More
peach trees are destroyed or badly injured from this cause
than any other. Peach trees should always be pruned by
cutting off the extremities of the branches, so as to leave
about one-half of the last year's growth. The fruit is pro-
duced on these small branches ; and by reducing the top
in this manner, overbearing is prevented, the fruit is
effectually thinned, and is larger, finer flavored, and nearly
as much fruit can be taken from each tree without danger
of breaking. The tree is also kept low and close, and
more trees and larger crops can be grown to the acre.

This method of pruning is called shortening in, or head-
ing in, and is expeditiously done with pruning shears.
Old trees that have got out of shape can be pruned and
brought into a symmetrical form by sawing off limbs of
two or three years' growth at or near the forks ; by this
method old trees can be renewed in vigor as well as in
form. Pruning can be performed at any time when the
leaves are off. If it is wished to make young trees pro-
duce early, they may be shortened in the last of July, the
year they are transplanted. Care should be taken that

FKTJITS. — ^VAEIETIES AISTD CULTURE. 887

the brandies do not divide into forks, as they are exceed-
ingly apt to spht when bearing a crop of fruit. The peach,
like all other fruit trees, should l)ranch low, say within
two feet of the ground, and be kept in a pyramidal or round
form, as nearly as can be done.

The loss of the fruit by decay as it approaches maturity
is more annoying than anything else in peach culture.

If the season is warm and wet, very few kinds ripen
well if on moist or rich earth or soil. There is a very
common opinion that peaches propagated from the stones
of unripe fruit are more liable to rot than those from
stones or pits of fully ripened fruit ; some also think decay
is caused by planting the trees too deep. It is, however,
certain, that some varieties are much more subject to de-
cay than others placed in the same position.

The most suitable soils to ripen sound and high flavored
fruit are dry, but moderately fertile ; hills and hill sides
generally are the best locations for the peach ; thinning
the fruit so that no two peaches touch each other is very
necessary in order to prevent decay. The peach is most-
ly used in its fresh state for the dessert, and is generally
considered the most delicious fruit of temperate climates.
When allowed to ripen on the tree, it is the most wdiole-
some of fruits, and as an article of food is considerably nu-
tritious. Peaches are also used for j)ios, are preserved in
brandy and sugar, and are excellent when dried for winter
use. For culinary purposes, the Clings are most preferred.
Peaches and cream form a delicious dessert dish.

For drying take those of the best quality, just as they
are ripe enough to eat ; halve them, remove the stones, and
sprinkle over them a little nice sugar, and dry them in a
brick oven, moderately warm. Thus prepared the aroma
and flavor are preserved, and they are free from insects.
If the peaches were fully ripe, no cooking Avillbe required,
but when used they are simply soaked in cold or warm
water. Sufficient sugar, varying with the acidity of the

388 GAKDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

fruit, is aclcled before drying. The firm, yellow fleshed
are the best for drying. Peaches thus prepared are only
inferior to the fresh fruit, as they retain much of the
flavor. Dried in the usual way from unripe fruit, exposed
to the sun, much of the flavor is dissipated. Peaches are
excellent preserved in self-sealing cans, which now can be
purchased at reasonable prices.

Lime, potash, and the phosphates, are the chief elements
the peach requires in the soil. Bone-dust and wood ashes
are valuable applications, much more suitable than com-
mon animal manures. They may be dressed with com-
post of woods' earth, or swamp muck, if the soil is very
poor.

When the trees are planted, the holes may be made
large, and enriched with well-decayed manure, to give a
good growth of wood. For this purpose guano is an ex-
cellent aj^plication ; but it is fatal to the tree if it comes in
contact with the roots. I have applied it with success to
all kinds of fruit trees. After the holes are dug, a little
guano is sprinkled in them; this is then covered with
about two inches of good mould, on which the tree is
planted. "When the tree is j^lanted, another sprinkling of
guano may be added, and covered with a little more
earth ; two or three tablespoonfuls are sufficient for a
tree, and but a small quantity is required for a large or-
chard. For this purpose, as well as for manuring most
shrubs, rose bushes, etc., few applications are so cheap
and satisfactory. After the tree begins to fruit, aj^plica-
tions of lime, ashes, or leaf mould are much better than
those which excite growth, as they do not impair the
flavor of the fruit or induce decay.

The peach is best propagated by budding and grafting
upon seedling peach stocks. There are, however, many
varieties of the clings, pai'ticularly, that reproduce them-
selves from the seed, especially if the tree from Avhich the
stone is taken stands apart frOm other varieties. It is be-

FKUITS. YAKIETIES AND CUXTtJIIE. 389

lieved that the stone of a seedlmg is more apt to repro-
duce its kind, than if taken from a budded tree. Seed-
lings often escape frosts that are fatal to the finer varie-
ties, but the highest flavored varieties of seedlings are
often quite as susceptible of injury as those budded or
grafted; those varieties bearing large flowers are much
less liable to be injured by frost than those having small
ones.

Plum stocks are recommended by foreign writers ; but
they are of little use in this climate, for the graft soon out-
grows the stock, and breaks oS! Peach stocks are raised
by jflanting the stones two or three inches deep, in the au-
tumn or winter. If the stones are cracked, they are more
sure to grow. Abundance of stocks can often be pro-
cured, by taking the volunteers that spring up under the
trees in early spring, when about an inch high, and trans-
planting in rows three feet apart, and one foot in the row.
Plant them in good soil where they will grow rapidly ; if
the season is good they will be of suflicient size to bud in
August. When the insei'ted buds start in the following
spring;, the stocks may be cut down to within two inches
of the bud, and then keep rubbing off" the shoots or rob-
bers for at least two months ; otherwise the inserted buds
will be overpowered by them, and die, or make but feeble
growth.

The buds had best be inserted in the north side of the
stock to screen them from the sun. Peach trees raised, or
varieties originating in the Northern States are not at all
unfitted for our climate, yet there is some risk of import-
in o- trees from the iSTorth on account of diseases peculiar
to that section from which Southern raised trees are ex-
empt.

Some varieties of European fruits are found to succeed
better here than where they originated, but as a general
rule, all fruits succeed best in their native locality.

Peach trees in transplanting are set twenty feet apart

390

GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

each way, wliich gives one hundred and eight trees to
the acre. They may, if shortened in yearly, be set fifteen
feet apart, which Avill give one hundred and ninety-three
trees to an acre ; in gardens fifteen feet is generally the
best distance.

Peaches are so much alike in general character — the
difierence in outline, color, flavor, and texture being less
than witli other plants, — that it is necessary in order to
determine the name of a variety to resort to other
methods of distinction.

Tlic two most obvious distinctions or divisions are into
freestones and clingstones ; or, as we call them, soft, and

plum peaches ; the
flesh of the former
parting freely from
the stone, and being
of a melting con-
sistency ; and that
of the latter named
sorts adhering to
the stone, and being
of a firmer texture.
Tlie English give
to these divisions the names of "melters" and "pavies."
Both these grand divisions arc subdivided into classes
according to the color of the flesh, viz, : those with light
colored, and those "with deep yellow flesh. These classes
are again divided into three sections. At the base of the
leaf of some varieties will be found small glands, which
are either round and regular, or oblong and irregular, or
kidney shaped ; while others have no glands, but arc
more deeply cut or serrated like the teeth of a saw.

Hence the three sections, viz. : 1. Leaves serrated,
without glands, a, fig. 98 ; 2. Leaves with small, round,
or globose glands, ^, fig. 98 ; 3. Leaves with large, ir-
regular, reniform or kidney-shaped glands, c, fig. 98.

FRUITS. — ^VAKIETIES AND CULTUKE. 391

From the blossom another characteristic is derived,
giving us two subsections: the first embracing large
flowers, red in the centre, and palt? at the margin ; the
second, small flowers, tinged with dark red at the margin.
Most native peaches in this vicinity have large flowers,
but the great mass of the finer varieties have small
flowei's.

Varieties. — The following varieties have been tried in
this vicinity, and are found among the most desirable.
They are classed pretty much in the order of ripening. A
full Kst of good clingstones, in succession, from the begin-
ing to the end of the peach season, is yet to be obtained.
All named are good bearers.

CoIamI)!IS June* — Glands reniform ; flowers small ; fruit
medium to large, flattened, or slightly hollowed at the
apex ; suture shallow ; skin pale yellowish-white, w^ith a
rich red cheek ; flesh slightly red at the stone, melting,
juicy, and high flavored; excellent. Ripens here June
20th. Free.

Hale's Early. — Glands globose; fruit medium, nearly
round ; skin mottled red, cheek dark red ; flesh Avhite,
meltuig, juicy, and high flavored ; flowers large. Tree
vigorous, healthy, and an abundant bearer, ripening ten
days or two weeks before any other good variety, J'^ree.
{Thomas.)

Early Tillottson. — Leaves deeply serrated, without
glands ; fruit medium, round ; skin nearly covered with
red ground ; color pale yellowish-white, dotted with red,
the cheek being quite dark ; flesh white, red at the stone,
to which it adheres slightly, although a freestone ; melt-
ing, rich, and juicy, with a high flavor. Ripens from the
15th to the 20th of June. Free.

Serrate Early York. — Leaves serrate, glandless ; flowers
large ; fruit medium, roundish oval ; suture slight ; skin
thickly dotted with pale red on a greenish- white ground,

392 GARDENING VOli THE SOUTH.

dark red in tlie sun ; flesh greenish-wbite, tender, melting,
full of rich, slightly acid juice. Ripens June 20tb. JFree.

Walter's Early. — Glands globose ; flowers small ; fruit
above medium ; color nearly white, with a fine, red cheek ;
flesh whitish, slightly red at the stone, melting, juicy,
sweet, and fine flavored; not so easily injured by frost as
some others ; likes sandy soil ; succeeds as far South as
Mobile. Ripens July 1st. I^ree.

Early Newington Free. — Glands globose, flowers large ;
fruit medium to large, round; suture distinct ; skin dull
yellowish-white, dotted and streaked with red, cheek rich
red ; flesli white, red at the stone, to which it partially
adheres ; juicy, melting, and vinous. Ripens early in
July.

George 4th. — Glands globose; flowers small; fruit
large, round, with broad suture ; skin white, dotted with
red, cheek rich dark red ; flesh pale, melting, very juicy,
with rich, luscious flavor; stone small. Ripens July 10th.
JPree.

Gross MJgnOHne. — Glands globose ; flowers large ; fruit
large, roundish, apex depressed ; suture distinct ; skin
dull white, mottled with red, and with a purplish-red
cheek; flesh red at the stone, melting, juicy, with a rich
vinous flavor ; stone small and very rough ; perhaps the
best freestone peach in cultivation. Ripens July 10th.

Crawford's Early. — Glands globose; flowers small;
fruit yellowish-white, with a fine red cheek ; flesh yellow,
melting, sweet, and excellent. Ripens middle of July.

Belle de Beaucaire. — Glands globose; flowers small;
fruit very large, roundish, with a protruding point ; suture
shallow, but distinctly marked; skin yellowish-green,
with a red cheek ; flesh pale greenish-yellow, red at the
stone, a little coarse, but melting and delicious, full of

FETJITS. — ^VAKIETIES AXD CCJLTUEK. 393

rich, A-inous juice ; slcin slips readily frora the flesli with-
out the use of a knife. Ripens lust of July. Free.

Oldmixon Clin^. — Glands globose ; floT^ers small ; fruit
large, roundish oval; suture at the top; skin yellowish-
"white, dotted with i-ed, cheek red ; flesh light, melting,
juicy, and rich, with a high, luscious flavor. Ripens last
of July, and early in August.

Late Red Rareripe. — Glands globose ; flowers small ;
fruit large, roundish oval ; skin downy ; color grayish-
white, marbled with red in the sun ; flesh pale, juicy,
melting, and of a rich, luscious flavor. Ripens last of
July.

Late Admirable. — Glands globose ; flowers small ; fruit
large, I'oundish oval ; suture distinct ; apex swollen, acute ;
skin pale yelloM-ish-grecn, with a pale red cheek, marbled
with dark red ; flesh pale, melting, and fine flavored.
Ripens August 10th to loth. Free. A superb peach.

Crawford's Late. — Glands globose ; flowers small ;
very large, roundish; suture shallow, but* distinct ; skin
yellow, with dark red cheek ; flesh deep yellow, red at the
stone, juicy, and melting, with rich, vinous flavor. Ripens
early in August. Free.

Ncwington Cling'. — Leaves serrate : flowers large ; fi-uit
large, roundish ; suture slight ; skin pale yellowish-white,
with a fine red cheek; flesh pale yellowish-white, deep
red at the stone ; melting, juicy, and rich. Ripens
August 10th.

Lemon Cling. — Glands reniform; flowers small; leaves
long ; fruit large, oblong, narrowed at the top, with a
swollen, projecting point ; skin dark yellow, reddened in
tlie sun ; flesh fine yellow, red at the stone, flavor rich
and vinous. Ripens August 10th.

President, — Glands globose ; large, roundish oval ; su-
tui-e shallow ; skin downy, pale yellowish-green, with a
dull red cheek ; flesh pale, but deep red at the stone, very
17*

394 GAEDEXTN'G FOR THE SOUTH.

juicy, melting, and liigh flavored ; stone Tcry rougli.
IvijDens August 15th. Free.

Blanton ('ling. — Leaves large ; glands renifoiTU ; fruit
large, and shaped like Lemon Cling, with the same pro-
jecting point ; color rich orange, with a slightly reddened
cheek ; flesh orange yellow, firm, hut full of delicious
vinous juice. Later and better than Lemon Cling.
Keproduces itself from ssetl. Ripens August 10th.

Tippacanoe. — Glands reniform ; flowers small ; fruit
very large, nearly round, with a point ; skin yellow, with
a fine red cheek ; flesh yellow, juicy, with a fine vinous
flavor. Ripens August 20th. Cling.

Tan Burca's Golden Dwarf, — Glands reniform ; flowers
small ; fruit large, nearly round, with a swollen point ;
suture deej) ; skin yellow, beautifully dotted and marbled
with carmine ; flesh yellow, firm, with jilenty of juice,
vinous ; leaves large and close, dark rich green. Tree a
dwarf, growing to the height of 2 or 3 feet. A fine fruit,
and very distinct from the Italian dwarf, which is a white
freestone, and of very poor quality. Ripens August 15tb.
A very ornamental variety. Cling.

Chinese Cling. — Leaves large and very dark green ; fruit
very large, sometimes weighing one pound ; color creamy
yellow, with a pale red cheek in the sun; flesh pale yel-
low^, coarse, but of good vinous flavor, juicy enough, but
has a little too much prussie acid flavor. Tree a very
vigorous grower ; flowers large. Ripens August 10th.

White English Cling, — Glands globose ; flowers small ;
fruit very large, oval ; suture slight, with a swollen point ;
skin clear, creamy white, with a slight hue of red in the
sun ; flesh w' hite, free from red at the stone, to which it
firmly adheres ; very rich, juicy, and high flavored ; as it
is free from color, one of the best for preserving in brandy
or sugar. Ripens August 20th.

FKUITS. — ^\^ARIETIES AND CULTURE. 395

Bau^b. — Leaves witli globose glands; fruit medium,
roundish, terminated with a small point; suture slight;
skin pale yello-sv, nearly white, with a slight blush toward
the sun; flesh pale yellow, melting, and juicy, with a
sweet, |)leasaut flavor. Fvee. Ripens October 1st.

Baldwin's Late. — Fruit large and round, Avitha swollen
point ; skin greenish-white, Avith a pale red cheek ; flesh
fii-m, juicy, and melting, and good flavored. Kipe Octobei-
20th, and will keep for several weeks in the house. Free.

Pride of Autlimil.^ — Glands reniform; flowers large;
fruit medium size, oval ; skin white, with a red cheek ;
flesh white and firm ; flavor vinous, juicy. A fair- Octo-
ber Cling.

Eaton's Golden Cling. — A jiremium peach from N.
Carolina ; flowers large ; fruit large, and resembles Craw-
ford's Late in appearance ; color bright yellow, marbled
with bright red, dark on the sunny side. The best late
Cling we have yet seen. Ripens October 10th.

PEAK.. — {Pi/>'i(s communis.)

The pear is often found growing Avild in hedges in vari-
ous parts of Europe, China, and Western Asia. It is a
thorny tree, with upnght branches, tending to the pyram-
idal form. The Avild fruit is exceedingly harsh and
astringent ; but no fruit whatever is more delicious,
sugary, and melting, than its best improved varieties.
The pear was early brought into cultivation ; there Avere
thirty-two varieties in Pliny's time, yet they Avere "but a
heavy fruit, unless boiled or baked," and it Avas not before
the seventeenth century that it became really Avorthy of
culture for the dessert. Indeed, the majority of the best
varieties have originated within the last fifty years. The

396 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

pear, under favorable circumstances, is a long-lived tree.
The Endicott pear tree, still living in Danvers, Mass., was
planted by Gov. Endicott, in 1628, or eight years after
the landing of the Pilgrims.

M. Bosc mentions trees in Europe "which are known to
be 400 years old. Even in this State, trees that were in
full bearing forty years ago are still healthy, vigorous,
and productive. It will endure, in suitable soils, greater
extremes of heat than tiie apple, succeeding well in lati-
tudes too warm for the latter fruit to flourish. It is better
adapted to southern climates than the apple, while in cold
climates it succeeds as well.

The pear is the most delicious of fruits for the dessert ;
and, in this latitude, by choosing proper varieties, we are
able to have them ten or eleven months of the. year. The
finer kinds often sell in the cities for one or two dollars
per dozen. It is excellent for baking, preserves, and mar-
malade. It may be dried like the apple and peach, and,
with or without sugar, will keep for years. Perry is
made from the juice, as cider from the apple. The wood
is fine-grained and conijjact, and, dyed black, is used in
place of ebony.

Dessert pears should have a sugary, aromatic juice, and
a soft, melting, subliquid texture. Some few of a crisp,
firm, or breaking consistenc}-, are very good. Pears for
stewing or baking should be large, firm-flcshod, and
moderately juicy. The harsh, austere kinds are thought
best for perry.

Gathering and Preserving the Fruit. — Most varieties
of the pear are much better if picked from the tree before
fully ripe, and ripened in the house. Indeed, some few
kinds, like the Heathcote, Bartlett, and Yan Assche Avill
ripen well if gathered at any time after they are half
grown. When a few begin to turn yellow and ripen on
the tree, then gather the whole crop.

Many of the most delicious varieties, if allowed to

FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. o97

ripen on the tree, become dry, insipid, and only second
or third rate. They will also ripen more gradually, last
longer, and be less liable to loss or injury, if ripened in
the house. It is said, hovrever, a few varieties do best to
ripen on the tree. When gathered, some few kinds ripen
more perfectly by exposing them to the light and air-
Most of them do best, however, in kegs or small boxes, or
on the shelves of a cool, dark fruit room, eacli one sei:)a-
rately enveloped in paper or loose cotton. This is not
necessary with the summer varieties. Pears, like apples,
must be gathered by hand, with the same i:)recaution to
prevent bruises, or they will soon decay. Winter pears
should hang as long as may be upon the tree. A week or
two_ before their j^roper time to ripen, bring them from
the fruit room into a warm apartment; this will much
improve their flavor.

Propagation and Culture. — ^Pears are propagated by
budding or grafting on seedling pear stocks or on certain
varieties of the quince. Pear suckers should never be
employed for this purpose, for they seldom have good
roots, and the trees are short-lived ; a gi'eat deal of prej-
udice exists against pear culture from this cause. Seed-
lings raised from the thrifty-growing kiuds that are found
about the country aie much more healthy than those
raised from the improved varieties.

Sow tlie seed thickly in autumn, in drills eighteen inches
apart, or, better still, mix the seed with sifted sand in a
box, and place it out doors during winter, and sow in
the sjjring, when they begin to sj^rout, in good, rich
earth; -the latter mode saves the seed from being
destroyed by ground mice.

Ashes are an excellent application to the seed bed ; the
soil should be mofst, as much of the value of the stocks
depends on vigorous and continued growth the first
season. Take up the stocks in November or December,
shorten the tap-root, and reset them in rows four feet

393 GAI^DENING FOE TUE SOUTH.

apart, 2:)utting those together which are of about the same
size. The best of them, if in a good, rich soil, will be fit
to bud during the next summer, and nearly all the balance
can be whip-grafted the ensuing spring.

Many kinds of pears grow well on the quince, and come
some years earlier into bearing. We have found the
common quince to be equally as good as the Angers, when
worked side by side with them. The fruit produced from
trees worked on the quince is usually larger and better
flavored than on the pear, and the trees can be set much
nearer together. They come into bearing in two or three
years, but are not as long-lived as when worked on the
pear stock. In planting the trees, on pear stocks, they
should be set t\venty feet apart ; but as these will be
several years before they come into bearing, the spaces
should be filled up with dwarf trees, growing on the
quince stock, so as to have them, when planted, ten feet
apart. Thus a plantation of sixteen trees, set in a square,
on the pear stock, would require thirty-three on the quince
to fill the intervals — making a square of seven trees on a
side. This will prevent the attacks of tbe quince borer,
and add to tlie longevity of the tree.

The soil must be kept clean and well tilled ; but it
should not be deeply spaded within two feet of the trunks
of the trees. No fruit tree will be healthy or bear well
if the ground is deeply spaded near its stem. The pear
likes a deep, strong loam, similar to that required by the
apple. Iron is beneficial ; hence the pear succeeds well in
our red clay loam, if deeply dug and sufficiently manured.
For pears on the quince stock, the soil should be deep and
cool. From the analysis of the wood and bark of the
pear tree, it is apparent that wood ashes and superphos-
phate of lime cannot but be very beneficial to the growth
and fi-uitfulness of the i^eai-.

In pruning the pear, the object is to make it throw out

FKUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 399

brandies within a foot of the ground, and to encourago
its growth in its natural pyramidal shaj^e.

Not much pruning is required the first year; but any
shoot that, by over-growth, threatens to destroy the
beauty of the tree should be pinched in at once. When
the tree is transplanted, if it has been out of the ground for
any length of time it must be severely shortened in. If
the tree has good roots, the top will soon be renewed.
Severe pruning at this time is the only way to make the
tree branch out near the ground, so as to shade the trunk
and give a fine pyramidal shape. To secure this, plant
maiden trees, or those one year old from the bud. When
they have grown one year, cut back the branches in
the winter; pinch jn any shoots, during the summer,
that would mar the symmetry of the tree, or remove them
entirely, if supei-fluous.

Head back the leader each year, to strengthen the side
branches. The leader must be shortened more or less,
according to its vigor. A little practice will enable any
one of ordinary judgment to form his trees in the desired
shape. Do not let the branches remain so close together
that, when they come to bear, they will cause the fruit and
foliage in the intei'ior to suffer from want of air ; keep the
lower shoots the longest by pincliing those above, when
disposed to overgrow them. This makes a beautiful tree,
ornamental even for a flower garden.

Tlie great obstacle in pear culture is the blight, a
disease whose virulence is almost peculiar to this fruit
tree. The causes are not well known ; some attribute
it to insects, others to electrical causes, and others to
atmospheric causes, and yet others to late and immature
growth of wood, which is frozen tlie subseqtient winter.

Yet, notwithstanding all these theories and proposed
remedies, the blight goes on from year to year with un-
abated violence.

With us, the past three years have been particularly

400 GAEDEXING FOR THE SOUTH.

disastrous, for, out of some two hundred and fifty trees,
not more tlKin twenty have escaped the pestilence. The
frozen sap theory has been a very plausible and favorite
one with Northern pomologists, but is not the correct one,
for the reason that the sap never fi-eezes here in our warm
climate.

There is but one remedy for the disease that we have
ever had any success with, and that is the free use of
the saAV and knife. Cut off the diseased limb, or trunk, a
foot below the lowest affected sj^ot, and you may some-
times save the life of the tree, but not ahvays.

Whenever the leaves begin to wither, or the tree ceases
growing, at once examine the trunk and larger limbs for
the gangrened spot, which is sure to be on one or both ;
when you have once discovered the diseased spot, don't hesi-
tate, but amputate it at once; it will result in the death
of the tree if you let it go on, and it can do no more if
you kill it by a surgical operation.

"We have thus far found no difference in good, bad, and
indifferent cultivation. In our vegetable garden, where the
soil is rich and well cultivated, wx have lost by blight,
within the last three years, at least three-fourths of our
trees, and in our orchard, in sod, and in moderate cultiva-
tion, about the same proportion. Dwarfs and standard
ti'ees have fared alike.

Query. — Have we not poisoned the whole race of pears
by working it on the quince stock? For this tree is subject
to tlie same disease, and when it attacks it, it usually
dies. If so, how are w'e to get out of the scrape ?
Sowing seeds and raising new ones will not help us ; for
the seeds themselves are impregnated with the virus, which
will, sooner or later, manifest itself. The oiily remedy
w^ill be to go back to such trees as the Endicott, Dix,
and Seckel; sow the seeds from these, and get a new,
pure, and unadulterated race to begin with, and keep them
clear from the quince stock.

FKUITS. VAKIETIES AND CULTURE.

401

A greater number of varieties of the pear arc in cultiva-
tion than of any other fruit. Of those that have fruited
here, the following are the most desirable. The varieties
do not ahvays observe with us the order as laid down in
the books :

Joannet. — The earliest pear with us, ripening in May ;
but it is small, and of indifierent quality, though it bears
well, and is desirable to fill out the season.

Madeleine comes next in succession ; fruit medium, obo-
vate, tapering to the stem, which is long and slender, set
on the side of a small swelling ; skin smooth, yellowish-
green ; calyx small, in a shallow basin ; flesh white, melt-
ing, juicy, sweet, and perfumed. Ripe from the 1st to
the 15th of June.

Abercromby. — A seedling from Alabrima ; size medivmi

to large ; ovate in form ;
greenish-gi-ay color, with
a blush cheek ; flesh
white, juicy, and rich;
stem short and fleshy ;
the best large early pear
we have. liipens June
10th. Tree a poor
crrower.

DoycHQC d'Et^. —

Fruit small, roundish,
slightly turbinate; skin
smooth, light yellow,
shaded with bright red,
sprinkled with small
gray or russet dots ;
stalk rather short, thick,
fleshy where inserted
, in the fruit, in a very
slight depression ; calyx small, partly closed in a shallow,

1)9. — DOYENNE D'ETE.

403 GABDENIITG FOR TUE SOUTH.

sliglitly corrugated Iba^in ; flesli white, melting, juicy, and
sweet. The best very early pear; ripens ■\vith, and siipc-

Y'lg. 100. — beuurk bosc.
rior to, the Madeleine ; in Georgia early in June, in New
York last of July. Tree vigorous ; an early and j)rofuse

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AND CULTUKE.

403

bearer; leaves long, oval, pointed, and dark green ; seeds
dark,

Bcurrc BOSC. — Fruit large, pyriform, somewhat uneven,
tapering gradually to the stalk ; skin smooth, dark yel-
low, nearly covered with rich cinnamon russet ; stalk varies
sometimes, being large and fleshy, as in the figure, or long,
rather slender, and curved ; flesh white, melting, buttery,
abounding in rich, sugary, and delicious juice, slightly per-
fumed. Ripens, Georgia, in September and into October;
Xew York, October and November. Tree healthy and
productive.

Louise BOHne de Jersey, — Fruit large, oblong, pyri-
form ; skin smooth,
glossy, pale green in the
shade, brownish-red in
the sun, sprinkled thick-
ly with minute dots;
stalk about an inch long,
obliquely inserted with-
out depression or Avith a
fleshy base ; calyx small,
open, with rather long
segments, in a shallow,
uneven basin ; flesh
greenish - white, very
juicy and melting,
and excellent. Ripens,
Georgia, August 10th,
and through the month ;
New York, September
and October. The tree
is an upright, vigorous grower, forming a fine pyramid.
The fruit is much better on the quince than on the pear.

Dearborn's Seedling. — Tree vigorous, with long, dark
brown shoots, fruitful and healthy ; fruit small, turbinate,
regular ; skin very smooth, clear light yellow, sprinkled

101.— deaubokn's seedling.

404

GAKDEXIXG FOli THE SOUTH.

with minute dots ; stalk an incli or more long, sometimes
erect, inserted in a slight depression, hut in my specimens
generally as in the figure ; calyx Avith spreading segments,
in a shallow hasin ; flesh white, fine grained, juicy, and
melting, sweet and sprightly, not rich. Ripens in Georgia,
early in July; in New York, middle of August ; valuable.
-Fruit medium, turbinate, (at the South
often oblate,) generally
thickening abruptly to
the stalk ; skin yellow,
considerably russeted in
dots and net - work
patches ; calyx large,
open, in a slight depres-
sion ; stalk obliquely in-
serted, about an inch
long, dark brown, fleshy
at its base ; flesh yellow-
ish-white, buttery, with
a rich musky aroma,
melting and sweet; core
smalk Georgia, last of
June ; Xew York, last of
Julj^ Generally larger
than in the figure.

Manning's Elizabeth.
— Growth of tree moder-
ate ; shoots reddish, dotted with brown ; fruit rather small,
regular oblate inclining to obovate, or Doyenne-shaped ;
skin smooth, bright yellow, dotted with russet, with a
bright red check ; stalk scarcely an inch long, often a lit-
tle fleshy at its base, inserted in a shallow, regular cavity;
calyx open, in a broad, shallow basin ; flesh white, juicy,
molting, witli a sprightly saccharine flavor. RiiDcns,
Georgia, July 10th; Xew York, middle and last of Au-
gust. The best pear of its season ; productive.

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AXD CULTURE. 405

Bartlctt. — Fruit large, irregular, knobby, obtnse-pyri-
form, often much more oblong than in the figure; skin
very thin, smooth, clear light yellow, with a slight blush
in the sun, sprinkled with minute russet clots and with

Fi^. 103.— BARTLETT.

faint russet markings towards the stem ; stnlk about an
inch long, stout, in a shallow cavity ; calyx small, partly
open, in a very shallow, slightly plaited basin ; flesh wliite,
exceedingly fine-grained, melting, full of agreeable, vinous
juice. Ripens, Georgia, through August; New York,

40G

GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

September. Specimens that fall before they are fully
grown, ripen nicely in the house. Sometimes too acid,
but one of the most desirable sorts. Origin, England,
17T0. Tree quite fruitful, and bears young.

Heary the Foiirtll. — Fruit varies from the size figured
to small, roundish pyriform, irregular, skin pale greenish-

104. — UENRY THE FOUKTH.

yellow, clouded with darker green, and dotted with gray
specks ; stalk about an inch long, twisted obliquely, plant-
ed on an irregular prominence, or under a swollen lip ;
calyx small, closed ; basin shallow and abrupt ; flesh white,
exceedingly juicy and melting, with a pleasant perfumed
flavor; a dull fi'uit externally, but a nice dessert j^ear,
bearing abundantly, and continues several Avceks to ripen

FUUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTUKE,

4or

successively. Ripens, Georgia, from the 20th of July in-
to September ; New York, September.

Brandywine. — Fruit above medium, varying from ob-
late-depressed-j^yriform to elongated pyriform ; skin yel-
lowish-green, dotted
and sprinkled with
inisset, with a bright
red check ; stalk
fleshy •where it joius
the fruit ; calyx
open ; basin shallov/;
flesh Avhite, juicy,
melting, sugary, and
somewhat aromatic.
Georgia, rij)e the
middle of July ;
New York, the last
of August. Growth
vigorous and up-
right ; leaves small,
deep glossy green;
productive.

Doyenne, White.

—The White. Doy-
ri;,^ 105.— BRANDYwiNE. cunc, or Virgalieu,

is one of the most esteemed pears. Fruit medium to large
size, generally larger than the figure, varying from obo-
A-ate-pyrifonn to oblate ; skin clear pale yellow, regularly
sprinkled with small dots, with a fine red cheek ; stalk
from one-half an inch to over an inch long, generally a
little curved, and planted in a small, round cavity ; calyx
small, closed, in a shallow, generally smooth basin; flesh
Avhite, fine-grained, buttery, melting, with a rich, delicious
flavor. Ripens, Georgia in August ; New York, Septem-
ber to December.

408 GAEDESriXG rOK THE SOUTH.

Sclleck. — Fruit varies from obovate to obtuse-pyriforra,
somewhat ribbed ; skin fine, rich yellow, thickly dotted
and sprinkled with russet, full russet about the base of the
stalk ; stalk loug and curved, fleshy at its insertion in a
moderate cavity ; calyx partly closed, in a small, uneven

FiLT. lOG. — SELLECI

basin; flesh white, linn, juicy and melting, sugary, with
a rich, aromatic flavor ; keeps well without decay at the
core ; a very valuable sort. Eipens, in Georgia, 20th of
August ; New York, in September.

Van Asschc. — Tree vigorous and fiuitful, with reddish-
brown shoots and plump buds ; fruit medium, or large,
turbinate, inclining to conical, in very large specimens ob-

FRUITS. — VAEIETIES AND CULTUEE.

409

late ; skin liglit yellow, Avitli numerous russet and red dots,
with a bright red cheek ; stalk an inch long, rather stout
obliquely planted in a slight depression; calyx partly
closed, in a broad, deep, and Avrinkled basin ; flesh Avhite,

107. — VAN ASSCIIE.

fine-grained, juicy, -with a delicate blending of sweet and
acid, and a rich, excellent flavor. Ripens, August in
Georgia; October, in New York ; generally larger than
the engraving.

Nabours. — Fruit medium to large, varying from oblate
to obovate and obscure pyriform ; skin greenish, rough,
often with dull russet, and sprinkled with white dots ;
stalk slender, long, curved a little, fleshy at the base, and
Bet in a slight depression ; calyx small, partly closed, set
in a deep, narrow basin: flesh whitish, melting, fine-grain-
18

410

GARDEJaNG FOR THE SOUTH.

ed, buttery, abounding in sugary juice. Where suffered
to overbear, or bang too long upon the tree, it lacks flavor ;
otherwise good. From North Carolina. Tree healthy
and vigorous, with stout shoots ; very productive.

Duchesse d'AngOUl^me. — Fruit very large, obovate,
varying from oblong to oblate, with a knobby, uneven
surface j skin dull greenish-yellow, dotted and spotted with

russet; stalk about
an iuch long, quite
stout, set with an in-
clination in a rather
deep cavity; calyx
closed, set in a
narrow, somewhat
knobby basin ; flesh
white, buttery, very
juicy, with a rich,
sugary flavor. Ex-
cellent for so large
a pear. Brings the
very highest prices
in market. Ripens,
Georgia, the latter
half of August into
September ; New
York, in October.
_ 108.— SECKEL. From France.

Scckelt — Fruit small, generally obovate; skin at first
brownish-green, at last becoming yellowish-brown, with a
bright red, russet cheek; stalk half to three-foui'ths of an
inch long, slightly curved, set in a slight depression ; calyx
small, open, in a very shallow basin ; flesh whitish, but-
tery, very fine-grained and melting, filled with rich, sugary,
aromatic juice. Ripens, Georgia, the last half of August
and into September ; New York, September and October,

FRTJITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

411

Tree of slow growth, but remarkably healthy and pro-
ductive. Origin, Philadelphia. This is by many consid-
ered, and perhaps justly, the very best variety of pear.

Fiff. 100.— BEURUE CLAIKGEAU.

Beurre Clairgeau.— Fruit large, i^yriform, with unequal
sides ; skin warm yellow, inclining to fawn, thickly sprink-
led with large, yellow dots, with russet tracings and spots,

413 GAEDENIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

shaded yrith orange and crimson ; stalk short and stout,
often fleshy, and inserted by a lip at an inclination, or in
an uneven cavity ; calyx open, with stiflf segments ; flesh
yellowish, buttery, very melting and juicy, Avith a sugaiy,
vinous flavor. Kipens, Georgia, September to October
10th ; Xew York, October to January. A beautiful fruit,
often so much larger and broader than the cut, that it
could not be figured on this page. Tree vigorous, and an
early and profuse bearer.

Compte de FlandrCi — Fruit large, pyriform ; skin yel-
lowish, dotted and marked Avith russet, particularly about
the stalk ; stalk long, inclined in a shallow, plaited, russet-
ed cavity ; calyx open, set in a shallow basin ; flesh whit-
ish, buttery, juicy, a little coarse or granular, rich, but some-
what astringent near the skin. Ripens, Georgia, the mid-
dle of September and lasts into October ; New York, No-
vember. This pear considerably resembles Passe Colmar,
which it excels in size and flavor.

Belle Lucrative. — Fruit medium, obovate to obscure
pyriform ; skin pale yellowish-green, with dots and ti'aces
of russet ; stem varying from short, stout, and fleshy, to
more than an inch long, often obliquely inserted in a slight
cavity ; calyx open, in a medium basin ; flesh fine-grained,
melting, full of rich, sugary, and delicious juice. Ripens,
Georgia, in August ; Xew York, last of September. A
Flemish variety. Tree of moderate growth, very fruitful,
and bears young ; one of the very best.

St. Michael Arcbangel. — Fruit above medium size,
obovate-pyriform ; skin smooth, shining, greenish-yel-
low, sprinkled with russet dots; stalk an inch long, in-
clined, fleshy at its insertion, and surrounded by russet ;
calyx small and closed ; basin small and uneven ; flesh
yellowish-white, tender and melting, abundant in sugary
juice, with an agreeable perfume ; an excellent fruit.
Tree healthy, vigorous, and fruitful. Ripe, Georgia, last
of August ; New York, October.

FIIUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 413

Catherine Gardette. — Fruit roundish-obovatc, some-
times obscure pyriform; skin light yellow, Avith russet
dots aud markings, with carmine dots to the sun ; stalk
an inch long, curved, a little fleshy at its base, inserted in
a slight, generally russctcd, depression ; calyx small, in a

Fil,^ 110. — STEKLING.

narrow basin ; flesh fine, buttery, melting, sweet, and with
a delicate perfume. Ripens, Georgia, early in October.

Sterling. — Fruit medium, and varying from oblate to
obovate, or obscure pyriform ; skin yellow, with a few
russet patches, and a mottled crimson cheek ; stalk inedi-
xim, inserted in a slightly plaited cavity; calyx small,
open, in a medium basin ; flesh somewhat coarse, juicy,
melting, with a sugary, brisk flavor. Ripens, Georgia,

414 GAKDENIXG FOK THE "SOUTH.

July 15th ; New York, the last of August. Keeps a long
time after gatheruig, and is an excellent fruit to send to a
distant market. Very desirable. Tree vigorous and up-
right, with yellowish-brown wood. An early and pro-
ductive bearer.

Beurre RichclieUi — Fruit large, pyriform, sometimes
truncate ; skin greenish, changing to yellow, with russet
dots and markings ; stalk short, fleshy at the base, inserted
by a lip and inclined, in a broad depression ; calyx small,
closed, in a furrowed basin ; flesh buttery, melting, juicy,
with a fine, sweet, aromatic flavor. Georgia, October;
New York, December. Tree vigorous and productive.

Passe Colmar. — Fruit large, varying from obovate to
obtuse-pyriform ; skin rather thick, yellowish-green, turn-
ing yellow when mature, a good deal russeted about the
eye and at the base of the stalk ; stalk rather long, often
fleshy at its base, inserted in an uneven cavity ; calyx
open, in a slight, regular basin; flesh yellowish, fine,
melting, and juicy, with a sweet, rich, aromatic flavor. A
rapid grower and profuse bearer, but if the fruit is not
well thinned, it will be small and astringent. Georgia,
October and November ; New York, December.

Glout Morceau. — ^Fruit large, varying in form from
obovate to obtuse-pyriform, and often depressed some-
what ; skin pale greenish-yellow, marked with small dots,
russeted about the stem, with a brownish cheek on the
more exposed fx'uits ; stem long, slender, in a slight cavity ;
calyx mostly open, in a rather deep basin ; flesh white,
fine-grained, very melting, juicy, sugary, and perfumed.
A fine, i:)yramidal, healthy grower, and quite fruitful.
Georgia, October and November; New York, December.

Josephine de Malines. — Fruit medium, truncate, ob-
conic ; skin yellowish, somewhat russeted, especially about
the base and crown, and sprinkled with russet dots ; stalk
long, stout, curved, inserted in a moderate, russet-lined

FRUITS. VARIETIES AXD CULTURE. 415

cavity ; calyx small, open, with caducous segments, in a
slight basin; flesh greenish-white, buttery, very juicy,
sugary, melting, and perfumed. An excellent keeper.
Georgia, October to January, and has been kept until

F'lZ- 111.— SOLDAT LABOUUEUR.

March ; New York, November, and through the winter.
Tree productive and vigorous.

Soldat Laboureur. — Tree vigorous, with upright, chest-
nut-colored wood, and succeeds well on the quince. Fruit
rather large, oblique-pyriform, largest toward the centre ;
skin smooth, pale yellow when ripe, shaded with thin
greenish-russet ; • stalk rather stout, about an inch long,

416 GABDEJ^riNG FOK THE SOUTH.

curved, inserted in a small, abrupt, russet-lined cavity ;
calyx open, scarcely sunk in a slight basin ; flesb yellow-
ish, a little granular, melting, juicy, sugary, rich, and per-
fumed. One of the very finest, ripening a little later than
the Columbia. Georgia, the middle of Sej)tember ; New
York, October and November.

Belle Eplne Dumas. — Fruit medium or large, long-pyri-
form ; skin green, becoming greenish-yellow as it ripens,
with small brown dots, and at the South is generally
somewhat marked with russet about the base and stem;
stalk long, rather stout, curved a little, swollen at the
base, inserted in a slight dej^ression ; calyx small, partly
closed, in a shallow, regular basin ; flesh white, fine, melt-
ing, juicy, rich, sugary, and j^erfumed ; core medium,
with large, long, pointed seeds. Georgia, October ; New
York, November and December.

Parsonag"e. — Fruit medium or large, obovate, inclining
to obtuse-pyriform ; skin warm yellow, rougli, often shad-
ed with dull crimson, netted and thickly dotted with rus-
set; stalk short, stout, curved, fleshy at its insertion;
calyx open, with short, stiff segments, in a russeted, shal-
low basin ; flesh white, somewliat coarse, granular, sugary,
and refreshing. In Georgia it has kept until November.
Tree fruitful and healthy.

Bcurr^ Grls d'Hiver Noveail. — Fruit medium to large,
obovate-truncate, obscurely pyriform ; skin pale yellow,
mostly overspread Avith golden russet, with a crimson
cheek ; stalk stout, inclined and curved, inserted by a lip,
or in a slight wrinkled depression ; calyx open, in a mod-
erate basin ; flesh somewhat granular, buttery, melting,
abundant in rich, sugary juice, with a peculiar aroma.
Georgia, October; New York, November to February.

Doyenne d'Alenjon, — Fruit medium, varying from
roundish oval to obovate or pyriform ; skin rough yellow,
shaded with dull crimson, dotted thickly and sprinkled

FKUITS. — VARIETIES AND CULTUIIE. 417

with russet ; stalk rather short, stout, in a raecluim cavity ;
calyx small, mostly closed ; flesh somewhat granular, but-
tery, juicy, sugary, rich, sprightly, and jierfumed. Georgia,
November to January ; New York, December to March.

112.— COLUMBIA.

Colnmbiai — Fruit large, oblong-obovate, or pyriform,
often simply obovate, broadest in the middle; akin
smooth, pale green, turning yellowish when ripe, witli a
soft brown cheek, dotted with russet, with a little russet
also about the stalk and calyx ; stalk about an inch long,
18*

418 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

rather stout, slightly curved ; calyx small, partly closed,
in a shallow basin ; flesh white, line-grained, meUing, and
abundant in rich, sugary juice. Ripens, in Georgia, from
the 15th of August to the last of September, and is not

Fig. 113.— ST. GERMAIN.

excelled by any other pear; in New York, November,
and is said to be variable there, but generally fine.

St. Germain. — Fruit large, irregular, oval-pyriform,
tapering to the eye and stalk ; skin yellowish-green, a good
deal covered with russet, with a brown cheek ; stem stout,
swollen at its insertion, generally planted obliquely by the
side of a small, fleshy swelling ; calyx small, open, in a
very shallow basin ; flesh yellowish-white, a little gritty,

FRUITS. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 419

melting, juicy, rich, and sugary. Georgia, October and
November ; New York, November and December. This
is one of the most desirable pears grown at the South.
Tree healthy and productive, and the smallest fruits always
of excellent flavor.

Winter IVcIiSt — Fruit medium to small, varying from
oblate to roundish
obovate ; skin yel-
lowish - green, but
generally a good
deal covered with
russet; stalk an inch
long, curved, and
planted in a narrow
cavity ; calyx open,
in a shallow basin,
with stiff, short seg-
ments ; flesh pale |
yellowish-white, fine-
grained, buttery and I
melting, abounding
in rich, sugary, aro-
matic juice. Ripens,
Georgia, in October;
New York, Dec. Fig. il4.— winter nelis.

Lawrence. — Fruit large, obovate, obscurely pyriform;
stalk rather short, inclined, inserted by a lip or in a slight,
regular depression; cavity generally partly closed,in a broad
shallow basin ; skin fine lemon yellow, imeven, sprinkled
thickly with small dots ; flesh white, a little granular, but-
tery, with a very rich, sugary, aromatic flavor. Georgia,
September 20th to October 20th ; New York, November
to January. Tree of moderate growth, very healthy ; an
early and abundant bearer. Far the most desirable pear
of its season.

420 GARDENI3\'G FOK THE SOUTH.

Easter Beurr^. — Fruit large, obovate or obtuse-pyri-
form; skin yellowish-green, sprinkled with large russet
dots, and marbled somewhat with greenish-russet ; stalk
rather stout, in abrupt cavity; calyx usually small, closed,
in a plaited basin ; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, juicy,

Fig. 115.— EASTER BEURRE.

and sweet. Georgia, Xovember to March ; Xew York,
January to May. Succeeds best on quince.

Jaminette* — Fruit large, varying in form from obovate,
narrowing to the stalk, to oblate ; skin green, turning to
pale yellowish-green when ripe, dotted with brown, and
marked with russet ; stalk rather short, obliquely planted
in a slight depression, (in obovate specimens without de-

FEUITS. — ^VAltlETIES AND CULTUEE, 421

pression,) and surrounded with russet; calyx small, open,
in a slight basin ; flesh white, a little gritty at the core,
juicy, buttery, and sweet. A good fruit, but must be
eaten as it begins to soften, or will be found decayed at
the core. Georgia, October.

PLUM. — {Primus Domestka.)

The plum tree is probably a native of Asia, whence it
was early introduced into European gardens. The tree
grows from fifteen to twenty feet high, and is conspicuous
early in spring for its white blossoms.

Loudon asserts that it is probable the natural color of
the fruit is black ; but the cultivated varieties are of
various shades of green, yellow, red, and blue. It is a
dehcious dessert fruit, in its best varieties, and is very
much esteemed for pies, tarts, and preserves.

It is also dried for winter use. The prune, or dried
plum, enters considerably into commerce. When fully
ripe, plums are, in moderate quantity, very nutritious and
wholesome, but in an unripe state are more apt to dis-
agree with the stomach than most other fruits.

Prunes are dried by artificial heat. They are laid
singly, without touching each other, on plates, which are
placed in ovens, after the bi'ead is removed, or in kilns
prepared for the purpose, and occasionally moved and
turned. In oi'der to have them fair and glossy, they must
be suddenly cooled when taken from the oven. Tliey
should be dried carefully and gradually. They are excel-
lent Avhen dried with sugai', as directed for peaches.
From the analysis of the stones, bark, leaves, and wood,
it is evident that common salt is one of the most essential
manures to apply to the soil in which the plum is culti-

422 GAKDENTNG FOR THE SOUTH.

vflted. Burnt clay, swamp muck, common salt, and "wood
ashes, are among the best fertilizers.

Propagation and Culture. — The plum is generally bud-
ded or grafted upon stocks raised from the seed of some
free-growing variety. The Chickasaw plum, however,
makes a very good stock; it should be grafted at the
collar, and transplanted so deep that the scions can throw
out roots. This stock makes very pretty dwarf trees for
the garden. By this mode, the tree can be propagated
at any time during the winter months.

Stone fruits require to be grafted early in the season.
In transplanting where they are to remain they should be
twelve feet apart. The best soil for the jjlum is a heavy
clay loam, moderately rich. The fruit is better in a clay
soil than in a sandy one, and when planted in a sandy soil,
clay should be added. There are three obstacles to be
overcome in raising the plum successfully. The first and
greatest is the curculio, winch infests all the smooth-
skinned stone fruits.

The Curculio, or Plum Weevil, {Conotrachehis Nemir
phar^ is a short, thick, rough beetle, of a dark brown or
blackish color, varied with spots of white and yellow ;
"^^th a long snout hanging down in front like an ele2:)hant's
trunk. It makes a small, crescent-like incision upon the
side of the plum and cherry, just after they are set, in
which it drops an eg^. From this is hatched a small, white,
footless worm, which bores into the fruit, causing it to
drop prematurely from the tree. The w^orm enters the
ground, and in three or four weeks comes out, and the
successive broods attack the plum, apricot, cherry, nec-
tarine, and peach, until the fruit ripens. Their incisions
have been found in the limbs of the pear tree. The beetle,
if discovered, feigns death, and can hardly be distinguished
from the dried flower buds by careless observers. The
instinct of the curculio leads it to avoid puncturing fruit

FRUITS. VAFvIETIBS AXD CULTURE.

423

that hangs oaci- a beaten path, a hard, i^avecl surface, a
pond of -u-ater, or pigsty, where the larva would be unable
to enter the soil or Avould be destroyed by enemies. It is
not so.destructive in clayey or hard soils. The remedy
that has hitherto proved most successful is to pave the
ground so that the grub cannot enter it to complete his
transformation. Picking or sweeping up the fruit as fast
as it drops, and boiling it for pigs, before the worm can

enter the earth, has also
been found beneficial ;
likewise jarring the tree
(by striking sharply
with a inallet on the
stump of a limb removed
for the purpose) as soon
as the fruit is the size of
a pea, and collecting the
insects on a white sheet
as they fall, and destroy-
ing them. As the in-
sects are torpid in the
morning, that is the best
time for the operation,
which should be kept
up until the fruit be-
"begins to ripen. Plant all stone fruits in an enclosure by
themselves in which pigs and poultry are admitted ; these
will collect the fruit as fast as it falls, and tread the ground
firmly together, so that it is not easy for the insects to
enter it. None of these methods will be fully effectual
if there are neglected trees near by from Avhich the insect
may emigrate. The most reliable of them is jarring the
trees, and destroying the insects daily ; the next is giving
access to a large flock of ducks and chickens, which,
destroying the perfect insect, are a much more efficient
remedy than the pigs alone. It is, perhaps, fortunate to

CURCULIO MAGNIFIED.

424 GARDEI^flXG FOK THE SOUTU.

have the crop entu*ely cut off by frost, as often as every
third year, in order to check, for a time, the rapid increase
of this pest of the orchard.

Another serious difficulty is the rot ; to prevent this,
the varieties least subject should be selected and planted,
with the roots not too deep, and the fruit thinned, if very
abundant upon the tree.

The third obstacle to jjlum culture is, happily, not very
prevalent in the South. It is a black knot, or excrescence,
growing upon the bark and young Avood. The bark swells
and bursts, and finally assumes the appearance of a
" large, irregular lump, with a hard, cracked, uneven sur-
face." The flow of sap is obstructed by this tumor, and
its poison is gradually disseminated over the whole tree.
The dark-colored fruits are most infected. The disease
also attacks the common Morello cherry. It appeared
here, for the first time, in the year 1853, on a tree from
the North. None have appeared since that time. The
only remedy is to cut off SA'ery branch or twig that
shows a tumor, and burn it at once. As the plum throws
out long, straggling branches, which are unsightly and
unproductive, this should be remedied by shortening
in, as with the peach, so as to form a round, compact
head. Most stone fruits require to be shortened in,
more or less, or the growth becomes unsightly and the
tree short-lived. It is an excellent plan, where practicable,
to plant a tree or two near the door of the house and
kitchen, where there is considerable passing and repassing
and the ground becomes hard-trodden. Such trees are
less infested by the great enemy to stone fruit — the cur-
culio — which is quite a timid, as well as cunning, insect.

VARIETIES.

Chickasaw. — {Prunus Chiclcasa.) — A tree or two of
both red and yellow varieties of this, our indigenous
plum, should be admitted into the garden. The fruit is

FKUrrS. — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 425

inncli improved, both in size and flavor, by cidtivation.
Some trees produce better fruit than others. Leaves
lanceolate, and more hke the peach than the plum ;
branches thorny; fruit small; skin either light red or
yellow; flesh yellow, very juicy and sweet, but somewhat
astringent about the stone, to which it adheres. Ripe
here about the 20th of May ; lasts a month. Doubtless
many excellent varieties will be originated from this hardy
native fruit. Some are now found nearly free from astring-
ency. Tliis plum appears to be free from curculio, and
never fails to ripen a crop.

Sea, or Early Purple. — Ripens 8th of June, and is
here the earliest of plums ; fruit small, roundish ; skin
brownish-purjjle, with a slight bloom; flesh greenish-
yellow, sweet, juicy, and parts from the stone ; highly
perfumed. This nice little plum was, I believe, first
introduced here by some grafts received from Germany.
It does not rot.

Prince's Yellow Gage, — Fruit medium size, broadest
toward the stalk ; suture slight ; skin golden yellow,
slightly clouded, and with cojDious white bloom ; stalk
an inch long, inserted in a small cavity; flesh deej^
yellow, sweet, juicy, and fine flavored; freestone; tree
very productive ; fruit lasts a long time ; one of the best
for a long time in this climate. Ripe June 10th.

Bingham. — Fruit large, oval ; skin deep yellow, sj^otted
with red toward the sun; stalk in a small cavity; flesh
yellow, juicy, rich, and delicious; clingstone; tree a fine
grower and good bearer. Ripens July 1st.

Columbia. — ^Yery large, roundish ; skin brownish-pur-
ple, with fawn-colored specks ; bloom thick and blue ;
stalk an inch long, stout, in a narrow cavity ; flesh orange,
not very juicy, sugary, rich, and excellent; freestone.
Ripe June 20th, A magnificent variety, of excellent
quality. Tree hardy and productive.

426 GARDEJiflNG FOR THE SOUTH.

Elfry, — Branches small; fruit less than medium size,
oval ; skin blue ; flesh greenish, sweet, juicy, and excel-
lent ; freestone. In this climate, the Elfry is one of the
most desirable of plums. It generally escapes the cur-
culio and the rot, if properly thiimed. Tree thrifty and
hardy. An indispensable variety. Kipe July 1st.

Jcflerson, — Fruit of the largest size, roundish oval;
stalk an inch long, pretty stout ; suture distinct ; skin
golden yellow, purplish-red on the sunny side, and thinly
covered with white bloom ; flesh deep orange, a little dry,
good ; not equal to the description in the books. As the
tree bears abundantly, and the fruit ripens late, hangs
long on the tree, and is entirely free from decay, it is
indispensable. The handsomest of all i>lums. Ripens
last of July and first of August.

Red Magnum Bonum, or Purple Egg.— Large and
beautiful ; egg-shaped ; violet red, deeper in the sun, with
small gray dots ; flesh greenish, rather firm, juicy, and
agreeably sub-acid ; freestone. A fair plum for the table,
and makes the best of preserves. Ripens July 10th.
Not much subject to rot.

Washington. — Tree vigorous; leaves large, bi-oad,
glossy, and rumpled ; wood light brown ; fruit very
large, roundish oval ; suture shallow, except at the stalk ;
skin pale greenish-yellow, faintly marbled with green,
changing at maturity to darker yellow, with a bright
blush in the sun ; stalk short, in a shallow, wide cavity ;
flesh yellow, firm, sweet, and luscious ; stone pointed, and
separates freely. Ripens, Georgia, early in July; New
York, the latter half of August. This is one of the most
attractive and desirable varieties in all sections.

Harvest Gage. — Fruit rather small, roundish oval, with
a slight suture ; skin pale yellowish-green, with a thin,
white bloom ; stalk short and slender, in a very slight
cavity ; flesh pale greenish-yellow, juicy, sweet, and

FEUITS. — DESCRIPTION AND CULTUKE. 427

excellent; adheres to the stone. Ri2)ens early in July in
Georgia, just before the Washington.

Rivers' Early Favorite. — Fruit medium, or a little
below, roundish oval, with a shallow suture ; stalk very
short ; skin deep blackish- purple, sprinkled with russet
dots, and covei-ed with a thin, blue bloom ; flesh greenish-
yellow, very juicy, sweet, of excellent flavor, separating
freely from the small stone ; shoots slender, slightly
downy. Ripens, Georgia, June loth to 30th ; New York,
August 1st. An excellent, early, dessert plum, follow-
ing immediately the Jaune Hative. Productive.

Duane's Purple. — Branches downy ; fruit very large,
oblong, swollen on one side of the suture ; skin reddish-
purple in the sun, paler in the shade, dotted sparsely with
yellow specks, and covered with lilac bloom ; stalk slender,
of medium length, in a narrow cavity ; flesh amber-
colored, juicy, sprightly, moderately sweet, adhering par-
tially to the stone. Ripe, Georgia, July 10th ; New
York, August 10th, with the Washington.

Jaune Hative, — Fruit small, roundish obovate, with
a suture, generally shallow on one side ; stalk short and
slender ; skin pale yellow, with a thin, white bloom ;
flesh yellow, juicy, of sweet, agreeable flavor ; freestone.
The earliest plum to ripen, Avhich it does from the 1st to
the 20th of June ; branches slender and downy. Tree re-
sembles Howell's Early.

Blue Plum. — A native plum, generally raised from
suckers ; fruit medium size, roundish, scarcely oval ;
suture very obscure ; skin dark blue, with a light bloom ;
stalk half an inch long, inserted in a shallow cavity ;
flesh yellowish-green, juicy, sweet, and refreshing; ad-
heres to the stone ; shoots smooth ; leaves rather small.
A very pleasant and agreeable plum, and the tree is a fine
bearer. Does not rot.

428 GAKDENIXG FOK THE SOUTH.

Q,iriNCE. — {Cydonia vulgaris.)

The quince is a small, hardy tree, seldom growing oyer
twelve to fifteen feet in height ; thickly branched ; with
ovate leaves, whitish underneath, on short petioles ; the
flowers are white or pale pink color, and the fruit appears
on shoots of the same year's growth, varying in shape,
but having a resemblance to that of the apple or pear. It
is, when ripe, highly fragrant, and of a fine golden yellow
color, making the tree quite ornamental. Quinces are
seldom eaten raw, but for baking, stewing, preserving,
marmalades, or jiies, along with apples, they are much es-
teemed. They are also dried for winter use, giving an
excellent flavor to dried apples and jDeaches.

For these pui-poses the quince has been long in cultivation,
having been in great esteem among the Greeks and Romans.
The mucilage from the seeds was formerly used in medi-
cine instead of gum-water. The quince is propagated
from seed, laj'ers, slips or cuttings, and grows very readily
from the latter. Cuttings, if planted about the time the
buds commence swelling in tlie spring, rarely fail to grow.
Quinces usually reproduce themselves from seed, but oc-
casionally vary. Quince stocks are very much used for
budding the pear upon, for which the Angers quince is
preferred, although we have found the common or apple-
shaped equally good in every respect. The quince likes
a deep, moist soil and cool exposure, growing naturally
upon the banks of streams. It, however, grows to ad-
miration in any good, rich, friable soil, and no tree is more
benefited by manuring, especially with vegetable manure.
Salt is said to act beneficially if api^lied during wmter.
If applied occasionally in small doses at a distance from
the trunk, the fruit will not drop ; jilant the trees ten feet
apart.

The quince is subject to the blight, like the pear, and is

FEUITS. DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 429

also attacked by the borer which infests the apple ; the
blighted portion must be cut off and burned, as -with the
pear. The borer must be dug out.

The best fruit is obtained from those trained in the form
of a tree, but on account of the borer it is best to use the
bush form with three or four main stems, so if one is de-
stroyed there are others left to take its place. Thus trained,
the bush should be moderately pruned, or the fruit will be
inferior. If there is an over-croj?, the fruit should be thin-
ned. The quince begins to bear when three or four years
transplanted. Varieties:

Apple or Orange-shaped. — This is tbe common variety,
with large, roundish fruit, with a short neck ; skin light
golden yellow ; flesh firm, but stews tender ; leaves oval ;
shoots slender. If the core be cut oiit and the hole filled
with sugar and baked, it forms a fine dessert dish.

Pear-shaped. — Fruit large, pyrifortQ, oblong, tapering
to the stalk ; skin yellow ; flesh of firmer texture than
when preserved, and not quite as good in flavor and color
as the former. Fruit ripens a fortnight later, and when
picked, keeps much longer; leaves oblong-ovate. Tree
of more vigorous growth, but does not bear so well.

Portugal. — Fruit still more oblong, of lighter color,
milder flavored, and of better quality than the preceding
kinds ; leaf larger and broader ; shoots stouter ; ripens
between the other two ; a shy bearer, pretty good as a
stock for the pear. Tree larger than the other varieties.

Angers. — A variety of the last, the strongest grower
of all the quinces, and much used for pear stocks. The
fruit is said to be larger and better than any other kind.

Chinese Quince, ( Cydonla Sinensis.) — Leaves resemble
those of the common quince in form, but have a glossy
surface ; the flowers are rose-colored, with a delicate fra-
grance, similar to that of the violet. The fruit is very
large, oblong, and somewhat ribbed like a muskmelon ;

430 GARDENING TOK THE SOUTH.

skin golden yellow ; flesh hard and acrid, but is said to
make a desirable preserve. A very beautiful shrub when
in fruit.

THE RASPBERRY.

The raspberry is a low, deciduous shrub, of which sev-
eral si^ecies are common along the fences, both in Europe
and America. The large-fruited varieties most esteemed
in our gardens all originated from the long cultivated
Hubtcs Idceus, or Mount Ida Bramble, which appears first
to have been introduced into the gardens of the south of
Europe, from Mount Ida. It is now quite naturalized in
some parts of the country. Besides this we have growing
wild the common black and white raspberry, or Thimble-
berries, {Rubus occidentalism and the red raspberry,
{Rubus strigosus,) with very good fruit.

Uses. — The raspberry is held in general estimation, not
only as one of the most refreshing and agreeable fruits for
the dessert, but it is employed generally for preserving,
jams, ices, sauces, tarts and jellies; and on a larger scale
by confectioners for making syrups, and by distillers for
making brandy. Raspberry wine is made in the same way
as currant wine, and is considered the most fragrant of all
domestic wines.

Propagation. — The raspberry is propagated by suckers
or by dividing the roots. The seeds are planted only when
new varieties are desired. *

Soil and Culture. — The best soil is a rich, deep loam,
rather moist than dry, provided it is not too much expos-
ed to our hot Southern sun. The raspberry succeeds best
at the South when planted on the north side of a fence or

FEUITS. YAEIETIES AND CULTURE. 431

building, but where it can have the morning sun ; planted
in the shade of trees it never does well. Give a good
manuring every spring with well-rotted stable manure,
and keep clear from grass and weeds with the hoe ; prune
out the old dead canes every spring. A fine late crop can
readily be obtained by cutting over the whole stool, in the
spring, to within a few inches of the ground. They will
then shoot up fresh wood, which comes into bearing in
August or September.

Varieties. — The finest raspberries in general cultivation
for the dessert are the Red and White Antwerp, Fastolf,
Orange, Gushing, French, Franconia, and Philadelphia.

The common American Red is most esteemed for flavor-
ing liquors, or making brandy and cordials; and the
American Black is preferred by most persons for cooking.
. The ever-bearmg varieties are esteemed for prolonging
the season of this fruit.

Red Antwerp. — This variety is also known as Old Red
Antwerp, Knevett's Antwerp, True Red Antwerp, How-
land's Red Antwerp, Burley, etc. It is the common Red
Antwerp of England and America, and is quite distinct
from the North River variety, which is sboi-ter in growth,
and has conical-shaped fruit. Ganes strong and tall;
spines light red, rather numerous, and pretty strong ; fruit
large, nearly globulai*, color dark red, with large grains,
and covered with a thick bloom ; juicy, with a brisk vinous
flavor.

Yellow Antwerp. — Large, nearly conical, pale yellow,
sweet and excellent; canes strong and vigorous, light
yellow, and spinous ; bears a long time, and does moder-
ately well at the South.

American Black, {Ruhus occidentalis.) — Small, flatten-
ed, black or dark purple, with a whitish bloom ; later and
more acid than the preceding. This is the well-known
Thimble-berry ; succeeds well here. From its rich, acid

433 GAKDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

flavor it is the best for cooking, as in tarts, pies, puddings,
etc. It is much, improved by pruning and cultivation ;
should be set at wider distances than the other varieties,
as it grows more rampant. The Ohio Ever-bearing is a
variety of this, but bears through the season.

American White. — Similar to the preceding in all re-
spects, except the color of the fruit and canes, which are
both of a pale yellow and covered with a white bloom.
The White is a little sweeter than the Black, and ripens
some ten days earlier. Both varieties are propagated by
the tips of the canes, which droop upon the ground, and
then take root and form new plants or stools ; after these
have taken root the old cane dies.

American Red. — A sort of mongrel between the Ant-
werp variety and the American Black. Fruit of medium
size, light red ; flavor not so acid as the American Black
or White, and more juicy than cither of those varieties.
A vigorous grower, and succeeds well at the South ; canes
of a brownish-red color and with darker spines.

Fastolf. — One of the most vigorous of the foreign va-
rieties, and does very well in Georgia. Fruit very large,
roundish, conical, purplish-red ; tender, rich, and high-
flavored. Canes strong, erect, branching, with strong
spines. The foregoing are all that we can recommend for
Southern cultivation from personal experience. The va-
riety cultivated in the Northern States is very large ; many
of them we have tested here with but poor success.

STIlAWBEEilY.-(^m/7«'-»«.)

The botanical name of the strawberry is derived from
the delightful fragrance of the ripe fruit. Its common
name has arisen from the ancient practice of laying straw
between the plants, to keep the ground moist and the

FRUITS. — VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 433

fruit clean. This fruit is fragrant, delicious, and univer-
sally esteemed. The first offering of the season, in the way
of ripe fruit, nothing that comes after it can excel " a disli
of ripe strawberries smothered in cream," or fresh from
the plant. It is, indeed, the most popular and wholesome
of all the small fruits ; for, besides its grateful flavor, the
sub-acid juice has a cooling quality peculiarly acceptable
in summer. In addition to its excellence for the dessert,
it is a favorite fruit for making jams, ices, jellies, and
preserves.

The English wood strawberry was the first brought
into cultivation. Says old Tusser, turning over its culti-
vation to the ladies, as beneath his attention :

"Wife, unto the j^arden, and set me a j)lot
With strawberry plants, the best to be got,
Such growing abroad, amid trees in the wood,
Well chosen and picked, prove excellent good."

Plants taken directly from the field into the garden yield
at once a tolerable crop. This climate is well adapted to
the culture of this frait, since by giving the plants a due
supply of moisture, fruit can be gathered the greater part
of the summer and autumn.

In its natural state, the strawberry generally produces
perfect or hermaphrodite flowers ; the hermaphrodite are
•those which have both the stamens and pistils so well de-
veloped as to produce a tolerably fair crop of fruit. Cul-
tivation has so aflected the strawberry in this respect,
that there are now three classes of varieties. First, those
in which the male or staminate organs are always perfect ;
but the female, or pistillate organs, are so defective that
they will very rarely bear perfect fi-uit. Those are called
staminate. Second, those in which the female, or pistil-
late organs, are perfect ; but in which the male organs are
generally so defective that they cannot produce fruit at
all, unless in the neighborhood of, and fertilized by, stam-
inate or hermaphrodite plants. Impregnated by these,
19

434 GAEDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

they bear enoriuovis crops. Third, those winch, like the
native varieties, are true liermaphrodites, that is, perfect
in stamens and more or less perfect in pistils, so that they
generally produce a tolerable crop, and, in favorable sea-
sons, the pistils being fully developed, they will produce a
good one.

This is called the staminate class in some books. The
first of tbese classes, the staminate, rarely producing fruit,
and running exuberantly to vine, should be dug up wher-
ever found, since the hermaphrodite are productive, and
equally useful for fertilizing. It is to the pistillate varie-
ties, fertilized by the hermaphrodite, that we must look for
large crops of fruit.

In beds of each of these varieties, seedlings will spring
up, differing from the parents; but runners from any
va.iety Avill always produce flowers of the same class and
similar in all respects to the parent plant. By the due
admixture of hermaphrodite and pistillate plants, five
thousand quarts have been picked from an acre at Cin-
cinnati, where the strawberry season is usually less than a
month.

Potash, soda, and phosphoric acid are the elements
most likely to be wantmg in the soil. Wood ashes and
the carbonates of jDotash and soda j^rove very beneficial,
applications.

The good effects of applying the phosphates, or lime,
have not been so apparent, perhaps, owing to there being
enough ah-eady in the soil.

JPropagation and Culture. — To raise the strawberry in
perfection requii-cs good varieties, a proper location, care-
ful cultivation, vegetable manure, mulching the roots, and
regular watering.

The strawberry bed should be in the lowest part of the
garden, succeeding best on a bottom near some little
stream of water, where the soil is moist and cool; no

FRUI1"S. VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 435

trees or plants sliould be allowed to overshadow it, to
drink up the moisture of the soil. New land is the best,
and the most easily kept free from weeds. The soil should
be dug or plowed deep.

It is not required to be very rich, unless with decayed
vegetable matter, as animal manures produce only a
growth of vine. Plant good, vigorous runners from old
stocks, three feet apart each way ; three rows of j^istillates,
and then one row of good hermaphrodites, and so on,
until the bed or plot is filled ; cultivate precisely as you
would corn, and as often. As the runners appear, cut
them off, and keep the plants in hills; this is a much
better plan than to permit them to run. together and
occupy the entire surface of the ground ; after the beds
have done fruiting, still keep them clear from grass and
weeds, and when the leaves fall from the trees in the fall,
give a good coat of these as a winter protection.

There is no fruit which has been so greatly improved
within the last ten years as has the strawberry, in size,
productiveness, and flavor ; it is now as generally culti-
vated as the apple or any of our standard vegetables.
Most of the then esteemed varieties are now superseded
by new and improved ones, amongst Avhich stand pre-
eminent Wilson's Albany, Jucunda, Agriculturist, Dr.
Nicaise, Downer's Prolific, McAvoy's Superior, and some
others.

VARIETIES.

Wilson's Albany. — This is the most popular strawberry
now under cultivation in the United States, although not
of first quality in flavor, being rather too acid, but as it is
a very hardy variety, vigorous grower, and very produc-
tive, it Avill long be a favorite fruit for domestic cultiva-
tion. Fruit large, very dark red, conical in form, trusses
short and stout; leaves large, dark green, with short

436 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

petioles. An enormous bearer, and continues for a long
time. One of the most desirable varieties. A standard
sort.

Hovey'S Seedling. — When Ave consider the size, flavor
of its fruit, and its habit of long-continued bearing, this is
one of the finest of strawberries. Like all the pistillate ber-
ries, it needs a fertilizer. It is an old variety, and still
remains one of the best, and is excelled in flavor by few
of the new kinds. Leaves large, bright green, with long
petioles, which, stand erect ; fruit very large, conical,
bright scarlet ; seeds sligbtly imbedded ; flesh firm, with
a rich, luscious flavor. Should be in every garden.

McAvoy'S Superior. — This won a prize of $100 at Cin-
cinnati, as the best j^istillate variety, for size, flavor, and
fruitfulness. Leaves dark green, serrate ; footstalk long,
trusses of fruit full; berry large, of rich dark color,
irregular, roundish conical ; seeds large, slightly sunk ;
flesh crimson and white, tender, and juicy; core of rather
open, coarse texture ; too soft for a market fruit.

Triomphe de Gaud. — A foreign variety, but one that
succeeds well at the South. Leaves large, bright green,
on long petioles, or footstalks ; fruit large, and in high
trusses, bright scarlet, and of excellent flavor; fruit
resembles Hovey's Seedling in appearance.

Jucunda, or " Our 700." — A fruit of great merit, dis-
tributed by J. Knox, of Pittsburg, Pa. Fruit very large,
of a conical form, occasionally cockscombed ; color bright
scarlet ; of firm flesh, yet tender and juicy, sweet, and
delicious. Probably the most popular variety now grown,
if we except Wilson's Albany. We do not hesitate to
recommend it for general cultivation.

Agriculturist. — ^A seedling by Seth Boyden, of Newark,
N. J., which, from the encomiums bestowed upon it, must
occupy a very prominent place in the great list of new
and desirable varieties ; as we have never seen the fruit,

FRUITS. — VAMETlfeS AND CULTURE. 437

we can only speak upon tlio opinions of those competent
to decide upon its merits.

Dr. Nicaise. — Judging from the plates we have seen of
this new European variety, which is as large as a good-
sized apple, and the transports of praise bestowed upon it,
it must meet with a ready sale, if nothing more. How it
will prove, on farther trial, remains to be seen. "We shall
neither recommend nor condemn it, as we have never seen it.

Downer's Prolific. — A seedling from Kentucky; with
us it has no remarkable traits about it, and we have culti-
vated it for several years. In some places it proves to be
very prolific and a very desirable variety, some even con-
sidering it as one of the very best of the new varieties.

"We could add many others of prominent claims to the
foregoing list, but think we have described and recom-
mended a sufficient number to satisfy any amateur or
market gardener.

INDEX.

Almond 334

Bitter 335

Common 334

Ladies' Thin-shelled 335

Long Hard-shelled 335

Angelica 322

Anise 323

Apple 335

Aromatic Carolina 345

Bachelor 349

Bough 344

Buckingham 349

Buflf &16

Byers U9

Camak's Sweet 354

Cane Creek Sweet 344

Cattoogaja 354

Cedar Falls 350

Chestatee 352

Chestoa 352

Cnllasaga 349

Disharoon 346

Early Harvest 342

Early May, 341

Elarkee 353

Fall Pippin 345

Great Unknown 351

Habersham Pearmain 347

Horse 346

Julien 343

Maiden's Blush 343

Mangum 354

Meigs 347

Mountain Belle 356

Nickajack 349

Oconee Greening 351

Rabbit's Head 352

EedJnne 312

Red Warrior 350

Summerour 349

Toccoa 345

Van Buren 356

Walker's Yellow U9

Webb's Winter 351

Tahoola 356

Yellow June 344

Apricot 357

Breda 358

Dubois 358

Hemskirke 359

Large Early T 358

Moorpark 358

438

Apricot— Orange 358

Peach 358

Royal 359

Artichoke 161

Jerusalem 165

Asparagus 166

Balm 323

Basil 173

Bean, Kidney 175

Algiers 176

Black Speckled 176

Butter 177

Carolina 177

Dark Prolific 176

Dutch Case-knife ._ 176

Early Mohawk 175

Early Valentine 170

Late Valentine 175

London Horticultural 176

Newington Wonder 175

Royal Kidney 175

Wax "...176

White Prolific 176

English Broad 173

Dwarf Early 174

Dwarf Windsor 174

Long-pod 173

Mazagan 173

Lima 176

Beet ISO

Bassano 180

Early Long Blood 181

Early Turnip-rooted 180

Extra Early Turnip 180

Long Blood 181

Nutting's Selected Dwarf 181

Sea-Kale 184

Short's Pineapple 181

White 184

Bene 323

Blackberry 359

Black Wainut 3S0

Bones &*

Boneset 324

Borage 325

Borecole 186

Broccoli 187

Brussels Sprouts 187

Budding 112

Bulbs 98

Burnet 188

Burnt Clay 44

I^TDEX.

439

Cabbage ISO

Bergen 190

Curled Savoy 191

Drumhead Savoy 191

Early Battersea 190

Early Dutch 190

Early Winningstadt 190

Early York. 190

Flat Dutch 190

Green Glazed 190

Red Dutch 191

Savoy 191

Capsicum 274

Caraway 325

Cardoon 197

Carrot 203

Altringham 203

Early French Short Horn 203

Early Horn 203

Long Orange 203

Cauliflower 199

Celeriac 212

Celeiy 205

Curled White 205

Early Dwarf Solid White 205

Eed Solid 205

Seymour's White 205

White Solid 205

Chamomile 326

Charcoal 45

Burning 46

Cherokee Rose 18

Cherry 360

Belle Magniflque 362

Blackheart 362

Doctor 361

DowTier's Late 362

Elton 361

English MoreUo 302

Kentish 301

Kirtland's Mary 361

Late Kentish 361

May Duke 361

Plumstone Morello 362

Reine Hortense 362

Rockport Bigarreau 361

Sweet Montmorency 362

Chervil 215

Chestnut 370

Chick-Pca 214

Chinese Yam 226

Chives 214

Chlorine 38

Ciboule 259

Citron 3S4

Cives ■. 214

Clary 326

Colza 290

Cold Frames 71

Composts 58-88

Coriander 326

Corn 216

Dent 216

Eight-rowed Sugar 216

Extra Early .216

Stowell's Evergreen 216

Corn Salad 220

Cow-Pea 220

Cress, American 221

Garden 221

Winter 221

Crossing and hybridizing 95

Cucumber 222

Early Cluster 223

Early Frame 223

Early Short White Prickly 223

Long Green Prickly 223

VThite Spined 223

Currant 362

Red Dutch 363

White Dutch 363

Cuttings 104

Dewberry 360

Dill 326

Edgings 16

Egg Plant.... 228

Large Prickly-stemmed Purple. 228

LongPui-ple 228

Striped Guadaloupc 228

Elecampane 327

Eschallot 301

Endive ... 230

Broad-leaved Batavian 230

Large Green Curled 230

White-flowered Batavian 230

Evergreen Thorn 16

Fencing 16

Fennel 327

Fetticus 220

Fig 363

Alicante 367

Black Ischia 367

Black Genoa 366

Brown Ischia 306

Brown Turkey 365

Brmiswick 365

440

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fig— Celestial 3C6

Common Blue 367

Common White 3G7

Lemon White 367

Nerii 367

Pergussatta 367

White Genoa 367

White Ischia 367

Filberts 380

Cosford 380

Frizzled 380

White 380

I'orwarding of Early Crops 66

Frames 67

French Turnip 291

Frost, Protection from 152

Garbanza 214

Garden, Aspect and Inclination 12

Form of 15

Laying out 15

Situation of. 11

Size of. 14

Garlic 2.33

Gherkin 223

Gooseberry 368

Grafting, 116— Cleft, 119— Mode and
Time of, 117— Root, 119— Splice,

118— Whip 118

Grafting Wax 117

Grape 368

Catawba 373

Clinton 373

Concord. 373

Herbemont's Madeira 373

Perkins ; 373

Scuppernong 374

Warren 373

Ground-Nut 234

Ground-Pea 2.34

Guano 53

Guinea Squash 228

Gypsum 44

Holly, American 19

Hop 237

Horehound .... 328

Horseradish 233

Hot-beds 67

Humus 23

Hybridizing 95

Hyssop 328

Implements 73

Bell-glass 85

Bow-saw 80

Implements— Budding Knife 81

Bush-hook 82

Crowbar 76

Cultivator .T 74

Dibble 78

Drill Rakes 78

Folding Ladder 83

Garden Engines 84

Garden Roller 74

Grafting Tool 82

Grass-edger 83

Hand Glass 85

Hand Syringes 85

Hedge Shears 81

Hoes 76

Lawn Scythe 82

Level 79

Line and Reel 79

Manure Forks 76

Marker 78

Orchardists' Hook 84

One-horse Turning Plow 73

Pick 75

Plant Protectors . . 86

Pole Pruning Shears 80

Potato Hook 77

Pruning Saw 80

Pruning Knives 81

Pruning Scissors 81

Pruning Shears 80

Rake 77

Screens 79

Scuffle Hoe 77

Shovels 76

Spade Fork 76

Spades 75

Standing Ladder 84

Subsoil Plow 73

Tallies 83

Transplanter 78

Trowel 78

Turf Beetle 74

Vine Scissors 81

Vine Shields 85

Watering Pots 84

Wheelbarrow 74

Inarching 121

Indian Cress 250

Insects 156

Apple Bark-louse 337

Apple Bupestris 338

Apple-root Blight 336

Apple-tree Borer 338

INDEX.

441

Insects— Apple-tree Caterpillar 339

Apple-worm 340

Bill-bug 219

Codling Moth 310

Corn-borer 219

Corn-worm 218

Curculio 423

Handmaid Moth 339

Onion-fly 202

Palmer Worm 340

PeacU-trec Borer 3S5

Plum Weevil 422

Squash-bns 308

Squash-vine Borer 309

Tent Caterpillar 539

Thick-leg!,'ed Apple Borer 3:38

Turnip Flea-beetle 318

Woolly Aphis 337

Japan-Pea 238

Japan Quince 19

Jerusalem Artichoke lf)5

Kale, Buda 186

Turner's Cottager's 186

Kohlrabi 238

Lactura sativa 242

Lambs' Lettuce 220

Lavender 329

Layering 101

Leaf Mould 48

Leek 239

Lemon 384

Lentil 241

Lettuce 242

Brown Dutch 242

Butter 242

Curled India 243

Early Cabbage 242

Hammersmith 242

Hardy Green 242

Neapolitan 243

Paris Green Cos 213

Philadelphia Cabbage 213

Royal Cabbage 242

Victoria Cabbage 243

White Paris Cos 243

Lime 32^3-384

Lime and Salt Mixture 47

Lime-rubbish 43

Liquid Manure 56

Liquorice 329

Loamy Sand 22

Macartney Rose 16

Madeira Nut 380

19*

Manures 30

Manures, Animal 51

Bird 53

Green 50

Indirect action of 40

Management of 53

Organic 45

Saline and Earthy 43

Sources and Preparation 43

Marigold 246

Marjoram 246

Pot 246

Sweet 246

Marl 44

Medicinal Herbs 322

Melon 247

Melon, Becchwood 247

Christiana 248

Citron 247

Hoosainee 248

Netted Cantaloupe 24S

Skillman's Fine Netted 248

Mice 100

Mint 330

Mulching 140

Mulberry 376

Black 376

Downing's Everbearing 377

Red 376

Mushroom 250

Muskmelon 247

Mustard 254

Black 254

White 254

Nasturtium 256

Nectarine 377

Boston 378

Downton 373

Early Violet 378

Elruge 378

Hunt's Tawny 378

New White 370

Stanwick 379

Violet native 378

Night Soil 56

Nitrate of Potash 44

Nitrate of Soda 44

Nuts 379

Okra 257

Olive 381

Onion 253

Large Red 253

Potato 253

442

GAKDEXIXG FOK THE SOUTH.

Onion — Silver-skinned 258

Top 2oS

Tree 2o9

Welsli 230

Yellow Strasburgh 258

Yellow Dan vers 258

Orach 264

Orange 382

Bergamot 384

Havana , 384

Mandarin 384

Otaheitan 384

St. Michaels 383

Osage Orange 16

Parsley. 265

Parsnip 207

Pea 269

Bishop's New Long-pod 2T0

Black-eyed Marrowfat 271

Cedo Xulli 209

Daniel O'Rourke 269

Dwarf Blue Imperial 270

Early Charlton 270

Early Emperor 209

Early Frame 209

Early Kent 269

Early Tom Thumb 270

Extra Early 269

Fairbanks' Champion 270

Huir's Dwarf Mammoth . . 271

Knight's Tall Marrow 271

Large White Marrowfat 270

Napoleon 270

Prince Albert 209

Victoria 270

Peas, Sugar 271

Pea-nut ^ii

Peach 385

Baldwin's Late 395

Baugh 395

Belle de Beaucaire 392

Blanton Cling -.394

Chinese Cling 394

Columbus June 391

Crawford's Early 392

Crawford's Late 393

Early Newington Free 392

Early Tillotson 391

Eaton's Golden Cling 395

George IV 392

Grosse Mignonne 392

Hale's Early 391

Late Admirable 393

Peach— Late Red Rareripe 393

Lemon Cling 393

Newington Cling 393

Oldmixon Cling 393

President 393

Pride of Autumn 395

Serrate Early York 391

Tippecanoe 394

Van Buren's Golden Dwarf. 394

Walter's Early 392

White English Cling 394

Pear 395

Abercromby 401

Bartlett 405

Belle Epine Dumas 416

Belle Lucrative 412

Beurr6 Bosc 403

Beurre Clairgeau 411

Bcurr6 Gris d'Hiver Noveau 416

Beurre Richelieu 414

Bloodgood 404

Braudj'wine 407

Catharine Gardette 413

Columbia 417

Compte de Flandre 412

Dearborn's Seedling 403

Do3'enne d'Alencon 416

Doyenne, 'UTiite 407

Duchesse d' Angoulfime 410

Easter Beurr6 420

Glout Morceau 414

Henry the Fourth 406

Jaminette 420

Joannet.., 401

Josephine de Malines 414

Louise Bonne de Jersey 403

Madeleine 401

Manning's Elizabeth 404

Nabours: 409

Parsonage 416

Passe Colmar 414

St. Germain 418

St. Michael Archangel 412

Seckel 410

Selleck 408

Soldat Laboureur 415

Sterling 413

Van Assche 408

Winter Nelis 419

Pennyroyal 330

Pepper 274

Cayenne 275

Large Sweet Spanish 275

INDEX.

443

Pepper— Long 275

Tomato 275

Peppermint 330

Peruvian Guano 53

Phosphates 35

Phosphoric Acid 35

Pindar 234

Pipings Ill

Pistacio Nut 380

Pits 72

Plum 421

Bingham 425

Blue 427

Chickasaw 424

Columbia 425

Duane's Purple 427

Early Purple 425

Elfry 426

Harvest Gage 420

Jaune Hative 427

Jeflerson 426

Prince's Yellow Gage 425

Purple Egg 426

Red Magnum Bonuni 426

Rivers' Early Favorite 427

Sea 425

Washington 426

Potash 33

Potato, Irish 276

Ash-leaved Kidney 277

Fox Seedling 277

Mercer 277

Prince Albert 277

Potato, Sweet 281

Brimstone 281

Common Yam 281

Hayti Yam 282

Nansemond 281

Red Bermuda : 281

Small Spanish 281

Pot Marigold 246

Profits of Gardening 05

Propagation of Plants, 87— By Cut-
tings, 104— By Division, 98— By
Layers, 101— By Roots, 101— By

Seed 87

Pnining, 122— General principles of,
126— implements for, 125— To im-
prove form, 127— Mode of operat-
ing, 126 — To reduce Fruitfulness,
129— To renew growth, 128— Sum-
mer. 124— Time for, 123— At Trans-
planting, 129— Winter 123

Pumpkin 286

Casliaw 286

Pyracanth 16

Quince 428

Angers 429

Apple-shaped 429

Chinese 429

Orange-shaped 429

Pear-shaped 429

Portugal 429

Radish 287

Black Spanish 288

Black Winter 288

Chinese Rose-colored Winter... 288

Early Scarlet Sliort-Top , .287

Oval Rose-colored 287

Purple Turnip-rooted 287

Scarlet Turnip-rooted 287

• Wliite Chinese 288

White Turnip-rooted 287

Yellow Summer. . . 28S

Rampion 290

Rape 290

Edible-Rooted 291

Raspberiy 430

American Black 431

American Red 432

American White 432

Fastolf 432

Red Antwerp 4.31

Yellow Antwerp 4.31

Rhubarb 291

Rocambole 293

Root Cuttings. HI

Roquette 294

Rosemary 331

Rotation of Crops 60

Rue 331

Runners 09

Ruta-baga 316

Sage 332

Salsify 294

Salt 43

Sandy Loam 22

Savory, Summer 296

Winter 296

Savoy Cabbages Ip^

Scaroles 230

Scions ^^*'

Scorzonera 290

Scurvy Grass 297

Sea Kale 29i

Seeds, Maturity and Soundness of,

444

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

88 — Preservation of, 95— Sowing
of, 91 — Time required to germi-
nate, 93— Time of sowing, 90—

Vitality of 89

Shaddocli 384

Sliading 141

Shallot 301

Shell-bark Hickory 379

Skirret , 302

Slips 101

Soda 34

Soils, 20— Argillaceous, 20— Calca-
reous, 23— Depth of, 24-28— Im-
provement of, 25— Organic, 23—

Sandy, 21— Texture of. 25

Soot 44

Sorrel 303

Southernwood 333

Spearmint 330

Spinach 304

Flanders 304

Lettuce-leaved 304

New Zealand , 30(;

Prickly-seeded 304

Round-leaved 304

Winter 304

Squash 307

Bergen 307

Cocoanut 307

Early Bush Scollop 307

Summer 307

Valparaiso 307

Winter 307

Strawberry 433

Agriculturist 436

Dr. Nicaise 437

Downer's. Prolific 437

Jucunda 436

Hovey's Seedling 430

McAvoy's Superior 436

" Our 700" 436

Trioraphe de Gand 436

Wilson's Albany 435

Subsoil plowing 30

Suckers 100

Sulphur 37

Superphospliate of Lime 54

Swamp Muck 47

Sweet Potato 281

Swiss Chard 124

Tansy 333

Tan-bark 49

Tanyah 309

TaiTagon 310

Teltow 231

Terraces 12

Thoroughwort 334

Thyme, Common 311

Lemon 311

Tomato 312

Chen-y 313

Early Red 313

Fejee Island .313

Gallagher's Mammoth 313

Large Red 312

Large Smooth Red 313

Large Yellow 313

Pear-shaped 313

Training 1.33

Transplanting 134

Preparation of Trees for 138

Herbaceous Plants 139

Tree Bos 19

Trenching 28

Tubers 99

Turnip 315

Cabbage .310

Early Red-top Dutch 315

Early White Dutch 315

French 291

Purple-topped Swede 316

Ruta-Baga .-310

Skin-ing's Improved Swede 316

Swedes 316

Sweet German 316

White Globe 315

White Norfolk 316

Yellow Aberdeen 316

Yellow Dutch 316

Vegetable Marrow 308

Vegetable Oyster 294

Watering 142

Water Cress 319

Watermelon 330

Clarendon 321

Ice Cream 320

Imperial 330

Mountain Sweet 330

Ravenscroft 321

Souter 331

Spanish 330

Wine 372

Wormwood 333

Roman 333