GARDENING

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THE SOUTH

OR HOW TO GROV
FRUITS 3c VEGETABLES fft

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Gardening for the South;

HOW TO GROW «««««««««
VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.

BY THE LATE

WILLIAM X. WHITE,

OF ATHENS, GA.

THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

P. H. MELL, Ph. I).,

Professor of Botany and Geology, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Director of Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station.

WITH MANY ILLUSTRATIONS.

RICHMOND. VIRGINIA:

B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY.
1901.

Copyright, 1901,
By P. H. MELL, Ph. D.

60NTENTS.

What Science Has Done for Gardening,
Preface to the First Edition,
Preface to the Second Edition,
Preface to the Third Edition,

CHAPTER I.
Formation and Management of Gardens in General,

CHAPTER II.

Soils — Their Characteristics,

CHAPTER III.
The Improvement of the Soil,

CHAPTER IV.
Fertilizers and Manures, ....

CHAPTER V.
Rotation of Crops, ....

CHAPTER VI.
Hot Beds, Cold Frames, Pits and Greenhouses,

CHAPTER VII.

Packing and Marketing the Crop,

CHAPTER VIII.
Insects, Fungi and Plant Diseases,

CHAPTER IX.
Propagation of Plants, ....

CHAPTER X.
Budding and Grafting, ....

CHAPTER XL
Pruning and Training, ....

Si

PAGE

13
19
23

25

27
39
45
51
80

107

211

222

4 CONTENTS.

PAGE

CHAPTER XII.

Transplanting, . s , 235

CHAPTER XIII.
Mulching, Shading and Watering, 0 t 241

CHAPTER XIV.

Protection from Frost, . o * 254

CHAPTER XV.
Vegetables — Varieties, Description and Culture, . . . 261

CHAPTER XVI.
Fruits — Varieties, Description and Culture, . 456

CHAPTER XVII.
Tables and Useful Formulae, ...... 646

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

What Science Has Done for Gardening.

No one profession can stand alone without the support
and help of other allied callings. The man who says
that he can successfully conduct a market garden, or a
farm, without the assistance of scientific thought and
investigation is not well informed as to how much he is
really dependent on what science has done, and is doing,
for his profession. If he says that he has no patience
with " book farming," aud attempts to conduct his busi-
ness with methods and implements in use fifty years
ago, and declines to read and keep up with the progress
of the times, he will soon find to his sorrow that his
neighbors who do read and profit by what intelligent
investigation is bringing to light, are far outstripping
him in the improvement of their gardens and in the
profits they are reaping by placing on the markets early
vegetables and fruits.

This is the age of the printing press and thousands of
thoughtful, earnest investigators are sending out by its
means vast stores of valuable, practical information to
him who will read and profit thereby. Practical men
and women must read and learn what the rest of the
world is doing if they expect to keep up with the pro-
gress of events. The competition in all departments of
tilling the soil is now so great, that the most successful
gardener or farmer is that man who not only accumu-
lates books, but also is a diligent reader and a student
in his profession, always looking out for new and
improved ideas to enable him to produce the best and
largest crop possible on his land with the least amount

LIBRARY
• State Coll**'

14 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

of money and expenditure of labor. This chapter is
not written for such wide-awake people, but it is pre-
pared with the hope that the few who still condemn
"book learning" may be convinced by argument and a
presentation of an overwhelming array of facts that they
are under great obligations to the results of the wTork
and thought of scientific investigators.

It is due entirely to science that the insect enemies
of vegetables and fruits have been so carefully cata-
logued and described, and remedies discovered for
destroying them and holding them in check. Millions of
dollars have been saved to the gardener and the farmer
in this one item of contribution from science. The inves-
tigations made on the subject of plant disease and the
remedies used to keep the plant in a healthy condition are
the wrork alone of scientific brain and energy. The eradi-
cation of many of these troubles has made it possible for
the gardener to cultivate certain vegetables and fruits
which was next to impossible prior to the assistance
rendered by the scientific investigator. What a boon to
the cultivator of the soil is spraying! Yet scientific ex-
perimentation developed the spraying machine and the
composition of the ingredients which make up the spray-
ing mixtures.

The introduction of many of the best fruits and vege-
tables is largely due to the effort and forethought of our
scientific men. The delightful Japan plums, the Japan
persimmons, the many varieties of the citrus fruits, and
the great improvement of the grape are well known
illustrations of this fact.

Chemistry, among many other aids it has rendered to
the gardener and the farmer, must be given full credit for
placing the science of fertilization in the front rank of
important factors. How crude and unsatisfactory were
the methods of supplying plant food to the soil until the

WHAT SCIENCE HAS DONE FOR GARDENING. 15

commercial fertilizers were given to the agricultural
world, and the fraud in the manufacture was eliminated
by the analytical skill of the chemist. A few years ago
the terms phosphoric acid and potash were known and
understood by a few, but now they are common words
in the vocabulary of the most ordinary gardener and the
most obscure farmer. And yet this is the work of the
chemist, and to him only must the gardener render
thanks for the great benefits accruing to the land and
plant in the use of fertilizers.

The improvement of the soil by cultivating leguminous
plants in order to accumulate nitrogen from the atmos-
phere is a well-known fact, but the discovery of the germ
principle, by which the plants have the power to extract
this nitrogen from the air, was made in the laboratory of
a German scientific investigator. Because of this dis-
covery it is now possible to successfully cultivate peas,
beans, clovers and other similar plants in localities where
before the discovery of this germ principle it was next to
impossible to secure satisfactory results.

Science has even stepped in to instruct on the subject
of the cultivation of the soil, and much that is now
known on this question is due to the investigations con-
ducted at the State Experiment Stations under the
direction of men with scientific training on such subjects
as: (1) Why shallow plowing should be resorted to in the
cultivation of certain plants which develop a large system
of surface roots; (2) under what conditions deep plowing
should be done, and (3) why the land should not be plowed
while in a wet condition; (4) the value of rest to the land,
and (5) the rotation of crops.

Most that is known in reference to irrigation and the
value it is to those sections of the country where long,
dry seasons are common must be credited to scientific
research. Irrigation has made it possible to reclaim land

16 GARDENING FOE TI1K SOUTH.

which was formerly a barren waste and make it produce
in abundance many of the plants beneficial to man.

To the list of benefits conferred on the gardener by
the scientific student must be added the power to repro-
duce our finest fruits by grafting and budding, making
it possible to perpetuate the tree that has been improved
to the point of maturing excellent fruit some time before
fruit will ripen on the ordinary tree under the usual
conditions. The great strides made in the selection of
vegetable seeds, ko that the purest seed and the most
healthy plants niay be secured, must be credited to the
United States Department of Agriculture through the
painstaking efforts of its scientific workers. The develop-
ment of new and improved varieties of plants by crossing
and by hybridization could only be possible through the
intelligent experiments of a mind fully cognizant of the
scientific laws governing the growth and the develop-
ment of flowers and seeds. In this connection may be
mentioned as a matter of illustration the splendid work
accomplished by T. V. Munson, of Texas, and others in
increasing the number of fine new grapes and extending
the list of this delightful fruit. Within very recent times
the United States Department of Agriculture has suc-
ceeded in producing by hybridization hardy orange
plants, so that it is now possible to develop this fruit
as far north as Southern Georgia with safety, and the
indications seem to point to the chance of growing this
plant as far north as Augusta, Georgia, without fear of
destruction during our ordinary winters. Some of these
hybrids are now growing in the horticultural grounds of
the Alabama Experiment Station at Auburn, and the
experiment will be made during the coming winter to
continue the growth without any more protection than
is usually given to peach trees, with the hope that the
experiment will be successful.

WHAT SCIENCE HAS DONE FOK GARDENING. 17

In the matter of frost warnings to the market
gardeners it will be interesting to know how much
money is saved annually in the timely warnings from the
Weather Bureau at Washington of the approach of cold
waves, so that the delicate plants might be protected;
and yet this is the work from its inception of scientific
thought and under the management of scientific ob-
servers.

Again, in the improvement of the implements used
to-day in the garden and on the farm, how much of the
energy of the tiller is economized with such satisfactory
results in the character of the work accomplished, and
who will say that these improved machines and tools are
not the outcome of careful training in scientific methods,
with a knowledge of the principles controlling physical
and mechanical laws? In the evolution of the modern
plow from its primitive ancestor the wooden beam; the
improved Planet, Jr., cultivator, with its many con-
venient tools when compared with the old-style hoc
and rake; these, with many other improved tools that
might be mentioned, should convince any one of the great
assistance science is rendering the tiller of the soil in
simply this one branch.

The United States Department of Agriculture has
spent millions of money in the past years for the benefit
of the gardener and the farmer. It is certainly true that
no one is prepared to say that this wealth has been
thrown away, and that the agriculturist has not been
vastly benefited b}T its expenditure in his behalf. The
work of this great department has been almost entirely
in the hands of scientific men of well-known ability; and
thousands of pages of practical information and con-
tributions to knowledge have come from their efforts,
attesting the great value of their investigations to the
"man with the hoe."

2

18 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

The State Experiment Stations have been in existence
only twelve years, and yet in that short time the re-
searches made by the scientific staff have introduced
new methods of planting and cultivating which the
gardeners have found superior to those in practice before
the establishment of these stations. The hundreds of
bulletins treating of every subject relating to plant
growth and animal economy are in growing demand, and
they are being read by thousands of people interested in
the farm and the garden who uttered anything else but
a kind word in behalf of the stations when Congress
made the appropriation for their maintenance in 1887.

The foregoing argument in defence of the position that
science has rendered incalculable service to the gardener
is sufficient justification for the reappearance of this book,
and the hope is entertained that the work will receive a
hearty welcome among those for whom it was written.

Preface to the First Edition.

I have thought that, upon a subject so accordant with
my tastes as is horticulture, I might prepare a work
adapted to our climate and useful to the public. The
repeated inquiries made of me, as a bookseller, for a
practical treatise on the subject, and these inquiries
growing more frequent with the manifest growth of the
gardening spirit among us, led to the undertaking. Yet,
written as it has been, in the intervals of trade and sub-
jected to its constant interruptions — now advancing but
a line at once, again a page, or an article — suspended
totally for nearly two years, then hastily finished, looked
over, and printed under circumstances that rendered the
author's revision of the proof impossible — many defects
of style, and errors of the press, are manifest. These, if
the work contain the information sought, practical men
will readily excuse in a first edition.

To claim much originality in a modern work on garden-
ing would display in its author great ignorance or great
presumption. If it did not contain much that is found in
other horticultural works, it would be very defective.
Gardening is as old as Adam, and what we know to-day
of its principles and operations has been accumulated,
little by little — the result of thousands of experiments
and centuries of observation and practice. Hence, from
the gardening literature of our language, have been se-
lected, for this work, those modes of culture which consid-
erable experience and observation have proved adapted
to our climate. The species and varieties of plants found
here most desirable for use or ornament have been se-
lected and described. This mass of material has been

AV GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

modified and increased by pretty copious garden-notes of
my own. Still, it has been my object to make a useful
and reliable, rather than an original work. Where an
author's language suited my purpose, it was at once in-
corporated into the text. If the expression is sometimes
changed, it is generally to make it more concise. * * *

The necessity of a Southern work on gardening is felt
by every horticulturist in our midst. Our seasons differ
from those of the Northern States in heat and dryness, as
much as the latter do from those of England. Treatises
perfectly adapted to their climate we are obliged to fol-
low very cautiously. English works require the exercise
of a still greater degree of judgment iu the reader, the
climate of England being still more cool and humid.
Again, our mild winters admit of garden work nearly
every day of the year. All the heavy operations of trench-
ing, manuring, laying out, pruning, and planting trees,
shrubs, and hardy ornamental plants, are at that season
most conveniently performed. In this particular aspect
our climate is much like that of the south of England.
Hence, while the calendars of operations, in works pre-
pared for the Northern States, seldom agree with our
practice, those in English works are often found to coin-
cide with it. But even where the time of performing cer-
tain operations is the same in both countries, the long,
dry summers, and still milder winters of this climate,
often render necessary a peculiar mode of performing
the same.

We need, then, works upon gardening specially adapted
to our latitude and wants. But with the exception of the
valuable matter scattered through our agricultural aud
horticultural periodicals, Ilolmes' "Southern Farmer and
Market Gardener," written some years since, and briefly
treating of the kitchen garden department merely, is the
only work containing anything reliable on the subject.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

•1\

The chief original features, then, of this work are, that
it endeavors to give more or less information upon the
whole subject of gardening; and information, too, that is
practically adapted to our climate, habits, and require-
ments. In the fruit garden department, especially, a good
deal of new matter is to be found. Throughout the entire
work processes are frequently described, and methods of
culture given, which are suited only to climates and
seasons like our own. Those varieties of plants and trees
are pointed out which experience has proved are best
adapted to our orchards and gardens. * * * *

Unusual prominence is also given to the general sub-
ject of manures, as they are the foundation not only of
successful gardening, but of profitable husbandry.
Besides the various works consulted, the experience of
horticultural friends has been freely communicated.
Valuable hints have been derived from Rev. Mr. Johnson
and Mr. Thurmond, of Atlanta; Professor J. P. Waddel,
Dr. M. A. Ward, and Dr. James Camak, of Athens; Right
Rev. Bishop Elliott, of Savannah; Dr. J. C. Jenkyns and
Mr. Affleck, of Mississippi; and especially from J. Van
Buren, of Clarksville, Georgia, whose successful efforts
to make known and diffuse native Southern varieties of
the apple rendered him a public benefactor. It is hoped
we shall yet see a work on fruit trees from his pen.

If this treatise, with all its imperfections, shall in any
degree increase the love of gardening among us; if it
shall cause orchards to flourish, shade trees to embower,
and flowers to spring up around any Southern home, the
author's purpose is accomplished.

Wm. X. White.

Athens, Ga., 1856.

Preface to the Second Edition.

The revised edition of "Gardening for the South'' was
mainly prepared by our lamented friend, W. N. White,
the author of the first edition, whose sudden death left
the work in an incomplete state. At his special request,
made while on his death-bed, we have undertaken to
finish the work begun by him, to the best of our ability,
and while we do so, we ask the indulgence of the reader
to pass over and forgive any imperfections he may detect,
for we feel conscious of our inability to present to the
public as perfect and interesting a work as would have
been done had the author been permitted to have
finished it.

The necessity for a new and revised edition must be
apparent to every reader, as the former edition was pub-
lished in 1856; since which time the discoveries, improve-
ments, and progress in Agriculture and Horticulture have
been very great.

Ten years' additional experience in Agriculture and
Horticulture by the talented author of the first edition is
our warrant for recommending the present work to the
favor of the public, as few men were more ardently
devoted to the culture of the soil than he was.

Should opinions and facts be found stated in the
present work at variance with those in the former edition
it will be attributed to the experience alluded to above,
for wTith him it was always a pleasure to acknowledge an
error when it was found to be such. Many and valuable
additions have been made to all the departments, and
more particularly to the lists of varieties, both of vege-

24 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

tables and fruits, together with the improved methods of
cultivation, as the object of the author was to present to
the public a practical work adapted to the soil and
climate of the Southern States.

J. Van Buren,
Dr. Jas. Camak.
Athens, Ga., 1868.

t0*

Preface to the Third Edition.

It has been thirty years since the last edition of this
important work was issued, and such great changes
have taken place in all departments of horticulture
within this period that a new edition of the book has been
long demanded.

Many varieties of vegetables and fruits now popular in
the South were unknown twenty years ago, and some
that were cultivated in those days have been supplanted
by other varieties of superior quality. The character and
composition of fertilizers have also undergone great
changes, and remarkable advancement has been made
by the introduction of the numerous brands of commer-
cial manures. Certain methods of cultivation also differ-
ing from those in practice some years ago have become
popular, and are now in general use throughout the
country.

A great impetus has been given to gardening in the
South by the many excellent bulletins which have been
issued from the Experiment Stations of the several States
on the subjects of botany and horticulture, so that the
science of cultivating the fruits and vegetables has
become almost a new profession. The man who is now
guided by a book written twenty or thirty years ago will
be far behind the times in nearly all departments of
planting and cultivating.

For these reasons there has been a demand for many
years on the part of the people of the South for a revision
of White's Gardening.

26 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

bulletins of the Agricultural Experiment Stations, the
publications of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, botanical, horticultural and agricultural magazines
and papers and standard works on gardening. Some of
the illustrations have been culled, with the consent of
the authors, from the publications of P. J. Berckmans,
L. II. Bailey, G. F. Atkinson, F. V. Coville, H. N. Staines,
R. L. Watts, Peter Henderson, Samuel H. Humph, John-
son & Stokes, George L. Taber, and Vaughan Seed Com-
pany. To Professor F. S. Earle, biologist and horticul-
turist of the Alabama Experiment Station, special
acknowledgment is made for suggestive and valuable
criticisms.

P. H. Mell.
Auburn Alabama, January, 1901.

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

CHAPTEE I.

FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS IN GENERAL.

Situation. — The situation of the flower garden and
lawn should be immediately adjacent to the dwelling, in
order to yield the highest degree of pleasure. The most
satisfactory arrangement is to form the lawn directly in
front, and the flower garden on the side, sufficiently near
to be overlooked by the drawing-room windows, while
the sides of the dwelling, in part, and its entire rear, in-
cluding the kitchen and servants' yard, are sheltered and
concealed by trees. A dwelling thus embowered in well-
grown trees is always regarded with pleas ure. As neither
the fruit or kitchen garden, especially the latter, can be
considered ornamental, they should not, though near the
dwelling, be placed obtrusively in view. Near they should
be, for if either is distant, time is lost in watching its
progress; it is in danger of being neglected; and even if
this is not the case, its choicest products may gratify the
palate of any one besides its owner. A good arrange-
ment is to place them in immediate connection with the
pleasure-ground, proceeding from the shrubbery to the
fruit department, and thence to the kitchen garden. The
latter should also have an independent approach. It
should be near the stables, in order that it may be
copiously replenished with manure without too much
labor.

Much, however, depends upon the soil. The best at

28 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

command, in the vicinity of the dwelling, should bo
chosen. Proximity to water is also highly important,
especially if it can be readily employed for irrigation.
Low situations are more liable to late and early frosts,
but their abundant moisture renders them desirable for
summer crops. A diversity of soils and exposures in the
same inclosure is desirable.

Care should be taken that the productiveness of the
kitchen garden be not diminished by the proximity of
large trees, which are injurious by their drip to all plants
beneath them, and by their shade and extended roots to
those more remote. The small, fibrous roots of trees
extend far beyond their branches, and one is not safe
from these devourers much short of the length of the
stem which they nourish. If trees exist too valuable to
be removed, dig a deep trench near them, and cut off all
roots that extend into it. This will probably relieve the
adjacent crops from their injurious effects.

AsrECT and Inclination. — A light exposure to the
south is generally to be recommended. Gardeners take
pride in having early crops, and this compensates in some
measure for their shorter duration in such an exposure.
A northeastern aspect is to be avoided, as our worst
storms are from that direction. A northwestern exposure,
though cold and late, is less liable to injury from late and
early frosts, as vegetation in such situations is sheltered
somewhat from the rising sun, and does not suffer so
much if it becomes slightly frozen. It is not the frost that
injures plants so much as the direct heat of the sun fall-
ing upon the frozen leaves and blossoms. Hence an
easterly aspect is generally objectionable for tender
plants.

Cabbage, cauliflower, strawberries, spinach, lettuce,
and Other salads are much more easily brought to perfec-
tion in a northern aspect. Many of these run up to seed

FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS. SV

immediately if exposed to the full sum Of fruit trees the
apple succeeds well ou a northern slope. The soil, too, is
usually richer, and will retain its fertility longer, otl^er
things being equal, in such an exposure. It is a great
advantage, if the garden slope at all, to have it slope in
more than one direction, thus giving a choice of exposure,
and generall}7 also of soil, as it is thereto adapted to both
late and early crops. But when the drainage is good, a
level is to be preferred, as by the aid of the fences any
desired exposure can be obtained for particular plants.
Indeed, in southern climates nothing after quality is more
to be regarded than the inclination of the soil.

Whatever be the situation or aspect, a garden must be
as level as possible. Any considerable inclination in a
southern latitude subjects the richest portion of the soil
to the danger of being washed away by its violent storms.
In the rich, mellow soil of a garden cultivated as it should
be, if there be much perceptible slope, a single storm will
often cause a loss of manure and labor that will require
considerable expense to repair. If the ground is not level
at first, it is necessary to resort to hillside ditching or to
throw it at once into terraces of convenient breadth. To
do this the eye cannot be trusted; a levelling instrument
is required. The steeps of these can be clothed with
Kentucky or Texas blue grass, or strawrberry plants, to
prevent them from washing.

Each terrace must be so raised just at its edge, that it
will retain all the water which falls upon it, permitting
none to flow over even in the heaviest storms. Any excess
of water should be carried off by proper underdrains, if
needed, and not suffered to run off the surface. Surface
ditches are a poor substitute. Terracing is not very
expensive. The horizontal line is first determined with a
level and staked off. A few turns of the plow are made
on the hillside just below the stakes, and the earth

30 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

thrown up with a shovel to the staked line. If more earth
is required, the plowing and shovelling must be repeated
until a sufficient bank is formed to retain the water.
During the first year, occasional breaks in the bank may
happen from violent storms, but if well repaired, after
the banks become settled, they will rarely be broken over
by the accumulation of water, particularly if proper
underdrains or surface ditches are provided.

Size. — A garden should be proportioned to the size of
the family, and their partiality for its different products.
A small garden with a suitable rotation of crops, and well
manured and cultivated, will yield more pleasure and
profit than an ordinary one of three times its size. An
active, industrious hand can take care of an acre, pro-
vided with necessary hot-beds, cold-frames, etc., keeping-
it in perfect neatness and condition; or if the plow and
cultivator be brought into requisition, as they should be
in large gardens, four times that amount can be under
his care, provided there is not much under glass.

If but little room can be allowed near the house, cab-
bages, carrots, turnips, potatoes, and the common crops,
can be grown in the field, if well enriched, and be culti-
vated mainly with the plow. The fruit garden should be
in a separate department, as the shade of the trees is
very injurious, and the exhaustion of the soil by their
roots still more so. Moreover, the heavy manuring re-
quired for the vegetables will not do so well for fruit
culture. The trees will also be in the way of the cultiva-
tors used in working the vegetables. Dwarf pears upon
the quince stock are the least hurtful, and may be ad-
mitted into the vegetable department along the walks.

Form. — The form will often depend upon the situation
of the garden or the inclination of the ground. When
a matter of choice, a square or parallelogram is most
convenient for laying out the walks and beds. A parallelo-

FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS.

Ml

gram extending from east to west gives a long south wall
for shading plants in summer, and a long, sheltered bor-

Fig. 1 — Garden Plan.

der for forwarding early crops. An oblong shape has the
further advantage of giving longer rows for the plow or
cultivator.

32 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

Laying Out. — A convenient plan is given in Figure 1.
The borders aa should be amply wide, in large gardens
as much as twelve feet. The space b is laid out for the
asparagus bed; c the cold-frames; (/ the hot-beds (in those
sections of the South where needed); e the tool-house;
// may bo used for grapes, an arbor or a fountain as de-
sired. The remainder of the space is taken up with walks
and the plots //. The walks next the boundaries should
not be less than four and a half feet in width. The long
central walk should be at least five or six feet wride, so as
to admit a cart. In this case the main walk should pro-
ceed, as in the figure, from the entrance to near the far-
ther border, wThere a portion should.be taken off. of the
adjacent plots to form a circular turning place for the
cart and other vehicles brought into the garden. Plows
are used so much in the cultivation of the garden that
it is best to make the plots // without the usual cross
walks. In this case the borders should be made of suffi-
cient width to give room enough for all those vegetables
which will not permit cultivation with the plow. Where
only the spade and hoe are used, in quite small gardens,
the plots ff may be subdivided into smaller ones by walks
three to four and a half feet wide, extending from the
borders to the main walk; and a portion of these plots
should be laid out each year in beds four feet wide for
onions, beets, carrots, etc. The earth should be dug out of
the main walks four inches deep and spread evenly on
each side over the adjacent ground. These walks may be
covered with gravel, so that they will be kept dry and
attractive; or fresh tan-bark, if the garden is located
• convenient to a tanning establishment, may be used in-
stead of the gravel. The bark will keep out the weeds
for two years, when it should be used as a dressing for
the strawberry beds, and its place filled with a fresh sup-

FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS.

33

ply. No more alleys and walks should be made than are
required for convenience in the gardening operations.

Figure 2 is another design for a vegetable garden with
the fruit orchard and ornamental grounds attached. This
plan was adapted for this book by the permission of the
editor of "American Garden."

7

^

VE5ETAU.E C,ARJfN

v /

Fig. 2 — General Plan of Grounds. Adapted from "American
Garden," July, 1894.

Box is the best edging wherever it succeeds, which it
does admirably throughout most of the South. All main
walks should be wide enough for two persons to walk
abreast, for which not less than four and a half feet are
required.

Planting vegetables for market requires a slight
3

34:

GARDENING FOR THE

alteration in the plan proposed for the home supply. In
this ease, of course, the planting should be on a large
scale, and the vegetables should be arranged in long

rows or drills, so as to permit of cultivation with the
horse and plow. There is not much attention paid to
laying out walks and dividing the land up into systematic
and permanent plots, as in the case of the home garden,
but vegetables of the same kind are planted together in
the most convenient form for easy cultivation and har-
vesting. In all other respects, however, the rules govern-
ing one apply Avith equal force to the other method of
gardening. In harvesting and preparing the vegetables
for market the reader is referred to the chapter devoted
to that subject.

Fencing. — The objects of fencing are to procure shelter
for delicate plants from cold winds, also shade for those
that require it, and, above all, to keep out of the garden
intruders of all kinds, that the owner may enjoy its fruits
without molestation. A high, close board fence, or a stone
or brick wall, tolerably answers the purpose; but the only
thing to be relied on is a living hedge. The ( )sage < ►range,
the Pyracanth, the Cherokee and single White Macartney
roses thrive in the South, and are all good for this pur-
pose. Osage Orange plants may be raised from seed, or
bought at the nurseries. The Fyraeanth, or Evergreen
Thorn (Cratoegus pyrapantha), will make a hedge as effect-
ual as the Osage Orange, and, as it is an evergreen, is
much the more desirable. The blossoms in spring are
very showy, and it is covered in winter with bright scarlet
berries, and hence it is often called the Burning-bush.
It grows freely from cuttings in sandy soil, but these
cuttings should remain in the uursery-bed a year, to
become well rooted before use. Citrus trifoliata, or Japan
Hardy Lemon, is considered by P. J. Berckmans as the
coming hedge plant for defensive as well as ornamental

FORMATION AM) MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS.

35

purposes. It requires but little trimming after the third
year. It makes au attractive appearance iu spring by its
numerous white flowers. Ligustrum atnarcnse, or Trivet
is another hedge plant that is well known for satisfactory
results. Mr. Nelson gives the following directions for
planting and trimming a hedge, which apply equally well
to Osage Orange and Pyracanth:

"Planting. — First dig a trench where the hedge is
iutended to be grown, two spades deep, throwing the
surface to one, and the subsoil to the other side; then
throw the surface soil down on the bottom of the trench,
and if it is very poor, add a little manure, or good surface
earth. Autumn is by far the best time for transplanting,
and it can safely be doue as soon as the leaves are
dropped. Cut down the plants to within four inches
above the roots before planting. Several authors recom-
mend planting in double rows, but I decidedly prefer a
single one. Assort the plants in two parcels, those of
large and those of small size, and lay the smaller ones
aside for the richest ground. Stretch the line firmly, and
place the plants in as straight a line as possible, one foot
apart; fill up the trench with earth, leaving about two
inches above ground; press the earth not too firmly, but
water plentifully, and after that, level the whole nicely.

"Trimming. — It is perfectly useless to plant a hedge
and leave it to be killed by weeds, or grow without trim-
ming. A young hedge will require the same amount of
labor as a row of Indian corn.
The plants having been cut
down so much, will, of course,
start vigorously the ensuing-
spring. A good hedge ought
never to be trimmed in any
other than in a conical shape,
as in Figure 3. When trim-
med in a conical shape, every shoot will enjoy the full

Fig. 3 — Suction uf Hedge.

36 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

benefit of air, li</ht, and moisture, and by this simple and
natural method, a hedge can be shorn into a strong wall
of verdure, so green and close from bottom to top, that even a
sparrow cannot, without difficulty, pass through it. In order
to make a hedge so thick and impervious as above men-
tioned, it is necessary to go to work even in the first sum-
mer, with a pair of hedge shears, pruning the young
growth, when about three months old, at the same time
laying down some of the most vigorous shoots to fill up
any vacant places found near the ground. These shoots
may be fastened to the ground with hooked pegs. They
may be considered as layers, will soon send up a number
of sprouts, making the hedge impenetrable for pigs, and
nearly for rabbits. The young twigs may be trimmed in
a wedge shape, not more than one foot high, and at the
base six inches broad. The next season the hedge may
be allowed to grow one foot higher, and three or four
inches wider at the base. This pruning is most readily
given with a reaping hook (a sharp sickle without teeth),
making the cut with an upward stroke. Thus the man-
agement mast be continued until the hedge has attained
the intended height, allowing an addition of four inches
broader at the bottom for every foot more in height. A
hedge, regularly trimmed twice a year — in June and
November — with the exception of the first years, when
it requires a little more care than afterward, will con-
tinue impenetrable for fifty or even one hundred years."
If cuttings of the Cherokee Rose (Rosa loevigata) are
planted by the side of a plank or wire fence, two feet
apart, they will grow up and cover it in a short time, and
effectually repel man and beast; but the growth is so
rampant that it requires constant shortening in. It is
also apt to die out at the bottom and become unsightly,
and is in all respects much inferior to the single white
Macartney (Rosa bracteata), an evergreen, and very easily

FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT OF GARDENS.

37

grown from cuttings. The latter is very thorny, and of
beautiful foliage. It never dies out at the bottom, whether
pruned or not, and south of Virginia, is very hardy, and
of luxuriant growth. A satisfactory fence can be made
with this, by setting good chestnut or cedar posts, eight
feet apart, planted about two and a half feet in the
ground. Bank up the soil to form some twenty inches
high along the line of the fence, then form the usual
paling fence, or nail a good wide bottom board, and finish
the fence with heart-pine six-inch planks, or with stout
wire, strained through holes in the posts. The wire fence
may be four feet high. The roses should be rooted cut-
tings, and may be planted at first, even eight feet apart,
and by layering and training the bottom shoots, if the
ground is kept in good order, in three years they will
repel every intruder. It is better, where plants are abun-
dant, to set them out four feet apart. This hedge requires
less pruning than any other to keep it impenetrable.
After the posts and slats have decayed, the bank itself,
grown over with roses, will repel all intrusion. The
roses should be set at about the original level of the
ground, and not at the top of the bank. My own hedge
of Macartney rose, when three years old, trained on a
common fence of rails and paling, formed a barrier per-
fectly secure, and very ornamental. I see but one objec-
tion to it. It is in summer always in blossom, and there-
fore attracts all the bees in the neighborhood. In my
fruit garden I have thought that the injury done to
peaches and grapes by wasps and bees has been much
greater since the hedge has grown up than before. It is
a fine bee plant. In a more northern climate the sweet-
brier might answer as a tolerable substitute.

The American Holly makes an efficient and beautiful
hedge, but is slow of growth and very hard to transplant.
It can, however, be safely planted by selecting a mild,

38 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

cloudy day the last of February, or early in March, cut-
ting off the top as directed above by Mr. Nelson for the
Osage Orange, and exposing the roots meanwhile to the
air as little as possible. Thousands of yards can bo thus
planted with little loss.

For an ornamental hedge about a cemetery lot or else-
where, the Irish Yew and the Tree Box are decidedly the
best plants that can be used. The narrow-leaved variety
of Tree Box grows naturally, just the right shape, and
needs very little trimming after two or three years. The
Yew likes shado.

The Japan Quince planted by the side of a common
picket or plank fence will, in a few years, make a good
inclosure for a fruit or vegetable garden, and in flower is
very ornamental.

After hedges arc established, a trench should be cut on
the garden side, two and a half or three feet from their
base, sufficiently deep to keep their roots from extending
into the beds and injuring the crops.

SOILS TUEli; CHARACTERISTICS. 39

CHAPTER II.

SOILS — THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.

Soils. — In all climates the character of the soil is of
as much importance as situation or aspect. Soils are of
two classes. They may be composed of matter derived
directly from the decay of rock, like clay, loam, sand,
lime, and other earthy and alkaline matters. Such a soil
is classed as inorganic. Soils may likewise originate from
the action and decay of plants and animals (organized
beings), as, for example, peat, mould, and shell marl.
Such a soil is classed as organic. A good soil is the result
of the proper union of both these classes.

The mechanical texture of 'a soil is likewise especially
to be regarded, as on this depends the proper retention of
manure and moisture. There are two grand divisions of
soils, the heavy and light, which pass into each other by
imperceptible gradations.

The best classification of soils is that of Schubler, a
German, and is founded entirely upon the relative pro-
portions of the chief constituents of all soils — viz., clay,
sand, lime, and humus. He classes them as follows:

Argillaceous Soils. — These contain over fifty per cent,
of clay, and are readily known by their tenacity and
greatness to the feel, caused by the predominance of the
clay in them. They are difficult to work, and in dry
weather bake like brick and are not permeable to light
dews and rains. In drying, they crack, exposing, in sum-
mer, the large roots of plants to the air and sun, and
breaking the smaller ones. After heavy rains they be-
come so saturated that they are for a long time unfit to
work, and the plants therein die from excess of moisture.

40 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

In short, they are very cold when they are wet, and very
hard when they are dry. The crops are full ten days later
in coming to maturity than in a good, sandy loam. Ordi-
nary clays contain about twenty-five per cent, of sand.
If less than fifteen per cent, they are only fit for brick-
making and pottery.

('lays are rich in alkalies, and have the property of
retaining potash, phosphoric and silicic acids, and ;ill
salts necessary to the growth of plants; also of con-
densing ammonia and other gaseous matters. Hence
they retain the virtues of manure better than most other
soils. Where there is present lime and organic matters
in sufficient quantity, clays, not too stiff, are excellent
for wheat.

A sandy ■soil is in texture the opposite of the preceding
and the lightest of all soils. It contains not over ten
per cent, of clay. Such soils are harsh to the feel, lack
cohesion, permit the water that falls upon them to pass
instantly through them, and, as they heat up quickly, the
crops raised in them soon suffer from drought. In them
vegetation is early, but less vigorous and sustained. They
do not readily combine with manures, the soluble parts of
which are leached into the subsoil, or are washed out by
the rains; so that, if manure be not constantly applied,
they will yield but a moderate crop. Gravels are, in this
respect, from the coarseness of their particles, still worse
than sands, and are very properly called "hungry soils."
Indeed, the fertility of a soil depends in a very great
degree upon the fineness of its particles. Sand is spar-
ingly soluble in water containing alkaline matter in solu-
tion, and in this state forms a portion, and sometimes an
important portion, of the food of plants. It is soluble
silica; in other words, dissolved sand, which the plant of
Wheat or maize has extracted from the soil and deposited
upon the exterior of its stem, that gives the stalk or straw

SOILS THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 41

its stiffness, and the lack of which in sufficient quantity
subjects it to the attacks of rust. Silica usually forms a
small proportion, too, of grains, legumes, and succulent
roots.

For garden purposes, the only kind of sand suitable is
that which is tine and has been rounded by moving water.
The angular particles of road sand form hard, impermea-
ble masses, and should never be employed. (Lindley.)

A loamy .sand i i a better soil than the preceding, and
contains from ten to twenty per cent, of clay. These light
soils are best adapted to tap-roots and bulbs and for
striking cuttings, while those heavier are better fitted
for plants with fibrous roots.

A sandy loam contains between twenty and thirty per
cent, of clay, while all soils containing from thirty to fifty
per cent, of clay are classed as ordinary loams.

In a garden designed for the cultivation of a variety of
plants, both a light and a moderately heavy soil are de-
sirable. But the best soil for general purposes is a loam
of medium texture, rather li^ht than otherwise, arising
from a suitable admixture of the two, as they reciprocally
correct the defects of each other. Where the other essen-
tials are present naturally, or added by man, such a soil
is suitable for the production of nearly all garden crops.
Any soil, by judicious culture, draining, and amelioraters,
or amendments, can be converted into such a loam.

Lime in greater or less proportions is generally present
in soils, commonly as a carbonate. It is sparingly solu-
ble in water, and is especially, when combined with acids,
as in the sulphate (gypsum), or the phosphate of lime
(bone earth), an important portion of the food of our
most useful plants. There are some plants, however, as
the Kalmia, to which its presence, to any appreciable ex-
tent in soils, is injurious. Any one of the foregoing soils
that contains from five to twenty-five per cent, of lime is

42 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

classed as marly (as a marly clay, a marly loam, etc.).
When it contains over twenty per cent, it is classed as
calcareous. A small percentage only of lime is required
for the successful growth of plants. Marly soils, other
things being equal, are the best adapted to fruit trees
and wheat. They are also classed as argillaceous, loamy,
sandy-loamy, and loamy-sandy marls, etc., according to
the relative amounts in them of clay and sand; while if
they contain above five per cent, of humus (vegetable mat-
ter in a state of decay), they are classed as humus marls,
which may be also argillaceous, if containing fifty per
cent, of clay; loamy, if from thirty to fifty per cent., and
sandy, if less than thirty per cent, of clay.

Calcareous soils (which contain more than twenty per
cent, of carbonate of lime) also are classed in the same
manner with marly soils, according to the relative
amounts of clay, sand, and humus they contain — as argil-
laceous, or loamy calcareous, etc.

Organic Soils. — Shell marls, though of organic origin,
are naturally classed with the calcareous soils. The other
organic soils are mainly of vegetable origin, resulting
from the decay of plants, ami are named humus soils.
This last class is of three orders: 1st. Soluble mild humus,
that is, vegetable mould in a fit condition for the nourish-
ment of the plants which grow in it, such as thoroughly
rotted peat, black or leaf-mould. 2. Acid humus, which
contains a free acid, injurious, if not destructive, to most
plants. 3d. Peat or other fibrous vegetable matter, which,
though free from acidity, is not yet in a proper condition
to impart nourishment to plants. Humus soils may be
argillaceous, loam}' and sandy, and also contain, or be
destitute of, calcareous matter.

Humus has the property of producing a constant sup-
ply of carbonic acid by slow combination with oxygen.
It aids greatly in keeping a soil in an open state, so as to

SOILS THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 43

allow water and air to pass freely through it, and by vir-
tue of its porosity it condenses and retains gaseous mat-
ter within, and it absorbs saline substances. Though such
a soil freely parts with a superabundance of water, yet in
dry weather it imbibes from the atmosphere large sup-
plies of moisture. Schubler found that 100 pounds of
dry humus would hold 190 pounds of water without losing
a drop. In dry weather 1,000 grains of it spread upon
a surface of fifty inches absorbed from the atmosphere
in three days 120 grains of moisture. Of silicious sand
the same amount absorbed nothing; sandy clay, 28 grains;
loamy clay, 35; stiff clay, 35; garden mould, 52. Hence
the best defence we have against drought is an abundant
supply of decayed organic matter in a loamy soil. Neither
clay, sand, humus, nor lime will, if pure, sustain a healthy
vegetation; but properly mixed, they constitute the main
ingredients of the richest soils in the world. As good
loam contains sufficient lime, it is constantly employed
with peat and sand, in varying proportions, by gardeners
as the essentials for proper development of the plants
they wish to grow therein.

Where true peat cannot be obtained, leaf-mould from
the woods, black muck from the swamps, well decom-
posed and sweetened by exposure, or thoroughly rotted
turf mixed with powdered charcoal, are the besl substi-
tutes.*

The depth of a soil is quite as important as its texture.
If not naturally deep, it must be made so by trenching.
Deep soils retain a constant supply of moisture in dry
weather, so that the plants do not suffer; they do not
become too wet in rainy seasons, as the earth drinks in
and retains the rain below the surface; hence they are
not so liable to wash away. If equally rich, they furnish

* Rural Cyclopedia, Dr. Lindley.

44 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

plants with a more abundant supply of food than shallow
soils. Especially for all tap-rooted plants, a deep soil is
indispensable. In the preparation of your garden, then,
see thai the ground is dry, deep, and rich, (iood vege-
tables will not grow in a wet soil; a shallow soil will not.
furnish them with a regular supply of moisture ; and the
crops growing upon a poor soil never repay the labor
bestowed upon them.

IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL.

45

CHAPTER III.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL.

A soil may be improved in texture, in depth, and by the
addition of such constituents necessary for the growth of
plants as may be wanting.

The texture of a clayey -soil can be rendered more per-
vious by thorough draining, deep trenching, and by the
application of sand, ashes, lime and unfermented manure.
Any clayey, retentive subsoil will be greatly benefited by
good underdrains. A wet soil is always cold, as water
has a much greater capacity for heat than has earth.
The same quantity of heat that will warm the earth four
degrees will warm water but one. Water, also, is a bad
conductor of heat downwards. Boiling water can be
gently poured over cold water without heating the latter,
except a very little at the surface. Now, if the soil in
spring be saturated with water colder than the summer
rains, unless it be removed by drainage, the rains cannot
descend to carry warmth into the ground; neither will the
wet soil conduct the atmospheric heat downwards with
much rapidity. But draw off the cold water by proper
drains, and the warmer water can percolate through and
raise the temperature of the soil. As the warmer water
settles, the porous space it occupies will admit warm air.
(Thompson.) Drainage, also, by admitting the atmosphere,
renders the soil much more friable. Soils wrell drained
have likewise been found to suffer far less from summer
droughts than before. Underdrains should be not less
than three feet below the surface, and four feet is much
to be preferred.

Trenching renders the upper stratum of soil more light

46 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

and friable acting- as drainage, but imperfectly. Its great
utility is in increasing the quantity of soil to which the
roots of plants find access.

Drainage. — Lands which produce poor crops in spite
of their fertility may be greatly improved by drainage,
particularly if the soil contains a surplus amount of
water The surface water must How off freely and rapidly
after sinking below the surface. Whenever it stands on
the surface any considerable length of time after a rain
it is evidence of the saturated condition of the soil, and
therefore great need of thorough drainage.

The benefits of draining lands are summed up as fol-
lows: Deepening the soil, pulverization is accelerated,
surface washing is reduced to a minimum, the soil works
lighter, air is readily supplied to the roots of the plants,
the evil effects of droughts are greatly reduced, because
the open, porous condition of the soil permits of the
absorption of air, and, when the air particles come in
contact with the cool earth, moisture is precipitated from
the atmosphere.

The usual shape of tiles is shown in Figure 4. It is an

earthenware tube vary-
ing in diameter from three
inches upwards. A collar
fits over the joints and
serves the double purpose
of holding the sections together and at the same time
preventing the entrance of sand at the joints. In clay
soils no collar is required.

The size of the pipe needed to drain the land must be
determined by the amount of water to be conducted off,
and the character of the adjacent lots from which the
water may be drawn when the system begins operation;
and it must meet the emergency of heavy flows of water.
The pipes must be sunk deep enough to place them out

Fig. 4— Drain Tile.

IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 47

of reach of the subsoil plow and frost, and at the same
time to render them efficient in the work they are to per-
form. Experience has proven that three to four feet
below the surface will yield the best results. The fall
must be sufficient to readily and rapidly carry off the
water entering the system. Ordinarily, three inches fall
to each one hundred feet distance will give a flow strong-
enough to meet the demands of the soil, but a greater fall
will yield better results. In determining the size of the
drain pipes the following fact must be borne in mind:
The smaller the pipe the more concentrated the flow and
the greater the chance for sweeping along solid matters,
and thus ridding the pipe of clogging materials. The
capacity of a pipe is proportionate to the square of the
diameter, so that a tile one inch in diameter will have
a capacity of one inch of water, while a pipe two inches
in diameter will take four inches; one three inches in
diameter wTill take nine inches. As a general rule, a
three-inch pipe will drain two and one-half acres when
placed five hundred feet apart, a four-inch pipe four acres,
six-inch pipe nine acres, when the grades are less than
three feet to the hundred.

The distance between the trenches to hold the tiles may
vary from fifteen to fifty feet, depending upon whether
the land is stiff clay or sandy. The mains must be large
enough to readily take the water which the laterals
collect and transmit to them.

The water goes in at the joints and not through the
pores of the tiles, as some people assert, so that in laying
the system care must be taken simply to place the pipes
end to end without cementing or obstructing the joints,
and thus preventing the free and ready flow of water into
the system.

The old notion of covering the land with an elaborate
system of piping has been abandoned, and it has been

48 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

found by experiment only necessary to tile the lower
portions of the land, and the uplands will also be suffi-
ciently drained.

Ashes and lime each have the property of rendering
heavy soils lighter, and light soils more tenacious, and
both more productive, especially for potatoes, turnips,
beets, and peas, which delight in calcareous soils. In cold
climates, plowing clay lands deeply in the fall, and expos-
ing them to the action of the winter's frost, is very bene-
ficial, but in sections where there is little frost and abun-
dant and heavy washing rains, it is worse than useless.
Turning under coarse vegetable or carbonaceous matter,
as straw, leaves, pine straw, corn-stalks, a crop of cow-
peas, clover, or any other green crop, bog, or leaf-mould,
decomposed peat, and even tan-bark itself, so deeply be-
neath the surface as not to interfere with cultivation, will
by the slow decomposition of these materials much in-
crease the fertility of a clay soil by improving its texture.
It is most improved by drainage, if needed.

The frequent working of the soil with the hoe and
spade, thereby admitting the ammonia and fertilizing-
gases of the atmosphere, is itself very beneficial to clay
soils, if done when the earth is dry. A clay soil is exceed-
ingly injured if worked while wet. It is so difficult to
work, and so liable to bake into a hard crust after every
rain, that it will well repay, where materials for the
purpose are at all convenient, to lay out a good deal of
time and labor in improving its mechanical texture.

The texture of a sandy soil is much more easily improved
than a clay, as the percentage of clay required to con-
vert any sand into a loam is not very large, and can easily
be added. Fortunately, too, in sandy soils, clay is gen-
erally near at hand, often lying but a few inches beneath
the surface. A few loads of stiff clay, scattered thinly
over the surface in autumn, are worth more applied to

IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL. 49

such a soil than any manure, for the clay will render
manures permanent in their effect, which else would
leach through without benefit to the crops. The effect
of the clay itself is lasting. Lime, as before observed,
stiffens the texture of a sandy soil, and gypsum has the
same effect. Ashes, leached or unleached, are also an
excellent and profitable dressing to such a soil, but the
best of all applications is a good clay marl. Peat, vege-
table manure, and carbonaceous matters of all kinds,
such as refuse charcoal, are good applications to these
sandy soils, as they enable them better to retain the fer-
tilizing properties of the manure applied, though they do
not much affect the texture of the soil. Sandy soils very
often rest upon a clay bottom, so that the thorough
trenching which a garden should receive will often
greatly improve its texture. Working such a soil while
wet, and the continual use of the roller will also render
it more tenacious. But clay is the great improver, and
it is astonishing how small a quantity of fine clay will
cement a loose sand into a good loam.

To conclude, in regard to the texture of soils, choose or
make for the garden a loam of medium texture a little
inclined to sand, and the finer its particles the better.
Clays and sands both become objectionable as they depart
from this friable, loamy texture, and the first step in their
improvement is to bring them to this condition. A
medium consistency best agrees with vegetation.

The depth of soil in the garden is as likely to need im-
provement as its texture. A deep soil is necessary that
the roots may penetrate it freely in search of food, and be
able to endure our summer droughts. The roots of a
strawberry have been traced five feet down in a deep,
rich soil. The difference in the freshness and growth of
plants raised upon trenched soils and those growing upon
soils prepared in the common manner is remarkable. In
4

50 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

lawns, the color of the grass will indicate very exactly
the greater or less depth of the soil. The depth of soils
may be increased by subsoil plowing, or trenching.

Trenching is the old mode of improving the depth of
the soil in smaller gardens, and is usually performed in
this manner: At one end of the plot to be trenched dig
with the spade a trench three feet wide and two feel
deep; throw the earth out on the side away from the plot
to be trenched. Shovel the bottom clean, and make the
sides perpendicular, leaving a clear open trench across
the plot. Open another trench the same width, and put
the surface spadeful of that into the bottom of the former
trench, and the next spadeful upon that, until open to
the same depth as the first one, adding meanwhile the
necessary manures and amendments. When the plot is
entirely trenched in this way, the last trench will remain
open, which must be filled with the earth thrown out from
the first one, which finishes the work. This method is
now seldom resorted to, since the same ends are secured
by the use of the subsoil plow with very much less expen-
diture of labor and time

Subsoil Plowing. — A common turning plow goes first,
and plows as deep a furrow as practicable. It is followed
by the subsoil plow in the same furrow, which should
loosen the soil, without turning it up, to the depth of
eighteen or twenty inches, unless it is a stiff clay or
gravel. If the soil requires the application of organic
matter, it is best to apply it before the deep plowing is
done; or the organic matter may be secured by first pre-
paring the land well and sowing in cowpeas or fieldpeas
and turning under. This is one of the best ways of en-
riching the land, and should be always adopted where
the land is poor.

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 51

CHArTER IV.

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES.

It is the part of wisdom to return to the soil all those
ingredients which the plants have taken off, so that the
land will not become impoverished. Fertilizing, there-
fore, is the essential part of the gardener's duty each year.

The substances applied to the soil for its betterment
may be divided into two groups:

1. Those minerals which amend the condition of the
land by changing its texture, correcting its acidity and
otherwise modifying its condition than by the nourish-
ment they directly afford the plants. Such are clay, sand,
lime, marl, old plaster, etc., when applied to soils which
need them.

2. Organic and inorganic substances which supply the
food for plants — such as barnyard manures and commer-
cial fertilizers.

The first group may be applied at irregular, and proba-
bly at long intervals, in order to place the soil in the best
physical condition for the well-being of the plant; but
the second group of substances must be placed in the
land in small or large quantities as the needs demand,
each year in order to keep the fertility of the soil up to
its maximum condition by restoring what has been
extracted during each harvest.

The ingredients most likely extracted by the growing
plant, in sufficient quantities to seriously affect the fer-
tility of the land, are phosphoric acid, potash and nitro-
gen. The other substances entering into the composition
of the plant are taken in such small amounts that the
effects on the soil are inappreciable even after many years

b'Z GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

of cultivation. It is important, then, that the three chemi-
cals— phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen — should be
returned to the land each year in quantities sufficient for
and in condition suitable to the immediate demands of
the growing plant.

The nutritive manures mentioned in the second group
are contributors directly to the demands of the plant, but
barnyard manure is probably the most efficient fertilizer
for restoring the soil to a normal condition than is to be
secured from any of the so-called commercial fertilizers.
It not only contains the elements required for plant food,
but it also has the property of rendering available the
stored-up ingredients and greatly improving the condi-
tion of the soil for absorbing moisture. Barnyard manure,
however, is variable in its value, depending upon the
character of food fed to the animals, the condition of
animals — whether young and growing or old and feeble,
fattening or in normal condition, the proportion of litter
placed in the stalls, and the care with which the manure
is kept. If fermentation has taken place, and the manure
has been permitted to weather, so that leaching may
result, of course the soluble constituents will be lost,
and the fertilizer will be greatly depreciated in value.

" When practicable, it is best to apply manure in the
fresh condition. The disposition to be made of the
manure of the farm (both fermented and unfermented)
must be determined largely by the nature of the crop
and soil. Where improvement of the mechanical condi-
tion of the soil is the principal object sought, fresh
manure is best adapted for this purpose to heavy soils,
and well-rotted manure to light soils. Where prompt
action of the fertilizing constituents is desired, the best
results will probably be obtained by applying fresh
manure to the light soil, although excessive applications
in this case should be avoided on account of the danger

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 53

of 'burning out' of the soil in dry seasons. Fresh manure
has a forcing effect, and is better suited to grasses and
forage plants than to plants grown for seeds, such as
cereals. Direct applications to root crops, such as sugar
beets, potatoes, or tobacco, often prove injurious. The
manure should be spread when carried to the field, and
not left in lumps to leach."*

Commercial fertilizers are sold under two classes —
viz., "complete" and "partial," depending upon whether
the three necessary ingredients (phosphoric acid, potash
and nitrogen) are present or only one or two of them.
In determining which of these two classes of fertilizers
to use the gardener must be governed entirely by the
character of the plant and the condition of the soil.

"Plants," says Liebig, "contain combustible and incom-
bustible ingredients. The latter, wmich compose the ash
left by all parts of plants on combustion, consist, in the
case of our cultivated plants, essentially of phosphoric
acid, potash, silicic and sulphuric acids, lime, iron, mag-
nesia, and chloride of sodium." It is now fully established
"that the constituents of the ash are elements of food,
and hence indispensable to the structure of the different
parts of the plant."

The few ashes that remain after burning a plant are all
that it got necessarily from the soil. From eighty-eight
to ninety-nine per cent, of the weight of the plant has
escaped into the air, from which, and from water, the
plant has derived it immediately or remotely. The com-
position of their ashes varies in different parts of the same
plant and slightly in the same species when grown on
different soils; but they are always a valuable manure for
the species from which obtained, and, slowly dissolving

*"Barnyard Manure," Farmer's Bulletin No. 21, U. S. Dept. Agri., p. 31.

54 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

in the soil, they furnish the roots with just the salts re-
quired to nourish the growing plant.

But, in general, over nine pounds in every ten have
disappeared under the action of fire. The combustible
portions which have been expelled are carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and a little nitrogen, which have been derived
from carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, which are, as
elements of food, equally indispensable as the substances
of which the ashes of plants are composed.

The incombustible constituents of the plant come from
the soil alone, and are taken up by the roots.

After the gaseous constituents of plants are driven off
by combustion, the small percentage of ashes remaining,
as we have stated, consists of silicic and phosphoric acids,
potash, sulphur, lime, magnesia, iron, chlorine and soda (the
two latter generally unite as chloride of sodium), all of
which, in greater or less proportions, enter into the
composition of our field and garden crops. These earthy
or saline constituents are found within the cells of plants,
or deposited as a lining to the cell-walls, or entering into
their substance. They are useful to the plant itself, and
useful in the plant's products as affording food to man.
Some of them are always present in the azotized sub-
stances formed by plants. Thus sulphur and the phos-
phates are, with ammonia, necessary for the formation of
albumen, fibrin, and caseine, which are essential con-
stituents of our blood.

Limb generally occurs as a carbonate and sulphate, or
gypsum. Partially soluble in water, it is an important
ingredient in the soil to most of our cultivated plants. It
is indispensable to such plants as beets, potatoes, peas,
beans, fruit trees, grasses, and vines, but to Kalmias and
coniferous trees it is injurious. Lime in the soil enables
it better to absorb and retain heat, and also corrects
acidity. It is of great value as an application to cold.

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 55

tenacious soils, rendering them of more open texture,
and making the organic matters therein available to
plants. It, on the other hand, makes light soils more
adhesive, acting as an amendment. It decomposes
organic matters, whether vegetable or animal, and forms
with them a partially soluble compound peculiarly fitted
for the food of plants. But as it has the property of setting
free ammonia, it should never be applied in connection with
fresh animal manures. Mixed with stable manure or guano,
it would speedily free them from nearly all their am-
monia, that indispensable and most costly constituent
of the food of plants.

This will not happen to any great extent, and there will
be little loss, if the mixture takes place in, and both the
lime and manure are entirely covered with the soil, which
will at once absorb whatever ammonia the lime sets free.

The great value of lime, aside from the small quantity
direct!}' available to plants, is in hastening, as above
stated, the decomposition of decaying matters in the soil,
and rendering them assimilable by plants. The old black
mould of kitchen gardens and other soils rich in humus,
it will suddenly render wonderfully productive, and they
will consequently speedily become exhausted, unless new
supplies of organic manures are added. Lime alone,
added to a soil, will speedily exhaust it if the crops are
removed and no return of manure is made.

Dr. Hilyard, in the Tenth Census Reports on cotton
production, makes the following admirable deduction
concerning the use of lime in soils:

1. "A more rapid transformation of the vegetable mat-
ter into active humus.

2. "The retention of such humus against the oxidizing
influences of hot climates.

3. "It renders adequate for more profitable culture
percentages of phosphoric acid and potash so small that

56 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

in the case of the absence or deficiency of lime, the soil is
practically sterile.

4. "It tends to secure the proper conditions of nitrifica-
tion whereby the inert nitrogen of the soil is rendered
available.

5. "It exerts a most important influence upon the
flocculation, and therefore upon the tiHabiiity of the
soil."*

The Indirect Action of Manures. — Some manures
ameliorate the soil by absorbing and retaining moisture
from the atmosphere. This property is as beneficial to
a clay as to a sandy soil during drought, as at such times
clays are often baked so as to be impervious to the dew,
and suffer nearly or quite as much as more sandy soils.
The best absorbents of moisture are stable manure, thor-
oughly decomposed tan-bark, and the manure of the cow
and pig, in the order named. After these come sheep and
fowl manure, salt, soot, and even burnt clay is not with-
out its virtue. All these absorbents are much more effec-
tual when finely divided, and the soil itself is a good
absorbent in proportion to its richness, fineness, and the
friability produced by frequent culture. In the power of
retaining moisture absorbed, pig manure stands pre-
eminent; next that of the horse, then common salt and
soot.

Some manures are beneficial in absorbing not only
moisture, but nutritious gases from the atmosphere,
which they yield to the roots in a concentrated form. All
animal and vegetable manures have the power of attract-
ing oxygen from the air during decomposition. Charcoal
and all carbonaceous matters have the power of absorb-
ing carbonic acid gas in large quantities, supplying con-
stantly to the roots of plants an atmosphere of carbonic

"Cotton Production— Tenth Census,

FBETILIZEKS AM) MANURES.

57

acid, which is renewed as quickly as it is abstracted.
The same substances are especially valuable for their
power of absorbing ammonia. Charcoal will absorb
ninety times its volume of ammoniacal gas, which can
be separated by simply moistening it with water.

Decayed wood absorbs seventy times its volume, while
leaf-mould, perfectly rotted tan-bark, and, in fact, all
vegetable manures, are exceedingly valuable in this
respect.

Another indirect action of manure in assisting the
growth of plants is in decomposing and rendering available
any stubborn organic substances in the soil. Stable
manure, and all decomposing animal and vegetable sub-
stances, have a tendency to promote the decay of any
organic remains in the soil. All putrescent substances
hasten the process of putrefaction in other organic bodies
with which they come in contact. Even peat and tan-
bark, mingled with stable dung and Tcept moist, are converted
into good manure; common salt in small proportions has
a similar septic property, and the efficacy of lime in this
respect is well known.

Ashes are of equal value, but not so easy to obtain in
sufficient quantity. Neither ashes nor lime should ever be
mixed with manures that are rich in ammonia, such as
cotton seed or animal manures, as they would cause great
waste of ammonia by setting it free and permitting it to
be lost in the atmosphere.

Inorganic substances are sometimes released from their
combinations, and rendered soluble by the application of
carbonaceous manures. Ashes from which the soluble
potash has been leached, if composted with swamp muck,
are enabled to furnish plants with a further supply. By
composting the two the value of both is greatly increased.
Such a compost may be mixed with ammoniacal manures,

58 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

not only without loss, but with decided benefit, and the
ammonia will be retained.

Another indirect agency of manures is in protecting
plants from sudden changes of temperature. There is no
doubt that rich soils and those abounding in animal and
vegetable remains, are less liable to change their temper-
ature with the incumbent atmosphere than those of
poorer constituents, for the decomposition of manures
gives warmth to the soil. Corn can be grown in high
latitudes upon rich land only; upon a poor soil it would
perish.

The last indirect effect of manures upon plants is to
improve the texture of the soils in which they grow.
Decomposing in the ground, they leave interstices as they
become less in bulk, making it more light and porous.
The effect of manure in rendering a stiff soil light and
friable is very well known. It is equally true that vege-
table manures give to sandy soils greater tenacity,
enabling them better to retain moisture and ammonia.

Manures, then, should be adapted to soils and circum-
stances. Cohesive and binding manures are most suitable
for open sands; those of open texture, for stiff clays; those
that readily attract and retain moisture, for dry soils;
heating, dry, strawy, and turfy manures, for wet or clayey
soils; and those of slow decomposition for hungry gravels.

Gypsum. — Of this a very small quantity will suffice.
One bushel per acre 3rearly is all that is needed. In
absorbing ammonia from the manure heap, charcoal dust
and leaf-mould are much cheaper. It is the cheapest way
of supplying the soil with what sulphur is required.

Marl, where it can be obtained, may be applied with
advantage, especially to sandy soils. It is generally bene-
ficial in proportion to the quantity of lime it contains.

Some marls contain both phosphate of lime and potash
in considerable quantities, and hence are of increased

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES.

59

value. Before largely applying it, experiments should be
made on a small scale, as some marls, upon trial, are
found to be injurious.

Charcoal renders the soil light and friable, gives it a
dark color, and additional warmth for early crops. The
bed whereon charcoal has been burnt is always marked
by a most vigorous growth of plants when it becomes
sufficiently mixed with earth. It contains also small
quantities of salts of potash and other fertilizing salts.

It absorbs both carbonic acid and ammonia from the
air, and yields them to the roots of plants. It is most
marked in its effects on plants which require abundant
nitrogen. As it is indestructible, its beneficial effects
last as long as it remains in the soil, supplying the root-
lets of plants with carbonic acid, which is renewed as fast
as abstracted. Its good effects begin to be seen when the
dust is applied at the rate of forty bushels per acre. Char-
coal is invaluable for destroying the odor of decaying
animal matter, retaining all the gases in its own sub-
stance ready to yield them up for the use of plants.
Hence, the best application of this substance is not
directly to the soil, but to compost it with putrescent
animal matters, urine or night soil, of which it will ab-
sorb all the odor and fertilizing gases given off during
their decomposition. Composted with the last-named sub-
stance, it becomes poudrette, and is second only to guano
as a fertilizer.

In striking cuttings or potting plants, fine charcoal is a
valuable substitute for sand, plants rooting in it with
great certainty. Plants will flourish in powdered char-
coal alone with considerable vigor, and, added to the
other materials used in potting, it is found greatly to pro-
mote healthy growth in most plants.

Fine charcoal can be obtained in considerable quanti-
ties from the old hearths where it has been burned; also

60 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

from the refuse of smiths* shops, founderies, and machine
shops. All the refuse of the garden that will not decay,
pea-brush, trimmings of trees, cabbage and corn-stalks,
together with tan-bark, sawdust, and fresh shavings,
may be collected, the coarser materials placed at the bot-
tom and set on fire when the heap is building, then
covered with the finer. After beating all well together, it
should be covered well with short, moist rubbish, weeds
and (dods. Bermuda grass turf is the best material for
this purpose if you are troubled with it, and it is better if
it has been obtained from a clayey loam. After the heap
is well on fire, clayey turf, together with the clay of the
soil, may be added to the top, and a large quantity of the
charcoal mixed with burnt clay is thus prepared. At first
there is great difficulty in keeping the piles on fire, and
strict attention is required. Thrust a stake in different
places, that the fire may run through the entire heap, and
if it breaks out in any of these, stop them anew with rub-
bish and brush, cover with earth, and make holes in new
places. When the smoke subsides the heap is charred
enough. When finished and the fire put out store it up for
use. The mixture thus prepared has been found beneficial
in every instance, and is a most valuable manure, espe-
cially for roses, producing invariably an abundance of
fibrous roots, clean, healthy, vigorous growth, and luxu-
riant blooms. {Paul.)

Besides charcoal, there are many other vegetable sub
stance's of great value as absorbents of the fertilizing
salts and gases that would otherwise escape from animal
manures. Carbonaceous matter of every sort should be
provided for this purpose. Gather the leaves of trees of
all kinds, including pine straw. They contain many sub-
stances necessary for the growth of the plants from which
they fall, or available to other plants. Throw them into
the stables and yards, moisten them and sprinkle them

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES.

61

with the lime and salt mixture, and if kept in a damp
state and turned over once or twice, they form the best
manure known for all kinds of trees and shrubs, and
indeed afford all the necessary constituents, organic and
inorganic, of all cultivated plants.

Swamp Muck is another valuable absorbent. Gather
the black earth of swamps, place in piles and let it dry
out the superfluous moisture, and haul it to the compost
heap or yard. Swamp muck, by its elasticity, keeps the
soil light and open, and is excellent both for absorbing
and retaining moisture therein. It may be reduced with
ashes or lime, either of which will destroy all its naturally
acid properties. The salt and lime mixture is the best
and usually the cheapest for this purpose, but leached
ashes mixed with carbonaceous matter have an additional
part of their potash rendered soluble and available for
plants, and should be used thus where obtainable.

The Lime and Salt Mixture is thus prepared: Take
three bushels of unslaked lime, dissolve a bushel of salt
in as little water as possible, and slake the lime there-
with. If the lime will not take up all the brine at once
(which it will if good and fresh burned), add a little more
of the brine daily, turning and adding until all is taken
up. Keep it under cover until wanted for use. Of itself it
supplies plants with chlorine, lime and soda, and acts like
lime or ashes in reducing stubborn vegetable matters and
correcting their acid properties.

With a load of swamp earth, mix a bushel and a half
of the lime and salt mixture intimately while it is in a
moderately moist state, and in thirty days it will be
decomposed. Upon a layer of this earth six inches thick,
spread a coat of fresh stable manure, each day covering it
with ten times its quantity of prepared muck, which will
absorb all the gases and salts. Let the pile accumulate
until four feet high, and then turn it all over, mix it again,

GABDENING FOR TIIK SOUTH.

and cover the whole with a thick coat of prepared muck.
If too dry to ferment add water, and in three weeks it
will be fit for use, and will be found equal to common
stable manure, and is entirely free from insects of all
kinds. In reducing composts of all kinds, the heap must
be kept moist or no fermentation will be produced. Keep-
ing it "always moist but never leached" is the way to
produce a strong compost.

A thick layer of the muck should be kept also in the
hog-peus and stables to absorb the urine, removing the
solid manure from the latter daily, aud the muck at the
end of each week. Upon this muck also the house slops
of all kinds should be poured, and where charcoal is not
employed, a bushel every three days should be thrown
into the privy to destroy the offensive gases produced.
The muck, whether prepared with the above mixture,
with ashes or lime, will retain all the virtues of the ani-
mal manure. Neither lime nor ashes, unless in excess,
when thus combined with vegetable matters, will drive
off the ammonia.

Leaf-Mould, or the black surface soil of the woods, is
of still more value. This is free from the acid properties
of swamp muck, and may be supplied directly to most
plants in the flower garden, many of which will not
flourish unless this material is present in the soil. It is of
still more importance for potting plants in the green-
house. For the kitchen and fruit garden it is best com-
posted, like swamp muck, with fresh animal manure. It is
indispensable in garden culture.

Tan-Bark is another material abounding in carbon,
which may, to some extent, be used as an absorbent of
animal manure. It may be beneficially applied directly
to strawberries, to which it answers the double purpose
of mulching and manure. But the crowns of the plants
must not be covered; and for all purposes it should be

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES.

63

obtained as much decomposed as possible. Tan may be
applied directly to Irish potatoes when ready to cover in
the furrow. After they are dropped and the manure
applied, a coat of old tan, composted with ashes or the
lime and salt mixture, may be given, and the planting
finished by covering this with earth. It improves the
yield materially and the quality also, as all carbonaceous
matters do. Where swamp muck or leaf-mould can be
obtained, it is hardly worth while to use tan as an
absorbent of animal manures.

It is not of sufficient value to be worth hauling far. In
trenching, it may, with other coarse matters, be mixed
with the bottom soil to lighten its texture and act as a
reservoir of moisture. For corn it may, after composting
with ashes, be mixed with the surface soil, when, if not in
excess, it will be of some service to the crop.

It is very difficult to reduce, but if kept moist, the lime
and salt mixture will do it. It may be strewed in the
stock-yard six or eight inches thick, and sprinkled pretty
thickly with the mixture. The treading of the stock will
mix it. Let the whole be turned over in a moist state
once or twice, and in the course of the winter it will be-
come a valuable application to the plants that do well
with fresh manure. There are abundant elements of fer-
tility in tan, but it is more difficult to render them avail-
able than with any other vegetable substance; and it is,
upon the whole, quite a dangerous article to experiment
with. Reduced thoroughly by composting it with stable
manure, using in this case no lime, and then mixed with
decayed leaves and plenty of sharp sand, it makes a toler-
able compost for growing those plants which require
peat, such as Azaleas and Rhododendrons. Tan, properly
composted, will prove of most use in light soils deficient
in vegetable matter, and when less decomposed, for open-
ing the texture of close, heavy clays.

64 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Decayed chips, sawdust, shavings, etc., are best applied
to Irish potatoes, as directed in the case of tan-bark.
They should be covered with soil to promote a more
speedy decay. They have much the nature of tan-bark
without its acidity, and may be likewise, when somewhat
decayed, composted with stable manure and used as peat.
All these substances are valuable for burning clay or for
charring, and afterwards incorporating them with urine,
night soil, or superphosphate of lime. In the case of tan-
bark, this is undoubtedly the safest and most profitable
way to use it.

Green Manures are various crops, raised to turn into
the ground in a fresh state for fertilizing it. For this pur-
pose all the weeds of the garden should be employed
while green. Over any vacant spots in the garden not
wished to be used in autumn, rye or barley can be sown,
which will keep the soil from washing, and when large
enough may be either cut for feed, or turned into the soil
as the plots are wanted for use. Spinach should be sown
in considerable quantities, as it grows all winter, and,
spaded into the soil in spring, adds a good deal to its fer-
tility. The seed can be saved in any quantity with little
trouble.

But the most fertilizing plants for this purpose are
leguminous plants, like the Cowpea, as they draw nour-
ishment largely from the atmosphere, and afford a great
amount of foliage for turning under as manure. This
class of plants is also quite rich in ammonia.

Animal Manures. — This is the most important class,
and the greatest attention should be paid to collecting,
preserving, and economizing them. All animal manures,
when compared with the preceding class, are more rich in
nitrogen, and more easily decomposed and rendered
soluble; but though the effect of this class of substances
is much more obvious, it is not so lasting.

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 65

Its value consists in part of certain volatile and soluble
substances, which, in the common mode of preserving
manure, are dissipated in the air or washed away by
heavy rains. In this climate it is necessary to shelter
manure from the sun and rain. All animal matter is
either directly or indirectly derived from vegetable sub-
stances; hence, every portion of the same that can be
rendered soluble is a valuable food for plants. Among
the most important animal substances employed as ma-
nures are urine, and dung of all kinds. The first of these
is almost invariably wasted, though in the case of the
cow, it is of more value than the solid excrements. It
should be carefully saved by bedding the yard and stables
with swamp muck, wood earth, or some other absorbent.
Urine is particularly rich in ammonia. This may be ab-
sorbed by the muck or by sprinkling the floor of stables
and the manure heap frequently with fine charcoal or
gypsum. This substance, sprinkled upon the floors of
stables, forms a compound like the urate of commerce,
so powerful that five hundred pounds will amply manure
an acre. If you can obtain no other absorbent, tan-bark
is not without its value, but the weeds, sweepings of
walks, and other refuse of the garden, particularly leaf-
mould and the dark top-soil of pastures, are to be pre-
ferred. Urine may be diluted with three times its bulk of
water and permitted to grow stale, and be applied at
night or in moist weather directly to the growing crops.

The principal animal manures are those of the horse,
the hog, the cow, and the sheep. Of these horse manure
is most valuable in its fresh state. That of the hog comes
next, then that of the ox, while the cow is at the bottom
of the list, because most of the enriching substances in
her food go to the formation of milk, leaving the manure
comparatively weakened. The richer the food given to
animals, the more powerful is the manure. If animal
5

66 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

manures are employed in a fresh state, they should be
mixed intimately with the soil, and given to such coarse
feeding crops as corn and the garden pea. But nearly all
plants do better if the manure is composted and fully
fermented before use. Pig manure, used alone, is con-
sidered pernicious to the growth of the cabbage and
turnip tribe, and gives an unpleasant taste to many other
vegetables, but composted with muck or mould, it is
much more beneficial as well as more durable.

In managing animal manures, decomposition must be
promoted; the volatile parts must be preserved from dis-
sipation in the air, and the soluble portions from being
washed out by rains. That it may ferment, it must be
kept in a bod}-, that heat ma}- be generated and its natural
moisture retained, while beneath it a layer of some ab-
sorbent substance should be placed, to receive and retain
its soluble parts, and as fast at it is thrown from the
stable it should be covered with layers of muck to retain
the ammonia. Horse manure, especially, should not be
exposed at all ; it begins to heat and lose ammonia almost
immediately, as may be perceived by the smell. Mix it
with other manures and cover it with absorbents as soon
as possible. Keep the stable bedded with muck, and over
this a good bed of leaves.

The Manure of Birds is richer than that of any other
animals; as the solid and liquid excrements are mixed
together, it is particularly rich in nitrogen and the phos-
phates. Three or four hundred weight of the manure of
pigeons, fowls, turkeys, etc., is of equal value with from
fourteen to eighteen loads of animal manure.

Night Soil and chamber slops should be composted as
before directed with charcoal, or the black mould from
woods. (Jypsum may be added to the mixture; all smell
is thus destroyed, and an offensive nuisance is converted
into a valuable application to any crop. Where charcoal

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 67

is freely used, this substance becomes perfectly inodorous.
Guano and poudrette are the best possible manures for
the cabbage tribe and other plants that need phosphates
and nitrogen. Both these manures are exceedingly power-
ful, but their effects do not last beyond one season. The
fertilizing properties exist in the right proportions to be
taken up at once by the plants, and nearly all their nutri-
tive properties are exhausted the season they are applied.
If in a hole or dry ditch are deposited all the leaves or
vegetable refuse that can be collected, and over this is
poured daily the house slops, and all smell prevented by
the timely application of charcoal or woods earth, a com-
post is formed exactly similar in its constituents to farm-
yard manure, and containing all the eight substances by
which plants are artificially fed. (Lindley.)

Liquid Manure. — Almost any manure may be applied
to the soil with benefit in a liquid state. Liquid manure
generally implies urine or the drainings of dung heaps
and stables, chiefly consisting of urine and the dissolved
excrements of animals. Diluted more or less as required,
it can be applied about once a week to plants in any stage
of growth, ami is particularly useful to those grown in
pots. The soil should not be oversaturated with it, and it
should be used alternately with pure water. Do not give
it to plants that are in a state of rest.

Composts. — The composting of manure should take
place, as a general thing, as fast as it is made. In the
garden, out of sight, there should be a compost heap for
receiving all kinds of rubbish that can have the least
value as fertilizers. Make a shallow excavation of a
square or oblong form, with the bottom sloping to one
end. Into this collect the litter and sweepings of the
yards, decayed vegetables of all kinds, brine, soapsuds,
and slops from the house, woollen rags, leaves, green
weeds, and garden refuse. After it has accumulated a

68 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

little, turn it over, adding a little of the salt and lime
mixture, and keep the whole inodorous by covering it
with rich mould or black earth from the woods. If the
heap is formed entirely of vegetable materials, ashes or
lime should be added; but if it contain animal matter,
they would do harm by setting free the ammonia. The
heap should not be deep, but, like all other manure heaps,
should be kept "always moist, but never leached," by the
addition of liquids from the house and kitchen. If this
compost be for a sandy soil, the addition of clay would be
very beneficial.

Composting is the best way of rendering available all
sorts of refuse organic matter, but do not introduce those
antagonistic in their effects. For instance, never compost
lime with animal matters which, in their decomposition,
form ammonia.

Special Composts are prepared for different species of
plants, and they are of great utility in floriculture. Com-
posts for plants in pots are made up of loam, leaf-mould,
sand, peat, and manure. The loam is the decomposed
turf from a rich, old pasture, which should not rest upon
clay, and the upper three inches only are taken. It
should lie one year before using. Leaf-mould is the dark
surface soil of the woods, formed from decayed leaves.
Sand should not be from roads: use fine surface or river
sand. The manure is unfit to use if less than a year old,
and improves by frequent turning, and lying two years.
Peat is the black soil from swamps, mingled with very
fine sand. It should be exposed a year and frequently
turned before using. Black woods earth, mingled with
one-third pure sand, is the best substitute. The propor-
tions of the most common composts are given in the fol-
lowing table:

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES.

69

Number of
Compost.

Loam.

Leaf-
mould.

Sand.

Prat.

Manurt .

j

1

3

2

3

2

1

1

3

3

1

1

1

4

1

•2

5

4

4

1

0

4

1

1

7

3

2

1

8

4

2

1

9

1

1

i

111

1

1

1

i

The essential elements of plant food — viz., potash,
nitrogen and phosphoric acid — may now be purchased in
the markets combined in proportions to suit all demands,
as complete or partial manures. A short discussion of
their origin and properties is not out of place in a book
of this character.

1.— POTASH.

The German deposits of crude potash salts furnish the
largest supply of this important fertilizer to the markets
of the world. The chief forms in which these salts occur
in the mines are sulphate and nitrate (chloride) and
kainit, which is a combination of chlorides of magnesium
and sodium, magnesium sulphate and potassium sul-
phate. The kainit is largely used in the manufacture of
commercial fertilizers containing potash. The ashes from
cotton-seed hulls is a valuable source of potash, and a
good market for this southern product has been created
within the past few years since the sale of cotton-seed oil
has become such an important item. The hulls, after
extracting the interior of the seeds, are used for fuel in
the manufacture of oil, and the resulting ashes are
sacked and sold for fertilizers. When the hull ashes are
mixed with "nitrogenous organic materials great caution
is to be observed, since mixtures of this kind, if kept for
any length of time, especially if allowed to become moist,

ro

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

are likely to ferment with consequent loss of a consider-
able proportion of nitrogen.''*

Cotton-seed-hull ashes contain besides potash seven to
eight per cent, of available phosphoric acid, thus making
this fertilizer one of the most valuable in the reach of the
southern planter.

Table Giving Approximate Amount of Potash in Fertilizing Materials.^

Mali rials Containing Potash.

Carnallite

Cotton-seed-hull ashes

Kainit

Krugite

Muriate of potash

Nitrate of potash

Sulphate of potash (low grade).
Sulphate of potash (high grade)

Wood ashes (unleached)

Wood ashes (leached)

I\ r I't ill. ,,f
Actual Potash.

13 tn 11

15 to 25

12 to 14

8 to 9

50 to 53

•13 to 44

28 to 30

18 to 53

1 to 8

1 to 3

I'minils of Actual

Potash in : a n n
lbs of Mali rial.

260 to 280

300 to 500

240 to 280

160 to ISO

L000 to 1060

sen to 880

560 to 600

960 to 1020

80 to 160

20 to 60

2.— NITROGEN.

Nitrogen is derived from several sources — viz.:

1. — Mineral nitrogen compounds.

2. — Vegetable nitrogen compounds.

3. — Animal nitrogen compounds.

4. — From the air by certain growing plants.

The compounds of the first group generally used in the
manufacture of commercial fertilizers are known as
sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda. The first results
from the manufacture of illuminating gas, and yields a
high percentage of nitrogen. Nitrate of soda is obtained
from the mines in Chili and Peru, and is known in the
markets as "Chili salpetre." Its condition when mined is
impure, containing a large percentage of common salt,
bat before shipment the crude product is purified and

* " Fertilizers — Commercial and Domestic," B. B. Ross, Alabama
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 63, page 86.
fGeneva (N. Y.) Experiment Station Bulletin No. 94, page 324.

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES.

71

concentrated by leaching until the article which is sold
in the United States produces as much as ninety-five per
cent, of nitrate of soda, or fifteen to sixteen per cent, of
nitrogen in an available form.

In the Southern States we have a most excellent source
of nitrogen in cotton seed and cotton-seed meal, which
are probably the most important of nitrogen-producing
substances. The abundance of cotton seeds in the cotton
region supply a cheap origin for nitrogen for the Southern
gardeners, and the value of the seed is greatly enhanced
from the fact that the two other important plant foods
are found in them in quantities of about three per cent,
of the former and two per rout, of the latter.

The animal origin of nitrogen is dried blood, fish scraps,
tankage and other waste products from slaughter-housos.
The blood is dried by steam, and yields from nine to
fifteen per cent, nitrogen. The fish scraps also supply
large quantities of phosphoric acid.

Table Giving Approximate Amount of Nitrogen in Fertilizing Material.*

Materials Containing Nitrogen.

Ir, ,.,,„, /,, ,. Pounds of Ni-

f'cnt.Xitroorn.l ''""■"".'''" '■'.""'
lbs. of Material.

(1) Mineral materials.

25 to 26

13 to 14
15 to 16
19 to 20J4

6 to 7

2 to 2>2

10 to 12
10 to 15

7 to 8

14 to 16
10 to 12

7 to 8
10 to 12
7 to 9

r,i«i to 520
'Jtin to 280
810 to 320
380 to 410

120 to 140

in to 50

200 to 240
200 to 3(10
ll(i to 160
280 to 320
200 to 240
140 to 160
20(1 to 240
140 to 180

Nitrate of potash

Nitrate of soda

Sulphate of ammonia

(2) Vegetable materials.

(.'!) Animal materials.

Dried fish

Meat scraps

Nitrogenous guanos

Oleomargarine refuse .

*Geneva (N. Y.) Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 94.
page 315.

IZ GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

When peas, clovers, and other leguminous plants are
cultivated they have the power of drawing from the
atmosphere abundance of nitrogen by means of the
peculiar construction of their roots. If a healthy, vigor-
ously growing pea-plant is carefully drawn from the soil
and the roots washed, a large number of small tubercles
or enlargements will be noticed varying in size over all
rootlets. These are storehouses of minute germs which
have the power of extracting from the atmosphere quan-
tities of nitrogen, which is absorbed by the plant. When
the plant is turned under the soil it not only supplies the
needed organic matter, but also, in its decay, leaves in
the soil the nitrogen extracted from the air by the germs
developed in its roots. Under these conditions it is pos-
sible to secure from the air one of the most expensive
fertilizers.

3.— PHOSPHORIC ACID.

The apparent effect of phosphates applied to the soil
is to stimulate vegetation and to promote the formation
of roots. If used for the drainage of pots in the form of
broken bones, or at the bottom of vine borders, the roots
soon find their way down to, and extract nutriment from
them.

The phosphates, like all other plant food, to be of ser-
vice, must be within the reach of the roots of plants.
Fertility is not to be measured by the quantity of plant
food a soil contains, but only by that portion which exists
in a finely divided state, as it is only with such portions
that the rootlets of plants can come in close contact. An
ounce of bone in a cubic foot of soil produces no marked
effect upon its fertility if unbroken. Dissolve it and let
it be distributed through the soil, and it will suffice for
the food of one hundred and twenty wheat plants. The
most abundant application of earthy phosphates in coarse
powder can, in its effects, bear no comparison with a

FERTILIZEES AND MANURES. 73

much less quantity, which, in a state of minute subdi-
vision, is dispersed through every part of the soil. A root-
let requires, where it touches the soil, a most minute
portion of food, but it is necessary for its very existence
that this minute supply should be at that precise spot.
(Liebig.)

Dr. L. L. Van Slyke, chemist of the Geneva (New York)
Agricultural Station, gives the following excellent ac-
count of the origin of phosphoric acid in Bulletin No. 91,
New Series, pages 315 to 321:

"Phosphoric acid is generally found in combination
with lime (calcium), forming, at least, three different
compounds — viz. :

1. Insoluble phosphate of lime.

2. Soluble phosphate of lime.

3. Eeverted phosphate of lime.

1.— INSOLUBLE PHOSPHATE OF LIME.

"This is known under several other names, as insoluble
calcium phosphate, normal calcium phosphate, tri-cal-
cium phosphate, bone phosphate of lime, etc.

"This form of calcium phosphate is called insoluble
because it does not dissolve in water.

"It is found in nature in large quantities in several
minerals, which will be noticed later. It also constitutes
about eighty-five per cent, of the ash or inorganic matter
of bones. It is also contained in the excrement of animals,
as in guano, etc.

"Insoluble phosphate of lime is found everywhere in
the soil. However, in this form, calcium phosphate has
the least value for the farmer, because it is not easily
dissolved, and cannot, therefore, be taken up and used
by the plants, except very slowly. To make the insoluble
phosphate available for plants so that they can take it up

74 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

the insoluble phosphate must be converted into some
form which is soluble — that is, which dissolves in water.
This can be done by treating it with sulphuric acid (oil
of vitriol).

2.— SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE OF LIME.

"This is known under several other names, as acid phos-
phate of lime, acid calcium phosphate, acid phosphate,
superphosphate of lime, superphosphate, mono calcium
phosphate, etc. It is not found actually occurring.

"As indicated above, the soluble calcium phosphate is
made by treating the insoluble calcium phosphate with
sulphuric acid. By this treatment a portion of the cal-
cium is removed from the phosphate and unites with the
sulphuric acid, forming calcium sulphate or sulphate of
lime, in addition to the soluble phosphate. This mixture
of the soluble phosphate and sulphate of calcium is
known as superphosphate of lime. The phosphate in this
form, being easily soluble in water, can be readily taken
up by plants, and is, therefore, of great value as a fer-
tilizer. The sulphate of lime is also known to have value
as a fertilizer. In plain superphosphate of lime there are
generally formed about 116 pounds of sulphate of lime
for each 100 pounds of soluble phosphate of lime. The
value of superphosphates depends upon the amount of
soluble phosphate contained in them.

3.— REVERTED PHOSPHATE OF LIME.

"Reverted phosphate of lime is known also as reverted
calcium phosphate, precipitated phosphate of lime, di-
calcium phosphate, citrate-soluble phosphate, etc.

"When soluble phosphate of lime is allowed to stand
for some time it will happen under certain conditions
that some of the soluble phosphate is changed into a less
soluble form of phosphate. This is not the same form
as ordinary insoluble calcium phosphate above described;

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. < '->

for a reverted phosphate, while insoluble in water, can
be readily dissolved by weak acids or by water containing
carbonic acid or salts of ammonia. Since the soil and
plant roots generally contain acids sufficiently strong to
dissolve reverted phosphates, phosphoric acid in this form
is generally regarded as very nearly equal to soluble
phosphates in value as a fertilizer. The term reverted
was introduced to express the fact that the phosphoric
acid in this form had been once soluble in water, but that
it had "reverted," or gone back, to a form insoluble in
water.

"The reverted form of phosphoric acid is often found
in small quantities in connection with insoluble phos-
phates, and in larger amounts in guanos; it is also found
to a considerable extent in bones and other forms of
organic matter.

"Summary: Of the forms of phosphate of lime which
are used as food for plants, we have —

"First. The ordinary insoluble phosphate of lime, which
can be changed by treatment with sulphuric acid into —

"Second. The soluble phosphate of lime, and this, on
standing, may, under certain conditions, undergo change,
forming —

"Third. The reverted phosphate of lime, which is insolu-
ble in pure water, but soluble in the acids of the soil and
plants, and in the water containing carbon dioxide.

"The soluble and reverted forms of phosphoric acid,
taken together, are called available phosphoric acid.

"The materials which furnish the greatest proportions
of phosphoric acid used in making fertilizers are the fol-
lowing: Bones, bone-ash, bone-black, bone-meal, phosphatic
guano, rock phosphate, superphosphate, Thomas slag, etc.

"Bones. — Bones consist of two quite different kinds of
material. The hard portion consists mostly of calcium
phosphate or phosphate of lime, and constitutes from one-

76 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

half to three-fifths of the weight of the bone. The remain-
ing portion consists largely of a soft, flesh-like substance
called ossein, or, more coniinonly, gelatin. It is dis-
tributed throughout the entire mass of bone, and is rich
in nitrogen. When bones are burned, the nitrogenous
matter is driven off and only the mineral portion, or phos-
phate of lime, remains. Bones, such as are used in
making commercial fertilizers, contain four to five per
cent, nitrogen and from twenty to twenty-five per cent,
of phosphoric acid, equivalent to forty-five to fifty-five
per cent, of phosphate of lime.

"Bone-Ash. — As the name implies, bone-ash is made by
simply burning bones in the open air. The nitrogen, of
course, is driven off and lost in burning, and the chief
constituent is insoluble calcium phosphate, equivalent
to thirty to thirty-five or more per cent, of phosphoric
acid.

"Bone-Black, known also as bone-charcoal, is exten-
sively used in refining sugar. After it has been used sev-
eral times, portions become useless for refining purposes,
and are then sold for fertilizers. Bone-black is made by
heating bones in closed vessels, the air being excluded.
By heating bones in this manner the fat, water, and
nitrogen are removed from the bones, and the bone-black
remaining consists mainly of insoluble calcium phosphate
and carbon or charcoal. The presence of carbon hinders
the decomposition of the phosphate, so that in this form,
it is not readily available as food, for plants. Good
bone-black may contain thirty or more per cent, of phos-
phoric acid.

"Bone-Meal goes under various names, such as ground-
bone, bone-flour, bone-dust, etc. We find in the market
raic bone-meal and steamed bone-meal. Raw bone-meal
contains the fat naturally present in bones. The presence
of the fat is objectionable, because it makes the grinding

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 77

more difficult, and retards the decomposition of the bones
in the soil, while fat itself has no value as plant food.
When bones are steamed the fat is removed, and the bone
is more readily ground. Moreover, the chemical nature
of the nitrogen compounds appears to be changed in such
a manner that the meal undergoes decomposition in the
soil more rapidly than in the case of raw bone. The
presence of easily decaying nitrogen compounds in bone
hastens, in the process of decomposition, to dissolve more
or less of the insoluble phosphate. Bone-meal should
contain from three to five per cent, of nitrogen and from
twenty to twenty-five per cent, of phosphoric acid; about
one-third or one-fourth of the latter appears to be in
readily available condition. Raw bone-meal generally
contains somewhat more nitrogen (one to two per cent.),
and rather less phosphoric acid than steamed bone-meal.

"The fineness of the meal affects its value; the finer
the meal the more readily available it is for plant food.
On account of the increased demand for bone for various
purposes, and on account of their increasing value, there
is considerable tendency to adulterate bone-meal with such
substances as lime, gypsum, coal-ashes, ground oyster-
shells, ground rock phosphate, etc.

"Phosphatic Guanos, ok Rock Guanos. — Guanos
generally consist chiefly of the dung of sea-fowls, though
the term is applied to other animal products. They are
generally found in beds resembling earthy deposits. The
guanos which are called phosphates contain little or no
nitrogen. Their phosphoric acid is generally in the form
of insoluble phosphate of lime, iron and alumina. These
guanos come mainly from certain islands in the Pacific
Ocean, and from Caribbean Sea and West India Islands.
The amount of phosphoric acid in different guanos is very
variable, ranging from below fifteen to over thirty per
cent.

78 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

"Rock Phosphates are known under several different
names which generally designate the locality from which
they come, as South Carolina Rock, Florida Rock, Ten-
nessee Rock, West India Rock, etc. Other mineral phos-
phates are known under the names of Apatite, Coprolite
and Phosphorite, which are found iu various places in
America and Europe, and some of which are used in
making commercial fertilizers. However, the greatest
source of supply of phosphoric acid is the phosphate rock
of our Southern States. The rock phosphates are exten-
sively used in making superphosphates. When ground
to a very fine flour-like powder, rock phosphates are
called "floats." Rock phosphates contain usually from
twenty-five to thirty per cent, of phosphoric acid, and
some as much as thirty-five to forty per cent.

"Superphosphates are known under several different
names, such as acid phosphates, dissolved bone, dissolved
rock, etc. Superphosphates are formed by treating some
form of insoluble phosphate of lime, as rock phosphate,
bone, bone-ash, etc., with sulphuric acid. By this treat-
ment there are formed soluble phosphate of lime and
gypsum (sulphate of lime) in nearly equal proportions.
The value of a superphosphate depends upon the amount
of soluble phosphate of lime present in it, together with
the amount of reverted phosphate of lime. The amount
of soluble phosphoric acid compounds in superphosphates
varies with the kind of phosphate used in making the
superphosphate and also with other conditions, which we
need not mention here. A good quality of dissolved bone
contains twelve to eighteen per cent, of soluble phos-
phoric acid. Dissolved bone-black contains from below
fifteen to seventeen per cent, of soluble phosphoric acid.
Superphosphate made from rock phosphate may contain
from twelve to eighteen per cent, of soluble phosphoric
acid.

FERTILIZERS AND MANURES. 79

"Thomas Slag is more familiarly known as odorless phos-
phate It is also known under several other names, such
as basic iron slag, Thomas scoria, phosphate slag, etc.
This is a comparatively new source of phosphoric acid
compounds. It is a by-product formed in the manufac-
ture of iron and steel from certain kinds of iron ore con-
taining phosphorus compounds. In the process phos-
phate of lime is formed, which is ground to a fine
powder."*

* Geneva, N. Y. Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 94, pp. 315 to 321.

SO GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

CHAPTER V.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

The same crops cannot be grown from year to year
upon the same soil without decreasing its productiveness.
All plants more or less. exhaust the soil, but not in the
same degree, nor in the same manner; hence, as different
plants appropriate different substances, the rotation of
crops has considerable influence in retaining the fertility
of a soil. If the same kind of plant is continued upon
the same soil, only a portion of the constituents of the
manure applied is used; while by a judicious rotation
everything, in the soil or in the manure, suitable for vege-
table food, is taken up and appropriated by the crop.
However plentiful manure may be, a succession of ex-
hausting crops should not be grown upon the same bed,
not only because abundance is no excuse for want of
economy, but because manure freshly applied is not so
immediately beneficial as those remains of organized
matter which by long continuance in the soil have become1
impalpably divided and diffused through its texture, and
of which each succeeding crop consumes a portion.

Some crops are so favorable to weeds, that if continued
long upon the same bed, the labor of cultivating them is
much increased, while if raised but once in a place and
followed b}^ a cleaning crop, the weeds are easily kept
under. Besides, many crops planted continually in the
same soil are more liable to be attacked by the insects and
parasites which are the peculiar enemies of those plants.

Many insects injurious to plants deposit their eggs in
the soil which produced the plants they have infested,
ready to commit their depredations upon the succeeding

ROTATION OF CROPS.

81

crop; but if this crop is changed to a distant locality, they
often perish for want of their proper food. So, many
parasites leave their seeds or spores in the soil, to the in-
creased injury of the succeeding' crop, if of the same
species.

Again, different plants derive their principal nourish
ment from different depths of soil. The roots of plants
exhaust only the portions of soil with which they come
in contact. Perpendicular-rooted plants throw out few
side roots, and derive most of their nourishment from a
considerable depth, while fibrous-rooted plants seek their
food near the surface. Plants of the same species extend
their roots in a similar direction, and occupy and exhaust
the same strata of earth.

Different plants by means of their roots act differently
upon the physical nature of the soil. Surface roots spread
abroad their tufted fibers, which in their decay break up
and lighten the surface soil, while perpendicular roots
have a somewhat similar effect upon the deeper strata.

The most exhausting crops are, in general, those which
are allowed to perfect their seeds, as they extract from
the soil all the essentials of the plant, from the root to the
seed. The seeds of many species draw from the soil more
of its ammonia, phosphates, etc., than is drawn by all
other parts of the plant. Root crops are generally less
exhausting, and plants cultivated for their leaves are
usually still less so.

Enough has been stated to show the necessity of a
change of crops, and the following are found the best
rules to observe in practice:

1. Crops of the same species, and even of the same
natural order, should not succeed each other.

2. Plants with perpendicular roots should succeed
those with spreading and superficial roots, and vice versa.

6

oZ GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

3. Crops which occupy the soil for several years, like
asparagus, rhubarb, etc., should be followed by those of
short duratiou.

4. Two crops alike favorable to the growth of weeds
should not occupy the soil in succession.

5. Crops abstracting largely from the soil the sul-
phates, phosphates, and nitrogenous principles, should
not follow each other immediately, but be succeeded by
those which draw loss from the soil and more from the
atmosphere. These exhausting crops should follow and
be followed by those which bear and will profit by heavy
manuring.

6. Plants grown for their roots or bulbs should not
follow those grown for the same purpose, and still less
should plants grown for their seeds follow each other
directly in succession.

The following are found in practice to be convenient
crops to succeed each other in rotation, beginning after
an application of manure — viz.: Ouions, lettuce, cabbage,
carrots (manure); or, turnips, celery, peas, potatoes,
(manure).

The following is also a very good rotation:

1. The cabbage tribe to be followed by —

2. Alliaceous plants, as onions, leeks, etc., to be fol-
lowed by legumes, as beans or peas. Peas may be fol-
lowed the same year with celery.

3. Tap-rooted plants, as carrots, beets, parsnips.

4. Surface roots, as onions, potatoes, turnips.

5. Celery, endive, lettuce, spinach, etc.

Celery is excellent to precede asparagus, onions, cauli-
flowers, or turnips; old asparagus beds may be used for
carrots, potatoes, etc.; strawberries and raspberries may
precede the cabbage tribe, cabbage the tap-rooted plants,
potatoes the cabbage tribe.

ROTATION OF CROPS. OO

In these rotations it is not necessary to apply manure
to every crop. For the bulbous roots, as the onion, and for
plants cultivated for their leaves, as spinach and aspara-
gus, the ground can scarcely be too rich; and the bulk of
the manures may be applied- to them and the cabbage and
turnip crops, while for plants raised for seed it is best
that the foliage should not be stimulated into too great
luxuriance by fresh manuring.

In practice these rules should, as far as possible, be fol-
lowed, but it is often necessary to vary from them or let
a part of the soil lie, for a time, idle. Rotations in gar-
dening become less necessary if the ground is plowed
deeply and manured highly. Vacant ground thus treated
may be filled at once with any crop ready for planting.

To get the highest possible results from a garden, there
must be not only a general rotation of crops year by year,
but a number of sub-successions each yeai'j as fast as the
crops are removed. One-fourth of an acre thoroughly
manured and kept perfectly free from weeds, upon which
a constant succession of crops is kept up, will yield more
than an acre managed in the common way. It is not,
however, always necessary to wait until the crop occupy-
ing the soil is removed before another is put in. Simul-
taneous cropping — that is, making two crops occupy the
ground at the same time, as in field culture the cowpea
in corn-fields — can often be resorted to in the kitchen
garden. In the fruit garden, De Candolle says the vine
and the peach can with advantage be grown together, the
light shade of the peach not injuring the vines.

Directions to meet all circumstances cannot be given,
still the following hints may be suggestive of the best
methods to secure in the kitchen garden satisfactory
results:

For instance, in the fall a portion of the garden may be

84 <.ai;i>K.\IN<; FOB THE south.

occupied with spinach; this should bo heavily manured,
and may keep the ground until time to plant melons and
other vines, when just enough of the ground may be
deeply dug to form the melon hills, and the crop will be
ready to remove before the melons begin to run. The
melon crop may be followed by one of turnips. All such
plants as radish, lettuce, and other small salads, need
take up no room ; they can, any of them, be raised between
the potato beds or drills, or between melon hills, rows of
corn, etc., and they will come to perfection before the
potato or other crops require the ground. Radishes can
be raised between the rows in the beds of all kinds of
plants that are slow in coming up, as carrots, parsnips,
etc., and will be ready to remove by the time the others
come up.

Any vacant spot that occurs early in summer should be
occupied with plantings of extra early or sweet corn,
potatoes, beets, kidney beans, for preserving for winter
use, and cucumbers for pickling. Those coming later in
the season may be occupied by sweet potatoes until July,
then corn, cowpeas, or rutabaga turnips. Where the early
onions grow, both the alleys and the center of the bed
may be planted with late cabbages or Siberian kale
before much of the crop is removed. Cabbages will head
if the winter sorts be planted as late as the early part of
August, and early Vorks put out in September, if in rich,
moist ground, and well cultivated. Sweet corn may be
planted until August. Still later, every unoccupied cor-
ner should be covered with turnips and winter radishes,
which may cover nearly the whole garden, being sown in
drills between the rows of plants not yet quite ready to
be removed. After the frost has come, any vacant spaces
should be immediately sown with spinach, onions, and
other crops for early spring use, or with barley or rye for
the cow. The secret of successful cultivation, says Down-

ROTATION OF CROPS.

85

ing, is an abundant supply of manure. A small extent
of ground well manured and plowed deeply, by these
sub-successions, will produce an enormous amount of
vegetables, while the same surface only needs to be hoed,
manured, and kept free from weeds, as if it produced but
one crop. To be sure, more manure and more labor are
needed, but nothing like the amount which would be re-
quired to produce the same crops without these sub-suc-
cessions. Many other sub-successions will occur to a
thoughtful gardener, but to derive the full benefit of them
the grounds should be well prepared when the garden is
formed.

Profits of Gardening. — The results of the above
mode of procedure, in the case of the garden of the
Retreat for the Insane at Utica, Xew York, were pub-
lished by Dr. Brigham. The land was good and yearly
manured. The product was as follows on one and one-
fourth acres of land: 1,100 heads lettuce, large; 1,400
heads cabbage, large; 700 bunches radishes; 250 bunches
asparagus; 300 bunches rhubarb; 14 bushels pods mar-
rowfat peas; 40 bushels beans; sweet corn (three plant-
ings), 419 dozen; summer squash, 715 dozen; squash pep-
pers, 45 dozen; cucumbers, 756 dozen; cucumber pickles,
7 barrels; beets, 147 bushels; carrots, 29 bushels; pars-
nips, 26 bushels; onions, 120 bushels; turnips, SO bushels;
early potatoes, 35 bushels; tomatoes, 40 bushels; winter
squash, 7 wagon loads; celery, 500 heads — all worth $621
in the Utica market, but in use supplying 130 persons
with all they could consume. Only one man was required
to do all the necessary labor.

The supply of northern markets with early fruits and
vegetables is becoming yearly more and more profitable
to all points which have direct steam communication with
their great cities. Charleston, Savannah, and Norfolk
now ship very largely asparagus, peas, snap beans,

86 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

cucumbers, and many other vegetables, and a variety of
fruits from which remunerative profits are returned. The
extreme earliness of the crops in the South enables the
market gardeners to place their products on the markets
of New York and other large northern cities some time
before the gardens more northerly situated are ready to
ship, and hence the benefits of the advanced prices are
reaped.

Forwarding Early Crops. — Early crops in the open
air should be planted in a sheltered situation, on a dark-
colored, silicious soil. It may be brought to a proper state
by the admixture of sand and charcoal. Crops, on the
contrary, may be retarded by planting in a border shel-
tered from the sun, and of a lighter color and more alumi-
nous. There are many plants which do much better if
sown in the fall. Rhubarb, parsley, etc., come up more
freely if suffered to be in the ground all winter. Potatoes,
too, may be early planted, and if they come up, should be
sheltered by a covering of straw or litter, added from time
to time to keep them from frost. Cabbage, cauliflower,
broccoli, etc., sown in autumn and transplanted, may be
kept out all winter in boxes made by nailing four pieces
of boards together, eight inches wide. Cut the pieces
twelve inches long at the bottom, and ten at the top; nail
them together at the corners. After the frosts begin to be
severe, throw in a handful of loose straw, which will pre-
vent the sudden freezing and thawing of the plants.
Great care should be taken to produce early crops, as they
are less liable to be injured by insects or weeds, and very
much increase the satisfaction of gardening. Early plants
may be obtained by sowing them in a box set in a warm
window, or may be raised in autumn and protected in
winter in a cold frame or pit, or grown any time during
winter in a hot-bed for those more delicate, or in a cold-
frame under glass for the hardier kinds. Such plants,

ROTATION OF CROPS. 87

when set out in the spring, need to be gradually hardened,
and then require shading a few days until established.
Radishes sown under glass without heat early in January
are generally fit for use early in March. But to forward
plants with any success requires suitable structures for
the purpose.

GAKDKXINt; I()i; TJIh SOUTH.

OHAPTEE VI.

HOT-BEDS, COLD FRAMES, AND PITS.

Frames or Hot-Beds are most usually employed for
forwarding plants. The frame for general use has from
three to five sashes (see figure 5), and is made for con-
venience about four and a half or five feel wide, and the
length depends on the number of sashes, which are
usually about forty inches wide. Use the smallest glass

Fig. 5 Hot-Bed and Frame.

you can obtain, certainly not over seven by nine; a
smaller size is preferable, as it is not so liable to be
broken, and can be more readily repaired. These sashes
arc made without cross-bars, the glass overlapping like
the shingles of a house, and resting on bars extending
lengthwise of the sash. The lap of each pane of glass
need not be over half an inch, and if the glass is set in
the sash when freshly painted with two coats of paint,
no puttying is necessary, if the sash is well made. The

HOT-BEDS, COLD FEAMES AND PITS. 89

frame should be made of inch and a half plank as high
again in the back as in the front, to give the sashes the
proper slope to the sun, and sufficient inclination to carry
off the wet. The front, of course, is towards the south.
Let the back and front be nailed to corner posts, so as
to admit the ends to fit in neatly, which ends are to be
made fast to the posts by common carriage bolts, in order
that the frame may be taken asunder to store when not
in use. All joints in the sides and ends should be tongued
and grooved to prevent the admission of cold air or the
loss of warm air from the bed. Each end should be made
an inch and a half higher than the back and front, and
grooved out one-half its thickness, to permit the sash to
slide and leave the other half to support the outside. At
the corner, also, of each sash, let another piece of scant-
ling be placed, and on the top of these, narrow strips
the length of the sash are to be nailed, for the sash to
slide upon. Between the sashes nail an inch strip a
little thicker than the sash to the narrow plank on which
they slide, and put on the sash; and upon this strip, in
cold weather, lay another narrow strip, projecting over
the sash a little, to cover the joint and keep out the cold.
Provide for the bed a full supply of good horse manure
from the stable, mixed with moist litter, preferring that
which is fresh, moist and full of heat. If there is not
sufficient litter in the mass the heat will not be lasting;
so as a substitute add oak-leaves or tan-bark. There
should be at least one-third litter in the heap. Shake
it up and mix it well together, sprinkling with water if
dry, and throw it into a compact heap to ferment. In two
or three days, if warm, or if cold, in a week, turn it over,
and if dry and musty in any part, water again. Let it
alone two or three days longer, and then work it over
thoroughly, as before, and water if necessary. In a dry,
sheltered situation opening to the south, mark out the

90

OAIMIKMXG FOK THE SOl'TH.

dimensions of the bed, making it fully a foot longer and
wider than the frame each way. Throw out the earth
about ten or twelve inches deep. Then begin to form the
bed by spreading a thin layer of the prepared manure
upon the ground, mixing the long and short well together.
Upon this spread other layers mixed in the same manner,
beating each layer with the back of the fork, but not too
heavily, to keep it level, and equally firm throughout.
Stakes should be placed at the corners to work to. The
edges should be kept true and the corners firm, to do
which the outside of each layer must be first laid down,
and to make the manure keep in place a proper admixture
of long litter is required. Continue until the bed is three
feet above the surface, then spread the fine manure that is
left evenly over the top, and water freely. As soon as
finished let the frame and glass be put on with care, and
keep them close until the heat rises and a steam appears
upon the glass. As soon as the heat rises, give air at noon
each day, but keep closed in the evening and at night,
unless the heat is very violent, when a little air should
be given. In three days, if the manure was sufficiently
moist, the bed will be ready for use. If it has settled
unequally, raise the frame and level the surface. Place
in the frame six inches of fine, dark-colored, sandy garden
soil, spread it evenly, and put on the sash. When warmed
through sow in pots plunged in the mould, or in small
drills from one-eighth of an inch to an inch deep, varying
in depth with the size of the seeds, and cover by sifting
fine earth on the surface. Water gently by sprinkling
with tepid water through the fine rose of a watering
pot. When the plants appear they should have air every
day freely (unless absolutely freezing), which will bring
them up strong, and prevent their dropping off by excess
of confined moisture. There are very few days which will
not permit opening the bed, not by sliding down the

HOT-BEDS, COLD FKAMES AND PITS. 91

sashes, but by raising them at the back, holding them
open by a triangular block to slip in so that they can be
opened from two to five inches. Open the bed in the mid-
dle of the day, as above, but close early that the plants
may not become chilled. During warm, gentle rains, the
sash should be opened, but closed very carefully during
cold or heavy washing storms. About G0° is the proper
temperature; it should not rise above 75°. Such a bed
as this is invaluable for striking cuttings of all kinds,
in which case there should be an inch of clear river sand
or charcoal spread over the surface. Annuals of all kinds
for the flower garden, tomatoes, peppers, cabbage and
lettuce plants, etc., will be ready, if the bed is made in
January, for transplanting quite as soon as they can be
removed with safety. Make the bed six or eight weeks
before the plants will be required. The quantity of
manure required to form a hot-bed varies with the season
and external temperature, a larger bulk being needed in
January than at a later season. Even a small bed should
have the mass not less than five feet long by four feet
wide, to maintain the proper heat. If the soil whereon it
stands is clayey the whole bed should be made above
ground, as the water settling in the trench would check
the heat of the entire bed. If the bed is made early in
the season it will require the application of fresh mate-
rials at the sides or " linings " to keep it at the proper
temperature.

The best substitute for stable manure in forming a hot-
bed is spent tan, but to keep it in its position a plank bin
or a brick pit is required. It takes more time for the heat
to rise, but it is longer continued, milder and more man-
ageable than stable manure, and is quite sufficient for a
seed-bed. A little slightly fermented stable manure is
needed to be added to the center of the bed, as it will
start fermentation sooner.

92 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

In sowing the bed let the more tender plants, as egg-
plants, peppers, etc., be sown under the same sash, and
separated by a thin plank partition under the cross-bar
from the rest of the frame. The finer and more delicate
seeds will require the sash above them to be shaded until
the plants appear, or each pot may be separately covered
until the seeds are up. At night, if cold, cover the bed
with plank shutters, old carpets, or mats. Gradually, as
the plants grow strong, accustom them to the air as the
season grows mild. This can be done by opening the
frames entirely during the day, and leaving them exposed
daring mild nights, or by transferring them to the cold-
frame.

Cold Frames are made just like those for the hot-bed,
only the box need not be over fifteen inches high at the
back, and are excellent for wintering nearly hardy plants
of all kinds, and also for forwarding the more hardy
plants, as hardy annuals, cabbage, lettuce, etc. Indeed,
they are quite as indispensable as the hot-bed, and less
expensive, as they require no manure, but rest directly on
the soil. The}^ are also of great service in hardening off
hot-bed stock, which should be transferred to them before
it is set out in the open ground. In very severe weather,
the heat may be kept in by earthing up the sides and
covering the sash with mats during the night. Air should
always be given when the weather will admit, or the
plants will grow up yellow and spindling. In managing
frames, the secret of success is to give plenty of air.
Plants raised in cold frames are generally more hardy
and desirable than those from a hot-bed, unless the latter
are repotted early, and when re-established, transferred
to the cold frame, to harden them. A cold frame or pit
covered with tiffany (a prepared thin cotton (doth) is even
better than one covered with glass, for the purpose of
hardening off young stock.

HOT-BEDS, COLD FRAMES AND PITS.

93

Frames of all kinds should be painted of a light color,
every year, both for the preservation of the wood and for
the destruction of insects and their eggs, that are con-
cealed in their crevices and angles. A frame for raising-
seedlings or striking cuttings need not be over eighteen
inches deep at the back, to nine inches in front, as it is
important to keep the seedlings near the glass.

Pits. — Figure 6 shows a section of a lean-to pit, in
which tall plants may be set upon the bottom, while a
stage may be put in to bring small plauts near the glass.
All pits should be built of brick, and those with the walls
built hollow above the surface are preferable. In a pit
six feet wide the back should be about fifteen to eighteen
inches higher than the front. Pits are also useful in pro-
tecting delicate plants in summer, from heavy rains and
scorching suns, and for bringing up many seedlings in
the spring that do not require artificial heat. In all cases
ample provision must be made for drainage, as plants

will not flourish in
damp, confined air.
When a pit is de-
sired merely to pre-
serve plants during

Fig. 6— Section of Pit.

should face rather
to the north, that is
from north-east to north-west, in order that growth may
not be excited, and the plants thus kept perfectly at
rest during the winter. If the pit faces any other quar-
ter the air within gets heated, and the plants keep on
growing late in the autumn, are stimulated into tem-
porary growth too early in the spring, and are much more
in danger of destruction by frost. The pit should be kept
as dry as possible and .ventilated daily when the frost is

HOT-BEDS, COLD FRAMES AND PITS.

95

not too severe, and to protect the roots of plants from
frost and to prevent the necessity of frequent waterings,
the pots should be plunged in some dry material, as sand
or tan-bark. Very little water should be given to plants
in their dormant state, for they cannot assimilate it.
Many plants, as geraniums, etc., in such a pit will require
but one or two waterings during an entire winter. Plants
thus managed will endure a very low temperature, and
start into more vigorous growth in spring.

At night, if cold, and during severe weather by day, it
will be necessary to cover the glass with mats or shutters,
to prevent the frost from penetrating and the heat from
being lost by radiation.

Greenhouse. — In most cases, persons who are finan-
cially able to equip a large garden are also in position to
desire and secure a greenhouse, which is far preferable to
hot-beds, pits or other like devices for protecting tender
plants. An economical house can be constructed in ac-
cordance with the plan recommended by Peter Henderson
some years since, and thus concisely described by W. F.
Massey, horticulturist of the North Carolina Experiment
Station.

This style of greenhouse is made with the same kind
of sash which is used in the construction of hot-beds and
cold frames. The house is made by setting posts in line,
four feet apart to make the side walls. These side walls
are four feet high and ten feet apart, this being the width
of the house. The tops of the posts should be cut to
the slope of the roof, and a plate nailed thereon, on which
the sashes are to rest. This plate should project inside
and out, so as to allow of a gutter being formed on its
outer edge, for it is desirable to have a tank inside to
catch the rain water from the roof for watering purposes.
The ridge pole of the roof should be cut so that the ends
of the sashes which are to form the roof will rest on a

HOT-BEDS, COLD FRAMES AXD PITS.

!>7

shoulder and come flush with the top. Each alternate
pair of sash is screwed fast to the ridge pole at the top
and to the plate at the bottom, thus forming rafters and
giving strength to the structure. The other pairs are to
be hinged to the plate at the wall and held in place at the
top by a hook, or by an iron strap punched with holes to
catch on a pin fixed to the ridge pole, so that they can
be propped up to admit air to the house. If the house is

Fig.

Section of Greenhouse.

to be heated by an ordinary brick flue it should not be
more than forty or fifty feet long. A door wide enough
to admit a wheelbarrow should be in each end, and walk
through the center. Benches are to be made on each
side for holding soil or for placing flower-pots or boxes.
These benches and the whole house can be constructed
of rough lumber, with the cracks battened. The green-
house should run north and south, and at the north end a
shed should be made for a work room, and into which the
furnace door is to open, so as to keep the smoke and dust
from the house. The furnace is placed in a pit four feet
below the level of the house, and is made of brick, with
7

98 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

an ordinary cast-iron door and ash pit. An arch is turned
over the fire-box, and the flue is built from the rear cud
on a sharp ascent to the level of the floor of the house.
It should then be built along under the side benches, on
a slight ascent, the whole length of the house, across the
farther eud and back to the chimney over the furnace.
flic first ten or fifteen feet should always be made of
brick, the remainder of six-inch terra cotta pipe. The
furnace may be made to burn wood, and in that case no
grate bars will be needed, so the fire can be regulated
by a draft hole in the door. But a coal-burniug furnace
is far more convenient, and the fire will last longer. For
seed-sowing purposes it is better to have the flue boxed
in under the benches, but in this case hinged doors should
be made along the walk, so as to let more heat out in the
house when needed.

A greenhouse of this character can be built 10x50 feet
for about f 150. For heating more thoroughly and satis-
factorily than can be accomplished with the brick furnace
above described it is best to use a boiler and circulate
hot water or steam in iron pipes. This method of heating-
will slightly increase the cost estimated above.

PACKING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 99

CHAPTER VII.

PACKING AND MARKETING THE CROP.

Trucking in the South is an industry of comparatively
recent years, and has not become near so extensive as
it is conducted in most of the Northern States. However,
the demand for early vegetables and fruits has grown
year by year to such an extent that southern growers,
particularly those living near the main thoroughfares,
are endeavoring to place the products of their gardens in
the large cities of the North as early as possible, so as
to reap the benefits of the advanced prices before the
less favored gardeners of the colder climates are prepared
to harvest and market their crops. Along the Atlantic
sea-border, and in some portions of the Gulf regions,
market gardens are to be found which have been more
or less profitable to the owners for many years. These
are to be found along the Mississippi bottoms near the
city of New Orleans; near Savannah, Georgia; Charles-
ton, South Carolina; and Norfolk, Virginia. Whenever
the railroads penetrating the South wake up to the fact
that this industry adds a new source of revenue to the
bank account of the companies, and reduce freight rates
on vegetables and fruits, providing, also, quick and safe
transportation to New York or elsewhere for the perish-
able products of the gardens, a much larger number of
men will engage in the enterprise.

There are so many vegetables and fruits which can
be grown to perfection only in southern climates, and
which will always command a fair price if they could be
promptly placed in the markets of New York or Chicago
without incurring the ruinous freight rates demanded by

100 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

our railroads, that it would pay the market gardeners in
the South to grow these alone; but the mild climate and
the almost continuous growth of vegetation in the south-
ern latitudes enable the gardener to raise most of the
vegetables known, and of a superior quality, earlier and
with less expense than the truck farmers in the neigh-
borhood of New York. It is gratifying to note, however,
that in a few sections of the South some of the railroads
are making an effort to encourage trucking, and for that
reason, in those sections, the industry is rapidly growing.
Growing vegetables and fruits for the market is not an
easy enterprise, and it requires more skill, knowledge and
experience than the cultivation of the products of the
garden for home consumption. The market must be
closely studied, so as to know when to ship and what to
ship in order to reap the best prices; and the gardener
will frequently consult with honest and experienced com-
mission merchants in regard to these important particu-
lars. A visit to the city now and then will Avell repay the
outlay and time spent in the knowledge gained in refer-
ence to the methods of disposing of vegetables and fruits
and the advantage accruing to the shipper in carefully
packing and sorting his produce. The assorting, pack-
ing and shipping requires a degree of skill and experience
only to be obtained after some years of actual engage-
ment in packing and marketing the crops of the garden.
To those who desire to try their fortunes in the profession
of market gardening, the following outline of the re-
quisites for a successful prosecution of the work will be of
service :

After the land has been properly prepared to produce
the best quality of vegetables and fruits, and a market
has been selected in which to dispose of the crop, the
most important equipment is the packing-house with its

PACKING AND MARKETING THE CROP. 101

facilities for properly handling and securely packing the
material with the least labor, expense and chance of in-
jury to the crop.

This packing-house should be located in the most con-
venient position for handling the vegetables and fruits,
so that the distance for hauling from the field will be
reduced, and at the same time easy access will be ob-
tained to the thoroughfare leading to the depot. This
matter, of course, can only be determined by the circum-
stances and facilities surrounding the location of the
garden and its approaches. The building should be airy,
with ample room for all purposes for which it is con-
structed. There must be an entrance for the crop from
the fields and another for transporting the filled crates
and packages to the depot for shipment. The drivewTay
in both instances should be so built that there will be
as little lifting as possible, in order to reduce to a mini-
mum the expenditure of labor and the chance of injury to
the tender products of the farm.

There should be at least three compartments in the
building; one in which to store the fruit and vegetables,
where the temperature can be kept to a uniform degree.
This may be called a cooling room, and is a necessity in
the proper handling of vegetables and fruits. Some
products of the farm would certainly spoil before reach-
ing market if packed before first being stored in the cool-
ing room. Another advantage of this room is that it
permits of shrinkage in some varieties of fruits before
packing, thus reducing the trouble of loose packages
on reaching the destination, particularly if shipped to a
considerable distance from the farm. Another room
should be provided for storing the crates, baskets and
other materials used in making the packages. This room
should be darkened, but at the same time well ventilated
and dry, so that the wood will not stain and thus lose its

102 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

attractive, clean, fresh looks. The remaining' room should
be large and provided with ample light and facilities for
rapidly assorting and packing. Benches or long tables
to hold the fruit and vegetables, to permit of the greatest
convenience to the packers, should be arranged around
this room, and in easy reach above them should be shelves
containing the empty crates and baskets to be used in
the day's operation. As rapidly as the baskets and crates
are packed they should be transferred to a central table,
where the tops are wired or nailed on, and they are con-
veniently piled for loading on the wagons for transporta-
tion to the depot.

One of the indispensable requirements of the packing-
house is cleanliness in all departments. This is necessary
not only to insure clean condition of the fruit in the
crates and baskets, but also to prevent the presence of
disease, which will surely cause much of the shipment to
decay before it reaches the market. No vegetable or fruit
that is at all faulty should be allowed to enter the pack-
ing-house, if honest and first-class work is desired.

The Crates, Boxes and Baskets. — These are now
supplied by the trade, so that it is not necessary to make
them in the packing-houses, as was the case in former
years. It is still the practice, however, with some
truckers to make their own crates, and, even when they
are purchased they come to the house " knocked down,"
requiring simply a hammer and nails to put them
together.

A variety of wood has been tried in making the crates,
but experience has proven that the sap wood from the
Georgia pine furnishes the best material, because there
is strength, elasticity, and absence of odors so frequently
found in other woods.

The grape basket, illustrated in Figure 8, is the usual
form adopted by market gardeners for displaying this

PACKING AND MARKETING THE CROP.

103

fruit. There are two sizes made, one holding five pounds
and the other ten. The name of the variety of the grape

as well as the name of the grower

/

f

^Skt " --.-*-

_-_-=■ ~=rir-~

'■ „ ' '"''»

'ill

Fig.

-Fruit Basket.

should be plainly
stamped on the bas-
ket after it is pack-
ed. If a quantity
of small fruit like
strawberries is to
be shipped to a dis-
tance the straw-
berry boxes are
packed in a large
market basket
shown in Figure 9.

There are also two sizes of this larger case, one contain-
ing eight three-pound boxes, and the other eight five-
pound boxes. These are light, made of open work, so
that ample air reaches the fruit. This method of packing
is greatly appreciated by the retail dealers.

For the shipment of other kinds of fruits and vege-
tables the crates illustrated in Figures 10 and 11 are in
common use, particularly in the South. Figure 10 is a
bushel crate, which holds a little more than a bushel.
The barrel crate is
Figure 11, which has
a dimension of
Il"x20"x36".

Other styles of
baskets and crates
are used in different
sections of the coun-
try, but the ones
illustrated may be called the standard kinds for southern
truckers, at least. In shipping potatoes the ordinary

Large Market Basket.

104

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

flour-barrel is sometimes used with holes cut in the sides
or ends to permit of ventilation.

The following
points in reference
to crates and pack-
ing were extracted
from the American
Garden, and, al-
though they were
written for special
localities, they
nevertheless are
applicable to all
sections of the
coun ry. p.^ 10_Busnel Crate

1. The difference in the construction of the 32-quart
strawberry crates lies wholly in the strength and varia-
tion in the price; the cheaper grade, however, will not

stand the h a r d
usage it is sub-
jected to in ship-
ment. All fruits
sold by the north-
ern truckers are
packed in these
32-quart crates,
such as blackber-
ries, cranberries,
and the like.

2. The 45 or G0-
pint raspberry
crates are more

Fig. 11— Barrel Crate.

applicable to all
purposes than the strawberry crates. They will hold
from eight to twelve 10-pound baskets of grapes, which

PACKING AND MARKETING THE CROP.

105

are safely and easily handled in this manner. In general
shape and construction they are very much like the crate
illustrated in Figure 9.

3. Fancy peaches are put up in pony baskets and
crated. This will enable the dealer to display the fruit
without disturbing it from the condition in which it was
placed in the packing-house. Pears are also put up in
the same manner. The expense, of course, is greater than
that incurred in packing these fruits in barrel or bushel
crates, but the attractive looks given to the fruit will, in
most instances, warrant an increase in price, which will
compensate for the extra trouble and expense.

4. Currants are generally shipped in quart strawberry
baskets. Cherries are sent to market in 10-pound grape
baskets; while choice plums find their way into the
markets in both the quart and 5-pound grape baskets.
The inferior grades of plums are sent out in kegs and half-
barrels.

5. Vegetables are shipped in all kinds of shapes. Pota-
toes, peas, etc., are packed in boxes, barrels, baskets and
bags. Onions are generally sent in crates, while beets,
carrots, turnips and other root crops reach the market in
boxes and barrels.

6. It is a misfortune, however, that the law does not
regulate in all States the standard sizes and styles of
packages in which fruits and vegetables are sent to the
market, so that the buyer would know just how much he
is buying, but it is now in most sections of the country
mostly guess work.

7. The quality and the condition of the fruit or vege-
tables when they reach the market are of prime impor-
tance. Poor grades and bad condition will surely lose
* customers, while first-class crops, neatly and honestly

packed, will gradually grow in favor and demand. Ex-
cept in those instances where the customer becomes

106

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

familiar with certain varieties and prefers them, the
looks of the crops displayed for sale have much to do
with its prompt disposal. For this reason the fruit and
vegetables should be carefully graded before packing,
and the marks placed on the crates, clearly indicating
which are first class and which are second. This method
honestly carried out, will establish confidence in the
shipper, and the products of his farm will be in demand.
Inferior grades should never be placed in the same crate
with first-class products. Everything is to be lost by such
method and nothing to be gained.

The method adopted by many market gardeners in
gathering the crop and checking the work of hired labor

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Fig. 12— Picker's Tag.

is as follows: Each picker is provided with trays holding
such a number of quarts, and when one of these trays is
filled to the standard measure it is placed in charge of a
foreman, who gives the picker a ticket or check (Figure
12) bearing his or her name and punched to designate
the number of quarts picked, as well as the condition of
the fruit. The trays, as they accumulate in sufficient
numbers at any one place in the orchard or garden, are
loaded on suitable trucks or wagons and carried to the
packing-house.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 107

CHAPTER VIII.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES — SPRAYING APPARATUS
AND METHODS.

No plant, no part of a plant is exempt from the attacks
of insects. One devours its tender leaf as it issues from
the ground; another preys upon the root, and the plant
perishes; another burrows into the stem, boring it in
every direction until the stem is broken off by the wind.
The caterpillar preys upon the leaves when the plant gets
more mature, while the black grub cuts off the young
plant just as it is shooting into growth. Some feed upon
the flowers, while others devour the matured fruit or
seed.

Insects are on the increase in American gardens, partly
from the fact that the destruction of forest trees and wild
plants has driven them to the cultivated ones for food
(the apple-tree borer, for instance, originally subsisting
on the thorn), partly from being constantly imported from
all other countries from which seeds and plants are
brought, and partly from the diminution of birds and
other enemies by which they are naturally held in check.

Insects are a most extensive class of animals. They
are destitute of an internal skeleton, but possess a sort of
external one, serving both for skin and bones, and divided
into numerous segments connected together by slender
points of attachment. They all have six or more articu
lated legs, and are generally oviparous, or produced from
eggs. They possess sight, hearing, smell, and touch at
least — senses in common with those of the superior ani-
mals. They do not breathe through the mouth or nostrils,
but through vessels for the reception of air, called spirac-
ula, placed along each side of the body.

108 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Nearly all insects have four stages of existence. First,
eggs which hatch into larvae; these change into pupae,
where they remain dormant for a longer or shorter period,
and from which they emerge at last as perfect insects.
Some insects, however, bring forth their young alive, as
well as deposit eggs. In others, as the Orthoptera, or
grasshopper family, the young has nearly the form of a
perfect insect. Some insects are injurious only in one
stage of their existence; others at all times, when not in
a dormant state.

A knowledge of the habits and transformations of
insects is necessary to detect how and at what period of
their existence they can best be destroyed, or in what
manner vegetation can best be shielded from their
attacks.

By many insects plants are at once destroyed; by others
wounds are inflicted that end in a diseased condition of
the parts affected, wThich is communicated to the whole
plant. Plants in a weak or diseased state are far more
liable to be attacked by insects than those which are
healthy and vigorous.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS AND DISEASES.

1. Insects which attack the leaves.

2. Insects which suck the juices from plants.

3. Insects which bore into the stem and feed upon the
wood of the plant.

4. Insects which attack the roots.

5. Fungi living on the outside surfaces of plants.
(>. Fungi which penetrate the tissues.

In the treatment of these pests a knowledge of the
habits of the insect or fungus is necessary. The remedy
that will destroy one group may not check another; so
that certain general rules must be followed when efforts
are made to combat the enemies. First determine what

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 109

is the character of the trouble, and then use the remedy
which experienced entomologists recommend.

1. Insects which Attack the Leaves. — These are compara-
tively easy to destroy by spraying poisons on the foliage,
so that the insects will take the poison in their food; or
the plant may be enveloped with poisonous gas which
will cause death to the enemy.

2. Insects which Suck the Juices from the Plants. — This
group contains the plant lice, which puncture the tender
bark and suck out the vital juices of the plant. They
belong to the order of insects known as Hemiptera, or
true bugs. Their bodies are pear shaped, and from the
upper part of the rear end are two projections from which
a clear, sweetish fluid exudes. Ants and bees are ex-
ceedingly fond of this exudation, and on those plants that
lice infest it is quite common to see ants climbing in con-
siderable numbers feeding on the honey thus manufac-
tured by these lice. One remarkable fact in the life
history of these animals is the reproduction of the young
without the intervention of the male, and also the fact
that the mother, while she is feeding, produces the
living young without first laying eggs. This process of
multiplication goes on until late in the fall, wThen males
are produced, which fertilize the females, and eggs are
laid in secure places against the winter, and next spring
these hatch out into female lice, and the process of repro-
duction is continued without the laying of eggs. It can
be readily understood, therefore, how rapidly the multi-
plication of these animals will take place, and the plant
must soon succumb, unless measures are used to kill the
lice at once. During the winter months all rubbish must
be burned in order to destroy the eggs laid by the lice the
preceding season. When the plants are growing they must
be constantly examined and all lice killed. One female
deprived of her life early in the season is equivalent to

110 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

the destruction of a great many several weeks later, be-
cause of the rapid multiplication of the animals, as
already stated. The use of poisons like Paris green will
produce but little, if any, effect upon these insects, since
they get their food by inserting their sucking organs into
the tissues of the plants out of reach of the poison, which
is only on the surface. Spraying with kerosene emulsion
and enveloping the plant with gas will accomplish much,
howrever, in the destruction of the lice. For the prepara-
tion of this emulsion see table opposite page 184.

3. Insects which Bore into the Stem and Feed upon the ^Yoocl
of the Plant. — These insects must be circumvented by
placing on the body of the plant preparations which will
prohibit the deposit of eggs; or by washing the trunk
with poisons which will destroy the young grubs as they
cut into the bark. A good preparation is a glue contain-
ing Paris green. After the insect has entered the tree a
wire must be used to destroy it, or the place attacked
may be cut and the grub destroyed; but, of course, the
tree is considerably injured by such treatment, particu-
larly if the insect has penetrated to considerable depths.

4. Insects which Attack the Roots. — The treatment of
plants which are subjected to the attacks of these animals
is almost hopeless because of the nature of the soil and
the danger of destroying the delicate roots by the use of
strong chemicals. The best method now known is crop
rotation, or the starving of the animals by the cultivation
of those plants known to be exempt from their attacks.

5. Fungi Living on the Outside Surfaces of Plants. — These
comprise the mildews and moulds generally noticed on
the young, tender shoots and leaves of many plants when
they are in the condition for the favorable growth of
these diseases. The remedy is in the use of sulphur vapor.

6. Fungi which Penetrate the Tissues. — These are the
rusts, smuts, spot-fungi, etc., found growing on the tender

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

Ill

portions of many of our cultivated and wild plants. After
they penetrate the tissues it is next to impossible to de-
stroy them without also killing the plant. The treatment
must be applied when the fungus is young, and the
parts of the plant susceptible to the attack must be
covered with the chemical which will prevent the growth
of the fungus. When plants become thoroughly infested
with this disease the best thing to do is to remove them
and burn them. In the case of trees vigorous pruning
sometimes prevents the spread of the trouble, and may
eventually eliminate the disease entirely. The reader is
referred to table opposite page 181 for the methods
recommended for the treatment of fungous diseases.

Preventive measures are of more value than remedial,
in protecting plants from insects. Among those most
likely to be of value, are the following:

Rotation of Crops. — Each species of insect generally
feeds on the same species of plant, or at least on plants of
the same natural family; hence a constant change of crop
prevents the forthcoming brood from finding their proper
food, and many of them perish. This is, however, more
applicable in the case of field crops than in orchards and
gardens.

Decaying Trees. — Destroy all decaying trees in the
neighborhood of orchards and gardens, as they are often
a refuge, and tend to propagate insects destructive to the
neighboring crops.

Scraping of the rough bark of trees and washing them
with tobacco water, lime water, or a wash of lime, sulphur
and clay, or a solution of potash, destroys the hiding
places of insects, and manj* of the insects themselves
which infest trees.

Birds and Other Animals. — The encouragement of
insectivorous birds and other animals, instead of their
thoughtless and injurious destruction, is one of the most

112

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

U^-2Sr

M

Fig. 13— Ear of pop-corn
showing work of An-
goumois grain moth.
Kiley, Report U. S.
Dept. Agri.

promising methods of lessening the
insect tribes. A single pair of breed-
ing swallows, Bradley has calculated,
destroy over three thousand worms
in a week. Toads live almost entirely
upon insects, and do not injure plants.
A large class of insects also live en-
tirely upon insects that are injurious
to plants, and should be encouraged.

Lime and Salt. — Dressing the soil
with lime, sowing in autumn six or
eight bushels of salt to the acre, turn-
ing over the soil and exposing it to
frost just before winter, or during the
winter months when the ground is
open, are all found to be beneficial.
Rolling the surface soil smooth when
crops are planted destroys the hiding
places of many insects, and renders
them less destructive.

Any insect peculiarly injurious
must be watched as to its habits, mode
of feeding, and its transformations, in
order to discover where it may be most
successfully attacked.

As healthy plants are less subject to
attack, keep the ground in good order,
sow good seed, cultivate thoroughly,
and the crop will be less endangered.

Hand-Pickix(J. — In some cases, the
only effectual mode is hand-picking.
If the leaf-roller, the beetle, or the
grub is crushed under foot, by prevent-
ing reproduction a thousand enemies
are destroyed at once.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

113

Mice may be caught in traps, or poisoned with arsenic;
but the latter is dangerous if fowls or children have ac-

Moles are often very troublesome in undermining beds
of cuttings or young plants in search of worms and in-
sects. They may be caught in various traps sold for the
purpose, but by putting tarred sticks in their burrows
they will be driven from them. Salting the soil is fatal
to many insects that are the food of the mob1.

Hares and Rabbits are very destructive to trees and
garden vegetables in all country places, and even in towns
Ave do not es-
cape; they can
be repelled by a
tight bo a r d
fence, or a close
hedge of t h e
Macartney rose.
Choice trees can
be bound up in
straw d u r i n g
the winter, or in
an envelope of
chestnut bark
slipped over the
stem.

In the following list will be found some of the most
troublesome insects and fungi prevalent in the South.
This list is not complete, and the effort has been made
simply to give the most common forms of pests; and,
therefore, if the reader desires more extended informa-
tion upon this very important subject he is referred to
works devoted to entomology and pathology.

Angumois Moth (Sitotroga cerealella, Oliv.). — In the
adult form of this insect it is a moth one-half inch across

Fig. 14 — Silotroga cerealella. a, Eggs, b, Larva at
work, c, Larva, side view, d, Pupa, e, Moth.
/, Same, side view. Chittenden, Div. Ent. U. S.
Dept. Agri. Farmers' Bulletin No. 45.

114

GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH,

the expansion of the wings. Its body has a shiny appear-
ance, and the wings are fringed with delicate hair-like
appendages. This insect is one of the most destructive to
stored grain to be found in the South. The larva is about
one-fourth of an inch in length, of a light color, and is
covered with numerous short hairs. The pupa is some-
what shorter than the caterpillar and of a darker color.

Fig. 15 — Schizoneura lanigcra. a, Agamic female, b, Lar-
val louse, c, Pupa, d, Winged female, with antenna
enlarged above. All greatly enlarged and with waxy
excretion removed. Marlatt, Div. Ent. U. S. I>ept.
Agri. Cir. 20.

Either before the grain is taken from the field or after it
is stored the moth deposits her eggs between the rows
of grain on the cob. A few days after these hatch, and
the young caterpillars penetrate the grain and feed on the
starchy material. Within four or five weeks this larva
passes into the pupa state, and several days after it comes
forth as a moth. In the far South there are as many as
eight broods each year.

Remedy. — The bins should be made close, and when

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

115

the presence of the insect is detected the grain must be
fumigated with carbon bisulphide. This is highly in-
flammable, and fire must not be brought near it while
fumigation is going on.

Woolly Aphis, or Apple-tree Blight (Schizonetira
lanigera), is found upon the
apple tree. The female is a
small, egg-shaped, dull red-
dish-brown insect, with a
black head, dusted with
white powder, and with a
tuft of white down grow-
ing from the hind part of
the back, which makes a
colony of these insects look
like a small patch of white
down. Each tuft contains
a female and her young,
which last are of a pale
color. In Europe, trees are
often white with these in-
sects. Here they are gen-
erally found at the base of
twigs and suckers from the
trunk, or where a wound in
the bark is healing. Scrape
the bark of the tree, if
rough, and wash the tree,
filling every crevice with
kerosene or a solution of
two pounds potash to seven
quarts of water, or Harris' Composition — two parts soft
soap and eight of water, with lime enough to make a thick
whitewash. Sulphuric acid, mixed with ten times its bulk
of water, is also recommended.

Fig. 16 — Schizoneura lanigera. a, Root
of young tree, illustrating deforma-
tion, b, Section of root with
aphides clustered over it. c, Root
louse; female, a and b, Natural
size ; c, much enlarged. Marlatt.
Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Cir. 20.

116

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Apple Root-Blight.— The Woolly Aphis is like the
Grape Phylloxera in producing a root form also. The
attack of this insect on the roots of the apple make wart-
like excrescences, in the crevices of which are contained
minute, yellow lice, often accompanied with larger
winged ones of a black color, having their bodies covered
with white, cotton-like matter. The wounds made upon
the root by these insects produce an increased flow of sap

ah c d

Fig. 17 — Saperda Candida, a, Larva from side ; b, from
above, c, Female beetle, d, Pupa. All enlarged
one-third. Chittenden, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri.
Cir. 32.

to the spot affected, and these morbid enlargements are
the result. Nursery trees affected should have their roots
soaked in soapsuds before planting. Trees affected in the
fruit garden may have their roots partly bared, and a
liberal application of charcoal dust, ashes, or soapsuds,
poured upon the warty excrescences. Their presence
gives the affected trees a yellow, unhealthy appearance.
The application of carbon bisulphide to the ground
around the roots is probably the best remedy known.
Tobacco ground fine and placed on the ground and then
well wet with water is excellent. But if the tree is

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

117

seriously injured by the attack of this insect it will be
best to root up the plant and burn it, and use the place
for some other plant not susceptible to the attack of the
Aphis.

Apple-Tree Borers (Saperda Candida; Chrysobothris
femorata, Fab.). — The first insect in its adult form is a
beetle, pale brown with two yellow stripes down its back.
The borer, or larval stage,
is a grub with a large
rounded head and sharp
jaws. The eggs are de-
posited near the base of
the tree and the grub bores
into the bark as soon as
hatched, twelve to eighteen
days after the eggs are
laid. The borer remains in
the trunk of the tree about
three years, cutting a tor-
tuous channel, sometimes
completely girdling the
tree and killing it. The latter insect is also a beetle in its
parent form, but is somewhat smaller with a greenish-
black back and copper color on the under side. The eggs
are deposited one at the time in the crevices of the bark
on the trunk and larger limbs, and are hatched within
two weeks. The grub does not remain in the tree as long-
as the saperda, not more than two years, and it conse-
quently does not bore as far into the wood.

Plants Injured. — Apple, pear, and quince.

Remedies. — The remedy is preventive, because when
the insects once reach the interior of the trunk the tree
becomes so seriously damaged it will seldom recover.
If the grub has just entered and the orifice can be dis-
covered a wire run into the hole will soon end the work

Fig. 18 — Chrysobothris femorata. a,
Larva, b, Beetle, c, Head of male.
d, Pupa, twice natural size. Chit-
tenden, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept.
Agri. Cir. 32.

118 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

of the enemy. The best preventive is a soap and corrosive
sublimate wash made as follows:

Corrosive sublimate, 1 ounce.

Soft soap, 10 gallons.

Alcohol, 1 pint.

Water, to make a stiff paint.

Dissolve the sublimate in the alcohol and add the soap,
and then the water. Apply this wash to the tree early in
May, and renew within twenty days, or earlier, as long as
the beetles are seen flying about. Coat the trunk and the
large limbs.

Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar (Clisiocampa Ameri-
cana).— The moth is a reddish night-flying insect which
lays her eggs, 200 or more, around small twigs in early
summer, and then dies. These eggs remain unhatched
until the following spring, when the tree begins to bud,
when they hatch small caterpillars, which feed upon the
leaves of the tree. The caterpillars spin a web in the
forks of the tree, where they remain at rest during the
hot part of the day. These web tents are quite dense and
seldom attain a larger size than one foot.

Plants- Injured. — Apple, cherry, and other trees.

Remedies. — Fasten to a long pole a wad of cotton
dipped in kerosene oil and burn the webs while the cater-
pillars are resting therein.

Blister Beetle (Epicaute vittata, Fab.). — This insect is
also called the " potato bug," but it must not be confused
with the Colorado bug. The beetle is yellow, with two
black stripes down each wing cover. It is about one-half
inch long. The larvae feed on eggs of other insects, and
the beetle lives on the leaves of plants.

Plants Injured. — Irish potatoes, beets.

Remedies. — Hand-picking and spraying with Paris
green or London purple.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

119

Codling Moth; Apple Worm (Carpocapsa pomonclla,
Linn.). — The adult is a small brown moth, which flies
generally at night, and deposits her eggs singly on the
surface of young fruit just after the flower falls. When

these eggs hatch
the young worm
cuts its way into
the apple, usu-
ally at the blos-
som end, and re-
mains here feed-
ing until full
grown, w h i c li
occurs within a
few days. The
worm then finds
its way out, de-
scends to the
ground by a web
or otherwis e,
and passes into
the pupa state
under the pro-
jections of the
bark at the base
of the tree. In
two or three
weeks another
brood of moths
is formed, and
other apples are
attacked in the same manner. The larvae mature about
the time in autumn when the ripe apples are gathered.
In the illustration the two lower insects are enemies of

Fig. 19— Codling Moth. Carpocapsa pomonella.
Div. Entomology U. S. Dept. Agri.

120

GAKDENLNG FQB THE SOUTH.

the codling moth and are named Pimpla annulipes and
Macrocentrus del lent it*.

Plants Injured. — Apple, pear.

Remedies. — All defective fruits which fall to the
ground, the loose bark and trash should be cleaned up
and burned. Spray with arsenites such as Paris green
and London purple. For the formulae see the end of this
chapter.

Corn-Ear Worm; Boll Worm (Heliothis armigera,
Hbn.). — This is the well-known cotton-boll worm, and the

damage it com-
mits in all sec-
tions of the
South cannot be
estimated. The
adult is a moth
varying in color
from yellowish
gray to a dark
yellow, and on
the outer wings
is a broad band,
dark on the out-
er margins, with
a white spot on
the inside. When
the wings are
spread the insect
is from one and
a half to two
inches from tip
to tip. The worm is about one inch long, and it trans-
forms into the pupa below the surface of the ground.

Plants Injured. — Cotton bolls, corn, tomatoes, squashes,
tobacco, peas, beans, and potatoes.

Fig. 20 — Boll Worm or Corn-Ear Worm.
armigera. Div. Ent. Dept. Agri.

Heliolh

IXKKCTS, lT.\(iI, 1>LA.\T DISKASKS, KTC

121

Remedies. — Hand-picking and rotation in crops will
greatly reduce the number of insects. The use of a solu-
tion of hellebore, three ounces to sixteen gallons of hot
water, applied without dilution, is also recommended.

Cabbage Worm (Pieris rapae, Linn.). — This is a foreign
insect i n t r o d u c e d
many years since
from Europe. It is
well known in all sec-
tions of the United
States where the cab-
bage plant is culti-
vated. The butterfly
is light cream color,
about two inches
across the expansion
of the wings. The worm is green with a yellow stripe ex-
tending down the back, with small yellow spots on each
side. The greatest damage is committed by the worm.
It eats the leaves, destroying them completely. There are
two broods in the South.

Plants Injured. — Cabbages.

Remedies. — Paris green, one-fourth of a pound to a
barrel of water, sprayed on the plants.

Fig. 21 — Pieris protodia
alis. Riley, Div.
Agri. Report, 1889.

. a, Larva, b, Chrys-
Ent. U. S. Dept.

Fig. 22 — Pieris protodice. Male
butterfly. Riley, Div. Ent.
U. S. Dept. Agri. Report, 1883.

Fig. 23 — Pieris protodice. Female but-
terfly. Riley, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept.
Agri. Report, 1883.

Pieris protodice and P. monuste are two other species of
the cabbage worm which are also found in the South

122

UAKOJEMAG FOB THE SOUTH.

destructive to the plant. They resemble in many respects
the first described, differing in coloring and size, and the
same remedies are applicable.

Cabbage Louse (Aphis brasslcae. Linn.). — A green plant
louse, occurring on the under surface of the leaves, and,

F. Dctmers. del.

Fig. 24 — Aphis brassicae. a, Winged male, magnified.
b, Head and antenna of same, more magnified, c,
Viviparous female, magnified, d, Head and antenna
of same, more magnified. Insect Life, Vol. Ill, Div.
Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri.

when in large numbers, seriously injuring the plant by
sucking its juices, causing the leaves to wither and die.

Plants Injured. — Cabbage, cauliflower, and similar
plants.

Remedies. — Pyrethrum powder mixed in water and
sprayed on the plants will generally destroy these insects.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

123

Kerosene emulsion diluted to one-half its usual strength
and applied with the sprayer is also excellent. Tobacco
solution is also recommended, and made as follows:
Powdered tobacco three pounds, boiled in ten gallons of
water for one hour, applied without dilution.

Cabbage Worm (Plusia brassicae, Riley).— This is one
of the common insects injurious to the cabbage and other
plants. It is a green
worm about one inch
long, usually with
light stripes down
its body; these
stripes, however, are
sometimes wanting.
The worm raises the
center of its body in
moving over the
leaves, and for this
reason is called a
"looper." The moth
flies at night, but
may be seen some-
times during cloudy
weather flying over
the cabbage field.
The eggs are greenish yellow, and are deposited on the
upper or lower sides of the leaves. This insect eats the
leaves, and at times bores into the head of the cabbage.
There are about six broods during the season.

Plants Injured. — Cabbage, celery, cauliflower, lettuce,
turnips, tomatoes.

Remedies. — Paris green or London purple will kill the
plusia, but these poisons must not be used after the cab-

' "M:^^^^^^""

Fig. 25— Plusia brassicae. a, Moth, b, Full
grown larva, c, Pupa with its cocoon, natu-
ral size. Howard, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept.
Agri. Year Book, 1898.

124

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

bage begins to head. The kerosene emulsion is the safest
remedy.

Soft soap,

1 pound.

Kerosene oil,

1 pint.

Water,

2 quarts.

Boil the water and soap solution, remove from the fire
and add the kerosene. Churn the solution until the ingre-
dients are thoroughly mixed, and the oil then will not
separate after cooling. Dilute with its bulk of water, and
spray with a force pump so as to strike the insects firmly.

Cut Worms (Peridromia mucin; Mamestra trifolii). —
There are several genera of these destructive insects

Fig. 26— Peridromia smitia. a, Adult, b, c, d, Full grown
larvae. e,f, Eggs. All natural size except e, which
is greatly enlarged. Howard, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept.
Agri. Year Book, 1898.

found distributed throughout the United States, and the
larvae, or worms, are recognized by the cylindrical, naked
form,- marked with longitudinal stripes, and, when dis-
turbed, the worms curl up and remain quite motionless

ITXCI, PLANT nrSKASK

125

for a short while. The adults are moths, rather small and
of an ashy hue. The eggs are laid ou stems of low plants
in late spring, and, when the worms hatch, they descend
into the ground. When winter approaches they find
refuge under logs or other objects. The warmth of the
following spring brings
them forth, and 1hey at
once begin feeding on
the tender plants within
reach. In a few weeks
they transform iuto the
pupa state and then into
the moth.

I 'hints Injured. — Near-
ly all varieties of vege-
tables.

Remedies. — Dr. Riley
recommends the distri-
bution of poisoned leaves
over the surface of the
ground before setting
out the plants, and re-
peating this operation.
The leaves are to be
poisoned with Paris
green or London purple.

In the use of these poisons, however, chickens and other
domestic animals must not be allowed to eat the leaves,
because death will result. H>nd-picking while the
worms are feeding, or digging for them, is effective.

Cucumber Beetle (Diabrotica vittata, Fab.). — This in-
sect causes great trouble to the gardener, because it
makes its attacks when the plants are quite young, by
eating holes in the leaves and causing the entire plant to

Fig. 27 — Mameslra trifolii. a, h, Larva.
c, Pupa, d, Moth, e, Wing of same.
f, Anal segments of pupa. Riley,
Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Report,
1883.

126

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

wither and die.
an inch in length, yellow in color with a black head and
three stripes running down its back. The grubs also
cause considerable damage to the roots of plants.
Plants Injured. — Cucumbers, melons, squashes.
Remedies. — Application of dry Paris green to the
leaves of the plant. Kerosene emulsion has also been
successfully used. The cucumbers and melons, when
planted on a small scale, may be protected until large
enough to resist the attacks of the insect, by covering

them with mosquito
netting. Use of to-
bacco and dusting
the plant with pyre-
thrum have also
been recommended.
Colorado Potato
Beetle (Doryphora
decemlineata, Say). —
This is a common
enemy to the Irish
potato, and is easily
Dept. Agri. recognized by the
bright striped condi-
tion of its body. It is small, and oval in shape. It is a
voracious insect, and eats the entire plant.
Plants Injured. — Irish potatoes and its kind.
Remedies. — Application of Paris green or London
purple, either in the dry state or sprayed on the plants.

Canker Worm (Amsopteryx pometaria, Ilarr, or fall
canker worm; Paleacrita vernata, Peck, or spring canker
worm). — The two species of this insect are strikingly
alike, and, to the unpracticed eye, they may be readily

Fig. 28 — Diabrotica villala. a, Beetle, b, Larva.
c, Pupa. (/, Side view of anal segment.
Chittenden, Div. Ent. IT. S.
Cir. 31.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

127

termed one and the same insect. The worms are gen-
erally called " measuring worms," because of the peculiar
bending of the body in moving from place to place. The
eggs are deposited in late fall by a wingless insect some-
what resembling a spider.
The worms are green-
brown in color, and they
feed on the leaves and
flowers.

Plants Injured. — Apple,
plum, cherry, elm.

Remedie s. — Spraying
with Bordeaux mixture,
to which Paris green has
been added. This appli-
cation must not be made
while the blossoms are

Fig. 29 — Anisopieryx pometaria.
Egg. c, d, Dorsal and side views of
larval segment, enlarged, e, Egg-
mass. /, Larva, g, Female pupa,
natural size, h, Anal tubercle, en-
larged. Riley, Div. Ent. U. S.
Dept. Cir. 9.

opening, because the tender parts of the flower will be
injured by the Bordeaux mixture.

Grape Vine Fidia (Fidia viticida, Walsh). — A beetle
about one-quarter of an inch long, of a brown color and
covered with dense light IHw \ ^em

yellow hairs. It attacks
the grape leaves by eat-
ing irregular holes in
them. When the insect is
disturbed it falls to the
ground and feigns death.
The eggs are laid in the
cracks of the bark some
distance above the ground. The larvae, when hatched,
fall to the ground and bore into the earth to feed on the
tender roots of the vine. They remain below the surface
feeding on the roots and in the pupa state until the fol-

U 6

Fig. 30 — Anisopteryx pometaria. a, Male
moth, b, Female, natural size, c,
Joints of female antenna, d, Joints

. of female abdomen, enlarged. Riley,
Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Cir. 9.

128

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

lowing .Time, when the beetles emerge to destroy the
foliage.

Remedy. — Spraying with arsenical compounds (arsenic
and lime used in the strength of one pound to 150 gallons
of water) will destroy the beetle. This spraying must be
done early, so as to avoid the danger to the fi*uit. The

Fig. 31 — Fidia vitieida. a, Beetle, b, Eggs represented natural size under
fold of bark, and much enlarged at side, c, Young larva, d, Full grown
larva, e, Pupa. /, Injury to leaf by beetles, g, Injury to roots by larvae.
&, In part, and/ and g natural size, rest much enlarged. Marlatt, Div.
Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Year Book, 1895.

larvae may be destroyed by injecting carbon bisulphide
into the ground, or by wetting the soil with a kerosene
emulsion diluted nine times. A gallon of this solution
is poured in a hole around the vine, and an hour later
washed down to -greater depths.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

129

Grape Leaf Folder (Desmia maculalis, Westw.)- —
" One of the noticeable features of a vineyard, particu-
larly in midsummer and later, is the many folded leaves,
the interiors of which have been skeletonized. This is
especially evident with thick-leaved varieties, the
whitish under surface contrasting strongly will) the thick
green of the upper. If the leaf be unfolded, it will be
found to contain a very

active, w r i g g 1 i n g,
greenish larva, a little
less than an inch long,
which is apt to spring-
out of the fold and fall,
or hang by a thread.
The leaf itself will be
found to be attached
to the folded part by
means of numerous lit-
tle cords of silk. If the
larva is full grown, the
interior of the leaf will
be thoroughly skele-
tonized and soiled
with accumulated ex-
crements. The fold al-
most invariably brings the upper sides of the leaf to-
gether, the larva feeding, therefore, on what would be
the upper surface of the leaf. The larva transforms to a
reddish-brown chrysalis usually within a much smaller
fold of the edge of the leaf, but sometimes within the
larger larval fold. The moth, which, during the summer,
issues in a few days, expands about an inch, and is a
shining opalescent black, with wings bordered with white
and marked with white spots, as in the illustration, a

Fig. 32 — Desmia maculalis. a, Male moth.
I>, Female, c, Larva, d, Head and tho-
racic segments of same, enlarged.
e, Pupa. /, Tip of pupa, enlarged.
g, Grape leaf folded by larva. Mar-
latt, Div. Ent. TJ. S. Dept. Agri. Year
Book, 1895.

130

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

females. There are two (or in the South, three) broods
each summer, the last brood hibernating in the leaves."
(Marlatt.)

Remedies. — Crushing the insect in the folds of the
leaves early in the season is the sure way to get rid of the
trouble. If this method is pursued systematically each
day the task is not difficult, because the folded leaves are
readily detected, and the remedy is certainly effectual.

Fig. 33 — Haltica chalybea. a, Beetle, b, Larva, c, Larvae and beetle on foliage.
d, Injury to buds, e, Beetles killed by fungus, a and b, Much enlarged,
rest natural size. Marlatt, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Year Book, 1895.

Burn all of the rubbish in the fall found on the ground
around the vines, and in this way many larvae will be
destroyed, which will otherwise pass through the winter
in these protected places and come forth at the opening
of spring to renew the attack on the plants.

Grape Vine Flea Beetle (Haltica chalybea, 111). — This
beetle appears on the grape vine very early in the season
and feeds on the young branch buds, thus greatly retard-
ing the growth of the vine. Sometimes when the insects
are in great numbers the vine is killed to the roots.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

131

The beetle is of a shining, bluish-green color, one-fifth of
an inch long and active in its movements. The eggs are
deposited on the under sides of the leaves and hatch
within a few days a number of brown larvae, which feed
on the upper surfaces of the leaves, cutting small round
holes. These larvae feed until the first of June, when
they descend into the earth and transform into beetles
about the first of July. These feed on the leaves until
fall, when they seek pro-
tected places, where they
pass the winter.

Plants Attacked.— Vir-
ginia creeper, alder, plum
trees, grape vines.

Remedies. — R e m o v e
and burn all leaves and
rubbish under the vines
in the fall. In the spring-
spray the canes and the
young foliage with a solu-
tion of Paris green (one
pound to 150 gallons or
water). Early in the
spring the beetles are
rather sluggish, and they
may be shaken on to cloths which arc saturated with
kerosene. They will die as soon as they come in contact
with the kerosene.

Harlequin Cabbage Bug (Murgantia histrionica,
Hahn). — This insect is also known in some sections of the
South as the " Lincoln bug." The full-growTn insect is
striped with orange and black; it is about one-half inch
long, of an oval, flattened form. The eggs are laid and
hatched within two or three days, and the bugs at once

Fig. 34 — Munjuntia liixtri'mica. a,
Young, b, Half grown, c, Egg
cluster, d, Same, from side, e,
Same, from above. /, Adult, wings
closed, g, Same, wings open, c, f,
g, natural size ; a, b, slightly en-
larged; d, c, considerably enlarged.
Howard, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept.
Agri Cir. 10.

132

GARDENING Fou THE SOUTH.

begin extracting the juices from the plant and continue
to do so throughout their entire life.

Plants Injured. — Cabbage, mustard, turnips, rutabaga,
radish.

Remedies. — The only sure remedy is hand-picking in
the early spring, when the first bugs are noticed. Radish
and rutabaga seed might be sown to serve as catch plants,
and as soon as the bugs are detected on these plants

vigorous spraying
with kerosene emul-
sion and hand-pick-
ing will soon greatly
reduce the pest. The
ordinary application
of Paris green fre-
quently fails to kill
them, because they
live by sucking the
juices and not eating
I the leaves, hence the
poisons do not enter
u T , their bodies when

r lg. 35— June Bug. Lachnosterna fusca. Riley,

Div. Ent. IT. S. Dept. Agri. sprayed on the sur-

faces of the plants.

June Beetle; White Grub (Lachnosterna fusca, Riley).
The beetles fly about during the months of May and June
feeding on young and tender twigs of fruit trees. The
work of destruction is done at night. This beetle is well
known to children, who delight in catching and imprison-
ing it with a string to hear its buzzing sound. The eggs
are laid about the roots of grass and, when hatched, the
grubs feed on the roots of young plants for three years
before they come forth in the winged state.

Plant* Injured. — Peach, cherry, fig, strawberry.

Remedies. — Fall plowing to bring the grubs to the sur*

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

133

face and expose them to fowls and cold weather. Hand-
picking in the evening and early morning when the beetle
makes its appearance on the trees. A vessel containing
kerosene is held under the limbs and the beetles are
shaken into it.

Leaf-Footed Plant Louse (Leptoglossus phyllopus,
Linn.). — This has become a very common insect in the
South, and it commits its damage by sucking the juices
from plants and fruits. It is well recognized by the
chocolate color of the
body and leaf-like form
of the shanks. The
eggs are deposited
along the ribs of the
leaves. It is found in
most portions of the
(Julf region.

Plants In fund. — Cu-
curbits, sweet pota-
toes, watermelons, pe-
can trees, pear, peach,
strawberry, Irish pota-
toes, orange (first came into prominence in the South as
a pest on the orange trees*).

Remedies. — Hand-picking is the certain remedy, but
many of the younger forms can be destroyed by a free
and frequent use of kerosene emulsion.

Melon Louse (Aphis gossypii, Glover). — This insect is
called "cotton 101180," or "orange aphis." There are three
forms found on the plants — viz. : (1) the " nymph," or the
recently hatched lice, which are very small and of a
greenish-yellow color; (2) wingless females, yellow in

Fig. 36 — Leptof/lossus phyllopus. Twice
natural size. Chittenden, Div. Ent.
U. S. Dept. Agri. Bulletin No. 19.

F. H. Chittenden in Bulletin 19, n. s., U. S. Dept. Agri., Div. Ent.

134

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

color; (3) winged females, quite small, ovate with trans-
parent wings containing yellow veins.

Plants Injured. — lied clover, orange, melon, purslane,
morning-glory, cotton, pear, dwarf bean.

Remedies. — Spraying with kerosene emulsion and
pyrethrum.

Melon Worm; Melon Borer {Margaronia hyalinata,
Linn.). — These worms bore into the melon and eat long,

irregular holes, caus-
ing the rind to sour
and decay. The eggs
are laid on the vines
early in the season
by a moth with
white transparent
wings containing
black borders. The
first brood hatched
feeds on the vines
a n d leaves, while
the second and fol-
lowing broods de-
stroy the fruit.

Plants Injured. —
Melons, cucumbers.

Remedies.
Spraying of Paris
green during the
time the first brood
is eating. After the worms enter the fruit, poisoning will
not avail, and it will become necessary to destroy the
fruit infested.

The Peach-Tree Borer (Sannina exitiosa). — The moth
comes abroad from midsummer until October. Its body

Fig. 37 — Margaronia
coons and adults.
IT. S. Dept. Agri.

hyalinata. Larva. Co-
Comstock, Div. Ent.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

135

is of steel-blue color, with an orange band around the mid-
dle of the abdomen of the female. Her wings are blue,

deposited the latter part of summer, at the base of the
trunk, on the soft bark; when hatched they bore their
way under the bark, sometimes proceeding upwards
along the trunk, at other times downward into the root.
Its presence is made known in spring by the effusion of
gum; as it does not penetrate the wood, it is easily traced
by its holes under the bark. The worm is soft, white, with

Fig. 38 — Sannina exitiosa. a, Adult female, b, Adult
male, c, Full grown larva, d, Female pupa, e, Male
pupa, f, Pupa skin extruded partially from cocoon.
All natural size. Marlatt, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept.
Agri. Cir. 17.

a tawny, yellowish-red head, and sixteen feet, growing
to over half an inch in length. It forms a tough, pod-like
cocoon on the side of the root, jutting just above the sur-
face. Remedies are various. Haul the earth from the
collar of the tree, clean away the gum, and cut out the
grub with a knife and kill it; or pour scalding water into
his haunts from the spout of a tea-kettle, which will kill
the grub and benefit the tree; leave the basin about the
root of the tree open, and re-examine a few days later,
as some of the worms may have escaped. Where the
mercury does not usually sink belowT 8° during the win-
ter, it is best to leave the collar of the tree uncovered

136 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

and exposed to the action of frost during winter. Tn
spring a small mound of ashes, or slaked lime, or even
earth, should be placed about the base of the trunk, which
will render the borer less likely to attack the tree. This
should be removed or spread out around the tree in
autumn. The trees should be closely examined in autumn
and spring. There arc also certain washes recommended
to prevent the insect from entering the tree. Two may
be mentioned. The first is very poisonous, and must be
used with great care:

1 — Soft soap, 10 gallons.

Corrosive sublimate, 1| ounces.

Alcohol, 1 pint.

Dissolve the sublimate in the alcohol and add the soap.

2 — Sour or buttermilk, 10 gallons.

Hydraulic cement, 10 pounds.

These washes must be put on with a brush, repeating
every two weeks until after the moth disappears. Apply
the solution from below the ground to several feet above.

The Onion-Fly (Phorbia ceparum, Meiger) is a native of
Europe, of late years becomiDg common in many Ameri-
can gardens, and wherever found is very destructive to
the crop. The parent insect, is a small ash gray fly, about
half the size of the common house-fly. The female lays
her eggs on the leaves, when they are very young, close
to the earth. As soon as the maggots hatch, which is
when the young plants are about the size of a quill, they
descend between the coats of the onion to its base, feed-
ing upon the bottom part of the bulb, which soon becomes
rotten, when the worm leaves it, to enter the earth and
complete its transformations. Figure 30 represents the
larva of the natural size at a and at b, magnified several
times. Figure 40 shows the way in which the insects
work upon the young plant. In Figure 41 the perfect

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

137

insect is given, the natural size of which is indicated by
the cross lines, and in the same figure the magnified pupa
or chrysalis is shown at d, and the actual size at c.

Remedies. — These insects increase so rapidly that un-
less destroyed at their first appearance, which is shown
by the leaves drooping and turning yellow, it is almost
impossible to eradicate them. Such plants should be at
once pulled up, and with the soil in which they grew,
burned, which will prevent their increase. Applications
of soot or salt upon the beds, of lime water, stale urine,

Fig. 39

Fig. 41.

and tobacco water, are also employed, and beds strewn
with fine charcoal are said to be less liable to attack. It
is difficult, however, to reach the insect, except by pulling
up the bulb. It is said that removing the earth from the
onion bulbs as soon as growth has well commenced will
prevent the fly from depositing its eggs, and the onion,
being nourished by its fibrous roots, ripens and keeps
better.

Professor Slingerland, entomologist of the Cornell
Station, New York, recommends spraying with the fol-
lowing: Dissolve one pound soap in half gallon water and
emulsify with one pint of crude carbolic acid. Spray
freely over the plants as soon as above the ground and
every few days after.

138

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

The Curculio, or Plum Weevil, (Conotrachelus Nenu-
phar, Herbst), is a short, thick, rough beetle, of a dark-
brown or blackish color, varied with spots of white and

Fig. 42— Curculio or Plum Weevil. Conotrachelus nenuphar, Her.
Riley, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Report 1888.

yellow; with a long snout hanging down in front like an
elephant's trunk. It makes a small, crescent-like incision
upon the side of the plum and cherry, just after they are

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 139

set, in which it drops an egg. From this is hatched a
small, white, footless worm, which bores into the fruit,
causing it to drop prematurely from the tree. The worm
enters the ground, and in three or four weeks comes out,
and the successive broods attack the plum, apricot,
cherry, nectarine, and peach, until the fruit ripens. Their
incisions have been found in the limbs of the pear tree.
The beetle, if discovered, feigus death, and can hardly be
distinguished from the dried flower buds by careless ob-
servers. Picking or sweeping up the fruit as fast as it
drops, and boiling it for pigs, before the worm can enter
the earth has been found beneficial; likewise jarring the
tree (by striking sharply with a mallet on the stump of
a limb removed for the purpose) as soon as the fruit is the
size of a pea, and collecting the insects on a white sheet
as they fall, and destroying them. As the insects are
torpid in the morning, that is the best time for the opera-
tion, which should be kept up uutil the fruit begins to
ripen. Plant all stone fruits in an enclosure by them-
selves in which pigs and poultry are admitted ; these will
collect the fruit as fast as it falls, and tread the ground
firmly together, so that it is not easy for the insects to
enter it. None of these methods will be fully effectual
if there are neglected trees near by from which the insect
may emigrate. The most reliable of them is jarring the
trees, and destroying the insects daily; the next is giving
access to a large flock of ducks and chickens, which, de-
stroying the perfect insect, are a much more efficient
remedy than the pigs alone.

The Squash- Vine Borer (Melittia satyriniformis,
Hbn.). — This insect feeds on the interior of the stem of
the squash, and its presence is not detected until it has
been in the stem some time, and has grown to a well-
developed larva. The leaves of the plant show the
damage being done by the insect by wilting, and the

140

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

entire plant will soon die unless tne insects are destroyed.
The adult insect is a moth which flies during the heat
of the day, and toward the close of day it lights on the
leaves in a rather sluggish condition. The eggs are laid
on all parts of the plant, and they hatch from six to fifteen
days after being deposited. The caterpillars are small,
white, with a dark head and a few scattered hairs over

d f

Fig. 43 — Melittia satyriniformis. a, Male moth, b, Fe-
male when at rest, c, Eggs shown on bit of squash
stem; d, Full grown larva in vine, e, Pupa. /,
Pupa cell. All one-third larger than natural size.
Div. Ent. Dept. Agri. Cir. 38.

the body. When full grown they measure about one
inch in length.

/'hints Attacked. — Squashes, pumpkins, gourds, musk-
melons, cucumbers.

Remedies. — Because the caterpillar is found in the
stem it is very difficult to treat it with spraying methods,
so we are compelled to resort to cutting the insect out of
the stem and to use preventive means. Rotation of crops
will serve to check the trouble; also planting trap crops
and burning these when the eggs are deposited on them.
Fall harrowing and deep spring harrowing have also
been found beneficial in exposing the pupae or cocoons

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

141

/-^Vi^x

to the cold air and the birds or fowls. This followed by
deep plowing will prevent other cocoons that may escape
from reaching the surface in the form of the moths. Burn
all dead vines and squash rubbish after the squashes are
gathered. During the growing season keep the plants
vigorous and healthy. (Chittenden.)

The Squash Bug (Anasa tristis, DeG.). — This insect is
of a rusty black color above, and yellowish beneath; of a
foul, disgusting smell ; of quick motions. It eats the leaf
and stem, and at
length destroys the
stem. It lays its
dark - colored eggs
in patches upon the
under surface of
the leaf, to which
they adhere strong-
ly. As s o on as
hatched, the young
e n e m y in little
swarms commence
feeding upon the
leaf, upon its under
side, which soon
withers. They are quite timid, but may be found in the
cool of the day concealed under the leaves or clods of
earth, and should be sought for while the vines are young,
daily, in the morning, and crushed before they become
numerous.

The Turnip Flea Beetle (Phyllotreta vittata, Fab.). —
This is a small, hard-shelled insect, of a smooth, shining,
brassy, or greenish-black color, about an eighth of an
inch in length. There are two yellow stripes down the
wing cases. The hinder legs are formed for leaping. It
attacks the turnip, and other plants of the same family,

Fig. 44 — Anasa tristis nymphs, a, Newly
hatched. b, Second stage, c, Third
stage. d, Fourth stage, c, Fifth stage.
All about twice natural size. Chittenden,
Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Cir. 39.

142

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

both in its perfect and larva states. When the plants
have attained some size the injury to the crop is slight,
but they generally take the young plants while in the seed
leaf, and destroy the crop entirely in a few hours,
whether it be a small bed, or a large field.

The best remedies are preventive, such as to roll the
surface smoothly, so that the insects may find no hiding-
places in the soil, to sow the seed in drills, and in a fine,

rich soil, and apply super-
phosphate of lime upon
the seed in the drills, to
b

Fig. 45—Anasa trislis. a, Mature
female, b, Side view of head.

c, abdominal segments of male.

d, same of female, a, Twice
natural size ; b, c, d, slightly
more enlarged. Chittenden,
Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri.
Cir. 39.

Fig. 46—Phyllotrela vitluta. a,
Larva, b, Adult. Both great-
ly enlarged. Riley, Div. Ent.
U. S. Dept. Agri. Report, 1884.

apply plenty of seed, and thin out the plants when in
the rough leaf. Anything that will accelerate growth
will soon place the crop out of danger from these little
insects. Some sow radish seed with turnips, as the flea
prefers the young radish leaf. If they once attack the
plants, dusting them with lime ashes and soot is some-
times useful, but when in great numbers, it is scarcely
possible to save the young crop. Kerosene emulsion
should be sprayed around the roots and stems to destroy
eggs and larvae.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

14:

The Oyster-Shell Bark Louse (Mytilaspis Pwnorum,
Bouche). — This is probably the commonest and most
widespread, and consequently the best known, of any of
the orchard scales. It is found all over the world. It is
found in the United States practically wherever apples

Fig. 47 — Mytilaspis pomorum. a, Female scale from be-
low, showing eggs, b, Same from above, greatly en-
larged, e, Female scales, d, Male scale, enlarged.
e, Male scale on twig, natural size. Howard, Div.
Ent. TJ. S. Dept. Agri.

and pears are grown. If, during the winter, one of the
female scales be lifted, it will be found to contain the
shriveled body of the dead female, under the anterior or
more pointed portion, while behind this the yellowish-
white eggs are thickly massed together back to the ex-
tremity of the scale. Under each scale the eggs number
from forty-two to eighty-six. The young hatch from thesp

144

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

eggs in spring, wander out upon the twigs, and settle at
once. With this species the young twigs are generally
the only parts of the tree seriously affected. Older twigs,
howTever, are also attacked, and many specimens of the
insect may be found upon the trunk. There is generally
only one brood in most sections of the country, although

in the far South
there may be two
broods occurring in
each year. After in-
serting its beak and
settling, the female
molts twice, and be-
gins the formation
of the scale, which is
secreted mainly
from the hinder por-
tions of the body
and extends back-
ward, the two cast
skins remaining in
an overlapping posi-
tion on the anterior
portion of the scale.
The male scale is
much smaller than
the female scale, as
indicated in the figure, and is otherwise distinguished
by a fewr structural peculiarities. In the first place, there
is but one cast skin at its anterior extremity, and in the
next place, the hinder portion of the scale is hinged in
such a way that it lifts up like a flap, permitting the
escape of the adult male. (Howard.)

Plant* Attacked. — Apple, pear, plum, quince, raspberry,
currant, maple, ash, elm and other forest trees.

Fig. 48 — Aspidiotus )>< rnifiusux. c, Adult
female removed from scale, showing em-
bryonic young, greatly enlarged, d, Anal
plate, still more enlarged. Howard. Div.
Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

145

Besides the San Jose scale and the oyster-shell bark
louse there are other scales which are destructive to fruit
and other trees iu the South. Among the number may be
mentioned the scurfy bark louse (Chionaspis furfurus,
Fitch); the greedy scale (Aspidiotus camelliac, Sign.); the
English walnut scale (Aspidiotus juglans-regiae, Corns.);
the new peach scale
Mor-

(Diaspis lanatm
gan & Cock.).

Remedies. — Two of
our common orchard
scales, viz., the scurfy
bark louse and the
oyster-shell bark louse,
hibernate in the egg
state, and their hatch-
ing is comparatively
uniform. The approxi-
mate date throughout
the middle belt of the
country is from the
middle to the end of
May. Moreover, the
larvae are compara-
tively slow to settle,
and the scale at first

Fig. 49 — San Jose Scale, a, Young larva,
greatly enlarged. I>, Antenna of same,
still more enlarged. Howard, Div.
Ent. Cir. 3, U. S. Dept. Agri.

is not very dense. Therefore,
one, or, at the most, two applications of kerosene-soap
emulsion, diluted with ten parts of water, made about the
first of June, will hold these two species well in check.
(Howard.)

San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus gerniciosus, Comst.).— This
is one ot the most destructive insects which attack the
apple. It is becoming very widely spread throughout the
United States, and when it finds lodgement in an orchard
heroic measures are required to eradicate the pest. Great

10

140

OAKDESI^G FOR THE SOUTH.

care should be exercised when purchasing trees to buy
only from those nurserymen who are known to be relia-
ble, and who are provided with satisfactory bills of health
signed by well-known entomologists.

Messrs. Howard and Marlett, of the Division of Ento-
mology of the United States Department of Agriculture,
have made extensive experiments with the various
methods recommended for the destruction of this insect,
and their studies concerning the life history of the scale

Fig. 50— San Jose Scale. Male adult, greatly enlarged.
Howard, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Cir. 3.

have been so full and complete the summary made by
them is given. The illustrations are also taken from the
publications of these entomologists:

" The scale is not readily detected by the casual ob-
server, and consequently often remains unnoticed until
the death of the tree calls attention to it. Unfortunately,
it multiplies rapidly. Each adult female continues to
give birth to living young for a long period (six weeks),
and there are several (probably four) generations each
year. It infests the stems, twigs, leaves, fruit of nearly
all deciduous trees, and is extremely difficult to kill. The

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

u ;

young insects are almost microscopic in size, being one-
hundredth of an inch in length, consequently not seen
except by the practiced eye. The mature insects, as
already indicated, arc very small and without some ex-
perience will be readily overlooked, even by good ob-
servers. Also, persons uninformed might easily mistake
other insects for this species. The most common scale
upon orchard trees is the
'scurfy bark louse' (CJiio-
naspis furfurus), but this
differs from the San Jose
scale in some important
particulars. First, the
scurfy scale is elongate,
never circular in outline;
lies flat upon the bark, and
is papery white in color;
second, this scale passes
the winter in the egg state
and is single brooded,
while, on the contrary, the
San Jose Scale passes the
winter in all stages, from

Fig. 51 — San Jose Scale. Apple
branch, with scale in situ, natural
size. Enlarged scales above at left.
Howard, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept.
Agri. Cir. 3.

the minute egg, just cover-
ed with the scale, up to
mature individuals."*

Plant* Injured. — Almond, apricot, acacia, alder, cherry,
currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, linden, osage orange,
pear, peach, plum, persimmon, pecan, quince, raspberry,
rose, spirea, weeping willow.

Remedies. — "(1.) In all cases of recent or slight attack
the affected stock should be promptly uprooted and
burned. No measure is so sure as this, and the danger of
spread is so great that this course seems fully warranted.

♦Circular No. 42, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agri.

148

GAKDEMNo I'm; THE SOUTH.

"(2.) In cases of long standing and wide extent the
affected stock should be cut back severely and treated
with winter soap wash; stock badly incrusted with scale
should be cut out at once and burned. The lessening
of the vitality, together with the poisoning of the sap-
wood already affect-
ed by the scale in
such cases, will usu-
ally prevent the
plant fro in ever
again be c o m i n g
healthy, and gene-
rally it is beyond
help. We wish par-
ticularly to impress
upon the minds of
fiu it growers that as
soon as this insect is
found to occur in an
orchard the m os t
strenuous measures
must be taken to
stamp it out. No
half-way steps will
suffice. The individ-

T.. ro c, T , .. , t, i ual must remember

Fig. 52— San Jose Scale, a, Pear, mod-
erately infested, natural size, b, Female that not only are his
scale, enlarged. Howard, Div. Ent. U. S. own interests vitally
Dept. Agri. Cir. 3. at stak^ but those of

the entire community in which he resides. lie may think
that he cannot bear the loss, but the loss in consequence of
the slightest neglect will be much greater. The fact, too,
that there is a community of interests among fruit glow-
ers in this matter must not be lost sight of. Fruit growers
must be mutually helpful in an emergency like this.

I.NSKCTS, Fl'.\(;l, PLANT IUSKASKS, LT< '.

149

"(3.) As precautionary measures to prevent the intro-
duction of the scale into now districts, the following con-
siderations are important: No orchardist should admit a
single young fruit tree or a single cutting from a distance
into his orchard without first carefully examining it and

Fig. 53— Protoparce Carolina, a, Aduit moth, b, Full grown larva, c, Pupa,
natural size. Howard, Div. Ent. IT. S. Dept. Agri. Year Book, 1898.

satisfying himself conclusively that it does not carry a
single specimen of the Sau Jose scale; he should insist,
also, on a guaranty from the nurseryman of such free-
dom. In addition, no fruit should be brought upon the
premises without previous careful inspection. If this
course is adopted by every one interested, without excep-
tion, the rate of spread of the species may be limited to

150

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

the comparatively slight natural extension by crawling,
by winds, and by the aid of other insects and birds."*

Tobacco Worm, ok Tomato Worm, or Horn Worm
(Protoparse Carolina, Linn., and P. celeus, Ilubn.). — " There
are two species of large sphinx moths whose larvae, or
caterpillars, eat the leaves of tobacco, tomato and allied
plants, including, occasionally, the Irish potato. These
caterpillars, from the fact that each bears upon one of
the posterior segments of the body a rather stout, curved

horn, have become
popularly known as
horn worms. To-
bacco growers do
not distinguish be-
tween the two dif-
ferent kinds of horn
worms, and for prac-

Fig. 54— Bruehus pisorum. a, Adult beetle, tical purposes it is

b, Larva, c, Pupa. All greatly enlarged, not in the least

Chittenden, Div Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Year necegsarv +]ia+ +hev

Book, 1898. J ,. . f

should distinguish
them. The curious brown pupa into which the cater-
pillar transforms, which is found under the surface
of the ground, and which is at once recognized by the
handle-shaped process which issues from the top of the
head, is the form from which issues the adult moths.
Both of the insects occur more or less abundantly in the
tobacco fields over the entire tobacco-growing regions of
the United States. In certain localities one species will
be much more abundant than the other, and in other
localities the numbers will be more evenly divided. In
general, it may be said that celeus is the more northern
species, while further South Carolina is apt to be much
the more common." (Howard.)

Circular No. 42, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 151

Plants Attacked. — Tobacco, tomato, Irish potato, egg-
plant.

Remedies. — Hand-picking is sure, and, because of the
large size of the worms, readily and easily accomplished.
Jamestown (Jinison) weeds are sometimes cultivated, the
flowers of which the moths arc fond of visiting for the
nectar they contain. If these flowers are poisoned with
a small quantity of a solution made of cobalt, one ounce;
molasses, one pint; water, one pint, the moths will be

6 a, c

Fig. 55 — Bruchus obteclus. a, Beetle, b, Larva, c, Pupa. All

greatly enlarged. Chittenden, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept.

Agri. Year Book, 1808.

destroyed when they suck the flowers for the nectar. This
method has been practiced with success in Florida.

Weevils, Pea and Bean (Bruchus pisorum, Linn.; B.
obtains, S. ; />*. quadrimaeulatus, Fab.). — These weevils are
well known by all gardeners, and the damage committed
by them is very great. The adult insect deposits its eggs
on the inside of the green pod by making a slit on the
suture through which the eggs are placed. The grubs
enter the seed and feed on the starch stored up by the
plant for the germ.

Remedies. — Seed, which are attacked by the weevils
should be treated with the fumes of carbon bisulphide.

152

GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

A small quantity of the seeds are placed in a tight box
and a portion of the carbon bisulphide is poured over
them; another layer of seeds and fresh carbon bisulphide,
and this operation is repeated until the box is filled. A
close cover is put on and the box allowed to stand for a
day or two, when the fumes of the poison will kill all
of the insects in the seeds. In the use of this chemical
greavt care must be taken because of its inflammable quali-
ties. See that no
smoking is permitted
within the room.
where the work is
being conducted, or
a disastrous explo-
sion will result.

Hetcrodera radi-
cicola ( G r e e f f ).
Mull; Nematode
root-galls. These
arc enlargements
on the roots of cer-
at lacked by a microscopical worm, which
the roots. Professor Atkin-
son, in his study of this worm in Bulletin \) of the Alabama
Experiment Htation, gives the following description of
the disease: "The surface of the gall is at first smooth,
more or less undulate, or papillate, but becomes later
roughened, scurfy, or cracked, and finally decay of the
tissues sets in. When the roots begin to die they send
out new roots in the efforts of the plant to recover from
the effects of the disease. These roots in turn are at-
tacked and deformed."

Inasmuch as the worm is found in the tissues of the
roots and the openings they make are so minute it is
impossible to reach them with the ordinary methods of

Fig. 56—J:ntc]u<x quadrimaculatus. a, Beetle.
b, Larva, c, Pupa. All enlarged. Chitten-
den, Div. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agri. Year Book,

1898.

tain plant;

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

153

applications of vermicides, it is therefore recommended
to sterilize the soil by starvation of the worm — that is,
planting only those plants which are known to be free
from the attacks — and by clean
cultivation.

PLANT DISEASES.

These diseases are referred to
what are called fungi, which be-
long to the Cryptogamic branch
of the vegetable kingdom. A
fungus is a plant that is devoid of
the coloring matter or chloro-
phyll so necessary in the higher
plants for a proper assimilation
of the crude food. This coloring
matter being absent in the body
of the fungus, it becomes neces-
sary for it to seek for its food in
the flowering plants, where it is
in a condition to be immediately
assimilated. The damage, there-
fore, to the plant is caused by the
hyphae, or thread-like forms of
the fungus penetrating the tis-
sues and drawing the sap and
nutritive fluids, and thus eventu-
ally starving the plant to death.
These hyphae are either separate
or in bundles; and the entire
mass of vegetative portion is
called mycelium.

The reproduction of the fungus is by means of spores
which are developed on the mycelium. These spores
under the proper conditions of heat and moisture throw

Fig. 57— Nematode on Carrot.
California Bulletin.

154 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

out fine filaments and rapidly grow into a mature fungus.
There are two kinds of these spores, or, rather, two con-
ditions. One stage belongs to the summer period, and is
to be found on the surface of the host, while the other
belongs to the winter, and is deeply seated in the tissues
of the plant upon which the fungus was developed. The
fruit and leaves are common places for the latter stage
of the fungus.

From the fact that the fungus soon tinds its way into
the tissues of the host plant it will be readily understood
that the application of remedies to the surface will have
but little, if any, effect in destroying the disease. We
must, therefore, greatly rely upon preventive rather than
curative methods.

There are many species of fungi attacking the culti-
vated plants, and the vigorous investigations of the
Experiment Station workers all over the United States
are bringing to light new forms each year, but the limited
character of this book will permit the mention of only a
few of the most destructive and troublesome species.

Bacillus amylovorus (Burrill). Fire blight, frozen sap
blight, pear blight. This serious destruction of the pear
tree is the result of the attack of a minute bacterium
which causes the fermentation of the sap and the loaves
to turn a dark brown, and even the wood is made to crack
under the freezing and thawing of tissues in their un-
healthy condition. By this cracking of the wood the
bacteria are often given access to the older portions
of the tree. The first attack made by the bacteria is
through the nectaries and stigmas of the flowers, in the
soft tissues of the twigs and leaves where a wound has
been made. When a diseased tree is permitted to stand
the germs are transmitted by insects to the healthy trees,
as they fly from one flower to another seeking for the
nectar. When placed in this favorable condition the

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 155

bacteria soon begin to multiply with great activity, and
• but a short time will elapse before the twig shows a
sickly indication.

The only remedy now known is to cut away the dis-
eased portions into the healthy part and carefully burn
the wood. This may not in all cases prevent the trouble
appearing again, but nothing better is now known.

Gladosporium fulvum (Cke.), Cladosporium carpophilum
(Thum.) Leaf blight of the tomato and brown spot of the
peach, plum and cherry. The first attacks the leaf of the
tomato by turning it yellow in spots and* eventually
covering the entire foliage. (A badly diseased plant is
unable to grow leaves and have sufficient vitality to de-
velop fruit also.) The C. carpophilum shows on the fruit of
the peach, plum and cherry in brown, velvety spots, in-
creasing in size until they run together in the shape of
large patches.

The remedy recommended is spraying with Bordeaux
mixture every week or so to protect the new leaves and
fruit. See the table at the end of this chapter.

Caeoma nitens (Schw.). Red rust of the raspberry and
blackberry. This disease lives in the tissues of the plants
and breaks through to the surface, where it matures its
orange-colored spores, on the under sides of the leaves.
The fungus, however, infests the entire plant, and it is
supposed that it finds its way into the tissues through
the roots. The spores live through the winter in the
leaves which fall to the ground. The mycelium is peren-
nial and remains in the stem during the winter.

The only sure remedy is to dig up all diseased canes
and burn them. Treat in the same way all wild plants
found in the neighborhood containing the rust. Do not
plant any species of the raspberry and blackberry in the
same locality for three or four years. If but few of the
plants are infected spray the healthy ones with copper

156

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

sulphate solution or Bordeaux mixture. The anthracnose

is another disease which is destructive to the raspberry.

Ceratocystis fimbriata (Ell. & Hals.). Sweet potato black

rot. The beginning of the disease is shown by the appear-

Fig. 58— Anthracnose of Raspberry. Gloeospvnum
venetum. Div. Veg Phys and Path.

ance of dark olive-brown, or green patches, on the young
sprouts or upon the potato, entering the tissues. The
fungus grows rapidly and soon causes death to the sprout

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES,

ETC.

1.57

by girdling', and, in the case of the potato, covering the

fungus kind, the trouble is the result of the mycelium
entering the tissues and feeding on the starch grains and
cellular tissues.

Only healthy potatoes must be planted for the slips or
sprouts, and no sickly slips must be transplanted; do not
use hog manures in quantities, as this seems to encourage
the development of the fungus; (dear the field of all
debris and small potatoes after digging; and in case of

Fig.

59— Soft-rot of Sweet Potato. Ehizopu
after Halstt ad.

•■■•'

nigricans (Ehr.). Redrawn

infested fields, rotate the crop, planting other than root
crops.

Rhizopus nigricans (Ehr.). Soft rot of the sweet potato.
Dr. Byron I), llalsted gives the following account of this
disease: This form of decay, while it may be met with in
the field at digging time, is usually found most destruc-
tive in the storeroom, where it causes the attacked roots
to quickly become soft and worthless. In the engraving-
is shown a root in which the mould has penetrated for
nearly the whole length of the potato. As a rule, the
mould effects an entrance through the upper end of the
potato, where the latter was separated from the main
root, because the rind of the root, on account of its tough-
ness, in a measure prevents the entrance of the fungus.

158 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Should there be a break at any other point, this pro-
vides a suitable poiut for the attack of the disease.
The roots are more or less cut or bruised in harvesting,
and these places favor the entrance of the fungus. As
the mould advances within the tissue of the plant it
exudes a substance which is very active in causing the
starch in the potato to dissolve, as also the walls of the
cells to become partially decomposed. In this way the
juice from the decaying sweet potato is able to induce
a similar decay in healthy roots.

It is quite safe to assume that the mould makes its
entrance into the potato from the surrounding medium,
and usually after the roots have been harvested. It does
not, as far as known, begin by infecting the leaves of the
growing plant, and then pass down the stem, as is true
with the soft rot of the Irish potato. The fact that it
finds broken, bruised or cut spots in the roots favor-
able places for entrance suggests the importance of
being careful in harvesting and subsequent handling,
that the least possible harm shall come to the skin of
the roots. It is also true that the soft rot is greatly
favored by a moist atmosphere, especially shortly after
digging, at the time the roots are undergoing the
process known as " sweating." At this critical period
it is very necessary that the potatoes be stored in a
well-ventilated room, where a constant temperature
of not far from seventy degrees, or about that of a living
room, may be sustained. All soft potatoes should be
sorted from the healthy ones and destroyed.

Cercospora Apii (Fries.). Celery-leaf blight. The evi-
dence of the fungus is the appearance of pale yellow-
green spots on both sides of the leaves, about one-fourth
of an inch in diameter. These will soon change to a
brown color with a lighter colored center, and, if per-

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

159

mitted to have its way, the disease will cause the leaf
to dry up and became browned over its entire surface.

Remove all infected leaves and watch the plants for
the disease, so that all parts attacked may be destroyed.

Fig. 60— Leaf Curl. Exoascus deformans. Berk,
on Plum leaves (after Atkinson). Cornell Bulle-
tin 73.

There is no sure remedy in the shape of spraying after
the mycelium has found its way into the tissues.

Damping Off (generally attributed to the fungus

100 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Artotrogus debaryanus, II esse). The disease occurs iu the
hot-bed or greenhouse, and rots off the young seedlings
near the surface of the ground. The tissues are weak-
ened by the attack of the fungus, and the plant falls to
the ground. A number of fungi are also responsible for
this trouble, and great encouragement is given to them
in making the attack by the damp condition of the soil,
the high temperature and the humid atmosphere.

In the case of seed beds and greenhouses the remedy
is to change the soil and ventilate, and transplant only
the healthy plants. Do not water to excess.

Exoascus deformans (Brek.), Fuckel, Peach leaf curl;
Exoascus pruni, Fuckel, Plum pockets. The peach leaf
curl is caused by the attack of a fungus wdiich makes the
leaves drop early in the summer, and if the disease is
very severe the entire foliage may fall, followed by the
fruit. The fungus seems to be developed just after a cold,
wret period before the leaves put forth. The curling of the
leaf is due to the growth of the mycelium in the tissues,
and the spores give the surface a mealy cast. The fungus
remains in the fallen leaves and branches through the win-
ter, ready to renewT the attack at the opening of the spring.

The remedy recommended by some experimenters is
to prune back the twigs and spray with Bordeaux mix-
ture before the buds appear, repeating the operation
after the trees are out of bloom and again at the end of
two weeks. In the use of the Bordeaux mixture care
must be taken to have an excess of lime in the mixture,
so as to prevent injury to the leaves.

The plum pockets are the diseased fruits on the plum
tree. The mycelium pass the winter in the fruit-bearing
branches, and as soon as the ovaries appear in the spring
the fungus enters them and stimulates them so that the
plum becomes enlarged and the tissues dry up and as-
sume a spongy cast.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

161

The diseased fruits and branches should be burned,
and in the spring the trees must be sprayed with solu-
tion of copper sulphate, which Will help greatly in check-
ing the fungus, and an occasional application of Bordeaux
mixture will still further overcome the trouble.

Fig 61— Apple Scab Fusicladium dendriticum.

Entomosporium macidatum (Lev.). Leaf blight and crack-
ing of the pear; also found on the quince. This fungus
first makes its appearance on the leaves as small, brown
spots which soon enlarge to considerable patches. Later
in the season black spots are seen in the center of the
brown patches, which are the spores. The disease begins
early in the spring, and the entire foliage will become
11

162 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

infested, and the tree will become defoliated. In many
instances the wood and the fruit also become affected
with the fungus. In the case of the fruit the surface
shows carmine red spots, which turn dark afterwards,
and the skin becomes roughened and then cracks, making
an unsightly fruit for market.

This disease can be kept in check by the use of Bor-
deaux mixture at intervals of two weeks until about the
1st of August. The first application should be made
before the buds appear and three others at intervals of
ten days. Burn all leaves which fall from the tree that is
affected with the disease.

Fusicladium dendriticum (Fckl.). Apple scab, leaf blight,
or leaf mildew. There are apparently two forms of this
fungus, one attacking the leaves and the other the fruit;
but, in fact, it is the same disease. For some years prior
to 1873 it was supposed by observers to be two distinct
fungi, but Professor M. C. Cooke has shown that they are
identical. The appearance on the leaves is in the form of
small olive-green spots, which as they increase in size as-
sume a velvety appearance with the borders more or less
irregular. The fruit shows a similar condition of the at-
tack. There is generally a light colored ring around the
borders of the spot. It has been determined that dry, hot
summers are unfavorable to the development of the fun-
gus, while wet springs and summers, and a cool condition
of the atmosphere, will cause the fungi to grow with con-
siderable vigor.

This fungus does not penetrate far into the tissues, and
in its first stages it is exposed on the surface of the leaves
and fruit, so that spraying will kill the spores, but the
difficulty consists in the fact that the solutions which
are strong enough to accomplish this end will also de-
stroy the foliage of the tree. We must, therefore, com-
mence spraying in early spring before the buds begin to

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES. ETC.

163

expand, using a solution of sulphate of copper. When the
blossoms have fallen repeat the spraying with the Bor-
deaux mixture, and make two or three applications if the
season is wet.

Laestadia Mdwelli (Ell.), Via. and Rav. Black rot of the
grape. This disease
a 1 1 a c k s both the
fruit and the leaves,
the former most se-
verely. When about
full grown there ap-
pear on the grapes
spots of a brown or
purple color, which
in a few days extend
over the entire sur-
face, with the center
somewhat d a r k e r.
Black pimples over
the diseased part are
characteristic fea-
tures of the fungus.
The fruit soon
shrinks up and re-
mains on the vine for
a period as late as
winter. On the leaves
the spots are reddish
brown dispersed be-
tween the veins. The disease is detected here some days
before the attack is made on the fruit.

Since the fungus makes its appearance so late in the
season after the fruit is well advanced, it becomes rather
a difficult problem to destroy the disease if the spraying
is postponed, without staining the grapes. It is, there-

Fig. 62— Laestadia huhnW ( Ell ). Via & Rav.
Div. Botany, U. S. Dept. Agri.

L64

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

fore, important that early applications of Bordeaux
mixture be made, and as thoroughly as possible — begin-
ning before the blossoms open, and repeating the spray-
ing three or four times, with a week or ten days inter-
vening between each application, care being taken not to
extend the spraying until the fruit is stained.

Monilia fnwtigena (Pers.). The rot of peach, plum,
quince, and cherry. *" The fungus makes its appearance

Fig. 63— Monilia frudigena. Geneva, N. Y„ Bulletin 86.

on the flowers soon after or about the time the petals
fall. At first a slight discoloration appears at a given
point; this rapidly increases in size until at length the
entire flower assumes a brownish hue.

"After killing the flower the fungus frequently attacks
the pedicels, where it produces similar discolorations to
those described above. The dead flowers usually remain
on the tree for three or four weeks, then if the weather is
wet they begin falling, and as they consist at this time
of a soft mass of rotten tissue they stick to any part of

*B. T. Galloway, Sec. Veg. Path. Report, Department Agriculture, 1888.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 165

the tree with which they come in contact; many fall upon
the leaves and young fruit and become so firmly attached
that no ordinary rain or wind will remove them. Careful
experiments have shown that the rotting flowers are
highly infectious, and that wherever they touch the
leaves or fruit decay sets in..

" On the leaves the presence of the fungus is first made
manifest by a slight discoloration of the tissue around
the point of infection; this gradually enlarges, and at the
same time the normal healthy green color changes to a
reddish-brown. . . During wet weather the spots on
the upper surface of the leaf are frequently studded with
little tufts of fungus; these have a mealy or pulverulent
appearance, and are easily washed off by the rains or
removed by the wind.

"As in the case of the leaves, the fruit is often infected
by means of the diseased flowers. At first there appears
a brownish circular spot on one side of the cherry; this
rapidly enlarges and soon the entire fruit becomes brown,
shrunken, and soft. Ultimately the fruit stalk is attacked
aud finally the whole either falls to the ground and dries
up, or remains hanging on the tree throughout the sum-
mer, or uutil the following spring. The fruit is often
covered with tufts of the fungus similar to those occur-
ring upon the leaves, and while in this condition they
are highly infectious, causing all the fruit with which
they come in contact to rot."

The remedy recommended is spraying with Bordeaux
mixture just before the blossoms open, again just after
the blossoms fall, and about ten days after with another
spraying of the Bordeaux mixture. Some doubt the
entire efficiency of spraying, and its advisability is an
open question. Precaution must be exercised in its use,
particularly with the peach, which is so liable to inuiry
from the chemicals.

3 6G

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Alternaria Solani (E. and M.) Sor. Early or leaf blight
of the potato. This disease is readily recognized by the

Fig. 64

Leaf Carl of Tomato { Atkinson). Cornell Experiment
Station Bulletin.

peculiar folding of the edges of the leaves, resulting from
the shrinking of the tissue after the attack of the fungus

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 167

has destroyed the vitality of the cells. The attack begins
with a small spot, which gradually enlarges until most of
the leaf surface is involved, and, unless the disease is
checked, the entire plant is so injured its power to pro-
duce tubers is destroyed.

The remedy for this disease is Bordeaux mixture
sprayed on the plants just after they are six inches high,
and continued at intervals of twro weeks until June 1st.

Oedema. Leaf curl of the tomato. The disease is mani-
fested by the rolling up of the leaves exposing the under
surfaces. The veins are very much swollen, and the
leaves become more or less brittle. The illustration of
this disease is copied from Bulletin 53 of the Cornell
Station by Professor G. F. Atkinson. The attack is made
on the older leaves first, and the plant dies from the base
upwards.

Experience has shown that the disease is caused fre-
quently by an excess of water in the soil, or by a too
liberal use of ammoniacal fertilizers, so that irrigation
will help to retard the disease and judicious application
of fertilizers will prevent too vigorous growth of soft
tissue, which seems to be subject to the disease.

Oospora scabies. Potato scab. A delicate white mold
first makes its appearance on the surface of the potato
(Irish), and the scab is developed by the tissues of the
tuber, at the point of attack, forming a layer of cork as
a protection against the fungus parasite. As the potato
grows this diseased place begins to crack and becomes
roughened. Very soon the entire hill of tubers becomes
infected.

The remedy is preventive rather than curative. A
large per cent, of organic matter in the soil seems to en-
courage the development of the disease, and where lime
and stable manure are used in large quantities there is
danger of having this parasite on the crop. Scabby

168 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

potatoes must not be planted, because this will infect
the soil and give trouble. Stable manure secured from
animals fed on potatoes and beets is liable to produce
the disease, dotation must be practiced and clean cul-
ture must be the rule.

Peach yellows ; Peach rosette. These two diseases are not
yet well understood. The cause is unknown, but the effects
have been carefully examined by pathologists, and the
diseases have been pronounced virulently contagious.
The yellows have not been located positively farther

Fig. 65— Oosj ora scabies. Cornell Experiment Station, Bulletin 113.

south than Virginia, but there is constant danger of its
introduction at any time by means of the diseased stock
brought from the infected districts. Peach yellows
manifests its presence by the premature ripening of the
fruit, with bright red blotches over the skin and into the
flesh, penetrating almost to the center of the peach, pro-
ducing an unnatural coloring. There is also a premature
unfolding of the leaf buds into pale, sickly growths,
giving the tree an unhealthy look. The fruit has a bitter,
unpleasant taste. The tree gradually succumbs to the

LNSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 169

attack, and in the course of two or three years will die
entirely.

The rosette is somewhat similar to yellows in its
methods of attack, but it is more decided in its appear-
ance. " It may first attack part of a tree and then the
remainder, the same as yellows, but it is more likely to
appear at once in the whole tree, and generally in early
spring. In trees attacked in this manner all of the leaf
buds grow into compact tufts or rosettes. These rosettes,
although seldom more than two or three inches long,
usually contain several hundred small leaves. A tree
thus attacked always dies the following autumn or win-
ter. The prevailing color of the foliage is yellowish green
or olivaceous." (Erwin F. Smith in Farmers' Bulletin
No. 17.)

The only sure remedy is to dig up the infected trees
and carefully burn them, otherwise the disease will soon
spread throughout the entire orchard.

Plowrightia morbosa (Sacc). The black knot of the plum.
This is an excrescence growing upon the bark and young
wood. The bark swells and bursts, and finally assumes
the appearance of a large, irregular lump, with a hard,
cracked, uneven surface. The flow of sap is obstructed
by this tumor, and the poison is gradually disseminated
over the whole tree. The Morello cherry is also subject
to the attacks of this disease. It made its appearance in
Athens, Georgia, for the first time in the year 1853 on a
tree from the North. The black, rough condition of the
knot is its last stage. When the tree is first infected the
trouble is not so clear to the ordinary observer, and the
disease obtains a strong foothold before one is aware of
its presence. The development is accomplished in the
following manner. If an examination is made of the
surface of one of the black knots small pimples will be
detected in which the spores, or so-called seeds, are

170 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

located. These spores are carried by the wind to other
trees, and, finding lodgement, soon germinate and send
mycelii into the tissues of the plum, where growth is

Fig. 66 — Plowrightia morbosa (Sacc), Mass. (State)
Exp. Station, Report 1892. J. E. Humphray.

continued until spring, when the presence of the disease
is manifested.

The only remedy is to cut off every branch or twig that
shows a tumor, and burn it at once; and be sure to cut

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 171

several inches below the point of attack, so that all
mycelii will be taken out, otherwise the trouble will
make its appearance again.

Phytophthora infestans (DeBary). Potato rot; late blight,
or downy mildew. The leaves turn a brown color in large,
irregular spots, the unattacked portions of the leaves
remaining green. The tubers are also destroyed by this
disease, and become a dark color, shrivelling up and,
where the attack is rapid, giving out considerable moist-
ure in the rotten portions.

The remedy is to spray the vines several times with the
Bordeaux mixture, beginning when the plants are only
a few inches above the surface of the ground, and repeat-
ing at intervals of two weeks.

Blight of the Orange.* Wilt or leaf curl. This is a
common disease in Florida, and it is considered to be
incurable. It attacks most of the citrus fruits; but it
does not generally make its appearance until the tree is
old enough to bear fruit. It is a peculiar disease found
only in Florida, and it is widely distributed over the
State. The blight conies rather suddenly, and its pres-
ence is at first manifested by the wilting of the leaves,
followed by their falling, until the branches are denuded
of foliage.

Inasmuch as there is no remedy for this disease, the
tree affected must be cut out at once and destroyed, be-
cause the healthy trees" in the grove will soon become
infected, and the entire orchard will die. It is useless to
treat blighted trees, and money and time will bo wasted
by adopting any remedy recommended; the only sure
method is the heroic one of cutting out and burning all
trees affected.

♦Bulletin 8, Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Dept. Agri

1 i 2 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Die Back (Exanthema)* This disease is also known
only in Florida, and is widely distributed over the State.
As the name implies, the disease causes the vigorous
new growth to die back in early spring, and the yield of
fruit is consequently reduced.

" The order in which the symptoms appear and their
severity vary greatly, but are generally as follows: The
first sign of the disease is the unusually dark-green color
of the foliage, rank growth and large, thick-skinned fruit.
These symptoms are soon followed by the staining and
dying back of a few twigs, and by brown stains formed on
some of the fruits. The fruits developed are prone to
split and drop prematurely. In the first stage of the
disease either the stained fruit, or the stained, dying twigs
must be present to determine with certainty the presence
of the malady. Trees affected with the disease may grow
for years and show only one of these character symptoms;
in other cases all symptoms may be present, but to a very
slight extent, so that careful search must be made to find
them. As the disease progresses the brown staining of the
fruit and twigs become very abundant, and the dying back
of the twigs occur all over the tree; eruptions form on the
young and old twigs; nodal swellings, due to the gum
pockets, become very abundant, and the tree assumes
the dense foliage and regular outline described above.
In this stage of the disease many fruits set, but they
usually turn yellow, become stained, split and fall before
maturity, only a few, if an}^ reaching full size. Soon
the gum eruptions extend to the old limbs and these die
back. The rank growth becomes limited to the center
of the tree; here branches grow luxuriantly for a time,
only to become stained and die back later.''

Treatment. — Reducing the amount of highly nitro-

:Bulletin 8. Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Dept. Agri.

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISK ASKS, ETC. 173

genous organic fertilizers, and allowing the land to grow
up in weeds, will sometimes remedy the evil. In renew-
ing the fertilizing materials use potash and phosphoric
acid, and, as the tree begins to recover, add a little nitrate
of soda or sulphate of ammonia until the tree is brought
to its normal condition again. Low, wet soils will also
produce this disease, and in that case, thorough drainage
must be resorted to.

Scab of the Lemon {Verrucosis)* The leaves affected
with this disease exhibit small, wart-like excrescences
of various sizes; in some cases running together and
covering a large portion of the leaf or fruit. At first these
warts look like small semi-transparent pimples of a
slightly lighter shade of green than the surrounding sur-
face. In a few days these warts assume a more prominent
form, and present a watery cast. Then a fungus makes
its appearance, which is at first gray, then dusky, and
at last black. Finally the tissue covering the tips of the
warts is cut off from the healthy tissue below by the for-
mation of cork, and ultimately this cork formation be-
comes so abundant as to give a dingy white color to the
old warts.

Treatment. — Proper application of ammoniacal solu-
tion of copper carbonate will be found efficient. Remove
all infected fruit from the tree and the ground before
the blooming begins. Destroy all sour orange trees in
the vicinity of the lemon trees, because these are very
susceptible to the disease, and will give trouble. Spray
with the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate first
when the fruit begins to appear; spray a second time two
weeks after; and a third spraying may be required two or
three weeks later, when the blooming season is over.

The ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate is made

*Bulletin 8, Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Dept. Agri.

174

GAEDESIKG FOK THE SOUTH.

by taking 5 ounces of copper carbonate and mixing with 1
pint of water to a thick paste; dilute with V/2 gallons
of water in a wooden bucket; stir vigorously, and at the
same time add 2 pints of strong ammonia, or 5% pints of
ammonia water; when dissolved dilute to 50 gallons by
the addition of water.

SPRAYING APPARATUS AND METHODS.

No garden or orchard is well equipped without the
apparatus necessary to combat the attacks of insects and

Fig. 67— Victor Spraying Machine.

fungi. The experiment stations have studied so carefully
and thoroughly the subject of spraying and its appliances,
and have published, within the past ten years, so many
bulletins containing hundreds of pages of valuable ad-
vice to those contemplating, spraying, that the practice
has become almost as universal among fruit growers and
market gardeners as is the use of commercial fertilizers

IXSECTS, FUNGI, PLAXT DISEASES, ETC.

175

among- iariners. In the preparation of this chapter very
liberal use has been made of these bulletins, and the
reader is advised to secure these publications if fuller
information is desired on any point not elaborated in this
book. In fact, the wise gardener will have his name en-
tered on the mailing lists of these stations so that all
bulletins relating to vegetables and their cultivation may
be sent him. These bulletins are sent free to any one
who will apply for them.

There are numerous spraying pumps and appliances

&

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CD

Fig. 68— Barrel Truck for Spraying.

on the market, some of which are cheap and others are
quite expensive. In the purchase of an outfit, however,
the following essentials must be carefully noted and in-
sisted upon, if effective and satisfactory service is to be
secured: 1. Durability; 2. Capacity for work contemplated;
3. Simplicity in construction; 4. Ease with which the

176

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

parts may be reached and separated for repair; 5. Effi-
ciency of agitator; 6. Non-corrosive parts which are
brought in contact with the liquids.

Fig. 69— Bellows. Large Single Cone.

Experiments have proven that the following apparatus
will meet most of these requisites:

One of the simplest forms for applying dry powders is
shown in Figure 69. The powder is placed in the cone-
shaped vessel, at the bottom of which is an orifice, and

Fig. 70 — The Leggett Powder Gun.

through this the powder can sift, and, by working the
bellows, the poison is forced out over the plants. Another
form is shown in Figure 70, known as Leggett's powder
gun. The reservoir containing the insecticides is located

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

177

near the middle of the gun, and by turning a crank a fan
is operated which blows the powder out through the tube
on the plant where desired. The reservoir contains about
one quart, and the holes in the base are adjustable, so
that any amount of powder may be sent out at any time
desired.

Knapsack sprayers are made to hold about five gallons

Fig. 71— Knapsack Sprayer.

of the spraying materials, and the apparatus is so con-
structed as to enable the manipulator to carry the
machine on his shoulders. The discharge pipe should
enter the top of the tank, and not at the bottom. Where
the pipe enters the bottom it frequently becomes clogged
with the mixtures, thus producing continual sources of
annoyance. The valves are supplied with rubber balls,

12

ITS

GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

which should be substituted with marbles when kerosene
emulsion is used, because the kerosene causes rubber to
swell and close the orifice. Figure 71 gives the general
form of these knapsack sprayers.

When a considerable area of the garden or orchard is

Cyclone Nozzle, with Direct

Charge and Diegorger

for Thin Sprays.

Cyclone Nozzle, with
Lateral Discharge
for Thin Sprays.

Wire Extended Suction

Heavy Cyclone Nozzle, with

Oblique Discharge for

Thick Sprays.

The above illustrations are from Bulletin No. 20, Division
of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology.

Pig. 72-VERMOREL NOZZLES.

to be treated it becomes necessary to use larger machines
for holding the spraying materials. The best patterns
have the force pump attached to. barrels, as is shown in

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 179

These machines are so constructed
that as the pumping is carried on the fluids are kept in
constant motion, insuring a more perfect mixture of the
ingredients.

The nozzle used in the working of these spraying
machines is a very important item. The best nozzle is
the one which sends out a fine spray over all portions of
the plant. It is not desirable to drench the tree until the
liquid runs off on the ground, but every part must be well
covered where there are indications of fungi or attacks
from insects. The Vermorel nozzle is considered to be
one of the best on the market. However, it throws the
fine spray but a few feet from the orifice, and this is a

Fig. 73— McGowan's Nozzle.

disadvantage where tall trees are to be treated. This diffi-
culty may be obviated by using a bamboo extension.
This is a bamboo cane in which is placed a %-inch brass
tube with couplings to enable the manipulator to attach
it to the nozzle, and to the tank containing the spraying-
materials.

The McGowan nozzle is considered by many gardeners
to possess the advantage over the Vermorel form in the
fact that it not only sends out a fine spray, but it is
thrown with such force as to reach the highest trees in
the orchard. In this respect it has its advantages. It is
generally conceded, however, that for short distances the
Vermorel is the best sprayer, particularly for knapsack
work. It is good policy, where the gardener can afford it,

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC.

181

to keep both patterns on band, so that any character of
work in the spraying line needed in the garden and
orchard may be carried on with the least delay and
trouble.

In the use of the spraying material judgment must be
exercised. Of course, one solution will not do for all
purposes, and the gardener must hrst determine what
character of disease the plant has before making the

Fig. 74— Just right to spray for Codling Moth. Cornell Exp.
Station Bulletin 142.

application of the remedy, otherwise his labor may be
thrown away. As a general guide in this matter, the
following rules are given:

1. Do not spray the plants while in bloom, because the
delicate organs may be injured; insects which are bene-
ficial, such as bees, etc., may be destroyed.

2. There are a number of different formulae recom-
mended by writers on the subject of spraying, but the
experience of our best horticulturists and gardeners has

182

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

reduced them to two fungicides, viz.: Bordeaux mixture
and ammoniacal carbonate of copper, and two insecti-
cides, viz.: Paris green for chewing insects and kerosene
emulsion for those insects which feed by sucking. In
the calendar given at the end of this chapter other formu-
lae are given which may be relied on, but, as has been
already said, the four mentioned above will be found suffi-
cient for nearly all cases.

3. The lime solution and the sulphate of copper should
be passed through a fine strainer and the former (milk

Fig. 75— Almost too late to spray. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 142.

of lime) must be cold before mixing with the copper solu-
tion, otherwise the blue color characteristic of the Bor-
deaux may not be secured.

4. Unless the spraying is well performed the labor will
be lost. Be sure that all portions of the plant diseased
are reached with the preparation, because if a small sur-
face is omitted an active center of disease may continue
its growth, and in a short time the plant will be in a bad
plight.

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5'

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184

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

5. Before any application of the spraying solution is
made a careful examination of the plants must be made
to determine, as far as possible, what is the character of

calendar at the end of this chapter will largely assist the
operator in determining this question of suitable spray-

Fig. 78— The Kerowater.

ing mixture as soon as the character of the disease is
known. For instance, " it would be useless to spray with
kerosene emulsion to repress mildew, to combat currant
worms with Bordeaux mixture, or to apply Paris green
for an attack of plant lice.'' (Geneva Exp. Station.)

6. Some of these mixtures are poisonous, and greal
care must be exercised in their use so as to prevent
serious accidents. Another point must be remembered,

INSECTS, FUNGI, PLANT DISEASES, ETC. 185

viz.: that these fungicides and insecticides are not cura-
tives of the disease, but are simply preventatives, so the
spraying must be done at the proper times in order to
reach the cause of the trouble before it is too deeply
rooted in the tissues of the plant. Secure the best labor
for this work, and use the best machines procurable.

The Kerowater. — The demand for a sprayer that will
unite the kerosene oil and water when needed, and at
the moment that the two come from the machine, has
induced the Gould Manufacturing Company of Seneca
Falls, New York, to devise the " Kerowater," which in
many respects is a handy and convenient sprayer. The
kerosene oil is placed in the oil tank located within the
barrel, which is clearly indicated in the figure. The water
is placed in the barrel. Each tank has its own pump, and
the two fluids do not come together until they reach the
discharge pipe, and the proportion of kerosene oil is main-
tained at the will of the operator. The use of this and
similar machines obviates the necessity of preparing the
emulsion beforehand.

186 GAKDEMKG FOIt THE SOUTH.

CHAPTER IX.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS.

There are (wo modes of propagating plants, viz.: by
seed and by division. Species are propagated by seed, but
varieties, except in the case of annuals, generally by
division, as they do not always continue true from seed.
There are also two modes of propagating by division; in
the one, the plants root in the ground as suckers, layers,
and cuttings, and in the other they are made to unite with
another plant, as in budding, grafting, and inarching.
While all plants are naturally multiplied by seed, most
kinds also allow of propagation by division, as by taking-
offsets, or parting their roots, by suckers, cuttings, run-
ners, layers, etc. Propagation by seed often produces
new varieties, which are only to be perpetuated by
division of their roots, cuttings, layers, or by budding and
grafting upon stocks.

Propagation by Seed. — The most healthy and vigor-
ous plants are generally produced by seed, though many
varieties can only be perpetuated by propagating by
division. The following conditions are necessary, says
Thompson, for successful propagation by seed: 1. That
the seeds be perfectly ripened. 2. That they have been
properly kept until the period of sowing. 3. That they be
sown at the proper time; and, finally, that the sowing be
performed in the proper manner. And it may be added
that to accomplish the object of sowing, the seeds sown
must be of just the kind intended to be used, and true to
that kind.

The Maturity and Soundness of Seeds are neces-
sary to ensure the growth and perfection of the young

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 187

plant. These can generally be determined by their
external and internal appearance. If in cutting the
larger seeds the substance of the seed be of the natural
color, and the embryo be fresh and perfect, it will prob-
ably germinate. So if externally the}' have a clear color
and a fresh, plump appearance, they will be likely to
grow. The soundness of those that sink in water when
good (and most seeds do), may be tested by putting them
in warm water. Nearly all sound seeds will sink in this
fluid in a short time. Of the finer seeds, a skillful eye
will determine the quality with the microscope. But
the surest test is planting a few properly in a pot, pro-
tecting the surface from drying with a square of glass,
and keeping it in a warm room, or plunged in a hot-bed
or in a pit, giving it the heat naturally required by the
species for germination. A simple seed tester can be
made by the use of cheese cloth, on which the seed are
spread, covered with another cloth and placed on moist
sand, the whole covered with a board slightly raised to
permit of circulation of air.

Seeds are more often unsound from mouldiness or age
than from not having been properly ripened. They should
be stored where they will be least affected by the pres-
ence of moisture and the changes of temperature. About
40°, but not lower, is said to be the best. Many oily seeds
become rancid, and will not vegetate when sown.

Generally, seeds should be kept dry, but acorns and
chestnuts thus kept soon lose their vitality, and must be
kept until planted in rather dry loam, or slightly damp-
ened moss, well packed. Nearly all seeds keep better in
closely packed dry soil, the air being thus mostly ex-
cluded, than hermetically sealed in bottles. In close
stopped bottles or jugs, the air often becomes saturated
with the moisture and exhalations from the seeds, which,
in the impure, damp, close atmosphere, soon become com-

188

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

pletely spoiled. But peas, beans, and other seeds, where
liable to insects, after they are well dried, should be put
in bottles well corked, and a few drops of spirits of tur-
pentine, of chloroform, or a bit of camphor, put in with
the seeds. Either of these is fatal to the insects. For
most seeds it is sufficient that they be gathered, when
fully ripe, in dry weather, and thoroughly dried before
they are threshed. If any moisture then appears, dry
them further, and store in paper bags where they will
be free from damp and vermin. In the first column of the
following table is given the time that certain seeds will
keep, according to Vilmorin; the second column gives the
earlier table of Cobbet. It is generally best to select
fresh seeds, as seeds lose their vitality very soon.

Years.

Years.

Years.

Pennyroyal

Potato (Sweet). . .

Asparagus

Balm

. ... 4— 4

Endive

. a— 4

2—3

— 2

. — 3

Basil

...6—2

<;— 2

Fennel

Garlick

. .5— 5
. — 3

Bean

Purslane

8— 2

" (Kidney)

3— 1

(iourd

..5—10

Radish .

5— 2

Beet

5—10

Hop

. . — 2

Rampion

5—2

Borage

3—4

.. — 4

— 4

Broccoli

5—4

Hyssop

. — 6

Rhubarb

3— 1

Burnet

2—6

Jerusalem Artichoke

. — 3

Rosemary

4-3

Cabbage

5—4

Kale

.5— 4

Rue

— 3

5-7

— 2

4— 2

" (?ea)

.3— 3

. . — 2
.2— 2

Rutabaga

...5—4

Lavender

Leek

. . — 3

Capsicum

Salsify

Samphire

2— 2

Caraway

... 2— 4

Lentil

.. — 3

... . — 3

Carrot

.... 4-1

Lettuce

. 5— 3

Savory

3-2

Celery

-10

Marjoram

.2— 4

Shalot

— 4

Chervil

2—6

Marigold

.. — 3

Skirret

2—4

Cives

2-3

Melon

..5—10

Sorrel

2—7

Corn

.... •-'— 3

Mint

. — 4

Spinach

5— 4

Corn-Salad

5—2

Mustard

5- 4

Squash

5—10

Coriander

• — 3

Nasturtium

.5— 2

Tansy

.. .. — 8

Cress

5—3

Okra

— 1

Tarragon

— 4

" (Winter)....

3—

Onion

. 2— 2

Thyme

2—2

" (Water)

4—

Parsley

3- 6

Tomato

5-2

Cucumber

5-10

Parsnip

2- 1

Turnip

... .5— 4

Dandelion

—10

Pea (English)

.4— 1

Wormwood

— 2

The Time of Sowing all indigenous seeds in any
locality is most favorable when they naturally fall from
the plants. Hardy annuals, likewise, do much better if
sown in autumn, or quite early in the spring. If not in
the ground early, they flower late and badly. There are
some exceptions, as in the case of haws and cedar berries,

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 189

which hang until swallowed by birds, and sprout more
freely after having undergone the digestive process.
Some exotics of a hardy character likewise succeed best
when sown at the time the seed falls, vegetating in
autumn, growing slowly through the colder months, and
progressing rapidly when spring opens. Others coming
from a different climate, starting into growth in autumn,
would perish during the winter months; but kept and
sown when the temperature of the air and soil in spring
is suitable for vegetating them, they will advance rapidly
as the weather becomes more and more favorable to
growth. In some cases, where it might be best to sow
at the natural period, if the aim was simply to continue
the species, other motives render it necessary to sow at
other times. A succession of flowers or a continued sup-
ply of vegetables during the season may, in the case of
annual or biennial plants, make repeated sowings at
proper intervals desirable.

Trees and shrubs it is well to sow, if practicable, at the
natural period, but it is desirable that the seedlings should
not make their appearance above ground until a favor-
able season for growth. This is most readily secured in the
case of seeds that do not keep well dry, by stratification
or mixing them with soil in autumn, but not encouraging
growth until spring. This is done by placing a layer
of seeds upon the surface of the soil, then a layer an inch
or two thick of sand or light soil, and so on, the whole
being laid so as to form a cone, over which is spread a
covering of soil to protect from wet and frost. This should
be done where least likely to invite the attacks of mice
and other animals. Small quantities of seeds of this kind
may be stratified in boxes and flower pots, covered from
rats and mice and placed in a cool situation until spring.
Holly seed requires to be kept thus two years. When
vegetation begins to take place, the seeds, still mixed

190 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

with the earth iu which they have lain, can be sown in
soil properly prepared. The larger seeds can be taken
from the soil and planted out in the drills at proper
distances.

Seeds Must Be Sown in the Proper Manner. —
Seedsmen are often blamed for selling bad seed, when
the sole fault is with the planter. That seed may germi-
nate, moisture, air, and a certain degree of warmth, vary-
ing with each variety, are necessary. Chickweed will
vegetate at 32° F., but for most seeds of plants of tem-
perate climates the best germinating temperature is
about 00° F.; of half-hardy plants 70° F.; of tropical
plants about 80° F.; but some require 100° F.

Light must also be excluded until the root can derive
nourishment from the soil. The first effect of air, heat,
and moisture upon the seed is to change its starchy mat-
ter into the proper food of the embryo. If at this time
the seed be withered by exposure to heat without suffi-
cient covering, it will perish. It often happens that seeds
are planted in a fresh-dug soil, and the above change in
the properties of the seed takes place, but the earth not
being pressed upon it, the seed dries up and the embryo
perishes. Others, again, are buried too deeply, and
though the seed swells, yet sufficient air and warmth are
not obtained to give the embryo life. The seed should
be just so far covered as to exclude light, and afford
barely sufficient moisture for its wrants. The first thing
in sowing is a suitable preparation of the soil, so that
the young roots thrown out may easily penetrate it. It
must be made more or less fine for different seeds. Peas
and beans do not require the soil to be as finely pulverized
as small seeds. The seeds must also be firmly fixed in the
soil, and pressed by the earth in every part, in order to
retain moisture sufficient to encourage vegetation; but
they should not be so deeply buried as to be deprived of

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 191

air, or have their ascending shoots impeded by too much
soil above. In all cases, seeds should be sown in fresh-
dug soil, that they may have the benefit of the moisture
therein, but they should never be put in when the soil is
really wet, as the ground will bake and the seed perish.
Moist weather in summer is excellent for putting in seeds,
provided the ground is still friable. Just before a light
rain is the best possible time for sowing turnips and
other summer-sown crops.

Seeds of most kinds should be sown in drills or rows.
In these they can be placed at any required depth, while
if broadcast, some will be uncovered, and others too
deeply buried in the earth. If sown in drills you will
know where to look for the young plants, and they can
have the soil dug around them, which will enable them to
grow much faster, and are much more easily thinned and
cultivated. When the seeds are planted, the earth should
generally be pressed upon them with a roller, by treading
with the feet, in the case of large seeds, and for the
smaller by smoothing the surface with the back of a
spade, or by walking over them on a board. Pressing the
earth upon them will retain the moisture about them, and
hasten their vegetation. When they come up, keep them
free from weeds, and thin them as hereafter directed in
treating of each plant.

A great deal of the subsequent growth of the plant
depends upon their not being sown too thickly, or at any
rate upon being thinned properly as soon as the young
seedlings appear. A plant raised among a lot of crowded
seedlings is very apt to die before it has made its fourth
leaf. This seldom happens if the seeds are sown thin, and
a little powdered charcoal is mixed with the earth.

Some seeds, which, like those of the carrot, adhere
together, must be rubbed in the hands with dry sand to
insure a more equal distribution in the drill. Others,

192 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

like the beet, are covered with a bard shell, and others
still with a tough skin. Both kinds may be soaked in
water until the shell or skin is somewhat softened, and by
notching into the covering germination is hastened. For
broadcast sowing, very small seeds are often mixed with
fine soil in order to ensure their being scattered more
equally.

Very often seeds fail to come up because they are sown
too deep or because they are sown in very dry earth.
Other causes of failure are excessive moisture and
either excess or lack of bottom heat. M. Appelius
observes that seedlings raised in hot-beds or frames
frequently cause disappointment from bad management.
Asters, Stocks, Phlox, Petunias, Pansies, etc., do better
in a very mild hot-bed, and produce stronger plants
less likely to die off. When the dung of a hot-bed has
given off its first heat, it begins to absorb moisture
from the earth with which it is covered. And as
the earth of the bed generally slopes to the south, the
greater part of the water given off runs toward the front,
and at the back of the bed the earth in which the seeds
are sown is often too dry. Hence seeds that vegetate
slowly and need constant damp, as Phlox and Pansy,
should be sown at the front of the bed, and those that
grow more readily at the top or back. The time required
for certain seeds to germinate at a temperature of from
52° to 65° is as follows (M. Appelius): Garden cress, 2
days; spinach, 3; cabbage, turnip, and lettuce, 1; peas,
endive, poppy, melons, cucumbers, mustard, 5; lupine,
lentil, horseradish, radish, onions (often also in 15 days),
leeks, 6; barley, rye, maize, broccoli, beans, beet, 7; wheat,
thyme, marjoram, and some kidney beans, 8 ; marrowfat
peas, 9; vetch, sugar beet, tobacco, hemp, 10; tomato,
sea-kale, scorzonera, carrots, savory, basil, stocks, celery,
12 (turnip rooted celery sometimes 20); anise, fennel, 13;

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 193

sunflower, artichoke, burnet, 14; balm, clover, 15; laven-
der, purslane, 1G; sage, pepper, 20; parsnip, parsley,
asparagus, 21; and potato in 28 days. It seems that seeds
lighter than water do not germinate so soon as those
heavier.

Though seeds will vegetate with due supplies of heat
and moisture, a fertile soil is necessary for their further
progress. Fine, light, rich mould favors the vegetation
and early progress of most seeds, though many, after they
are a little advanced, flourish best in strong, heavy loam.
A compost of peat or leaf-mould, fine sand, and well rot-
ted manure, should be prepared, and if all the finer seeds
are covered therewith, one great difficulty in growing-
fine vegetables on stiff soils will be removed, as well as
their early maturity secured. Even in dry weather one
can generally bring up seeds by digging and finely pul-
verizing the earth; then soaking it well with water that
has been some time exposed to the air to raise its tem-
perature; then sowing the seed in drills of the proper
depth, and sifting over the bed a coat of this compost.
In the case of large seeds, as corn, beans, etc., after the
ground is prepared, only the hills or drills need to be thus
soaked, and then covered with the compost.

Special directions for managing seeds requiring
peculiar care will be given hereafter.

But the best management will be of no avail if one does
not get the right seeds. It is not pleasant to see Early
Yorks growing where one sowed what he bought for
Drumheads. The way to avoid such mistakes is either to
raise your own seeds and carefully label them, or to know
of whom you buy. Your own eye in the case of many
seeds will not assist you at all in discriminating.

Seed must not only be of the right sort, but true to that
sort. Early York cabbage seed may be sown, or Scarlet
radish seed; yet, from having been planted near to some
13

194 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

other varieties, the seed is crossed with them and the
most valuable qualities of the variety lost. The cabbage
may be late or longrlegged, and not head at all, or the
radish tough and misshapen.

Preserving Seed.— The very finest plants should be
chosen for this purpose — that is, those most true to their
kind and most perfect in shape and quality. In the cab-
bage, for instance, a small, short stem, well formed head
with few loose leaves; in the turnip, large bulb, small
neck, few, short and slender-stalked leaves, and solid
flesh. In the radish, high color (unless white), small neck,
few and short leaves. In the case of flowers, seed should
be saved only from those most perfectly developed.

Great care should be taken to preserve the varieties
unmixed, for, as just stated, if varieties of the same spe-
cies, or very similar species, are planted near each other,
they will cross and produce untrue seed. In this way, it
is true, valuable varieties often originate, but the chances
are that the produce will be worthless. There can be no
cross between a cabbage and a carrot, because they are
of totally different families, and there is no similarity;
but all the varieties of cabbage will cross with each other,
wilh Brussels sprouts, in short with all others of the
genus Brassica. So of corn; in a few years the early varie-
ties from the North, planted in Southern gardens, become
so intermingled with the ordinary sorts, that the early
character is lost. The difficulty of keeping seeds pure
renders it advisable not to save seeds of two varieties of
any species the same year, except in large gardens. Many
kinds of seed it is more advantageous to buy of the regu-
lar seedsmen than to grow ami save them at home. The
finest seeds in the world are grown where an amateur
makes one or two species of plants, like Truffaut with
Asters, a specialty, using every possible care for their
improvement.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS.

195

Fig. 79— Flax Flower.

Crossing and Hybridizing. — These terms are used by
many as meaning the same thing; strictly speaking,
hybridizing is when two distinct species are made to form
a union, while crossing is where the same takes place with

varieties of the same spe-
cies. To make the matter
plain, we must give the struc-
ture of the flower. The organs
concerned in the production
of the fruit or seed are the
stamens, which correspond to
the male organs, and the
pistil or pistils, which are the
female organs. These two arc
for the most part in one
flower, and differ greatly in number in the different fami-
lies. The simplest case is where both kinds are in one
flower, as in Figure 79, which represents a flower of the
flax split down, to show the arrangement of its parts.
The central body is the pistil, and is surrounded by five
stamens, which are shorter. It will be seen
that each stamen is composed of two parts —
a slender portion, the filament, which bears
a two-lobed body, the anther, which produces
a fine fertilizing powder, the pollen. The
pistil has an enlarged base, the ovarii, which
contains the orates, which are to become
seeds; above this is usually a prolonged por-
tion, the style. The styles may be one or
several; in the case of the flax there are five, Fig. so— stamens

, £ , . , . ,ii , • and Pistils.

each one of which is surmounted by a stigma,
that part which receives the fertilizing powder, or pollen.
The stamens and pistils are not always found together
in the same flower. In Indian corn they are separated,
but on the same plant the tassel containing the stamens

196 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

or male organs, while the silk and ear are the pistillate
parts. Such plants are called monoecious. In other in-
stances, as spinach, the flowers which contain the stamens
are not found upon the same individual plant with those
that bear the pistils. These are called dioecious plants.

Cross breeding, where both sexes are united in the same
blossom, is accomplished by removing the stamens and
dusting the pistil with the pollen of a different variety, a
simple process; but from the resulting seed a new variety,
partaking somewhat of the qualities of both parents, will
be produced. Care is required in the process. A blossom
must be selected not fully expanded, and all the anthers
be cut out and removed. Protect the blossom with a
loose bag of gauze to keep off the bees. As soon as the
blossom is fully expanded, collect on a camel's-hair pencil
the pollen from a full-blown flower of the variety selected
for the male parent, and apply it to the stigma or point
of the pistil. Success depends upon the careful extraction
of the anthers before they are advanced enough to ferti-
lize the pistil, the application of the pollen when in perfec-
tion— that is, in a powdery state, upon the stigma while
still moist — and the prevention of natural fertilization
from pollen carried by insects or by the wind. Cross
breeding often takes place naturally. If different varie-
ties of corn are planted near together, often three or four
kinds and colors of grain will be found upon one ear from
natural intermixture.

But there are limits to the power of crossing plants.
Those between two varieties of the same species, as be-
tween two kinds of corn, or two varieties of the pear, are
common enough, and these are fruitful and produce per-
fect seeds. In the same genera, also, certain nearly allied
species are capable of fertilizing each other; the offspring
in this case is called a hybrid, and does not always pro-
duce perfect seeds. Thus the different species of the

PKOPAGATION OF PLANTS. 197

strawberry, also those of the gourd and melon family,
readily intermix. So also do those of the rose. But no
one has succeeded in crossing the apple with the pear, or
the gooseberry with the currant, though in both cases
they are species of the same genus. Still less will such
totally different plants as oranges and pomegranates
intermix.

Our flower gardens in modern times have been greatly
enriched by cross breeding and hybridizing. Thus have
originated a great number of new aud beautiful roses,
rhododendrons, azaleas, camellias, fuchsias, dahlias, etc.,
so beautiful in color and perfect in form and habit.

Propagation by Division. — Every other mode of pro-
pagating plants, except by seed, whether it be by bulbs,
tubers, runners, suckers, parting the roots, layers, cut-
tings, budding or grafting, is effected by a division of the
plant to be increased.

Bulbs. — Propagation by division, in the case of bulbs
or tubers, is analogous to sowing seeds. The new bulbs
may be separated when the leaves of the mother-plant
decay. The onion, hyacinth, tulip, etc., are generally
taken up and stored in a moderately dry, airy place, until
it is the proper season for growth, and are thought to
grow better in consequence of their surplus moisture be-
ing evaporated. The corms or bulbs of the crocus, thus
treated, produce better plants and stronger flowers. Be-
moval gives an opportunity for changing the soil before
the bulbs are reset. There are, however, many scaly
bulbs, as the lily, that are injured if long out of the
ground, and if not planted again at the proper season,
the strength of the plant is much diminished. Bulbs
generally like a light, rich, sandy soil, well pulverized,
and most bulbs and tubers require to be planted more
deeply than seeds.

Tubers may be taken up when mature, and kept until

L! I v GAKDEXIXG FOK THE SOUTH.

the proper season for replanting. They may generally be
cut into as many pieces as they have eyes, and each eye
will produce a plant. The tubers of the Chinese yam have
no visible buds, but if cut into pieces aud planted, buds
will push out from the wrinkles that appear upon its
surface.

Runners are thrown out by the strawberry and many
other plants. They spring from the crown of the plant,
deriving from it' their nourishment, and at a greater or
less distance from the parent plant throw out a bud above
and small projections or rudiments of roots, which, in
favorable conditions, strike into the soil and help to nour-
ish the young plant above. The growing point of the
runner extends to form another new plant beyond, lnm-
ners cannot well take root in dry weather, but in contact
with moist soil the roots soon strike. To facilitate the
rooting, the joint is often pegged down, or a small stone
placed over it a little behind the bud, which preserves the
earth in a moist condition as well as keeps the joint close
to the soil. If it is desired to obtain as many plants as
possible, do not permit the parent plant to waste its vigor
in producing flowers and fruit, but cut off the flower
stalks as they appear. If strong plants are desired, stop
each runner after it has made one or two plants. The
new plants, when well rooted, are ready for removal at
the proper season.

Suckers. — These proceed either from the root or from
the stem, or collar of the plant. Root Suckers are pro-
duced from those plants which send out stray horizontal
roots, as the sucker is in fact a bud from one of these roots
which has pushed its way through the soil and become a
stem. As this stem generally forms fibrous roots of its
own above the point of junction with the parent root, it
may be slipped off and planted like a rooted cutting.

Root suckers are thrown up by some plants, like the

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 199

currant, close to the mam stem; by others, like the plum
and paper mulberry, at considerable distance. Rasp-
berries, poplars, roses, lilacs, and many other shrubs and
trees, are thus readily propagated, the offspring with the
roots that properly belong to it being carefully separated
from the parent and replanted in suitable soil. The roots
of the parent plant should be injured as little as possible.
Remove the soil, and if the sucker springs from a large
root, detach a slice of it with the sucker instead of sever-
ing it. The supply of nourishment being diminished by
separation from the parent plant, the head of the plant
removed must be cut in, except in the case of coniferous
plants, to prevent evaporation.

The great objection to planting suckers is, that plants
grown from them have a much greater tendency to throw
out suckers, and thereby become exceedingly annoying in
gardens, by encroaching on other plants, than if propa-
gated by other methods.

Stem Slickers spring from the stem of' the old plant
where its base is beneath the surface. Shoots originating
at this point frequently strike root ami become rooted
suckers. In plants in which this natural tendency is not
sufficiently strong, it may be increased by earthing them
up well with good mould, which may be kept moist by
mulching. The quince and other plants are propagated
in this manner.

Propagation by Slips. — This is the mode in which
many small undershrubs, like box, sage, rue and lavender,
are increased. They are dug up in spring or fall, and the
young shoots, with some portion of root attached, slipped
off with the thumb and finger, and if small, they are
planted a year in nursery rows. Many kinds of plants
grow from slips of the young branches with little or no
root attached. The number of young plants to be obtained
by division can be increased in some cases by sprinkling

200 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

fine soil among thein that the lower branches way strike
root in it, or taking up the plant and resetting deepei
than before. Box edging when overgrown, if taken up
in spring, partly divided and replanted so that the base
of each shoot is covered, can, after rooting, again be
divided into as many plants as there were shoots. Stem
suckers are often called slips.

Parting the Roots is the ordinary way of increasing
herbaceous perennials with annual steins, such as
phloxes, chrysanthemums, etc., which can be taken up in
spring or autumn, and divided by hand, or with the
trowel, knife or spade, into a number of plants with a
portion of root to each.

Propagation by Layers. — A layer is a branch or shoot
bent down into, and covered with, the soil, in order to
make it take root. Meanwhile it is fed by the parent
stock, with which its communication is, however, partially
obstructed to make the returning sap form roots, instead
of going back into the stock. With some plants a suf-
ficient check is given by simply bending and properly
covering it with earth; the branch is held in its place
by hooked pegs until it takes root. Rut in general this is
not enough. The most common way of obstructing the
return flow of sap is when the shoot is bent into the earth
to half cut it through near the bend, the free portion of
the wound being called a tongue. This is kept open by
a bit of twig, or piece of crock. Such layers are in fact
cuttings, only partially separated from parent-plants.
The incision is made through the bark at the base of a
bud. The object of the gardener is to induce the layer
to emit roots into the earth at the tongue. There are
other modes of effecting this.

With this view, he twists the shoot half round, so as to
injure the wood vessels; he heads it back so that only a
bud or two appears above ground, and when much Avater-

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 201

ing is required, he places a handful of silver sand around
the tongued part, theu pressing the earth down with his
foot, so as to secure the layer, he leaves it without further
care. The intention of both tongueing and twisting is to
prevent the return of the saj) from the layer into the main
stem, while a small portion is allowed to rise out of the
latter into the former. The effect of this operation is to
compel the returning sap to organize itself as roots, in-
stead of passing downwards to form wood; the bending
back is to assist this object, by pre-
venting the expenditure of sap in the
completion of leaves. The bud left
on the tongue favors the emission of
roots, as a tendency exists in nearly

Fig. 81 — Layering.

all plants to throw out roots at the joints, and the silver
sand secures the drainage so necessary to cutting.

The old mode of forming the tongue, and the best,
unless the shoot is brittle, is shown in the figure, where
the tongue is shown upon the underside of the layer. "A
plan," says the Gardener's Monthly, "which is now much
in vogue with the best propagators, is to cut the tongue
on the upper surface. On bending down into the soil, the
tongue is then twisted on one side, and the young shoot
intended to form the future plant may then be lifted up
and bent towards the parent as rapidly as one pleases,
without any danger of it snapping off. There is another
advantage in this way of layering. It is often necessary,

202 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

in the stereotyped way, to place a chip or something be-
tween the tongue to keep it open. By this, the twisting
of the tongue aside keeps it always separate from the old
cut. Again, by this mode, very green shoots can be ope-
rated on — magnolias, for instance — in June, and plants
may be got well rooted by fall, instead of waiting for the
wood to ripen in August, when Ave have to wait for an-
other year before our layer is sufficiently rooted to take
from its parent. Another method of forming the tongue
is to make the cut upon the side, as in Figure 81.

Instead of forming a tongue to make a shoot throw out
roots, the branch may be split in the center for two inches,
more or less according to its size, and the parts separated
with a bit of wood. Roots will be thrown out along the
edges of the split. The returning sap may also be ar-
rested by ringing; in which case a ring of bark is removed
from the branch for the purpose, or by a wire twisted
tightly around it pinching the bark.

When the roots are thrown out naturally wherever a
joint touches the earth, as in the verbena, the branches
only require pegging down to make them form new
plants. Where it is difficult to get the shoot to be layered
down to the soil, a portion of the soil may be raised to the
plant, as the Chinese gardeners practice in a pot, the
earth in which should be kept steadily moist.

Another mode of layering is by insertion of the grow-
ing point in the soil. When the shoots of a raspberry or
gooseberry are of some length and firmness, if the grow-
ing points are inserted in well-dug soil, they will form a
nice bundle of roots and a good bud ready for transplant-
ing in autumn. This is worthy of trial with many other
plants.

The grape is best layered by digging a trench and lay-
ing therein a thrifty cane in the spring. Let remain until
young shoots, three or four inches long, are formed; then

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 203

gently draw a little of the soil into the trench covering
the parent cane, and as the shoots increase in strength,
till up the trench, and each young shoot will make a fine
plant by autumn.

In general, the best season for layering is before the
sap begins to rise in the spring, or, in the case of wood
of the same season's growth, in the summer after June. A
good time for roses is after the first bloom is over. Lay-
ered at this time, they will generally be fit to take up the
ensuing winter, but most plants require twelve months,
and some two years, before they will root. In nurseries
the ground is prepared around each stool by digging and
manuring, and the branches laid down neatly, so as to
form a circle of rays around the stool, with the ends rising
all around the circle to about the same height.

Cuttings. — A cutting is a part of a plant detached from
the parent stock, which, placed in proper conditions, will
emit roots and become in its turn a new plant. It may be
a portion of the stem, the branches, or the root, and some-
times even a leaf.

In a cutting, as in a growing plant, two forces are in
constant activity, those of absorption and of evaporation.
Its life cannot be long continued, unless these correspond
with each other. A cutting, from the lack of roots, absorbs
feebly from the soil; hence evaporation must be dimin-
ished to correspond, and the base of the cutting must be
in contact with a substance more or less humid. Evapora-
tion is diminished by planting in a northern exposure,
shading, the use of bell-glasses, etc. The more herbaceous
or immature a cutting may be, the greater care is required
to protect it from excessive evaporation.

Cuttings of hardy deciduous trees and shrubs should
be taken off after the leaves fall, or before the sap rises in
the spring. Those that strike readily in the open ground
in mild climates may be planted out to form the callus,

204 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

and be ready to enter into growth with the opening-
spring. In more northern climates they may be prepared
for planting, and stored in moistened moss or damp earth,
and kept from frost. The callus will be forming, and they
will be ready to plant in early spring. Generally, cuttings
should not be taken when the sap is in full flow, as moist-
ure is then rapidly evaporated and the cutting exhausted
before roots are formed. They should be taken when the
plant is dormant, or when a new shoot has been made
with leaves so fully formed and matured as to be in the

act of forming abundance of w ly tissue.

In selecting cuttings, they should come from healthy
plants, from shoots of average strength, well nourished,
but not over vigorous, as the latter are more quickly
exhausted when deprived of their usual supply of nour-
ishment. Horizontal branches growing near the ground,
especially those which recline upon it, have a greater ten-
dency to throw out roots. Upright shoots from near the
summit are generally, but not always, less likely to suc-
ceed. The willow and poplar strike freely from old wood,
and trunks of considerable size, if planted, will emit roots,
but of most trees the best plants are made from well-
matured shoots of the current jear's growth. In the case
of hard-wooded plants that are hard to strike, it is a nice
matter to select a portion of shoot in which the wood is
neither too old and hard, from which roots will uot be
readily emitted, or too young and soft, as in this case they
will damp off. Rose cuttings strike most readily when
not quite fully matured. The proper state of firmness dif-
fers in different species. The age at which a cutting of
any species will strike best or strike at all, is determined
by experiment, but when once ascertained, it is invariably
the same. The proper age of an untried species may be
proximately determined from that of the most closely

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 205

related species in which it is known, and will often prove
to be right if the species are nearly allied.

Some cuttings require little preparation. A willow
may be sharpened and driven into the soil and will take
root, and in some instances has done so, if planted bottom
upwards. Currants and gooseberries, cut into suitable
lengths, will emit roots not only from the callus, but from
any part beneath the soil. Of these, as of cuttings of all
deciduous trees, the buds on the part of the cutting be-
neath the soil must be removed before planting, or they
will push and become shoots. Cuttings of which the
leaves have fully performed their office, and the wood is
ripened early in the season, if made and planted out in
warm, moist soil, will form roots before winter, and be
ready to push into vigorous growth in spring. Such cut-
tings, planted in August or early in September, are nearly
a year in advance of spring-planted cuttings.

Cuttings of plants, difficult to strike, may have a ring
of bark taken out just beneath a joint, at midsummer,
which will cause a swelling of the branch above the ring.
The branch is cut off in autumn at the base of the swell-
ing, the top shortened, and it is planted as a cutting, or
it. is buried in the soil for the swelling to soften, and
planted early in the spring. With plants that are not
very free to strike, it is from the joints only that roots can
be expected to grow; hence, in making cuttings, the shoot
is divided just below a joint, and it is considered best to

choose a joint between the young w 1 and that of the

previous season. The cut should be quite smooth, for if
the shoot be bruised, the returning sap will not be able to
reach the wound in sufficient quantity to make it heal
over and form the callus quickly, and the cutting will be
likely to fail. When the callus is properly formed, there
is little difficulty in striking cuttings. To form the callus
they may be mixed with damp sphagnum moss, or old

20 G

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

tan, and kept in a dark cellar until about to push roots.
Cuttings may be placed loosely in a common preserving
bottle, with a wet sponge, the water drained out, and
the bottle stopped with a cork which has a half-inch hole
in the top to admit air. This may be kept where the
atmosphere ranges from temperate to summer heat, and
the callus will form very quickly.

Preparation. — : The way to prepare cuttings for planting-
is best shown by an illustration. Figure 82 A shows a
cutting formed from a lateral
shoot, and has been cut off
from the main branch with a
heel attached. Such cuttings
are sometimes torn out and
the bottom smoothed with a
sharp knife, so as to present
a larger surface for the ab-
sorption of moisture. At B is
a deciduous, woody cutting,
;is commonly prepared. At
C is shown a mode
in which grape cut-
tings are sometimes
prepared ; the two
extremities of the
fragment of branch
at the base are fur-
nished with buds. This is a mode which greatly favors the
emission of roots. Figure 83 is a cutting of a geranium
ready for insertion in the soil. In this case the lower
leaves have been removed; they should be clipped but
very little farther from the base than where the cutting is
to be inserted in the soil. The leaves being kept near the
moist surface, do not evaporate as rapidly as when ele-
vated much above. The petiole (or leaf stalk) should be

Fig. 82— Different Forms of Cuttings.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS.

201

cut off as close to the stem as can be done without injury
to the bark. If much of it is left and buried in the soil, it
is apt to rot and produce decay in the cutting i t self. If an
old leaf or two is left, it will elaborate more sap for the
formation of new roots than the very young ones. Cut-
tings of succulent plants, like the cacti, geranium, etc.,

require to dry a little that
the wound may heal over
before inserting in the
soil.

The grape is often pro-
pagated from a single
eye — a mode now very
much in use for new varie-
ties. These cuttings,
shaped in one of the form,-!
shown in Figure 84, arc1
planted in small pots un-
der glass, the surface kept
damp, and bottom heal ap-
plied. They soon take, and
form the best vines.

The substances in which
cuttimis are struck are va-

Fig. 83— Geranium Cutting.

etc., will root in common

vious. Many plants, as

chrysanthemums, currants,
garden soil. Powdered char-
coal, brick dust, and even pure water are employed, but
the most useful substance is pure silver sand, white,
clean and fine. Sea sand must not be used, unless all
saline matter is washed out. Sand contains little food
for plants, and they need little until the roots are formed,
but it is free from matters which induce decay. It is
porous and gives ready passage for the young rootlets,
and, being fine, retains moisture by capillary attraction.

208

GAEDENIKG FOR THE SOUTH.

Some plants will strike roots if the ends of the cuttings
are kept in water of the proper temperature. Bottles,
vials, and jars are used to hold the water, but as light is
rather an obstacle to the ready formation of roots, if the
vessel is transparent it should be shaded. As soon as the
roots begin to appear, the cuttings should be taken from
the water and planted in fine soil, which must be kept

moist, and the plants
carefully shaded until
they take fresh root.

Insertion. — Cuttings
of hardy plants that
strike readily in the
open air are some-
times inserted with a

i

yA

'

to cut off by a line a
straight edge in the
dug soil, and place
the prepared cuttings
against it, pressing
the soil closely around
them. These are usu-
ally set perpendicu-
larly. If the cuttings
are long, they can be
set in a sloping direc-
tion so as to be within reach of atmospheric influences.
If not herbaceous, they should be inserted so deep that
but two buds will be above the surface, and in the vine
but one. Herbaceous cuttings are inserted less deeply.

When small cuttings are planted under glass, a pointed
stick of proper size is used. Many kinds may be planted
all over the surface of the spot, but most do better when
inserted near the sides or bottom of the pot, and take root

Fig. 84 — Three Forms of Grape Cuttings.

PKOPAGATION OF PLANTS. 209

more readily. The soil in all cases about a cutting must
be closely pressed against its extremity, or it will never
strike root.

Temperature. — Many cuttings that rarely strike root in
the open ground do so freely when moist bottom heat is
applied. When the soil is but slightly warmer than the
air, the roots grow in proportion to the top, but if the
soil is constantly warmer, the disposition to produce roots
will be greater than to produce tops. In striking cuttings
the object is to produce roots, and then leaves will follow;
hence the temperature of the soil should be somewhat
higher than that in which the species naturally com-
mences growth, in order to secure good roots, without
which there can be no vigorous leaf-buds. This stimulus
should be applied to soft-wood plants almost imme-
diately; others may require some delay until the callus is
formed. Deciduous shrubs in a dormant state-should at
first be placed in a temperature very little higher than
would excite and swell their buds on the parent tree. In-
crease the bottom heat gradually, keeping the soil
warmer than the atmosphere. From 50° to 60° is about
right for the soil at this period, and about 50 for the at-
mosphere for hardy and greenhouse plants, increasing
the bottom heat to 65° or 70° very gradually, when the
roots commence growth. Care should be taken to pre-
vent its falling lower until rooted, when it may gradually
be lessened until but little above that of the air of the
place in which they are growing.

Moisture. — The cutting, while rooting, must be kept in
a suitable state of moisture. In vine cuttings, and others,
nearly covered with soil, all that is required is to keep
them in such an equable state of moisture that they can
have as much as they can appropriate, and no more. A
cutting requires more moisture in the soil than a rooted
plant.

14

210 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

To recapitulate: The principal points to be attended to
in making cuttings are — to cut off the .shoot at a joint,
without harming the stem; to select shoots with well
matured buds; to fix the eud which is to seud out roots
firmly iu the soil; to keep up an equable degree of heat
and moisture; to cut off part of the leaves and shade the
whole, to prevent evaporation, without too much exclud-
ing light, of which a portion is needed to stimulate the
cutting into growth; to keep the soil moist but not too
damp. It is well to transplant them into small pots, sup-
plied with water regularly and moderately as soon as they
begin to grow. Cuttings of slow-growing plants are those
most liable to fail. An excess of heat, cold air, water, and
light are all injurious to tender cuttings.

Pipings. — Cuttings of plants with tubular stems, like
the pink, are called pipings. The upper part of a shoot,
when nearly done growing, is pulled out of the socket
close above a joint, leaving the part pulled out with a
pipelike termination. These pipings usually have their
leaves or " grass " trimmed a little, and are struck in sand
about an inch apart, with a bell-glass closely fixed over
them. If well watered at first, they will not require it
again for some time. They are planted about three-quar-
ters of an inch deep, and treated like other herbaceous
cuttings. Under a north wall they succeed finely.

Root Cuttings. — Many shrubs and plants are in this
way most easily increased. Pyrus Japonica, blackberry,
rose, apple, pear, quince, elm, mulberry, osage orange,
etc., if their roots are cut in pieces some three to nine
inches long, and planted vertically with the end nearest
the stem up, and covered slightly with earth, will soon
form buds and throw up shoots. Many herbaceous plants,
as sea-kale, horseradish, Japan anemone, etc., are thus
increased. Of these the cuttings are made short, and,
except the second named, planted horizontally.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 211

CHAPTER X.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

Budding is the art of making a bud unite to the stem
or branch of another tree independently of its parent. It
is a cutting with a single eye inserted in another tree
called a stock, instead of in the ground. The operation
may be performed at any time after the buds of the new
wood are sufficiently matured. These must be perfectly
developed, which is seldom the case until the shoot has
temporarily ceased to lengthen, which is indicated by the
perfect formation of the terminal bud. If the buds are
desired very early, their maturity may be hastened by
pinching the tops of the shoots.

The ordinary time for budding, north of Virginia, is
from the middle of July to the middle of September, and
the buds in general remain dormant until spring. Roses
are, however, budded earlier, and allowed to make some
growth. In the South, buds are inserted at any time
when the bark will rise, from June to October. Those
put in early will make a tine growth before autumn in
favorable seasons. A very necessary condition to success-
ful budding is that the bark rise freely from the stock, and
this must be in a thrifty, growing state, as when pushing
into new growth a day or two after a fine rain. If the
weather is too cold or the soil too dry, the bark will not
rise. Such trees as make most of their growth early in the
season must be budded before they cease to grow. Young
shoots, when the buds are in a proper state, are cut below
the lowest plump bud. If to be budded immediately, all
the leaf is cut off, except the leaf stem, which is left for
convenience of inserting, and in order to attract the sap
into the buds. If the buds are to be preserved any time,

212

GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

the whole leaf with half of the leaf stem is removed to
prevent evaporation. If this is done as soon as they are
cut, they may be preserved several days in a closely cov-
ered tin box, or tightly corked preserve jar, if in a cool
place, and indeed, if the wood is well ripened, though the
footstalk of the leaf will drop, the bud will be in perfect
condition some weeks. No water need be given if there

are several cuttings
in the box, as the
air becomes suffi-
cient ly saturated
with moisture from
the cuttings them-
selves.

The strings used
for tying are taken
fro m bass mats,
which should be
wetted before use,
until perfectly pli-
able. Better strings
are made of white
woollen y a r n , as
they are more elas-
tic, and the color re-
flects the heat. The
pruning and budding knives are the only implements
required for the operation. The condition of the budding
knife is of importance to success. It should be made thin,
and the edge kept perfectly smooth and keen. The mode
in which budding is performed is shown in Figure 85.

Having the implements, stocks, and buds in the proper
condition, take the shoot in the left hand, and the bud-
ding knife in the right. Insert the edge of the knife in
the shoot, half an inch above the bud to be taken off.

Fig. 85— Budding.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 2 13

The bud is taken off with a drawing cut, parallel with the
shoot, removing the bark and the bud attached, with a
slight portion of the wood beneath the bud, half an inch
above, and three-fourths of an inch below. The English
remove this slight portion of the wood, taking great care
not to injure the root of the bud; but it does not succeed
so well in this climate as if a small portion of wood be
left directly under the bud. Select, then, a small portion
of the stock, smooth and free from branches, and make
two cuts through the bark, one across the end of the
other in the shape of a T, as in the figure. Theu raise
the bark on the two edges of the perpendicular cut with
the smooth ivory haft of the budding knife; insert the
bud gently beneath the parts raised, not forcing it down
like a wedge so as to rub off the cambium of the stock,
but pressing very little against the stock until so fully
inserted that its own cambium can be applied directly to
that of the stock where it is to remain; cut off the top
of the bark attached to the bud square, that it may tit the
cut across the stock; then wind the bass pretty tightly
about the stock, commencing below the end of the bud,
and pass it closely around up to the bud. The shield
should here be firmly pressed, that the base of the bud
may closely rest upon the alburnum; bring the tie pretty
close to the under side of the bud, making the next turn
wider, so that the point of the bud and the leaf stalk may
be seen between the turns of the tie; continue binding
closely until the cress incision is covered, then fasten with
a knot. Cover every part of the incision, except the bud
and leaf stalk attached, which should remain uncovered.
Do not tie it so tightly as to cut into the bark, but so as
to exert upon it a moderate pressure. The bud is put
upon the north side of the stock, when practicable, and
when not, a little paper cap may be tied to the stock, to
project over the bud, so as to admit the light, but exclude

214 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

the direct rays of the sun. The success of the operation
depends on its being performed rapidly, and with fresh,
healthy buds; clean, smooth cuts; the bark rising cleanly
and freely from the wood; the exact lit of the bud to the
incision; and close, secure tying, to exclude the air and
water. If the operation is performed in moist weather,
and the bark of the bud is joined closely to the wood of
the stock, success is almost certain. If the stocks are in a
proper state, the upper edges only of the slit need be
raised with the haft, and the bud being gently pushed to
its place, will raise the bark smoothly before it, and the
insertion be more firm than if the bark had been entirely
raised with the haft. It is an operation requiring much
exactness, but may be done in one minute; the point
where a beginner will most likely fail is in the proper re-
moval of the bud.

As soon as the bud has taken, the ligature may be
loosened, and should be entirely removed when it begins
to cut into the bark. If the leaf stalk, after a few days,
drops off, it indicates the bud has taken; if it withers or
adheres, the bud is likely to be dead or dying. The buds
must be frequently examined, and the ties loosened, if
becoming too tight, as they will in growing stocks. If it
is desired to start the bud into .immediate growth, soon
after it has evidently taken, the stock may be shortened
to within ten or twelve inches of the bud, and all shoots
rubbed off as they appear, except that from the inserted
bud. When this has grown three or four inches, the stock
is cut off again near the budded shoot, and when this has
grown some inches, the stock is cut off close to its base.
When it is desired that the bud should remain dormant,
cutting back the stock is delayed until just before the
flow of sap starts in spring. Buds that are not permitted
to push until spring soon overtake the others in growth.

Budding is the most rapid mode of increasing rare

BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 215

varieties, of which every bud is almost sure to make a
good plant if the operation is quickly aud skillfully per-
formed. It is the easiest method of propagating apples,
pears, and most other fruit trees. In the case of peaches
it is almost universally applied, and also with those roses
that will not succeed readily from cuttings. Budding aud
grafting can be performed only upou plants of the same,
or nearly related, species. Thus a peach can be budded
on a plum, as they are both stone fruits, and belong to the
same natural group of plants, but no art could make the
peach flourish on the apple or pear as a stock.

Grafting. — This differs from budding in its being the
transfer of a shoot, with several buds upon it, from one
tree to another, instead of merely employing a single bud.
It is performed by bringing portions of two growing
shoots together, so that the soft wood of the two may
unite together. The shoot to be transferred is called the
scion, and the tree which is to receive it is called the
stock. The stocks are of all ages and sizes, but they must
be sound and healthy. The scions employed are generally
shoots of the preceding year's growth, which may be cut
at any time after the leaves fall, and inay be buried in a
dry soil, with the upper extremities slightly projecting
on the north of a wall. They must be protected from
heavy rains, or the buds will start too early. Amateurs
can best keep all they wish in a corked preserve jar, or
a tin box, or closely covered bucket. Examine them occa-
sionally, and if too much moisture is present, leave the
cover off a few hours. The drier the better, if they do not
begin to shrivel. Keep in a cool place.

Scions of healthy, close-jointed wood should always be
chosen. If they are to be sent to a distance, those of
rather large size and close joints should be selected,
enveloped in a little thin paper slightly dampened, and
the whole covered tightly with oiled silk. In this way

216 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

they will go a thousand miles in perfect safety. The butt
and extremities of scions should both be rejected. The
tools required are, a grafting knife, saw, and chisel; but,
for whip grafting, the knife only is employed. Two kinds
should be used, one to prune and pare the stock, and the
other to prepare the graft.

Grafting Wax. — A composition of very good quality
is made of four parts rosin, two of beeswax, and one of
tallow. Melt it altogether, turn it into cold water, and
work and pull it thoroughly until it turns whitish; just
as children do molasses candy. A wax for cold weather
will work better with a little less rosin, and in warm with
a little more. The stiffness of the wax is increased or
diminished by employing less or more of tallow. In cold
weather keep the composition in warm water, and in
warm in cold water. In putting it on, the hands must be
slightly greased, to keep it from sticking to them, but
in operating grease the scion and stock as little as pos-
sible.

In applying the wax, be careful to cover the scion on
the sides and the cleft in the stock, forming a cap over the
top, and pressing it closely and tightly around the graft,
so as to cover every crack, and carefully to exclude the
air and water. More convenient than the wax itself, espe-
cially for whip grafting, is (loth saturated in wax that
has been made softer by using more tallow and beeswax
and less rosin. Take any thin, half-worn calico or muslin,
tear it into narrow strips, roll them loosely into small
balls, and soak them in the hot composition until every
pore is filled. When wished for use, it is unwound from
the balls, and torn into smaller strips, of the proper
length and breadth required by the size of the stock.
These strips, wound two or three times around the stock
and graft, secures it perfectly.

Modes and Time of Grafting. — The modes of graft-

BUDDING AND GUAFTIJS'G.

21'

ing most usually practiced are whip and cleft grafting,
and they are practiced on the stem and branches, or the
roots of trees. Koot grafting can be performed at any
time in this climate, or from the fall of the leaf until the
buds begin to open. The peach, grafted in this way early
in the season, succeeds perfectly at the South, but gen-
erally fails north of Virginia. Stone fruits of all kiuds
must be grafted earlier than apples, pears, etc., as their
sap seems to lose all agglu-
tinating properties after its
first flow.

( } raft them just as the buds
are about to swell, but for
most other species the best
time for grafting, except in
the root, where the scion will
be protected by the earth cov-
ering it, is while the buds are
swellingin the spring. If put
in before that time the alter-
nate freezing and thawing to
which they are exposed of Ion
destroys the vitality of the
graft. Apples, pears, etc.,
may be grafted until they
blossom, if the scions are kept

perfectly fresh, and have not started. Grafting succeeds
perfectly well just before the second growth, early in
August, if the sap is thrown into the graft, by nibbing off
the other shoots as they appear; but it is just as well to
wait until spring, there being no gain in the growth of
the graft over those put in at the usual season.

Whip or Splice Grafting. — This mode is applicable
to all small stocks, and succeeds best where the scion and
stock are exactly the same size. Both stock and scion

Fig. 86. Fig. 87

Splice Grafting.

218

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

are cut off with a sloping cut about an inch and a half
long on each, so as to match precisely, if of the same size;
or, if not, at least on one side. A tongue is then made on
each by slitting the scion upward, and the stock down-

other, thus holding the scion firmly in its place. Bind it
closely with the cloth covered with the composition. The
engravings (Figures 86 and 87) show the different steps of
the operation. It is the neatest, most expeditious, and
most successful mode of grafting, where the stocks are of

the proper size.
S t o c k s , three-
fourths of an inch
in diameter, or
even an inch, may
be grafted in this
way, but for inch
stocks cleft graft-
ing is preferable.
Cleft Graft-
ing is the more
common mode. It
may be practiced
on large or small
stocks, but for the
latter whip grafting only should be employed. The top
of the stock is cut off carefully with a fine saw, and pared
smoothly with a sharp knife. The stock is then split with
the grafting tool, and held open with the chisel of the same
(Figure 88). A common knife will answer for splitting,
and the split may be kept open for insertion with a
wooden wedge or a large nail of which the point has
been ground down to a wedge shape. Sharpen the lower
part of the scion into a smooth wedge, one and a half
inches long, more or less, according to its size, and that of

Fig. 88.

Fig.
Splice Grafting,

Fig. 90.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

219

the split in the stock. The exterior side of the scion when
sharpened should be slightly thicker than the other, that
it may be sure to make a close fit there (Figure 89). Let
the scion have two or more buds, of which one should be
on the wedge and inserted just below the top of the stock
(Figure 90). This often grows when the others fail. The
main point is that the inside bark of the scion and that
of the stock should exactly correspond, and
meet at their edges at least in one place. To
effect this, it is usual to set the scion so that
its upper extremity falls a little without the
line made by the continuation of the stock
on the side in which it is inserted. It is bet-
ter, as in Figure 91, to set it a little within or
towards the heart of the stock, and the base
of the scion a little out, and when the scion
and stock cross each other, a meeting- of the
edges will be certain, and even a novice will
thus succeed. One or two scions are set in
the stock according to its size; the wedge is
then withdrawn, and the whole carefully cov-
ered with the composition so as to exclude all
air and moisture.

Root Grafting. — Both the whip and cleft
modes are successfully applied in root graft- R00t Grafting.
ing, but splice grafting is more generally in
use. In root grafting fruit trees, the best stocks for the
purpose are seedlings, which are cut off at the collar
and grafts inserted in one or the other of these modes,
according to the size of the stock. If such stocks cannot
be got, roots of thrifty trees may be employed, but they
are more apt to produce diseased trees. This work can
be performed at any leisure time during the winter, and
when the winters are mild and open, they should be set

m

Fig. 91.

220

GAKDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

out in the open ground at once, and covered with soil
about an inch above the point of junction.

In colder latitudes they are packed closely in small
boxes with sandy earth among the roots, and kept in a
cool cellar until they can be planted in spring. In root
grafting, either waxed cloth or twine
is used to hold the scions in place.

In grafting, as in budding, always
have sharp instruments; make the
cuts clean and smooth; bring the inner
bark — that is, the active young i>arts —
of stock and scion in close contact by
a permanent pressure of the stock
upon its scion; the top of the scion
should be cut off next to a bud, aud
there should be a bud just beneath the
shoulder where it unites with the
stock; every portion of the wound
should be perfectly covered with the
composition, and the stock and scion
must correspond, not only in their na-
ture, but in their habits of growth.

Inarching, or Grafting by Ap-
proach.—This mode is practiced with
Camellias and Magnolias. A branch is
bent and partly cut through, as in Figure 92, and the heel
thus formed is slipped into a slit made downward in the
stock to receive it; the parts are then made to meet as
exactly as possible, and are bound with bass strings, as
in Figure 93, and covered with grafting clay, or with the
composition. In five or six months the union is complete,
and the inarched plant may be separated from its parent,
which is done with a sharp knife so as to leave a clean
cut. The head of the stock, if not removed before, is then
cut away, and the plant is ready for removal.

Fig. 92 — Inarching or
Grafting by Approach.

BUDDING AND GKAJFTING.

221

There are several other modes of budding and grafting,
but the above are most useful aud commonly practiced.

The advantages of these operations are the rapidity with
which a valuable kind may be propagated which will not
grow from seed or cuttings — trees of worthless fruit may
be changed into more valuable varieties; seedlings can
be brought into early bearing; foreign,
tender fruits may be rendered hardier on
hardy, native stocks; a kind of fruit may
be grown in a soil not congenial to it, as
the pear by grafting on the quince; sev-
eral varieties of fruit may be grown upon
the same tree; and,**finally, by grafting
on dwarf-growing stocks the trees may
be so dwarfed as to afford many ripening
in succession within the limits of a small
garden.

Experience shows that the graft and
stock mutually influence each other.
The effect of the stock upon the graft in
improving its product is evident in such pears as suc-
ceed on the quince, their size and flavor being much
improved. The graft in turn affects the stock, increasing
or diminishing its vigor. The Newtown Pippin will
roughen the bark of any other apple stock. A Collins
pear, grafted upon the branches of another variety, is
verv likely to cause the death of the whole tree.

Fig. 93.

2Z2 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

CHAPTER XL

PRUNING AND TRAINING.

Pruning. — This operation is generally performed more
at random than any other in gardening, yet is one of the
most important and most delicate. Not even a twig
should be removed from a tree without some definite
object. This work above all others requires care, knowl-
edge, and judgment, and should never be left to ignorant
operators. In their hands the results can hardly fail to be
injurious, but performed by those who base their practice
on the laws of vegetation, it contributes to ensure a regu-
lar production of beautiful and perfect fruit, and still
more to prolong the life and fruitfulness of trees.

The benefits of skillful pruning, as stated by Du Breuil,
are:

1. It permits one to impose upon its subject a form
corresponding with the place it is designed to occupy.
Thus to standard fruit trees is given the pyramidal form,
or that of the vase Trees thus managed produce larger
and more abundant fruits than those left to grow at ran-
dom, and occupy less space. Trees upon an espalier or
wall, and vines upon a trellis, are made to develop their
wood with symmetry and regularity, and occupy usefully
the whole surface they were designed to cover.

2. By pruning, all the main branches of the tree are
furnished with fruit-bearing branches duly exposed to air
and light in their whole extent. An unpruned peach tree
will produce fruit only at the extremity of each branch,
but by pruning, all parts of the tree are made fruitful.

3. By pruning, fructification is made more equal. By
suppressing each year the superabundant flower-buds,

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 223

and thinning tlie branches themselves, one preserves for
the formation of new flower-buds for the following year
the sap which would have been absorbed by the parts
removed.

4. Finally, pruning renders the fruit larger, and of
better quality. A large part of those nourishing fluids
which would have supplied the suppressed parts is
turned to the benefit of the fruit on the remaining
branches.

Lindley adds that the time in which a fruit ripens may
be changed by skillful pruning. If raspberry canes are
cut down to three eyes in the spring, a late summer or
autumn crop will be produced. By removing the flower-
buds of remontant roses, fine autumn blooms are ob-
tained.

Time for Pruning. — Pruning is performed at two
periods during the year. Winter pruning is that given to
trees while vegetation is in repose, and summer pruning
includes all that a tree or plant receives in its stages of
active growth.

Winter Pruning. — This may be performed at the
South directly after the fall of the leaf, and in mild
weather through the winter months, until vegetation is
about to commence; at the North, from the time the
severe frosts are over until the sap begins to move — that
is, in February and March. If pruned before the heavy
frosts, the cut, being exposed to their severity, does not
heal readily and the terminal bud is often destroyed.
Pruning must not be undertaken while the branches are
frozen, as the wood cuts with great difficulty, and the
wounds are torn and commonly heal badly, and the near-
est bud generally perishes. If delayed until the shoots
begin to start, all the sap from the roots that has been
absorbed by the parts of the tree cut off is lost. A great
many of the expanding leaf and flower-buds wTill be

224 GABDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

broken off, and finally the sap, in full flow, pours from
the wounds and the tree is greatly weakened thereby.

Pruned at the proper season, the tree throws all its
force upon the remaining buds, developing those which
would else be dormant. Where, however, a tree is too
vigorous to fruit well, a late spring pruning, when the
shoots begin to lengthen, will check its vigor and cause
the formation of fruit buds.

The vine, currant, and gooseberry may be pruned at
any time between the suspension of growths and the first
flow of sap. In general, it is best to prune plants in the
order in which vegetation commences; first apricots, then
peaches, just as their buds begin to swell, plums and
cherries, then pears and apples. Stone fruits should be
lightly pruned, as they are apt to be injured by the issue
of gum from the wounds.

Summer Pruning. — Shoots may be removed at any
time, if the tree seems to be throwing its strength in a
wrong direction. This is better accomplished by disbud-
ding— that is, removing those buds which would produce
unnecessary shoots, or pinching the extremities of those
shoots which are making too much wood.

Pinching, or removing the growing point with the
finger and thumb, is the most essential operation in the
summer management, both of fruit trees and ornamental
1 daiits. The tendency of the sap is to the growing points,
and especially to those more elevated and exposed to the
light. The upper buds, if the tree or plant is near to and
shaded by others, are the only ones to develop, and, con-
sequently, it shoots upward rapidly, while the stem is not
proportionally developed, and few side branches are
thrown out. Such a tree must not only be cut back
severely at the winter pruning so as to shorten the leader
to perhaps one-third of its growth, but it needs looking to
in summer, or it will push upward as strongly as before.

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 225

To strengthen its side branches, then, it is necessary to
pinch in early, while they are in active growth, the leader
or any other shoot that is evidently receiving an undue
amount of sap. This operation checks the How of sap to
that point, and directs it to where it is more needed.
When a side shoot shows a disposition to outgrow the
leader, the defect is remedied by pinching, with no loss
of wood or growth to the tree. Pyramidal forms can only
be secured in this way by summer pinching, keeping the
lower limbs always the longest. In the same way early
bearing is promoted, for the check given to the growing
point concentrates the sap, and, unless the shoots again
start into growth, it is likely to form fruit buds. Bushy
specimen plants in the greenhouse and flower garden are
not to be seen in plants left to themselves. The stems
are soon naked, aud, if cut back, they soon grow up as
bad as before. If the leading and other dominant shoots
are pinched back, leaving the side shoots unchecked until
ripe, when they may be cut back a little to make them
branch, they will be as healthy and full of bloom as those
at the upper part of the plant. Pinching should be per-
formed at once as soon as a shoot shows itself out of pro-
portion. Further directions as to the summer manage-
ment of particular trees and plants will be given here-
after.

Implements. — The implements required in pruning are
the common pruning knife, a small saw with very fine
teeth, a socket chisel two or three inches wide, with a-
long handle and a pair each of large pruning shears,
pruning scissors, and pole pruning shears; these should
divide the branch with a clean, smooth cut, and not bruise
it on the side next the stem.

Mope of Operating upon the Branches. — They
should be so cut that they will heal kindly. If it was
desired to cut off a branch as at Figure 94, it is cut as near

15

226

GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

to the bud as possible, without injury to it. The knife is
entered directly opposite to the base of the bud, and
comes out even with the point of the bud. Iu this way
the bud will not suffer, and the cut quickly heals. Iu
Figure 95 the cut is so far above the bud that the shoot
will die down to near the bud, and require to be again
cut off that it may heal over. If the cut is made, com-
mencing too far below the bud, as at Figure 96, the bud

is badly nourished and
will be less vigorous,
and perhaps perish. In
cutting off a branch it
should not be cut so
close to the stem as to
wound it, nor should the
cut be larger than the
base of the branch, or so
long as to leave a snag
to decay slowly for
years, if indeed it does
not send out new vig
orous shoots again re
quiring removal.

Considered mechani

Fig. 94.

Fig. 95.

Fig. 96.
Operating on Branches.

cally, the great art is to make a clean, smooth cut, so as
to leave the bark in a healthy state to cover the wound,
and to prune so near a bud as to leave no dead wood.
Hence, if the branch be removed with the saw, the cut
must be smoothed over with the knife. In cutting off
large branches, the wound should be covered with graft
ing wax, or painted over with Mr. Downing's preparation
of shellac dissolved in alcohol, in order to exclude the air.
General Principles of Pruning. — The secret of
pruning judiciously consists in, first, " Calculating intelli
gently the proportion one ought to establish between the

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 227

branches with fruit and those with none, and which serve
only to nourish the tree; second, in establishing an equili-
brium among the parts of the tree, so that neither side-
nor its leader may grow out of proportion so as to weaken
the other side or the base by drawing to itself all the sap."

Pruning is most commonly intended either to improve
the form of the tree by directing the growth from one
part to another; to renew the growth of stunted trees;
to induce or diminish fruitfulnessj to remove diseased or
decaying branches; and iu cases of transplanting, to
proportion the head to the roots.

In pruning to improve the form of the tree, whether fruit
trees, or ornamental trees in pleasure grounds, the object
is to preserve its natural shape, so that it may be an
agreeable object on the lawn, or when combined with
others in a group. Lawn trees should never have the
stems trimmed up to bare poles, but the branches should
proceed from near the ground, so that when covered with
foliage they will nearly sweep the surface, and be one
mass of green from the base to the top. So in all kinds
of fruit trees, the branches should be allowed to proceed
from the trunk about a foot and a half from the ground.
Such trunks are screened from our burning sun, and are
much more healthy and fruitful than those with naked
stems five or six feet high. Every tree growing naturally
has its trunk sheltered from the sun. If it grow in the
open ground, this is accomplished by its own branches,
while in the forest all the trunks are sheltered by the
canopy of foliage above. If one part of the tree is dis-
posed to outgrow another, and thus destroy the balance,
it may be shortened in winter, and the shoots pinched off
the next summer, until the sap is thrown in the right
direction into weaker branches that were left entire, and
the balance is restored. When it is desired that new
shoots of a branch should take an upright direction, prune

228

(iAK'DKMAO FOR THE SOL'TJI.

to an inside bud. If you wish au open, spreading top, prune

to au oitl.sidc bud of the branch. If the branches be cut
at an inside bud, as at A (Figure 97), the growth from the
upper buds will be as in Figure 98, but if the cut at an
outside bud, B (Figure 97), the new branches will spread
apart, as shown in Figure 99. To make a stem grow erect,
in the annual cutting back which young trees require,

Fig. 97. Fig. 98. Fig. 99.

Pruning to Improve Form.

select the bud intended for a leader on opposite sides
each successive year, and the tree will grow upright. Se-
lecting it two or three years on the same side will cause
the trunk to incline in that direction. Symmetrical
growth is not only agreable to the eye, but it assists in
maintaining the equilibrium of vegetation, preventing
the sap from being drawn more to one side than the other.
Pruning to Renew the Growth. — When a tree has

PRUNING AXD TRAILING. 'A'AM

stopped growing, remaining stationary, it often happens
that if it is cut back in winter to a few buds, the whole
force of the sap being made to act on these few buds,
vigorous young shoots will be produced, and, these send-
ing down new woody matter to the stem, new roots are
formed, and the whole tree is renewed. In young trees
where the growth has not been checked, an annual cut-
ting back of the new growth is likewise necessary, and
will strengthen the branches on the lower parts of the
tree, and thicken up the trunk, enabling it to maintain an
erect position.

Pruning to Reduce or Diminish Fruitfulness. —
Ever}- thing that is favorable to rapid, vigorous growth, is
generally unfavorable to the immediate production of
fruit. Hence prunning, to induce fruitfulness, is per-
formed after vegetation has commenced. If a tree be
severely pruned immediately after its leaves have put
forth, it is so checked as to be unable to make a vigorous
growth the same season, the circulation of the sap is
impeded, and the young shoots that would have made
wood branches, had the growth been unchecked, will be-
come fruit spurs. Pinching the extremities is, however,
the usual mode of pruning to induce fruitfulness. The
same result is produced by pruning the roots, which also
lessens the dimensions the trees would otherwise obtain,
by diminishing the quantity of food they receive from
the soil.

Pruning at Transplanting. — At this time all bruised
and broken roots and branches should be removed with a
sharp knife. When trees are taken from the ground, a
greater or less portion of the roots is destroyed or injured,
and the natural balance between the root and top is de-
stroyed, and the tree in this condition will either die or
make a slow growth. In England, the climate is so moist
that trees mav be removed and leave nearlv all the

230 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

branches as they were; but under the hot suns and strong
winds of an American climate, a vigorous shortening in is
requisite.

As horticultural theorists strongly insisted that pruning
at transplanting was injurious, J. J. Thomas, Esq., author
of the Fruit Culturist, has settled the question by direct
experiment. Of six apricots, two years from the bud,
about seven feet high, five were cut back and one left
uncut at transplanting. The most vigorous of the five
made 21 shoots, from 6 to 21 inches long. The weakest
had 9 shoots G to 7 inches long, not counting the shoots
less than G inches in length. The impruned tree had on
7 shoots, all less than 2 inches, and not one-twentieth
part of the amount of foliage to be found on other trees.
Experiments upon cherry trees, planted at the same time,
equally showed the necessity of priming at transplanting.
Trees unpruned when transplanted are so checked that
it requires years to restore them. In a southern climate
they must be more severely cut back, when planted out,
than in that of Macedon, New York, where the experi-
ments were made.

It matters very little how closely we prune the top of
the trees; only have good roots, and a single season's
growth will restore the balance. Do not leave more than
one or two buds to a branch of the previous year's growth
if the tree is of much size at the time of transplanting.
Coniferous trees, as the pines, firs, etc., are exceptions, for
if cut back at planting, the leader being lost, the form of
the tree is difficult to restore. Hence those only of this
class should be planted which have been taken up and
reset annually in the nursery until a mass of fibrous
roots has been formed. These must be protected from the
air until the tree is reset. Broad-leaved evergreens, like
English laurels, evergreen oaks, may be cut back and a
portion of the leaves removed to lessen evaporation, with

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 231

the same advantage as deciduous trees. Indeed, many of
the broad-leaved evergreens, taken from the woods, can-
not be transplanted with any success, unless nearly all
the top is removed. Nursery-raised trees are taken up
and reset so often that they can be replanted safely with-
out cutting in so severely.

M. Du Breuil, from whose work we have already drawn,
bases the whole theory of pruning fruit trees upon the
following six general principles, which, in giving, we con-
dense:

I. — The vigor of a tree subjected to pruning depends in a
great measure on the equal distribution of sap in all its
branches. That this equal distribution may take place —

1. Prune the branches of the most vigorous parts very short,
and those of the weak parts long. The feeble parts being-
pruned long, present a great number of buds and a large
surface of leaves, which attract the sap, and produce
vigorous growth; while the vigorous parts being pruned
short and the surface of leaves diminished, growth in
those parts is also diminished.

2. Leave a large quantity of fruit on the strong part and
remove the whole or the greater part from the feeble. The sap
which arrives in the strong part will be appropriated by
the fruit, and the wood there will make little growth,
while the feeble parts being deprived of fruit, the sap
will be appropriated by the growing parts and they will
increase in size and strength.

3. Bend the strong parts and keep the weak erect. The
more erect the branches are, the greater will be the flow
of sap and consequent growth; hence, the balance may
be restored by bending down those disposed to make too
much growth.

4. Remove from the vigorous parts the superfluous shoots
as early in the season as possible, and from the feeble parts as
late as possible. The fewer the young shoots are in num-

232 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

ber, the fewer the leaves, and the less the sap is attracted
there; but leaving these standing on the feeble parts,
these leaves attract the sap and induce vigorous growth.

5. Pinch early the soft extremities of the shoots on the
vigorous parts, and as late as possible on the feeble parts,
excepting always any shoots which may be too vigorous for
their position. By this practice the flow of sap to that
point is checked and turned to the growing points that
have not been pinched.

6. In training, lay in the strong shoots on the trellis early
and leave the feeble parts loose as long as possible. Laying
in the strong shoots obstructs in them the circulation,
and favors the weak parts which are at liberty. Giving
also the feeble parts the benefit of the light in training,
and confining the strong parts more in the shade, restores
a balance.

II. — The sap acts with greater force and produces more
rigorous growth on a branch short pruned than on one long
pruned. The whole sap of the branch acting on two buds
must produce greater development of wood on them than
if divided among fifteen or twenty. Hence, to produce
wood branches, we prune short, or if fruit branches, we
prune long, because slender and feeble shoots are more
disposed to fruit. Hence, also, trees that are enfeebled
by over-bearing should for a year or two be pruned short,
until the balance is restored.

III. — The sap tending always to I he extremities of I he shoots
causes the terminal bud to push with greater rigor than the
laterals. When we wish a prolongation of a stem, we
should prune to a vigorous wood bud, and leave no pro-
duction that can interfere with the action of the sap on it.

IV. — The more the sap is obstructed in its circulation, the
more likely it will be to produce fruit buds. Sap, circulating
slowly, is subjected to a more complete elaboration in the
tissues of the tree, and becomes better adapted to form

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 233

fruit buds. If we wish a branch to bear fruit, we can
obstruct the circulation of the sap by bending or making
incisions around the branch, or if it is wished to change
a fruit into a wood-branch, raise it into a vertical posi-
tion and prune it to two or three buds, on which we con-
centrate the action of the sap and induce them to grow
vigorously.

Y. — The leaves .scree to prepare the sap absorbed by the roots
for the nourishment of the tree, and aid in the formation of
buds on the shoots. All trees, therefore, deprived of their
leaves, are liable to perish. Hence, the leaves should
never be removed from a tree under the pretext of aiding
the growth, or ripening the fruit, as, deprived of leaves,
trees cannot grow, neither can their fruit mature.

VI. — When the hints of an// shoot or branch do not develop
before the age of tiro years they can be forced into activity out//
by a very close pruning, and in some cases, as the peach, even
this will fait. ITence, the main branches should be trim-
med so as to secure a development of their successive sec-
tions, and so shortened in as not to allow the production
of long, naked stems, leaving the interior of the tree bare
of shoots, and consequently unproductive.

In order to induce trees to grow in any particular form,
it is not so much labor as continued attention that is
required. A thorough pruning once a year will not pro-
duce the desired effect, but a little attention two or three
times a week during the growing season will be sufficient
to examine every shoot in an acre of garden trees, and the
eye is very soon trained so as to detect at a glance the
shoots that require attention. (Du Breuil, Lindley,
Barry, etc.)

Training. — The principal objects of training are to
render plants more productive of fruits and flowers than
if left to grow voluntarily, also to form screens of various
running plants to keep any unsightly object from view.

234 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

The points to be attended to are to entirely cover the
wall or trellis, bending the branches backwards and for-
wards so as to form numerous deposits of returning sap,
and ensure the full exposure of the fruit-bearing branches
to the sun and air. The long shoots are shortened or
pinched to make them throw outside branches, with
which the trellis is covered, without permitting them to
cross each other. Training flowering plants is necessary
that they may appear in elegant and symmetrical form.
It should be regulated by a knowledge of their habits of
growth and consists principally in checking over-luxu-
riance of growth and tying them to stakes or frames.
Directions for training the grape, etc., will be given here-
after.

TRANSPLANTING. 235

CHAPTER XII.

TRANSPLANTING.

In the operation of transplanting, the main points to be
regarded are the proper preparation of the soil for re-
ceiving the plant; care in taking it up so as to avoid
injury to the small, fibrous roots; setting it firmly so that
its roots may take a secure hold of the soil; planting with
as little delay as possible; and, lastly, maintaining the
balance as far as practicable between the top of the plant
and its roots, so that the former may not lose more by
evaporation than the roots absorb, until again estab-
lished.

Preparation of the Soil. — Plants, when removed,
need a freshly dug soil which affords a moist situation in
which the delicate fibers may be emitted, and therein
quickly establish themselves. If also well drained and
trenched, the effect upon present and subsequent growth
is very decided: a tree or vine thriving much better in
such a situation than if the roots are put into a hole with
none of the surrounding soil loosened. The soil ought
also to be enriched with fine manure, but no coarse, unfer-
mented manures should be applied where they will come
in contact with the roots. When the ground is in a suit-
able condition, holes should be dug for the reception of
the roots of the plants. These had better be made square
than round, as a large hole in that form can be sooner
made. The diameter should be such that it will receive
all the roots when fully extended. The holes should be
made too large rather than too small. In digging the
holes, throw out the best soil on one side and the poor
on the opposite. If the ground has been prepared deeply,
the holes may be made just deep enough to receive the

236 GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

roots, which, iii some cases, are spindle-shaped and extend
downwards to a considerable depth, and in others run
along the surface. For most plants the hole should be
deeper at the sides than at the center, leaving' the bottom
convex and not basin-shaped. It should have the bottom
soil loosened, and in dry weather be watered, but the
water should be allowed to subside so as to be moist, not
wet, at the time of planting. It should be left of such
depth in all good soils, that the neck of the plant may
be as near the surface as before, or but a trifle above;
but in clayey soils, ill drained, let it be somewhat above
on a broad, slightly elevated mound.

Taking up the Plants. — In this operation avoid injury
to the roots; with the utmost care they will be mutilated.
A little attention will save a year's growth to a tree. The
roots are of two kinds, the main roots which support the
plant in the earth, and the small branching or tibrous
roots, the fresh tips and numerous fibrils or root hairs of
which supply it with nourishment. These parts are of
great delicacy, and if injured or broken off, the plant
must throw out others, or perish for want of nourishment.
These fibrous roots are the ones most likely to be de-
stroyed or injured in taking up, and in replanting to be
squeezed between stones and hard lumps of earth, so that
the circulation is weakly and imperfectly carried on
through diseased and defective organs. The roots of a
tree, therefore, when transplanted, must be examined,
and all those injured and all the small fibrous extremities
in bad condition should be cut back with a sharp knife
to the sound parts before it is reset, in order to force the
root to throw out new fibers, which, in many plants, are
produced in great abundance from where a root has been
cut back with a clean cut. Roots, matted with fibers,
should be disentangled and soil introduced among them
in planting, so as to separate them from each other.

TRANSPLANTING. 237

While the plant is out of the ground, its roots should
be protected from exposure to the air, and, if not planted
immediately, should be covered with earth. Many trees
are ruined by lying out exposed to the sun for hours while
holes are being dug to receive them. Before the tree is
reset, the top also should receive the necessary pruning.

Replanting. — After the holes are ready and the tree
prepared, its roots should be laid upon the convex surface
to see if the hole is of the proper depth, which may be
judged by the eye, or more exactly by laying a rod across
the hole close to the stem, resting on the level ground on
each side. If the neck of the plant is too high or too
low, make the necessary alteration, bringing the bottom
to the proper height, and convex as before. Hold the tree
lightly — if it is in the same aspect as before, in respect
to the points of the compass, it certainly can do it no
harm, and many cultivators think it important. Let the
roots be nicely spread over this convex surface, training
out the leading roots at distances as near equal as pos-
sible, not bundling the small roots together, but sepa-
rating them with particles of fine soil. Then, holding the
stem firmly and erect, save a slight inclination towards
the side from which the heaviest gales or most constant
winds are expected, throw the finest, lightest soil, from
that reserved by itself, down near the stem, letting it fall
down towards the extremities of the roots, and introduce
it carefully with the hand among the roots. Having thus
covered the lower roots, those above should also be ad-
justed and covered with the same care, and when all are
well covered, water may be given with advantage, unless
the soil and weather are moist. If not watered, when the
roots are well covered, the earth should be moderately
pressed upon them by treading the soil (being careful not
to injure them), if the ground is light and friable, but
by no means if wet. After watering or treading, the re-

238 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

niaining soil should be put on, leaving the collar of the
plant covered a very little deeper than before (in the case
of trees some two inches), and the looser and drier this
surface soil is the better will it resist drought. If the
body of the tree is held firm by tying it to a stake, it will
prevent the loosening of the roots by the action of the
wind upon the tops.

Checking undue Evaporation until the Plant is
Established. — The maintaining the balance between
the top and root of the plant is best secured by perform-
ing the whole operation at the proper season, in mild,
moist weather, and with as much dispatch as possible,
meanwhile protecting the roots from the air and sun; by
pruning severely the tops of plants that admit the opera-
tion, thus lessening the evaporating surface; and by
guarding with the greater care from injury the roots of
conifers and other plants that do not. Removing a large
portion of the leaves will likewise diminish the evapo-
rating surface, and is very necessary in planting hollies
and evergreen oaks. Shade from the sun those plants
that require such protection (and nearly all are thus
benefited), and water to supply the absorbing extremities
of the roots with an abundance of food, that the increased
quantity imbibed by each may, in some degree, make up
for their diminished number. Mulching the surface thinly
after a rain is also useful in preventing undue loss of
moisture from the soil.

Preparation of Trees for Transplanting. — As a
rule, there is little gained by planting out large trees.
Small trees, as Downing remarks, can be taken up with a
system of roots and branches entire, while the older and
larger tree, losing a part of its roots, requires years to
resume its former vigor. Trees, transplanted while small,
will prove more healthy, vigorous, and enduring; but
sometimes, for immediate effect, or to preserve a favorite

TRANSPLANTING. 239

tree, it is necessary to transplant it when of larger size.
This is done by shortening in the leading roots at a dis-
tance from the trunk, varying with the size of the tree
to be operated upon. A circular trench is dug in spring
or before midsummer around the whole mass of roots,
partially undermining them and cutting off all that ex-
tend into the trench, which is dug at such a distance from
the tree that it encloses a sufficient ball of roots; the
trench may be filled with poor earth, or covered with
plank. The tree will be checked somewhat, and will fill
the ball around it with a mass of fibrous roots, and in the
proper season tan be moved with safety. Many trees
naturally tap-rooted, and evergreens difficult to trans-
plant, are, by being transplanted annually or biennially
from their seedling state, compelled to throw out a mass
of fibrous roots, retaining among them a ball of earth,
and are thus ready to be moved at any time without
danger.

It is often desirable to plant fruit trees before the
leaves naturally fall, in seasons when autumn frosts are
unusually late. A week or two before the trees are to be
taken up, pluck from them every leaf, and allow them to
remain and ripen their wood. After this time they can
be taken up, packed, and sent safely long distances with-
out shrivelling. Meanwhile the ground should be pre-
pared, the holes made, and, after pruning, plant them out,
giving them a good watering before the last soil is thrown
in. In this way, where much planting is to be done, a
month's time in autumn is gained.

Transplanting Herbaceous Plants. — Most of these
are easily transplanted as soon as they have done flower-
ing, or before they begin to grow in the spring. For
annuals, when the season is somewhat advanced, a damp,
cloudy day, just before or just after a shower, or in the
evening, is the proper time for the operation. Imme-

240 GARDEJsIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

diately after a very heavy rain is not the best season, as
the soil, if moved while too wet, forms a crust about the
plant. In the case of choice young plants, they should
be taken up with a trowel, removing them with a ball
of earth, and the plant will hardly be checked in its
growth. Larger plants may be taken up in the same way
with the transplanter or spade. Those not removed with
a ball, may be grouted by mixing up a quantity of rich
loam in water to a semi-fluid state, and inserting the roots
therein. Plants that suffer little in taking up, like the
cabbage, may have a hole made in the earth with a dibble
and the plant inserted therein, when the dibble is again
inserted a little obliquely near the stem, and the earth
pushed up close to the root. All tap-rooted plants are
moved with difficulty. Many herbaceous plants — sweet-
potato slips, for instance — can be safely set out in dry
weather in freshly moved soil, by making a hole for their
reception, setting the plants therein, and just covering
the roots with fine soil; then fill the hole with water about
the roots and cover them at the surface with dry soil, to
retain the moisture and keep the surface from baking.
The operation must be performed in the evening.

All valuable herbaceous plants should be protected
with sun shades or plant protectors, when just planted, if
the sun comes out hot.

MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 241

CHAPTER XIII.

MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING.

Mulching. — Mulching is placing litter of various
kinds, as leaves, pine straw, or strawy manure, upon the
surface soil over the roots of plants and shrubs. If leaves
are used, a little earth may be required to keep them in
place. Mulching is used as well to prevent moisture from
evaporating from the soil in summer, as to prevent frost
from penetrating to the roots in winter. In summer a
mulch is usually applied to trees and shrubs newly trans-
planted, and to herbaceous plants that are impatient of
heat about the roots. Irish potatoes, mulched, produce
more abundantly, and are of better quality. Strawber-
ries, thinly mulched, with the crown uncovered, are much
more productive and continue longer in fruit. Rhubarb
and other plants, requiring a cool soil, can thus be more
easily raised; and so with many other crops. Summer
mulching should be applied directly after a rain, that the
moisture in the soil may be retained. It should not be
applied to potatoes or other tender plants until the dan-
ger of frost is over, as the increased evaporation from
damp mulch will produce a white frost when there is
none or little elsewhere formed. Fruit trees, by having
their roots mulched, are kept in better health and vigor.
Mulching not only wards off drought, but, in this way, by
keeping the ground moist, and by the decay of the mulch-
ing substance, a good deal of food is conveyed to the
plants. Some authors are of the opinion that ground will
become continually richer by being shaded. But the
great benefit of mulching is that a steady permanency of
moisture is retained, in spite of adverse circumstances,
and without stagnation. In general, the coat of litter

16

24:-2

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

for mulching must be thin, that the rain may not be pre-
vented from reaching the roots of plants.

Many plants, nearly hardy, can be kept through the
winter safely by a coat of dry litter over the roots, and
especially the crown of the plant, to turn off a portion of
the rain and to keep frost from penetrating to their roots.
Verbenas, which would perish without this protection,
are often kept over safely under a cover of two or three
inches of leaves. So of other plants, where the object is
to protect the root and crown, but not the foliage. Mulch-
ing has the disadvantage of being untidy in appearance,
and of affording shelter to insects and mice, and damage
also may occur from its being carelessly set on fire from
;i cigar, or in cleaning up the garden, thus destroying the
plants it was intended to protect.

Shading. — In all glass structures during the warmer
portion of the year, some provision must be made for
shading. This may be done by thin sheeting, but as this
is expensive from its rapid decay, it is usual to whitewash
the glass externally as often as may be necessary. The
autumn raius will soon wash it off when the season comes
in which more light and heat are desirable. The lime of
the whitewash, however, soon loosens the putty, so that
a preparation of thin flour sizing, thickened with a little
pipe clay, will be found better, though not as easy to
remove. Where a glass is not needed, as for keeping
camellias, and other plants, in pots through the summer,
a sort of lattice, made by nailing laths upon a light, ob-
long frame made for the purpose will be found useful.
Laths can also be tied together with coarse twine, being
separated by one or more knots, as greater or less dis-
tance is desired. Mats and old salt and coffee sacks are
often used, but they exclude too much light, and are best
employed to prevent radiation, and thus keep out frost in
winter.

MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 243

Water is beneficial to plants as a vehicle for conveying
all soluble matters which form the food of plants,
whether they be animal, vegetable, gaseous, or earthy.

Other elements being present in sufficient quantity, the
growth and health of a plant will be more or less satisfac-
tory in proportion as it is or is not supplied with all the
water it can consume. The action of water is not, how-
ever, always beneficial. Injudiciously applied, it destroys
more plants than almost any other item of mismanage-
ment. In excess, it is always injurious. It fills the spaces
in the soil which would otherwise be filled with air, and
plants are choked and perish for want of this indispen-
sable element. A superabundance of water, for a time,
increases the growth of foliage and renders it tender and
succulent; hence a good supply thereof is needful to
plants, the leaves of which are eaten, as lettuce and
spinach.

But by this excess the production of flowers and fruits
is delayed. The odor of the former and the flavor of the
latter are weakened and impaired. The size of the fruit
is increased by abundance of water, and without it the
strawberry, for instance, will not swell; but the increased
size, unless it ripens in a bright atmosphere,, or the quan-
tity of water is diminished as the fruit ripens, is partly
at the expense of flavor. Fruit is not only impaired in
quality, but is very liable to crack or burst from excess
of moisture, as the plum, grape, or stanwix nectarine
often do, or rot upon the tree while still immature, as the
peach, plum, etc.

An excess of water softens the tissues of plants, and
renders them much more liable to injury by frost. A frost
directly after warm and abundant rains, when plants are
full of sap, is much more fatal than the same temperature
in dry weather.

The temperature of the soil, if wet, is greatly lowered,

244 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

and its capacity for heat diminishes. The constant evapo-
ration from wet soil so lowers the temperature of the
adjacent stratum of air, that frosts occur when there are
none on dryer soils. The constant dampness of the atmos-
phere, produced by excess of water in the soil, diminishes
evaporation from the leaves of plants, and hence renders
the process of assimilation slower, and less food is taken
up by the roots. By diminishing the absorption of car-'
bonic acid, it lessens the atmospheric supply of food. Jt
creates a tendency in the organs of plants to vary from
the normal type of growth, changing the flowers, for in-
stance, into green leaves and ill-formed shoots.

•Succulent plants, those with fleshy roots, and those
with leaves that appear dry, and transpire but little, and
in which vegetation proceeds slowly, are most subject
to injury from excess of water. Plants growing in a clear
light are less endangered by an over supply than if grow-
ing in a shaded situation, as they can both assimilate and
perspire more. Plants in pots are most likely to be in-
jured by injudicious watering, at times being drenched
with too much, and at others allowed to become too dry.

Where water exists in excess, it must be removed by
drainage. This is indispensable in pot culture. It is par-
ticularly to be attended to in the case of plants which are
to be kept through the winter in green-houses or pits.

The quantity of water that plants require varies with
the species of plant and with its condition, whether in a
state of growth or repose. A plant cultivated for its
leaves requires more water than if grown for its flowers,
and still less is needed if grown for its seeds or fruit. In
proportion, also, as the roots of plants extend into the
earth, the less water at the surface is required. Tap-
rooted plants, like cotton, when once established, are not
apt to suffer from drought; but those with roots at the
surface only need frequent watering. Perennial plants,

MULCHING, SHADING-, AND WATERING.

245

also, in general require less the artificial application of
water than annuals. The growth of the former is merely
suspended by dry weather for the time being, to be re-
sumed when moisture is supplied; but if water and the
food of which it is the vehicle be withheld from annual
plants, the double tax imposed upon them by nature of
forming both roots and shoots at the same time, can no
longer be met. Growth being suspended, the plant at-
tempts to flower and ripen seed, and thus, while imper-
fectly developed, it reaches the limit of its existence and
dies.

Plants with fleshy or fibrous roots are impatient of
abundant waterings, yet do not well resist drought.
Bulbous and tuberous rooted plants, and those with fleshy
leaves, can support drought a long time and do well with
rare but abundant waterings. Germinating seeds and
young plants should be watered lightly but frequently.
In a state of free growth, water abundantly; while ripen-
ing fruit, water rarely; when transplanting, water freely.

The lighter the soil, the more frequent and copious
must be the supply of water. When the tefcnperature in
summer becomes elevated and the days are clear and the
atmosphere dry, and evaporation increases, while rains
become less frequent, water must be given more co-
piously; for at such times mere sprinklings bake the soil
and do more harm than good.

When at rest, as in the winter of temperate climates
and in the dry season of the tropics, very little moisture
in the earth is required by perennials, except marsh
plants. Bulbs in a state of rest will endure almost any
amount of dryness, and may even be exposed to excessive
heat, somewhat resembling, in this respect, a ripened
seed. Bulbs that have been kept dry for some time, when
again to be started into growth, should receive but little
water at first. If much is given, it will be absorbed with-

246 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

out being digested, and, stagnating within, will destroy
the bulb. Hence, we plant bulbs in a light soil and on
raised beds, that the superabundant moisture may not
destroy the roots.

But a moderate degree of water is needed when vege-
tation commences in the spring, for the earth is usually
sufficiently moist; but when they have started into
growth, plants should be abundantly supplied, and the
quantity gradually diminished as the organization be-
comes complete. As autumn approaches, evaporation
becomes less, and the supply of water should be dimin-
ished, both in the quantity and frequency of application.
Withholding water gradually from plants that are to be
kept through the winter will cause them to ripen their
shoots, and they will be more likely to survive the cold
season.

No plant, at any time, should receive more moisture
I ban it can consume either by assimilation, or rejection in
the form of perspiration. Plants with large, broad leaves,
like tobacco, squashes, etc., expose more surface to the
light and sun, perspire freely, and hence need more water
than those with small, pinnate leaves, like the acacia, or
than succulent, or fleshy plants, a class that requires but
little water at any time, and is very impatient of an ex-
cessive supply, especially in winter.

Watering artificially is resorted to in order to maintain
a proper degree of humidity in the soil. This is indispen-
sable in hot-houses, etc., and with all plants in pots. With
these the protection of the glass assists in keeping the air
about the plants in a state of humidity.

But in open air culture, artificial watering* can never be
so beneficial as natural rain, and is often, indeed, a real
disadvantage to plants.

Artificial watering, with all its disadvantages, must,
to a considerable extent, be resorted to in hot climates,

MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 247

or the results of gardening will often be quite unsatis-
factory. In giving it, the conditions of beneficial, natural
watering should, as far as possible, be observed. The
rains that are most refreshing to plants are those of mild
temperature and which distil gently, bringing to the roots
of plants not moisture only, but ammonia and carbonic
acid. If rain did not bring with it fertilizing matters, it
w7ould in time wash out all the fertility of the soil and
leave it sterile. This is the effect of heavy, beating-
storms, which carry away more of fertility than they
bring; while if the soil be stiff they puddle the surface,
rendering it, when dry, impervious, preventing the access
of atmospheric air and the moisture of the dew and of any
gentle rains that follow.

Hence, in applying water, it should not be thrown upon
the soil wTith force from a coarsely perforated watering-
pot, as its effects would be injurious in precisely the same
way as a washing rain. To tender plants and germinating
seeds it should be applied through a very fine rose. The
rose to a garden watering pot should not permit a com-
mon pin to enter its perforations. For delicate seedlings
in pots it is better to give water by sprinkling gently from
a wetted brush, both the plants and the soil. For larger
plants in pots or in the ground, the leaves may be
sprinkled, unless too succulent, but the main supply of
water should be given by pouring it gently upon the sides
of the pot or upon the surface of the earth, and let it flow
gradually over and sink into the soil.

It is not best, in general, to water close by the stems of
plants. The roots take up food only at their extremities,
and generally extend as far as the branches. Both the
roots and leaves of plants require water, and receive
it in natural watering. But the rains that fall upon a
tree do not fall upon its trunk, but roll off all around it,
and drop precisely where the extending roots are ready

248 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

to take it up. Watering directly at the base of a plant,
close to its stem and collar, will be likely to rot or injure
that vital part, and small, delicate plants are pretty sure
to damp off. Thus applied, much of the water never
reaches the absorbing extremities of the root. As a plant
increases in size, the farther from the stem should the
water be applied.

Vines trained to verandas, or growing up under the
eaves of dwellings, often suffer from the want of water
applied to the foliage. Trained against the walls, evapo-
ration goes on very rapidly from the heat reflected upon
them, and but very little ram falls upon the foliage.
They also become covered with dust and their pores
choked therewith. When the sun shines warm and
brightly, plants should be watered only about the roots,
for if applied to the foliage, the drops remaining thereon
act as so many burning glasses, and scorch the leaves,
covering them with brown spots wherever the water rests.
But in the spring, when the earth is moist, if the air is
dry, and indeed at all times when the atmosphere is dry,
and particularly Avhen plants become covered with dust,
they will be greatly refreshed by syringing or sprinkling
the foliage in the evening or morning, if their leaves are
not susceptible of change by humidity.

Plants in pots should be watered frequently and little
at a time. If the ball has become dry, do not deluge it
at once, as it will flow directly through the pot or out at
the sides, carrying with it the richness of the soil, while
the ball still remains dry. Give it a little water, and when
that soaks up, give, a few minutes after, a little more,
until the entire ball is in a suitable state of humidity. The
drainage must be good, or if much water is given to plants
in pots, the soil will become heavy, water-logged, and
impervious to the atmosphere.

The best water to use is rain water, caught in open

MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 249

cisterns, as it is well aerated aud abounds in ammonia
and fertilizing gases. If spring or well water must be
used, add a very little guano, say a pound or two to
twenty gallons of water, giving the smaller quantity to
delicate plants, and the larger to gross feeders, and before
using let it stand a few hours. Manure from the hen roost
in double quantity may be substituted for guano. For
sprinkling the foliage, pure water is better.

The temperature of water, too, must be regarded. The
good effects of bottom heat in hot-beds, or of artificial
heat in greenhouses, are often entirely counteracted, and
plant growth brought to a stand by watering with cold
water. It is not only the lowering of the temperature of
the roots of plants, but the suddenness of the change that
is injurious and often fatal. Water should always be
applied a few degrees warmer than the soil, that growth
may be promoted and not checked.

As to the time of day at which water should be given,
unless applied quite freely, it does little good iu the heat
of a summer's day, as the hot atmosphere drinks up the
moisture before the plant can imbibe it. The effect of
rain can be best secured by watering just at night, when
the falling dew will, in some measure, prevent evapora-
tion from the plants, and they will be fully refreshed
during the night. But in the spring of the year, to water
in the evening in dry weather darkens the soil, and, there-
fore, increases radiation. Evaporation is also greatly in-
creased; the temperature sinks rapidly, the plants are
chilled, if not frozen, and make less growth than if not
watered at all. So, also, in autumn, for the same reason.
In both spring and autumn, therefore, water only in the
morning, and the heat of the soil will not be materially
lowered, the sun's rays communicating fresh warmth.

It should be the great object of the gardener to avoid
the necessity of watering, by shading the earth or the

250 GAKDENIWG FOK THE SOUTH

plants themselves by mulching, top-dressing, or sun
shades. Seeds will come up much more satisfactorily in
the open ground if shaded, than if one depends upon
watering. If watering is resorted to at all, it should be
given copiously and the supply kept up until the plants
are established. After watering, the ground should be
stirred about the plants, if up, as soon as it is sufficiently
dry, and never allowed to become hard. A mulching of
leaf mould is desirable, to keep the surface in a proper
state, and if applied when the surface is wet, it will pre-
vent the necessity of repeated waterings. (De Candolle,
Lindley, Mcintosh.)

Summer Cultivation. — If before seeds are planted,
the soil be deeply moved and finely pulverized, the labor
necessary in the subsequent culture of garden crops is
greatly diminished. Still, the hoe cannot be dispensed
with, and the soil is stirred therewith among our growing
crops, in order that the earth may be kept in a light and
permeable slate, so that the roots of plants may extend
freely through it in search of food. If kept in this condi-
tion, water deposited by rain and dew is imbibed more
readily and sinks more deeply into the soil, supplying
plants both with moisture and ammonia. Moisture from
beneath is also more freely supplied by capillary attrac-
tion from the subsoil if the earth is kept in a light, porous
state. The atmosphere, laden with nutritive gases, freely
penetrates the soil and deposits nourishment within reach
of the young rootlets of plants. By the same process
weeds are destroyed, their growth prevented, and there
is also a thorough pulverization and intermixture with
the soil of the manures which have been applied.

Judgment as to the time and manner of hoeing must be
exercised. Even hoeing may do harm — but there is more
danger that it will not be done sufficiently often, than per-
formed imperfectly. In a hot and a dry climate, hoe less

MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 251

deeply than in those that are cold and moist, as hoeing
favors evaporation, and this may prove injurious where*
the sun is hot and the rains arc not frequent. So in
spring, hoe more deeply and frequently than when the
season becomes advanced. A heavy, argillaceous soil
should be more deeply moved than one more sandy.
Where a poor soil has been recently manured, it should
not be hoed too deeply, but the compost should be allowed
to remain intermixed with the surface soil.

In practice the plants cultivated and their stage of ad-
vancement must also be considered. Plants with long
tap-roots, like beets and carrots, are benefited by deep
hoeing, which might be injurious to those with fibrous
and spreading roots. Among the latter, deep culture be-
tween the rows is beneficial, so long as the plants are
young, and their roots not extended; but when they begin
to shade much of the surface, and to occupy most of the
soil with their roots, merely loosening the immediate sur-
face, at the same time destroying all weeds, will be quite
sufficient.

All garden crops, then, should be frequently and deeply
hoed early in the season, and in the early stages of their
growth. Even to suppress the weeds which spring up
freely in the moist soil at that time requires frequent and
thorough hoeing. Of course, hoeing, or moving the soil
in any way, is not to be undertaken while it is wet. When
young seedling plants first appear, the earth must be
lightly stirred about them, to break up any crust upon the
surface that may have formed. Take care not to injure
the young plants, though at this time the mutilation of a
few roots, if the most of them are unhurt, is easily re-
paired; and the plant is not so much injured by their loss
as benefited by that thorough pulverization of the soil
that permits the free extension of the roots, and opens it
to the air and night dews.

252 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

At this time all weeds should be removed, and the
' plants thinned to an inch apart, so as not to interfere with
each other. When they have made a little more growth,
and there is less danger of insects and other disasters,
they should be thinned to the proper distance and hoed
more deeply, taking care not to coven- or injure the young
plants. After this continue to keep the soil light and
open, of course destroying all weeds.

In heavy loams, watering or dashing rains will fre-
quently puddle the surface, which bakes in the sun so
effectually as to exclude the atmosphere. The rains that
follow flow off without sinking into and moistening the
soil. But a soil which, soon after each rain, while not too
wet, is freshly hoed, will, at all times, present an open,
porous, finely pulverized surface, ready for the absorp-
tion of plant food from the atmosphere, and easily per-
meable to the roots of plants in search of it.

As the plants increase in size, the ground is shaded by
their foliage, which, in a measure, prevents the growth
of weeds and protects the surface of the soil from being-
hardened by the sun. At this time hoeing is less required,
nor can it be performed without considerable1 mutilation
of the branches and larger roots, and thus cutting off in
part their communication with the soil — injuries from
which plants in an advanced stage of growth, and under
the burning heat of summer do not readily recover.

It is not fully decided whether the soil should be fre-
quently stirred during droughts. Our present opinion is,
that in all warm climates it should, at such times, be un-
disturbed. If the earth be already loose and in fine tilth,
the air that enters into its pores will deposit its moisture
therein. At night tin1 dews are deposited much more
heavily upon freshly dug soil. Rut this deposit of atmos-
pheric moisture will avail little if the surface is often
stirred, as more water will be given off by day than is

MULCHING, SHADING, AND WATERING. 253

absorbed at night; and a plot frequently hoed during a
drought would at length become quite dry to nearly the
depth it was cultivated. However it may be in England,
here no deposit of moisture from night dews, or supply
brought up by capillary attraction from beneath, can
make good the loss of water by evaporation from the soil
in a hot summer day. De Candolle says that in most hot
countries frequent hoeings are avoided, as the}' really
have the evil of favoring evaporation of moisture from
the soil at the time when, the heat being most intense,
the water is naturally retained therein by the hardening
of its surface, and would act with most activity in decom-
posing and dissolving the organic matters it contains.
The true course is deep, thorough culture early in the
season and while plants are young. But hoeing must not
be performed in spring or autumn, at times when the in-
dications are that frosty nights will follow, as tender
plants are much more likely to be killed thereby from
the increased evaporation at the surface of fresh dug soil.
Through the summer, after each good rain, as soon as the
ground will do to work, stir the surface and kill the weeds,
leaving it in a light, friable condition, to be undisturbed,
unless to destroy any weeds that appear, until another
rain renders further hoeing necessary. Continue this
until the plants approach blossoming, or begin to cover
the ground, after which hoeing, if performed at all, must
be as shallow as possible. A soil thus managed is always
open to atmospheric influences, and what moisture it may
have or receive is better retained.

254 GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

CHAPTER XIV.

PROTECTION FROM FROST.

Late spring frosts are the terror of gardeners. In sec-
tions of country subject to them, tender plants should not
be planted early. As mulched or newly dug soils are
much more liable to the white frosts of spring, mulching
should not be applied to Irish potatoes, etc., until danger
of frosts is over, nor should tender plants be hoed when
a change to cold may be anticipated. If a frost is appre-
hended, plants in hills are best protected with boxes, vine
shields, or plant protectors placed over them. Rows of
beans or potatoes can be secured by covering them with
wide plank placed on blocks two or three inches above
the plants. "Almost all the modes of protecting plants
are founded on the doctrine of radiation, and hence the
fact should be kept constantly in mind that all bodies
placed in a medium colder than themselves are con-
tinually giving out their heat in straight lines, and that
these straight lines, when the body is surrounded by air,
may alwa3rs be reflected back upon the body from which
they emanate by the slightest covering placed at a short
distance from them; while, on the other hand, if this
slight covering be placed close to the body, instead of
reflecting back the heat it will carry it off by conduction —
that is, the heat will pass off through the covering closely
applied, and be radiated from its surface." (Daniel.)
Hence, the covering or protection given is far more effi-
cient if it enclose a stratum of air without actually touch-
ing the plant.

When plants are actually frozen, in many cases they
may be saved if they can be thawed gradually without
exposure to the sun. To effect this, if coverings are ap-

PROTECTION FEOM FEOST. 255

plied before sunrise, or the plants are sprinkled repeat-
edly with water until the frost is extracted, they generally
escape without serious injury. If a frosty night is followed
b}' a cloudy or foggy morning, injury to plants need not
be apprehended.

Fruit trees and vines in blossom, or with young fruit
set, are in some large districts so liable to suffer from late
spring frost, that fruit bearing, in the case of those first
to bloom, is the exception. The crop is lost, perhaps, two
years out of three. It is seldom in the most frosty locali-
ties that they are endangered more than two or three
nights in a season, all the fruit of the peach being rarely
killed until it begins to enlarge, and the blossom is on
the wane. Such trees are too large to admit of being
covered. They ran, however, be fully protected by smoke.
Ordinary smoke in still, frosty nights, rises rapidly, and
to be of any service, it must settle over the trees in a
moderately dense cloud, acting as a screen and prevent-
ing radiation. A heavy, damp smoke, not rising rapidly,
in which the trees are kept fully enveloped until some
time after sunrise, is what is necessary to protect a fruit
garden. A slight frost will do fruit blossoms little injury,
and there are some which will bear a good many more
degrees of cold than others. When a severe frost is
pretty certain, billets of short, dry wood, fat light-wood,
and piles of wet tan, sawdust, or other damp trash,
should be distributed about two rods apart over the fruit
garden, and the most to the windward. The tan or trash
should be distributed during the winter. About three
o'clock in the morning is soon enough to start the fires,
each of which is made with three or four of the billets,
being kindled with the light wood. When well lighted,
put on and nearly smother it with the wet tan. If it
again break out into a blaze, apply more tan, and keep
up damp, smouldering fires, and a curtain of smoke over

256 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

the trees until the sun is well up and the frost fully ex-
tracted. If the fruit is frozen hard as bullets, have no
fears, but keep up a dense smoke. By this mode of apply-
ing smoke the peach crop can be saved every year. There
is no doubt about it. When a boy — thirty-five years ago —
we ate of pears thus saved by an uncle of ours, and have
ourselves since repeatedly practiced it and seen it tried
by others. Our Gardening was the first English work,
so far as we know, in which this mode of protection was
published, though French authors, we find, allude to the
process. Boussingault says it is as old as the Incas of
Peru. The peach crop has thus been preserved with the
mercury as low as 2± on the morning of March 27th,
and the blossoms mostly fallen. Without such protection
few good varieties of the peach are safe with the mer-
cury below 30°. The expense of the operation is but a
trifle, compared with the value of a fine crop of fruit in a
locality where all, not thus protected, is cut off.

Winter protection is also necessary for the preservation
of many valuable plants, the limits within which they are
naturally found being much narrower than those within
which they can bo grown in perfection with a little pro-
tection. Besides ordinary bedding plants which are
stored during the winter in pits or other structures, and
again occupy the beds and borders when danger of frost
is over, there is a large class of plants, that, with a slight
protection where they stand, will pass the winter safely,
and throw up much more vigorous shoots than if taken
up and replanted. A friend of ours succeeds perfectly
with the fig in Pennsylvania by bending down the limbs
yearly and covering them with earth; while in Georgia,
with no protection, they are occasionally killed to the
ground.

Ordinary herbaceous plants need no protection unless
they have been divided or transplanted in autumn. Those

PROTECTION FROM FROST.

257

that are more tender may have their roots and crowns
protected with moss, straw, or coarse stable manure, not
placed so thick as to heat. If leaves are used a little soil
or brush should be thrown over them to keep them in
place. Tender bulbs are protected in the same way. If
the foliage is evergreen, it must not be smothered with
too thick a covering.

Shrubby plants may have their roots well covered thus,
and their stems bound with straw or moss. For small
shrubs, a few evergreen Roughs thrown 'over them is a
good protection; larger ones may have their branches
drawn together and wound with straw. Tender roses may
have tan-bark or sawdust banked up about their stems,
to be removed in spring.

Climbing plants, if tender, must be taken down and
laid upon the soil to be covered with leaves or earth.

There is some danger where much litter is used, of
harboring vermin. Many things are better protected by
bending a few hoops across the bed with three or four
laths lying on them, on which is thrown a cloth or mat-
ting in severe weather. Pansies, carnations, and stocks,
are thus generally protected, giving them light and air in
mild weather. Flower pots, sun shades, vine shields, and
wooden frames, covered with canvas or oiled paper, are
all useful in protecting low plants. Boxes and barrels
are convenient for larger ones. None of these must touch
the plant they cover, as they wTould conduct the heat away
from what they touched. The main object of these
coverings is to confine the air and protect the surface
from radiating heat.

All plants will endure more frost uninjured in a dry,
well-drained soil. In low, damp locations, plants, else-
where considered hardy, are frequently killed by frost.
They are also much more easily injured directly after a
mild term starts them into growth.

258 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Iii Florida protection against frost is secured by the
use of laths fastened with wire (the space between each
being the width of the lath). This screen spread over the
plants greatly retards the radiation of heat from the
plant, and reduces the chances for frost.

Mr. E. L. Koethen, a member of the Frost Protection
Committee of the Riverside Horticultural Club, of Cali-
fornia, gives the following excellent data concerning his
experiments on protection against frost. The conclusions
are of great interest to all fruit-growers:

1. In sections where there is a prevailing draft from a certain direc-
tion concentrate the fires somewhat on. the sides of the orchard from
which this draft comes.

2. Some fires are needed all through the orchard.

3. If the thermometer should reach 26° by midnight, start firing at
once. If smudging is to be depended upon, you should commence much
earlier. To be safe, commence lighting baskets, if the thermometer
should reach 26° as late as 4:30 A. M.

4. Ripe fruit will stand more frost than green fruit. The above
figures are for ripe fruit.

5. The thermometer may go many degrees below the dew-point in
our climate on nights when the sun sets behind heavy clouds.

6. A mild day may be followed by a night of danger to citrus fruits.

7. The upper strata of air are much warmer than the lower. Eight
degrees was found to be the variation between a height of 5 and 50
feet, upon different tests.

8. Thermometers should be tested each year, and the variation noted
and accounted for at each reading.

9. A good way to secure uniform observations and the extreme tem-
perature to which fruit is exposed is to fasten the thermometer to a
slender stick five feet long and place in the space between four trees,
away from buildings or other shelter.

10. Every grove has some spot that is colder than any other. Find
it, and be governed in your firing by the temperature there, keeping
your eye en other locations, for the coldest place may shift around.

11. A thermometer that registers too high may be very comforting,
but is not a safe guide unless allowance is made for correction.

12. A thermometer that registers too low may cost unnecessary
labor, expense, and anxiety.

PROTECTION FROM FROST. 259

13. We need a united system of general alarm for localities through-
out the valley.

14. Wind-breaks, parallel with the flow of the cold stream air, are
an advantage in preventing radiation.

15. Close wind-breaks, at right angles to the flow of cold air, will
form dams and cause low temperatures on the upper side. A block of
large trees below a block of smaller trees will have the same effect.

16. Coal baskets or brush fires concentrated at these points will
drain off the cold air.

17. Flowing water is a help, but is not sufficient in itself.

18. Clean culture and a wet surface is the best condition of the soil
in times of danger.

19. Trees that had suffered from lack of water at any time during
the development of the crop and those with a dry surface of the soil
suffered greatest injury.

20. Firing of any kind is beneficial if there is enough of it.

21. The cost need not be prohibitive for good results.

22. Accumulative firing is better than single-handed.

23. A single grower can succeed in saving his fruit with coal baskets
if he has enough of them.

24. Be prepared to make more fires than you will likely need. The
unexpected sometimes happens.

25. No grower should depend on his neighbors for heat or smudge.
Every gap is an injury to the whole. Besides, your neighbors may
not locate their fires so as to do you much good.

26. Coal baskets can be made for about seven cents each. The
filling will cost about seven cents, where bituminous coal costs $10 per
ton, and you should have from twenty-five to fifty per acre, according
to location and size of grove.

27. A. little burning straw is a snare and deceit.

28. Straw smudge should be made with wet straw, should be dense,
and should cover large areas to yield best results. Dry straw is of
little value, except to help burn that which is very wet.

29. The efficacy of smudging being dependent upon preventing radia-
tion in very dry climates, early lighting in such cases is imperative.

30. A little dry brush is a great help in burning very wet straw.

31. Green cypress boughs create a fine smudge.

32. Most groves have a cold corner. Have some brush piles ready
to light at the critical hour — about dawn.

33. Coal baskets should be full at the start. Coal will not ignite
readily in replenishing if a good bed of coals is not secured at first. A
reserve supply of coal may be very useful if the cold is long continued.

260 GAKDEKING FOK THE SOUTH.

34. Coal baskets need less attention than the smudge.

35. Have plenty of help. The better your fires are tended, the better
the results.

36. But few employees can be depended upon to look after the details
and carry on the work. Your personal attention is needed.

37. Every detail should be prepared beforehand. There is no time to
hunt up torches and tools after the danger point is reached.

38. Oil fires will do good work, but the smut is objectionable.

39. Evaporating pans give no visible results.

40. An awning or cover was found to be of great service.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

261

CHAPTER XV.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

ARTICHOKE.— (Cynara Scolymus.)

The garden artichoke is a perennial plant, a native of
the south of Europe, where it has been in cultivation from
the time of the Romans. Columella mentions it, and says

its name — Cynara — is from
cinere (ashes), because the soil
>^^|^^^\^k \ for artichokes should be
r 1/< -^^>'-A dressed with ashes. The planl

resembles an overgrown this-
tle, but is more beautiful; has
large, pinnatifid leaves, three
or four feet long, covered
with an ash-colored down.
The eatable portion is the un-
developed flower head, which
is only fit for use before it
begins to open its bloom; it
is about the size and some-
^ what the shape of a small
pineapple.

As the artichoke is a native
of a hot climate, it is per-
fectly adapted to the temper-
ature of the South, and is hardy throughout the Union. It
adds a pleasant variety to our early summer luxuries,
and should be in more general cultivation.

There are three varieties — the Globe, the Oval Green,
and the Purple. The first has dull purplish heads with
scales turned in at the top, and is most esteemed, the

Fig. 100— Artichoke.

262 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

edible parts being larger. Tlie Oval Green is the hardiest
sort, and has a conical or ovate head, with pointed scales
turned outward. The Purple is earlier than the others,
the scales pointed, tinted with purplish red towards their
points, but is not so good when cooked. There is also the
large green, which grows larger than the common green,
and is most esteemed at Paris under the name Qros vert
de Laon. The base of the scales of this variety is quite
thick and fleshy.

The ash of the artichoke has been analyzed, and it is
found that potash and phosphoric acid are the most
abundant constituents, indicating the application of
ashes and bone-dust as the best special manures.

Propagation and Culture. — Artichokes are propagated
by seed, or by offsets from the old roots. If by seed, sow
in early spring when the peach is in full blossom, in very
rich earth, in drills an inch and a half deep, and a foot
apart; they do still better by sowing them earlier in a
cold-frame. Transplant them when from six to twelve
inches high. into a rich soil. If the beds are thinned out
by transplanting, so that the plants are left a foot apart
in the rows, the rest may remain in the seed bed until
fall. The finest heads are produced in a rich, moist loam,
and they should be transplanted into such a soil. The
best compost is a mixture of three parts well-decomposed
manure, and one of leached ashes. The}7 require an open
exposure, free from the shade and drip of trees, or the
plants will spindle and produce worthless heads. The
rows must be four feet apart, and the plants three feet
in the rows. Plants from seed are better and more per-
manent than from offsets.

If propagated by suckers, these must be slipped off in
spring from the parent plant, retaining as many fibrous
roots as possible. They should be selected when the
leaves are eight or ten inches high, and be taken only

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE. 263

from those shoots which are sound aud strong, aud have
already formed some roots. Uncover the old stools to the
origin of the suckers, of which from six to twelve will be
produced to each plant. Allow two or three of the best
of these to remain; slip off the others with a heel, from
which trim off the rough part smoothly, retaining the
fibrous roots. Keinove the large outside leaves, or their
exhalations will exhaust the plant before it gets rooted.
They are greatly invigorated if set in water three or four
hours before they are planted. Set them in rows, the
same distance as above, about four inches deep, in holes
made with a trowel; press a portion of fresh soil about
their roots and water freely. When this has settled away,
fill up to the surface with soil. Keep sun shades or
shingles upon the south side of them a few days, until
established, giving water, if needed, until they begin to
grow.

The only other attention they require during the sum-
mer is the frequent use of the hoe. They will produce
heads the same year from June to October, and annually
thereafter from April to June or July, according to the
season. The quality is improved, though at the expense
of the quantity, by allowing only the head surmounting
the main stem to grow on each stalk, removing all the
laterals of the stem while young. As often as the head
is cut, the stem should be broken down close to the root,
to encourage the production of suckers before winter.
They should receive their winter dressing before the
ground freezes deeply. Cut away the old leaves without
injuring the center or side shoots, dig the ground over,
and throw the soil in a low, broad ridge over each row,
putting it close about the plants, but leaving the hearts
clear. As soon as the shoots appear four or five inches
above the surface, the ridges thrown up must be levelled
and the earth removed from about the stock to below the

-04 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

part whence the young shoots spring, lleinove all these
shoots but two, or at most three, leaving the most vigor-
ous, taking care to select those lowest down on the stock,
as the strong, thick ones from the crown have hard, woody
stems, and produce but indifferent heads.

Although the artichoke is a perennial, yet after the
fifth year, the heads grow small and dry. The beds should
iu consequence be broken up at this time, or as soon as
they begin to fail, and fresh ones be formed on another
site.

As the newly-made beds come into flower alter the
season for the old plants is over, those fond of this vege-
table will prefer to make a new plantation every year.

Artichokes are made to attain a much larger size than
they otherwise would by twisting a ligature tightly
around the stem below each head, and thus preventing
the reflux of the sap.

The artichoke is much benefited by the application of
seaweed or any other manure containing common salt.
This is probably in a great measure because salt keeps the
soil moist.

Chords. — After the best heads have been cut, when old
plantations are to be destroyed, cut off the stems as low
as possible, and the leaves within six inches of the ground.
When the new leaves are two feet high, blanch them, as
directed for Cardoons, which many think they excel.

For Seed. — Select a few of the finest heads and permit
them to flower. Bend over the stalk and tie the head to
a small stake, to prevent the water from settling among
the expanded scales. When the flower has withered, the
seeds will be ripe. One ounce of the seed will produce
about six hundred plants, and for three and sometimes
five years will vegetate freely if kept cool and dry. Put
away in paper bags for use.

Properties and Use. — The artichoke is wholesome, jot

VEGETABLES DESCEIPTION AND CULTUKE. 265

it contains but little nutriment, and is cultivated merely
to please the palate. The heads are sometimes pickled.
It is eaten by the French as a salad, with oil and vinegar,
salt and pepper; the bottoms are often fried in paste like
the eggplant. The English gather them when they
spread their scales and the flower appears about to open;
the whole head is boiled and scales pulled off, one or
two at a time, dipped in butter and pepper, and the mealy
part stripped off with the teeth. The bottom, when the
leaves are disposed of, is eaten with the knife and fork.
The flowers have the properties of rennet in curdling
milk.

ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM.— (HeliantJi us tuberosus.)

This is a hardy, perennial species of sunflower, a native
of Brazil, introduced into England in 1617, and was much
esteemed as a garden
vegetable until the Irish
potato took its place.
The crops obtained in
good soils are enormous.

„,, ,. „ , . ,, Fig. 101 — Jerusalem Artichoke.

The salts found in the &

ashes are mainly potash and lime, the former very largely.
Culture. — It flourishes best in a rich, light soil, with an
open exposure, but will thrive in almost any soil or loca-
tion. Plant in spring or fall, either small tubers or the
large ones, cut into sets of one or two eyes, four inches
deep, in rows three and a half feet apart. Make the rows
run north and south, to admit the sun, and put the plants
eighteen inches apart in the rows. Keep the ground free
from weeds and earth up slightly. The}- will be tit for
use in the fall. Take care to dig them up thoroughly, as
the smallest piece will vegetate. They will grow on land
too poor for almost anything else. If the top be cut off
one-half way down in August, it is said by some that the

266 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

size of the tuber will be very muck increased by the ad-
mission of air and light. This is doubtful.

Use. — The roots are eaten boiled, mashed with butter,
and are considerably nutritive, nearly as much so as the
Irish potato. It has a moist, soft texture, and a tolerably
agreeable taste. It is, however, rather a second-rate dish.
They are better pickled in vinegar. The plant is most
useful in feeding cows and pigs, affording large quantities
of food from quite poor soils.

ASPARAGUS.— ( Asparagus officinalis.)

This plant has been cultivated as a garden vegetable
for at least two thousand years. Cato, one hundred and
fifty years before Christ, gives a full detail of its mode of
culture among the Romans. Its culture originated
probably in Greece, for its name is pure Greek, and signi-
fies a bud not fully opened; and it is known throughout
Europe by names derived or corrupted from the Greek.

The wild asparagus is found on the sea coasts of most
parts of Europe. Its stem is not thicker than a goose-
quill. From this wild plant, by the aid of manure and
culture, our delicious garden varieties were raised. Miller
has succeeded in effecting the same result in modern
times.

There are only two varieties of any importance — the
green and the red-topped. The latter, with purplish green
shoots, is the one principally cultivated. There are some
sub-varieties, but these derive all their merit from
superior cultivation. R. Thompson states there is really
but one sort of asparagus.

Asparagus, like some other plants, has the power of
substituting the other alkalies, lime and potash, in the
place of soda. All the analyses exhibit large propor-
tions of chloride of sodium, or its elements, chlorine
and sodium, also of phosphoric acid. In asparagus, over

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 267

three-fifths of the inorganic elements of the plant are
made up of these constituents. This explains why salt
and seaweed are found useful, and shows that the appli-
cation of bone manure, or superphosphate of lime, in con-
nection with animal manures, may be beneficial.

Culture. — Asparagus is propagated only by seed, one
ounce of which will produce a thousand plants. Sow
quite early iu spring on a bed of fresh and deep sandy
loam, the richer the better — as free as possible from all
shade of trees or shrubs. Draw the drills one foot apart,
and with a dibble make holes six iuches distant, iu which
drop two or three seeds. Let the seed be covered an iuch
deep, and press the earth upon it. If uuable to sow early
shade must be given to the bed, for which purpose pine
boughs are well suited. These should be removed at
night and on cloudy days, and entirely as soon as the
plants are up.

Care must be taken to keep the seed-bed light and free
from weeds, though this operation must be delayed until
the plants come up. If two plants appear in the same
place, the weaker must be removed. Transplanted, these
will make pretty good plants by fall. When the stems
are withered, cut them down and spread well-rotted
stable dung over the bed two inches deep, which will
increase the vigor of the plants the next year, and also
protect them from frost.

Let the plants remain in the seed-bed until they are
about to grow early in spring. To have this delicacy as
early as possible, choose a site where the bed can be fully
exposed to the sun. If you wish to prolong its season,
another bed may be planted on a northern exposure. The
subsoil should be dry, and if not naturally so, must be
well drained.

The plants will be in better condition for transplanting
after remaining in the seed-bed two years. The perma-

268 GAEDEXIIS'G FOE THE SOUTH.

uent beds for asparagus are prepared by cutting trenches
with a plow. In Held culture many growers make these
trenches thirty iuches apart, to permit cultivation with
horse. The plow is run over the trenches two or three
times, so thai a depth of teu or twelve iuches is secured.
Well-rotted manure is now placed iu aud incorporated
with the soil by means of a fork. Set the plants in the
trenches thus prepared twelve to fifteen inches apart,
taking care to spread out the roots, and cover with four
or five inches of soil. If healthy plants have been drawn
from the seed-bed and good manuring given the trenches,
cutting the asparagus may be begun the second year.
The cutting must never be continued late in the season,
but sufficient shoots must be left to develop leaves, or
otherwise the roots will soon become exhausted and the
plants will die. After the cutting has ceased the rows
must be manured or fertilized by opening with the plow
near the plants, placing the fertilizer in and running the
plow over again to thoroughly mix the ingredients with
the soil. Ground bone is suitable for this purpose.

All weeds must be removed as they appear. As salt is
an excellent manure for this plant, the weeds may be
easily kept down by its application.* Old brine or refuse
salt, in which meat or fish has been packed, is better than
any other, as it abounds in the blood and juices of the
meat, which are a most valuable fertilizer. Asparagus
is a sea-shore plant, and salt will not hurt it, but is life
and nourishment to it.

Old beds have been covered an inch deep, and the
plants continued to thrive; but a sprinkling just sufficient
to make the soil look white is enough. As soon as the
plnnts have turned yellow in the fall, cut them down close
to the ground, but be careful not to do this earlv, or thev

* It is but proper to say that the advantage of salt for asparagus is
now questioned by some gardeners. — P. H. M.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 269

will throw up new shoots and be much weakened. Re-
move the stalks and all weeds, cover the beds with three
or four inches of good stable manure, and let it remain
until time for the spring dressing. If you have charcoal
dust at command, a layer of an inch thick over the manure
will be found quite useful in preventing the loss of ammo-
nia. When the weather grows warm and spring has
fairly opened, and the ground is sufficiently dry, before
growth commences, with an asparagus fork dig in the
manure placed on the beds in the fall, and loosen the
earth four inches deep, taking care not to wound the
crowns of the plants. Give the beds a top-dressing of salt,
two pounds to the square yard, or kainit at the rate of
six hundred pounds per acre, before growth commences,
and water freely in dry weather. Applications of liquid
manure are likewise very salutary. A good liquid manure
for asparagus is an ounce of fertilizer and four ounces
of salt to two gallons of water. Fertilizer or night soil
composted with charcoal, so as to be entirely inodorous,
is also beneficially applied at any time. Another slight
covering of charcoal dust, after the spring dressing, will
be of service, and make the shoots earlier.

Asparagus should be cut before the heads lose their
compact form, when only four or five inches above the
ground.* Remove the earth to the bottom of the stalk,
and cut it off sloping with a pointed knife, taking care
not to wound any other shoots that may be near it, as
they are constantly putting forth from the crowns. Too
many shoots should not be cut from the beds, nor the
gathering prolonged too late. Whenever the bed puts
up weak and small shoots, these should be allowed to

* Some market gardeners now send to the market green asparagus
that is all cut above ground, because of the demand. The vegetable
in this stage is considered to be tenderer and better flavored than
the white.

270 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

remain, which will increase the size of those remaining,
and the future value of the bed. When green peas be-
come plentiful the asparagus bed should rest. After the
cutting ceases, you may judge from the size of the sum-
mer shoots the productiveness of the bed the coming-
spring. These elaborate the food for the future crop.
The manure applied in autumn has but little effect on the
next spring's shoots, but from its influence the strong-
growth of the succeeding summer will prepare an abun-
dant supply of large shoots the second spring. The spring
and autumn dressings should be continued while the bed
lasts, for the top soil must be kept perfectly free and
light, that the shoots may readily push through it, and
the surface left rough, that it may catch and retain the
winter rains so as to thoroughly moisten the lower roots.
Finally, good asparagus is not to be obtained without
an abundant supply of manure. The beds will, if thus
treated, remain productive twelve or fifteen years.

Asparagus can be forced by planting a hot-bed thickly
with thrifty roots; it comes into bearing in four weeks,
and affords asparagus for a month in the winter season.
Give plenty of air in mild weather.

The following varieties are standard, and may be pur-
chased from the seed merchants already rooted: Colum-
bian Mammoth, Conover's Colossal, Palmetto.

For Seed. — Reserve some of the best shoots in the
spring, and mark them by placing a stake by each one,
and let them run up and ripen their seeds. Take shoots
with fine, round, close heads; fasten them, as they grow,
up to the stake, and the seed will ripen better. Gather
the seed when ripe, and wash off the pulp and husk, which
will pass off with the water, if gently poured off, and the
seed will sink to the bottom. Dry them thoroughly, and
store away for use. They are, for your own sowing, just

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

271

as well kept and sown in the pulp. Asparagus seed will
keep four years.

Use. — The tender shoots thrown up in the spring when
four or five inches long, are the parts in use, and are
very delicate and much esteemed, though not very nutri-
tious. They are excellent simply boiled, or as an addition
to soups when in season.

Marketing. — To enter the market first with this popu-
lar vegetable will always secure to the grower good

102— Bunching Asparagus.

prices. Therefore the policy should be to plant the
earliest varieties under the best conditions. But unless
the asparagus is properly prepared and packed profits
will be greatly curtailed. It is important to understand
this fact at the beginning, and to make an honest effort to
place the vegetable in the market in the most attractive
form. Because of the advanced season in the South the

272

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

truckers have a peculiar advantage over the Northern
gardeners, and they should strive to avail themselves of
this opportunity for reaching' the Northern markets be-
fore the demand is greatly diminished. After cutting the
asparagus the spears are carefully washed and then as-
sorted into Extras, Primes and
Seconds, the last containing the
smaller spears. The bunching
is generally done by women in
the use of the " buncher " illus-
trated in Figure 102. This
method insures uniformity in
the bunches and neatness in
looks. Figure 103 shows the
bunch after it has been tied
with raffia or other suitable
fastener.

In shipping to a distant mar-
ket pack carefully in a crate,
taking care to have the vegeta-
ble so secure that it will not
bruise in transit. The crate
usually adopted in the South is
known as "Southern crate,"

^^ which is built to hold two to

_ - _ __ — -.- -■--,- "s fjiree (i<)Zen bunches set on ends

Fig. 103-Bunching Asparagus, on m()ist m()SS to keep the ag_

paragus fresh. Shipping by express must be resorted to
for long distances, so that the vegetable will reach the
market in first-class condition.

BASIL. — (Ocimum HasHicum, and 0. minimum.)

Two species are cultivated — Sweet Basil ((). Bapilicum)
and Bush Basil (0. mini mum). Both are annuals, with
small leaves and small white flowers, and natives of the

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 273

East Indies. (Sweet basil is the species most cultivated,
and was introduced into England in 1548.

Culture. — Basil likes a rich, light soil, free from shade.
The plants may be started early in March, under glass, in
gentle heat. They should be thinned when the young
plants appear, and transplanted when of sufficient size
where the}- are to remain. Basil is rather difficult to
transplant, but can be carefully lifted in tufts with the
balls of earth attached, in a moist time, with complete
success. Give water and shade until established. It can
also be sown on the borders where it is to remain, but if
sown too early in the open air, the seed is apt to rot, or
the young plants to be killed by frost, as they are rather
tender. April is the month for sowing in the open ground.
Do not cover the seed deeply, but press the earth upon it.
Make the rows ten inches apart, and thin the sweet basil
to ten inches, and the bush, which is more dwarf, to five
inches in the row. Weeds must be kept under, and the
soil mellow, by frequent hoeing. Bush basil makes a very
pretty edging. It should be cut not too closely just as it
comes into flower, and hung up in small bundles in the
shade to dry for winter use; thus cut, it will soon grow
up again. When thoroughly dried, it may be pounded
fine and kept any length of time in closely stopped bottles.

Seed. — Let some of the finest plants remain uncut, and
gather the seeds as they ripen. They will keep for six
years.

Use. — The leaves and small tops are the parts em-
ployed, and give a delightful flavor in cookery. They
have a strong flavor of cloves, and are used in soups and
sauces, and other high-seasoned dishes. They are much
employed in French cookery. It is the most agreeable
of the pot herbs, and the most useful, except parsley and
sage.

A small sprig of basil, on account of its odor, is an
agreeable addition to a bouquet of flowers.
18

274 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

BEANS.

Gardeners recognize three groups of beans, which are
designated in catalogues and other publications <>u the
subject of plants as —

1. Ordinary broad bean (Vicia Faint).

2. Bush, Dwarf, or Freuch kidney beans (Phaseolus
vulgaris or P. lunatus). Under this head is classed all
those beans called by seedmen "Bunch," "Snaps," etc.

3. Pole or climbing beans (Phaseolus multiflorus).

The last two groups are subdivided into —

Bush lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus var. macrocarpus).

There are three types under this division, viz.: (1) Sieva or

Carolina, (2) flat, and (3) potato.
Pole lima beans.

Under these several heads a number of varieties have
been developed by the seedmen, some of which are well
adapted to Southern soils and climate.

BEAN, ENGLISH BROAD.— (Vicia Faba.)

The English Broad Beau is an annual from two to four
feet high, with white, fragrant, papilionaceous flowers,
with a black spot in the middle of the wings; seed pods
thick, long, wooll}T within, enclosing large, ovate, flat
seeds, for the sake of which it is much cultivated in
Europe. It is a native of the East — some say of Egypt,
but is probably from Persia, near the Caspian Sea — and
has been cultivated from time immemorial.

VARIETIES.

Mazagan. — Sweet and agreeable in flavor, and pro-
duces well if planted early. Far the most productive
variety with me. Pods contain three or four beans, which
are small, oblong, and thick.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 275

Long Pod. — Stems rise about three or four feet high.
Bears well. The pods are long, narrow, and generally con-
tain four beans of good quality. Remains in use later
than the preceding.

Broad Windsor. — Stems three to four feet high; pods
short, but very broad, containing two beans, very large,
roundish, and flattened. Best for a late crop, as it is
longest in use.

Culture. — The early crops should be on a dry soil mod-
erately rich and warm, to promote their growth during
the winter. The later crops should be on a deep, strong-
loam. They are to be sown in drills two and a half feet
apart for the Dwarf and Mazagan, and three feet for the
others; put the beans four inches apart in the row, and
cover three inches deep with earth, which should be
pressed upon the seed. If any miss, they may be supplied
by transplanting. This bean will do well wherever the
winters remain open, and the mercury does not, in ordi-
nary years, fall below about 10° Fahrenheit, and should
be planted from October to February inclusive. In Vir-
ginia, and where frosts are severe, they must be put in as
soon as the ground opens in spring, but they are then not
as productive as when they can be planted during the
months above named. No ordinary frost will injure them.
When two inches high, hoe between and draw the earth
about the stems of the plants. Continue this during their
growth. When the plants come into bloom, take off two
or three inches of the tops of the stems, which will in-
crease the crop and hasten its maturity. The crop should
be gathered before they are full grown, while they are
still tender and delicate.

To Save Seed. — Allow a portion of the crop to remain
until ripe. Thresh for use.

Use. — The English use these beans while young and

•1 i 0 GARDENING F0K THE SOUTH.

tender, as we do green peas. They must be cooked very
young, and in the same manner; or may be boiled with
bacon. They are not likely to come into general use.

BEAN, DWARF OR FRENCH KIDlffEY.— (Phaseolus vulgaris.)

These are tender, Leguminous annuals, mostly natives
of India, first cultivated in England in 151)7. Of this
species there are many varieties, of which the following
are the best. (Those with edible pods, breaking crisply,
arc called snaps):

Early .Mohawk. — rods long, beans large, oval, with
dark-colored specks. It bears very well, is one of the
earliest varieties, and is least injured by frost. In good
seasons, fit for the table about five or six weeks afte*
sowing.

Early Valentine. — Pods round, and continue crisp
longer than most other varieties. The beans are pink-
speckled on a salmon ground. Bears well. Sown with
Early Mohawk, is about five days later.

Newington Wonder. — Very dwarf, pods of medium
length, dark-green color, thick and fleshy; seeds form
slowly, and the pods continue long crisp and fit for use.
Seeds small, oblong, and light chestnut-colored when
ripe.

Royal Kidney. — Pods long, finely flavored; seeds
white and large. Sown at the same time as the Mohawk
and Valentine; is a fortnight later than the Mohawk.
This is one of the best for winter use when ripe.

Of Punning or Pole Beans, the best are:

Dutch Case Knife, with large, broad pods, and flat-
fish, kidney-shaped, white seeds. It is a good winter bean.

Algiers or Wax Bean is an early, running kind, with
pale yellow pods, free from any tough lining., very tender

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 'J, i i

and soft when cooked ; seeds medium-sized, roundish,
black. Excellent, but at the South soon stops bearing.

London Horticultural is also excellent, the pods
continuing tender until the seeds are quite large; the
latter arc large and roundish.

In Southern corn-fields are grown several excellent
kinds, which are not described in our books. Three are
particularly desirable, viz:

White Prolific is a medium-sized, white, oval, kid-

Kaighn. Willow-Leaf. Speckled. Black. Dreer.

Fig. 104— Types of Lima Beans. Natural size (after Bailey). Cornell
Experiment Station Bulletin 115.

ney-shaped bean, with roundish tender pods, and exceed-
ingly prolific; desirable green or for winter use.

Dark Prolific resembles the last, but the seeds are of
a very dark dun color.

Black Speckled has the pods more flattened; seeds
roundish, of a dull white, black speckled, and skin rather
thick, but the pods are excellent to use green. Of very
vigorous growth, and best endures the summer heats.
Not over two plants should remain to a pole.

Plate 2— New Extra Early Lima Bean (after Bailey). Cornell Experiment
Station Bulletin 115.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 279

Lima Beans are from the East Indies. There are the
green, the white, the speckled, and the small white or
Carolina. The white Lima is not quite so large as the
green, but, bearing with greater abundance, is to be pre-
ferred. It is also not quite so hardy and productive as
the Carolina, but is much larger and richer flavored, and
is the most grown for city markets.

The following varieties are also suited to the climate
of the Houth, and are beans of excellent qualities:

Black-Eyed Wax. — A very early and productive bean,
with long, straight yellow pods.

New Extra Early Refugee. — A most productive
form, improved from the old Refugee variety; but much
earlier, and very prolific; excellent quality; quite tender
at nearly all stages of its growth; free from strings and a
favorite shipping variety.

Wardwell Kidney Wax. — A dwarf variety; early
prolific; pods flat and stringless, waxy yellow; hardy and
productive; a good shipper.

Henderson's Bush Lima. — This bean comes at an
early period in the season, when vegetables generally are
not abundant, filling a gap between peas and pole-beans.
The bean is small, but very productive, bearing until
killed by frost.

Burpee's Bush Lima. — A larger plant than the last,
and not so early; but the pods and beans are larger, thus
making this variety popular and desirable.

Carolina or Butter bean closely resembles the white
Lima, but is smaller, earlier, hardier, and bears much
more abundantly, and though not quite so rich, is for
general culture the best running bean.

Wood-ashes and bone-dust, or superphosphate of lime,
will supply the soil with the most necessary elements for

280

GARDENING FOE TIIK SOUTH.

1 he bean crop, which, by the way, like most legumes,
draws most of its sustenance from the atmosphere.

Culture. — As beans are very easily destroyed by spring
frosts, there is no use in planting the main crop too early.
A few of the Extra Early or Mohawk may be planted at
the same time with early corn, and if there is danger,
protect them when they come up, by placing wide planks
over the rows an inch or two above the plants, supported

Fig. 105— Burpee's Bush Lima Bean.

on blocks or bricks, every cold night. The main early crop
is planted in Georgia the last of March, or early in April;
near New York city about the first of May. Planting may
continue until about eight weeks before the autumn
frosts occur. The soil for the early crop should be dry
and light; if wet or tenacious, the seed often decays with-
out germinating, or comes up spindling and unproductive.
For the summer-sown crop, a soil slightly moist, but still
inclining to a sand, is to be preferred.

riant in drills eighteen inches or two feet apart, plac-

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 281

ing the seed two inches apart in the row. Cover the seeds
about an inch and a half deep. A pint of seed will plant
about one hundred and twenty-five feet of rows. When
the plants come up, thin them gradually to six or eight
inches in the row, and they will be much more vigorous
and productive. The Late Valentine does best in hills
eighteen inches apart. Plant four or five beans to a hill.
Keep them always clean, and the soil light and mellow
with the hoe. Draw the earth carefully about their stems
when about to flower, making broad, low hills to protect
the roots from heat and drought. If well cultivated, the
same plants will continue to bear a long time. Do not
hoe any of the kidney beans, whether dwarf or runners,
when the foliage is wet, as the plants will rust and be
greatly injured, if not destroyed. Choose dry weather for
working them, and hoe shallow when the plauts get large.
The value of the crop depends greatly upon their being
properly thinned in the drills while young.

Pole or running beans for snaps may be planted when
the main crop of bush beans is put in, or a few days later;
and at the South, a few hills should be planted monthly,
until July, to give a succession, for which nothing is bet-
ter than the corn-field varieties described. They should
be planted in rows about four feet apart, and the hills
from two and a half to three feet in the row. The hills
should be broad and raised some three inches above the
ground level. Put in the poles before planting, let them
be uniformly about ten feet long, and inserted well in the
ground. Put five or six beans around each pole, and
cover them an inch and a half deep, and when up, reduce
the plants to three in a hill, and where there are less
than that, plant again.

Lima beans require a rich, strong soil, and will thrive
on heavy loams, where the other running beans and snaps
would not flourish. They are still more tender than snaps,

282 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

and should not be planted until settled warm weather,
as the seed will rot in cool weather, and the slightest
frost will destroy them if they chance to vegetate. The
tenth of April is early enough in Middle Georgia; near
New York city they plant a month later. They may be
forwarded by planting in small pots in a hot-bed to be
transferred, by breaking the balls, to the open ground
when three inches high. Lima beans will not thrive if
too much crowded; the rows must be five feet apart, and
the hills three feet in the row. The space between may
be cropped early in the season with Irish potatoes, etc.
When the plants begin to run, give them a little assist-
ance, if not inclined to cling to the poles. If these are too
high, the vines are later in bearing, and the crop out of
reach in gathering. When they blossom, pinch off the
tips of the leading shoots, to hasten the maturity of the
crop.

In planting Lima beans, place the eye downward and
the narrow end the lowest, as the bean always rises from
the ground in that position, and if not planted right, it
has to turn itself over in the soil, and if prevented by any
obstruction from turning over, it is sure to rot in the
ground. Flanted in this way, they come up sooner, bet-
ter, and more evenly. A quart will plant about four hun-
dred hills. The subsequent culture consists in keeping
the ground frequently hoed when the vines are dry. They
will continue in bearing until cut off by the hard frosts.

For Seed. — Gather both the Lima and kidney beans
when ripe and dry them thoroughly. The seed should be
kept pure by planting the varieties at a distance from
each other. Where subject to be destroyed by bugs,
instead of using paper bags, put them up in glass bottles
or earthen jugs well corked. Into each bottle or jug pour,
before corking, a teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine. The

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE.

283

turpentine odor will destroy the bugs, if the vessel is
tightly corked, without injuring the vitality of the bean.

Use. — The tender, fleshy pods of snap-beans are a favor-
ite summer vegetable, very delicate, wholesome, and mod-
erately nutritive. They are boiled while green, and may
be preserved for winter use, by cutting them into pieces
and laying them down in salt. They will make their
own briue, and must be kept covered by it, or they wTill
spoil. Cook in two waters to extract the salt. The Lima
beans, and the suaps also, when full grown, are shelled,
and may be preserved for winter use, and afford in pro-
portion to their weight, more nutrition than most other
vegetables. Wheat contains but 74 per cent, of nutritive
matter, while kidney beans contain 84 per cent. They
abound in the constituents that produce muscle and fat,
and will supply better than most vegetables the place of
animal food. Gather them in their green state when full
grown, and dry them carefully in the sun. They are bet-
ter gathered thus than if delayed until ripe, and are also
free from bugs. Soak them over night before being
boiled. They can also be laid down with layers of salt
like snap-beans. They are very good gathered when ripe,
and dried carefully in an oven in order to keep them free
from insects, which, at the South, are quite destructive.
Snap-beans are also pickled, while young, in the same
way as cucumbers.

Marketing. — The beans must be picked when the dew
is dried off the pods, so that there will be as small amount
of moisture present in the packages as possible. And in-
asmuch as there will be more or less shrinking, the beans
are exposed to the air in the packing house an hour or
more, so that the packages will be full when they reach
their destination. An ordinary vegetable crate is used
in which the beans are regularly laid and well shaken
clown in order that the packing will be firm.

284 GAKDENING POK THE SOUTH.

BEET. — (Beta vulgaris, and B. Cicla.)

The Common Beet (Beta vulgaris) is a biennial plant, a
native of the sea coasts of the south of Europe, and is said
to have been cultivated for its beautiful red roots long
before its edible properties were discovered.

It was introduced into England by Tradescant, in the
year 1656. Its name is said to come from the resemblance
of its seed to the letter Beta, of the Greek alphabet.

The best varieties are the following:

Extra Early Turnip, or Bassano Beet. — The root is
oval; color, pale red. Downing truly says "it is the
sweetest, most tender, and delicate of all beets" ; but the
color boils out, so that it is not as beautiful as some
others; yet it is the best early beet and one of the easiest
grown.

Extra Early Egyptian Beet. — This was a great
favorite among market gardeners several years since. It
is of fair quality, flat in shape; of a deep red color, and a
small to]). It soon loses its flavor and becomes woody.

Early Eclipse Beet. — A smooth, round beet and of
intense red color, with small top; fine grain, sweet, and
delicate flavor. The heavy crop it produces and its many
fine qualities make this beet desirable for gardens.

For later crops there are several varieties among the
Blood turnip beets which yield excellent results. The
following represent the best:

Long Blood is the kind most grown for winter use. It
grows a foot or more in length, and four or five inches in
diameter, mostly beneath the earth. It is a good keeper
and very sweet.

Early Long Blood resembles this; but about half the
root is above ground, and if not gathered and stored
early, is more exposed to injury from frost.

Besides the above, a few other varieties are grown in

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE.

285

portions of the South, and are strongly recommended by
gardeners because of certain desirable qualities. One of
the best of these is

Lentz Beet. — Early with dark blood-red flesh; tender
and sweet.

The beet has been grown extensively in this country

A large proportion

1/ i

Fig. 106— Klein Wanzleben.
Sugar Beet.

Fig. 107— Mammoth Prize
Long Red Beet (Manzel-Wurzel).

of the sugar of the markets of the world now is produced
from certain varieties of the common garden plant, which
have been carefully improved by selection and culture,
until pure strains have been produced and well estab-

286 GAKDEXIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

lished. The external form and color of the beet indicate
these distinguishing' characteristics. The fine flavor of
these sugar beets also make them excellent for table use.
The two varieties generally cultivated in this country are
Klein Wanzleben and Vilmorin Improved.

Culture. — The beet, being a native of the sea-shore,
abounds in soda, which can be supplied, when deficient,
by an application of common salt the autumn before
planting. This, and leached or unleaehed ashes, will
afford nearly all the inorganic elements of the crop. A
top dressing of nitrate of soda is excellent. But care
must be taken not to let the chemical come in contact
with the foliage.

The main summer crop of beets should be planted when
the peach and plum are in full blossom. A few Bas-
sano or Early Turnip should be planted a few weeks
earlier, and of other kinds successive beds may be made
whenever the soil is in a suitable state, from January
until the summer droughts come on. Advantage should
be taken of the rains that usually occur about the last of
July, or early in August, to put iu a crop for winter. This
crop should be put in earlier the farther northward the
locality. At New York, the main crop is planted as early
as the middle of June, about three and a half months be-
fore killing frosts. This last planting often proves a
failure in the dry autumns of a Southern climate. It
generally will succeed in rich, fine soil.

When the surface soil is rich and the bottom poor, it
will be difficult to make the beet, carrot, and other tap-
rooted plants produce fine, smooth roots. This difficulty
will cease if the ground be deeply and thoroughly worked,
mingling the soil and making it uniform throughout, and
taking care to place at the depth of one foot below the
surface a layer of good manure.

The best beets grow in sandy bottom lands, but any soil

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUKE. 287

will answer for theui if deeply and thoroughly worked
and well manured. This is necessary with all tap-rooted
plants, and especially with the beet. Beet seed is some-
what slow in vegetating, and the later sowings may be
soaked in water twenty-four hours before planting, and
the drills well watered upon the seed, which is then cov-
ered with light soil pressed gently upon the seed — a good
method of planting all summer crops. Make the beds
four or four and a half feet wide, for convenience of culti-
vating; spade them up at least a foot deep — eighteen
inches is still better; mix in a good supply of well-rotted
manure throughout, if the ground requires it. Rake the
ground even and smooth, and mark out the rows twelve
inches apart across the bed; draw the drills an inch and a
half or two inches deep, in which drop the seed two inches
apart, and press the earth gently upon it. When the
plants are up, thin them to eight or nine inches apart, fill
any vacancies by transplanting, and keep the ground
around them loose and free from weeds until matured.

In planting crops of beets, carrots, and parsnips, partic-
ularly the two latter, sprinkle a few radish seeds, if you
like, and the ground is rich, in the rows to distinguish
them. The radishes will be up in a week, and the ground
can be hoed or weeded without any danger of destroying
the young plants. Drills can also be made between every
two rows of beets, making a drill every six inches, which
can also be sown with radishes or lettuce plants, which
can thus be grown abundantly between other crops with-
out loss of room. But a rich soil is required to bring-
forward both crops to perfection.

For early beets it is well to prepare a good bed under
glass in which the rows should be marked out a foot
apart. The ground should be deeply spaded and thor-
oughly manured. Mark out your rows for the beets, and
between the first two draw a drill in which you can sow

288 GAKDEXLNG FOR THE SOUTH.

your Early York cabbage; between the next two you can
raise all the Butter-lettuce you wish to set out for head-
ing. In the rows of beets themselves, you may sprinkle
a few radish seed; then a row of later head-lettuce, to-
matoes, egg plant, peppers, etc. The drills retained for
the beets should be sown in this climate with the Bassano
beet about the tenth of January. By the time the hard
frosts are over, the beets, cabbages, etc., will be ht to
transplant. Thin out to six inches apart, planting out
those pulled up in the open ground. In transplanting the
beet, a deep hole should be made with a dibble, and the
root not bent. Those that remain in the bed will soon
come into use, and by the time they are gone, the trans-
planted ones will come on for a succession.

The winter crop should be secured as soon as the first
killing frosts occur, as the sweetness is lost by remaining
in the soil. The roots should be taken up, dried a little,
and stored away in casks with layers of dry sand, where
they will keep in good condition until spring. The mangel
wurzel beet is much cultivated in some countries for
feeding stock, and is very good for the table when young
and tender, but in our long season it loses its sweetness
before winter. Here the sweet potato, rutabaga, and
other turnips are more promising.

The Swiss Chard, or White Beet (Beta Cicla), is also
called the Sea Kale Beet. There are two varieties — the
white and the green — which receive their names from the
color of the foot-stalks of the leaves. Either of these is
good. The plant very much resembles the common beet,
but the leaves and their stalks are much larger, thicker,
more tender and succulent, and less capable of resisting
frost.

The root of this plant is small, coarse, and of no value;
only the leaves and their stalks are employed, especially
the latter, which are cooked and eaten as asparagus.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

289

The culture is exactly the same as the common beet,
except the plants should be twelve or more inches apart.
The soil may be richer and not so deep, and the plants
are more benefited by copious watering, especially with
liquid manure. For winter use,
the leaves may be covered with
litter. They will afford blanched
leaf stalks all winter. If the soil
be moist and kept mellow and
free from weeds, it will yield
bountifully. Salt is a beneficial
manure for this crop, applied
while preparing- the ground, as
it keeps it moist. It is singular
that a plant of so easy culture,
and yielding during the entire
season after May a supply of the
most delicate greens, has not
come into more general cultiva-
tion

For Seed. — Select a few of the
finest-looking roots — those
smooth and well shaped. Plant
the different varieties as far
apart as possible; indeed, it is
better to save the seed of only
one kind the same year for fear
of intermixture and degeneracy.
Keep them free from weeds, and
tie the seed stalks to stakes to
support them. Gather and dry the seed as soon as ripe,
and put away in paper bags. Keep dry, and they will be
good for ten years.

Use. — The young and tender tops of the common beet,
and the leaves and stalks of the chards, are boiled as suni-

19

Fig. 108— Swiss Chard.

290 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

uier greens, or of the latter the midrib and stalk may be
peeled and boiled separately from the rest of the leaf,
and prepared as asparagus, for which they are an excel-
lent substitute. Iu gathering, the largest outside leaves
should first be taken, and the inner ones left to increase
in size, taking care to gather them while still perfectly
green and vigorous.

When common beets are thinned, the young beets
pulled up, if cooked, tops and bottoms, are very sweet and
delicate. When well grown, the roots give an agreeable
variety to our table vegetables, beiug tender, sweet, aud
considerably nourishing. They also make an excellent
pickle. If eaten moderately, they are wholesome, but in
too large a quantity produce flatulence and indigestion.

Marketing. — The roots are pulled when not quite
grown, at a period when they are crisp and tender. The
tops are cut off about two inches from the root, because
if cut too close the beet will lose much of the moisture
before it reaches the market, and its quality will be
greatly impaired. With some gardeners the practice is
to tie four of the roots together in a bundle and thus ship
to market the first three weeks, but as the season ad-
vances the beets vary in size, and then the bunching is
discontinued, and the roots are packed in well-ventilated
barrels or bushel baskets.

BORECOLE. — ( Brassica ohracea, fimbriata.)

This plant, known also as Kale and German Greens, is
the easiest cultivated, and one of the most valuable of the
cabbage tribe. It has large curled or wrinkled leaves,
forming an open head, and such a hardy constitution that
it resists the severest frosts, which serve only to improve
it. It remains green and eatable all winter without the
least protection at the South, and in the Northern States
requires only a slight covering. The best varieties are :

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 291

Early Curled Siberian, or Dwarf German Greens.
Beautifully curled, and known in some sections as Blue
Curled Kale. Very hardy and makes excellent greens for
winter and spring use.

Dwarf Green Curled Scotch is a fine winter kale,
and is superior for home use. After frost the leaves be-
come very tender, and produce greens of fine flavor. The
plants grow from two to two and a half feet high, with
an abundance of beautifully curled leaves.

Culture. — Raised from seed, like the rest of the cabbage
tribe, which may be sown in April with the winter cab-
bages and treated in the same manner. Transplant, if the
Dwarf Green Curled, into rows eighteen inches apart and
twelve inches in a row. Give it a good soil. The other
sorts require about the same space as winter cabbages.
Borecole may be sown as late as the middle of August in
the place where it is to remain, and managed like the
rutabaga turnip. Like the cabbage, it is visited by the
aphis or cabbage-louse, and caterpillar.

Seed. — Manage some of the best plants as cabbage.

Use. — The outside leaves can be cut off for use when
from seven to nine inches long, but they will be coarse
and rank until mellowed by frost. The better way is after
frost to cut off the hearts, not square across, but with a
sloping cut, in order to throw off the rain, and the stem
which is left will throw up fresh sprouts for a succession.
For winter and spring greens this vegetable is nearly
equal to the Savoy cabbage, after the frost has rendered
it sweet and tender.

Marketing. — Barrels, well ventilated, are used for
shipping this vegetable to market. The kale is cut when
the leaves are seven to nine inches long, and securely
packed, so the barrel will remain full when it reaches its
destination.

292 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

BROCCOLI. — (Brassica oleracca, var. Botrytis asparagoides.)

This is a cultivated variety of the cabbage resembling
cauliflower, from which it differs iu its undulating leaves,
its larger size, and the color of some of its varieties.

It is supposed to have originated from the cauliflower;
it is a hardier plant, but not so delicate in flavor. It has
been cultivated about two hundred years, and was intro-
duced into England from Italy. Broccoli is raised more
easily than cauliflower. The Early Purple Cape broccoli,
producing largo, brownish heads, very close and compact,
is the best of over forty sorts.

It requires the same special manures as cabbage and
cauliflower, and for cultivation sow, transplant, and man-
age like late cauliflower. To protect from insects see
Cabbage.

I st. — The same as cauliflower, to which it is inferior,
and where that succeeds will hardly be worthy of culture.

Marketing. — Cut off most of the leaves around the
head and pack in vegetable crates.

BRUSSELS SPROUTS.

(Brassica oleracca, car. tullata gemmifera.)
This plant is a hardy variety of the Savoy cabbage,
producing an elongated stem, often four feet high and
crowned with leaves similar to the Savoy. Small, green
heads like cabbages spring from the axils of the stem
leaves, which, dropping off, leave the little heads ar-
ranged spirally around the stem as the plant proceeds in
growth. Brussels Sprouts are raised from seed, which
may be sown in April. Set the plants in rows two feet
by one and a half feet apart, and treat in all respects as
directed, for winter cabbage. Cut off the leaves at the
top of the stem some ten days or a fortnight before the
little heads are gathered, and use for greens.

It will stand the winters without protection south of

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

293

Virginia, but the product is rather small, and the plants
are very subject to the aphis during the winter.

The Best French or Kosebekky is the variety gen-
erally planted in the South.

For Seed. — Cut off the top of the stem and permit the
flower stalks to spring from the little heads only. Keep
at a distance from all the other #> p^WkMh
varieties of Brassica, in order to W^"^.*^r^"''.'-J^) ^
have pure seed. <^v^r"; ^r^y^;^ ^\

Use. — The top boiled for win- ^^^^^fef^1 ^^^
ter greens is very delicate in
flavor and similar to the Savoy.
But the little sprouts after they
have been touched with frost,
which very much improves them,
are the parts most used. The
sprouts are fit for use all winter.

Marketing. — See Borecole.

CABBAGE.

(Brassica oleracea, var. capitata.)
This is a Cruciferous biennial
plant, quite hardy, found wild
on the coasts of England,

France, and many other parts

Fig. 109— Brussels Sprouts.

of Europe. The wild variety is known as Sea Cole-
wort, bears but a fewT leaves, and is far from palatable,
unless boiled in two waters to remove its saltness. The
cultivated variety was probably introduced into England
by the Romans, and the common name doubtless comes
from the Latin Caput, or head. This is one of the most
useful crops in cultivation. Cabbages are eatable almost
from the time they leave the seed-bed until they have
acquired a hard, close head; and they can be raised on

294

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

every bit of otherwise idle ground. They can be planted
between beds and rows of anything and everything,
to be eaten as greens when young, or left to head on the
coming off of other crops, and if there should be a super-
abundance above the wants of the family, nothing is
better for the cow and the pig. When the seed are care-
fully selected and the strains are preserved, the American
seeds are superior to the imported, and produce finer and
larger heads. No seed for late cabbage is better than our
own, if saved from fine, large heads. But all the late
cabbages in hot climates, without proper care, are prone
to run into coleworts or " collards."
The best varieties are as follows:

Early Jersey Wakefield. — This cabbage has taken
the place in recent years of the Early York, which for

Fig. 110— Early Jersey Wakefield Cabbage.

many years was the best for the earliest crop. The Wake-
field is a conical headed cabbage, and the outside foliage
permits of close planting, so that a large crop may be
produced from an acre of ground. There is a larger

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

295

headed variety of the Wakefield called Large Early, or
Charleston Wakefield, but rather later in maturing.

Early Winnigstadt. — Stem dwarf, head large, broad
at the base, sharply conical, heart firm, boiling tender;
sown late, it proves a good winter cabbage; adapted to

Fig. Ill— Matchless Late Flat Dutch Cabbage.

sandy soils; about three weeks later than the early
varieties.

Henderson's Early Summer. — This cabbage comes in
just after the Wakefield, and its large, well-shaped head
stands the summer's heat finely.

Early Flat Dutch. — This is an old standard variety
and well suited to Southern portions of the country, be-

1^0 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

en use it has considerable heat resisting properties. The
heads are flat on top, and of large, uniform size.

All Seasons. — This cabbage is good for fall, winter
and summer planting. The heads are large, and come
into use nearly as early as the Early Summer.

Express. — Four or five days earlier than the Jersey
Wakefield. The heads are exceedingly firm and well
shaped.

Early Drumhead. — The heads are large and firm, and
withstand the heal admirably, thus making it a popular
cabbage in many sections of the South. It matures about
ten days later than the Wakefield, and is therefore an
excellent cabbage to follow that variety, especially the
Charleston Wakefield.

Large Early York. — Is robust, bears the heat well,
and will often continue in eating all summer.

Fottler's Improved Brunswick and Succession are
fine plants and much alike.

For late cabbages the following are well suited to the
South :

Premium Flat Dutch.

Large Late Drumhead.

Red Dutch is used principally for pickling, and should
be sown at the same time with the drumheads.

SAVOY CABBAGES.— (B. oleracea, var. bullata-major.)
These differ from the preceding in their wrinkled
leaves. The varieties are hardy, being rendered more
sweet and tender by frost. The only two worthy of cul-
ture are:

Curled Savoy. — An excellent winter variety, much
improved in sweetness and tenderness by frost. It does
not head firmly, but is very fine flavored, and even the
outside leaves are tender and palatable.

Drumhead Savoy is almost as large and firm as the

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

297

drumhead cabbage, and keeps very well. The head is
round, flattened at top. It is nearly as delicate as the
curled variety.

The Savoys are not as certain a crop as the other cab-
bages, but far superior in delicacy. They are nearly equal
to cauliflowers.

Cult tor. — An analysis of different varieties of the cab-
bage shows them all to contain a very large proportion of

Fig 112 — Savoy Cabbage.

nitrogen; after evaporating the water, drumhead cabbage
gives of nitrogen 17.899 parts in a hundred; Savoy, 20.763;
red, 16.212; turnip-rooted, 19.052. We also find this plant
remarkably rich in phosphorus and sulphur; hence its un-
pleasant smell in decay, like that of animal matter. It
abounds also in soda and potash. Hence, common salt, to
yield soda and chlorine, wood ashes for potash, bone for
phosphoric acid, and gypsum, to add sulphur and lime,
together with a soil saturated with manure of animals,
especially the liquid excretion, all come in play in making

298 GAKDEiVING FOR THE SOUTH.

fine cabbages. Frequent stirring of the soil will also rob
the atmosphere of its ammonia for the same purpose.

The genus to which the cabbage belongs (Brassica)
embraces also the Turnip, Borecole, Broccoli, Cauliflower.
Brussels Sprouts, etc., and the following observations
apply to the whole of them.

For the seed-bed the soil should be a moist loam, but
more dry in the case of plants which are to stand the
winter. For final production most plants of this genus
like a fresh, very rich, moderately clayey loam. A moist,
cool bottom suits them admirably; such of them as are to
stand the winter in the open ground should be grown in
a lighter soil, not over rich. Good, well-decomposed
stable manure is usually employed iu preparing the soil
for this genus. Pure hog manure is by some considered
objectionable, as it is said to cause any of the cabbage
tribe to become clump-rooted and lose their regularity
of shape. A plentiful application of salt the autumn
before planting, say at the rate of eight or ten bushels
per acre, is very beneficial to this tribe, as it destroys
the cutworm and keeps the soil moist and cool. Bone-
dust, and especially super-phosphate of lime, has a very
surprising effect upon them, far more than analysis
would lead one to suppose.

The ground is advantageously dug twice the depth of a
spade, and should be well pulverized by the operation.
All of the cabbage tribe are particularly benefited by fre-
quent and deep cultivation ; they especially like to have
the soil about them thoroughly worked while the dew is
on them. There will be a very great difference in the
growth of two plots of cabbages treated alike in other
respects, one of which shall be hoed at sunrise, and the
other at midday; the growth of the former will surpris-
ingly exceed that of the latter. But the cabbage tribe
cannot be hoed too much for their benefit even if daily.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 299

The situation must be opeu and free from all shade or
drip of trees; if shaded from the midday sun, it is an
advantage, but it must not be by trees. In the shade of
trees and other confined situations, they are much more
subject to be infested with caterpillars, and to grow
weak and spindling. In planting out, all that have
knotted or clumped roots should be rejected.

Cabbage seed may be sown early in September or
October in the open ground, watering in the evening
when dry, as it usually is this month. The seed should
be sown in drills, six inches apart, and one inch deep,
and the ground deeply dug; water the drills before
covering the seed, unless the ground is moist. Cover with
fine, rich soil, pressed lightly upon the seed. The plants
will appear in about a week. When large enough to
transplant, they can be set very thick in a cold frame or
box, to stand over the winter. Cover over with glass, or
boards if you have not glass, during severe weather, but
give air every mild day, and set out when the weather
grows mild in the spring.

From Washington southwards, a still better way than
putting the plants in a frame, is to throw a piece of
ground into high ridges, two feet apart, running east and
west. On the south side of these ridges set out the plants
a foot apart, so that they will be shielded from the cold
north winds, and enjoy the full warmth of the sun. Plant
on the sides of the ridges and not in the trench. When
the weather grows severe in December, cover slightly
with straw or litter; remove it when mild weather re-
turns, and cultivate as usual, gradually levelling the
ridges, and you will have cabbages earlier than by any
other mode. The ground should be good. If you raise
your plants in the cold frame, they will be ready to trans-
plant from the 20th to the last of February. They will
be verv liable to be eaten off bv the cutworm when trans-

300 GAEDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

planted. There are two modes of preventing this. The
best method is to sow the ground intended for cabbage,
the autumn after being spaded up, with salt at the rale
of eight bushels per acre. If you have not already sown
your cabbage plot with salt, there is another plan to keep
off the cutworm, equally successful. Throw your ground
into ridges and trenches sixteen inches apart; let these
trenches be at least six inches deep. In the bottom of
these transplant your cabbages, one foot apart. Some
use a dibble, but a trowel is much better, as it does not
leave the soil hard. Prepare your ground in dry weather,
but choose a moist day for transplanting. It is a good
plan to wet the roots before planting out. When they
get rooted, stir the soil gently about them, but do not fill
up the trenches until the plants are so large that there is
no danger of the worm. This method of protecting cab-
bages was pointed out to me by a negro gardener several
years since, and I have tried it repeatedly. The worm
will not go down into the trenches to destroy the plants.

Mr. Weed, entomologist of the Mississippi Experiment
Station, makes an excellent suggestion for destroying the
Harlequin or terrapin bug. He recommends the planting
of mustard between the rows of cabbage. The bugs will
gather on the mustard in preference to the cabbage, and
the plants can be pulled up and burned, or the mustard
mnj be sprayed with pure kerosene.

When the plants get strong the ground should be
deeply and repeatedly hoed. Do this while the dew is
on, and retain its ammonia in the soil. The cabbage is
partial to moisture, so hoe it frequently, and when you go
out in the morning, you will find the plot moist with dew,
while the unstirred soil around is dry as ever. The only
secret in raising early cabbage is, set your plants in rich
ground and stir the mil. On poor ground (and even on

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 301

rich, if half tended) they will run into collards. Stir the
soil, and less manure is required.

If the fall sowing has been neglected, sow the seeds in
January or early in February in a cold frame, as directed
in the article on the Beet; or they may be sown in the
open ground when the heavy frosts that freeze the soil are
over, and covered with litter, if protection is needed
against unseasonable frosts, to be removed when the
danger is over. Transplant and cultivate as above.

For the middle crop to last through the summer, the
seed can be sown as above, or at any time until the middle
of April. The cultivation is the same, except that the
plants should be set about sixteen to eighteen inches
apart. The varieties will not head unless the ground be
rich, rather moist, and, above all, diligently worked.

Sow the late crop about the first of April. It is sown
the first of May near New York, but, sown at that season
in the South, it is not certain to come up. If seed of any
of the cabbage tribe bo sown alter the weather grows
warm, it must be watered in the drill, or covered Avith
rich, fresh earth, which must be pressed upon it by walk-
ing on a board, and it must be shaded by a covering of
boards or pine brush during the da}', removing it at night,
until the plants get a little established. If the weather is
warm and wet, the covering may be dispensed with. They
should not be transplanted until July or August. Let
the ground be well spaded, and thoroughly manured. The
plants must be set in the ground up to the first leaf, no matter
how long the stem man he, or they will not head. They also
require a rich soil, but not from fresh manure. The
manure for the cabbage crop should be thoroughly de-
composed, or the plants will be covered with aphides or
cabbage lice. The best way is to throw the ground into
ridges from two to two and a half feet apart, making the
trenches between more or less deep, according to.the

302 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

length of the stems; wet the roots thoroughly, and trans-
plant in moist weather, doing it carefully with a trowel,
and when the ground gets dry, draw the earth level,
which should just reach up to the lower leaves, not all at
once, but gradually. If you have not late plants, sow
Large Yorks or Winnigstadts, in July here, or June north-
Avard, and good heads of a smaller size can be produced.

The soil for cabbages cannot be made too rich. The
plants demand a large supply of nitrogenous manure.
The application of lime once in five years will repay the
gardener.

After the late cabbages are transplanted, let them be
well cultivated by deep and frequent hoeing, and do not
strip off the lower leaves if you wish them to head.

To Preserve Cabbage. — Heel them up to their lower
leaves in a dry situation, on the north side of a fence or
building, and cover slightly with plank, straw, or pine
brush, to keep them from freezing and thawing during
the winter. It is not the frost, however, but the sun upon
them, while frozen, that does the injury. Iu Virginia and
northward, dig a trench on a gentle slope, and lay two or
three bean poles in the bottom; on these, beginning at the
upper end, lay the cabbages, head downward, a little
sloping, so that the water may run out from the heads.
Cover now with earth a few inches thick, forming a sharp
ridge about their roots, which should be made firm by
treading or beating. Begin at the lower end and dig out
as wanted for use.

Seed. — Set out some of the best heads in the spring at
a distance from turnips and all other members of this
family, or they will intermix. Of the late varieties, home-
grown seed, if pure, is the best. Support the stems as
they rise by stakes, and gather the seed before it scatters.
Seed will keep four years.

Use. — Cabbage, as an article of food, is not so remark-

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 303

able for its fattening properties as for its power of supply-
ing strength for labor by producing muscle and bone,
which it owes to its richness in blood-forming material,
abouuding iu nitrogen, phosphates, and sulphur. Hence
it is very nutritious for, and much relished, by laboring
people in all parts of the world, but is apt to disagree
with those of quiet and sedentary habits. With the latter
it is more wholesome and digestible if eaten uncooked. Many
persons can eat " cold slaw " with impunity that are
unable to use boiled cabbage without great inconven-
ience. It is by many much relished when made into sauer-
kraut. It is also pickled.

Marketing. — In gathering the cabbage care must be
exercised in the selection of those which give firm heads.
Most of the outer leaves are taken off, just a few being
left to prevent the head bruising in transportation; the
stem is also cut off close. Barrels are generally used in
shipping with stout cloth tied over the end and several
holes cut in the sides to give sufficient ventilation. The
cabbage should be packed strong and securely in the bar-
rels, using considerable force, so that there will be no
displacement in transit, and the chances for bruising will
be reduced to a minimum. It is unwise to pack different
varieties in the same barrel; separate the varieties as
well as assort the sizes and better prices will result when
the shipment reaches market. Crates are used in some
sections of the South for sending cabbage to the market,
but they do not seem to give as good satisfaction as do
the barrels.

CARROT.— (Daucus Carota.)

The carrot is a hardy, umbelliferous biennial, found
wild in Great Britain, as well as in this country, growing
in sandy soil or by road-sides. The root of the wild plant
is small, white, dry, woody, and strong flavored; while

304

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

that of the cultivated variety is large, succulent,, and
generally of a reddish yellow or pale straw color. The
cultivated carrot is, however, thought to have been
~~m~± brought into Europe from the island

W of Crete, where it was early culti-

vated. It was carried to England by
**3^ ., Flemish refugees in the days of

Elizabeth, and the leaves wore
thought beautiful enough to be used
in ladies' headdresses. Cultivation
has changed a wild, worthless plant
into a most nutritious root.

M. Vilmorin, of Paris, has done
the same in our day, and from the
wild plant by selecting seed, in three
generations produced roots as large
as the best garden carrots, the flavor
of which, by most of those who have
tasted them, is considered superior
to the old varieties. (Bon Jardinier.)
The best varieties for the garden
are:

Early Horn, which is very early,
high colored, and sweeter than other
varieties. It does not grow very long,
and may be known by its conical root
shortening abruptly to a point. It
will grow closer together, and is bet-
Fig. 113— Rubicon Half ter on shallow soils than other kinds,

Long Orange Carrot. except

Early French Short Horn, which is an earlier and
superior variety of the above, and for an early crop the
best.

Altringham. — Color, bright red, and growing with the
top an inch or two above ground, which sometimes

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE. 305

freezes in very severe winters, if left in the ground, as is'
usual with this crop in Southern gardens. Of excellent
quality.

Long Orange. — Is paler in color, and of great length,
the root not above the ground. It is next in quality to
the above, and best for winter use where the crop is to be
left in the ground.

Half Long Danvers. — Of good quality ; thick root and
very productive. One of the most popular kinds among
gardeners. The color is bright orange.

Analysis shows that lime, potash, soda, sulphuric acid,
and chloride of sodium or salt abound in the ashes of this
plant. The salt and lime mixture, composted with leaf-
mould or swamp muck, a little plaster of Paris, bone-dust,
and wood ashes, are the special manures needed.

Culture. — Carrots like a light and fertile soil, dug full
two spades deep for the long varieties, as they require a
deeper soil than any other garden vegetables. The manure
should be put as near the bottom as possible, not less
than eighteen inches from the surface; but the soil should
be fertilized by a previous crop, if fine, smooth roots are
desired.

In the Southern States carrots, for the early crop, may
be sown in October or the first of November, and again
from Januaiw to April inclusive, after which the seed
comes up badly. At New York, the late crop is sown in
June for winter use, and for the early crop they sow in
September, and protect it a little with litter through the
winter.

Late-sown seed do not vegetate freely. Sow in drills
fifteen inches apart; cover the seed half an inch deep with
fine soil, and for the late crop, if the ground is dry, water
the seed before covering, and after a few hours press the
earth upon the seed with a roller or plank. Thin the
young plants to six inches apart. In short, the culture
20

306 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

of the carrot is just that of the beet. Six hundred
bushels have beeu produced from oue acre. The car-
rots need uot be pulled at the South, but may be left
safely in the ground to draw as wanted for use during the
winter. In severe weather, they may be protected by a
covering of litter; but it is hardly necessary, except for
the Altringham. At the North, they are stored in cellars
or in piles, covered with straw and earth, like the potato.

For Seed. — Leave some of the finest roots, protected
with litter, Avhere raised, to blossom and seed the next
summer; save only the principal umbels. Each head
should be cut as it turns brown, dried in the shade, rub-
bed out, and dried in paper bags. The seed will not vege-
tate if more than two years old.

Use. — The carrot is a very wholesome food for man or
beast. It is a valuable addition to stews and soups, and
is also boiled plain, pickled. Boiled or grated, it is an
excellent poultice. The grated root is often added to
cream to improve the color of winter butter. One carrot,
grated into cold water, will color cream enough for eight
pounds of butter, without any injury to the flavor. One
bushel of boiled carrots and one of corn are said to be
worth as much as two bushels of corn to feed to pigs.
They are excellent for feeding horses and milch cows, and
for this purpose are the most profitable of all roots in
deep, fertile soils.

Marketing. — The roots should be well washed and
tied in bunches of six and neatly trimmed. Pack in crates
securely to prevent movement in shipping and thus
bruising.

CAULIFLOWER. — (Brassica olcracca, rar. botrytis.)

This plant is a biennial, and was introduced into Eng-
land from the Island of Cyprus, in the early part of the
seventeenth centurv. It is a kind of cabbage with long,

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 307

pale-green leaves, surrounding a mass or head of white
flower buds — in short, " a giant rose wrapped in a green
surtout," but much more like a mass of fresh curds than
a rose. Since its introduction, it has been much improved
by the skill of the gardener. The seed is generally im-
ported from Europe.

There are several varieties, of which Early Erfurt and
Snowball are the best.

Cauliflower requires the same manures as cabbage.
There is much less difficulty in its cultivation near the
sea shore than inland. The ground should receive a dress-
ing of common salt.

Culture. — Cauliflowers are sown at two periods for the
early and late crop. For the former sow early in Septem-
ber thinly in drills six inches apart, in rich, light soil, and
if the ground is too dry and hot, water the seed in the
drill before covering; cover with fine, light soil, and shade
with a mat until the seeds are just beginning to come up
(not longer). When the plants are three inches high, in
the colder localities, they are taken up carefully and pot-
ted singly in small pots, three in a pot where the quart
size is used. Instead of potting, they may be set out in
a cold frame or pit four inches asunder, to remain until
spring opens, giving them meanwhile all the air the
weather will admit to harden them. They will stand light
frosts without injury. As early as safe, remove the sashes
entirely a few days, take them up from the bed with a
transplanter with balls of earth, or, if in pots, divide the
ball carefully if it contains more than one plant, and set
them out in very rich ground twenty by twenty-four
inches apart, inserting their stems in the earth nearly to
the first pair of leaves. Shield them with plant protectors
from heavy frosts.

In milder localities, as the coast and middle section of
the more Southern States, the plants, when taken up, are

308 GARDENING FOB THE £OUTH.

set out in rows where they are to remain, four inches
apart in the row and the rows four feet apart; they are
protected during frosts and heavy storms by hoops and
mats, or by a covering of four planks a foot wide to each
row. These are supported by rafter-like supports, every
five or six feet, to which one of the planks is nailed on
each side, while the others are movable and are taken off
in all mild weather. The ends are closed with plank.
Instead of plank, white cotton cloth, prepared with lin-
seed oil, affords a suitable covering. They must have air
and light at all times when practicable. Slugs must be
watched, whether wintered thus or in a hot-bed. They
may be driven off by sprinkling the soil and plants with
quicklime. As early as may be safe in February, prepare
the soil between the rows, which, during the winter,
should have been protected from treading by a coat of
leaves, or a few old plank, and plant another row therein
with the plants twenty inches apart. Thin the plants that
were wintered to twenty inches, taking them up with a
transplanter, and plant out those not required for the in-
termediate row in a plot prepared for the purpose. Shade
a little with plant protectors until established, if there is
danger of their flagging; afterwards cultivate them as
cabbage.

For the late crop sow in the manner above directed at
the same time with winter cabbage, from April to July.
An ounce of seed will yield three or four thousand plants.
The seed-bed should be of light, rich soil, and when the
plants are two or three inches high, they should be taken
up and set out in a bed four inches apart, shading them
until again established, or, if the weather is too dry and
hot, thinned to that distance in the seed-bed. They should
be taken up with balls of earth in a transplanter and
planted out at the same time with winter cabbage, in
rows twenty by twenty-four inches apart. Protect them

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 309

from the cutworm and insects in the same manner. If
possible, give them a plot of moist bottom soil, made very
rich with well-decomposed manure. Water freely when
needed, which, in dry weather, is every other day at least;
if with liquid manure, so much the better. Let them
never suffer from drought ; they will show when they need
water by their drooping- leaves. Soapsuds is an excellent
application. Keep the ground hoed thoroughly about
them, especially the day after each watering, that it may
not bak

The hills should be hollowed about the cauliflower like
a shallow basin, to retain moisture. The head ma}T be
blanched by bending the leaves and confining them
loosely with a string. They will head in succession during
the autumn. On protection from insects, see " Cabbage."

When a cauliflower has reached its full size, which is
shown by the border opening as if about to seed, the plant
should be pulled, and if laid entire in this state in a cool
place, may be kept several days. It should be pulled
in the morning, for if gathered in the middle or evening
of a hot day, it boils tough. When there is danger of
severe frost injuring the cauliflowers that have not
already headed, they may be protected by pine boughs or
empty boxes or barrels where they stand, or pulled up
with the earth attached to the roots, and removed to a
cellar or out-building, where they will flower in succes-
sion. In the low country this will hardly be necessary.
The spring crop is, I believe, more certain in low sections.

For Seed. — Set out, in spring, some of the finest heads,
writh fine, close flower-buds, and proceed as with cabbage.
It is very liable to intermix with the other Brassicas; so
that it is best to depend upon foreign seed. Seed will
keep three or four years.

Use. — The heads or flowers boiled, generally wrapped
in a clean linen cloth, are served up as a most delicate

310 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

dish. "r Of all the flowers in the garden," says Dr. John-
son, "give me the cauliflower." It is one of the very
best of vegetable products, and so prized wherever
known. It is nutritious and wholesome even for invalids.
beside being a very ornamental addition to the table.

To Cool:. — Cut off the green leaves, and look carefully
that there are no caterpillars about the stalk; soak an
hour in cold water, with a handful of salt in it; then boil
them in milk and water, and take care to skim the sauce-
pan, that not the least foulness may fall on the flower. It
must be served up very white, with sauce, gravy, or
melted butter. — Mrs. Hole.

Marketing. — The cauliflowers are cut with two loaves
left on each to fold over the tender heads to prevent
bruising in shipping. Each head is wrapped in paper and
carefully packed in bushel crates, with a sheet of brown
paper between each layer. Thorough ventilation must be
had in the package or spoiling will result before the
market is reached.

CELERY. — (Apium graveolens.)

Celery is a hardy, biennial, Umbelliferous plant, a
native of Britain, where the wild variety, called Small-
age — a coarse, rank weed with an unpleasant smell and
taste — is found growing in low, marshy grounds, and by
the sides of ditches.

There are several varieties, some of which have hollow
stalks. None but those which are solid are worthy of
notice. Among the best are:

White Plume. — An early form which has self-bleach-
ing properties. It was first introduced in 1884, and lias
become quite a popular variety among some gardeners.
It can be bleached without high banking. The objection
made against this form is its poor keeping qualities. It

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

311

cast. *m^4mm

1 for RWB

m

should not, therefore, be planted for a late winter crop.
The plant is often of strong flavor, which is objectionable.

Golden Self-Blanching. — This also requires com-
paratively little banking-, and produces crisp, large and
solid plants of fine
flavor. Very few
plants are better
adapted to garden
culture. The flavor
is excellent, of
rich, nutty
Well adapted for
the " New Celery
Culture " method.

Golden Heart.
In 1886 this was
one of the most
popular varieties,
and it is still hold-
ing a strong posi-
tion with garden-
ers. An excellent
winter keeper.

Giant Paschal.
This is of French
origin and is large,
silver white, and
very productive. It
blanches quite readily, and retains its freshness a long
time. The stalks are large, solid and fine flavored. The
Giant Paschal is a selection from the Golden Self-Blanch-
ing; has the qualities of the latter, but is a better keeper
and is larger.

Fig. 114— Giant Paschal Celery.

(312)

Plate 3— Golden Self-Blanching Celery.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 313

Giant White Solid. — This celery attains a height of
three feet, and is well suited to the South, since it grows
moderately well in a warm climate.

Sandiungham or In co mi' Ait able. — Is an old variety of
tine qualities. It has been cultivated for over thirty
years.

Culture. — The soil for fine celery must be rich in pot-
ash, lime, phosphoric acid and chloride of potassium. But
it will not do to depend upon special manures alone, with-
out the addition to the soil of well-rotted animal manures.

Celery flourishes best in a soil moist, friable, and rather
inclining to lightness. It likes a cool, moist, but not
wTet soil. There are several modes of cultivation. The
common mode is to sow the seed in April thinly in
drills eight inches apart. As celery is a long while vege-
tating in the open air, it is desirable to sow the early crop
under glass. Let the seed-bed be very rich, and if not
sufficiently moist, sprinkle the drills well before covering,
and cover thinly with light, sifted soil. Shade the bed
on sunny days, and admit mild rains and warm dews,. and
keep all close in cool weather until the young plants make
their appearance. Unless managed as directed for fine
flower seeds, celery will not readily come up. Water
must be given from a fine rosed pot if the soil is dry.

The old way is to plant in trenches, a foot deep, well
manured at the bottom, and to earth up gradually, as the
plants make their growth. This plan is now abandoned
by our best growers, and instead the method given by
the well-known authority, Mr. Peter Henderson, in his
valuable work called " Gardening for Profit, " is adopted
by many gardeners. There is also another method called
the " Newr Celery Culture,'' which will be described
further on.

Celery may be planted any time from the middle of
June to the middle of August; but the time we most

314 GARDEXIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

prefer is during July, as there is but little gained by
attempting it early. In fact I have often seen plants
raised in hot-beds and planted out in June, far sur-
passed both in size and quality by those raised in the
open ground and planted a month later. As I have
already said, it requires a cool, moist atmosphere, and
it is nonsense to attempt to grow it early in our hot
and dry climate; and even when grown, it is not a
vegetable that is ever very palatable until cool weather.
This experience well proves, for although a few bunches
are exposed for sale in August and September, there is
not one root sold then for a thousand that are sold in
October and November. Celery is often grown as
a " second crop " — that is, it follows after the spring-
crop of beets, onions, cabbage, cauliflower, or peas,
which are cleared off and marketed, at latest, by
the middle of July; the ground is then thoroughly
plowed and harroAved. No additional manure is used,
as enough remains in the ground from the heavy coat
it has received in the spring, to carry through the
crop of celery. After the ground has been nicely pre-
pared, lines are struck out on the level surface, three feet
apart, and the plants set six inches apart in the rows. If
the weather is dry at the time of planting, great care
should be taken that the roots are properly " firmed."
Our custom is, to turn back on the row, and press by the
side of each plant gently with the foot. This compacts
the soil and partially excludes the air from the root until
new rootlets are formed, which will usually be in forty-
eight hours, after which all danger is over. This practice
of pressing the soil closely around the roots is essential in
planting of all kinds, and millions of plants are annually
destroyed by its omission. After the planting of the
celery is completed, nothing further is to be done for six
or seven weeks, except running through between the rows

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

315

with the cultivator or hoe, and freeing the plants of weeds

until the}' get strong enough to crowd them down. This

will bring us to about the middle of August, by which

time we usually have that moist and cool atmosphere

essential to the growth of celery. Then we begin the

" earthing up," necessary for blanchiug or Avhitening that

which is wanted for use during the

months of September, October, and

November. The first operation is

that of " handling," as Ave term it —

that is, after the soil has been drawn

up against the plant with the hoe,

it is further drawn close around each

plant by the hand, firm enough to

keep the leaves in an upright posit

and prevent them from

This will leave them as

Figure 116.

Fig. 115— Tying Up Celery.

E. C. Green, of the Ohio Station, proposes the use of
paper string to wind around the plants before banking
up with earth, and the string is left on the plants since
the moisture will soon so dampen it as to cause it to fall
off as the celery grows. The great advantage in the use
of string, as shown in Figure 115, consists in the fact that
the earth is not allowed to enter the center of the plants
while banking up, and thus injure the quality of the

31G

GARDENING FOR THE ^OETII.

celery. The figure is self-explanatory. A tin can is tied
to the wrist in which the cord of string is placed, and the
end is fed through a hole in the bottom of the can. Care
must be exercised not to bruise the plants while tying up,
otherwise disease will set in and the crop will be ruined.

>r&

wwmm

: S^fef v^-— -

vi|J '■

_;^£-

Fig. 116— Celery After "Handling."

The plants being placed in an upright position, more soil
is drawn against the row (either by the plow or hoe, as
circumstances require), so as to keep the plant in this
position. The blanching process must, however, be

Fig. 117— Celery Earthed Up.

finished by the spade, which is done by digging the soil
from between the rows and banking it up clear to the top
on each side of the row of celery, as in Figure 117. Three
feet is ample distance between the dwarf varieties, but

VEGETABLES DESCBIPTION AKD CULTUEE. 317

when large sorts are used the width between the rows
must be at least four and a half or five feet, which entails
much more labor and loss of ground. For the past eight
years I have grown none but the dwarf varieties, and have
saved, in consequence, at least one-half in labor, and one-
third in ground, while the average price per root in mar-
ket has been always equal and occasionally higher than
for the tall growing sorts.

Some authorities recommend the use of 12-inch plank
in bleaching celery, one placed on each side of the row,
leaning against pegs, and with a few inches of earth
thrown up against the plank to hold it in position. It is
claimed that with this method enough of the light is
excluded from the stems of the plants to cause them to
bleach.

The preparation of the soil and planting of celery for
winter use is the same in all respects, except that, what is
intended for winter need never be " banked up " with the
spade. It merely requires to be put through the handling-
process, to put it in a compact and upright position pre-
paratory to being stowed away in winter quarters. This
should not be done before the middle of September, or
just long enough before the celery is dug up, to keep it
in the upright position.

We have, however, another method called the " new
celery culture,"* which we have found to answer very
well for the late crop, and it is one by which more roots
can be grown on the same space and with less labor than
by any other. The best results will be secured by culti-
vating a self-bleaching variety, like the Golden Self-

* It is of interest to note that in 1892 some writers on horticulture
published an account of this method, and claimed the honor of the
discovery, calling it the " new celery culture," when, as a matter of
fact, this method was in use in 1868, at the time the second edition of this
book was issued.

31S

GAKJJKA'l.NG l'OK THE bOUTH.

Bleaching. It is simply to plant the celery one foot apart,
each ira[), nothing farther being required after planting,
except twice or thrice hoeing, to clear the crop of weeds
until it grows enough to cover the ground. No handling
or earthing up is required by this method, for, as the
plants struggle for light, they naturally assume an up-
right position, the leaves all assuming the perpendicular
instead of the horizontal, which is the condition essential
before being put in winter quarters. This method is not
quite so general with us as planting in rows, and it is
perhaps better adapted for private gardens than for mar-

Fig. 118— Old Method of Growing Celery in Trenches. (This
is also used for winter storage. )

ket; as the plant is more excluded from the air, the root
hardly attains as much thickness as by the other plan.

The manner of preserving it during the winter is
very simple, but as the knowledge of the process may
not be well understood generally by market gardeners,
I will endeavor to put it plain enough, so that my
readers " may go and do likewise." In this locality
we begin to dig up that which we intend for winter
use about the end of October, and continue the work
(always on dry days) until the 20th or 25th of Novem-
ber, which is as late as we dare risk it out for fear of
frost. Let it be understood that celery will stand quite
a sharp frost — say 10 or even 15°, while 20 or 25° will

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 319

destroy it. Hence experience has taught us, that the
sharp frosts that we usually have during the early part of
November, rarely hurt it, though often causing it to droop
flat on the ground, until thawed out by the sun. It must,
however, never be touched when in the frozen state, or it
is almost certain to decay. The ground in which it is
placed for winter use should be as dry as possible, or if
not dry, so arranged that no water will remain in the
trench. The trench should be dug as narrow as possible,
not more than ten or twelve inches wide, and of the depth
exactly of the height of the celery — that is, if the plant of
the celery be two feet in length, the depth of the drain or
trench should be two feet also. The celery is now placed
in the trench as near perpendicular as possible, so as to
fill it up entirely, its green tops being on a level with the
top of the trench. Figure 118 represents a section across
a trench filled with celery in the manner just described.
No earth whatever is put to the roots other than what
may adhere to them after being dug up. It being closely
packed together, there is moisture enough always at tin1
bottom of the trench to keep this plant at the cool season
of the year from wilting. That which is put in trenches
about the 25th of October is usually ready to be taken up
for use about the first of December, that which is put in a
couple of weeks later, by the first of January, and the last
(which we try always to defer to 15th or 20th November)
may be used during the winter and until the first of April.
For the first lot, no covering is required, but that for use
during the winter months must be gradually covered up,
from the middle of December, on until the first of Jan-
uary, when it will require at least a foot of covering of
some light, dry material — hay, straw, or leaves — the lat-
ter perhaps the best. I have said the covering up should
be gradual. This is very important, for if the full weight
of covering is put on at once, it prevents the passing off

320 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

of the heat generated by the closely packed mass of
celery, and in consequence it to some extent " heats," and
decay takes place. Covered up in this manner, it can be
got out with ease, during the coldest weather in winter,
and with perfect safety. These dates of operations, like
all others named throughout, are for this latitude; the
cultivator must use his judgment carefully in this matter
to suit the section in which he is located.

To Save Seed. — Leave some plants where grown; in the
latter part of February take them carefully, cut off the
outside leaves, and remove the side shoots, and plaut
them out in moist soil, one foot apart. Select those which
are solid and of middling size. Tie the seed-stalks to
stakes, to preserve them from being broken off by violent
winds. After the flowers open, wThile the seed is swelling,
if dry weather occurs, water at least every other night.
When the seed is dry, it may be rubbed out and stored in
a dry place. They will keep good four years.

Use. — Celery has some little nutriment, but is culti-
vated chiefly as a luxury. The sweet, crisp stalks, used
raw, with a little salt, form a most grateful salad. It is
also used as a seasoning, and is a great improvement to
soups and gravies. A few plants for this purpose are as
necessary and wholesome as onions. The unblanched
leaves and seeds are sometimes employed in flavoring.

Marketing. — The celery must be placed on the market
in a crisp and clean condition, free from all " stringiness,"
if good prices are desired. There seems to be no reason
why this excellent vegetable should not be so successfully
cultivated in the South as to compete with that grown at
Kalamazoo. Soil, climate and other conditions are cer-
tainly favorable, and there is the additional advantage
over the Northern grower in the earliness of the Southern
crop, thus permitting the truckers in the South to place
their crop on the market several days ahead of those in

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 321

the North. There is also a rapidly growing demand all
over the South for this vegetable, and the home consump-
tion, therefore, is not to be belittled.

When the plants are taken from the field they are
washed to rid them of all particles of earth, and the dead,
discolored and green leaves are pulled off, the root is cut
off close to the stalks, if intended for the local market.
If the celery is to be shipped some distance the roots
are left on and packed in a moist condition, so that the
plants will be crisp and fresh when they reach their desti-
nation. It is advisable to dip the plants in water before
packing to insure this condition. For the wholesale trade
it is customary in some sections to tie the plants in
bundles — twelve plants to the bundle. The shipping is
done in crates, or barrels well ventilated.

CELERIAC. — (Apium graveolens, var. rapaceum.)

Celeriac, or Turnip-rooted Celery, is a variety of celery
which forms at the base of its stem an irregular knob,
which is the part used, either cooked or raw, in salads.
The roots have been grown to three or four pounds
weight. It is sweeter, but not so delicate as common
celery, and is not much in use, except in climates so cold
that the common sort cannot be easily preserved through
the winter, while this can be stored like turnips.

The young plants of celeriac are raised exactly like
those of celery. When six inches high they are fit for final
transplanting. Set them in rows two feet asunder, and
eight inches apart in the rows upon the level ground, or
in drills drawn with the hoe three inches deep, as they
require but little earthing up. When arrived to nearly
their full size, they must be covered over with earth to
the depth of four inches. In dry weather they should be
watered plentifully every evening, as they like even more
water than celery. The only additional attention re-
21

322

GARDENING FOB THE !-OUTII.

quired is to keep them free from weeds. The plant is

inore easily cultivated than celery.

Saving Seeds. — The directions for celery arc in every

respect applicable to celeriac.

Use. — The stalks are used for seasoning soups, etc., the

same as celery, from which they can hardly be distin-
guished. The roots are
nice boiled tender, cut
in slices and dressed
like turnips. They are
often made into a
salad, after boiling
them, and are used in
seasoning soups or
meat pies.

CHIVES or CIVES.
(Allium Schcenoprasum.)

A hardy, perennial
plant of the onion
tribe, growing wild in
the meadows of Bri-
tain, as some varieties
of the same genus do
in this country. The
bunches are made up
of a mass of little
bulbs, and produce
pretty purplish flowers
early in summer.
Culture. — Any common soil will answer. Divide the
roots in autumn or spring, and plant them on a bed or
border, in little bunches of ten or twelve offsets, in holes
made with the dibble ten inches apart. If kept free from
weeds, they will speedily make large bunches, a few of

Fig. 119— Celeriac.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 323

wliich will supply a large family. Cut the tops smoothly
off near the surface, when wanted, and fresh ones will
soon spring up. Chives make a very pretty edging for
beds in winter and spring. Renew every four years by
taking up and dividing the roots.

Use, — It is an excellent substitute for young onions in
winter and spring salading, and is also used like leeks
and onions in seasoning soups, gravies, etc. The leaves,
cut up fine and mixed with meal and water, are often fed
to young chickens as a preventive of disease. The little
bulbs may be taken up and stored, and are a tolerable
substitute for small onions.

CORN, SWEET OR SUGAR.— (Zca maize, var. saccharata.)

Indian corn, or maize, is a native plant, found dis-
distributed in all the milder climates of America at its
discovery. There are six varieties or classes recognized
as belonging to the genus Zea, viz.: Sweet corn (me-
charata), Flint corn (indurata), Pop (everta), Dent corn
(indentata), Soft corn (amylacea), Husk corn (vaginata).

The cultivation of the sweet corn is not common in the
South, for the reason that it is difficult to secure satisfac-
tory crops with seeds obtained from the Northern seed-
men. The boll-worm is also found to be very destructive
to sweet corn, more so than it is with the field varieties
of corn. If, however, seeds are carefully selected from
the crops of two or three years' successive growths much
more satisfactory results may be expected, from the fact
that the plant becomes acclimated by this series of culti-
vation and selection. The best garden varieties of sweet
corn are as follows:

Crosby's Extra Early. — The ears are rather small,
but this is a productive variety; rich, sugary flavor; a
dwarf form requiring a rich soil. This is one of the old
standard varieties.

324 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Stowell's Evergreen. — A general favorite among
market gardeners because of its excellent qualities,
adapted to home use and for shipping. The ears are large
and remain longer in a green condition than is the case
with most of the other varieties. The grains are large,
but tender and sweet.

Country Gentleman. — The cob is small and yields a
deep grain of delightful flavor and sweetness. Three or
four ears are generally produced on each stalk, and a
well-matured ear is about eight inches long. This variety
of corn closely resembles the Shoe Peg, introduced by
Johnson & Stokes some years since, but it is larger than
the Shoe Peg.

Very early varieties are: Adams' Extra Early and
Marblehead.

Medium early varieties are: Nonesuch, Roslyn Hybrid,
Triumph, p]gyptian.

The common Dent corn of the South better endures
intense summer heat, and will supply green corn for the
table when the preceding sorts fail from drought. It is
less injured by the corn-worm, which cuts into the end of
the ear, than Sweet or Sugar corn.

Maize likes a soil abounding in soluble silica. Gypsum
and ashes are the best special manures. Sweet corn has
much less starch than the other varieties, but much more
sugar and extract. It has also a greater portion of dex-
trine and gum.

Culture. — In the Northern States, a dry soil and a hot
season are required to produce large crops of corn. At
the South we raise far better crops in moist seasons, and
on moist bottom lands. Rich, deep loam affords the plant
plenty of moisture and nourishment, which the corn likes.
The Extra Early and Sugar corn will bear thick planting.
Plant the first crop in the open air when the peach is well
in bloom, and every three weeks thereafter until July at

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

325

New York, and until August in Georgia, selecting the
early sorts for the first and last plantings.

The early crop may be forwarded a month, by planting-

Fig. 120— Sweet Corn.

in boxes (or in pots under glass if only a few plants are
desired). " Prepare boxes about four feet long, three feet

32 G GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

wide, and five inches high. Make one of the sides so that
it can be easily removed. Fill these boxes with loam
mixed with some manure. Then prepare some strips of
board two and one-third inches wide, five inches long, and
as thin as the blade of a hoe. Put these down endwise
into the loam, so as to divide the loam into squares two
and one-half inches square and five inches deep. (As these
squares are each to contain a hill of corn, it will be seen
that the thin strips are to prevent the roots of one hill
from interfering with those of another.) Place these
boxes in a sunny place, well protected from the west
wind, and about a month before the usual planting time,
plant four kernels of corn in each one of these squares.
By planting time, the corn will be five or six inches high.
Having prepared the ground and opened the hills, take
the hills of corn from the boxes in the hand, put them into
the prepared hill, press the earth around them, and the
corn is at once planted and hoed the first time. It would
be well to use some phosphate of lime or hen manure, so
as to cause the corn to start immediately. In a short
time the corn will be as large as usual when hoed the
second time." (New England Farmer.)

Another and probably simpler method is in the use of
what is known among gardeners as " dirt bands." Those
are thin veneers cut so as to fold up into 4 or 6-inch
squares.

The ground for corn should be deeply plowed or spaded,
then laid off in hills three feet apart each way, for Sugar
and Early corn, leaving three or four plants in a hill,
while two plants in hills five feet apart is near enough for
large Southern corn. If the ground is not rich, place a
shovelful of decayed manure to each hill. Fresh dung-
can be immediately applied to corn, if spaded before plow-
ing, and well turned in. Plant four or five grains to a
hill, and cover two inches deep. When they are up, thin

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 327

as above. Hoe deeply and often while young, and draw
the earth each time a little about the stalk; but after the
plant is six inches high, shallow surface culture, killing
the wTeeds and loosening the surface without cutting the
main roots, is all that is needed.

Corn is a gross feeder, and cannot get too much manure.
A sprinkling of guano about the hill is beneficial, if it
does not touch the seed. Growth is much improved by
giving the plants, at their first hoeing, a teaspoonful of
gypsum to each hill, or a pint of ashes, or as much of the
charcoal poudrette. Chickens, birds, and squirrels can be
prevented from pulling up the corn by soaking it in water
twelve hours before planting, then stirring the seed
briskly in a vessel containing a little tar mixed with
warm water; thus giving each grain a thin coat. After
which, for convenient handling, it is to be rolled in as
much ashes, gypsum, or lime as it will take up. One-half
bushel of corn requires a pint of tar and a gallon of warm
water, with as much ashes as will stick to the grain. It is
effectual against birds, squirrels, etc., while the seed
vegetates freely, if previously soaked.

For Seeds. — Select the best ears from stalks that bear
more than one.

Use. — Indian corn is prepared in a greater variety of
ways for the table than any other grain. In fact, the
modes of preparation alone would almost fill a volume.
That from the garden is mostly boiled green. Green corn
can be very easily preserved for winter use, by cutting off
the kernels after boiling, and drying in a shaded, airy
place. Or, cut the corn off the cob, and put it in a stone
jar, with a handful of salt to a pint of corn. When the jar
is full, put a weight on it. When you wish to use it, re-
move a little of the top, and wash and soak it over night.
Sugar corn is the best for this purpose.

328 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

CORN SALAD.— ( Yahrianella olitoria.)
Corn Salad, Fetticus, or Lamb's Lettuce, is a small
annual plant, a native of English wheat-fields. It has
long, narrow leaves of a pale glaucous hue, and very
small, pale-blue flowers. It has long been cultivated in
English gardens as a winter and spring salad. There is
also a round-leaved variety, with leaves thicker, and of a
darker green.

Culture. — Corn salad likes a loam of moderate fertility,
not too heavy. It is raised from seed, one quarter of an
ounce of which will sow a bed four feet by fifteen. Sow
seed of the preceding year's growth, at intervals from
August until frost, in drills six inches apart. Thin the
plants as wanted for consumption to four inches in the
drills, and keep free from weeds by frequent hoeing.
Gather the leaves to eat while young, taking the outer
ones, as with spinach. It will be fit for use all winter,
wh^re the ground keeps open. A spring sowing may be
mp^e among the earliest crops, put in for later use when
desired. Allow some of the plants to shoot up to seed,
which, as they shed easily, is shaken out upon a cloth
spread under the plants. It keeps six years.

Use. — It is used during winter and early spring to in-
crease the variety of small salads, and as a substitute for
lettuce. In France it is boiled like spinach.

COWPEA.— ( Vigna Catjang.)

Several species are largely cultivated in most Southern
climates, the vines of which are used for forage, and the
seeds employed not only for stock feeding, but the finer
kinds are used largely as substitutes for kidney beans as
food for man.

The cowpea is generally considered to be a field crop,
and it would seem to have no place in a treatise of the

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 329

character of this book, but its value in restoring fertility
to soils is so great that gardeners will find it a useful
plant. It occupies a prominent position as a soil restorer
from the fact that it has the property of drawing a large
per cent, of nitrogen from the atmosphere and giving it to
the soil when the plants are turned under. The best
varieties to use for green manuring are Black, Clay, Red
Ripper, Unknown. Some of the varieties of cowpeas are
also excellent for table use, viz. : Large lady, Small lady,
Mush, Rice, Sugar and White Crowder.

CHESS, AMERICAN.— (Barbarea vulgaris.)

A biennial Cruciferous plant with yellow flowers, the
radical leaves of which are lyre-shaped, and the upper
ones pinnatifid, and cultivated in some gardens as a win-
ter salad. Often called water-cress at the South.

Sow either in drills or broadcast in a moist place, the
last of August, September, or early in October, giving
water in dry, hot weather. Let the plants remain six or
eight inches apart. Preserve a few good plants for seed.

Use. — It is generally liked as a winter or early spring-
salad, somewhat like the water-cress, but more bitter.

The Winter Cress (B. proecoco) resembles the foregoing,
but is a perennial plant with larger leaves. The use and
culture are the same. Less bitter than the former.

CRESS, GA'RD'E'N.—fLepidium sativum.)
Cress, or Peppergrass as it is called, from its pungent
taste, is a hardy Cruciferous annual, probably from Per-
sia, and has been cultivated in England since 1548.

There are three sorts, of which the common Curled and
the Normandy are the best; the broad-leaved sort is
coarse and inferior.

Culture. — Cress likes a light, moist mould, and in sum-
mer a shady border is to be preferred. It is propagated

ooO GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

from seed, which, to keep up a succession of young and
tender plants, must be sown every week or two. Give it
rich earth, that it may grow rapidly, it is best when an
inch high, but is generally allowed to get two or three
times as high before cropping. Begin to sow for winter
and early spring use in ►September and October, in a shel-
tered situation; and again as soon as spring opens, sow
in the open ground, in drills six or eight inches apart ;
cover lightly, and pat over the bed with the back of the
spade to press the earth upon the seed. Keep the ground
clear, and water in dry weather. It can be had all winter
by the use of the cold frame or hot-bed; give plenty of
air. A few rows left uncut will produce seed abundantly.
Use. — The young and tender leaves give to salads a
warm, pungent, and agreeable taste. It is generally used
in connection with lettuce and other salads.

CUCUMBER.— ( ( 'urn in is sativus.)

This is a tender, trailing annual, with rough, heart-
shaped leaves, and yellow flowers, growing wild in the
East Indies, etc. It is one of the earliest garden products
mentioned in history, and was cultivated from the earliest
times in Egypt. (X timbers, xi., 5.)

It has always been a vegetable peculiarly grateful and
refreshing to the inhabitants of warm climates. It was
probably early brought into Europe from the East, as it
was in high esteem among the Romans, who so well uu-
derstood its culture, that it appeared on the tables of the
wealthy in winter. In England, it was introduced as early
as 1573. The best varieties are:

Early Cluster, named from the fruit growing in
clusters. The fruit is about five inches long, very produc-
tive. Early Russian is a smaller and earlier Variety of
this.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 331

Early Frame. — Six to ten inches long, much used for
forcing; productive and good.

Improved Early White Spined. — Is of fine form, deep
green color, which it retains well; a good bearer, and of
the best quality.

Long Green. — Dark-green color; grows about ten
inches in length and bears abundantly; excellent for
pickles; late.

Thorburn's Everbearing is an excellent cucumber.

Fig. 121— Arlington White Spine Cucumber.

Gherkin (C. Anguria). — A different species with small
and prickly fruit, and leaves much divided, or palmated;
a great bearer, but used only for pickling.

There are many other varieties, some of which grow
two feet long, crisp and well flavored, but the foregoing-
are the best for family use.

For market use the Boston White Spine is generally
planted.

Culture. — The seed may be planted here about the first
of April, or as soon as it can be done with safety, as this

332 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

plant is very tender, and will not bear the least frost. If
the soil be deeply trenched, the plant is much less suscep-
tible to drought. After the ground is prepared, dig out
holes fifteen inches deep and the same in diameter, six
feet apart each way, and partly fill them with well-decom-
posed manure. A little guano, or fowl manure, sprinkled
in the bottom of the hills will be ver}r beneficial. Do not
use fresh manure, or the plants will die out. Cow manure
and leaf-mould are excellent. Cover over the manure
with rich, mellow loam. Raise the hills a little above
the surface, and put eight or ten seeds in the hill; cover
an inch deep, and when they get rough leaves, pull up the
poorest plants, and leave but three in the hill. Old seed
is much better than new, as the plants will run less to
vines and bear better.

The Florida Experiment Station recommends the fol-
lowing as an excellent fertilizer:

" Available phosphoric acid, 7 per cent.

Potash, 8 per cent.

Nitrogen, 5 per cent.

" Fifteen hundred of 2,500 pounds per acre will be re-
quired on most lands. If the land is rich in organic mat-
ter use less or none of the nitrogen. A tablespoonful of
nitrate of soda sprinkled about the hills as soon as the
plants are up will hurry them along out of danger from
insects. Too much nitrogeneous matter makes poor
shippers and overgrown sizes."

As soon as the vines get rough leaves, nip off the ex-
tremities, to make them branch out, and they will fruit
the sooner. This is called stopping. Cucumbers are very
subject in cool, dry seasons to attacks of insects, espe-
cially the striped bug and the cucumber flea. Dry wood,
ashes or air-slacked lime, dusted thoroughly upon the
plants when the dew is on, will generally repel them, and
bring the plants forward. But warm rains will soon

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 333

bring up the plants beyond the reach of the depredators.
If they do not, put over the hills boxes covered with
milliner. Hoe frequently, until the plants cover the
ground. The Early Cluster should have the hills about
four feet apart.

After the first planting succession crops for pickles are
put in up to July near New York city, and in Georgia
until August. At the South the melon worm makes its
appearance in July, and unless the cucumbers are gath-
ered while small, they will be injured by this insect.

Cucumbers can be very much forwarded by planting
them in boxes covered over with glass. Two seven-by-
nine panes are large enough to cover a hill, and such hills
will not be troubled by the bugs, while the seed can be
put in four or five weeks earlier than otherwise. The seed
can also be planted in pots under a frame, or in a green-
house, to be turned out, when the weather gets favorable,
into the open air, and they will scarcely show they have
been moved. Or they can be raised wholly without re-
moval, in hot-beds made as directed in a former chapter.
They do best when started in pots placed in a small hot-
bed, and transplanted when the leaves are two or three
inches broad into new beds of a larger size. They must
have plenty of air, and be placed near the glass, or they
will be drawn up. If they begin to grow long-legged, give
them more air. The temperature of the seed-bed should
range between 65° and 85°. Always water the plants
with tepid water, about noon, unless in mild days, when
it may be done in the morning.

Liquid manure, especially guano water, is very bene-
ficial. In planting in the bed for fruiting, do not break
the ball of earth; take them out of the pots carefully at
night, water gently, keep the sash down the next day, and
shade at noonday, to keep them from withering. It is
necessary the beds should be shaded with a mat during

oo4: GARDENING FuK TILE SOUTH.

the middle of the day, when the sashes are kept down,
until the plants get well established.

Stopping in the frame is still more important than in
the open air. The temperature now must be kept between
70° and 1)0°, by external coatings of fresh dung, if neces-
sary. The shoots must be trained regularly over the sur-
face of the bed. Leave only two or three main branches
to each plant, removing the others as they appear. If the
plants that have been stopped have extended their run-
ners three joints without showing fruit, they must be
stopped again. The vines should blossom in a month from
the time of planting. Impregnate the pistillate or female
blossom (which may be known by its having fruit at-
tached), by taking the staminate blossom and placing its
center within that of the pistillate blossom. They may
be gathered in about two weeks after impregnation.
Three plants are sufficient for one sash of the usual size.

For Seed. — Choose some of the finest fruit of each
variety growing near the root. Do not raise the plants
near other varieties, or the seed will mix and deteriorate.
Let them remain until they turn yellow, and the footstalk
withers; cut them off and keep in the sun until they begin
to decay; then wash the seed from the pulp, and spread
it out to dry. It will keep eight or ten years, and is even
better when three or four years old, as the plants are less
luxuriant and more productive.

Use. — Cucumbers are a very popular, but not very
wholesome vegetable. They are of a cold, wTatery nature,
and many persons of weak constitution cannot eat them
without positive injury. They possess scarcely any nutri-
tive properties, but their cooling nature renders them to
most palates very agreeable, and persons in good health
do not find them injurious. They are eaten raw, fried,
stewed, and pickled.

Marketing. — The well -grown cucumbers should be

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION A.M. CULTURE. 335

selected for shipment to market. They should be green
through iu cross section, and should be of such a size
that ninety will just fill a bushel crate; the form must
be full and not badly shaped. No cucumber of a yellow
tint must be placed in the package if a good "rice is
expected.

The ordinary vegetable crate is used for shipping this
vegetable to the market. The cucumbers are laid in close
and compact, and the crate filled above the top; then the
top is pressed on, so that the vegetable is securely packed,
and no movement becomes possible during shipment.

CHINESE YAM.— (Dioscorea Batatas.)

A perennial plant brought from China to France in
1850 or 1851 by M. de Montigny, the French Consul at
Shanghai. It has annual stalks or vines, and perennial
tuberous roots. The leaves are heart-shaped, triangular,
pointed above, ami seven or eight nerved. The length and
breadth of the leaf are about equal; it has a smooth and
glossy surface, and is of a deep green color. Its footstalks
are half the length of the leaf, furrowed, and of a violet
color. Its flowers are dioecious, and of a pale yellow
color. The twining stems turn from left to right, and
grow, if staked, at least ten or twelve feet high, and
develop from the axils of the leaves small tubers, the size
of a large pea or kidney bean, which drop from the stem
at maturity.

Culture. — The small, axillary tubers afford the readiest
mode of propagating the plant, though the largest pro-
duct seems to have been obtained where the root tubers
were cut in sections an inch or an inch and a half long.
These should be planted in rich ground deeply trenched,
the deeper the better, and then laid off in low ridges or
beds eighteen or twenty inches from center to center. On
the top of this ridge a furrow, three inches deep, is made

336 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

with the hoe, m which the sets are planted. This should be
done early in the spring, and where the seasons are short
the plants should be started in pots to be planted out
when danger of frost is over. Keep the young plants free
from weeds, and cultivate like sweet potatoes, except that
no earthing up is required. The plant likes moisture, and
growth is arrested in dry weather. It is found to produce
larger roots if not staked, and the plant is allowed to fall
upon, and shade, the ground. Watering in dry weather
is beneficial. The crop should not be gathered until after
the autumn frosts, and roots will be found somewhere
between ten and thirty-six inches below the surface. The
whole root should be extracted, as the lower part is
always the largest and most starchy. This should be
reserved for the table, while the upper or slender part
should be kept for propagation. It is a difficult matter to
take them up without breaking, as they often grow three
feet long. If not required for immediate use, the roots
may safely remain in the ground until spring, or may be
taken up and stored. The deep trenching required in
preparing the soil, and the great labor in gathering the
crop, will prevent its extensive cultivation.

Use. — The roots, which are oblong and tapering, are the
edible part. The maximum size to which they grow is
two inches in diameter, the larger end tapering upward
to the size of the finger. They are covered with a brown-
ish-fawn-colored skin, pierced by numerous rootlets. Un-
der this is a cellular tissue of a white opal color, very
crispy, filled with starch and a milky, mucilaginous fluid,
with scarcely any woody fiber. When cooked, it boils or
bakes quickly, and becomes dry and mealy, and is gene-
rally preferred to the Irish potato, which it resembles
in taste. Each plant often produces several tubers, but
generally only one, ranging in weight from eight ounces
to three pounds. It is more nutritive than the Irish

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 337

potato, which it may possibly rival in esteem wherever
labor is cheap and it is desirable to obtain a large amount
of food on a little space.

The other yams (Dioscorca sativa and alata) are culti-
vated on the Gulf coast to some extent, and in the same
manner as the sweet potato, except that the vines are
supported by a stake or pole.

D. aculeata sometimes g
often weighs thirty
pounds. The roots are
cut up into small sets and
planted in rows two feet
apart and eighteen inches
in the row, and by for-
warding them in pots
upon hot-beds have been
grown in Europe as far
north as Paris.

EGGPLANT.

(Solatium melon gen a, var.

esculentum.)
The Eggplant, or
Guinea Squash, is a ten-
der annual from Africa,
introduced into England
in 1597. It derives its Fig" 122~New Jersey Improved Large

Purple Eggplant.

most common name from

the white variety, which, when small, bears a close
resemblance to an egg. When first introduced, it was
not regarded with much favor, but is now rapidly
working into general esteem.

Long Purple is perhaps the best kind for family use,
as it is ten days earlier than the other varieties, and
though not growing so large, is very prolific in fruit.
22

338 GAKDExXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

Improved New York Purple. — This is one of the best
varieties, and is usually the kind planted. It has a large
fruit of an oval shape and deep purple.

Black Pekin. — The fruit is purplish-black, smaller
than the preceding; solid, smooth. It is prolific and tine
flavored.

Culture. — Eggplants require a light, loamy, rich soil,
to bring their fruit early to perfection. They like the soil
manured with half-decayed leaves, well dug in. To have
them early, sow in a hot-bed, or in a cold frame under
glass, the latter part of February, or early in March. The
rows may be six or eight inches apart, made shallow and
the earth pressed upon the seed. Keep the sash carefully
closed until the plants are up, and then give air in warm
days. They succeed best with a small frame to them-
selves, as they like a higher heat than is desirable for
other plants. As very few plants are required, they may
be planted in a small box without bottom, placed on the
ordinary hot-bed and covered with a square of glass.
Prick them out, when two inches high, into small pots,
and afterwards transfer them to larger ones, as directed
for the tomato. They can thus be planted out with the
ball of earth entire. Do not put them out until settled
warm weather, for if the plants get chilled while young
their growth is so checked that they may never fully re-
cover.

The plants, when young, are often destroyed in a clay
or two by a minute flea. Keep them closely covered until
well out of the seed-leaf, and, if attacked, sprinkle them
with a solution of aloes or quassia, and dust them with
lime and sulphur.

It is hardly worth while to sow the seed in the open
ground, as they would be so late in coming into use.
Prepare the final bed for eggplants by making trenches
three feet apart, burying in them old cabbage stumps,

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 339

corn stalks, and other vegetable refuse, and covering
them with soil twelve inches deep, in which plant out
the eggplants two feet apart in the row. Water abun-
dantly until established. Keep the ground well hoed and
free from weeds, and earth up the plants a little from
time to time. Twelve to twenty plants will be enough.

For Seed. — Allow oue of the largest fruits from a pro-
lific plant to ripen seed. It will keep three or four years.

Use. — Eggplant is used by the French in various ways
in soups and stews, but generally cut iu thin slices, and
fried in batter. They are not commonly liked at first, but
after a few trials become very agreeable to most tastes,
and are esteemed a delicacy. They are fit for use when
some two or three inches in diameter, and continue so
until the seeds begin to change color. They are not un-
wholesome, but cannot be very nourishing, as they con-
tain a very large proportion of water. Before frying,
they should be cut in slices a quarter to a half of an inch
thick, and piled on a plate with alternate layers of salt,
in order to remove the acrid taste.

Marketing. — The eggplant to be marketable must be
of good average size, weighing not less than one pound,
and must have the coloring not too light, and must be
tender. The stem is cut to the length of about one inch,
and each eggplant is wrapped in paper before packing.
Pack in bushel crates firm and solid, so that there will be
no movement in the vegetable while shipping; use every
care to prevent bruising.

ENDIVE. — (Cichorium Endivia.)

Endive is a hardy annual, a native of China and Japan;
first cultivated in England in 1548. The root leaves are
numerous, large, sinuate, toothed, and smooth. The stem
rises about two feet high, producing generally blue
flowers. The best varieties are:

340 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Large Green Curled. — A fine, hardy variety, with
long, beautifully curled leaves. It is the best for salads.

Broad-Leaved Batavian has thick, plain, or slightly
wrinkled foliage. It is principally used for cooking, and
making a larger head is preferred for stews and soups,
but is not much used for salads.

Culture. — Endives delight in a light, rich soil, dug
deeply to admit its tap-roots, and to serve as a drain for
any superfluous moisture in the winter standing crop.
The situation should be open and free from the shade of
trees.

If desired in summer, sow as early in the spring as
possible. The main crop is sown near Philadelphia the
first of July; here in August or September for fall and
winter use. Sow at this season, if possible, everything
just before a shower; draw a furrow the depth of the hoe,
in the bottom of which scatter the seed thinly, and cover
slightly with earth, pressing it upon the seed, riant in
the evening, if dry, and before covering water copiously
with the fine rose of a water-pot in the drill. Do not press
the earth upon the seed until morning; shade during I lie
day, and continue watering in the evening until the plants
get rooted. The drills should be twelve or fifteen inches
apart. Hoe freely and keep the ground free from weeds;
thin the plants when two inches high. Those removed
may bo transplanted to another location; choose moist
weather for this purpose; trim the leaves a little, and
water moderately every evening until the plants get es-
tablished, and during very long droughts. Those left in
the seed-bed make the best plants. They should be
thinned to twelve or fifteen inches in the drill, or planted
out that distance apart, the Batavian requiring the most
space.

In about three months after sowing, as they grow
stocky and full in the heart, the leaves being about eight

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 341

inches long, tie up the leaves of a few every week or so to
blanch, and render them tender and remove their bitter
taste. Perform this in dry days. The curled sort will
sometimes blanch pretty well if neatly earthed up with-
out being tied, but it is better to tie it. The broad leaved,
from its loftier and looser growth, needs a bandage. Fold
the leaves round the heart as much as possible in their
natural position, and tie them up with a string or shred
of bass; then cover them entirely with sand in the form
of a cone, making the surface smooth and firm. This must
be done in dry, but not frosty weather, as the plants will
rot if the leaves are wet or frozen. They may also be
blanched under garden pots like sea-kale, or by merely
tying them closely, winding the string several times
round the plant and closing the top, so as to exclude the
rain, drawing the earth around the base to support it.
This is the best mode in hot weather; in autumn they will
blanch in ten days; in winter they require nearly twice
that time. Succory to blanch is taken up and planted in
boxes of mould, which are carried into a cellar or dark
room and watered when necessary. The blanched leaves
will be supplied all winter. Endive needs no protection
in our Southern winters. At the North it is taken up with
earth about the roots, and wintered in frames.

For Seed. — Let some of the best and most vigorous
plants remain till February, and transplant if you wish to
use the ground, in rows eighteen inches apart. Support
the stems by stakes, and gather the seed vessels as they
ripen. Dry them thoroughly on a cloth, thresh, and pre-
serve in paper bags. The seed will keep four years.

Use. — Endive is cultivated for its stocky head of leaves,
which, after their bitterness is removed by blanching, are
used in autumn and winter for salads and stews. It
possesses several of the virtues of the dandelion; it never

342 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

disagrees with the stomach, but suits every constitution.
The French use it in a variety of forms — raw, stewed,
boiled, etc. — but it is chiefly employed as a salad.

GARLIC. — (Allium sativum.)

This is a hardy perennial from Sicily and the south of
France; it has been cultivated at least three hundred
years. There are two sorts — one with large and the other
with small bulbs — each bulb consisting of a half dozen or
more small bulbs or cloves.

Culture. — Garlic likes a dry, light, rich soil, but not
freshly manured; the manure should be put on the pre-
ceding crop. Prepare the ground as directed for the rest
of the onion tribe, and mark it off into drills eight inches
apart. Plant the cloves four inches distant in the drills,
and two inches deep, and see that they are put in right
side up. Keep the ground free from weeds, and light by
frequent hoeing. Plant from October to March.

A fewT roots may be taken up the latter part of May
for use as required, but do not lift the crop until the
leaves are withered. Break down the seed stalk if it rises,
to prevent it from running to seed, which would lessen
the size of the bulbs.

When the leaves turn yellow, take up the bulbs and
dry them thoroughly in the. shade, tie them together by
the tops, and lay them up for winter in a dry loft as you
would onions. If the ground is not needed for another
crop, they may remain to be drawn as wanted.

Use. — This plant has a well-known, strong penetrating
odor, which is most powerful at midday. In medicine it
is an excellent diaphoretic and expectorant; a diuretic
when taken internally, and has a reputation as an anthel-
mintic or worm destroyer. Some nations use it very
extensively for seasoning soups and stews, and indeed it
enters into almost everv dish; but in this countrv it is not

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUKE. 343

very much liked. Still, a very slight, scarcely perceptible
flavor, or, as the French have it, a soupcon (suspicion) of
garlic is not repugnant, but rather agreeable to most

tastes.

GROUND PEA-. — (Arachis hypogcca.)

This plant is likewise known as the Pindar and Pea-nut.
Although not exactly belonging to the kitchen garden, a
few hills should be allowed a place for the sake of the
little folks. It is a trailing, annual, leguminous plant,

Fig. 123— Spanish Peanut. Improved Georgia Peanut.

a native of South America, from whence it was trans-
ported to Africa and our own country. It is one of the
few plants which ripen seed under ground. The yellow,
pea-shaped flower springs from the part of the stem near
the surface of the earth, and after being fertilized, the
flower stem elongates, growing from four to eight inches,
turning downward until the small tubercle which is to
be the future seed-pod reaches and penetrates the earth.
The seed of the ground pea abounds in a fine oil, which is
sometimes expressed for table purposes. This oil renders

344 GARDENING FOB TIIK SOUTH.

it a very valuable crop for fattening bogs, being for this
purpose fully equal to, and probably better than corn.
The vines are greedily eaten by most farm animals.

There are several varieties, viz.: Virginia running and
bunch, (Spanish peanut, Tennessee white and red, Georgia
improved peanut, and North Carolina. The peas of the
Georgia are larger than those of the Spanish, and they
are also superior in quality. The plants are productive
and yield few imperfect peas. The Virginia are most
popular with the trade.

Cull arc. — The ground pea thrives and produces best on
a light, sandy, tolerably fertile soil, with a good clay sub-
soil. Like clover, it possesses a long tap-root, which ex-
tends deep into the earth, drawing thence the nutriment
which is beyond the reach of many of our cultivated crops.
The soil should be deep and mellow and well broken up,
so as to be ready for planting soon after the heavy frosts
are over. The last of March or the first of April is a suit-
able time. They succeed well as far north as Virginia,
beyond which they may be started early in hot beds, and
transplanted to the open ground when the weather be-
comes mild.

For field culture, they may be planted in the pod, two
in the hill; but for the garden should be shelled. It is
best to drop about four in a hill on the level ground, the
rows being laid off three and a half feet wide and the
hills two feet asunder; cover them two or three inches.

When they come up, thin them to two in a hill, and, if
there be any vacancy, transplant. It is better to plant
them level than on ridges, as they are less liable to suffer
from drought. As they continue growing all the season,
it is well to get them started as soon as the severe frosts
are over. The only after-culture they require is to keep
the ground clean and mellow, and a slight hilling up
when they are laid by. They will produce from twenty-

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 345

five to seventy or eighty bushels per acre, according to
soil and culture, and are as easily cultivated as corn.

Marketing. — The harvesting is done by means of a
plow, and as fast as the plants are turned over they are
shaken by means of a pitchfork to free them from dirt
and then the}' are piled in rows for a few hours until
partially dry. Stacks are made in the field by placing
the plants on boards (to raise them from the ground so
that they will not decay,) around an upright pole, where
they remain for several days until entirely dried out,
when the nuts are picked from the vines by women and
children. This method of harvesting makes the nuts cost
more than when gathered by machinery, but it is claimed
that the condition of the nuts is better when gathered by
hand. The crop is placed in sacks and shipped to the
cleaning and sorting factory, whore they arc cleaned of
all grit and imperfect nuts by machinery, and they are
then ready for the market. They are sacked and sold by
measure.

HORSE-RADISH.— ( Nasturtium Armoracia.)

Horse-radish is a Cruciferous perennial plant, grow-
ing naturally in moist places in England, and various
other parts of Europe. Its flowers are white, and appear
in panicles in May. It has long been an inhabitant of the
garden.

Culture. — Horse-radish delights in a deep, rich mould,
moderately and regularly moist; the roots are never of
good size if grown in poor soil, or under the shade of trees.
It seldom produces seed, and hence is propagated by sets
provided by cutting the roots and offsets into lengths of
two inches. The tops and crowns of the roots make the
best sets, as they are earlier and make a finer growth
than those from the centre of the root. Each set should
have two eyes. The finest crops are made by trenching

346 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

the ground two feet deep, and planting the cuttings with
a long, blunt-pointed dibble. It may be done late in the
fall, or if in spring, the earlier it is planted, if the ground
is suitable, the better. The rows should be eighteen
inches apart, the plants twelve inches in the row, and
planted eight or ten inches deep. After the beds are
planted, smooth the surface and keep clear of weeds, and
avoid treading upon the beds, as they should be kept as
light as possible. If planted in March, a crop of radishes
or lettuce may be taken off the ground before the plants
make their appearance. They speedily root and send up
long, straight shoots, those appearing in April that were
planted in autumn. The only cultivation is to keep them
free from weeds, and remove the decayed leaves in
autumn. Hoe and rake the bed over in autumn, and also
the following spring. By the next fall, the roots are
ready to take up as wanted. If the plants throw up
suckers, they should be carefully removed as they appear.

If any manure is applied to horse-radish, it must be
put at the bottom of the trench before planting, or the
plant will send out side shoots in search of the manure,
which would greatly injure the crop.

To take them up, a trench is dug along the outside row
down to the bottom of the upright roots, which are cut
off nearly level with the original planting. The earth
from the next row is turned over upon them to the de-
sired depth, and so on until finished. The pieces of roots
left will send up new shoots, and the same bed will pro-
duce well in this way five or six years, when the site of
the plantation should be changed; when this is to be
done every piece of root should be taken up, for the
smallest of them will vegetate and prove troublesome if
left. The best roots come from fresh plantations.

Use. — Horse-radish scraped into shreds with vinegar
is a well-known and desirable accompaniment to roast

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 347

beef. It is also used in fish and other sauces and chicken
salads, and is thought to assist digestion. The shreds
pickled in strong vinegar and closely stopped in glass
bottles will keep for years.

HOP. — (Jl lunulas Lupulus.)

The Hop is a plant of the Hemp or Nettle family, with
a perennial root, throwing out many herbaceous climbing
stems, and is found growing wild on the banks of rivers
in Europe, Siberia, and our own country. It was culti-
vated in England, in or before 1525, when the old dog-
gerel states:

" Hops, heresy, pickerel, and beer,
Were brought into England in one year."

A few roots should be in the garden, as they are useful
in making yeast and beer.

('ult ii re. — It is propagated by dividing the roots in au-
tumn and spring. It being dioecious, care should be
taken to get sets from the pistillate plants. To produce
the crop in perfection, there should be a male plant in
the vicinity. Give the plant a deep, rich soil; put two or
three plants, six inches apart, in a. hill (making with the
plants, when set, a triangle), and the hills six or eight feet
apart. Keep the ground free from weeds, and well
stirred. Manure them every year. Give them poles
twelve or fourteen feet long, and two or three poles to
each hill. Gather when of a straw color, and the inside
of the hop is covered with a plentiful yellow dust, and the
seeds are brown; dry thoroughly, and put them up in
bags for use.

Use. — The principal use of the hop is in the prepara-
tion of yeast, etc. The young shoots and suckers are
boiled and eaten as asparagus. It is very largely culti-
vated in fields, to be used in the manufacture of ale and

348

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

strong beer. Its medicinal qualities are tonic and sopo-
rific. In gardens it is often grown as a screen, to hide
unsightly objects, the plants being set twelve inches
asunder in a row, and staked, or trained on a trellis.

KOHL-RABI. — (Brassica oleracea var. caulo-rapa.)

This plant, called also Turnip Cabbage, from the turnip-
like form of its stem, is but yet little cultivated. The

edible part is the en
larged short stem, which
is of a globular form,
with a few leaves on top.
Its culture is the same as
the cabbage, except that
in hoeing care must be
taken not to throw dirt
into the heart of the
plant, or the bulb cannot
form. In hoeing, keep
the soil flat.

The Early White Vienna
and Early Purple Vienna
are the best for the gar-
den. It is cultivated ex-
actly like the rutabaga
turnip, for which, when cooked young, it is an excel-
lent substitute. When full grown, it is used for feed-
ing stock. It is very hardy, and needs no winter
protection in the more southern States.

Fig. 124— New Smooth White Short-
Leaved Kohl-Rabi.

LEEK.— (Allium Porrum.)

The Leek is a hardy biennial of the onion tribe, found
wild in Switzerland, but has been cultivated in gardens
from the earliest times. It is mentioned in the Scriptures
with the onion as one of the vegetables of the Egyptians;

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 349

and at the present day is often associated with the name
of St. David, the patron saint of the Welsh. This plant
endures the extremes of heat and cold without injury.

Ashes, bones, gypsum, and common salt will supply the
requisite inorganic materials for this or almost any other
garden crop. A compost of guano, gypsum and charcoal
would be very beneficial.

Varieties. — There are two in common use — the Scotch
Champion, which is the larger and hardier, and the Lon-
don Clay, which by many is considered the better of the
two — both tall, with thick stems and broad leaves. Large
American flag is a large form, hardy and excellent
quality, and is a favorite. The Large Rouen Leek, with
dark-green leaves and a short stem, sometimes grown to
the thickness of a man's arm, is now most liked in France.
Its stem is said to grow large enough for use sooner than
any other, and it is now much esteemed.

Culture. — The leek is raised solely from seed, which may
be sown at any time during autumn, winter, and spring,
until the middle of April. February is the best month
for the purpose, if but one crop is raised.

The soil for leeks, as for the others of the onion tribe,
should be light and rich — the blackest and most fertile
soil of the garden — but the manure applied must not be
rank. The same guano compost may be applied as for
onions. They are generally sown broadcast, but it is a
much neater method to sow in drills. Make the drills in
the seed-bed eight inches apart, and about an inch deep,
and scatter the seed rather thinly. Press fine earth upon
the seed, as directed for onions. Some gardeners thin
them out, and allow them to remain in the seed-bed, but
the leek is so much improved by transplanting that this
plan cannot be recommended. When the plants are three
or four inches high, they must be weeded and thinned to
one or two inches apart, and frequently watered in dry

350 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

weather. The seed-bed must be kept clean and light by
weeding, or the use of the hoe whenever required, until
the plants are six or eight inches high, when they will be
fit for transplanting. They must then be taken away from
the seed-bed, the ground being previously well watered,
if not already soft and yielding.

Having prepared beds four feet wide by spading in a
quantity of well-rotted manure, lay it off in little trenches
twelve inches apart, and as deep as the hoe will conven-
iently go. Dibble holes three inches deep, and nine inches
apart in the bottom of the trenches, in which set out the
plants. Press the earth to the roots and neck only, and
not to the leaves. The tops and roots may be slightly
trimmed and shortened. Some prefer planting them, as
is best for shallow soils, on the level surface of the pre-
pared bed, by inserting them in holes made with the
dibble nearly down to the leaves, with the whole neck
beneath the surface, that it may be well blanched. Choose
a moist time for transplanting, and give a little water
should they droop. A portion may remain in the seed-
bed six inches apart in the rows, but they do not grow as
large as the transplanted ones.

The beds must be hoed occasionally, to keep them free
from weeds and loosen the soil. In dry weather they
should be freely watered. By cutting off the leaves a
little about once a month, the neck will swell to a much
larger size; earth them up gradually, if they stand on a
level ground, and, if in the trenches, the earth should be
drawn by a hoe, little by little, into the trenches, as the
plants increase in growth.

If a very early crop is desired, they may be planted in
September, and the plants will be ready to set out the
middle of February ensuing, and will come into use in
June or July. Leeks can be planted between almost any
other crop by giving six inches extra room.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 351

For Seed. — Some of the finest roots of last year's growth
may be transplanted in February eight inches distant in
a row. When the seed stems arise, they must be sup-
ported by tying them to stakes. The heads should be cut
when changed to a brownish color, with about a foot of
the stalk attached, for the convenience of tying them
into bundles of three or four to dry. When dry, they may
be hung up in a dry place, and kept in the head until
wanted, or threshed out and stored in paper bags; the
seed will keep two years.

Use. — The whole plant is much used in soups and stews, :
but the most delicate part is the blanched stems. From
its mild, agreeable taste it is esteemed by many above the
onion.

Marketing. — Peel off the outside scales, tie in bundles

of six and eight and pack in crates.

O I
LENTIL.— ( Lens, esculent.)

The garden Lentil is an annual Leguminous plant culti-
vated in France for its flat seeds, of which two are con<:
tained in each pod. Lentils are planted at the same;:
season with snap beans, iu warm, sandy soil. If planted
in one too rich, they grow vigorously, but produce few
seeds. Sow in drills twenty inches asunder, covering-
lightly, and manage them like the snap bean. Harvest -
wThen the stems begin to turn yellow, and the pods of a
dark color, but do not beat them out of the pod until re-
quired for use, as in this condition they remain longer fit
for use and sowing.

Green or dry they are cooked like beans, and when dry,
should be boiled two hours and a half. Soak in water
before boiling. When done, add butter, pepper, and salt.
They are an excellent addition to soups, being very nutri-
tious. Like beans and peas, but in a greater degree, they
are apt to be unwholesome for those of weak digestion.

352

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

LETTUCE.— (Lactuca saliva.)

Lettuce is a hardy, annual, composite-flowered plant,
generally considered a native of Asia. The Cos lettuce,
however, came from the Greek island of Cos, in the
Levant. It has been cultivated in England since 1502.

Of the two great families of lettuce, the Cos varieties,
which grow upright and of an oblong shape, and require

Fig. 125.
blanching, though more esteemed in England, do not gen-
erally succeed so well in this country, except at the South,
where they may be sown early in October. The cabbage
varieties are more hardy and free growing, and better
adapted to our common gardens.

The following are good cabbage lettuces:
Butter or Early White Cabbage. — Heads small,
white, crisp, and closely cabbaged; leaves pale yellowish

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 353

green; excellent for hot-bed culture, or open air; early
and hardy.

Brown Dutch (Yellow Seeded). — Heads much larger;
equally tender and excellent, and closely headed; with
brownish green leaves.

The next variety, if sown at the same time with the
above, will come into use about two weeks after them :

Royal Cabbage. — Black seed; heads larger, and leaves
of a darker green than the early cabbage; equally firm
and crisp.

After this comes on:

Curled India. — Leaf of a light yellow green, and very
much curled; a very distinct sort; heads largo and close,
but not so fine and crisp as the other varieties, but will
continue to head much later.

White Paris Cos. — Very large; leaves pale green,
obovate, hooded at top, closing over and blanching a large
heart without tying; becoming white, tender, crisp, and
excellent; seeds white. Seeds should be saved only from
those with leaves round, concave, and inclined to hood or
turn inwards. The best summer sort.

Henderson's New York. — The heads are solid and
large; dark green outside and light green inside. This
lettuce is crisp and of fine flavor.

Boston Market. — Grows compact and produces a firm
heart, with a beautiful color. The flavor is good. One of
the best lettuces for forcing. There is a slight tinge of
red on the margin of the leaves.

New Mammoth Salamander. — An improved form of
lettuce with a compact head and capable of resisting the
summer heat and droughts.

Deacon. — A good summer lettuce with large heads and
thick leaves. When well grown the leaves of the heart
turn to a bright yellow color; the leaves are crisp and
tender.
23

354

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Hanson. — This is a standard market variety, and pro-
duces a solid head with a fine flavor; crisp and tender.
The color green outside with white inside.

Grand Rapids. — For forcing under glass this lettuce
stands near the head of the list. It retains its tender,

Fig. 126 — New Mammoth Salamander Lettuce.

fresh condition for a long period. The heads are more
open than the preceding.

Culture. — In raising good lettuce three things are
necessary — good seed, good soil, and frequent hoeing —
and of these the first is perhaps the most important.
There is generally no difficulty in making lettuce seed
vegetate, but if it is not saved from good heads it will not

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AAD CULTURE. 355

produce heads, even with the best culture. Lettuce likes
a good mellow soil, enriched with well-rotted manure.
Good heads will not grow on poor ground. Lettuce may
be sown in autumn for six or eight weeks before the hard
frosts come on, and transplanted into frames for winter
cutting, or, protected with a little straw, it will stand
through the winter in the open air and be planted out for
heading in early spring. A second sowing should be made
at the first opening of spring, and then at intervals until
the summer's heat comes on.

If there has been no fall sowing, a little should be sown
the latter part of winter under glass, for which select
Early Cabbage. Give it plenty of air, but keep it covered
nights and cold days, and as the weather grows mild,
leave off the glass altogether a little while before setting-
out in the open air. Fall-sown Butter lettuce may also
be transplanted under glass at nine inches apart, and the
table be kept supplied in this way with fresh heads all
winter. Plenty of air must be given them, and they
should be covered in freezing weather only. For a fall
heading, a crop can be sown at the same time with turnips
in a shady situation, which, being transplanted, will give
good heads. The fall and summer sowings do much better
if thinned to a suitable distance, and allowed to head
where they stand, as lettuce plants are impatient of trans-
planting in hot weather; but they may be safely moved
if shielded by sun shades.

Lettuce should be sown in drills eight inches apart. An
ounce of seed will produce about ten thousand plants.
Let the seed be very lightly covered, and if dry weather,
press the earth upon it by walking over it on a board, or
patting it with the back of the spade. Beds about four
feet wide are most convenient. If the lettuce comes up
too thickly in the drills it must be thinned, as the plants

356 GARDENING FOB THE >OUTH.

begin to crowd, to two inches apart. Transplant into
the ground where they are to remain, when the plants
show four leaves. The Early Cabbage may be planted
nine inches apart each way; but the other varieties will
not do with less than a foot. The soil into which they are
to be removed to head must be rich, light and mellow.
Transplant in moist weather with a trowel, disturbing the
roots as little as possible. Water the plants until estab-
lished. Rabbits are very fond of lettuce, but can be kept
off by dusting the young plants with ashes. After the
young plants get established, give them frequent hoeings,
and if good seed wTas sown, there can be but little danger
of not being rewarded with beautiful crisp heads.

Seed. — Some of the finest and most perfect heads of the
early-sown crops should be selected. Each variety must
be kept separate, and all imperfect heading plants near
them destroyed. Tie them to stakes, and gather the
branches as fast as they ripen. Dry the seed in the shade
and thresh and store in paper bags. Lettuce seed cannot
be relied upon when more than two years old.

Use. — Lettuce is the most popular of all salads, and it
is also sometimes used in soups. Boiled, it is quite equal
to spinach. It is fit to boil from the time it is large enough
until the seed stalk begins to shoot up. Its juice contains
a. narcotic principle somewhat like opium, which is in
small proportion when young, but increases with the age
of the plant. This principle has not the constipating
effects of opium. A tea prepared of lettuce leaves is
sometimes used in cases of diarrhea. For a common
salad, let the leaves be carefully picked early in the morn-
ing, washed and drained before sending to the table, and
provide salt, oil, sugar, and vinegar, that each person may
season to his taste. The finer salads require hard-boiled
eggs, mustard and other condiments.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 357

Marketing.— The heads are cleaned arid all discolored
leaves are taken oft*. Pack in crates with the heads down
and well pressed together to prevent injury to the vege-
table.

MARJORAM. — (Origanum Unites and 0. Marjorana.)

There are four species, two of which are sufficient for
the garden.

Pot Marjoram (O. (J)titc.s) is a perennial Labiate plant
from Sicily. It is propagated generally by dividing the
roots early in the spring, and may be by seed. Plants
should be set in rows twelve inches apart, and ten inches
in the row, in a light, dry soil, and a warm situation.

Sweet Marjoram (0. Marjorana) is a tender biennial
commonly grown as an annual; a native of Portugal, and
has been cultivated in England since 1573. It has small,
acute leaves, and flowers in small, close heads. Sow in a
slight hot-bed early in spring, and transplant when the
frosts are over into rows nine inches apart and six inches
asunder in the row; or it may be sown in shallow drills
in the open air after the ground becomes warm. As the
seed is small, cover lightly with fine earth and thin out
the plants to the proper distance. The leaves, green or
dried, are used for seasoning soups, stuffings, etc.

MELON, CANTALOUPE VARIETY.— (Cucumis Melo.)
The Melon, or Muskmelon, is a tender, trailing annual,
of the same family as the cucumber, squash, etc. It is sup-
posed to be from Persia, but has been cultivated in all
warm climates so long that it is difficult to assign, with
certainty, its native country. It has been cultivated in
Southern Europe at least four hundred years. It is the
richest and most delicious of all herbaceous fruits. In
England its culture is a difficult and expensive process,
but in this country the most luscious melons are raised
almost without trouble.

358

GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

Melons may be arranged in two classes, the green-
fleshed and the scarlet-fleshed, the colors of the latter
shading through orange to yellow. The varieties are very

numerous. The best for
garden culture are the
green-fleshed, and the
following are among
the best varieties:

Acme or Baltimore.
Form oblong with per-
fect netting; excellent
flavor; light green flesh;
early and a fine shipper.
Atlantic C it y. —
Pineapple shaped
melon; large and showy; moderately ribbed; strongly
netted; flesh green and sweet; larger than the Acme, and
a good shipper.

Gold Jenny, or Jenny Lind. — Small, sweet and pro-
lific; flat form at
poles and medium
cavity; texture coarse
and soft; flavor ex
cellent; early variety
and highly prized for
table use.

Fig. 127 — Acme or Baltimore.

jrT

m

m

w

Fig. 128-

PlNEAPPLE.

One of the best
flavored melons of
large size and oval
shaped; prolific and
strongly netted; the flesh is firm and coarse.

Emerald Gem.— A delightfully flavored melon; small
size, and dark green; the flesh ripens to the skin. An
early, productive variety.

McCIeary's Improved Jenny Lind
Muskmelon.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

359

Shipper's Delight. — An early, good-shipping variety ;
green flesh, thick and fine flavored. The distinguishing-
feature of this melon is the button on the blossom end.

Culture. — The melon likes a rich, sandy soil, well ma-
nured and deeply dug. If the soil is clay, it should be
corrected by the addition of charcoal-dust, sand, or leaf-
mould from the woods. The most luscious melons are

Fig. 129— Emerald Gem.

grown on new land, fresh from the woods. They like,
also, soil manured by cow-penning. In selecting seed, get
the oldest to be had, and take great care to get that which
is perfectly pure, for the seed of melons raised in prox-
imity to gourds, cucumbers, pumpkins, etc., will produce
new varieties, destitute of flavor. All plants of this family
are exceedingly liable to intermix, to their great detri-
ment. They will deteriorate, if planted within one hun-
dred feet of each other.

Plant in the open ground when the frosts are over, a
little later than the general corn crop is planted. In sec-
tions where the seasons are too short for it the melon is
planted in pots in a hot-bed, and the maturity of the crop

360 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

may be. hastened everywhere in this way. When the
ground is warm, the balls are taken from the pots, and
set where they are to remain, protecting them with sun-
shades a little at lirst, or with hand-glasses, if cold. Have
about three plants to each pot. In the open ground, plant
in hills six feet apart, and ten seeds to a hill, an inch
deep. Thin to three, and finally two, in a hill. Make the
hills as for cucumbers. Superphosphate of lime has an
almost magical effect in improving the size and hastening
the maturity of the melon. The insects are the same as
attack the cucumber, and a little guano sprinkled around
the hill, not too near the plants, and intermingled with
the surface soil, will by its pungent smell drive off the
bug and flea, and also prove a very valuable fertilizer
of the plants. Watering with guano water for the same
purpose is very beneficial. Until the vines touch, keep
the ground about them fresh dug, mellow, and free from
weeds. When the vines begin to run, and show the first
blossom they must be stopped by pinching off the extreme
bud, as in the cucumber. This will render them earlier
and more prolific in large fruit. Their whole culture is
like that of the cucumber, and they may be forced in the
same manner. In sections where the melon worm de-
stroys the later grown fruits, get them into bearing as
early as may be.

To Save Seed. — Select of each variety some of the
earliest and best melons; wash the seed from the pulp,
dry them in the shade, and put away in paper bags. They
will keep ten years. Old seed is more prolific in fruit
than new. Be sure to plant the oldest seed to be had, if
it appears well preserved.

Use. — The melon as a palatable and luscious fruit, very
cooling in hot weather, maintains a high rank. It is
usually eaten with salt alone, though many like the addi-

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 361

tion of sugar and spices. That it is wholesome is proved
by its constant use while in season as an article of food
among the people of Southern Europe. The muskmelon
contains but a trifle more water than the beet, and is
quite as nourishing. It contains albumen, casein, dextrin
and sugar, which, combined with citric, malic and tartaric
acid, give its peculiar rich flavor. The green fruit may be
cooked like the egg-plant, and is also made into mangoes.
Marketing. — The smaller varieties are packed in vege-
table crates and the larger in barrel crates. It is advisible
to assort the melons and ship each variety in crates to
itself.

MUSHROOM.

In writing the following description of the mushrooms
the author has made liberal use of the Farmers' Bulletin
No. 53, issued by the United States Department of Agri-
culture, prepared by William Falconer; Circular No. 13,
issued by the Division of Botany by Frederick V. Coville,
and Bulletins Nos. 138 and 168 issued by the Cornell
University Experiment Station, by Professor George F.
Atkinson.

The portion of the mushroom used for food is not the
plant, but the fruit, which is developed from the white or
bluish white mold, called the mycelium, or spawn, which
is the plant proper. In its young condition this mycelium
is a network of small threads running through the decay-
ing organic matter, and from the joints of this thread-
like form the mushroom springs and pushes to the light.
Sufficient food and moisture must be given to these
spawns to cause them to develop rapidly, and the mush-
rooms will come forth in abundance. Plate 4 exhibits
the mycelium, or the thread-like spawns as they appear
when the earth is washed away.

The mushrooms are very common in our forests and
fields, some of which are poisonous, a number are edible,

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION A^D CULTURE.

363

and the properties of many others are yet unknown. Until

which are poisonous it is wise not to attempt to collect the
mushrooms from the fields, but to rely only on the spawn
s u p p 1 i e d by well-
known and reliable
seed merchants. With
a little practice, how-
ever, it is possible to
recognize the m o r e
common forms, like the
Agaricus campestris and
the Amanita muscaria.
And with proper care,
on the part of an intel-
ligent person, all dan-
ger of poisoning may
be eliminated.

COMMON MUSHROOM.

(Agaricus campestris, LJ

"Figure 130 is from a
photograph of a speci-
men of the common
mushroom (or pratelle)
which has been pulled
and is lying on the
table. The parts are
easily recognized and
named. The stem (sometimes called the stipe) is cylin-
drical, or tapers a little toward the lower end. Near
its upper end is a sort of a collar, usually termed a ' ring '
(or, technically, an annulus), which encircles it. This ring
is very delicate in. this plant, is white like the stem, of a

\1

Fig. 130— Mushrooms. Agarwus campes-
tris, L (after Atkinson). View of un-
der side showing stem, annulus, gills
and margin of pileus. Cornell Experi-
ment Station.

304

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

very thin, satiny texture, and more or less ragged on the
edge.

ki The more or less circular expanded disk into which
the stem fits is called the 'cap' (technically the pilots,
which is the latin for cap). The upper portion, of which
we can only see the margin in this figure, is convex (see
Figure 130). The surface is usually white, though some-

Fig. 131— Agaricus campestris (after Atkinson). View of under-
side of pileus, showing arrangement of gills.

times brownish, and usually is covered by a thin layer
of very delicate threads, while the flesh or inner portion
is more compact, and is white also.

" On the under side of the cap are numerous thin plates
or 'gills' (lamellae), which radiate from near the stem to
the margin of the cap. These are shown in Figure 131 as
fine radiating lines. They do not reach, the stem, or, when
they do, they are not attached to it.

VEGETABLES DESCKIPTION AND CULTUEE.

365

" The common mushroom (Agaricus campestris) grows in
lawns, pastures and similar places. It averages 5-8 cm.
(2-3 inches) in height, the pileus being 5-12 cm. in diameter.

"Pileus. — The cap or pileus is convex or more or less
expanded, the surface
being nearly smooth, or
more or less silky hairy,
these fibrils sometimes
being collected into tri-
angular scales. The col-
or of the surface is
usually white, but
varies to light brown,
while the flesh is white.

"Gills.— When the
plant is very young the
gills are first white, but
soon become pink, and
later purple brown or
dark brown from the
numerous purple col-
ored spores on the sur-
face. The gills are free
from the stem, and
rounded on their inner
ends.

"Veil and Annulus. —
The veil is thin, white,
silky and very frail. As
the pileus expands the
veil is stretched and
finally torn, when it clings as a thin collar or ring (an-
nulus) around the stem, or fragments dangle from the
margin of the pileus. As the plant becomes "old, the an-
nulus shrivels up and becomes inconspicuous.

Fig. 132— Mushroom. Amanita phal-
loides, Fr. (after Atkinson). Poison-
ous Mushroom. White form, show-
ing pileus, stipe, annulus and volva.
Cornell Experiment Station.

366 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

"Stem or Stipe. — The stem is white, nearly cylindrical,
or slightly tapering at the lower end. It varies from 3-8
cm. long and 1-2 cm. in diameter. The flesh is solid,
though less Arm at the center." {Atkinson.)

Amanita Phalloides, Fn. (The Deadly Amanita). — This
mushroom may be mistaken for the Agaricus campestris by
the careless collector, but there are marked differences
between the two when examined. In the first place, the
habitat of the Amanita is in the woods, while the Agari-
cus is to be found in the open fields. The former also
has a cup-like envelope, in which the base of the stem
rests. This cup is called the " death cup " or " poison
cup " or volva. The volva is the distinguishing character-
istic of the poison forms, and whenever the mushrooms
contain it they should be avoided. The Amanita is some-
times found on the borders of the woods, closely situated
to the edible forms, and this fact should be always care-
fully remembered when out on a collecting tour. Be care-
ful to dig up the entire stem, so that the volva may be
certainly detected if present, because it is often true that
the stem extends some distance below the surface of the
ground and the poison cup may be overlooked if the
mushroom is pulled up by the pileus.

The Fly Amanita (Amanita muscaria (L) Pers). — In
this mushroom the bulbous enlargement at the base of
the stem is clearly indicated, and this, with the following
characteristics, distinguish this poisonous species from
those which are edible, viz. : The thick scales on the stem,
the corky particles on the glossy surface of the cap, and
the broad, dropping ring at the top of the cap. The color
of the tipper surface of the cap varies from a brilliant red
to orange-yellow, buff, and even white. Sometimes the
corky layer does not break up into particles, but extends
over the entire surface of the cap, and might be mistaken
by the novice to be another species. This is one of the

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

367

most dangerous mushrooms growing wild, and too groat
care cannot be exercised by the collector in watching out
for it in securing those mushrooms which are intended to
be used for the table.

1 Hi l^m

ft'^^L '

H

9

ft^i

L

Fig.

133— Fly amanita, Amanita muscaria (after Coville).
Poisonous. One-half natural size

The effects from the poisons taken into the system by
accidentally eating these poisonous mushrooms are so
violent and generally fatal, the following symptoms and
treatment, recommended by Mr. V. K. Chesnut, are given.

368

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

The poisonous principle of the death cup is known as
phallin, and is of the same character as the violent
poisons found in rattlesnakes and some other animals:

" The fundamental injury is not due, as in the case of
muscarine, to a paralysis of the nerves controlling the
action of the heart, but to a direct effect on the blood
corpuscles. These are quickly dissolved by phallin, the
blood serum escaping from the blood vessels into the

alimentary canal,
and the whole sys-

^

tem being rapidly
drained of its vital-
ity. No bad taste
warns the victim,
nor do the prelimi-
nary symptoms be-
gin until nine to
fourteen hours
after the poisonous
mushrooms are
eaten. There is
then considerable
abdominal pain and
there may be
cramps in the legs
and other nervous
phenomena, such as
convulsions, and even lockjaw or other kinds of tetanic
spasms. The pulse is weak ; the abdominal pain is rapidly
followed by nausea, vomiting, and extreme diarrhea, the
intestinal discharges assuming the 'rice-water' condition
characteristic of cholera. The latter symptoms are per-
sistently maintained, generally without loss of conscious-
ness, until death ensues in from two to four days.

" There is no known antidote by which the effects of

Fig. 134 — Fly amanita, Amanita muscaria
(after Coville). Top view. Poisonous.
Two-fifths natural size.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 369

phallin can be counteracted. The undigested material, if
not already vomited, should, however, be removed from
the stomach and intestines by methods similar to those
given for cases of poisoning by Amanita muscaria.

''After that the remainder of the poison, if the amount
of phallin already taken up by the system is not too large,
may wear itself out on the blood and the patient may re-
cover. It is suggested that this wearing-out process may
be assisted by transfusing into the veins blood freshly
taken from some warm-blooded animal. The depletion of
the blood serum might be remedied by similar transfu-
sions of salt and warm water.

"The symptoms of poisoning from the fly amanita, as
deduced from a number of cases, are varied. In some in-
stances they begin only after several hours, but usually
in from one-half to one or two hours. Vomiting and
diarrhea almost always occur, with a pronounced flow of
saliva, suppression of the urine, and various cerebral
phenomena beginning with giddiness, loss of confidence
in one's ability to make ordinary movements, and de-
rangement of vision. This is succeeded by stupor, cold
sweats, and a very marked weakening of the heart's
action. In case of rapid recovery the stupor is short and
usually marked with mild delirium. In fatal cases the
stupor continues from one to two or three days, and death
at last ensues from the gradual weaking and final stop-
page of the heart's action.

" The treatment for poisoning by Amanita muscaria con-
sists primarily in removing the unabsorbed portion of the
amanita from the alimentary canal and in counteracting
the effect of muscarine on the heart. The action of this
organ should be fortified at once by the subcutaneous
injection by a physician of atropine in doses of from one
one-hundredth to one-fiftieth of a grain. The strongest
emetics, such as tartarized antimony or apomorphine
24

370

GARDENING FOR THE .SOUTH.

should be used, though in case of profound stupor even
these may not produce the desired action. Freshly ignited
charcoal or two grains of a one per cent, alkaline solution
of permanganate of potash may then be administered, in
order, in the case of the former substance, to absorb the

Fig. 135 — Coprinus atramentarius (after Atkinson). Scaly fori
fourths natural size.

Three-

poison, or iu case of the latter, to decompose it. This
should be followed by oils and oleaginous purgatives,
and the intestines should be cleaned and washed out with
an enema of warm water and turpentine.

" Experiments on animals poisoned by the fly amanita
and with pure muscarine show very clearly that when the

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 371

heart has nearly ceased to beat it may be stimulated to
strong action almost instantly by the use of atropine. Its
use as thus demonstrated has been the means of saving
numerous lives. We have in this alkaloid an almost per-
fect physiological antidote for muscarine, and therefore
in such cases of poisoning its use should be pushed as
heroically as the symptoms of the case will warrant.

"The presence of phallin in Amanita muscaria is pos-
sible, and its symptoms should be looked for in the red
color of the blood serum discharged from the intestines.'',

The Ink Cap (Coprinus atramentarius, Fr.j. — This is one
of the edible fungi, or mushrooms, and is quite abundant
in new-made lawns that have been heavily manured, gen-
erally in large clusters, but sometimes found scattered as
single plants. The figure gives a very correct represen-
tation of this mushroom. The pileus is egg-shaped, some-
times smooth and then again covered with small scales,
or in other cases the surface has a granular cast. The
stems are short,

Shaggy ok Maned Ink Cap (Coprinus comatus, Fr.). —
Edible, and found growing on lawns and rich grass plats.
The stem is longer than those of the ink-cap mushroom,
and the pileus is very shaggy, and the pileus remains
most of its life in a cylindrical form and does not expand
into the umbrella shape as is the case with most of the
other mushrooms.

Culture. — Beds may be readily constructed at any time
of the year, except between April and September, when
the temperature is rather too high for successful culture,
unless in the cool cellar of some outhouse. But November
and December are the best months for the purpose. Mush-
rooms are propagated by^ spawn, which may be obtained
fOr commencing from the seedsmen of our large cities.
The spawn is an imported article, and there is but little,

372

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fig. 1 36 — Coprinus comatus (after
Atkinson), well meriting the
name "shaggy mane." Natu-
ral size.

if any, grown in this country
for sale. There are two forms —
the English brick and the
French flakes. The bricks are
broken into small pieces and
the flakes are also- subdivided
before planting.

After a little spawn is ob-
tained, it may be increased as
follows: Take a quantity of
fresh manure from high-fed
horses, mixed with short litter;
add one-third cow's dung, and
a good portion of loamy mould.
Incorporate them thoroughly,
mixing them with the drain-
ings of a dung heap, and beat
them until the whole becomes
of the consistency of a thick
mortar. Spread the mixture
on the level floor of an open
shed, and beat it flat with a
spade. AVhen it becomes dry
to the proper consistency, cut
it into bricks about eight
inches square; set them on
edge and turn frequently until
half dry, then dibble two holes
about half through each brick,
and insert in each hole a piece
of good spawn; close it with a
moist composition similar to
that of which the bricks were
made, and let them remain
until nearlv drv. Then some-

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 373

where under cover place a bottom of dry horse-dung six
inches thick, and place the bricks, spawn side up, one
upon another. The pile may be made three feet high;
cover it with warm horse-dung sufficient to diffuse a gen-
tle heat through the whole. The heat should not be over
70°, and the pile should be examined the second day to
see that it does not overheat. When the spawn is diffused
entirely through the bricks the process is finished. The
bricks should then be laid separately in a dry place, and
if kept perfectly dry, retain their vegetative power for
many years. One bushel of spawn will plant a bed four
feet by twelve.

Beds for mushrooms may be made anywhere in a dry
situation under cover. Make them four feet wide and
from ten to fifteen feet long, according to the wants of the
family. A small shed might be erected for the purpose,
but the back of a greenhouse is a very good situation, as
they do not need much light. Space must be left for an
alley, and if the shed be ten feet wide, it will admit of
a bed on each side.

Mushrooms, like other fungi, abound in nitrogen;
hence, this substance is necessary to their nourishment,
and unless substances rich in nitrogen, like horse dung,
are supplied, it is useless to attempt their culture.
Earthy materials are added to prevent the escape of am-
monia, which would pass off in fermentation, and the sub-
stances used are beaten and trodden to render the mass
compact, that fermentation may be slower and more last-
ing. The process of making the beds is as follows:

A sufficient quantity of the droppings of hard-fed
horses, pretty free from litter, must be obtained, which,
while collecting, must be kept dry, and spread out thinly
and turned frequently to prevent violent heating. When
the rank steam has escaped, the bed may be built. The
site should be dry. Dig out the earth six inches deep, the

374 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

size of the bed, and if good lay it aside for use. Fill this
trench with good fresh dung for the bottom, and lay on
this the prepared dung, until the whole is six inches thick
above the surface; beat it down firmly- with the back of
the fork, and build up the sides with a slight but regular
slope. Let the bed slope downwards towards the walk,
lay over it three inches of good clayey loam; place
another layer ten or t wel ve inches thick of prepared dung,
and in the same manner continue until the bed is two and
a half or three feet thick. Cover the bed with clean litter,
to prevent drying and the escape of the gases, and let it
remain ten days, or until the temperature becomes mild
and regular; about 60°, and certainly not less than 50 , is
the proper degree of warmth. Here skill and practice are
most required, for on the treatment at this precise point
the success of the bed depends. If the manure has a
brown color, and is so loose and mellow that when pressed
it will yield no water, but has a fat, unctuous feel, with-
out any smell of fresh dung, the bed is in a right state.
If it is dry and hard, or sloppy and liquid, it is not in the
proper condition. In the first case moderate watering
may restore it, but in the latter the superabundance of
water will probably spoil it, and it is better to commence
anew. When the bed is ready, break the bricks of spawn
into lumps the size of a walnut, which plant regularly six
inches apart over the surface of the bed, including its
sides and ends, just beneath the surface of the manure.
Level the surface by gently smoothing with tin1 back of
the spade. Fine rich loam, rather light than otherwise, is
then put on two inches thick; and over this, a covering of
straw from six to twelve inches, according to the tempera-
ture. If the bed gets too hot, take off most of the covering.
When the bed appears too dry, sprinkle it gently with soft
tepid water in the morning. The water should be poured
through the rose of a watering-pot upon a thin layer of

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. o75

straw, laid 011 for the purpose, and when the earth be-
comes a little moistened, the straw should be removed,
and the dry covering replaced. In warm weather it will
need frequent sprinkling-, but in winter very little.

As cow-manure, though it contains less ammonia, re-
tains its heat longer than that of the horse, a mixture
of the two may be safely employed.

In four or five weeks after spawning the bed should
begin to produce, and if kept dry and warm will last
several months. A gathering may take place two or three
times a week according to the productiveness. If it should
not come on in two or three months, a little more warmth
or a sprinkling of water will generally bring it into
plentiful bearing, unless the spawn has been destroyed
by overheating or too much moisture. In gathering the
mushrooms detach them with a gentle twist and fill the
cavity with mould; do not use a knife, as the stumps left
in the ground become the nurseries of maggots, which are
liable to infest the succeeding crop. Gather before they
become flat, when half an inch or more in diameter, and
still compact and firm.

I t.st. — This "voluptuous poison" has been cultivated and
held in high esteem among epicures since the time of the
Romans. They are employed in catsups, pickles, and rich
gravies, and considered by those accustomed to them very
delicious. Dried and powdered they are preserved in
closely stopped bottles for times when they are not to be
procured fresh.

MUSTARD.— (Brassica alba, and B. nigra.)

The leaves of the White Mustard (8. alba) are used for
salads, and the seed of the Black Mustard (8. nigra) fur-
nishes the well-known condiment. Both are hardy annual
Cruciferous plants, and succeed in any good common
loam, but where sown in September to stand the winter,

376 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

as is common in the South for early greens, the soil should
be rather dry. White mustard may be sown any time of
the year for a salad, in the same manner as cress, which
see. It must be used when the seed-leaf is just expanded,
for if it gets into the rough leaf it is fit for nothing but
greens. For use, cut them off with a sharp knife. They
should be used soon after gathering. Mustard for greens
or for seed should be sown broadcast or in drills eighteen
inches apart, to be finally thinned to about a foot in the
drill. The leaves at the South are gathered the latter part
of winter or in early spring. Keep the ground free from
weeds. When grown for seed, gather when the pods
change color, and thresh when dry.

Besides the White and Black species there are several
varieties which are used in many portions of the South.
The Southern giant curled is most popular.

/ sr. — The tender leaves of both species are used for
salads, and should be more cultivated for this purpose.
They are also much cultivated for greens. The seeds
of the white variety, ground, form the Durham or London
table mustard, but the flower of the black sort is that from
which our American table mustard is, or ought to be,
made. The seeds may be ground in a common spice mill
or crushed by a roller on a table. In this country the flour
is usually sifted after grinding, but the French do not
separate the husk, and thus make a brownish flour, more
powerful and palatable than the other. Mustard is a very
agreeable condiment, assisting digestion and promoting
appetite. The seed used whole is an excellent seasoning
to various kinds of pickles. It is also much used in medi-
cine, both by the faculty and in domestic practice. It is
an acrid stimulant, and in large quantities acts as an
emetic. The proper dose for the latter is from a teaspoon-
ful to a tablespoonful in a glass of water. Mustard is a
local excitant applied to the skin in a cataplasm, made of

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 377

che ground meal with vinegar or lukewarm water. If
mixed with boiling water the acrid principle will not be de-
veloped.

NASTURTIUM, or INDIAN CRESS.

(Tropaolum ma jus and T. minus.)

There are two species — the Large Nasturtium (T.
majus) and the small Nasturtium (7T. mimes) — both from
Peru, where they are perennials, but are here treated as
annuals. The large species was introduced into England
in 1681. The stalks are long and trailing; the leaves have
their petioles fixed at the center. Flowers helmet-shaped,
of a rich, brilliant orange, and continue from their first
appearance all summer; and if not so common would be
thought very beautiful. The small sort is preferable for
the garden, being productive and needing no support.

Culture. — Nasturtiums flourish in a moist soil, but do
best in a good, fresh loaiu. If the soil is too rich the plants
are luxuriant, but do not bear so abundantly, and the
fruit is of inferior flavor. Give them an open situation.
Sow in spring when the ground gets warm; put the seeds
an inch deep and four inches apart, covering them three-
fourths of an inch. The seed must be of the preceding
year's growth. They may be sowTn by the side of a fence
or trellis. If more than one row is sown, they should be at
least four feet apart. Thin the plants, when they are well
up, to a foot in the drill. Hoe the ground well, and keep
down the weeds. If sown in the open ground, support
them as you would peas with lattice or brush. Give the
plants a little assistance in fastening themselves to the
trellis. Water in dry weather. Gather the fruit when
full grown, but while still fresh and green.

For Feed. — Let some of the berries mature, gather them
as they ripen, spread them to dry and harden, and store
in paper bags.

378 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Use. — The flowers and young leaves are used in salads,
and have a warm taste like water cress. The flowers are
used in garnishing dishes. The fruit, gathered green aud
pickled, forms an excellent substitute for capers.

OKEA. — ( // ibiscus esculentus.)

This is an annual Malvaceous plant, a native of the
West Indies, and much esteemed and cultivated wherever
its merits are known. There are several varieties — the
round, smooth green, and the long fluted or ribbed white,
which grow tall , also the dwarf. There is no great differ-
ence in quality, but the dwarf sort is best for gardens.
The White Velvet is a prolific bearer, and well suited to
the South. It has extra large smooth white pods in abun-
dance.

Okra likes a good, dry soil. Any soil will produce it
that is good enough for the cotton plant, which belongs to
the same natural family. The pods are not as pleasant nor
as early on over-rich soil. It is not planted until the frosts
are over, as it is tender, though it often comes up from
self-sown seed. The time of planting cotton or snap beans
is a very good guide, though some may be put in as an
experiment two weeks earlier. .Make the drills three feet
apart, sow the seed rather thinly, and thin out to two feet
apart in the drill. Those thinned out may be transplanted
and will make productive plants. No seed should be
allowed to ripen on those stalks from which the pods are
gathered for eating. As fast as the pods become hard or
unfit for use, cut them off, for if left on, the stalk will
cease to be productive. If not allowed to ripen seed, the
plants will continue bearing through the season. The
dwarf okra may stand about fifteen inches apart in the
drill, and it is well when any plant begins to fail in pro-
ductiveness to cut it down to a foot from the ground, and
it will soon throw up bearing shoots.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 379

To Save Seed. — Leave some of the earliest plants to
ripen seed, if you would have this vegetable in good sea-
son. Shell out the seed, and stow away in paper bags.

Use. — The pods gathered in a green state, and so tender
as to snap easily in the fingers, are the parts employed in
cooking. If old, they are worthless. They are very
wholesome, considerably nutritious, very mucilaginous,
and impart an agreeable richness to soups, sauces, and
stews. They are also simply boiled in salt and water, and
served up with butter, pepper, etc. Okra can be preserved
for winter use by putting down the pods in salt like
cucumbers, or by cutting them into thiu slices and drying-
like peaches. When dry, put up in paper bags.

THE ONION.— (Allium Cepa.)

The genus Allium contains several of the most useful
plants of our gardens. In it, besides the proper onions,
are included the Garlic, Leek, Eocambole Shallots, and
Chives, which are treated of in their several places.

Varieties. — There is a great number of varieties of
onions, among which are:

Yellow Strasburg. — Large yellow, oval; often a lit-
tle flattened, very hardy; keeps exceedingly well. Best
for winter use at the South. Flavor strong.

Yellow Danvers. — Middle size, roundish oblate; neck
slender; skin yellowish-brown; early and good; keeps
well.

Silver-Skinned. — Of smaller size, but finer flavor, sil-
very white, flat, and very much used for pickling on ac-
count of its handsome appearance and mild flavor.

Red and White Bermuda. — These are foreign varie-
ties, and they possess good qualities. The red Bermuda
is a very early onion. The white is a good-sized flat onion
of fine quality.

380

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

White Queen. — A silver-skinned onion and excellent
for pickling; a rapid grower; very early and fine qnality.
Large Red Wethersfield. — The skin is red, while
the interior is white; flavor strong, and the keeping quali-
ties are excellent; an early
variety and a heavy yielder.

Prize Taker and Giant
Rocca. — The first is a Spanish
and the latter an Italian variety.
Both produce large onions. The
Prize Taker has a yellow and the
Giant Rocca a red skin. The
flavor is good in the case of each,
The first is a fine onion for the

Fig. 137 — Potato Onion.

and the flesh is tender
South.

Extra Early Red.— A very early onion growing to a
medium size; close grained and solid.

Southport White Globe. — Globular onion of a mild
flavor and good keeping quali-
ties. Highly prized in some sec-
tions of the South.

Potato Onion. — This derives
its name from forming a number
of bulbs on the parent root be-
neath the surface of the soil. It
ripens early, but does not keep
until spring. A sub-variety with
smaller bulbs is said to produce
bulbs on the stem like the top
onion. It is very prolific, and
affords a supply before other kinds are ready. Plant the
offsets in rows a foot apart, and ten inches in the row,
three inches deep, from October to March.

Fig. 138— Top Onion.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 381

Top ok Tree Onion {Allium Cepa. car. viviparum).—Is
said to have originated in Canada. It produces little
bulbs (" buttons") at the top of the seed stems; hence its
name " Tree Onion." This is the easiest to manage of any
of the onions; is of good, mild flavor, early and productive
with little care, so that it is a favorite in climates too cold
and too warm for the other varieties. Plant the buttons
from October to March in drills one foot apart and six
inches in the drill. Plant the apex of the button just
beneath the surface of the soil. The small top bulbs are
fine, for pickling.

Ciboule or Welsh Onion (Allium fistulosum). — Of two
kinds — white and red; is quite distinct from the common
onion, and does not bulb. It is sown in September for
drawing early in spring. Flavor strong, very hardy.

Thompson describes twenty sorts of onion, of which the
foregoing are the best. Of these the first two and the top
onion are to be preferred for general use.

Cult u it. — The method of cultivating the onion has
undergone quite a change since 1867, when this work was
passing through its second edition. Then it was the uni-
versal custom in the South to raise onions from seeds
planted immediately in the open garden, where the crop
was to be matured. The sowing was done in February in
beds richly manured, and the plants matured the onions
about May or June. This method is still in practice in
some localities, but generally it is now superseded by
what is known as the "New Onion Culture." This method
consists in sowing the seeds in cold frames in December
or in hot-beds in January, and as soon as the young-
plants produce bulbs one-quarter of an inch in diameter,
and when the season is far enough advanced, they are
transplanted in the field or garden in rows two feet apart
and three to four inches in the rows. This method of cul-

382 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

tivation insures extra size to the onion, earliness in the
crops and an improvement in the flavor.

The transplanting is rapidly accomplished by the use
of a dibble, made of a piece of wood one inch square and
six inches long, shaved to a flat point at one end, and a
cross piece fastened to the other for a handle. A line is
stretched and the seedlings are planted by pressing the
dibble in the soil and pushing from the person, inserting
the plant in a vertical position, removing the dibble and
firming the earth about the plant. Very rapid work can be
accomplished in this manner, and a great many plants
can be transplanted from the frames to the garden in a
day. In the use of the hot-beds it will be necessary to
harden the plants before transplanting by opening the
frames during mild days in February or a short time
before the plants are taken up, in order to harden them
and accustom them to the change. When the plants are
to be cultivated with the plow it will be best to make the
rows three feet apart.

The onion requires a rich, friable soil and a situation
enjoying the full influence of the sun, and free from the
shade and drip of trees. If the soil be poor or exhausted,
an abundance of manure should be applied some time
before planting and thoroughly incorporated with it; for
rank, unreduced dung is injurious, engendering decay.
If applied at the time of planting, the manure must be
thoroughly decomposed, and turned in only to a moderate
depth. If the ground be tenacious, sand, or better still,
charcoal-dust, is advantageous; ashes and soot are par-
ticularly beneficial. Common salt, at the rate of six to
eight bushels per acre, is an excellent application to this
family of plants. In digging the ground, small spadefuls
should be turned over at a time that the texture may be
well broken and pulverized.

An analvsis of the onion shows that it takes from the

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 383

soil potash, phosphoric acid and nitrogen, so that it will
be necessary to apply a fertilizer which has these in-
gredients in its composition. The following formula will
be found sufficient for an acre of good average land,
where the rows are one foot apart; if two feet apart one-
half the quantity will suffice:

Phosphoric acid 600 pounds.

Muriate of potash 200 pounds.

Cotton-seed meal 1,000 pounds.

Nitrate of soda 200 uounds.

The onion can be grown in great perfection in the
South, and it does not require a change of soil, being an
exception to the general rule that plants like a rotation,
as they have been grown in Scotland a century on the
same land without any diminution of the crop. Of course,
the land must be kept well fertilized with stable manure,
or where commercial fertilizers are alone used it will be
necessary to turn under a crop of pea-vines now and then
to give the needed humus. A top dressing of unleached
ashes before the onions are planted will be found very
beneficial. The ashes must be incorporated with the soil
thoroughly before transplanting. Nitrate of soda applied
broadcast after the plants have begun to grow well will
add much to the value ot the crop.

It is a good plan to make the beds just wide enough for
three rows, say thirty inches wide, with a narrow alley
between, which may be filled with sweet corn or cabbages
after the crop is laid by.

But in common gardens beds four feet wide and the
rows thereon twelve to fourteen inches wide are most con-
venient. The soil of the beds must be finely dug, the sur-
face rolled smooth, and all the clods beat fine that may
have escaped the spade. The drills should be drawTn very
shallow, as the best onions grow upon the surface of the
ground. For this reason, it is well to roll the bed, or beat

384 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

it smooth with the back of the spade, before making the
drills. In seeding in the open garden do not sow very
thickly — only one or two seeds in a place. A seed every
inch is quite thick enough, as thinning out, when too
thick, is apt to injure the remainder. Cover the seeds
about half an inch with fine sifted soil, and press down
the earth upon them by a roller, or walking over them on
a plank.

When they come up, thin them out gradually in the
drills to six inches apart. Keep the bed clean and free
from weeds, and stir it frequently, but not deeply, with a
hoe. Do not hill the earth up against the bulbs; but draw
it away from them with the fingers, as they keep better
if grown pretty much above the ground. There is no
crop more easily raised or preserved, if the ground is rich
enough, and the bulbs made to grow upon the surface.
After the young onions have got a good start, it is best
to drop the hoe entirely and resort to hand-weeding. In
dry weather, a thorough drenching in weak liquid ma-
nure, or soapsuds, is excellent. For pickling, the white
kind should be sown much more thickly, and thinned out
until about one or two inches apart in the row, which will
cause them to ripen early, before they have become too
large.

If onions grow thick-necked, and do not bulb properly,
bend down the stems about two inches above the neck, to
the ground, without disturbing the roots. This is needful
only in very wet seasons.

When the crop is ready for harvesting, it is known by
the drying up and change of color of the stems.

To Preserve Them. — Pull them on a dry day, dry them
thoroughly in the shade, and stow them in a loft where
they can have plenty of air. W7hen thoroughly dry they
can be strung in ropes, made by braiding the tops to-

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 385

getker. From two to live hundred bushels per acre is
the usual crop.

For Seed. — Select the largest aud finest bulbs and plaut
out in the fall about twelve iuches apart, in beds of com-
mon garden soil, not too rich. Keep them free from weeds;
and when they throw up seed stalks support them by
poles laid horizontally on stakes, six or eight iuches above
the surface of the beds. Home-grown seed from good
bulbs is as good as the best imported. It will keep three
years, but the fresh grown seeds are preferable. Onion
buttous are grown in the same manner upon the Top
Onion.

Use. — Onions are among the most useful products of the
garden. They are used especially as a flavoring ingredient
and seasoning for soups, meats, and sauces; for which
purpose they have been employed from time immemorial.
They contain considerable nutriment, and are tolerably
wholesome, especially if boiled. Onions, like (/// other
vegetables, need to be slightly salted while cooking, or their
sweetness will be mostly lost. Raw, they are not very
digestible, and they are the same if fried or roasted. Eat-
ing a few leaves of parsley will destroy in a measure the
unpleasant smell they impart to the breath.

Marketing. — The early crop should be gathered in
March, tied five or more in a bunch, and packed in crates.
With this early green crop the tops are left on, but with
the later dried onions the tops are cut off before packing.

ORACH.— (A triplex Hortensi*. )

A hardy annual, of the same natural family as the beet
and Jerusalem oak (Chenopodiaceoe), a native of Tartary,
and first cultivated by English gardeners in 1548. The
stem rises three or four feet high, with oblong, variously
shaped leaves, cut at the edges, thick, pale green,
and glaucous, and of slightly acid flavor; flowers of
25

386 GARDEAUS'G FUR THE SOUTH.

.same color as the foliage. There are two varieties — the
pale green and the red or purple leaved, the latter of
which is just now coming into fashion as an ornamental
plant, on account of the tine color of its foliage.

Culture- — Orach flourishes best in a rich, moist soil.
It is raised from seed sown in drills, lifteen to eighteen
inches apart. Sow very early in spring, or in October,
which is a good time in mild climates. Two or three
sowings may be made in spring for a succession. The
plants soon make their appearance; when an inch high
thin them to four inches asunder. Those removed may
be replanted, being watered occasionally until estab-
lished. Hoe them in a dry day, keeping the ground loose
and free from weeds. Once established, it sows itself.

Use. — The leaves and tender stalks are cooked and
eaten like spinach, to which they are preferred by many.
They must be gathered while young, or they are worth-
less. The seed should be gathered before fully ripe, as
the}7 are liable to be blown away by wind.

PARSLEY.' — ( Petroselinum sat i rum. )

Parsley is a hardy, biennial, Umbelliferous plant from
Sardinia. There are two varieties used in garnishing —
the common parsley, with plain leaves, which is the
hardier sort, and the Champion Moss Curled, which is
much handsomer and longer in running to seed.

The Market Gardeners' Parsley is a variety quite popu-
lar, the leaves of which are beautifully curled.

The Neapolitan or Celery-leaved is grown by the
French for the leaf-stalks, which they blanch and use like
celery.

The Hamburg Parsley (var. latifolium) is cultivated for
its fleshy roots, which are eaten like parsnips.

Parsley is raised only from seed, which may be sown
in autumn or spring, until the weather and soil are too

VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

387

dry and hot, when it will come up readily. It is best to
sow it pretty early, as the seed remains long in the soil
before vegetating. The beds must be made annually, if
the plants are allowed to run to seed; but if the seed
stalks are cut down as often as they rise, the plants will
last many years. Many sow parsley as an edging to other
beds or compartments. If in beds, it is better to sow in
drills ten inches
apart. Any good
garden soil is rich
enough for this
plant. Pulverize
the bed by thor-
ough spading, and
rake it level before
making the drills.
Sow the seed mode-
rately t h i c k in
drills half an inch
deep, and press fine
soil upon it. The
plants will not
come up in less
than three or four,
and sometimes six
weeks. If sown
late give it a shady border. Should the bed get weedy
before the parsley appears pull the intruders out by hand.
As soon as the rows can be seen, hoe between them, and
draw a rake crosswise to break the crust which has been
formed, and the plants will grow vigorously. They will
be fit for use when two or three inches high. When they
get strong thin them out to three inches, and finally to
nine inches apart, being careful to reject all plants from

Fig. 139— Market Gardener's Parsley.

388 GARDENING FOB, THE SOUTH.

the seed-bed that are not nicely curled. If they grow too
rank in summer, cut them near the collar.

A bed six feet long by four feet wide is large enough for
almost any family. It is best to appropriate to it such a
bed, where it will sow itself and yield a constant succes-
sion of new plants. The plants should have the stems cut
down, if growing rank, three or four weeks before heavy
frosts are expected, that fresh growth may be thrown up
for winter and early spring use. It is well to protect the
plants with a little coarse litter in cold climates, but this
is not necessary south of Virginia.

To Save Seeds. — Allow some of the finest curled plants
to throw up seed-stalks; let them stand eighteen inches
apart; when the seed ripens it may be stored in a dry
place. It will keep good several years, and it is singular
that seed four years old will come up more quickly than
that gathered six months before sowing.

Use. — Farsley is a very agreeable and useful plant,
affording a beautiful garnish. It is also used for its
aromatic properties in seasoning soups, stews and meats.
The green leaves eaten raw diminish the unpleasant smell
of the breath after eating leeks and onions. It can be
dried in summer, pounded fine, and put away in bottles;
but this is of no use in mild climates, where fresh green
parsley can be had all winter from the garden.

PARSNIP.— ( Past inarm saliva.)

This is a hardy, biennial, Umbelliferous plant, of which
the wild variety is found in various parts of Europe, and
it is not rare in this country as a weed. It has long been
cultivated. In its wild state, it is said to have poisonous
properties; but it is rendered by cultivation SAveet, pala-
table, and very nutritious for man and beast. The garden
parsnips have smooth and light-green leaves, while those
of the wild variety are dark-green and hairy; but the two

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

389

do not differ so much as the wild and cultivated carrot.
By ten years' culture Professor Buckinan, in England,
succeeded in producing the garden variety from the wild
sort. This plant is of the hardiest nature, being improved
by remaining in the ground ex-
posed to frost during the winter.
The best variety for the garden is
the Hollow-Crown or Sugar Tars-
nip. Its roots are smoother, more
handsome, and better flavored
than the other varieties. It is
distinguished by the cavity which
crowns the root.

Parsnips like a rich, sandy
loam, the more deeply dug the
better. They do exceedingly well
on rich bottom lands, but do not
succeed well in stiff clays. The
manure should be applied to a
previous crop.

Parsnip seed can be sown any
time in spring before the hot, dry
weather comes on, which will
prevent it from vegetating freely.
Scatter the seed thinly in drills
fifteen inches apart, and when
the plants appear, thin them to
ten or twelve inches asunder. Yi%- 14°-Ideal Hollow-Crown
The culture in other respects

is the same as that of the beet. The roots in cold
climates are taken up and stored, if required for use in
frosty weather, but the flavor is improved by exposure to
the winter frosts, and they are commonly left where
grown until spring, when, if taken up before growth com-
mences, they will keep some weeks.

390 GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

For Seed. — A few of the best roots may be taken up
and set out two feet apart in a border; but they do better
to remain undisturbed. The seeds cannot be depended
on for more than one year.

Use. — The parsnip is a very wholesome and nourishing
root, though its peculiar sweetish taste is disliked by
many persons. It is, however, an agreeable addition to
our supply of winter vegetables. Its fattening properties
are great, and it is therefore an excellent root for feeding-
all kinds of farm stock. Cows Un\ upon it will yield milk
abundantly, and butter of the best quality.

PEA. — ( Pi sum sativum.)

This is a hardy Leguminous annual, probably from the
Levant, where the gray field variety is found wild, but it
has been cultivated from time immemorial. It is a climb-
ing plant, producing its seeds in pods, which usually grow
in pairs. The pea is now one of the most desirable culi-
nary plants. Numerous varieties have been originated,
differing in the color of the blossoms, height, time of
ripening, and also in productiveness. Among the best are:
Alpha, American Wonder, Yorkshire Hero, Horsford's
Market Garden, Champion of England, Premium Gem,
which are wrinkled peas. The earliest of these are Alpha,
American Wonder, Premium Gem. Other varieties of
very early peas are Alaska, Daniel O'Rourke, Eclipse,
Tom Thumb. Some of the best late peas are Champion of
England, Horsford Market Garden, Pdackeyed Marrow-
fat, White Marrowfat, Yorkshire Hero, Pride of the Mar-
ket. All these varieties have been tested by the experi-
ment stations, and were found to be well suited to the
climate of the South. The Pdackeyed Marrowfat seems
to bear the summer's heat better than most kinds, and is
good flavor. The Alpha and Alaska are the earliest
varieties of those mentioned. The following are dwarf

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 391

varieties: Alaska, Alpha, American Wonder, Daniel
O'Rourke, Premium Gem, and Tom Thumb.

The Sugar Peas are without the tough interior lining
to the pod when young, and they will snap in two as
readily as the pod of the kidney bean. There are two
sorts — the Dwarf Sugar, about three feet high, with
small crooked pods; and the Large Crooked Sugar, with
large, broad, flat, crooked pods. The stems grow about
six feet high.

As some families prefer white, others blue, some dwarf,
and others tall sorts, it will not be difficult to make a
selection from the foregoing list. There are some fifty
sorts in the catalogues, but many of them are synonyms.

Potash and phosphoric acid are large constituents of
the ash of the pea. Ashes aud bone-dust, or super-phos-
phate of lime, especially the former, are likely to be the
special manures most needed.

Cull urc. — A moderately rich and dry calcareous loam
is best suited for the early pea ami the dwarf varieties.
The late peas and the lofty growers do better in heavier
soil, and a cool moist situation. The manure should be
applied early the preceding autumn, to be well reduced
by the time the crop of peas is ready to feed upon it. In
poor ground, fresh stable manure is better than none.
If the ground, however, be extremely rich, there will be
more vines than fruit. The soil must be deep, so that the
roots may penetrate deeply to obtain moisture in time of
drought, that the vines may not mildew. If the vines
mildew or get too dry after they begin to blossom, the
pods will not fill well. On this account it is found to be
of advantage to plant in a furrow some six inches deep,
as they continue much longer in bearing than when
planted shallow.

The early crop may be planted as soon as the ground
will do to work in the spring. And in the Cotton States,

392 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

where the winters are mild, American Wonder and Pre-
mium Gem peas may be planted from the last of Novem-
ber until March ; Horsford's Market Garden, etc., in
February; and the later kinds until early in April, and
for a fall crop in August to come into use in October.

Near New York city they are planted from as early in
March as the ground opens, until late in May. The dis-
tance of the rows apart will depend upon the variety.
They should not be nearer to each other than the height
to which the sort planted generally attains. Tom Thumb
may be planted only fifteen inches apart from row to row,
but as it is a branching sort, the plants may be five or six
inches in the row. It is usual to plant in double rows,
from nine to twelve inches asunder, leaving the distance
above directed between each pair of rows. The sticks
are set midway between the double rows, supporting
the vines of both. It is maintained by many that from
its more full exposure to the air and sun a single row will
produce as much as two. The tall later sorts are far more
fruitful if the rows are put twenty or thirty feet apart,
and the space between occupied with other crops.

It is best to plant the early crop in rows running east
and west, that the sun may warm the ridge of soil drawn
up to the roots; but the rows of the main crop should run
north and south. Early peas should be planted in the
drills, about an inch apart; the medium growers an inch
and a half; while for the tall kinds two inches are not
too much. A quart of seed of these varieties will plant
not quite fifty yards of double rows, while a quart of early
peas will plant nearly seventy yards twice as thickly.
The soil with which they are covered should be chopped
fine, if lumpy, and in planting pressed upon the seed.
Better delay a little than plant when the ground is wet.
After the peas are about two inches high, hoe them well,
drawing the earth a little toward them, and loosening the

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 393

soil between the drills, destroying every weed, liepeat
this once or twice before brushing, which should be done
when the plants are six or eight inches high, or as soon
as the tendrils appear. This may be done by sharpened
branches of trees prepared fan-shaped, and of a height
proper for the pea to which they are to be applied, or
stakes may be driven down every six feet each side of the
drills, and lines of twine stretched from one to the other.
Pea brush is, however, the best, as the vines lay hold of it
more readily. It should be placed firmly in the ground
between the drills. After brushing, draw up the earth on
each side to help support the vine. Market gardeners do
not employ brush or twine, but let them fall over and
bear what they will. This does tolerably well with the
early varieties, if the spaces between the rows be filled
with straw or leaves.

Peas are forced by planting under glass m pots, 10 be
transplanted, when the season permits; but in mild lati-
tudes this is needless, as the pea, when young will survive
a temperature but two degrees above zero if not in a state
of rapid growth. If a hard frost occur when the plants
are in bloom the crop is lost.

Seed. — The plants of the rows intended for seed should
not be gathered from for any other purpose. When the
pods begin to dry, gather and dry them thoroughly, and
store the seed in bottles, pouring into each a little spirits
of turpentine, as directed for preserving beans.

Some think that peas are earlier if the seed has been
obtained from a more northern locality than the one in
which they are planted. The garden pea is very whole-
some, and an almost universal favorite. To have them in
perfection, they should be freshly gathered, and by no
means allowed to stand over night before use. They can
be shelled and dried in the shade, and form a tolerably
agreeable dish in winter, but they are much inferior to

o'J-i GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

those freshly picked. Green or dry they are very nutri
tious, abounding in flesh-forming constituents.

MARKETING. — In the far South peas are gathered for
the market in .March, at the time when a good price can
be obtained if the pods are carefully picked and neatly
packed. Do not pick until the pods are well tilled and
reject all those which are discolored or over-ripe. Pack
in bushel crates. Fill the crates above the top and press
the tops on firmly, so that the peas will be securely packed
and the packages will be full when they reach their desti-
nation

PEPPER.— (Capsicum.)

This genus (Capsicum) of plants belongs to the Solanum
family, and several species are in cultivation, all of which
are natives of tropical regions. Some of them have been
cultivated in England three hundred years, C. annum, or
Guinea Pepper, having been introduced there in L548.
Those most in use are:

Bell Pepper. — This was brought from India in 1759 —
of low- growth, with large, red, bell-shaped fruit. Its thick
and pulpy skin renders it best for pickles; more mild than
most varieties. It is a biennial.

Cayenne, or Long PErrEK. — Is a perennial, with
small, round, bright red, tapering fruit, extremely pun-
gent. Of this there is a large and small fruited sort, both
excellent for pepper sauce, and to grind as a condiment.

Large Sweet Spanish is a large, mild variety of an-
nual pepper, much used in pickling.

Tomato Pepper is of two sorts, red ami yellow, both
tolerably mild; fruit tomato shaped.

Culture. — Capsicum likes ;i rich, moist loam, rather
light than otherwise. Guano and fowl manure are excel-
lent fertilizers for peppers.

For early plants, sow the seed in drills, one inch deep

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 395

and six inches apart, under glass, in February, and trans-
plant after the frosts are entirely over, when three or
four inches high, into good soil, in rows eighteen inches
apart each way. Sow also in the open ground as soou as
the settled warm weather comes on, say the last of March
or first of April, and thin them out to the proper distance.
An ounce of seed will give two or three thousand plants.
They should be transplanted in moist weather only, and
must be watered until well established. Shading a few
days at midday, after transplanting, is very beneficial.
Cultivate and earth up their stems a little.

Seed. — A plant bearing the earliest and finest fruit
should be selected. The varieties should be grown as far
apart as possible. When ripe, the pods are hung up to
dry, and kept until the seed is wanted for sowing.

Use. — These plants are very much used in all hot
climates, where they enter as a seasoning into almost
every dish. The large kinds for pickling should be gath-
ered when full grown, and just before turning red. They
are also dried when ripe, and used for seasoning. Cayenne
and the other small kinds are ground lor table use, or
made into pepper sauce by the addition of strong vinegar.
Peppers are often rubbed upon meat to drive away in-
sects. The daily use of this plant in hot climates is
decidedly a preventive of bowel complaints, for which
reason it is so universally cultivated in tropical regions.

Marketing.— Cut the peppers with short stems, so they
will not dry out too soon and ship in vegetable crates.

POTATO (IRISH.)— (Sola ii inn tuberosum.)

The Irish potato is a perennial plant, with a tuberous,
subterranean stem, of the same genus with the eggplant,
and nearly allied to the tomato. It is reported to have
been brought into England from Virginia by Raleigh in
15S6, but as he never visited Virginia, he probably ob-

396 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

tained it from some other portion of this continent.
Though called the Irish potato, it is really a native of
the western coast of South America, where it is still found
wild, both "on dry, sterile mountains, and in damp forests
near the sea," whence roots have recently been obtained
differing very little from the cultivated varieties. Not-
withstanding its excellence and complete adaptation to
the English climate1, it appears to have come slowly into
use. Raleigh planted it on his Irish estate near Cork, but
it is only within about a hundred years that its culture
has been general, even in Ireland. In 1780 very few indi-
viduals in America raised as large a crop as five bushels.
Of the numerous varieties now used the best, perhaps,
for garden culture in the South are the following:

Early Varieties. — Beauty of Hebron, Pride of the
South, Triumph, and Early Essex.

Medium Varieties. — Early Rose, Early Puritan, and
Late Beauty of Hebron.

Late Varieties. — Burbank, Gannon No. 1, Peerless,
Pearl of Savoy, Rural New Yorker No. 2, and Rochester.

At the South a potato is required that will continue
growing through the long summer. The common sorts
ripen early, and commence new growth, so that it is very
difficult to keep them in their dry, mealy state. Starting
the buds has the same effect upon these tubers as upon
the grains of wheat which lose their starch by conversion
into sugar and dextrine, making both the flour and tuber,
when cooked, far less palatable and nourishing.

Potash and phosphate of magnesia are indicated by
analysis to be the most important inorganic elements of
the plant. Wood ashes will furnish most of the constit-
uents required from the soil.

Culture. — The Irish potato likes a cool, moist climate
and soil like those of Ireland. The soil should be well
enriched with vegetable and not with animal manure.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 397

The best potatoes in this country are grown in the cool
and hilly sections of the North, and the best there are
grown by simply turning over a meadow sward; upon this
the rows are laid off shallow, and the clover sods are often
so tough with matted roots when planting (having been
newly turned over), that earth is with difficulty obtained
to cover the potatoes. Soon decomposition commenceSj
a gentle heat is given out, and by the time the potatoes
are ready for the first working they can be plowed with
ease. At the second working, when the plants are laid
by, the soil is mellow as an ash heap, the young plant the
meanwhile being supplied with moisture and the very
food required to perfect its tubers and render them fari-
naceous and nutritive. Iu our gardens we cannot obtain
such a soil, but we can very much improve the yield, and
especially the quality of our Irish potatoes by imitating
it as nearly as possible. We can dig into the soil vegetable
matter to decompose, such as leaves, garden refuse of all
kinds, and pine straw. Even tan bark is not a bad appli-
cation to the potato crop, but if used must be accompanied
with plenty of ashes or lime to correct its acidity. One
reason for the application of vegetable manure to this
plant is the superior quality of the tubers produced.
Liebig first remarked that ammoniacal manures injure
the quality of the potato, though they increase the size
and quantity. If manured with strong animal manure
the tubers are moist and waxy, while if grown upon a soil
manured with ashes, lime, and an abundant supply of car-
bonaceous manures, such as decaying vegetable matter,
the produce is far more starchy and nutritive. Potatoes
enriched with strong dung are far more liable to rot than
if manured with leaves, ashes, and lime. Cotton-seed
meal is an excellent fertilizer for the potato. It produces
smooth potatoes. The application is at the rate of 800
to 1,000 pounds per acre in the furrows.

398 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

The rows should be from two to two and a half feet
asunder, and the sets from six to twelve inches in the
row, the greater distances for the tall-growing sorts.
Experiments in England have proved that there the best
crops are secured when the sets are planted six inches
dec]), or in light sandy soil not less than seven inches.
The sets should be cut a week before planting, and
allowed to dry. A medium-sized tuber will make five or
six sets. After the ground has been well prepared by
plowing or spading, dig a trench eight inches deep, the
width of the spade, and in the bottom of this form a slight
furrow with a hoe, that the sets may be in a line. In this
furrow the sets are placed. Cover with a good coat of
manure of the kinds before directed, to which manipu-
lated guano, or super-phosphate of lime and gypsum, may
be added with advantage. The earth is hauled over them,
leaving the surface some two or three inches below the
general level, that the plants may receive and retain
near them all the rain that falls. After the plains come
up hoe them well, but do not disturb the ground if there
is any apprehension of even a slight frost. "When all
danger of frost is over, they should, if possible, receive
a good mulching of leaves directly after a good, heavy
rain, and some trash may be laid over to keep the leaves
in place. The leaves must not be put on too early, as
when applied before the frosts are entirely over the
evaporation from a bed of damp leaves so lowers the tem-
perature at their surface that a frost scarcely perceptible
elsewhere may prove fatal to tender plants thus mulched.

If the leaves are not to be obtained, keep the soil free
from weeds by flat culture, until the tops cover the
ground. The early crop may alternate with Lima beans,
making the rows five feet apart in this case, and they will
be ready for digging when the beans, which are planted
in hills between the potato rows, are fit for use. This crop

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AM) CULTUEE.

399

should be planted as early in the spring as possible. At
the South in January or February, and at the North in
March or April. The main crop may be put iu three or
four weeks later, but the early planted crops (if they
escape the spring frosts) are best. In colder climates the
sets are often kept in a warm room covered with damp
moss until they have grown a half inch, and then if
planted out without being dried, in a warm situation, are
considerably earlier. A teaspoonful of gypsum dusted
over the plants when they appear above ground is very
beneficial. Never work the crop after the blossom buds
appear.

When the tops begin to die, dig the crop, and store in a
cool, dry place. Sprinkle them with lime when dug, and
they are less in danger of rot. This disease often attacks
them while growing, beginning at the haulm, and de-
scending to the tubers, which soon become a mass of rot-
tenness. If potatoes are allowed to remain in the ground
until they begin to grow, they become waxy and worth-
less, and those that are stored will not remain eatable,
unless the sprouts are rubbed off as they appear.

Second Crop of Potatoes. — It has been the practice in the
South for many years, particularly in some sections, to
grow seed potatoes from the first crop, but the custom has
been to look to the Northern-grown potato for the supply.
It needs no demonstration to convince an intelligent
gardener that the potatoes grown in the South are pre-
ferable to those shipped from a colder climate for seed
purposes, and the method of securing this end by what
is known as the second crop is receiving a great deal of
attention among gardeners. To succeed in this cultivation
the following plan must be adopted. The potatoes of the
early crop must be allowed to remain iu the soil until
fully ripe; this can be determined by the dying of the
tops. They are then dug and placed in the shade, ex-

400 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

posed to the air until greened, which will generally take
two or three days. The potatoes are then bedded in single
layers and covered with straw or two inches of a sandy
soil without manure. If with straw the bed must be
dampened and kept so until the sprouts begin to appear.
They must remain in this condition until August 1st to
20th, when those which are sprouted are planted in the
usual way, excepting that shallow covering is obtained
and flat cultivation instead of high bedding, as is given
to the early crop. This flat cultivation is to obviate the
effects of the hot sun during the month of August. In
well-drained soil the potatoes may be allowed to remain
in the ground during the winter and dug as required, but
the earth must be ridged up after the tops are dead, and
the surface covered with piue straw. In August when the
planting occurs the potatoes are placed in deep furrows
and a thin layer of soil is put over them, and as the plants
grow the earth is drawn to them until the level cultiva-
tion is secured. When this second crop is intended for
table use it will be necessary to plant in July, so that the
potato may mature by the time of first frost. It is not
necessary to cut the potato, as is done with the seed of
the early crop, but the entire potato is planted.

Use. — The tubers of the Irish potato, consisting chiefly
of starch, and having no peculiarity of taste, approach
nearer in their nature to the flour of grain than any other
root. Hence the potato is almost universally liked, and
can be continually used by the same individual without
becoming unpalatable. It is a good supporter of respira-
tion, and adapted for the formation of fat, but is deficient
in nitrogenous or muscle-forming elements. Sustained
labor cannot be performed on this diet without the addi-
tion of other food better adapted to the formation of flesh.
Potatoes are boiled, baked, roasted, or fried. When long
kept, the best ones are selected, boiled and mashed

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 401

before going to the table. Starch can be manufactured
from potatoes, as may ardent spirits.

Marketing. — The potato with an easily bruised skin is
immature and unfit for shipping. Handle the crop care-
fully, so that no injury will occur to the surface, and
harvest only in cloudy weather, or protect the potatoes as
much as possible from the sun after digging. Pack in
barrels, and only while the potato is in a cool condition.

POTATO (SWEET).— (Ipomcea Batatas.)

This valuable plant, first cultivated in England in 1597
by Gerard, is the potato mentioned by Shakespeare and
his cotemporaries, the Irish potato being then scarcely
known. " Let the sky rain potatoes," says Falstaff,
alluding to this vegetable, which was at that time im-
ported into England from Spain and the Canary Islands,
and considered a great delicacy. The sweet potato is a
tender perennial plant, of the convolvulaceous family, a
native of China and both Indies. It has small leaves, with
three to five lobes, according to the variety, with herba-
ceous vines which run along the ground, taking root at
intervals. Its roots are long, spindle-shaped or oval, often
very large, and abounding in starch and sugar. Its nutri-
tious properties and agreeable flavor have brought it into
general use in all parts of the globe, where the climate is
warm enough to admit of its successful cultivation. The
following are the most common varieties, and perhaps as
good as any:

Barbadoes Bunch yam, Georgia yam, Hayman, Pump-
kin yam, Red Brazilian, Spanish yam, Sugar yam, Ten-
nessee yam, Yellow yam, Bush or Yineless. These varie-
ties are quite sweet and not ?o dry and starchy as the
following, which are more popular in Northern markets:
Early Golden, Red Nansemond, Jersey, Southern Queen,
Sugar (Creole).
26

402

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

1iv4&fc

m

Fig. 141— Vineless S^veet Potato.

The sugar po-
tatoes are gene-
rally poor yield-
ers, b u t a r e
excellent table
varieties. T h e
Tennessee y a m
is a productive
variety, with a
sweet, rich, deli-
cate flavor. It is
next in quality
to the Georgia
yam, but is more
productive. It is
a late potato.

In the above
list the early po-
tatoes are Yel-
low yam, Vine-
less and Jersey.
The others are
late varieties.

Culture.
Sweet pota-
toes like a rich,
sandy loam, per-
f e c 1 1 y friable,
a n d, as indi-
cated by analy-
sis, abounding
in potash. The
soil should be
well enriched. A
dressing of

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 40 3

wood ashes would be very beneficial to this crop. Next
to potash it demands a supply of the phosphates. They
do well ou fresh lauds, if well broken up and friable. At
the .South, the Spanish potatoes are generally planted
where they are to remain, like the Irish potato, whole or
cut up into sets. But both these may, and the yams must,
be propagated by slips, as they grow larger and yield
more abundantly by this method.

To raise slips, select a suuuy spot sheltered by fences
or buildings, and lay it off in beds four feet wide, with
alleys of the same width between them; slope the beds a
little towards the sun, dig them well, and if not already
rich, add plenty of well-decomposed manure. Do this in
Georgia in February, or early in .March. At the North a
gentle hot-bed will be required, and it will be found very
useful in every locality, in order that the slips may be
ready as soon as all danger of frost is over.

Choose smooth and healthy-looking potatoes and lay
them regularly over the bed an inch or two apart, and
cover them about three or four inches with fine soil; rake
the bed smooth, and it is done. In large operations, ten
bushels of potatoes should be bedded for every acre of
ground.

While the slips are sprouting prepare the ground to
receive them. It should be rich, or made so with well-
rotted manure, and thoroughly and deeply broken up
with the plow or spade. Phosphoric acid and muriate of
potash at the rate of 400 pounds per acre may be applied
in the furrows. The formula recommended is 600 pounds
of phosphoric acid and 200 pounds of muriate of potash.
Lay off the soil just before the slips are ready in low,
parallel ridges or beds, the crowns of which are three and
a half feet asunder, and about six inches high, on which
plant out the slips with a dibble eighteen inches apart,
one plant in a place. Choose for this operation such a

404 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

day as you would for cabbage plants, or do it in the
evening. The sweet potato is readily transplanted, and if
holes are dug in the mellow bed, deep enough to admit
the plant, and the slips, set upright therein, have the
earth washed in about their roots by pouring water upon
them from the open spout of a water-pot, finishing the
operation by covering over with a coat of dry, mellow
earth, brought up and pressed pretty closely about the
slips to keep the moistened earth from baking, very few
will die, even if they are set out at mid-day; but as the
plants would be checked, a cloudy day, or just at night,
should be selected for the operation.

This is an excellent mode of transplanting all plants,
and is of great use both in the vegetable and flower gar-
den. If the slips are not washed in as above when taken
up in dry weather, it is of great advantage to grout them,
as well as all other plants you wish to transplant. This is
done by immersing the roots in water thickened with rich
earth. It refreshes the slips, and gives them a thin coat-
ing of earth as a protection against the atmosphere. Draw
the slips when about three or four inches high, by placing
the left hand on the bed near the sprout to steady the
root, and prevent its being pulled up with the sprout,
which is loosened with the right hand, taking care not to
disturb the fibrous roots of the mother potato, for this
continues to afford a succession of slips, which may be
successfully transplanted in Georgia until the first of
July. At the North they should not be put in later than
the first of June.

After the piece is planted, go over it again in a few days
to plant over any place where the slips may have failed.
As soon as the ground gets a little weedy, scrape it over,
loosening the earth and covering up the weeds, but be
careful not to injure the young slips. Faithful cultivation
and a frequent moving of the soil are as beneficial to this

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 405

crop, while young, as to any other. At one of the hoeings
just before being laid by, the ground should be deeply
moved with the plow or spade, but not close to the plants.
They should be laid by before the plants run a great deal,
after which they should be undisturbed. Be careful not to
cover the vines, but if they become attached to the soil,
loosen them up from it, so that the vigor of the plants
may be thrown into the roots and not into the running
vines. Make the hills large and broad, not pointed. In
hoeing, draw the vines carefully over towards you while
you draw up the earth and cover the weeds; then lay
them carefully back, and finish the other side in the same
manner. At this time till the spaces between the rows
with leaves and litter while the ground is wet, to retain
the moisture. After the vines have covered the ground
too much to use the hoe, any large weeds that appear
should be pulled up by hand.

The Yam potato can also be raised from seed, but the
Spanish variety, like the sugar cane and many other
plants long propagated by division, rarely produces seed.

Just as soon as the tops are killed by frost, the potatoes
should be gathered. In field crops they can be plowed up
and gathered by hands which follow the plow, depositing
the potatoes in small heaps, but in the garden the potato
can be gathered with the hoe or the potato hook, an im-
plement much used in gathering crops of the Irish potato.
It is better to do this in a dry day, and many prefer to
dig their potatoes just before the frost kills the vines,
thinking they keep better.

To keep sweet potatoes it is necessary, at the North,
to store them in a dry, warm place, in well-dried sand.
At the South they are safely stored in hills containing
thirty or forty bushels each. Let the potatoes, when dug,
dry in the sun through the day. In digging and hand-
ling thev should not be bruised. Elevate the bottom of

406 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

the intended pile about six inches with earth, furnished
by digging around it a circular trench. On this put pine
straw two or three inches thick, or dry leaves, on which
place the potatoes piled in a regular cone. If the weather
is good, cover them only with pine or other straw for two
or three days, until the potatoes are well dried, before
their hnal earthing up. Let the covering of straw be
three or four inches thick; then cover it over with large
strips of pine bark, commencing at the base, and cover as
shingling unto the top, leaving a small aperture. Cover
four or live inches thick with earth over all, except this
aperture, which must be left open for the escape of the
heat and moisture generated within. {I'cahody.)

Some cover this opening with a piece of pine bark, to
keep out the rain, but a board shelter is preferable. It is
well to protect the hills from rain by a temporary roof of
plank. When the weather gets warm, in the spring, take
up the potatoes, rub off the sprouts, and keep on a dry
floor. If put up with care they will keep until July. One
important step toward their certain preservation is to
gather them carefully from the ground, as the least bruise
produces rapid decay.

For Seed. — Some of the finest roots of the most produc-
tive hills can bo packed in barrels and covered with sand
in a dry, warm place, free from all exposure to frost. A
small garden crop is best kept in barrels with dry sand or
leaves; if the latter, a layer of leaves at the bottom, then
a layer of potatoes, then a layer of leaves, and so on until
the cask is filled. Use dry leaves and store in a dry place.

Use. — This root is deservedly a favorite at the table,
and the most wholesome grown. In nutritious properties
it excels all other roots cultivated in this country, except
the carrot. Weight for weight, it contains more than
double the quantity of starch, sugar and other elements
of nutrition that are found in the best varieties of Irish

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 407

potato. For feeding stock three bushels are equal to one
of Indian corn, yielding, on the same land, live or six
times the food that is produced by this most profitable
grain.

A good-baked sweet potato is almost as nutritive as
bread. They are better baked than boiled. They are also
used for pies and puddings, and sweet potato rolls are
excellent. In short, the modes of cooking this valuable
vegetable are innumerable, but perhaps the very best is
Marion's mode of roasting in the hot ashes.

Maiiketix*;. — The same system adopted in placing the
Irish potato on the market. In the case of the sweet
potato it is not so necessary to protect against the sun,
and such great care in handling is not required as in the
case of the Irish potato.

PUMPKIN.— ( Cucurbita Pepo.)

A trailing annual, from India and the Levant, with
globular or cylindrical fruit. It has become so crossed
that it is difficult to say of some varieties to which species
they should be referred.

The best variety for family use is the Cashaw, a long,
cylindrical, curved variety, swollen at one extremity, of
fine, creamy yellow color, very solid and excellent to
use as a winter squash, and quite as valuable as any for
the other purposes. Pumpkins are not as particular
about soil as melons and cucumbers, but will grow well
on any tolerably rich ground. It is not best to grow them
in the garden, as they will mix and corrupt the seed of
the other varieties. They like a soil freshly reclaimed
from the woods; the field is the proper place for their
cultivation. Plant when the main crop of corn is put in;
let the hills be ten feet apart. Hoe frequently and keep
(lean. Let only one plant remain in each hill. Do not
earth up the plants, but keep the soil about them light

408

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

and loose with the hoe, until the vines prevent further
culture.

Use. — In France, as well as in New England, the pump-
kin is much used for stews and soups. The best, such as
Cashaw, are good substitutes for the winter squash, and
make an excellent pie. They are also a valuable food for

cattle. They can
be preserved by
boiling and dry-
ing the pulp in an
oven, or by cut-
ting in strips and
drying by the fire,
or will keep very
well whole, if in a
cool, dry place,
free from frost.

RADISH.
(Baphan us sativus.)
This is an an-
nual Cruciferous
plant, grown in
England as early
as 1548, being one
of the plants men-
tioned by Gerard.

The lower leaves
Fig. 142-Mammoth Golden Cashaw. ^ j te; stem

about two feet high, with pale violet flowers; the root
fleshy, spindle or globular-shaped; of various colors.
There are two kinds of radish, the spindle-rooted and
the globular or turnip-rooted. These are again divided
into early and late varieties, among which we will
notice:

(409)

Plate 5 -New White Chartier Radish.

410 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

Early or Spring' Radishes.
Early Scarlet Short-Tup. — lioot long and spindle-
shaped; leaves very short. It is the earliest, most crisp
and mild-flavored, and requires less space than the other
varieties. Much esteemed for its bright color. The root
grows partly above ground. Long Scarlet Early Frame
and Salmon differ very slightly from this.

White Turnip-Rooted has a white exterior and a
round bulb, terminating in a small, fibrous root. Flesh
Avhite and mild.

Yellow Summer. — This is a turnip-rooted variety,
named from its color, and will stand the heat better than
any other variety.

Winter Radishes.

Black Winter or Spanish. — Turnip-shaped, black,
and very large; sown in August or September with tur-
nips. It can be gathered and stored for winter. The flesh
is white, hard, and hot. The White Spanish is white out-
side, and the flesh milder than the Black.

Chinese Rose-Colored Winter. — Conical; bright
rose-colored; flesh solid; texture fine; rather hot.

French Breakfast. — A rapid grower; mild, tender
and crisp; an excellent variety for forcing. The upper
portion is red and the lower part is white.

Autumn Radishes.

Rose-Colored Chinese. — The flesh is white and the
skin red. Flavor very good.

Chartier. — Long, scarlet and white-tipped.

Culture. — Radishes like a rich, sandy loam, dug a full
spade deep, but succeed in any good garden soil. Their
culture is very simple. If manure be freshly applied, it
should be at the bottom of the soil, or the roots will fork.
They are often sown in beds four or five feet wide, thinly

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

411

broadcast; but it is
better to put them in
drills about eight or
teu inches apart, an
inch deep, scattering
the seed thinly, which
may be in beds de-
voted to this crop, or
m a d e between the
wider rows of beets,
parsnips, onions, car
rots, as well as spin-
ach, peas, beans and
Irish potatoes. Thus
sown, they will yield
large crops, without
taking up room avail-
able for other pur-
poses.

From the first of
November until March
a succession of the
Oval Rose, or Scarlet
Short - Top varieties,
can be grown under
glass. All that is re-
quired is a bed of good,
rich loam, watering
them occasionally, and
giving air every day,
except when the tem-
perature is b e 1 o w
freezing point. Let the
sash be off in every
mild rain, and let the
earth come within

Fig. 143- China Rose Winter Radish.

412 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

seven or eight inches of the glass. Oil open ground crops
can be made for fall use, if desired, by sowing in succes-
sion, after the summer heats are over, until about the time
of the first frosts. With the first opening of spring, com-
mence planting in the open ground, and sow every week
or two until the dry, hot weather comes on. In the low
country South, they may be grown all winter, with no
other protection than a little litter thrown over the beds
in severe frosts. As birds are very fond of the seed, it is
sometimes necessary to protect the beds with nets. Rad-
ishes are of such rapid growth, that they will generally
take care of themselves after planting in a good soil, but
hoeing once will hasten their growth.

For Seed. — Some of the finest and earliest can remain
where grown, or be removed to another bed and inserted
up to their leaves. Water frequently until established,
and while the flowers are opening. Let the roots be three
feet apart, and do not permit any others to flower near
them, if pure seeds are desired. When the pods turn dry,
gather, dry, thresh out, and save in paper bags. The seed
will keep three years.

Use. — The tops used to be boiled ior greens. The seed
leaves, when they first appear, are used as a salad, with
cress and mustard, and the seed-pods, gathered young,
form a good pickle, and are a substitute for capers.

There is a species, Raphanus caudatus, or Rat-tailed
radish, of which the pod grows a foot or more in length,
with a peculiar puugent but delicate flavor, and it may
be eaten like the root, or pickled. It is from Java.

Of the common species, however, the roots are the parts
mainly used. They are much relished, while .young and
crisp, for the breakfast table. They contain little beside
water, woody fiber, and acrid matter, so they cannot be
verv nourishing or wholesome. When young, and of

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 413

good varieties, they are much more digestible than when
older and more fibrous.

Marketing. — Tie in bundles after washing. The string
is placed on the bundle about three inches from the point
where the tops leave the root. This will make the vege-
table lie flat in the package. The shipment is made in
crates, or in ventilated barrels.

RAPE, OR COLZA. — (Brassica Napus, var. oleracea.)

Rape, or Colza, is a biennial plant of the cabbage tribe,
a native of England, with glaucous radical leaves and
yellow flowers, appearing early in spring. It is often
called kale.

Culture. — Sow at the same time with cresses and mus-
tard in late winter and spring. Sow in drills or beds, and
follow the culture directed for white mustard. Rape,
sown like turnips the first of September, will survive the
frosts and afford an abundance of fine greens the latter
part of winter and early in spring, wherever the turnip
will stand the winter.

Seed. — A few plants sown in August and September,
and kept over, will flower and seed the next year abun-
dantly.

Use. — The seed leaves are gathered young for a small
salad with cresses and mustard. Later it is used like
mustard for greens. This plant is much cultivated in
Europe for the oil expressed from its seeds.

Rape, Edible-Rooted, or French Turnip (B. Napus,
rar. esculenla) is another variety with edible roots, some-
times cultivated as a substitute for the turnip. The root
is white, carrot-shaped, about the size of the middle
finger. It is much grown in Germany and France. This
is not the French turnip of the North, but is the Teltow
of the Germans.

414 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Culture. — It is raised from seed, which may be sowii in
August or September, aud requires the same treatment
as turnip. It likes a sandy soil, and if grown in too rich
earth, it loses its sweetness. In dry weather, the beds
must be watered regularly until the plants get three or
four leaves. To save seed see Turnip.

Use. — It is much used in continental cookery, and
enriches all the French soups. Stewed in gravy, it forms
an excellent dish, and, being white and carrot-shaped
Avhen mixed with carrots upou a dish, it is very orna-
mental. In using, there will be no necessity of cutting
away the outer rind, in which the flavor chiefly resides.
Scraping will be quite sufficient.

RHUBARB.— (Rheum.)

The garden Rhubarb, or Pie-plant, is a perennial, of the
same natural family as the common dock. The varieties
now cultivated are hybrids, which have supplanted the
original species, Rheum Rhaponticum, palmatum, and
undulatum, excelling them in size, earliness, and delicacy
of flavor. The best sorts are the Early, which is of but
medium size; Myatt's Linnaeus, rather early, and yield-
ing large crops of large leaves, and the best flavored of
all, Myatt's Victoria, which is two weeks later; stalks
very large and good; St. Martin's, a new Scotch variety,
with a rich, spicy flavor.

Rhubarb is remarkable for the quantity of phosphates
and soda it extracts from the earth. Crude soda might be
added to the soil. Guano and bone-dust are very benefi-
cial.

Rhubarb succeeds best in a rich, deep, rather light
loam, and in a situation open to the air and light. Trench
the ground two spades deep. It may be raised from seed,
but thus grown, sports into new varieties. It is best pro-
pagated by dividing the roots, reserving a bud to each

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE 415

piece. These may be set about two inches deep in rows
three feet apart, and from eighteen to thirty inches
(according to the sort) in the row. All the culture re-
quired is to keep the surface soil light and free from
weeds. The plantation may be made in the fall, after the
leaves are killed by frost, and protected by litter, or as
early in the spring as the weather and soil permit. It
should not be disturbed after growth commences. Pluck
no leaves the first year, after which the crop will be
abundant. Make a new plantation about once in five
years. If a plant or two in summer dies out, as it is apt
to do in the South, it is best to remove, the next autumn,
the old plant, together with soil in which it grew, and
supply fresh soil. New plants to reset the vacancy can
be obtained by uncovering an old crown and cutting from
it a bud with a piece of root attached.

To obtain the largest product, the flower stems should
be broken off when they appear, for the plant is weak-
ened by permitting it to seed. A yearly surface dressing
of well-rotted manure should be given, for the stalks to
be good must be quickly grown.

Forcing. — This plant is forced by placing a large flower
pot over the roots, and covering with stable manure. The
more common way is to surround the plant with a small
barrel without a head; a cover is placed over it at night
and in cold days, and it is then surrounded with a pile of
stable manure built up in as sharp a cone as it can be
made to form. If the root is good it will soon fill the bar-
rel with shoots. The plant should be permitted to rest
after this crop through the season, and others be selected
for the purpose the next year. This operation, at the
North, is common enough, but at the South it is generally
death to the plant.

Use. — The leaf-stem, or petiole of this plant, when the
external skin is removed, is cut up in thin slices, and,

416 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

having an agreeable acid, is used exactly like the apple
for pies, tarts, and sauce at a time that fruits cannot be
obtained. Gather them while young, just as they attain
their full size, before they lose their fine flavor. They
should be gently slipped from the root without using a
knife.

This plant is in almost universal use in England,
France, and the Northern States, and succeeds perfectly
well in Middle Georgia.

SALSIFY. — ( Tragopogon porrifolium.)

Salsify, or Vegetable Oyster, is a hardy, tap-rooted
biennial, a native of various parts of Europe, with long
tapering root of a fleshy, white substance, the herbage
smooth and glaucous, the flower-stem three or four feet
high, and the flower of a dull purple color. It belongs to
the Composite family.

Mammoth Sandwich Island is the variety generally
cultivated in the South. It grows vigorously to double
the size of the older forms, and yields an excellent flavor.
The Long White is the old standard salsify.

Salsify likes a light, mellow soil, dug very deeply, as
for carrots arid other tap-rooted plants. Sow early in
spring, and for a succession until the summer heats come
on, rather thickly, in drills an inch deep and a foot apart.
An ounce of seed will sow a square rod. Scarlet radish
may also be sown thinly in the same drills. When an inch
high, thin the plants, and continue by degrees until the
plants are six inches apart. If the soil is deep and moist,
they will grow all summer and not run up to seed.
Watering in dry weather, especially with guano water,
will greatly invigorate the plants. Cultivate the soil,
and keep it free from weeds, as for beets and carrots.
The roots mav be drawn and stored in sand, but where

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

417

the winters are
open should remain
in the ground all
winter, to be pulled
as wanted.

For Seed. — Leave
or transplant some
of the best plants
in spring, which
will produce seed
abundantly. Gather
and dry in the
heads, where they
may be kept until
wanted.

Use.— The stalks
of old plants are
sometimes cut in
the spring as a sub-
stitute for aspara-
gus. The roots are
boiled or stewed
like carrots, and
have a mild, sweet
flavor, being whole-
s o m e, palatable,
and tolerably nutri-
tive. They are
mostly cooked to
imitate oyster.-:, to
which the flavor
has some resem-
blance.

Marketing.

After washing,
six or eight roots

27

Fig. 144— Sandwich Island Salsify.

418 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

are tied together in each bundle by a cord around the
short tops left on, and another at the lower end of roots.
Ship in crates.

SAVORY.— (Satureja.)

This is a genus of Labiate plants of which there are
two species in cultivation — the Summer Savory (Satureja
hortensis), a hardy annual; and Winter Savory (Satureja
high tana), a shrubby perennial; both natives of Italy, and
cultivated for their warm, aromatic flavors.

Both may be propagated by seed. Sow in spring, as
soon as the ground is a little warm, moderately thick, in
shallow drills, and cover lightly. For Summer Savory
the rows should be twelve inches apart, and the plants
thinned to six inches; the thinnings may be transplanted
to the same distance. Winter Savory requires more room;
the plants should be a foot apart, in drills fifteen inches
asunder. This can be propagated also, by slips, cuttings,
or division of the roots. All the care required is to keep
free from weeds. Seed can be gathered as it ripens from
a root or two left uncut for the purpose.

Use. — The leaves of these herbs are much employed in
soups, salads, stuffings, etc., on account of their agreeable
pungent flavor. They are also said to possess the de-
sirable power of "expelling fleas from a bed." Formerly,
they were much used in medicine. Gather when they
come into bloom, and dry for winter use in the shade,
pound in a mortar, pass through a sieve, ami put up in
bottles closely stopped, and they will retain their fra-
grance any length of time.

SEA KALE. — (C ramie maratima.)

This is a hardy Cruciferous perennial, a native of the
dry, shingly shores of Great Britain. The plant is smooth,
of a beautiful glaucous hue, covered with a fine meal, aud
with large, sinuated radical leaves. The flower is of a rich

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

41U

white appearance, and a honeyed smell. It has proba-
bly been cultivated in gardens one hundred and fifty

present century, though the English peasantry from time
immemorial have been in the habit of gathering the
blanched shoots as they pushed through the sand, and
boiling them as greens.
Though a native of a cool
climate, it succeeds per-
fectly in Middle Georgia.

The following represent
the varieties proven to be
suitable for the South:
Early Curled Siberian or
Dwarf German Greens,
Dwarf Green Curled Scotch
or Norfolk.

Culture. — The native soil
of sea kale is a deep sand,
mingled with matter from
the sea. It likes a deep
mould, or sandy loam, and
if poor, well-putrilied dung
and half - decayed leaves
may be added. Upon the
richness and proper pre-
paration of the soil the luxuriance of the plant depends.
The situation must be free from all shade of trees.
Sea kale is propagated by seeds, or offsets, or cuttings
of the root; but the best plants are raised from
seed. Sow the seed in a well-prepared soil, rich, or made
so with well-decomposed manure, and shaded by a fence,
or building, from the midday sun. Draw the drills. one
foot apart, and scatter the seed thinly along the drills.
The beds should be about four feet wide, for convenience.

Fig. 145 — Sea Kale.

420 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Sow very early in spring. If the outer coat of the seed be
bruised, without injuring the inside, the germination will
be accelerated. The plants are very slow in appearing;
never less than three weeks, often four or five months,
and sometimes a full year. Water plentifully in dry
weather, and keep the seed-beds free from weeds during
the season. Thin the plants as they appear to an inch
apart, and, as they grow strong, to two or three inches,
and keep free from weeds. In the autumn, when their
leaves decay, clear them away, and earth them up about
the crowns with an inch or two of soil from the alleys,
or leaf-mould from the woods, and cover over the whole
bed, four inches deep with long litter, and leave it to
stand until the time of transplanting.

As early as possible the spring ensuing, prepare the
permanent bed for those you wish to transplant. Those
raised where they are to remain succeed best.

Let the soil be light, and well enriched with good com-
post. Leaf manure is better than hot dung. Dig it up
deeply and thoroughly at least two feet deep, and lay it
off in beds three feet wide, with alleys two feet in width
between. Upon each of these beds plant two rows of
plants eighteen inches apart, and the same distance in
the row. Take up the plants very carefully with the
trowel, so as not to disturb the roots. If you plant cut-
tings of old plants put two in each place, to" guard against
failures. In all cases, be careful in transplanting that the
roots are not broken or dried by exposure to the sun and
air. During the dry, hot weather of summer, the beds
should be liberally watered the first season after replant-
ing, as upon their summer growth depends the next
season's crop. Keep the soil clean, and after the plants
get well rooted dig over the ground between the rows,
making the soil as fine as possible.

The coming autumn the earthing-up must be a little

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 421

increased; give a coat of leaf -mould, or compost manure,
and over this a thick coat of leaves, which will bring the
plants on early in the spring. The next spring remove
the litter, and dig in some of the manure into the alleys,
and then, if you blanch with pots, spread over the beds
about an inch deep of clean sand. The shoots may be
blanched, and a few cut for use, but sparingly, as the
plants must not be weakened. The better way is not to
remove the covering of leaves until you have gathered
what you desire. On a portion of the bed, to produce
early, the winter covering of compost and leaves must be
yearly applied.

Another portion must be left uncovered until the
shoots begin to rise, and then covered with eight or ten
inches of sand, for a later crop. Each spring give it a
dressing of salt, like asparagus, and dig over the surface
of the becl, as before. Retain for each plant only four or
five of the best suckers, at regular distances around the
stem; suffer none of these to seed, if you would not
greatly injure the next year's growth.

Sea kale, though eatable without blanching, as spring-
greens, is vastly improved when blanched. This may be
done by earthing-up the crowns eight or ten inches with
sand, or light mould, or by retaining the coat of dry
leaves put over the beds in autumn.

This covering may remain until the cutting ceases in
the spring, when all covering must be removed at even-
ing, or in cloudy weather. The shoots will raise the
covering when in a fit state for cutting. The courses of
leaves should be from five to twelve inches thick, accord-
ing to the age of the plants, and as directed above, may
remain on all winter. But a large flower pot, with the
hole in the bottom stopped, and light at the edges care-
fully excluded by a coat of litter is the best of all modes
of blanching.

422 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

For Seed. — A plant that has not been blanched or cut
from must be allowed to run to seed in the spring. A
single plant will produce an abundant supply.

Use. — Sea kale comes on early in March, when vege-
tables are scarce, and affords a very wholesome and
agreeable table luxury. The young shoots and leaf stalks,
before unfolding, are boiled and dressed like asparagus,
are employed in soups, and also make an agreeable salad.

SHALLOT, OR ESCHALLOT.— (Allium Ascolonicum.)

This is a plant of the onion tribe, which derives its
botanical name from growing wild at Ascalon, in Syria.
It has a strong taste, but as the strong flavor is not offen-
sive, like the garlic, and does not remain so long upon
the palate as the onion, it is often preferred. The root is
bulbous, similar to that of garlic in being divided into
cloves, included in a membrane. It rarely sends up a
flower-stock, and hence is often called the barren onion.

The best sorts are the Common and the Long-Keeping,
of which last the bulbs have been kept two years. The
" Big Shallot " of our gardens is Rocambole.

Culture. — It is propagated from the offsets of the roots.
Prepare the beds as for the rest of the onion tribe, but it
will do with not quite as rich a soil. Let the soil be made
perfectly light and friable. The last of September is the
best time for planting the early crop, but they may be
planted any time during the autumn and winter. The
early planted ones come into use early in May. Make the
beds four feet wide, and mark them off in drills an inch
deep, ten or twelve inches distant, and put the offsets out
six inches apart in the drills. Do not cover deeply; leave
the point of the clove just even with the surface of the
earth, and press the soil around. Keep the ground free
from weeds, but be particular, in hoeing, not to earth up
the bulbs. The leek is the onlv member of the onion

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 423

tribe that is not injured by gathering the earth about its
stem. Take up the bulbs when ripe, dry in the shade,
and preserve as garlic. They may be kept until the next
spring.

i 'se. — The shallot, though more pungent than some
members of the onion family, is preferred by many in
seasoning gravies, soups, sauces, and other culinary pre-
parations, and is by some considered almost indispen-
sable in the preparation of a good beefsteak. It can be
pickled in the same manner as the onion.

SKIRKET.— ( Slum sisarum.)

Skirret is a perennial Umbelliferous plant from China,
known in Europe since 1548. It grows a foot high, with
pinnate lower leaves. The root is composed of several
fleshy tubers, the size of the little finger, joined at the
crown.

Culture. — Skirret likes a deep, rich, rather moist soil,
with the manure applied at the bottom. The situation
should be open. It is propagated by seeds, or by offsets
of established roots. Seedlings produce the best roots.
Sow in spring, when the ground becomes warm, in drills
an inch deep and ten inches apart. When the plants are
an inch or two high, thin to six or eight inches apart.
Cultivate like salsify, and keep clear from weeds. They
will be fit for use in August, but can remain in the ground
to use as wanted all winter. Slips of the old roots may
be set out nine inches apart and cultivated in the same
manner. Leave some of the plants in the ground, and
they will throw up seed-stalks and ripen seed during the
summer following.

Use. — The tubers are boiled and are very sweet, some-
what like the parsnip, and are thought more palatable by
some, but are disagreeable to many. They are boiled,
and served up with butter, or cold, with vinegar and oil,

424 GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH'.

and are also cooked, like salsify, in batter. It was
formerly esteemed as " the sweetest, whitest, and most
pleasant of roots/'

SORREL.— (Rumex.)

The sorrels are perennial plants belonging to the same
family as dock and rhubarb. There are three species
cultivated — viz.: Rumex acetosa, or common English
garden sorrel, of which the Belleville variety is best; R.
scutatus, French or Hound-Leaved Sorrel, a trailing
plant, with more acid leaves than the last; A', mvntanus,
Mountain Sorrel, like the last, a native of France. Of
this last there are two varieties — the Common Mountain
and the Green Mountain Sorrel. The first has pale green,
blistered leaves, less acid than the common English, and
does not run quickly to flower. The Green Mountain Sor-
rel is earlier than this, and is the latest to flower, pro-
ducing freely dark-green leaves of considerable acidity.
The flowers of the first and last species are dioecious.

Sorrel will grow from seed, or dividing the roots early
in spring. Sow in drills fifteen inches apart and as they
come up, thin them to one foot in the row; or part the
roots in the autumn or spring, and set them out at the
same distance. Water them occasionally until well estab-
lished. Keep the plants free from weeds; cut down the
stalks occasionally in the summer, and cover the crowns
with a very little fresh earth, that they may send up large
and tender leaves. When, in two or three years, the
plants begin to dwindle, replant them in fresh soil. For
seed, let some of the stalks run up, and gather when ripe.

Use. — Sorrel is much used by the French in soups,
sauces and salads, and is also cooked as spinach, a
method which many think improves its flavor, especially
if cooked with turnip tops. Some use. the leaves in pies
as a substitute for rhubarb.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 425

SPINACH. — (Spinacia oleracca.)

Spinach is a hardy annual of the same family with the
beet (Chenopodiaceae), and has been cultivated in English
gardens since 1508, and probably long before. Some
refer its origin to Western Asia. The leaves are large,
stems hollow, and the male and female flowers produced
on different plants. Its name, Spinacea, is derived from
the Latin, spina, a thorn, on account of the prickly seed
of one variety.

There are four sorts, three of which are smooth seeded,
and the other prickly.

Round-Leaved has large, roundish, and fleshy leaves,
and is the sort commonly used for spring and summer
crops. Late in the season it soon runs to seed.

Lettuce-Leaved. — Leaves rounder than the last;
fleshy, or thick, and of a dark-green color; nearly or quite
as hardy as the last.

Prickly - Seeded, ok Winter Spinach. — Leaves
smaller and thinner than the other sorts, triangular-
shaped, and very hardy.

Henderson's Savoy-Leaved or Bloomsdale is a
variety producing leaves very much folded and bloated.
For this reason it stands shipping well. It is one of the
earliest varieties grown.

Long Standing is a good fall and spring variety; has
thick leaves; prostrate.

Culture. — For the winter crop, a light, dry, but fertile
soil is preferable; while for spring sowings, to have them
long in use, a rich, moist loam is desirable. The lime and
salt mixture with superphosphate of lime will supply
most of the inorganic elements required by spinach. Give
them an open situation. The earth should be well pulver-
ized before sowing, as fine tilth greatly promotes vigor-

426 GAKDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

ous growth. Spinach is propagated from seed so easily,
and is so valuable for winter greens, that no garden
should be without it.

The first crop is sown at the South the first of October,
and in succession until winter sets in, and on the roast
through the winter months the sowings are continued.
At New York the first of September is the proper season.
For this crop the prickly is the hardiest, but the Lettuce-
Leaved is the best. Another sowing should be made as
soon as spring opens, and they may be continued until
the summer heats come on, when the plants will quickly
run to seed. Use the smooth-seeded kinds for the later
crops.

Sow thinly in drills an inch deep, about fifteen inches
apart, or eighteen inches for the larger varieties. Sow in
moist weather, or if dry, water the seed in the drill before
covering, for if moisture be wanting during the early
stages of vegetation, not half the seed will come up. Thin
them by degrees, separating them at first only an inch or
two as the plants grow fit for use. Thinning should com-
mence when they attain four leaves an inch or so in
breadth. The plants must finally stand in the drill, for
the prickly spinach five inches, and the round leaf eight
inches. Keep the rows frequently hoed and free from
weeds. Hoe in dry weather. Spinach kept clean and
thinned properly is not so liable to die out in winter.
During severe weather a thin covering of straw or ever-
green brush is essential for the protection of the winter
crop north of Washington, and is very beneficial south of
that point. Regular gathering greatly promotes the
health of the plants. The outer leaves only should be
used, leaving the centre uninjured to supply successive
crops. At the end of the winter, the soil betAveen the
rows of the winter-standing crop should be gently stirred,
to assist their production in early spring. For summer

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 427

spinach and all other plants cultivated for their leaves,
the soil cannot be too rich.

For Seed.— Borne of the latest plants of the standing-
crop should be allowed to run up to seed; let these plants
be eight or ten inches apart. Spinach is dioecious, and
the male plants may be removed when the seed begins to
form. When ripe, pull the plants, dry thoroughly on a
cloth, and beat out and store the seed in paper bags.
Spinach seed will keep three years.

Use. — Spinach and German Greens are the best plants
to raise for a supply of early spring greens. Spinach
eaten freely is laxative and cooling; it is not very nutri-
tive, but very wholesome. It is so innocent that it is per-
mitted to be eaten in diseases where most vegetables are
proscribed. The leaves are very tender and succulent,
and of a most beautiful green when boiled. The juice is
often used for coloring various culinary preparations.

SPINACH, NEW ZEALAND.— (Tetragonia expansa.)

An annual plant brought by Sir Joseph Banks from
New Zealand in 1772, with thick, succulent, pale green,
procumbent, deltoid leaves, and with small, green, incon-
spicuous flowers. It grows four or five feet high, and is
of the same natural family as the ice plant.

Culture. — New Zealand Spinach may be sown early in
April. The best soil is loam, deeply dug, and enriched by
a liberal supply of manure. Make the drills three feet
apart, and scatter the seed about six inches apart in the
drill, and cover them an inch deep. Thin out the plants
to twenty inches apart. Keep the ground thoroughly
tilled and free from weeds, that the plants may make a
luxuriant growth. In five or six weeks the young leaves
will be ready to be picked. Preserve the leading shoot,
and the branches will continue long in bearing, as in
autumn they survive a pretty heavy frost. Twenty

428 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

plants are enough for a family. Seed may be gathered as
it ripens, dried carefully in the shade, and put up in paper
bags.

It is used as a substitute in summer for the common
spinach. Swiss Chard is a better one. The seed vessels
make a good pickle.

SQUASH.— ( CucurUta Melopepo.)

The squash is a tender trailing annual, and was first
brought to England in 1597. It is a native of the Levant.
It is a much esteemed garden vegetable, and in some of

its varieties can be
had for the table the
greater part of the
year.

Summer Squashes.
The best are the
Early Bush Scollop,
which is small, and

Fig. 14G— Mammuth Summer Crookneck. '

either white or golden
yellow in its two subvarieties; both good; the Summer
Crookneck, also a bush variety, bright yellow, covered
with warts; Bergen, small, bell-shaped, striped dark
green and white; used green, like the preceding, and
when the shell hardens, becomes still better, being very
dry and rich, and keeps well.

Winter Squashes are of many varieties; as Valpa-
raiso or Cocoanut, as it is named from its shape. It has
a rough, grayish coat, flesh deep orange, very dry, and
sugary. It is the best of all, but a great runner, and bears
but moderately. Boston Marrow, Bell, Canada Crook-
neck, Hubbard, and Perfect Gem are all good winter
sorts. The Hubbard is a variety of great excellence, re-
lated to the Valparaiso. The Cashaw Pumpkin is a good
substitute for the winter squash.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

429

Vegetable Marrow Squashes are in England the
favorite sort, and used from the time the blossom drops
until matured. The Custard Vegetable Marrow is now

Fig. 147— New Red Hubbard Squash.

the kind preferred there. From a single trial they do not
appear productive.

Culture. — The squash is planted at the same time as the
cucumber and melon. Put six or eight seeds in a hill,
and thin out to two or three
when they get up. The bush
squashes should be five feet
apart, and the winter varieties
at least ten. For cultivation, see
Cucumber. Squashes are much
better grown in rich soil ; do not
plant them near the cucumber

Fig. 148— Boston Marrow.

or melon, if you would not have

worthless seed from all the plants in their vicinity.
Gather summer kinds while the finger nail can easily
penetrate the rind; they must be plucked as soon as fit
for use, or the fruitfulness of the vines will be much

430

GAUDEAIAG FUK THE SOUTH.

impaired. To keep winter squashes they must be put
away in a cool, dry place, free from frost.

Use. — The squash is a very wholesome and tolerably
nutritious vegetable, prepared for the table in the same
manner as the turnip, for which it is an excellent sub-
stitute to eat with fresh meat. To be fit for use after
being boiled tender, the summer sorts must be squeezed
between two plates, for when full of water, as often
served, it is not tit to be eaten. The winter squashes
should be boiled dry. They make a good pie, like the
pumpkin and the sweet potato.

Marketing. — Shipped in barrels or crates. The home
market should be cultivated, because it is difficult to com-
pete with Northern gardeners since his squash can be
stored through the winter for the early spring trade.

TANYAH. — ( ( 'alocasia esculenta.)

This is a large-leaved, tuberous rooted, perennial plant
of the Arum family, much cultivated in the Sandwich
Islands, and forms the principal ingredient in the favor-
ite pol, a food much in use there, and remarkable for its
fattening properties.

It is cultivated somewhat near Charleston, and along
the coast, and is perfectly hardy here, and probably near
the coast as far north as Washington. The foliage is
quite striking.

Culture. — It may be planted in any rich, well-drained,
low spot. Select the eyes or buds, and plant like the
potato. The small roots are the ones generally reserved
for this purpose. There are two distinct kinds, named
from their color the pink and the blue, of which the latter
is thought by many to be the most farinaceous, but others
prefer the taste of the pink variety. The sets may be
put out in March or early in April, and the most attention
required is to keep the soil clean and mellow. The rows

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 431

may be three or four feet apart, and the plants two feet
in the rows. It comes to maturity the autumu after plant-
ing, and may remain in the bed until wanted. It keeps
better than either the sweet or Irish potato. It is pre-
pared for the table by simply roasting, and is eaten with
salt. By many they are much liked, as they are quite
farinaceous.

TARRAGON. — (Artemisia Dracunculus.)

This is a. perennial plant, of the same genus as the
wormwood, but its fragrant smell and warm aromatic
taste have introduced it into the kitchen garden.

Vulture. — This plant does not require a rich soil, and as
it is a native of a cold climate, it is best to give it a bleak
winter exposure. Poor, dry earth is necessary to perfect
its flavor. Tarragon is propagated by seed, slips, cut-
tings and parting of the root. The latter is the easiest
mode and most generally practiced. It may be planted
in early spring, the plants being ten inches apart. Give
a little water in dry weather until they are rooted. As
.they run up, if seed is not desired, cut down the seed
stalks and they will shoot up afresh. Keep them free
from weeds. It has been cultivated here with success.
It must be taken up, divided, and reset every year, or it
will die out.

Use. — Tarragon is used in salads, to correct the cold-
ness of other herbs. Its leaves are excellent pickled, or
for flavoring vinegar to be used for fish sauces, or with
horse-radish for beefsteaks.

THYME.— (Thymus.)

Common Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is a low, evergreen
undershrub, a native of Spain, Italy, and Greece, culti-
vated in English gardens since 1548, and probably earlier.
Its name (Thymus) comes from the Greek word for cour-

432 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

age; as it was thought to renew the strength and spirits.
It has a pleasant, aromatic smell, and a warm, pungent
taste. There are two varieties — the broad and narrow
leaved.

Lemon Thyme is also a low, trailing evergreen shrub,
seldom rising above four or six inches high. It has a
strong smell of lemons, which gives it its common name,
and is preferred for some dishes.

Culture. — Thyme is raised by seed, cuttings, and
dividing the roots. A light, dry soil is suitable. The root
slips may be set out in rows six inches apart each way.
The seeds are very small, and should be sown in moist
weather in spring, the soil for their reception made very
fine, and the seed raked in lightly with the back of the
rake. Press the surface gently with a board or the back
of a spade. Make the drills six inches apart and very
shallow. AVater lightly in hot, dry weather, both before
and after the plants are up. Let them remain in the drills
or transplant when two or three inches high. Thin the
plants to six inches apart, and keep free from weeds
while the plants are small.

Thyme is often used as an edging. A very small plot
is enough for any family.

For Seed. — It bears seed abundantly, if permitted. The
spikes should be gathered as the plant ripens, before it
is washed out by the rain. Dry upon a cloth in the shade.

Use. — The young leaves and tops are used in soups,
stuffings, and sauces. They can be dried and preserved
like other herbs; but in mild climates this is unnecessary,
as it is evergreen.

TOMATO. — (Lyeopersicum esculentum.)

The Tomato is a tender annual, a native of South
America, and some say of Mexico, and of the same
natural family with the eggplant and Irish potato. It

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

433

was introduced into England in 1590, and was long' cul-
tivated in the flower garden for its beautiful red and
yellow fruit, which was not used for food, but by many
considered poisonous. "As an esculent plant, in 1828-'9,"
says Buist, speaking of its use in this country, " it was

Fig. 149— Atlantic Prize Tomato.

almost detested; in ten years more every variety of pill
and panacea was ' extract of tomato.' " It is now one
of the most popular vegetables in cultivation, and springs
up self-sown in all our gardens. There are many varie-
ties. The following are among the best: Atlantic Prize,
Acme, Beauty, Buckeye State, Chemin Market, Cardinal,
Dw^arf Champion, Early Ruby, Fordhook First, Golden

28

434 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Queen, Henderson's Ponderosa, Ignotum, Lemon Blush,
Livingston's Beauty, Livingston's Favorite, Matchless,
Green Gage, Mikado, Volunteer, Moore's, New Peach,
Paragon, Perfection.

A few specially desirable varieties for general use may
be mentioned as follows: Early liuby, Livingston's
Beauty, Lemon Blush, Atlantic Prize, Ignotum, and
Ponderosa.

The tomato likes a light, loamy soil, of moderate fer-
tility, as in a soil too rich it runs to vine, and the fruit
ripens late. For the early crop, sow at the first indica-
tions of spring, some six weeks before corn-planting time
(early in February here and at the North in March) in a
hot-bed, or in boxes in the house.

Sow in drills eight inches apart, and when the plants
come up, thin to two or three inches, and transplant into
the open ground when the frosts are over. While in the
seed-bed give air at all times when there is no danger of
frost. It is better to sow quite early and transplant when
ready into small pots, and a couple of weeks after, when
these are full of roots, shift them into five-inch pots, in
which they may be kept until they blossom, if a late
spring or apprehension of frost renders it necessary.
Transfer them with the ball to the hill in the open ground
in a cloudy, damp time, in fresh-dug soil. If the weather
is dry they may be planted, the fresh soil pressed closely
about the ball, a plentiful watering ghren, finishing with
a covering of light soil to keep the ground from baking,
and shade during the day until established. Let the rows
be about four feet apart and the plants three feet in the
row. In poor soil less room is required between the rows.
As they are very tender, do not plant out until danger
of frost is over, and protect them by large flower pots or
boxes, if there is any fear of frost. For a succession, sow
in the open ground about corn-planting time in a rich,

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUKE. 435

sheltered spot, water with tepid water iii dry weather,
shield them with a mat or box in cold nights, and thin
the plants while young to three inches, and carefully
transplant these, when ready, with a trowel and ball,
into their final situation. In the Gulf States another
sowing or two should be made, to keep up a full succes-
sion in the long summer.

As soon as the lower fruit is half grown, cut off the
upper part of the plant above the larger fruit, that its
growth may be stopped, and the fruit below will be larger
and several days earlier. Ninety per cent, of the fruit
grows within eighteen inches of the ground, but a large
portion of the vines grow above that height. Tomatoes
like the soil about them well hoed, and free from weeds.
Plants grown in the open air are more abundant in bear-
ing than those forwarded under glass. In well-trenched
ground they will continue bearing until frost.

To Save Seed. — Select the largest early fruit, mash with
the hand, and wash the seed from the pulp; spread out
upon plates and dry in the shade; when dry, put them in
paper bags.

Use, — Few vegetables are prepared in as many differ-
ent forms as the tomato. It is pickled when green, and
preserved when ripe; it is eaten raw or cooked; it enters
into soups and sauces, and is prepared in catsups, marma-
lades, and omelets. The French, and the Italians, near
Rome and Naples, raised them by the acre long before
they were used by other nations, and, it is said, prepared
them in an almost infinite variety of ways. There are
very few preparations into which it enters which are not
improved by the addition. A good supply should be pre-
pared when in season by stewing and putting up in
patent cans for winter use. On account of the acid of the
fruit, earthen or glass jars are best.

436 GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

Marketing. — Tomatoes are skipped in bushel crates,
and the top layer is carefully faced. Careful sorting of
the fruit into grades depending on the degree of ripeness
is required, and the packing must be done by laying the
tomatoes in the crate one by one to insure quality and
neatness. Some of the most successful shippers wrap
each tomato in soft paper before packing.

TURNIP.— ( Brassica rapa.)

The Turnip is a hardy biennial of the cabbage tribe, a
native of many parts of Europe, and has been cultivated
for centuries. It was held in considerable estimation by
the Romans. Cato is the first writer that mentions it.
" Sow it," says he " after an autumnal shower in a place
that is well manured, or in a rich soil." Columella recom-
mends its cultivation, "because that portion of the crop
not wished for the table will be greedily eaten by the
farm cattle." It is cultivated in all temperate climes, and
is now extensively grown as a field crop in England, for
feeding stock, and is considerably raised for the same
purpose in our Northern States.

Extra Early Purple Tor Milan is one of the earliest
varieties; flat root, and smooth, sweet and tender.

Early White Dutch (Strap-Leaved). — A round, flat
turnip, with short, narrow, strap-like leaves; is the
earliest kind.

White Globe is a beautifully shaped, globular root,
of the largest size, a standard of excellence.

Early White Flat Dutch. — An early, rapid grower
and desirable white turnip. The roots are sweet and
juicy.

Yellow Aberdeen is very hardy; more so than the
foregoing. Sweet, fine-flavored, and very nutritious. It
is of a yellow color, round, handsome shape, firm and
sweet, and keeps well.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE.

437

Golden Ball. — An excellent yellow rooted turnip;
solid and good flavor. A fine table variety.

Ruta Baga, or Swedes Turnip is a different variety
(Brassica campestris, car. ruta baga), of which the foliage
differs from those preceding in being smooth and covered
with glaucous bloom. There are several varieties, all
hardy and good.

Purple-Topped Swede. — The roots are very large, of
an oval, tapering form, and the greater their size the
sweeter and more nourishing
they become. It keeps until
spring.

Skirting's Improved Swede.
This is of still better form than

large, less smooth, and free from
bloom; flesh fine, yellow, and
very nutritious.

Sweet German Turnip. —
Called also White Ruta Baga
and Cabbage Turnip (Brassica
campestris Napa Brassica, D. C),
resembles the last two, but the flesh is white, very sweet,
with somewhat of the cabbage flavor, and is a good
keeper. Roots large, but not as regular as the preceding.

A good fertilizer, at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre,
is furnished by the following formula:

Fig. 150 — Sweet German
Turnip.

Cotton seed meal,
Nitrate of soda,
Acid phosphate,
Muriate potash,

450 pounds.
250 pounds.
900 pounds.
300 pounds.

For the spring crop manures rich in ammonia are essen-
tial, but for the autumn crop the superphosphate of lime
seems to act more beneficially than any other application.

438 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Culture. — The turnip likes a rich, sandy soil. If raised
on ground manured by cow-penning, the crop rarely fails,
as the urine deposited in the soil affords the phosphates
so necessary for this crop, and in such places it is far less
infested with insects. Soil fresh from the woods also suits
it. For the early crop seed grown north of the locality
in which it is sown is generally preferred, but for the
main crop, pure seed from handsomely shaped roots of
home growth is sufficiently good. In the more Southern
States sow early turnips late in January, or through
February, and farther North as soon as the ground is in
a suitable condition, and the danger of its becoming again
frozen is over; that is, when the atmosphere begins to
feel like spring. Sow in drills fifteen inches apart, in fine,
light, well-manured soil, in drills one inch deep, covering
the seeds half an inch with fine soil pressed thereon.
Keep the soil free from weeds. As soon as the plants get
a little strong, thin out to two inches, and finally to six
inches in the row. If the ground is not kept light and
well worked, and the plants properly thinned, it is a mere
waste of time and seed. The Early White Dutch and
Early Milan are the kinds to be preferred. They do much
better in drills than broadcast.

For fall turnips, sow the Early White Dutch, etc., any
time in August and September, broadcast, or better in
drills, as directed above. If broadcast, thin them to
about twelve inches apart or more. If sown just before a
rain, they will come up at once. Soot, wood ashes, and
unslaked lime are all useful to promote growth and drive
away insects. The last of July or the first of August is
the time for sowing the main crop of common turnips,
while in Georgia the last sowing for greens is made the
first of November.

The varieties of the Ruta Baga and the Sweet German
are the best when planted for late winter use. These are

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 439

sown at New York the last half of June, or early in July;
in Georgia from the 1st to 20th of August. Sow in very
rich, fresh-prepared soil. Let the drills be two feet apart,
and thin the plants by degrees until twelve or fifteen
inches in the row. As soon as the plants appear, loosen
the earth about them. It requires a richer soil than the
other varieties. Fill any vacancies in the row by trans-
planting; these plants will make nearly as large roots
as the others. Keep the soil light and mellow by the use
of the hoe. Large crops can be tended with the plow
and cultivator to great advantage. In good soil the yield
is immense. The crop may be drawn as needed. Some
should be taken before they begin to grow up to seed and
stored in a cool place for late keeping.

To Save Seed. — Select a few of the best roots, shorten
the tap-root, and plant them two feet apart. Tie the
stalks to stakes, and keep them at a distance from all
other members of the cabbage tribe. Seed of the turnip
should be changed every few years, as the plant degene-
rates. It keeps three years.

Use. — This is one of those useful vegetables that can be
enjoyed with everything. The tops gathered in winter
and spring make the greens much prized by us all in
early spring. The roots are wholesome, though they dis-
agree with some stomachs. They are considerably nutri-
tious also; four ounces of White Dutch containing eighty-
five grains of nutritive matter, and four ounces of Ruta
Baga containing one hundred and ten grains of the same.
Any over-supply of this crop may be fed with great advan-
take to cows and swine.

Marketing. — When the turnip first comes into market
it is shipped with the tops on, because these tops are
often used for greens, but later in the season the turnips
are shipped in barrels like potatoes, with the tops cut off.

440 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

WATER CRESS.— (Nasturtium officinale.)

This is a hardy, perennial, English, Cruciferous plant,
growing in running streams. There is but one variety
in use.

The Water-Cress likes a clear, cool, running stream,
fresh issuing from a spring, the nearer its source the bet-
ter, with the water about an inch and a half deep, with
a sandy or gravelly bottom. It must, of course, at first
be raised from seed, which can be sprinkled at the source
of some gravelly stream. If once established, it wTill soon
propagate from self-sown seed. If the stems get choked
with mud and weeds they must be taken up and the
beds cleared and replanted. The shoots ought always to
be cut, as breaking injures the plants.

They grow best in water not over two or three inches
deep, and if plants can be got, should be set in rows
parallel with the stream, eighteen inches apart.

Use. — Water-cresses are generally liked for their warm,
pungent taste, and are used alone or in mixed salads.

WATERMELON.— ( ( 'itrullus vulgaris.)

This is a trailing annual, a native of the tropics, and of
the same natural family as the cucumber and musk-
melon, but belongs to a distinct genus. It is a large, suc-
culent, and refreshing, but not high-flavored fruit, and is
probably the melon mentioned in the Bible. The varie-
ties are numerous, many of them not being known out of
a limited locality. The following are general favorites:

Boss. — A melon with a thin dark rind. A good shipper.
The flesh is deep red and fine flavor. Oblong shape. This
is an early melon and very productive.

Arkansas Traveller. — This was introduced by Lan-
dreth, and has been recommended by some of the experi-
ment stations as a superior melon. "Rind dark green

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTUEE. 441

with wavy stripes of black, the edible portions extending
within half inch of skin; flesh brilliant red, sweet and
tender; very juicy."

Dixie. — A cross from the Mountain Sweet on the Kolb
Gem. Ripens earlier than Kolb Gem.

Florida Favorite. — This is pronounced to be by
many one of the best melons on the market. The flesh is
red and fine flavored.

The Jones. — This and the Kolb Gem are shaped alike.
The flesh is red and remarkably sweet. The melon grows

Fig. 151— Mclver's Watermelon.

to a large size. Some of the experiment stations place
this variety at the head of the list.

Kolb Gem. — This melon originated near Eufaula,
Alabama, and is named after Captain R. F. Kolb, its
originator, one of the prominent citizens of that State. It
has been largely grown for shipment North because of its
tough rind and firm, bright red flesh.

Rattlesnake.— This fruit is an old variety, well
known in Georgia and other sections of the South. Ob-
long form and when fully developed, possesses fine quali-
ties in flavor. It is not a good shipping melon.

McIver Sugar Melon. — A variety originating in

442 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

South Carolina, raised by Colonel E. R. Mclver, of Dar-

Fig. 152— Dixie Watermelon,
lington, and mentioned by the North Carolina Experi-
ment Station as standing next to the Jones in quality.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 443

The following are also classed as superior melons by
experimenters: Lone Star, Pride of Georgia, Scaly
Bark, Sugar Loaf.

See spraying calendar for remedies against diseases.

Culture. — The watermelon likes a deep, rich, sandy
soil. Where this plant is most successfully cultivated, it
always grows upon sand. The hills should be not less
than teu or twelve feet apart in warm climates, and seven
or eight at the North. Do not plant until the ground is
warm, and cultivate exactly in the same manner as the
muskmelon and cucumber. It should not be grown
within one hundred feet of other melons, gourds, etc., if
you would gather pure seed. Protect from insects as
directed in the article, Cucumber. The melon worm does
not annoy the watermelon.

Use. — This is a wholesome fruit, very popular in sum-
mer from its beauty and the refreshing coolness of its
juice. It is not very nutritious, as it contains ninety-five
per cent, of water. It is not by any means as nourishing
as the muskmelon, and lacks its peculiar rich flavor. The
outer rind is used for preserves. In many parts of Europe
the juice is boiled into a pleasant syrup, or made into
beer.

Marketing.— This is done in box-cars which are well
ventilated. The smaller melons are placed on the bottom
and the larger at the top. The smaller will stand pres-
sure better. Pack securely to prevent the melons from
moving about during transit.

HERBS FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES.

A few roots of the most useful of these should be found
in every garden. The medicinal properties of many of
them depend upon their aromatic qualities, and they are
never so fragrant and full of virtue when grown upon

444 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

ground highly manured. Chamomile, lavender, rose-
mary, rue, wormwood, and many others lose much of
their strength when forced into rank growth. Common
garden soil, without manuring, is quite good enough.
Whenever the plants begin to decline, take away the old
surface soil, and apply fresh, or set out new plants in
fresh ground

Medicinal, pot, or sweet herbs, as a general rule, should
be gathered when in bloom, and dried carefully and thor-
oughly in the shade. When thoroughly dry, press them
closely into paper bags, or powder them finely; sift, and
keep in closely-stopped bottles.

Angelica (Archangelica officinalis) is an Umbelliferous
biennial plant, growing from three to five feet high, and
a native of many parts of Northern Europe. The whole
plant is powerfully aromatic. Its roots have a fragrant,
agreeable odor, and at first a sweetish taste, which soon
turns acrid in the mouth. Its medical properties are
aromatic, stimulant, and gently tonic.

Its stalks were formerly blanched and eaten like
celery, but it is mostly cultivated to make a sweetmeat
from them when young and tender. They are also can-
died by the confectioners.

Sow the seed one foot apart in August or September,
and when they get about four inches high, the next
spring, set them in rows two feet apart each way. Though
the plant is only a biennial, yet by cutting down the seed-
stalk whenever it rises, the same plant may be preserved
several seasons. Angelica likes a moist, cool soil, such
as the banks of ditches.

Anise (Pimpinella dnisum) is an Umbelliferous annual,
a native of Egypt. It is cultivated for its seeds, and its
leaves, which are occasionally used as a garnish, and for
seasoning like fennel. The seeds have a fragrant, agree-

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE

445

able smell, and a sweetish, pleasant taste. They are use-
ful wherever an aromatic stimulant is required.

The plant grows
about eighteen inches
high. Sow the seed
where it is to stand in
spring, in a dry, light
soil, and thin out the
plants, if too thick, to
three or four inches
apart.

Balm (Melissa offici-
nalis) is a hardy, La-
biate - flowered peren-
nial, native of Switzer-
land and the south of
France, but has long
been cultivated in gar-
dens. It has an aro-
matic taste, and a
grateful, fragrant
smell, a little like
lemons.

It is a square-stem-
med plant, rising about
two feet high. It is
used in making balm
tea, a grateful drink in
fevers, and for forming
a pleasant beverage
called balm wine. It is
a great favorite with
the bees.

Any garden soil will do for balm. It is readily pro-
pagated either by slips, or by parting the roots in

Fig. 153- Bene.

446 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

spring. Plant ten inches apart, giving water if dry
weather.

Bene (Sesamum orientate) is an annual plant, and a
native of Africa and India. Introduced into this coun-
try by the negroes. It grows from three to six feet high,
bearing numerous pods, filled with smallish seed. These
are used for food in many parts of the world, and are also
cultivated for the oil with which they abound. The oil
resembles that of olives, and is nearly as good. The leaves
abound in mucilage; one or two stirred in a half pint of
water will form a bland mucilaginous drink very useful
in cholera infantum, dysentery, and summer complaints
generally. The leaves should be freshly gathered, and
enough may be added to make the water ropy without
affecting its color or taste.

Sow a row in spring, on the edge of a plot or border,
and thin out as the plants require room. A few plants
will furnish all the leaves desired.

Boneset, or Thoroughwort (Eupatorium perfoliatum),
is a Composite-flowered perennial, a native of most of the
United States, which, if not found growing wild in the
vicinity, should be cultivated, as it is one of the best
herbs in family practice. It has a faint odor, an intensely
bitter taste, and is slightly astringent. Its medicinal
virtues are diaphoretic, tonic, and in larger doses, emetic
and aperient. It is principally used as a diaphoretic in
colds, catarrhs, and rheumatism, in intermittent, remit-
tent and inflammatory diseases, or given cold as a tonic
in dyspepsia.

Boneset can be raised by transplanting the roots or
sowing the seed in spring.

Borage (Borago officinalis) is an annual European
plant. The tender tops, young leaves, and flowers are
sometimes used as a salad by the French, and boiled by
the Italians.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 447

Medicinally it was formerly thought endowed with
very great virtues, and numbered among the four cordial
flowers.

Old Gerard says: " Those of our time do use the flowers
in salads, and to exhilarate and to make the minde glad.
There be many things made of them used for the comfort
of the heart, to drive away sorrow and increase the joy
of the minde." The plant is not much used now except
as an ingredient in the drink called " a cool tankard,"
made of wine, water, lemon-juice, and sugar, to which a
few of the tender leaves seem to give additional coolness.

SowT early in spring, broadcast, and a little thinning
and weeding is all the attention that will be needed.

Caraway (Canon Card) is a native of England and
various other countries of Europe. It is a biennial, Um-
belliferous plant, wTell known to the ancients. Pliny men-
tions it. Caraway is cultivated for its aromatic seeds,
which are useful in confectionery, as in cakes, comfits,
etc., and the leaves are sometimes used in soups. The
roots are said to excel those of the parsnip, being for-
merly cooked and used in the same manner. Medicinally
the seeds are used in an infusion for flatulence. Sow in
autumn, or early spring, and thin so as to give each plant
ten inches of room. Keep free from wTeeds. Plants sown
in autumn wTill give seed the next season.

Chamomile (Anthemis nobilis) is a hardy, Composite-
flowered perennial, a native of England, cultivated for its
flowers, which have a bitter, aromatic taste, and are in
small doses a useful tonic, but given largely, act as an
emetic. An infusion of them improves digestion and
gives tone to the disordered stomach. The flowers are
sometimes chewed as a substitute for tobacco.

It is best propagated by dividing the roots in spring.
Keep the ground free from weeds. Plant nine inches
apart. As to varieties, the single-flowered has the most

448 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

virtue, but the double-flowered is most cultivated, from
its greater productiveness.

Clary (Salvia sclarea) is a Labiate-flowered biennial
from Italy. The leaves of this plant were formerly used
in soups, and its flowers are now made use of in a fer-
mented wine.

The medicinal virtues of the plant are cordial and as-
tringent, and it is used either in its fresh or dried state.
For propagation and culture, see Sage, which belongs
to the same genus. Clary, however, must be yearly re-
newed by fresh sowing. Thin the plants to fifteen inches
apart each way.

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is an Umbelliferous
annual from the East, and also grows naturally in the
south of Europe. Some like its tender leaves for soups
and salads, but it is raised mostly for its seeds, which
have a pleasant aromatic taste, though the smell is dis-
agreeable. Coriander seed is carminative and stomachic.
It is often used to disguise the taste of medicines, but it
is principally employed in confectionery.

Sow the seed in spring or autumn, where they are to
remain, in drills twelve inches apart. Thin the plants to
four inches, and keep free from weeds.

Dill (Anethum graveolens) belongs to the same genus
with Fennel, and is a biennial, Umbelliferous plant, a
native of Southern Europe, cultivated for its seeds, which
have an aromatic odor, and a warm, pungent and some-
what bitter taste. Medicinally, they are good for flatu-
lence and colic in infants. The leaves are sometimes used
for culinary purposes, and the seeds are occasionally
added to pickled cucumbers to heighten the flavor.

Sow the seeds either early in the spring, or soon after
they are ripe, in a light soil. Thin, if crowded, and keep
clean. The plants should be eight inches apart.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 449

Elecampane {Inula Eelenium) is a native of England
and Japan. It is a Composite-flowered, perennial plant,
cultivated for its thick, fleshy, carrot-like root, which is
useful as an aromatic tonic and expectorant. Cut up fine
and fed with their corn, the root is a great relief to the
distemper in horses.

It is propagated by offsets, or by parting the roots in
autumn or spring, but may also be grown from seeds
sown in the fall. It likes a moist soil, and the plants
should be fifteen inches apart.

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is a hardy, aromatic, per-
ennial, Umbelliferous plant from the south of Europe,
growing wild on the banks of rivers and perhaps quite as
properly belongs to the culinary as to the medicinal de-
partment of the garden. It has a finely divided leaf, and
tall, umbel-bearing stems, crowned with small yellow
flowers.

Culture. — Fennel will grow in almost any soil. It is
propagated by offsets, parting the roots, or by seed; all
which modes may be successfully practiced at any time
in autumn or spring.

The best season, however, for sowing the seed is when
it ripens in the fall. The seed may be sown moderately
thick in drills (which should be twelve inches apart)
about half an inch deep, and the earth pressed upon them.
When the young plants are four or five inches high, thin
them out to twelve inches. Those taken up may be
planted out to enlarge the bed. Water them freely, if
the weather is dry. Keep the plants free from wTeeds,
which is all the cultivation required. If the seed is not
desired, the stems should be cut down as often as they
run up; for if allowed to ripen seed, the old plants will
last but a few years. But this is of little consequence, as
plenty of self-grown seedlings will be ready to take their
place. Eight or ten roots are enough for any family. It

29

450 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

should be kept within proper limits, as it is much inclined
to spread.

Use. — Fennel is a good deal used in continental Europe
in soups, fish-sauces, garnishes, and salads. It is also con-
siderably used in England, but less with us. The Italians
blanch and eat the stalks of one variety called Finochie,
like celery. A little fennel seed sometimes gives an agree-
able variety in flavoring apple-sauce and pies. But it is
most used medicinally. The seeds are carminative and
stimulant, and in an infusion are excellent for the flatu-
lent colic of infants.

Horehouxi) (MarruUum vulgare) is a hardy, Labiate-
flowered, perennial plant, a native of most parts of
Europe, growing in waste grounds, among rubbish, in
warm, dry situations. It has a strong aromatic smell,
and a bitter, pungent taste, which is permanent in the
mouth; medicinally, horehound is a tonic, somewhat
stimulant and diuretic, and, in large doses, laxative. It
enters largely into the composition of cough syrups and
lozenges.

Sow the seeds in the spring in any common soil. It
scarcely needs any attention. It may also be propagated
by dividing the roots. Plant eighteen inches apart.

Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) is a Labiate-flowered,
hardy, evergreen undershrub, from the south of Europe,
of which the leaves and flower-spikes are the parts used
medicinally. It has an aromatic odor, and a warm, pun-
gent taste. It is stimulant and expectorant.

Hyssop is propagated by slips, or dividing the roots, or
by sowing the seed in the spring. Transplant the young-
plants to where they are to remain, or you may thin them
to six inches apart, and leave them in the seed-bed until
autumn before transplanting. It likes a dry, sandy soil,
and about eighteen inches space should be given to each
plant.

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 451

Lavender (Lavandula vera) is a Labiate-flowered
undershrub, a native of the south of Europe, and hardy
south of New York. It is cultivated for its fragrant
spikes of flowers, which are used for the distillation of
lavender-water. Being dried, and put up in paper bags,
they are also used to perfume linen. Both flowers and
leaves are very aromatic. It has an agreeable pungent
bitterness to the taste, and its medicinal properties are
stimulant, cordial, and stomachic. There are three varie-
ties— the narrow-leaved, one sort with blue and the other
with white flowers, and the broad-leaved lavender.

Lavender may be propagated by seeds, slips, or cut-
tings. Sow the seed in drills ten inches apart, in spring,
and transplant the next spring to a dry soil of but
medium richness, and it will be more highly aromatic.
Give each plant about two feet of space; for drying,
gather the flowers before they begin to turn brown at the
lower part of the spike.

Liquorice (GlyeyrrJiiza glabra) is a Leguminous, hardy
perennial from Southern Europe, the saccharine juice of
the fleshy root of which is useful in catarrhs, fevers, etc.
Its taste is sweet and mucilaginous, and it is much used
as a demulcent, either alone or combined with other
substances.

A few roots of this plant, when once started, will be of
very little trouble in the garden. The plant is propagated
early in spring by cuttings of the roots. Dig the soil at
least two feet deep. Take the horizontal roots of estab-
lished plants, five or six inches long. Every shoot planted
should have at least two eyes; make the rows three feet
apart, and the plant twelve to fifteen inches in the row,
and cover the roots well with mould. Onions,, lettuce, or
radishes may be grown between the rows the first year;
afterwards keep the soil free from weeds, dress the sur-
face with manure every autumn, and at the end of the

452 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

third year take up the crop as soon as the leaves are fully
decayed, and dry the roots thoroughly. In shallow or
poor ground, it will not succeed.

Mint (Mentha). — Three species of this genus of Labiate
plants are cultivated, all hardy perennials, natives of
Britain.

Spearmint (Mentha vifidis) belongs rather to the culi-
nary than the medicinal department of the garden. It is
employed in sauces and salads, as well as dried for soups
in winter. A few sprigs of mint, boiled a little time with
them, and then withdrawn, are thought by some to im-
prove the flavor of green peas. Its is also used in pre-
paring mint-julep. Its medicinal properties are aromatic,
stimulant, and stomachic. The leaves, boiled in milk,
are useful in diarrhea. Its infusion is good to prevent
nausea. There are two varieties — the broad and narrow-
leaved — equally good.

PErPERMiNT (M. piperita) has a strong, agreeable odor,
a pungent, aromatic taste, giving a sensation of coldness
in the mouth. Its medical properties are aromatic, stimu-
lant, and stomachic. The essential oil and essence are
the forms in which it is employed in medicine, and they
are also largely used in confectionery and cordials.

Pennyroyal (M. Pukgium) is more acrid than the
other mints, and its taste and smell are less agreeable. It
possesses their warm, pungent flavor, and other general
properties, but is not so good a stomachic. The American
pennyroyal belongs to a different genus, Hedeomd.

All these species require a tenacious soil, which is all
the better if moist, or even wet.

A border sheltered from the midday sun, but not en-
tirely secluded from its influence, is always to be allotted
them, as in such a situation they are most vigorous and
constant in production.

They are readily propagated by dividing the roots in

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AXD CULTURE. 453

the winter or spring, or by cuttings planted in moist soil
during summer. Plant in rows nine inches apart each
way, and cover the roots about two inches deep. In
autumn clean off the old stems, and add two inches of
mould to the raked surface. Through the summer remove
grass and weeds. Make new beds every three or four
years.

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is a Labiate-flowered,
hardy, evergreen undershrub, a native of the south of
Europe. It has a fragrant, grateful odor, and a warm,
aromatic, bitter taste. Its medicinal virtues are tonic.

It was formerly believed that this plant gave strength
to the memory. The tender tops are the parts used in
medicine.

Rosemary may be raised from seed, or by planting slips
or cuttings in the spring or autumn. Sow the seed in
drills sixteen inches apart. Transplant the next spring
or autumn. Two or three plants will be enough.

Rue (Ruta graveolens) is a perennial evergreen under-
shrub of the Rue family from the south of Europe. It
flowers all summer, and is very well known from its
peculiar strong, unpleasant smell. Its taste is bitter and
pungent, and the leaves so acrid as to blister the skin.
It is a very powerful medicinal agent, too much so to be
generally used in family practice.

Rue is propagated by seeds, cuttings, or slips. It must
not have a very rich soil, nor be suffered to run to seed.
Sow the seed and cultivate as hyssop.

Sage (Salvia officinalis) is a Labiate-flowered, hardy
evergreen undershrub, a native of the south of Europe.
It has been cultivated from the earliest times, was
classed among the heroic remedies, and considered the
best of medicines for prolonging human life. An old
Latin adage is " Cur moriatur homo cui salvia crescit in

454 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

liorto? " " Why should a man die while sage is growing
in his garden? " It grows about two feet high, with
wrinkled ashy green leaves, and terminal blue flowers
in long spikes. It has a fragrant smell and a warm, bit-
terish aromatic taste.

Culture. — Sage is raised from seed, slips, or cuttings.
It likes a dry, fertile soil. How the seeds on a gentle hot-
bed, or in the open ground early in spring, in shallow
drills, eight inches apart. Press the earth upon the seed,
covering them not over half an inch deep. Thin the
plants, when well up, to half a foot apart, planting those
taken up at a similar distance. Keep the soil light and
free from weeds. In the autumn, or the next spring,
plant them out in rows eighteen inches each way. Layers
and rooted offsets may be set out at once at this distance.
Cuttings of the outward shoots of the current year's
growth, planted out in a shady border, in moist weather,
readily take root; set them in rows six inches apart. In
autumn or spring, take them carefully up and set them
out in their final stations. Trim the plants to a round,
bushy head. Gather and dry the leaves for winter use,
but do not trim the plants too closely, especially in
autumn or winter.

Use. — The leaves are used for seasoning stuffings,
sauces, and many kinds of meat, as well as to improve
the flavor of various other articles of cookery. Medici-
nally, its infusion is given warm as a sudorific, or mingled
with vinegar and alum, is an excellent gargle in sore
throat. It is stated by Bomare that it was exported
formerly by the Dutch to China, and it was so much pre-
ferred by the Chinese to their own tea, that they will-
ingly exchanged two boxes of it for one of sage.

Southernwood (Artemisia Abrotanum) is a hardy ever-
green, with fragrant, finely-divided leaves, nearly allied
to wormwood, both being species of the same genus, and

VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION AND CULTURE. 455

similar as to medical properties. Like wormwood, it has
a grateful odor, but it is uot much used iu medicine from
its nauseous taste,
worth cultivating;

For culture, see Hyssop.

Tansy {Tanacetum vulgare) is a hardy, Composite-
flowered perennial, a native of Europe, long cultivated
in gardens. It was formerly used to give flavor to pud-
dings and omelets.

Its medicinal properties are tonic and stomachic. It is
also a vermifuge. It was formerly of very general use in
the preparation of alcoholic bitters.

Divide the roots, and set out a few slips in autumn or
spring. After it is well rooted, be careful you do not get
too much of it. There are two varieties — the common
and the curled.

Wormwood {Artemisia Absinthium) is a native of
Europe, and is a hardy, Composite-flowered perennial,
cultivated much in gardens. Its odor is strong and fra-
grant, and its taste aromatic, but intensely bitter. It is
cultivated for the tops or extremities of the branches. Its
properties are tonic and diuretic, and it is a vermifuge.

Wormwood likes a calcareous soil, and may be raised
either by cuttings, seeds, or dividing the roots. Culti-
vated same as hyssop, the roots being eighteen inches
apart. A dry, poor soil is necessary to bring out the
peculiar virtues of this plant.

Roman Wormwood (JL. Poutica) is less nauseous than
the preceding, and generally preferred.

456 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

CHAPTER XVI.

FRUITS — VARIETIES AND CULTURE.
ALMOND. — (Amygdalus comm unis.)

The Almond is a native of Asia and Northern Africa.
It is a tree of medium size, nearly allied to the peach in
habit and general appearance. The leaves are similar to
the peach, having glands like some varieties of the latter
fruit, and flowers of similar shape, but much larger and
more ornamental, varying in color from pure white to a
fine blush. The chief difference is in the fruit, the stone
of the almond being flatter, not so hard, and covered with
a woolly skin that opens spontaneously when the kernel
is ripe.

In Southern Europe the almond is much cultivated,
and large quantities of nuts exported. The kernel is the
part used; the sweet varieties, whether green or dry, form
a very nutritious article of food, and a most agreeable
addition to the dessert. Almonds are used in confection-
ery, cooking, perfumery, and medicine. The bitter
almond is the kind used in perfumery and flavoring; it
contains prussic acid, which, though a violent poison, is
not thought injurious in the small quantities required
for these purposes.

Cultivation. — A warm, dry soil is most suitable for the
almond, which is cultivated exactly like the peach, and
is subject to the same diseases; it may be budded on the
almond, peach, or plum stock. The almond cannot be
successfully cultivated in the middle or northern portions
of the South. The varieties are:

Common Almond. — Nuts one and one-fourth inch long,
hard, smooth, compressed, and pointed, with a kernel of

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 457

agreeable flavor. The hardiest and most productive
variety, and is the common hard-shelled almond of the
shops; flowers open before the leaves appear.

The Princess and Sultana are varieties extensively
cultivated in Europe and produce nuts with thin shells.
They are prolific and excellent varieties. Another Euro-
pean variety is Pistache, which yields a nut of a delicate
sweetness.

THE APPLE.— (Pyrus Malus.)

The Apple probably originated from the European
Crab, but centuries of cultivation and reproduction from
seeds of new and improved varieties have brought it to
its present state of perfection in quality, size and beauty.

Where the apple can be grown and preserved in perfec-
tion, it is the most useful of fruits. Varieties can be
selected which will afford a succession through the entire
year.

They can be thus preserved in our own mountain
region, from which excellent fruit is brought as late as
the month of May. The best varieties are excellent
dessert fruits. For the table, they are prepared in many
ways, as baking, stewing, in pies, tarts, puddings, dump-
lings, jellies, and preserves. They are also dried for
winter use.

The best mode of propagating the apple is by budding
or grafting on seedling stocks. For the raising of stocks,
the seed should be sown in the fall, or early winter, in
good soil, in rows eighteen inches apart. Transplant them
in rows four feet apart, and one foot apart in the row. If
any of the plants become infested with woolly aphis,
wash them with tobacco water. The young grafted trees
should be planted in the orchard when one or two years
old, at distances of twenty-five to thirty feet apart.

Analysis shows that one-half the ash of the bark of the
apple, and over one-sixth of that of the sap-wood, is lime.

458 GAKDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

When this mineral is not abundant in the soil, the tree
cannot be kept healthy. Swamp muck or leaf mould,
composted with lime and bone-dust, or ashes, are the best
manures for the apple tree. The best soil for the apple,
in this climate, is a deep, cool, moist loam; a northern, or
northwest aspect, is preferable to any other. One of the
greatest difficulties to be encountered in the cultivation
of the apple is the sun-burning of the trunk, which can
be prevented by training the trees with low heads, so as
to shade their trunks from the rays of the sun.

Fig. 154.

By shortening in the branches of the young trees, when
transplanted into garden or orchard, they can be made to
put out branches about two feet from the ground, which
is about the proper height to form a good top. The apple
tree needs but little pruning; removing the water-sprouts
and such limbs as cross each other is about all that is
required.

The following varieties are of general interest and are
adapted to most sections of the South :

Arkansas (Black Twig). — Good average size, round

FEUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 45 9»

oval, with a glossy surface and yellowish red; lighter
colored dots; flesh yellow and fine grained; flavor mild,
with a subacid juicy taste; ripens late. Originated in
Arkansas. Useful for marketing and kitchen purposes.
Baldwin. — Average size, oval conical, yellowish red
in color; mild flavor, with rich subacid taste; good winter
apple, and very productive.

Fig. 155.

Ben Davis. — Large, round and yellow striped; flavor
mild; flesh light colored; late in ripening; good for
market purposes.

Bough. — Large size; oblate in form; skin bright yel-
low; thickly dotted with russet specks; stalk rather long,
in a deep, narrow cavity; calyx deeply sunk; flesh white,
juicy, and very sweet; tree a poor grower.

Byers, Buckingham, Batchelor. — This very popular
apple is known by fifteen or twenty names, but generally
called Buckingham. Fruit large to very large; a little
oblate in form, narrowing toward the eye; skin rich yel-

460

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

Fig. 157.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

401

low, nearly covered with bright red ; dark crimson on the
side exposed to the sun, sprinkled with white specks;
calyx small, open, in a rather deep basin; stalk very
short and fleshy, inserted in a moderate sized cavity,
which is russeted; flesh white, tender, fine grained, juicy

Fig. 158.

and rich, of a subacid flavor. Ripens in October. A
splendid fruit.

Buff. — Fruit of the largest size, roundish and some-
what ribbed and angular; skin thick; ground color yel-
low, but striped and shaded with dull red, marked with
a few greenish spots [stem three-fourths of an inch long,
in a medium cavity; calyx in a large, irregular basin;
flesh yellowish, and, when well ripened, tender and good,
sometimes indifferent. Ripens October to March.

Camak's Sweet. — Fruit medium to large; nearly
round; dull, whitish-green, mottled with green russet, the
patches of which are made up with small dots, with a

462

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fig. 159.

Fig. 160.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTDEE.

463

dull blush cheek toward the suu; stem short aud slender;
cavity aud basiu broad; calyx closed; flesh firm and ten-
der; scarcely sweet, juicy and fine flavored; best. Keeps
until February.

Carolina Aromatic. — Fruit large size; oblate in form,
tapering to the eye; stalk short and fleshy, in a deep, wide
cavity; calyx in a wide, shallow basin; color green,

Fig. 161.

striped with dull crimson, and covered with white bloom;
juicy and of a fine aromatic flavor. Tree a vigorous
grower and very productive. Ripens July 15th to August
1st.

Carnation. — Medium size; a delicious subacid apple;
dark red, splashed with russet; flesh white, brittle and
very juicy; both stalk and calyx are sunk in deep depres-
sions; no autumn apple is superior; ripens August 10th.

Cullasaga. — Large, regular, and a little conical; skin
yellow, and nearly covered with crimson; calyx small, in
2i moderate basin; stem short and fleshy; flesh yellow,

404

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fig. 162.

Fig. 163.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

465

tender and juicy, of a line aromatic flavor. Ripens in
October; A first-rate variety; a seedling from the Horse
Apple, by Miss Ann Bryson, of North Carolina.

Disharoon. — Fruit large, nearly round; skin thin, pale
green ; stem about three-fourths of an inch long, slender,
inserted in a moderate sized cavity; calyx open, of com-
mon size, in a small basin; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy,
and of an excellent mild, acid, aromatic flavor. Ripens
in September. A native of Habersham county, Georgia.

Fig. 164.

Early Harvest. — Fruit medium to large size, round,
sometimes flattened; skin smooth, with a few white dots,
and of a pale yellow color; stalk half to three-fourths of
an inch long, slender, in a moderate cavity; calyx in a
shallow basin; flesh white, tender, juicy, crisp; flavor
rich, sprightly, and subacid. One of the best northern
varieties; ripens from the 15th to the 20th of June.

Fall Pippin. — Fruit very large, roundish, flattened,
obscurely ribbed; stalk three-fourths of an inch long, in
a deep, narrow cavity; calyx small, in a deep, narrow
basin; flesh tender and mellow, with a rich, aromatic,
subacid flavor. A splendid apple here. Ripens in August.

30

466

GARDEXIKG FOR THE SOUTH.

Fig. 166.

FBUITS VARIETIES AAD CULTURE.

467

Hockett's Sweet. — This apple originated in North
Carolina; medium size; round oval; yellow reddish
striped; sweet flavor, and rich in taste; flesh yellow, but
coarse grained. Ripens in winter.

Hall. — Originated in North Carolina; small apple,
oblate conical; red in color with russet dots; mild flavor
with yellowish flesh, and aromatic flavor; suitable for
dessert. Ripens in winter.

Fig. 167.

Horse. — Size medium to large; conical in form; skin
thick, golden yellow, when thoroughly ripe, with a blush
cheek on the sunny side, a little russeted about the stem;
stem short, and rather large, in a shallow cavity; calyx
in a narrow basin; core large and hollow; seeds few;
flesh yellow, firm, coarse grained, with a rich acid flavor.
Best known variety for drying. Ripens August first.
Tree vigorous and very productive.

Julian. — Fruit medium size, roundish, tapering some-
what to the eye; calyx small, in a narrow basin; stem
short, in a moderate cavity; skin thin, yellowish-white,

468

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fig. 168.

Fig. 169.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 469

beautifully striped and marbled with carmine; the fruit
is of a delicate, waxen appearance; flesh white, tender,
juicy, and fine flavored. The best summer apple known;
tree a fine grower and very productive. Ripens the mid-
dle of July; rarely affected by worms.

Jonathan. — Medium size; round conical; yellowish-
red striped; flesh white, mild in flavor and juicy; suitable
for dessert and market; keeps well; winter apple. Origi-
nated in North Carolina.

Fig. 170.

Limbertwig. — Fruit large, dull red; flesh yellowish
firm; not very high flavored; round oblate conical; winter;
suitable for market. The pendant branches give the tree
its name. It originated in Virginia.

Maiden's Blush. — Fruit medium size; flat, smooth,
and fair; skin thin, clear lemon 3^ellow, with a fine blush
to the sun; stalk short, in a wide, deep cavity; calyx
closed, in a moderate basin ; flesh white, tender, sprightly,
subacid. Excellent for drying and culinary uses, and a
fair dessert fruit. Ripens the first of July.

470

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fig. 171.

rig. 1:

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

471

Mangum. — Size small to medium; regular, slightly
conical; stalk small, in a narrow cavity; color green;
nearly covered with dark red stripes; flesh yellow and
firm; of excellent quality and keeps until March.

Mountain Bell. — Size medium to large; oblate and
conical; color an orange ground, shaded and striped with
red; stem short, in a wide, deep cavity; calyx in a mode-
rate size, smooth basin; flesh white, hard and juicy, a
little rough in texture, and of a fair, subacid flavor.

Fig. 173.

Ripens November to Mav. Second quality, but a famous
keeper. A native of Habersham county, Georgia; found
in an old Indian field by J. Van Buren.

Meigs (Buncombe, Red Winter Pearmain, Red Fall
Pippin). — Fruit large, regular, oblong, narrowing to the
eye, sometimes slightly ribbed; skin yellow, but mostly
covered with a marbling red, and sprinkled with promi-
nent yellow dots; calyx small, closed, and set in a narrow
basin; stalk very short, thick, in a deep, narrow cavity;
flesh yellowish white, tender, juicy, with a rich, slightly
subacid flavor. A fine native variety. Tree thrifty, and

472

GAEDENTNG FOE THE SOUTH.

Fig. 174.

Fig. 175.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 473

less infested with woolly aphis than many others. Ripens
in September.

Margaret (Early Red, Striped June). — Small apple,
owish red, with russet; basin shallow,
mild flavor, quality fair; suitable for
dessert; ripens in summer.

Nickajack. — Fruit large to very large, of an oblate
form; color a yellow ground, striped with dark red,
sprinkled with russet specks; calyx large and open, set in

Fig. 176.

a broad, shallow basin; stem short, in a regular cavity;
flesh juicy, tender and rich, mild acid. Ripens late and
keeps well until April. Originated by John Summerour,
of Burke county, North Carolina.

Oconee Greening. — Medium size, and resembles the
Disharoon a good deal in external appearance, but keeps
well much longer, and is of a more acid flavor. Originated
in Georgia. Good dessert apple. Ripens in Autumn.

Red June. — Fruit medium size, generally oblong in
form; skin smooth, green in the shade, changing rapidly,

474

GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

Fig. 177.

Fig. 178.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

475

at maturity, to a fine dark crimson; stem half to three-
fourths of an inch long, inserted in a moderate cavity;
calyx in a shallow basin; flesh white, tender, mellow,
and digestible, fine grained, slightly acid, moderately
juicy, but not rich. A fine fruit, and very productive;
tree very liable to be attacked by the borer.

Red Astrachan. — Originated in Russia; large fruit,
round, conical; bright red with a bloom; acid flavor; flesh

Fig. 179.

white; excellent market apple and good for cooking pur-
poses. Tree is vigorous and productive. Ripens in early
summer.

Romanite. — Small fruit; round conical; yellowish red
in color; mild flavor and quality very good; suitable for
the mountain regions. A good dessert apple. Ripens in
late winter.

Rome Beauty. — Large apple, round conical; yellow
with red stripes; flavor mild; juicy and fine grained.
Ripens in autumn or late summer. The large and fine

476

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fig. 180.

Fig. 181.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 477

appearance of this apple makes it an excellent market
variety.

Shockley (Waddel's Hall). — Fruit medium, round-
ish, oblong, narrowing to the eye; skin yellow, clouded,
and striped with red, and with blotches of very dark-
greenish russet; stalk long, slender, inserted in a deep,
narrow cavity; calyx closed, set in a shallow basin; flesh
firm; saccharine; of good second-rate flavor; ripe in Octo-
ber, and will keep till March.

Fig. 182.

Summer Queen. — Large fruit, round conical; yellow,
with red stripes; long stalk in small cavity; flesh yellow
with an acid flavor. Ripens in summer. A good market
apple.

Stephenson. — This apple originated in Alabama.
Medium size, round oblong; yellow with red stripes;
quality fair, with a mild taste; a good dessert and market
apple, with excellent keeping qualities. The tree is
vigorous and prolific. Ripens in late winter.

Sops of Wine (Homony, Summer Queen of Kentucky).
An average size, round; dark yellowish red ; long stalk;

478

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

flesh white, mild in taste and good flavor. Ripens in
summer. An excellent apple for market. Tree good
bearer; prolific.

Smokehouse. — Originated in Pennsylvania, but a very
popular apple in Virginia; rather large, round oblate;
3fellow with irregular red stripes; .flesh yellowish white
with a fine flavor. An excellent cooking and market
apple. Ripens in late summer to autumn.

Fig. 183.

Taunton. — Originated in Alabama or Georgia; large
apple, oblate conical; yellow with red stripes; acid flavor,
and good quality; fine for market, and an open grower.
Ripens in winter.

Watson (Carolina). — Very large, oblate conical; green
with red stripes; flavor and quality good. Ripens in sum-
mer. A prolific and profitable market fruit.

White Juneating.— Quite a small apple, round
oblate; yellowish red; good flavor; long, slender stalk in

-VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

479

a shallow cavity; suitable for cooking purposes. Ripens
in summer. Productive.

Winesap. — Medium size, round oblong; bright yellow-
ish red; stalk slender and average length; flesh yellow,
with an acid flavor. Ripens in late winter. Good market
and dessert apple.

Yellow June. — Fruit medium size; form rather flat;
stem short, in a deep cavity; calyx large and open, in a
moderate basin; skin thin, and of greenish-yellow color;
flesh yellowish, tender and juicy. An excellent variety,

Fig. 184— York Imperial. Div. Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agri.

and worthy a place in every garden. Ripens from th<>
15th to the 20th of June.

Yorp. — Originated in Georgia. Large fruit; greenish
yellow, with red; very good flavor and quality; prolific;
bears young. Ripens in summer.

York Imperial (Johnson's Fine Winter). — Large,
oblate and oblique; yellow with red stripes; flavor good;
flesh yellow, juicy. A fine shipping variety, which origi-
nated in Pennsylvania. Ripens in autumn.

Yellow7 Newtown Pippin (Albemarle Pippin). — Size
medium to large, round oblate; yellow with a lively red
cast; smooth with russet marks at the stem; flavor very

480

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

rich; flesh firm, crisp and juicy; highly fragrant. Ripens
very late or in winter, and is an excellent dessert and
market apple. It is grown to perfection in Albemarle
county, Virginia.

The varieties of apples best adapted to the different
sections of the South may be classified as follows:

Virginia.
Summer Varieties: Bough, Carolina, Early Harvest,
Jefferis, Maiden's Blush, Margaret (Striped June), Red

Fig. 185.

June, Red Astrachan, Smokehouse, Sops of Wine, Sum-
mer Queen, White Juneating.

Autumn. — Baldwin, Buckingham, Cullasaga, Fall
Pippin, Rome Beauty, York Imperial.

Winter. — Ben Davis, Jonathan, Limbertwig, Nicka-
jack, Romanite, Shockley, Winesap, Yellow Newtown
Pippin (Albemarle).

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 481

North and South Carolina and Georgia.

Summer. — Early Harvest, Family, Horse, Julian,
Maiden's Blush, Margaret (Striped June), Red Astrachan,
Red June, Sops of Wine, Summer Queen, Yellow June.

Autumn. — Buckingham, Carter's Blue, Disharoon,
Meigs (Buncombe), Oconee, Rome Beauty, Taunton.

Winter. — Ben Davis, Camak, Hockett, Mangum, Nick-
ajack, Paragon, Romanite, Shockley, Stephenson, Yates.

Alabama, Mississippi, North Louisiana, West Tennessee, South
Arkansas, and East Texas.

Summer. — Bough, Carolina Watson, Early Harvest
(Northeast Alabama), Family, Horse, Julian, Margaret
(Northeast Alabama), Rome Beauty (Northeast Ala-
bama), Red Astrachan, Sops of Wine (Northeast Ala-
bama), Summer Queen (Northeast Alabama), White
Juneating, Yellow June.

Autumn. — Arkansas, Buckingham, Carter's Blue, Dis-
haroon, Oconee, Taunton.

Winter. — Camack, Hockett, Horn, Romanite, Shock-
ley, Stephenson, Winesap, Yates,

East Tennessee and Kentucky.

Summer. — Early Harvest, Horse, Maiden's Blush,
Margaret, Red Astrachan, Red June, Summer Queen,
White Juneating.

Autumn. — Buckingham, Fall Pippin, Rome Beauty,
York Imperial.

Winter. — Ben Davis, Paragon, Winesap.

Texas.
Summer. — Bough, Red Astrachan, Red June, Horse.
Autumn. — Black Twig, Fall Pippin, Rome Beauty,
Buckingham.

Winter. — Ben Davis, Jonathan, Nickajack, Meigs,
Paragon, Shockley, Winesap.
31

482 GAKDENING FOE TIIE SOUTH.

Florida and South Louisiana.
Summer. — Tied Astrachan, Jennings.

Gathering the Fruit. — Apples intended for keeping, or
sending to market, should be carefully picked from the
tree, and handled with care, to prevent bruising. Those
that fall of themselves must be kept separate, as the least
bruise will cause decay. They must be frequently looked
over, and every one the least decayed must be removed,
or it will infect the others. They should be kept at a
uniform temperature, in a dry, cool situation. Choice
specimens may be wrapped in absorbent paper, and laid
singly on shelves. They should not be exposed to much
frost, and still less to extremes of heat. Specimens may
thus be kept in good condition until March. A fruit room
should be kept as cool us possible, and if the temperature
could be uniformly at 32°, no decay would take place.

In selecting varieties for cultivation, preference should,
as far as practicable, be given to those of southern origin.
Of northern varieties, those classed as summer apples
succeed very well here. Some of the early autumn varie-
ties also do well, and, of course, are summer apples with
us. But the winter apples, as a class, are entirely un-
suited to the Southern States. The last few years have
developed, with us, a very large number of as choice and
beautiful varieties of winter apples as can be found any-
where, so thai we can have an abundant supply during
the entire year.

Marketing. — It does not pay to ship inferior fruit of
any character, and this is especially true with apples,
where there is such great competition. Store the apples
for a short while in order to give them an opportunity
to shrink and sweat. By this method the inferior grades
will become more evident. Use barrels of the best make;

FRUITS — -VARIETIES AiSJD CULTURE. 483

it is poor economy to ship in poor barrels. 1'ack carefully,
shaking now and then to insure the thorough settling of
the fruit, thus making a compact safe package. " Every
barrel should be faced, but the facing should be properly
done, in order to make the barrel look attractive, but not
to deceive. The object of this facing is to have two flat
layers at the top, steins upward. Select nice, bright,
smooth fruit for the purpose, but the size of the apples
used for facing should be an accurate indication of the
average size of the entire contents of the barrel. The
facing is done first in packing the barrel, the lirst two
layers being put in the bottom, stems down, this becom-
ing the top when open. The head is best put in with a
screw press. W hen practicable, apples should be packed
by an experienced workman. The stencil marking should
be placed on the top, the stenciling carefully done, and
the variety plainly indicated. The neat appearance of
the barrel often makes quite a difference in the price
obtained. Stenciling should always be done on the faced
end, as it marks the top, which commission merchants
always open." (Farmers' Bulletin 62.)

APRICOT. — ( Primus Armeniaca.)
The Apricot is a fruit somewhat resembling both the
plum and the peach. The tree is ornamental as well as
useful; larger than the plum, with glossy, heart-shaped,
large leaves and white blossoms, which appear so early
that they are usually killed by spring frosts. P>ut, as with
the nectarine, the great obstacle to its culture is the cur-
culio, which may be treated as in the case of that fruit.
In favorable seasons the apricot is very productive. The
apricot is a native of Armenia and other parts of Central
Asia. In quality, it is second only to the peach, but,
coming earlier, it is very acceptable.

For jellies, tarts, and preserving in brandy or sugar, it
is much esteemed, and is excellent when dried as directed

484 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

for the peach. The apricot is generally budded on the
plum stock; it is sometimes propagated on its own root,
and also upon the peach. The plum is the hardier stock,
and makes the better tree. It may be root-grafted on the
Chickasaw plum. Those propagated by seed are usually
very hardy and productive. On the peach stock, the tree
is liable to be destroyed by the borer, and the fruit is
inferior.

Apricots are apt to bloom so early in the spring that it
is best to plant them in a northern exposure, where they
will be retarded in blooming; by the side of a building
there is less danger of frost. It is just as necessary to
shorten in the young branches of the apricot as those of
the peach.

The best soil is a deep loam; cultivate and manure the
same as the peach. The hardiest apricots are the Dubois,
Early Golden, Orange, and Breda.

Dubois ok Early Golden. — Fruit small, roundish
oval; pale orange color, moderately juicy, sweet and
good; very productive and hardy. Ripens June 10th.

Large Early. — Fruit medium size, oblong and com-
pressed; suture deep; skin slightly downy, pale orange
in the shade, ruddy in the sun; flesh yellow, and separates
from the stone, rich and juicy; kernel bitter. Ripens
June 10th.

Orange. — Fruit medium, roundish, with suture hol-
lowed at the stalk; skin orange, with a ruddy tinge; flesh
dark orange, rather dry, and somewhat adhesive to the
stone, which is small and roundish; kernel sweet; not first
rate, but good for pies and tarts, preserving or drying;
a good bearer. Ripens June 10th.

Peach. — Fruit very large, roundish; sides compressed,
and with a distinct suture; skin yellow, but deep orange,
mottled with brown, in the sun; flesh deep yellow, rich
and delicious; the best variety in cultivation; stone
rough. Ripens last of June.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 485

Breda. — Small, roundish; color deep yellow, darker in
the sun; flesh deep orange; high flavored, rich and juicy,
separating from the stone; kernel sweet; a native of
Africa; hardy, productive and fine for the dessert or pre-
serves. Ripens middle of June.

Moorpark. — Large, roundish oval; skin orange, with
a ruddy cheek; flesh bright orange, free from the stone,
juicy, and of rich, luscious flavor; stone perforated;
hardly differs from the peach apricot, not quite so large,
and a little later. Ripens July 20th. Very productive.

Hemskirke. — Fruit large, roundish, but considerably
compressed ou its side; skin orange, with a red cheek;
flesh bright orange, tender, rather more juicy than the
Moorpark, with a rich, luscious flavor; stone small and
kernel bitter. Ripens July 1st.

Royal. — Fruit round, large, slightly compressed; skin
dull yellow, with a darker cheek, faintly tinged with red;
with a slightly marked suture; flesh pale orange, firm and
juicy, with a rich, vinous flavor. Ripeus July 1st.

Musch. — Fruit average size, rouud; skin yellow-
orange. Ripens in middle summer. Grows successfully
in Alabama and Georgia.

Santa Fe. — This fruit originated in Florida, and is one
of the best apricots for the extreme South. Flowers begin
showing late enough to avoid danger from frosts, and
matures fruit the last of May or first of June. Fruit
medium size, yellow with red-brown dots; flesh light yel-
low; quality best; freestone.

Hubbard. — Named in honor of ex-Governor Hubbard,
of Texas, who imported it from Japan. Succeeds well in
Texas and Louisiana. Fruit rather large; yellow in color
and good flavor.

Bungo. — A Japanese apricot; fruit bright yellow and
good quality.

FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTUIiE. 487

BANANA. — ( Musa sapientium.)

Several varieties of this fruit have been in cultivation
throughout Florida and along the coast of South Caro-
lina, Georgia, Alabama and Louisiana for many years.
But, like all other sub-tropical fruits, it attains its best
condition in growth and perfection of fruit far south in
Florida, some bunches containing as many as ^00
bananas.

The varieties in general cultivation in Florida are:

Baracoa. — The red Jamaica variety, with large fruit,
good quality and red in color. This is the ordinary com-
mercial variety.

Cavendish. — Also known as "Dwarf," "Chinese,"
"Martinique" {M. (Javendishii), medium size, yellow and
excellent quality of fruit; a dwarf species.

Golden. — Fruit large, yellow and of good quality.

These three are the best market varieties.

Hart's Choice (J/, orient tan). — Ranges farther north
than the Baracoa, Cavendish or Golden. Small growth;
sometimes called fig banana; quality excellent; yellow in
color, ltipens sooner than other varieties.

Orinoco or " Horse " Banana (M. paradissica). —
Hardy, and grows farther north than any other variety;
quality of fruit fair; large and yellow in color.

The banana is propagated by suckers or offsets. When
the fruit ripens the plant dies down to the ground, and
several shoots afterwards put forth from the roots. All
of these should be cut out and transplanted except two
or three of different ages, which, when they grow to
maturity, will ripen their fruits in successive years. In
transplanting the offsets or tuckers the land must be
well prepared and holes about two feet deep dug and
an ample supply of fertilizer containing potash and

488

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

vegetable mould added. Ashes and stable manure are
excellent. The rows are run nine feet apart, and the
plants are placed in these rows eight to nine feet apart,
each plant opposite the vacant space in the next row.
Marketing. — The banana is sold to the fruit-dealer on
the bunch. The shipment is made either in barrels or
barrel-crates, with the fruit packed in straw, or placed
snugly in fruit-cars, when shipped in large quantities to
one dealer, with each bunch wrapped with straw or paper
to protect from bruising.

THE BLACKBERRY.— ( 7? ubus villosus, etc.)

The Blackberry is a tolerable dessert fruit, being used
for tarts, pies, puddings, jams, and preserves. It con-

Fig. 186— Early Harvest Black-
berry. One-half size.

Fig. 187— Wilson's

Early Blackberry.

Average size.

tinues a long time in bearing, and the fruit may be dried
for winter use. A very good wine is made from the juice,
which more nearly resembles Madeira than any made
from our native grapes. There is a white variety, which
differs from the black only in color, and is occasionally
found growing wild amongst the black.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

489

Although the blackberry grows in profusion in almost
every old field throughout the South, still it is greatly
improved in size and quality by careful cultivation and
selection. The following varieties are recommended":

Early Harvest. — This is very productive and very
sweet; valuable for an early crop.

-Kittatinny Blackberry (after Bailey). Cornell
Experiment Station Bulletin 99.

Kittatinny.— A large fine flavored fruit (Berckmah's),
ripening in June. The plant is erect.

Wilson's Early.— Plant trailing; fruit very large and
sweet, prolific and begins ripening in May.

490 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Dallas. — Originated in Texas and is popular in that
State.

The Dewberry (comprising both Rubus Canadensis
and trivialis) is also very common at the South; is run-
ning or trailing, and ripens its fruit some two weeks in
advance of the high bush varieties, and the fruit is
sweeter.

There are several cultivated varieties, the best of
which are Downing's, Stubbs', Austin, and Lucretia.
The last-named has a large, very sweet fruit of excellent
quality. If the plants are attacked by fungi and insects
use the spraying formulae given elsewhere in this book.

Marketing. — Care must be exercised in packing, be-
cause of the tender fruit. Pick before quite ripe and
pack in 24 or 32-quart crates.

CHERRY.— ( Cents us .)

The Cherry, it is said, was brought from Asia by Lucul-
lus, the Roman general; and from Rome its culture
spread over Europe. In cooler latitudes some of the
varieties are quite ornamental on account of their fine
foliage and early white blossoms, but it stops growing
and drops its leaves too early in our climate to be es-
teemed for this purpose.

In the Southern States but few varieties succeed well,
except the common Morello or Tie-Cherry. The trees of
the finer varieties grow very well for some three or four
years, and then commence splitting and dying on the
southwest side of the trunk. We have seen a few that
grew and bore fine crops for a few years when planted on
the top of poor, rocky hills. The splitting of the bark
appears to be caused by a too luxuriant growth. The
trees should be planted in poor ground, and have but
little or no manuring. Train the trees with low heads,
so as to shade the trunks and protect them from the

FRUITS VARIETIES AXD CULTURE.

491

sun. Cherries are generally grafted or budded on the
Mazzard or wild European stock, though the Mahaleb
or Perfumed-cherry stock is preferable, as it dwarfs the
tree, and is less liable to split and sun-burn.

It is not probable that the finer varieties of the Cherry
will ever be very successfully cultivated at the South
until we raise seedlings suited to the climate.

Of the varieties described below, the Elton, May Duke,

Elton. Rockport.

Fig. 1S9.

Magnifique.

Sweet Montmorency, and common Morello are the only
ones that have ever produced good crops with us.

Cherries are divided into two groups or species —
Cerasus avium and C. vulgaris. The first are called
" Heart and Bigarreau," and the second species are
known as " Duke and Morello " cherries.

Heart and Bicarreat Cherries. — Fruit sweet, ten-
der and heart-shaped. The plant grows to the height of
a medium-sized tree, with spreading branches and droop-
ing leaves. The varieties best known are:

Black Heart. — Large, heart-shaped; skin glossy, dark
purple, changing to black when ripe; stalk one inch and

492

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

a half long, in a moderate cavity; flesh half tender, juicy,
and of a rich, sweet flavor. A large, hardy tree, but dis-
posed to split.

Downer. — Fruit medium, borne in clusters, roundish
heart-shaped, inclining to oval; skin smooth, of a soft,
lively red color, mottled with amber in the shade; flesh
tender, melting, with a sweet, luscious flavor.

Fig. 190— Cherry.

Napoleon (after Bailey). Cornell Experiment
Station Bulletin 98.

Rockport. — Very large, heart-shaped; skin deep red
on amber ground; flesh pale yellow, fine, juicy, with a
sweet, rich flavor. Splits at the South.

Elton. — Very large, heart-shaped; skin pale yellow,
with a mottled red cheek; stalk long and slender; flesh
firm at first, becoming tender, juicy, with a rich, luscious
flavor. Tree grows slowly, and is not disposed to split.
Ripens May 20th to June 1st.

FKTTITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

493

Kirtland's Mary. — Very large, roundish heart-
shaped; color light and dark red, mottled on a yellow
ground; stalk of moderate size; flesh light yellow, half
tender, rich, juicy, with a sweet flavor.

Fig. 191— Cherry. Black Tartarian (after Bailey).
Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 98.

Napoleon (Royal Ann). — Large, heart-shaped; color
yellowish-red; stem long; flavor fair, but not first class;
flesh firm ; a good shipping cherry. Ripens rather late.

494

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Black Tartarian. — Very large, heart-shaped; color
black; stem long; flavor rich and pleasant. Ripens early.

Duke and Morello Cherries.

The fruit with these cherries is usually acid or sub-
acid, tender and pleasant. Trees are more bushy than
the Hearts, and the plants are somewhat smaller. The
varieties are as follows:

Fig. 192— Cherry. English Morello (after Bailey). Large

Morello. Dutch Morello. Donald's Morello. Cornell

Experiment Station Bulletin 98.

Reine Hortense. — Fruit large, bright red, tender,
juicy, nearly sweet, and delicious. Tree grows vigorously,
bears well, and if planted on poor ground is not inclined
to split. An excellent fruit.

Belle Magnifique. — A large red cherry; rather acid,
tender, juicy, and rich; fine for cooking, and for dessert
when fully ripe. Tree ot slow growth, but bears pro-
fusely.

FEUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

495

English Morello. — Tolerably large, roundish, nearly
black; flesh reddish-purple, tender, juicy, of a pleasant
subacid flavor. The common Morello of this country is
smaller and inferior to the above, Ripens May 20th.

Plumstone Morello. — Large, dark red, rich and fine
flavor; the best of all Morellos. Tree slow grower, aud
has small, wiry shoots.

Sweet Montmorency. — Fruit of medium size, round,
and a little flattened; skin pale amber in the shade, light

pig- 103— Cherry. May Duke (after Bailey). Cornell Experiment
Bulletin 98.

red, slightly mottled in the sun; stalks long and sjender,
inserted in a small, even depression; flesh yellowish, ten-
der, sweet and excellent. One of the best at the South.

May Duke. — Fruit roundish, medium size, and in clus-
ters; skin lively red at first, dark red when ripe; flesh

^^r^*^^^^ ^

(496)

Plate 7— Cocoanut Palm.

FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 497

reddish, tender, melting, very juicy; rich and excellent
when fully ripe. Ripens early in May.

Early Richmond or Kentish. — Fruit small to
medium, round, a little flattened; grows in pairs; skin
bright red, growing dark when ripe; stalk one and a
fourth inch long, stout, and set in a pretty deep hollow;
flesh melting, juicy, and of a rich, sprightly flavor. A
hardy variety and excellent for cooking.

Late Kentish. — Resembles the above, but is two
weeks later; a little larger and excellent for cooking, pre-
serving and drying.

Marketing. — The 24-quart crate is suitable for this
fruit when shipped in quantity. The best varieties, how-
ever, may be shipped with profit in the climax basket.

COCOANTJT. — (Cocos nucifera, Linn.)
This plant is propagated by seed. The nuts are placed
in holes one and a half to two feet deep, partly covered
with earth, and as the seedling grows the hole is grad-
ually filled until the surface is reached. The seedlings
are transplanted to the field where the trees are to per-
manently grow, and set out twenty-five or thirty feet
apart. They will begin fruiting, under favorable circum-
stances within seven years, and will continue bearing-
nuts for more than sixty years. These nuts grow in
bunches, with five to fifteen in each bunch, and a well-
grown tree will produce from eighty to one hundred nuts
each year. The cocoanut is peculiarly adapted to the
coast of South Florida, and extensive plantations are to
be found in that portion of the State. But little attention
has been devoted to developing varieties.

CUREANT.— (.Riles.)
The currant is a low shrub, a native of Great Britain
and the northern parts of Europe and America; with

498 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

smooth branches, doubly-serrate, pubescent leaves, and
yellowish flowers, which ripen early in the spring. The
fruit ripens with the later strawberries and raspberries.
It succeeds and thrives admirably in our mountain sec-
tions, and will live and bear tolerably Avell here in a cool
northern exposure, but would probably die the first sea-
son near the sea-coast.

The fruit is of an agreeable acid taste; when ripe it is
used with sugar for dessert, and also alone, or mixed
with raspberries, for jams, jellies and wine. It is used
both green and ripe for stewing, tarts and pies. In cool
climates it is the most easily cultivated and useful of
small fruits.

The currant is propagated from cuttings, which should
be planted in the fall in a shaded place, but not under
trees; the north side of a plank fence is an excellent situa-
tion, provided it is open to the morning sun.

The currant requires a moist, rich soil, and should be
trained as a bush. All the pruning it requires is to cut
out the superabundant old wood, and to shorten that of
the last season's growth.

There are two species of the currant — />'. nigrum and
R. rubrum. The Naples variety of the first species has
been grown with some degree of success in Georgia,
South and North Carolina and Texas. The following-
varieties of R. rubrum were cultivated by Mr. White in
Athens, Georgia, with success, and are recommended:

Red Dutch. — Fruit of large size, oblate, borne in clus-
ters, and less acid than the common red; color fine trans-
parent red.

White Dutch. — Large, yellowish-white, less acid than
the red varieties.

We could describe several other varieties, but not
having had any success with them, we only give those
with which we have succeeded.

FEUITS VARIETIES AND CULTUKE. 499

varieties are recommended
by the Division of Pomology as suitable for North and
South Carolina and Georgia: Cherry, Fay, Versail-
laise, Victoria, and White Grape. The Cherry, Fay,
and White Grape are especially desirable in Eastern
Texas.

Marketing. — It is customary to send this fruit to
market in 24 or 32-quart boxes.

THE FIG. — (Ficus Carica.)

The Fig is a large shrub, or a low, spreading tree, ac-
cording to the manner in which it is trained. Some
varieties grow to the height of twenty or thirty feet, in
favorable localities, but it generally does not reach above
half that height. The leaves are large, cordate, and
deeply sinuate, with three to five lobes, thick and pubes-
cent on the under surface. The blossoms are not appa-
rent, but concealed in the inside of the fleshy receptacle
that becomes the fruit, which consists of a pulp, contain-
ing numerous pericarps enclosed in a rind, which be-
comes variously colored in the different varieties. Though
the fruit is too sweet and luscious for those unaccus-
tomed to it, with use it soon becomes a great favorite,
and is perhaps the most wholesome and nutritious of
fruits. The fig is a native of Asia and Africa, and has
been cultivated from the earliest times. It is perfectly
at home in all the low country and middle portions of the
Southern States, and as universally cultivated below the
mountain section as the peach. Large quantities of dried
figs are imported into the United States, and are even
sold in our own section. At very little expense, they
could be put up at home and even exported at a profit.

A good way to dry figs is to gather them when per-
fectly ripe, and boil them in a preserving kettle in a
syrup of nice sugar about five minutes. Take them out,

500 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

dry them in a warm oven, or a kiln made for drying
fruits. When dry they can be packed in drums or boxes.

Imported figs are dipped in a hot lye made of fig wood
ashes, and dried on frames in the sun; when dried here
they are apt to be infested with minute insects. The fig-
is readily propagated by shoots, or cuttings from the
roots, planted in the fall or spring. Cuttings should be
eight or ten inches long, and include a small portion of
old wood at the base of each; if planted in a hot-bed in
January, they will make handsome plants the same sea-
son. Figs should be planted twelve to fifteen feet apart
in good, rich earth. The Celestial Fig is best trained as a
low tree. The best soil for the fig is a mellow loam of a
calcareous nature.

Ashes, marl, or composts prepared with mild lime form
the best manure. If the soil is too moist the fig continues
its growth too late in the fall, when the new wood is
killed by the frost; while young, it is best to protect the
tree during winter with branches of evergreens. I have
found that young trees will mature their fruit and wood
much more perfectly and better endure the winter, if the
young shoots are broken off at the ends, and if all fruit
forming after that is removed, and no more growth is
permitted after the middle of September.

As a general rule, however, with the fig, the more it is
pruned the less is the crop. This does not apply to root
pruning.

If from too rank growth of wood the tree drops its
fruit, cut off all the roots that project more than half the
length of the branches. This may be done at any time
during winter.

Dark-Colored Varieties.

Brunswick. — Fruit very large, long, pyriform, with an
oblique apex; eye depressed; stalk short and thick; skin

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 501

pale green, tinged with yellow in the shade, dull brown-
ish-red in the sun, and sprinkled with pale brown specks;
flesh reddish-brown, pinkish at the centre, semi-trans-
parent, rich, sweet, and high flavored. Wood of strong
growth, and very hardy.

Brown Turkey. — Fruit large, oblong or pyrif orm ; skin
dark brown, covered with thick blue, bloom; flesh red
and delicious. Said to be very hard and prolific. This is
one of the best varieties grown.

Blue Genoa. — Leaflets narrow, and the leaf seven-
lobed; fruit large, long, obovate, tapering to the stalk,
which is slender; skin almost black,
glossy, covered with purple bloom;
flesh bright red, of excellent flavor.
This continues to bear fruit abun-
dantly until frost, and, like the Bruns-
wick, is indispensable.

Celestial. — Fruit quite small,
pyriform; stalk slender; skin very
thin, dark colored, and covered with
purple bloom; flesh light red, and of
delicious flavor.

In dry weather the fruit hangs on

J * Fig. 194— Celestial,

the tree until it shrivels, improving in

sweetness and flavor. Trees grow quite large, and are
very productive, yielding constantly from July to Octo-
ber. Leaves five-lobed. Very hardy.

White, Yellow, and Green Varieties.

Lemon White, or Common White. — Fruit turbinate,
flattened; stalk short; skin pale yellowish-green; flesh
white and sweet, not high flavored. Ripens quite early,
and is a good bearer. Its color renders it a favorite for
preserving.

502

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

The following additional varieties have also been found
to bo especially desirable figs: Green Ischia (White
Ischia or White Italian), Black Ischia.

Marketing. — The usual method of shipping the fig is

Fig. 195— Lemon Fig.

in the dried form, packed in small fig boxes. The plan
for drying is given above.

GOOSEBERRY.— (Ttibes oxyacanthoides.)

The Gooseberry, like the Currant, is a native of Europe.
Green, it is used for pies, tarts, and puddings; ripe, it is
a very agreeable dessert fruit. It is more impatient of

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 503

heat than the currant, and cannot be expected to thrive
except among the mountains. It is like the currant, pro-
pagated from cuttings, likes the same soil and treatment
generally, even in the Northern States, and in our moun-
tain region the fruit is liable to mildew, the foreign varie-
ties being much more subject to it than the native
varieties.

Houghton's Seedling, Downing's Seedling, Pale Red,
and Red Jacket are the best native varieties we have
seen. Champion is recommended by the Division of
Pomology as especially desirable in Eastern Texas.
Chautauqua, of the Grassularia species, has also been
grown successfully in Eastern Texas. Woods' earth, or
leaf mould, aud ashes, are the best manures for both the
currant and gooseberry that we have tried.

Marketing. — Pick green, but when fully grown, before
the coloring of the ripe condition begins to show. Pack in
baskets.

THE GRAPE.— ( Vitis.)

The vine was one of the first plants brought into culti-
vation. The foreign grapes are all varieties of Vitis vini-
fcra, and came originally from Asia. Of native grapes,
we have Vitis Labrusca, of which Isabella, Catawba, Con-
cord, Diana, Hartford Prolific, and many others, are
varieties; Vitis Bour'quiniana and V. aestivalis, which
include the wild Summer and the Frost Grape. Of the
cultivated varieties, the Herbemont, Lenoir, and others
of the same class; Vitis rot audi folia, which includes the
wild Muscadine, or Bullace, of the South, and the Scup-
pernong.

Our American grapes are seedlings from the wild varie-
ties, removed some one, two, and three generations from
the original type. Foreign grapes do not succeed in our
climate in open air or out-door cultivation. All the foreign

504 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

varieties do well both North and South, in cold graperies,
under glass.

The grape is a cooling and refreshing fruit of the
highest excellence; green, it is used for pies and tarts;
when ripe, it is a nutritious and most delicious dessert
fruit, and is also used for preserving and jellies. The
dried fruit, or raisins, are employed extensively for the
dessert, and in many preparations of cookery. The leaves
are an elegant garnish to other table fruits. But the chief
product of the grape is wine, which is superior to that
made of any other fruit.

Large quantities of wine are now made in the United
States, more especially in California, where most of the
foreign varieties succeed. In the Southern States vine-
yard culture has proved a failure with all derived from
the Labrusca and Aestivalis species. After one or two
fair crops the vines become stunted and unfruitful, or if
stimulated by extra culture and manuring, both vines
and fruit mildew and rot. There are but very few varie-
ties which can be depended upon with anything approach-
ing certainty.

Since the great development in the methods of spray-
ing and treatment of fungus diseases, the statement made
by Mr. White in the last paragraph must be consider-
ably modified. Many varieties of the V. Labrusca have
been tested during the past ten years by the agricultural
experiment stations in the South, and the results have
been highly satisfactory. Mr. AVhite made the above
statement more than forty years ago, when our knowl-
edge concerning fungus diseases and their treatment was
exceedingly limited, but since the establishment of the
experiment stations so much activity has been manifested
among the botanists and horticulturists to overcome
fungus and insect attacks on the grapes, many of the
varieties which failed during Mr. White's day are now

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

505

being successfully grown in many of the prominent vine-
yards throughout the South. For spraying formulae and
methods of application the reader is referred to the chap-
ter devoted to that subject.

The grape is planted by the vine-growers on level
ground, in rows ten feet apart and eight feet in the row,
but on hillsides a less distance may be adopted. The vine-

Fig. 196— Catawba Grape.

yard is laid off with a line, and a stake put down where
each vine is to grow; then a broad hole, a foot deep, is
dug, in which are placed two cuttings, six or eight inches
apart at the bottom, in a slanting position, but with the
top eyes only about an inch apart, and even with the sur-
face. Throw in a shovelful of well-decayed leaf mould,
that the cuttings may strike freely. Cover with an inch
of charcoal dust, or light mould, when the cuttings are
planted. The cuttings should be short-jointed and well

506 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

ripened, each cutting having about four eyes, or buds.
Cut thein off close to the lower joint, and about an inch
above the upper. The earth should be pressed closely
about the cuttings. The best time for putting them out
is the last of November or December. The linest vines
are raised from cuttings planted where they are to re-
main. Being undisturbed by removal, they are more
thrifty and long-lived. Remove all the cuttings but one,
if more than one succeeds, and use them to replace where
others have failed. During the summer, keep the ground
clean and light, by repeated hoeings, and pull off super-
fluous shoots, leaving but one or two to grow at first, and
one eventually.

In fertilizing the grape the fact must be borne in mind
that the plant requires a large per cent, of potash and
phosphoric acid, and, during the fruiting season, a small
application of nitrogenous manure may be applied; not
enough, however, to cause a too rapid development of
canes to the detriment of the fruit-bearing powers. Mr.
Starnes, the horticulturist of the Georgia Experiment
Station, recommends the following formula for a good
grape fertilizer:

Cotton-seed meal 1,000 pounds.

High-grade acid phosphate 500 pounds.

Kainit 500 pounds.

' 2,000 pounds.

" The fertilizer should be used at the rate of two pounds
per vine — one-half the amount, or one pound to be mixed
with the second layer of dirt excavated from the holes.
This pile or mound being used to fill the holes after the
top soil has been sifted around the roots of the plant, the
fertilizer does not come into immediate and direct con-
tact with the young rootlets; but as it becomes soluble
is carried down in a dissolved and assimilable state. The
rest of the fertilizer should be applied interculturally at

FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 507

the time of either the first or second working — preferably
the latter. Drill it on both sides of the row with a fer-
tilizer horn, covering with a cultivator or scrape.

" The formula for the second year might be appro-
priately constructed as follows:

Any standard, complete fertilizer 100 pounds.

Cotton-seed meal 30 pounds.

Kainit 50 pounds.

Acid phosphate (high grade) 20 pounds.

200 pounds.

" The third year the vines will come into bearing, and
the object of the grower from this time on will be to ob-
tain fruit, not wood. This latter will take care of itself.
Phosphoric acid and potash must be supplied in abun-
dance, and hence for a permanent formula for the third
and subsequent years it will be well to use the following:

High-grade acid phosphate 900 pounds.

Kainit 900 pounds.

Cotton-seed meal 200 pounds.

2,000 pounds.

" The above is a low-grade fertilizer and should be ap-
plied as before, at the rate, however, of three pounds per
vine, instead of two."

The training and pruning of the grape vine are essen-
tial to perfect fruit development and convenience in
gathering the crop. There are excellent works in exist-
ence fully devoted to this subject, and which explain
clearly the modus operandi. The reader is advised to study
such books if a vineyard of large dimensions is contem-
plated; but, to assist those persons who have not the
opportunity to examine such works, and who desire to
grow grapes on a limited scale, the following general in-
struction is given. The material used in the preparation
of what follows on pruning and training has been

508 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

liberally drawn from the writings of Professor E. G.
Lodeman, late horticulturist of Cornell University Ex-
periment Station; Professor L. II. Bailey, of the same
institution, and Mr. Hugh N. Starnes, horticulturist of
the Georgia Experiment Station.

For a better understanding of the terms used the fol-
lowing definitions are given:

Shoot. — The growth of wood less than one year old.

Cane. — Mature shoots of one year's growth.

Arm. — Mature wrood stems of three years' and more
growth.

Spur. — A shortened or pruned cane, generally bearing
only from one to four buds.

" The operation of pruning the vine is performed for
the sole purpose of removing such wood as will not bear,
or such as is supposed to interfere with the production of
the finest crop of fruit that the plant is able to mature.
Its primary object, therefore, is to reduce the amount of
bearing wood, and thereby thin the fruit so that the roots
of the vine are not taxed beyond their capacity.

"All the fruit is, of course, borne upon the shoots which
grow from the buds now found upon the canes; the canes,
therefore, must be removed, and not the older wood, for
the latter serves as the framework upon which the canes
are maintained.

" In cutting away the canes, all wrood which has not
properly matured should be removed, and those shoots
which have made an excessive growth, forming i bull
canes,' are also undesirable. The medium-sized, short-
jointed, and well-matured wood is to be preferred, and
such wood only. Yet some of this well developed wood
must also be sacrificed, until the amount allowed to re-
main upon the plant is reduced to the proper proportion.
Assuming that the plant can mature the fruit produced
by twenty-four buds (the number of buds left may vary

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 509

from two to fifty or more), about thirty buds could be
allowed to develop. These should be uuiformly dis-
tributed according to the system of training employed;
they may be left upon five canes, each cane having six
buds, or the distribution may be varied according to cir-
cumstances. But such is in general the method adopted
in the vineyard for estimating the proper amount of bear-
ing wood to leave upon each cane. As a result of such
systematic pruning, the fruit from the vine is larger and
more fair; it is also produced more regularly, since the
maturing of too heavy a crop weakens the vine so that
it is unable to mature even an average amount of fruit
the following year. A vine properly pruned and fertilized
should bear about the same amount of fruit each year
from the time it comes into full bearing, A secondary
benefit derived from pruning is the reduced stature of the
plant. This allows more vines to be set upon a given
piece of land, and it enables the work of cultivating,
spraying and harvesting to be performed much more
easily and profitably.

" Training, on the other hand, is almost wholly a mat-
ter of convenience. It does not affect the strength of the
vine or the value of the crop in any essential particular.
The training of a vine refers to the disposal or arrange-
ment of the various parts of the vine after pruning has
taken place. The method of training adopted determines
the operator to leave certain growths in certain portions,
not because more or better fruit is expected, but for the
reason, perhaps, that the fruit may be harvested with
greater ease; that a laborious operation may be wholly
dispensed with, or that there may be less danger to the
maturing crop from the winds or other natural agencies.
The method of training adopted by a vineyardist is
largely the result of personal preference, or of education,
although soil and variety are important factors in the

510 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

selection of the system. The health and vigor of the
vines are rarely affected by the method in which it is
trained, and although some system of training must be
adopted in every vineyard, still altogether too much
weight has been laid by most horticultural writers upon
the particular merits of the' various systems, while the
actual ruinous effects of bad pruning have not always
been sufficiently emphasized. A vine properly trained is
desirable, but a properly pruned vine is essential to the
highest success.

" 1. The amount of fruit which a vine can bear and
mature in the highest perfection is limited; when this
limit is exceeded the fruit deteriorates.

" 2. Upon the fruit the effect of overproduction is to
reduce the size of the berries and of the clusters, and
probably also to impair the quality; the vines make a
poor growth, the foliage is small, and the vigor of the
plant is generally reduced. When a vine has been allowed
to overbear, especially when it is young, years may some-
times be required before a vine returns to its normal
condition.

" 3. A plant which is carrying less fruit than it is capa-
ble of maturing generally produces a very heavy foliage
and an excess of wood.

" 4. All the fruit of the vine in any one year is borne
upon the shoots of that year, which grow from the canes
produced the preceding year; and since the number of
clusters borne upon a single shoot is fairly constant (vary-
ing generally from one to three), the number of buds left
upon a vine when it is pruned, determines with consider-
able accuracy the number of clusters which the vine will
possess. Usually more buds are allowed to remain than
wTould be safe if each one were sure to be perfect.

" 5. The position of the bearing wood upon a vine is
of secondary importance as regards the effect upon the

FKUITS VAKIETIES AND CULTURE.

511

quantity and quality of the fruit; but as a frequent
change or renewal of the entire top of the vine appears
to be desirable, the young bearing wood should be as near
the root of the plant as circumstances will allow. When
the important relation of these essential points to success-
ful grape growing is thoroughly considered, the secondary
character of training of the vine becomes apparent."

Fig. 197— Overhead Kniffin, or Caywood System.

There are many systems of training the vines, all of
which may be grouped into three classes, depending upon
the direction in which the shoots are made to grow.

1. The upright system.

2. The pendant, or drooping, system.

3. The horizontal system.

The first, or upright system, is well illustrated in the
method adopted in some sections of the South, where the

512

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fig. 198— Horizontal Arm Spur System.

Fig. 199— Continuous Arbci System— Pruned Vines.

FKU1TS VARIETIES AND CULTUKE. 513

vines are trained to posts. The horizontal-arm spur, or
Fuller system, is another illustration of the upright
method. The method of training by arbor is the horizon-
tal system, and it has its advantages as well as disad-
vantages. The seuppernong is generally cultivated in
this way. The overhead Kniffin is a representation of the
drooping system, and this system is very popular through
many sections of the South.

Where grapes are cultivated on a small scale it pays
the cultivator to bag the fruit, the recompense coming in
the shape of superior fruit, and protection against the
attacks of insects and disease.

33

514

GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

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516

GAKDENIAG FOR THE SOUTH.

Leading Market Varieties of Grapes.
Bertrand, Diamond (Moore's),

Concord, Herbeinont,

Brighton, Ives,

Delaware, Niagara,

Diana, Perkins.

Leading- Wine Grapes.
RED.

Bertrand, Herbeinont,

Clinton, Ives,

Concord, Lenoir,

Cyntkiana, Norton's Virginia,

Thomas.

Catawba,

Delaware,

Elvira,*

WHITE.

Missouri Riesling,

Niagara,
Noah,
Scuppernong.

Wine. — There is no more art or mystery in making-
wine than in making cider. The grapes are crushed be-
tween wooden rollers, which run sufficiently near each
other to crush the grapes, but not the seeds.

To make red wine, the crushed grapes should stand
about twenty-four hours before pressing, so as to extract
a portion of the coloring matter from the skins, when they
may be pressed by means of an ordinary screw press. To
each gallon of juice one and a half pounds of good clari-
fied sugar must be added. If made from the pure juice
of the grape, the wine will be thin, weak, poor, acid, and
astringent stuff, not better than hard cider. All the best

* This grape makes the famous San Louis Sauternes Florida wine.

FRUITS VARIETIES AXD CULTURE.

517

foreign wines have a large portion of brandy added; such
as the Madeira and Sherry have near twenty per cent. In
February or March following the wine should be racked
off into clean casks, if intended for still wine, or bottled,
if for foaming wine. At the time of bottling a table-

Fig. 200— The Scuppernong.

spoonful of Nu. 1 clarified sugar must be put into each
bottle, which should be well corked. Some recommend
rock candy to be added. We have found nothing better
than good clarified sugar.

The Scuppernong. — We consider this very peculiar
grape one of the greatest boons to the South. It has

518 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH,

very little resemblance to any of the grapes of the other
sorts. It is a rampant grower, and requires little, if any,
care or culture; grows well in any soil south of the
Potomac river; has none of the shaggy bark peculiar to
other vines, and bears only from the old, and not from the
current shoots, as do other grapes. The leaves are cor-
date, or heart-shaped, coarsely serrate, smooth on both
upper and under surfaces. It blooms from the loth to
the last of June, and ripens its fruit the last of September
and beginning of October. It has no diseases, in wood,
leaf, or fruit, and rarely, if ever, fails to produce a heavy
crop. We have never known it to fail.

To this type of grape also belong the following men-
tioned in the table on a preceding page : Flowers, Tender-
pulp and Thomas, which belong with the Scuppernong
to Vitis rot undi folia. The first three produce black, and
the last a yellow-white fruit. These grapes are peculiarly
southern in origin and adaptability.

Brilliant (Lubr. -Hyhr.).— Originated by T. V. Munson,
Denison, Texas. The result of a cross between Lindley
and Delaware effected in 1883. Vines hardy and vigorous;
bunches above medium, shouldered, compact; berries
large, fully the size of Concord, resembling Delaware in
color; skin thin, but quite firm; flesh tender and very
juicy; flavor rich, sprightly, equal to Delaware. This is
thought by many to be the best of the grapes originated
by Professor Munson. The large berries, with their
superior quality renders it one of the best grapes for table
use, and the Brilliant should be included in every
amateur collection. It will probably prove valuable as a
market variety.

Niagara (Labr. X). — Originated by Hoag & Clark,
Lockport, New York, in 1872 ; a cross of Concord and Cas-
sady; vines very vigorous and very productive; bunches
large, compact, sometimes shouldered ; berry large, round-

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 519

ish; pale green in color, changing to pale yellow when
fully ripe; skin thin, tough; flesh tender, juicy, sweet;

Fig. 201— Brilliant (after R. L. Watts).

similar to Concord in quality, ripening about with Con-
cord. The Niagara is largely cultivated in Tennessee. It

520

<;aki>k\i.\g for tiii-: south.

is far from first class in quality, but the beauty of both
bunches and berries, vigor and great productiveness of

rtti^B

Fig. 202— Niagara (after R. L. Watts).

vines, render it a special favorite, and it leads all other
white grapes in quantity grown for market.

Diamond (Labr.X). — Originated by Jacob Moore,

FETTITS VARIETIES A^'D CULTURE.

521

Attica, New York, from seedling of Concord fertilized by
Iona; vine vigorous and productive; bunch large, coni-

Fig. 203— Diamond (after R. L. Watts).

pact, shouldered; often double shouldered; berries above
medium size, round, greenish-white; skin thin, rather
tough; flesh tender, juicy, of high quality. We consider

522

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

this one of the best white grapes. It is well adapted both
for market purposes and home culture. Ripe August 5th.

Fig. 204— Herbemont (after R. L. Watts).

Diamond is recommended by leading grape-growers of
this country.

Herbemont (Aest.) Synonym, Warren; Herbemonte's

FRUITS VARIETIES AXD CULTURE.

523

Maderia, Warrenton, Neil. — Origin unknown; a most
vigorous grower and exceedingly productive; bunches

Fig. 205— Brighton (after R. L. Watts).

very large, long, shouldered and usually compact; berries
small, black, with a blue bloom; skin thin; flesh tender,
very juicy, rich, sprightly; quality very good. Ripe the

524

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

latter part of September; a very valuable late grape for
home use.

Brighton {Lair: X Yin.). — Originated by Jacob Moore,

Fig. 206— Wlnchell latter R. L. Watts).

Brighton, New York; a cross between Concord and Diana-
Hamburg; vine hardy, vigorous; canes medium to long-

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 525

jointed; foliage abundant; leaves large; bunch medium
to large; moderately compact, shouldered; "berries
medium to large, round, light red at first, changing to a
dark crimson or maroon when fully matured, sometimes
almost black, and covered with an abundant lilac bloom.
The berries adhere well to the peduncle; skin thin but
tough; flesh tender, slight pulp, sweet, juicy, slightly
aromatic; very slightly vinous, and of very good quality
for an early grape. It has its best flavor when it first
ripens, but becomes pasty and looses its sprightly flavor
when full ripe.'1 — A. J. Downing. Ripe August 4th; vines
very productive. It yields the largest crops when planted
with other varieties to assist in fertilization. This variety
is largely grown in the Eastern States, where it is the
leading table grape.

Winchell (Labr.), or Green Mountain. — A chance
seedling found on the slopes of the Green Mountains of
Vermont; bunches above medium, compact, well should-
ered; berries medium, round, greenish-white; skin thin,
quite tender; flesh tender, very sweet, rich, pleasant;
quality very good. Ripe July 30th. Eminent grape-
growers throughout the country have made many compli-
mentary remarks concerning the Winchell, or Green
Mountain grape. We consider it probably the best white
grape in our vineyard for the home collection, and see no
reason why it should not be highly profitable for market
purposes.

Delaware. — This is one of the best grapes cultivated
in the South. The fruit is rather small, round, of a red
color and delightful flavor. It is one of the standard
grapes, and is popular wherever grow

Marketing. — The packing must be made so firm that
there will be no shifting of the fruit in the basket. All de-
fective and green or overripe grapes must be cut from the

526

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

bunches by scissors, and the bunches must be carefully
assorted. The 5 and 10-pound baskets are used usually

Fig. 207 — Delaware.

for shipping grapes to markets. Handle the fruit as little
as possible, so as to avoid injuring the " bloom/' which
makes the grape look so attractive and fresh when ex-

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 527

posed for sale. Turn the stems down as the bunches are
placed in the basket and fill slightly above the top, so that
when the cover is placed on the fruit will be firmly
pressed into a secure position. This method of packing-
will insure a stemless surface when opened, and fruit will
be better preserved in transportation.

GTJAVAS.— (Psidium.)

There are several species and a number of varieties of
this delicious fruit. The most important and those com-
manding popular favor in Southern Florida, where the
plant attains its best growth, are Apple (P. guajava),
Common Guava (P. guajava), Chinese or Mexican (P.
lucid mn), Cattley or Strawberry (P. cattleianum), White
Winter (P. guajava).

The flowers are white, fragrant, and are in great num-
bers on the plant; the fruit is round, varying in size from
one to three or four inches in diameter; the color of the
fruit is either red,, yellow or green; the flesh is crimson
or yellow, and the flavor subacid, with a pleasant taste.
The great objection to the fruit is the large number of
seeds it contains, in some instances as many as four
hundred.

The guava makes an excellent evaporated fruit, and,
if the number of seeds can be reduced by selection and
cultivation, it will become an important addition to the
list of commercial fruits. It is highly esteemed for des-
serts, cooking and preserving and making into jellies.
It is propagated by seeds, cuttings and layers. The young-
plant begins bearing when three years old, and some-
times earlier. It attains the size of a tree only in South-
ern Florida, while farther north it is more like a shrub.

c

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 529

LOQUAT OR JAPANESE MEDLAR.
(Eriobotrya or Photinia Japonica.)

This plant belongs to the Rosaceae family, and was
introduced into this country a few years ago from China
or Japan. Its popularity is steadily increasing in the
orange regions of Florida and Louisiana, where it is culti-
vated successfully. The fruit forms in clusters from
white flowers of remarkable fragrance; it is small, one to
one and a half inch in diameter, of a creamy yellow color,
and in shape resembling a plum. The quality is subacid,
juicy and refreshing. Ripens from February to May.

Cultivation. — It prefers a well-drained, sandy loam soil
with a clay subsoil. Plant at distances adopted in the
cultivation of the peach. The propagation is generally
by seeds, and but little effort has beeu put forth to im-
prove the Loquat by selection, although it seems to be
susceptible to decided change when judiciously treated.
The stocks used for its propagation should be some plant
belonging to the Rosaceae family.

MANGOES.— ( M ang if era Indica.)
This is a tropical fruit and will not thrive above the
latitude where thin ice forms. It is grown in Southern
Florida for home use, since the delicate nature of the
fruit will not permit of shipping to any great distance.
The tree is large and spreading with lanceolate leaves
fully seven inches long. The flowers are white and
grow in clusters at the ends of the branches. The fruit
is shaped something like a cucumber, varying in color
from green to orange. The plant grows rapidly, and,
under proper treatment, will fruit when four years
old. It can be propagated by budding, grafting or from
the seeds. The following other varieties are grown in
Florida:
34

•

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u^^^^^w^^t^7^ ' ' (^sS

1 W''

. Jii

Pla'e 0— Pawpaw. (Photo, by 0. R Haven.

•> 0) Plate 10— Pawpaw Section. (Photo, by O. P Haven.)

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 531

Common Mangoes. — Originated in the East Indies;
fruit large, reniform, yellow and red in color; quality good
and ripens in summer. The tree is vigorous and prolific.

Apricot. — Originated in East Indies; fruit medium
size, kidney-shaped, red and yellow in colors; very good
flavor.

Apple, ok No. 11. — Originated in West Indies; fruit
large, round, yellow; very good flavor. A vigorous grower.

MINOR TROPICAL FRUITS.

Avocado Pear {rosea gratissima).
Cherimoya (Anona cherimolia).
Custard Apple (Anonareticulata).
Granadilla (Passiflora edulis).
Hog Plum (Spoil dins luted).
Jamaica Sorrel (Hibiscus sabdariffa).
Manimee Apple (Lucuma mammosa).
Otaheite Gooseberry (Phyllanthus distichus).
Pawpaw (Carica papaya).
Rose Apple (Eugenia jumbos).
Sapodilla (Achras sapota).
Sour Hop (Anona muricata).
Spanish Lime (Melicocca hijn</<t).
Star Apple (Chrysophyllum Cainito).
Sugar Apple (Anona squamosa).
Tamarind (Tamarindus Tndica).

In speaking of these minor fruits the Florida State
Horticultural Society, in its catalogue published in 1897,
says: "None of these are raised for market on a large
scale, but all are desirable, and are extensively grown
over a more or less extended area in the more tropical
regions of the State, a number being produced in consid-
erable quantities for local market or consumption. A
few, like the Mammee Apple, Sapodilla and Avocada

532 GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

Pear, ship well and find ready sale; the Avocada
Pear, has brought good prices in the New York market.
Some, like the foregoing, the Star Apple and the Hog
Plum, are agreeable to most palates upon first acquaint-
ance; others, like the Sugar Apple, Cherimoya and Sour-
sop, which are much esteemed by those accustomed to
the fruit, require an acquired taste to be appreciated. A
number are grown for home use, almost or quite exclu-
sively, either because too tender to transport, like the
Sugar Apple and Pawpaw, or for their value for culinary
purposes; of the latter, the Otaheite Gooseberry is a
valuable acid fruit for cooking and preserving. The
Jamaica Sorrel is not a fruit in the proper sense of the
term, but produces a pulpy calyx, which makes an excel-
lent substitute for cranberries. The acid Soursop is used
for flavoring, preparing drinks, etc., and is much esteemed
in sickness. The Tamarind bears a pod with a pleasant
acid pulp which, preserved in sugar, finds ready sale in
the general market."

MULBERRY.— (Morus.)

This genus includes two species worthy of cultivation,
both hardy, deciduous trees, ripening their fruits in May
with the later strawberries. The fruit is of very agree-
able flavor, and of abundant subacid juice. An agree-
able wine may be made of the juice. All the species of
Mulberry are of the easiest culture, and are generally pro-
pagated by cuttings of the branches or roots. The former
should be shoots of the last season, having one joint of old
wrood; they may be three feet long, and buried half their
length in the soil. The tree requires little or no pruning.

The soil should be a rich, deep, sandy loam. The fruit
falls when ripe; hence, wdien the tree commences bearing,
the surface below should be kept in short turf, that the
fruit may be picked from the clean grass.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 533

Professor L. II. Bailey, of Cornell University, makes
the following- classification of the mulberry:

1. The White Mulberry group (Morns alba).

(a) Russian Mulberry (car. Tartarica).

(b) Nervosa Mulberry (var. Venosa).

2. The Multicaulis group (Morns latifolia).

3. The Japanese group (Morns Japonica).

4. The Black Mulberry group (Morns nigra).

5. The Bed or Native Mulberry group {Moms rubra),
(a) Lampasas Mulberry (var. tomentosd).

Black Mulberry (Moms nigra) is a native of Persia,
and is a slow-growing, low-branched tree, with large,
tough leaves, often tive-lobed, producing largo and deli-
cious fruit, frequently an inch and a half long, and an
inch across; black, and fine flavored. Tree a very poor
grower.

Red Mulberry (Moms rubra) is a native of our woods;
leaves large, rough, and generally heart-shaped; fruit an
inch long, sweet and pleasant, but inferior to the black.
The vigorous growth and fine spreading head of this
variety make it worthy of culture as an ornamental tree,
it is the most tenacious of life of any tree we have ever
seen. Twenty-seven years since we dug one up in our
garden, and annually up to the present time shoots put up
from fragments left in the ground, and thus far we have
been unable to exterminate it. If the cherry is planted
near the house, and the Mulberry a little more distant,
the latter will often attract the birds from the former.

The varieties recommended for the South are:

Dowxixg's Everbearing. — Originated by Charles
Downing, of Newburgh, New York, from the seed of
Morns multicaulis. Tree very vigorous and productive; an
estimable variety, and surpassed by none except the black
English, and possessing the same rich, subacid flavor. It

534

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

continues in bearing a long time. Fruit one and a quarter
inch long and nearly a half-inch in diameter. Color,
maroon, or intense blue-black at full maturity; flesh juicy,
rich, and sugary, with a sprightly vinous flavor.

Hicks' Everbearing. — This mulberry originated in
Georgia, and is very productive. It fruits from three to

Fig. 208— Black Mulberry Tree.

four months. It has an insipid, sweet taste, but is an
excellent food for hogs and chickens. This tree should
be grown by every one who raises poultry on an extensive
scale.

Stubbs' Mulberry. — Originated in Laurens county,
Georgia, more than twenty years ago.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 535

ous grower, with broad foliage. The fruit is large, black
and of excellent quality. The tree remains in fruit about
two months.

NECTARINE. — (Persica vulgaris, var. laais.)

The Nectarine is merely a peach with a smooth skin. It
is impossible to distinguish the tree from the peach by its
leaf and flowers.

Nectarines usually produce nectarines from the seed;
but the B-oston Nectarine originated from a peach-stone.

The tree is cultivated and pruned like the peach, and is
propagated by grafting or budding on peach stocks. The
great difficulty in raising Nectarines (and the same is true
of the apricot and plum), is the curculio. The smooth skin
of these fruits offers an inviting place for this insect to
deposit its eggs. The injured fruit may be known by be-
ing marked with a small, semi-circular scar, as if cut by
a baby's nail.

It is useless to plant either the Nectarine, Apricot, or
Plum, especially in sandy soils, unless the trees are daily
jarred, and the insects collected on sheets as they fall,
and immediately destroyed. A limb may be sawed off a
tree, and the stump hit a few smart blows with a mallet;
if gently shaken, the insect will not let go its hold. Or
another plan is to plant the trees by themselves, and
admit poultry and hogs to eat the fallen fruit, which will,
if other fruit gardens are not near, protect the crop.
Spraying the tree as soon as the blossoms fall will be
more. effective; but not certain. For formula see chapter
devoted to spraying. In using the spraying material great
care must be exercised so that the leaves and tender twigs
will not be injured with too strong arsenical compounds.
The borer infests the Nectarine as well as the Peach.
Aside from the curculio. the nectarine is as hardy and
easily raised as the peach, though scarcely equal to the

536 GARDENING EOK THE SOUTH.

best peaches in flavor. It requires the same soil and
treatment as the peach. The best varieties are:

Early Violet. — Glands reniform; flowers small, fruit
large, roundish, pale yellowish-green, with a purplish-red
cheek, mottled with brown; flesh whitish-red at the stone,
melting, juicy, and delicious. Ripens July 20th.

Elruoe. — Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit
medium; roundish oval; suture slight; skin pale green,
with deep violet or blood-red cheek, and minute brown
specks; flesh pale green, pale red at the stone; melting,
juicy, and rich; stone oval, rough, and pale colored.
Ripens July 25th.

Downton. — Glands reniform; fruit large, roundish
oval ; skin pale green; flesh red at the stone, melting and
delicious. Ripens July 25th.

Boston. — Glands globose; flowers small; fruit large,
roundish oval; skin bright yellow, with a deep red cheek;
flesh yellow, not rich, but sweet and pleasant. Ripens last
of July. (Clin g.)

New White. — Glands reniform; flowers large; fruit
large, nearly round; skin white, with slight tinge of red
in the sun; flesh white, tender, juicy, vinous, and rich;
stone small. Ripens August 1st.

Stanwick. — A European variety; skin' pale greenish-
white, shaded into deep violet in the sun; flesh white,
tender, juicy, and rich; sweet, and without the slightest
prussic acid flavor. Ripens August 1st. (Free.)

NUTS.

There are several kinds of nuts worthy of cultivation
by every planter, many of which are ornamental shade
trees, besides being valuable for the fruit they yield. For
convenience, we class them under one head.

FEUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

537

Chestnut (Castanea). — The Chestnut is a very large
forest tree, and common to both continents. The Spanish
Chestnut or Marron, produces a very large, sweet nut,
and is propagated by grafting on our common chestnut.
There are several varieties of this, of which " Marron de

Fig 209— The Burbank 'Early" Chestnut.
(Amer. Gardening )

From Nature.

Lyon " is the best. It will bear the second year from the
graft. Chestnuts are difficult to transplant when taken
from the woods. The improved varieties are much
superior to the wild sorts. The chestnut as a shade tree
is very effective in landscape gardening. It is stated in
a circular issued by the Division of Pomology, United
States Department of Agriculture, that "the European

ifew

FRUITS VARIETIES AXD CULTURE.

539

Fig. 210.

American Chestnut.

sweet chestnut (castanca satica) has been grafted for many
years in France and England upon the European black
oak (quercus robur), using young seedlings raised by plant-
ing acorns where the trees are to remain permanently.1"
A few experiments have been made
recently in the United States with
a degree of success, using the chest-
uut oak (quercus primus) as a stock.
The Common Wild American
Chestnut (castanca dentata) grows
iu the mountains and the hilly
regions of the South, and bears its
fruit in great abundance. The nuts,
however, are not as large as those
produced on the imported varieties; but they are
sweeter. The native chestnuts have been greatly im-
proved by transplanting and grafting, and by careful cul-
tivation. The demand for the nuts is steadily increasing.
Large Spanish or Marron de Lyon (castanca sativa).
The nuts are very large, but not as sweet as the Ameri-
can. The large size com-
mand attention, and there
is a better market for them
because of that fact.

Japan Giant or Mam-
moth (castanca Japonica). —
The growth from the seeds
is uncertain as to results,

Fig. 211-Spanish Chestnut. an(1 tbe geedg are often ^

reliable. Grafting is the only sure method to reproduce
this plant in perfection. The burr generally contains as
many as five large nuts. The trees do not grow tall, but
are dwarf in habit.

Chinquapin (castanca pumila). — This is a shrub gene-
rally, but it sometimes grows to the size of a tree. It is

540

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

hardy in most of the hilly regions of the Atlantic States
from Virginia to Alabama. The nuts are small, solitary
in the burr, of a beautiful mahogany color, and of a sweet
flavor. The chinquapin grows wild, and but little effort
has been exerted to improve it by cultivation. The nuts
find their way into the local markets along with the wild
chestnuts.

Shell-Bark Hickory (Hicoria ovata). — This tree is
found in fertile soils all over the United States, producing

the common thin-shelled,
white hickory nut. The
tree is very regular and
beautiful for ornamental
purposes. There is con-
siderable difference in the
size and flavor of the nuts
of different varieties. It
is generally cultivated by
planting the nuts in the

Fig. 212- Japanese Chestnut (Castanea . fall5 these Should be

Japoniai). slightly covered with leaf

mould.

Filberts {Corylus Avellana) are generally raised from
layers. They should not be allowed to sucker; but trained
to form low heads near the ground, which should be kept
tolerably open by thinning out the small spray, and short-
ening back the young shoots every spring. Of the varie-
ties,

Gqsford is a large, oblong nut, with a thin shell, and of
fine flavor. Prolific.

White Filbert. — Like the last, but with a light yellow
or white skin; husk long and tubular; nuts ovate.

Lambert. — Nut compressed, large and oblong; the
kernel has a rich flavor. Prolific.

Purple Filbert. — The leaves and fruit have a purple
color. A good varietv.

FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

,11

PECANS. — (llicoria pecan.)

This tree has been considerably cultivated by orchard-
ists within the past few years, and in many sections of the

Fig, 213— Paper Shell Pecan Tree (Large tree in centre of picture. )

South extensive orchards are now in existence, and are
yielding fine revenues to the owners. The tree reaches
its bearing period in eight to ten years after planting.
The character of soil suitable for the hickory will serve

542

GARDENING FOK THE SOUTH.

admirably for growing the pecan. In Florida the ques-
tion of growing this tree has long since been satisfac-
torily answered. It has been found well adapted to the
soil and climate of that State. It has also been success-
fully grown for many years in Louisiana and Texas. From
these States, probably, the largest quantity reaches
market. In the making of an orchard it is best to plant
one to two-year-old trees, since this age is more certain
to grow than when older plants are taken. Pecans may
be propagated from the seed, but this method is rather
uncertain, and it is best to graft or bud. If raised from
seeds proceed as follows: Prepare the land thoroughly by

deep plowing; run off
drills three to four feet
apart, and place the
nuts about fifteen inches
apart in the drills. After
one year old take up the
plants carefully, pre-
serving as many fibrous
roots as possible; cut off one-half of the tap root and
reset at once in the place where the1 orchard will be per-
manently situated. The best variety of the pecan is the
Louisiana and Tioxas Papee Shell. — The shell, as
the name indicates, is very thin ami the nut is large. It
commands a high price, because of the size of the nut, the
thinness of the shell and the fine flavor of the kernel.
There are several forms of this variety sold by nursery-
men, known by such local names as Biloxi, Centennial,
Colorado, Mexican, Pride of the Coast, Stuart, Van
Deman, etc.

WALNUTS.
Madeira Nut, or English Walnut (Juglan* Regia) is
a fine, lofty tree, with a handsome, open head, producing
the well-known nuts of the shops. It is produced from

Fig. 214

1 Nut.

FRUITS— VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 543

the seed, or by grafting'. Likes a rich, moist soil. Juglans
praeparturiens is similar to the above, but bears fruit
when three years old, and is valuable on this account for
the garden.

Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) should have a place in

Fig. 215— English Walnut (Jug- Fig. 216— Japan Walnut.

fans rii/i'i).

the grounds of the amateur, as it is not only a fine shade
tree, but is valuable for its fruit and timber.

Japan Walnut (Juglans Sieboldiana). — Shells of the
nuts are thick, and the kernel is sweet. The nuts form in
clusters. The tree produces a pleasing appearance, with

Fig. 217 — Butternut (Juglans cineriu).

its large leaves, and makes an attractive addition to
ornamental grounds, parks, etc.

Butternut, or White Walnut (Juglans cineria), is a
native American nut, greatly prized by many. The shell

544 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

caii be propagated by seeds, but the sure way to secure
the type is to bud or graft.

OLIVE.— (Olea Europea.)

The Olive is a low- branching, evergreen tree, rising to
the height of twenty or thirty feet, with stiff, narrow,
bluish-green leaves. The fruit is a drupe, of oblong, sphe-
roidal form; hard, thick flesh of a yellowish-green color,
turning black when ripe. The tree is a native of Greece
and the seacoast ridges of Asia and Africa; it has been
cultivated from time immemorial for the oil expressed
from its ripe fruit. Where cultivated it answers all the
purposes of cream and butter, and enters into every kind
of cooking. Unripe olives are much used as pickles,
which, though distasteful at first to most persons, become
by custom exceedingly grateful, promoting digestion, and
increasing appetite. The ripe Olive is crushed to a paste,
when the oil is expressed through coarse hempen bags
into hot water, from which the pure oil is skimmed off. If
the stone is crushed the oil is inferior. Lime and potash
should be applied as fertilizers, should the soil be defi-
cient in these substances.

Propagation ami Culture. — Olive plantations are gen-
erally formed from the suckers which grow abundantly
from the roots of old trees.

It grows readily from cuttings and seeds. With the
aid of a sharp knife secure the cuttings from strong,
healthy young shoots, and remove all leaves except two
or three at the top. riant in boxes of moist s;ind, which
are placed in warm, shady localities. After rooting the
young plants are potted and given more sunshine for
several mouths, when they are transplanted in the
orchard.

The cultivated. Olive may perhaps also be grafted on
our Olea Americana, or Devil Wood, which abounds on our
seacoast. The best trees are from seeds which commence

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 545

bearing in five or six years, but are not remunerative
until ten or twelve years old. The trees produce fifteen
to twenty pounds of oil per year, and their longevity is
greater than that of any other fruit tree. The dry lime-
stone soils of Florida would probably become exceedingly
valuable if planted with the Olive.

It should be tried wherever the Orange will survive the
winter. In planting, the trees are set from thirty to forty
feet apart. The European varieties are many, but we
enumerate only a few.

In 1S01 General Nathaniel Greene, of Revolutionary
fame, planted four hundred olive trees at Dungeness, on
Cumberland Island, Georgia, and in 1895 they were forty
feet high and two and one-half feet in diameter. It is said
that one thousand barrels of olives were gathered from
these trees in one season. Unfortunately, the unusually
cold weather of 1S95 that damaged so seriously the
orange trees of Florida, also killed these olive trees at
Dungeness, so that they were cut down. Strong shoots
are now putting forth from the stumps, and the proprietor
is trying to start the trees in the direction of another
magnificent growth.

Mr. P. J. Berckmans, iu speaking of the olive, makes
the following comments: " Olives have been cultivated on
the coast of Georgia and South Carolina for many years,
and an excellent quality of oil has been produced. A
peculiarity of the olive is that it flourishes and bears
abundant crops on rocky and barren soils, where no other
fruit trees are successful. Olive trees begin to bear fruit
at from eight to ten years of age, but should not be
planted farther north than this section (Augusta, Ga.),
where they are sometimes injured by excessive cold."

The following varieties are recommended :

Nevadillo Blanco. — This is of Spanish origin, and
is the variety from which most of the oil" shipped from

35

546

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Spain is extracted. The tree is a rapid grower, and the
branches are pendant.

Picholim: (oblonga). — This variety is an early fruiter,
and the tree grows very rapidly. It is not so liable to in-
sect attacks as is the case with some of the other varie-
ties. In Florida and South Georgia this variety is "very
popular.

THE ORANGE, LEMON, ETC.

The Orange (Citrus) is a native of Asia. The rich
golden fruit displayed among its dark, glossy, evergreen

Fig. 218— Alligator Orange. (Photo, by O. P. Havens.)

The

tree grows to the height of twenty to thirty feet, with a
round, symmetrical head ; the bark of the trunk is of an
ashy-gray, while that of the twigs is green. The leaves
are of a fine, healthy, shining green; its blossoms are
delicately fragrant, and as the tree is in all stages of bear-

(547) Plate 12— Sour Wild Orange. (Photo, by 0. P. Havens.)

548

GARDENING K)i; THE SOUTH.

ing at the same time, in flower and ripe golden fruit,
nothing can surpass an orange grove in attractiveness.
The wild, bitter-sweet orange is found in various parts
of Florida as far north as 29°; its occurrence is said to be
indicative of a good soil. It may have originated from the
Seville orange introduced by the Spaniards. The orange
is extensively cultivated in Florida, and somewhat on the
coast of Georgia and Carolina.

Fig. 219— Tangerine Orange. (Photo, by 0. P Havens.)

Lime is essential to the healthy growth of the tree; the
best soil is a deep fertile loam on the banks of rivers.

The wild orange taken from the woods is generally
used as a stock to graft the most desirable varieties upon.

There are about seventy-five varieties of oranges culti-
vated, of two principal classes, viz. : The Sweet or China
Orange, and the Bitter Seville or Wild Orange. The latter
class is much the more hardy, but of no value as a dessert
fruit. They are used in cooking, preserving, wine-making,

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

549

and for flavoring. Of the sweet oranges, the Maltese has
a thick and spongy rind, red and delicious pulp, but some-
times with a trace of bitterness. The glands which
secrete the oil are prominent.

There are three species of oranges cultivated, viz.:

Citrus Ugaradia, or Bitter Oranges.
Citrus nobilis, or Mandarins.
Citrus aurantium, or Sweet Oranges.

Fig. 220— Patsuma Orange. (Photo, by O. P. Havens.)

The Horticultural Society of Florida, in the proceedings
of the tenth annual meeting for 1897, gives the follow-
ing account and recommendations concerning these
species and their varieties. Of the six varieties of bitter
oranges mentioned in their catalogue the Bitter Sweet
and Phillips' Bitter Sweet are recommended as con-
stituting varieties of the " highest excellence in all the
desired characteristics of season, quality, distinction, pro-

550 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

ductiveness, etc." The varieties of Mandarines recom-
mended are Satsuma and Tangerine.

The Satsuma is a seedless variety of the Mandarin or
" kid-glove " class, and it will stand a considerable reduc-
tion of temperature, even to 25°, when other kinds of
oranges will be destroyed. The color is a deep orange,
and the flavor is juicy and rich. It matures fruit from

Fig. 221— Section ot Satsuma Orange. (Photo, by O. P. Havens.)

September to November, and is hardy as far north as
Southern Georgia. It is well adapted for portions of the
country in Northern Florida, Southern Georgia, and
along the Gulf coast. The plant is prolific, and it begins
bearing fruit when quite young.

The varieties of sweet oranges recommended by the
Florida Horticultural Societv are:

Bessie,

Dn Koi,

Boone,

Early Oblong,

Centennial,

Enterprise Seedless,

Double Imperial Navel,

Foster,

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

551

Hart's Late,

Higley's Late,

Honiosassa,

Imperial Blood,

Jaffa,

Jaffa Blood,

King,

May's Best,
Nonpareil,
Old Vini,
Paper Rind,
Parson Brown,
Pineapple,
Sanouinea,

Fig. 222— Washington Navel Orange. (Photo, by O. P. Havens.)

Majorca, St. Michael Blood,

Maltese Blood, Sweet Seville,

Maltese Egg, Valencia Late,

Maltese Oval, Vinous,

Washington Navel (Bahia).

The navel varieties are much esteemed on account of
the delicate texture and superior quality of the fruit.
They are generally shy bearers, although experience indi-

552

GARDENING J-'oi; THE SOUTH.

cates that they are much more prolific upon rough lemon
and Trifoliate stocks than as generally grown on orange
stocks. The Blood varieties are sweet, and therefore
marketable early in season. At this time their distinctive
character is not apparent, and they have little advantage
in market over other early sorts. As the season ad-
vances their ruby tints develop until quite apparent on

Fig. 228— Section of Washington Navel Orange. (Photo, by O. P. Havens.)

the exterior, and their quality continues to improve; at
full ripeness they are equalled by few and surpassed by
none. In locations sufficiently exempt from frost to per-
mit their being held on the trees until they reach perfec-
tion, they bring high prices, and are exceptionally profit-
able. The Satsuma is valued on account of its hardiness,
which is increased by being grafted on the hardy Trifo-
liate stock. As it is marketable before cold weather (it

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 553

ripens very early) many trees are planted in sections
north of the usual range of oranges.

Excluding the Navels, Bloods and Satsuinas, noted
above, and without disparagement to other sorts of equal
merit, the following are suggested as a desirable list for
general planting, arranged in order of succession:

Fig. 224— King Orange. (Photo, by O. P. Havens.)

Very Early. — Boone, Sweet Seville.

Early. — Enterprise, Seedless, Parson Brown.

Early Medium. — Nonpareil, Centennial.

Medium. — Pineapple, Jaffa, Homosassa.

Late Medium. — Majorca, Du Roi.

Late. — Bessie, King, Maltese Oval.

Very Late. — Hart's Late.

The Lemon (Citrus Limoiium) is cultivated like the
orange, but has longer, lighter-colored leaves, with naked
petioles or footstalks; flowers tinged with red externally;
fruit oblong, with a swollen point; pale yellow color, with
an acid pulp. Used mostly for flavoring, and lemonade

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 555

and other cooling drinks. The trees are usually very pro-
ductive. The following varieties are recommended and
highly esteemed by the fruit-growers in Florida: Belair,
Eureka, Genoa, Imperial, Sicily, Villa=Franca.

The Lime (Citrus acida) has smaller flowers than the
lemon, which are white; fruit small, round, and pale
yellow color, with a slight protuberance at the end; very
acid. Used for the same purposes as the lemon. The
green fruit makes a delicious preserve. The varieties are :
Mexican, Persian, Rangpur and Tahiti. The two last are
excellent in quality.

Citron (Citrus Medico). — Has ±arge, oblong, wingless
leaves; flowers tinged with red or purple; the fruit is very
large and lemon shaped, with warts and furrows. Kind
thick and fragrant, pulp subacid. Used for preserves.
The varieties are : Lemon, Lymon and Orahne. The last is
generally considered to be the best in quality.

Shaddock and Grape Fruit (Citrus Decumana) have
leaves winged like the orange; flowers white; fruit globu-
lar, and very large, weighing often six to eight pounds;
rind very thick; pulp dry, sweetish, or subacid. The de-
sirable varieties are: Aurantium, Blood Shaddock, For-
bidden Fruit (usually applied to entire list). Hart, Josse-
lyn, Mammoth or Orange Shaddock, Pernambuco,
Triumph, Walter.

Kumquats or Kin Kans (Citrus Japonica). — This citrus
fruit originated in Japan, and is more hardy than the
orange. It is known in Japan by the name of Kumqaat
and in China by the name of Kin Kan. The plant is
dwarfish in habit, but the shape is beautiful and attrac-
tive. The fruit occurs in clusters, and is much desired
for preserving, pickling and making into jams. The plant
is very ornamental, and makes a desirable addition to the
list of shrubs for the lawn in that portion of the country
where the orange tree is successfullv crown. Because of

(556) Plate 14— Kuniquats or Kin Kans. ( Photo, by 0. P. Havens. )

FRUITS VARIETIES AMD CULTURE. 557

its small size the Kumquat is also well suited for room
decoration, and it is made all the more attractive because
of the bright yellow clusters of fruit which hang on the
limbs in profusion all winter. The flowers are also abun-
dant. There are two varieties, differing only in the size
and shape of the fruit — the Marumi (round fruit) and
Nagami (oblong fruit). The latter is the largest, and is
the variety usually grown in Florida.

Marketing. — Citrus fruits are packed in crates and
barrels which are well ventilated. It is of the greatest
importance that the fruits should be in prime condition
before packing, because nothing so much detracts from
the value of the package as to have unsound fruit mixed
with the good. Great care should also be taken to select
and grade the fruit and pack each size in separate crates,
and, in the case of oranges, wrapping each one in tissue
paper. Pack firmly and press in well, so that the pack-
ages will not show shrinkage when the crates reach their
destination. Fruit sells well when the greatest care is
taken in packing the same sizes and qualities together
and avoiding all unsound and unsightly forms.

PEACH.— ( Persica vulgaris.)

The Peach is a native of Persia, whence its cultivation
has proceeded westward ; but it has nowhere found a soil
or climate more congenial to it than in these Southern
States. Indeed, the peach is the favorite, and in many
instances the only fruit tree cultivated by our planters.
It requires a soil of but moderate fertility; its enemies
and diseases are but feAV, and the return so speedy that
there is no excuse for being without good peaches.

A somewhat serious difficulty in peach culture, which
results from bad pruning, is the tendency to overbear
and break down the limbs from the excess of the crop.
More peach trees are destroyed or badly injured from

558 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

this cause than any other. Peach trees should always
be pruned by cutting off the extremities of the branches,
so as to leave about one-half of the last year's growth.
The fruit is produced on these small branches, and by
reducing the top in this manner, overbearing is prevented,
the fruit is effectually thinned, and is larger, finer
flavored, and nearly as much fruit can be taken from each
tree without danger of breaking. The tree is also kept
hyw and close, and more trees and larger crops can be
grown to the acre.

This method of pruning is called shortening in, or head-
ing in, and is expeditiously done with pruning shears.
Old trees that have got out of shape can be pruned and
brought into a symmetrical form by sawing off limbs of
two or three years' growth at or near the forks; by this
method old trees can be renewed in vigor as well as in
form. Pruning can be performed* at any time when the
leaves are off. If it is wished to make young trees pro-
duce early, they may be shortened in the last of July, the
year they are transplanted. Care should be taken that
the branches do not divide into forks, as they are exceed-
ingly apt to split when bearing a crop of fruit. The peach,
like all other fruit trees, should branch low, say within
two feet of the ground, and be kept in a pyramidal or
round form, as nearly as can be done.

The loss of the fruit by decay as it approaches maturity
is more annoying than anything else in peach culture.

If the season is warm and wet very few kinds ripen
well if on moist or rich earth or soil. There is a very
common opinion that peaches propagated from the stones
of unripe fruit are more liable to rot than those from
stones or pits of fully ripened fruit; some also think decay
is caused by planting the trees too deep. It is, however,
certain that some varieties are much more subject to
decay than others placed in the same position.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 559

The most suitable soils to ripen sound and high flavored
fruit are dry, but moderately fertile; hills and hillsides
generally are the best locations for the peach; thinning
the fruit so that no two peaches touch each other is very
necessary in order to prevent decay. The peach is mostly
used in its fresh state for the dessert, and is generally
considered the most delicious fruit of temperate climates.
When allowed to ripen on the tree, it is the most whole-
some of fruits, aud as an article of food is considerably
nutritious. Peaches are also used for pies, are preserved
in brandy and sugar, and are excellent when dried for
winter use. For culinary purposes the clings are most
preferred. Peaches and cream form a delicious dessert
dish.

For drying take those of the best quality, just as they
are ripe enough to eat; halve them, remove the stones,
and sprinkle over them a little nice sugar, and dry them
in a brick oven, moderately warm. Thus prepared the
aroma and flavor are preserved, and they are free from
insects. If the peaches were fully ripe, no cooking will
be required, but when used they are simply soaked in
cold or warm water. Sufficient sugar, varying with the
acidity of the fruit, is added before drying. The firm, yel-
low fleshed are the best for drying. Peaches thus pre-
pared are only inferior to the fresh fruit, as they retain
much of the flavor. Dried in the usual way from unripe
fruit, exposed to the sun, much of the flavor is dissipated.
Peaches are excellent preserved in self-sealing cans,
which now can be purchased at reasonable prices.

Lime, potash and the phosphates are the chief elements
the peach requires in the soil. Bone-dust and wTood ashes
are valuable applications, much more suitable than com-
mon animal manures. They may be dressed with com-
post of woods' earth, or swamp muck, if the soil is very
poor.

560 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

When the trees are planted the holes may be made
large, and enriched with well-decayed manure, to give a
good growth of wood. For this purpose guano is an excel-
lent application; but it is fatal to the tree if it comes in
contact with the roots. I have applied it with success to
all kinds of fruit trees. After the holes are dug, a little
guano is sprinkled in them; this is then covered with
about two inches of good mould, on which the tree is
planted. When the tree is planted, another sprinkling of
guano may be added, and covered with a little more
earth; two or three tablespoonfuls are sufficient for a
tree, and but a small quantity is required for a large
orchard. For this purpose, as well as for manuring most
shrubs, rose bushes, etc., few applications are so cheap
and satisfactory. After the tree begins to fruit, applica-
tions of lime, ashes, or leaf mould are much better than
those which excite growth, as they do not impair the
flavor of the fruit or induce decay.

The peach is best propagated by budding and grafting
upon seedling peach stocks. There are, however, many
varieties of the clings, particularly, that reproduce them-
selves from the seed, especially if the tree from which the
stone is taken stands apart from other varieties. It is
believed that the stone of a seedling is more apt to repro-
duce its kind than if taken from a budded tree. Seedlings
often escape frosts that are fatal to the finer varieties, but
the highest flavored varieties of seedlings are often quite
as susceptible of injury as those budded or grafted; those
varieties bearing large flowers are much less liable to be
injured by frost than those having small ones.

Plum stocks are recommended by foreign writers; but
they are of little use in this climate, for the graft soon out-
grows the stock and breaks off. Peach stocks are raised
by planting the stones two or three" inches deep, in the
autumn or winter. If the stones are cracked thev are

FRUITS VARIETIES A.\D CULTURE. 561

more sure to grow. Abundance of stocks can often be
procured by taking the volunteers that spring up under
the trees in early spring, when about an inch high, and
transplanting in rows three feet apart and oue foot in the
row. Plant them in good soil, where they will grow
rapidly; if the season is good they will be of sufficient size
to bud iu August. Wheu the inserted buds start in the
following spring, the stocks may be cut down to within
two inches of the bud; and then keep rubbing off the
shoots or robbers for at least two mouths; otherwise the
inserted buds will be overpowered by them, and die, or
make but feeble growTth.

The buds had best be iuserted iu the north side of the
stock to screen them from the sun. Peach trees raised, or
varieties originating, iu the Northern States are not at all
unfitted for our climate, yet there is some risk of import-
ing trees from the North on account of diseases peculiar
to that section from which Southern raised trees are
exempt.

Some varieties of European fruits are found to succeed
better here than where they originated, but as a general
rule, all fruits succeed best in their native locality.

Peach trees in transplanting are set twenty feet apart
each way, which gives one hundred and eight trees to
the acre. If shortened in yearly, they may be set fifteen
feet apart, which will give one hundred and ninety-three
trees to an acre; in gardens fifteen feet is generally the
best distance.

Peaches are so much alike in general character — the
difference in outline, color, flavor, and texture being less
than with other plants — that it is necessary in order to
determine the name of a variety to resort to other
methods of distinction.

The two most obvious distinctions or divisions are into
freestones and clingstones; or, as we call them, soft and

562

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

plum peaches; the flesh of the former parting freely
from the stone, and being of a melting consistency; and
that of the latter named sorts adhering to the stone, and
being of a firmer texture. The English give to these
divisions the names of " melters " and " pavies."

Both these grand divisions are subdivided into classes
according to the color of the flesh, viz.: Those with light
colored and those with deep yellow flesh. These classes
are again divided into three sections. At the base of the
leaf of some varieties will bo found small glands, which
are either round and regular, or oblong and irregular, or

kidney - shaped; while
others have no glands, but
are more deeply cut or
serrated like the teeth of
a saw.

Hence the three sec-
tions, viz.: 1. Leaves ser-
rated, without glands (a,
Figure 158); 2. Leaves
with small, round, or glo-
bose glands (/>, Figure
3. Leaves with large, irregular, reniform or kidney-
shaped glands (r, Figure 158).

From the blossom another characteristic is derived,
giving us two sub-sections — the first embracing large
flowers, red in the center, and pale at the margin; the
second, small flowers, tinged with dark red at the margin.
Most native peaches in this vicinity have large flowers,
but the great mass of the finer varieties have small
flowers.

Varieties. — The following varieties have been tried and
are found among the most desirable. They are classed
pretty much in the order of ripening. All named are good
bearers.

Alexander. — A prolific peach of bright color; large

158):

FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 563

flowers; fruit medium size, red skin, white flesh and firm.
Ripens May to June. Semi-cling.

Angel. — Originated in Florida and highly prized in
that State. Fruit above average, round ; whitish-red skin;
greenish white flesh; best quality in flavor, and early.
Freestone.

Rivers. — Flowers from March Otk to 30th; flowers
large; fruit above medium; skin white, tinged with red;
flesh white. Fruit ripens from middle of June to the first
of July. Freestone.

Hale. — Glands globose; fruit medium, nearly round;
skin mottled red; cheek dark red; flesh white, melting,
juicy, and high flavored; flowers large. Tree vigorous,
healthy, and an abundant bearer, ripening ten days or two
weeks before any other good variety. Free. (Thomas.)

Tillottson. — Leaves deeply serrated, without glands;
fruit medium, round; skin nearly covered with red
ground; color pale yellowish-white, dotted with red, the
cheek being quite dark; flesh white, red at the stone, to
which it adheres slightly, although a freestone; melting,
rich, and juicy, with a high flavor. Ripens from the 15th
to the 20th of June. Free.

Early York. — Leaves serrated, glandless; flowers
large; fruit medium, roundish oval; suture slight; skin
thickly dotted with pale red on a greenish-white ground,
dark red in the sun; flesh greenish- white, tender, melting
full of rich, slightly acid juice. Ripens June 20th. Free.

George IV. — Glands globose; flowers small; fruit
large, round, with broad suture; skin white, dotted with
red, cheek rich dark red; flesh pale, melting, very juicy,
with rich, luscious flavor; stone small. Ripens July 10th.
Free.

Grosse Mignonne. — Glands globose; flowers large;
fruit large, roundish, apex depressed; suture distinct;

564 GAEDENING FOR THE SOUTII.

skin dull white, mottled with red, and with a purplish-red
cheek; flesh red at the stone, melting, juicy, with a rich
vinous flavor; stone small and very rough; perhaps the
best freestone peach in cultivation. Ripens July 10th.
Free.

Crawford's Early. — Glands globose; flowers small;
fruit yellowish-white, with a fine red cheek; flesh yellow,
melting, sweet and excellent, Ripens middle of July.
Free.

Columbia. — Originated in Georgia; flowers large; fruit
large, round; skin rough; flesh yellow and excellent
flavor. Ripens in July. Freestone.

Elberta. — This peach also originated in Georgia, and
is a prolific bearer. The flowers arc large; fruit round,
compressed; skin yellowish-red; flesh yellow and of tine
quality. Ripens from July 10th to August 6th. Freestone.

Foster. — An excellent peach for family use. Flowers
small; fruit fine grained and juicy, with delightful flavor;
skin yellowish-red; flesh yellow. Ripens in the latter part
of July. Freestone.

Stump. — Flowers small; fruit round oval; skin light
red; flesh white, firm and juicy; of best quality. Ripens
about the middle of July. Freestone.

Triumph. — This peach ripens about the time that the
Alexander comes to maturity, and it is a favorite among
orchardists for a shipping variety. The flavor is slightly
acid, juicy and pleasant; skin yellow with a crimson
blush; flesh yellow; medium size. Freestone when fully
ripe.

Oldmixon Cling. — Glands globose; flowers small;
fruit large, roundish oval; suture at the top; skin yellow-
ish-white, dotted with red; cheek reel; flesh light, melting,
juicy and rich, with a high, luscious flavor. Ripens last
of July and early in August.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 565

Late Rareripe. — Glands globose; flowers small; fruit
large, roundish oval; skin downy; color, grayish-white;
marbled with red in the sun; flesh pale, juicy, melting,
and of a rich, luscious flavor. Ripens last of July.

Late Admirable. — Glands globose; flowers small;
fruit large, roundish oval; suture distinct; apex swollen,
acute; skin pale yellowish-green, with a pale red cheek,
marbled with dark red; flesh pale, melting, and fine
flavored. Ripens August 10th to 15th. Free. A superb
peach.

Crawford's Late. — Glands globose; flowers small;
very large, roundish; suture shallow, but distinct; skin
yellow, with dark-red cheek; flesh deep yellow, red at the
stone, juicy, and melting, with rich, vinous flavor. Ripens
early in August. Free.

Lemon Cling. — Glands reniform; flowers small; leaves
long; fruit large, oblong, narrowed at the top, with a
swollen, projecting point; skin dark yellow, reddened in
the sun; flesh fine yellow, red at the stone, flavor rich and
vinous. Ripens August 10th.

President. — Glands globose; large, roundish oval;
suture shallow; skin downy, pale yellowish-green, with a
dull-red cheek; flesh pale, but. deep red at the stone, very
juicy, melting and high flavored; stone very rough. Ripens
August 15th. Free.

Tippecanoe. — Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit
very large, nearly round, with a point; skin yellow, with
a fine red cheek; flesh yellow, juicy, with a fine vinous
flavor. Ripens August 20th. Cling.

Chinese Cling. — Leaves large and very dark green;
fruit, very large, sometimes weighing one pound; color
creamy yellow, with a pale red cheek in the sun; flesh pale
yellow, coarse, but of good vinous flavor, juicy enough,
but has a little too much prussic acid flavor. Tree a very
vigorous grower; flowers large. Ripens August 10th

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 567

Eaton's Golden. — A premium peach from North
Carolina; flowers large; fruit large, and resembles Craw-
ford's Late in appearance; color bright yellow, marbled
with bright red, dark on the sunny side. The best late
cling we have yet seen. Ripens October 10th.

Baldwin's Late. — Fruit large and round, with a
swollen point; skin greenish-white, with a pale red cheek;
flesh firm, juicy and melting, and good flavored. Ripe
October 20th, and will keep for several weeks in the
house. Free.

Peento. — Fruit medium size, flat; white skin and flesh;
freestone; good quality. Ripens early. Tree vigorous
grower and very prolific. This peach thrives well in
Florida, and is popular, particularly in the central and
southern portions of the State. It also does well in South
Louisiana.

Everbearing Peach. — " This is one of the most re-
markable peaches, as it combines many desirable quali-
ties which make it of great value for family use.

" 1. Its long continued bearing period. The first ripen-
ing begins about July 1st, and successive crops are pro-
duced until the beginning of September. Fruit in all
stages of development — ripe and half grown — may be
seen upon the tree at the same time.

" 2. As the tree blossoms during a long period, a com-
plete failure of fruit has, therefore, never happened since
the original tree first began to bear, eight years ago.

" 3. The fruit is creamy white, mottled and striped with
light purple and with pink veins; oblong in shape, and
tapering to the apex; flesh white, with red veins near the
skin; very juicy, vinous, and of excellent flavor; quality
very good to best. Freestone of the Indian type.

" The first ripening averages three and a half inches
long by three inches broad. The size of the second and
following crops diminishes gradually, until that of the

568

GAKDEXISG FOR THE SOUTH.

last ripening is about two inches in diameter. A supply
of fruit may, therefore, be secured from the same tree for
nearly three months in succession.

" We do not recommend the Everbearing Peach for
commercial orchards, but for family use, or small gar-
dens, where there is room for only a few trees, its value
is unquestionable. We offer it with confidence, as we
have known the original tree for the past three years, and

Fig. 226— Bidwell Early Peach. (Div. Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agri.)

gathered the fruit in its various stages of development."
(Berckmans.)

The following additional varieties are popular in some
sections of the South:

Amelia,
Bidwell Late,
Bidwell Early,
Beer's Smock,
Kerr (Jessie),

General Lee,
Mountain Rose,
Onderdonk,
Sneed,
St. John,

Waldo.

FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 569

Peaches suitable for Middle Virginia, West North Caro-
lina, North South Carolina, North Georgia, Northeast
Alabama, and Middle Tennessee:

Alexander, Late Admirable,

Beer's Smock, Late Crawford,

Early Crawford, Late Rareripe,

Elberta, Mountain Rose,

Foster, Oldmixon Cling,

George IV., Rivers,

Grosse Mignonne, Sneed,

Hale, Stump,
St. John.

Peaches suitable for Eastern Virginia, Eastern North
Carolina, the southern half of South Carolina, the south-
ern half of Georgia, all of Alabama except the north-
eastern portions, Mississippi, Southeast Arkansas, North
Louisiana, and Eastern Texas:

Alexander,

Kerr (Jessie),

Amelia,

Late Crawford,

Chinese Cling,

General Lee,

Columbia,

Lemon Cling,

Early Crawford,

Mountain Rose,

Early Vork,

Oldmixon Cling,

Elberta,

Sneed,

Everbearing,

St. John (Yellow),

Hale,

Tillottson.

Peaches suitable for

Southern Louisiana and Florida

Angel,

Early Cream,

Bidwell Early,

Ferdinand,

Bidwell Late,

Florida Crawford,

Cabler Indian,

General Lee,

Countess,

Gibbons,

Dorothy N.,

Honey,

570 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

Imperial, (Sneed,

Jewel, - Suber,

Maggie, Taber,

Onderdonk, Thurber,

Pallas, Victoria,

Peento, Waldo.

Marketing. — Early peaches are shipped in baskets
packed in crates. When the fruit becomes more plenti-
ful, however, well ventilated barrels may be used. Equal
care must be exercised in assorting this fruit and packing
separately the same sizes and grades as is cautioned in
shipping oranges. Too great emphasis cannot be placed
on this important point. Take care in handling the
peach, so as not to injure the " bloom" on the fruit.

PEAK. — f Pyrus communis.)

The Pear is often found growing wild in hedges in
various parts of Europe, China and Western Asia. It is a
thorny tree, with upright branches, tending to the pyra-
midal form. The wild fruit is exceedingly harsh and
astringent; but no fruit whatever is more delicious,
sugary, and melting than its best improved varieties.
The pear was early brought into cultivation; there were
thirty-two varieties in Pliny's time, \^\ they were " but a
heavy fruit, unless boiled or baked," and it was not before
the seventeenth century that it became really worthy of
culture for the dessert. Indeed, the majority of the best
varieties have originated within the last century. The
pear, under favorable circumstance's, is a long-lived tree.
The Endicott pear tree, still living in Danvers, Massa-
chusetts, was planted by Governor Endicott in lf>2S, or
eight years after tin1 landing of the Pilgrims.

M. P>osc mentions trees in Europe which are known to
be four hundred years old. Even in this State trees that
were in full bearing forty years ago are still healthy,
vigorous, and productive. It will endure in suitable soils

FRUITS VARIETIES AXD CULTURE.

571

greater extremes of heat than the apple, succeeding well
in latitudes too warm for the latter fruit to flourish. It is
better adapted to southern climates than the apple, while
in cold climates it succeeds as well.

The pear is the most delicious of fruits for the dessert;
and, iu this latitude, by choosing proper varieties, we are
able to have them ten or eleven months of the year. The
finer kinds often sell in the cities for one or two dollars
per dozen. It is excellent for baking, preserves and mar-
malade. It may be dried like the apple and peach, and,
with or without sugar, will keep for years. Perry is made
from the juice, as cider from the apple. The wood is fine-
grained and compact, and, dyed black, is used in place of
ebony.

Dessert pears should have a sugary, aromatic juice, and
a. soft, melting, subliquid texture. Some few of a crisp,
firm, or breaking consistency are very good. Pears for
stewing or baking should be large, firm-fleshed, and
moderately juicy. The harsh, austere kinds are thought
best for perry.

Gathering and Preserving flic Fruit. — Most varieties of
the pear are much better if picked from the tree before
fully ripe, and ripened in the house. Indeed, some few
kinds, like the Heathcote, Bartlett and Van Assche, will
ripen well if gathered at any time after they are half
grown. When a few begin to turn yellow and ripen on
the tree, then gather the whole crop.

Many of the most delicious varieties, if allowed to
ripen on the tree, become dry, insipid, and only second
or third rate. They will also ripen more gradually, last
longer, and be less liable to loss or injury, if ripened in
the house. It is said, however, a few varieties do best to
ripen on the tree. When gathered, some few kinds ripen
more perfectly by exposing them to the light and air.
Most of them do best, however, in kegs or small boxes, or

572 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

on the shelves of a cool, dark fruit room, each one sepa-
rately enveloped in paper or loose cotton. This is not
necessary with the summer varieties. Pears, like apples,
must be gathered by hand, with the same precaution to
prevent bruises, or they will soon decay. Winter pears
should hang as long as may be upon the tree. A week or
two before their proper time to ripen, bring them from
the fruit-room into a warm apartment; this will much
improve their flavor.

Propagation and Culture. — Pears are propagated by
budding or grafting on seedling pear stocks or on certain
varieties of the quince. Pear suckers should never be
employed for this purpose, for they seldom have good
roots, and the trees are short-lived; a great deal of preju-
dice exists against pear culture from this cause. Seed-
lings raised from the thrifty-growing kinds that are found
about the country are much more healthy than those
raised from the improved varieties.

Sow the seed thickly in autumn, in drills eighteen
inches apart, or, better still, mix the seed with sifted sand
in a box, and place it out doors during winter, and sow in
the spring, when they begin to sprout, in good, rich
earth; the latter mode saves the seed from being de-
stroyed by ground mice.

Ashes are an excellent application to the seed-bed; the
soil should be moist, as much of the value of the stocks
depends on vigorous and continued growth the first
season. Take up the stocks in November or December,
shorten the tap-root, and reset them in rows four feet
apart, putting those together which are of about the same
size. The best of them, if in a good, rich soil, will be fit
to bud during the next summer, and nearly all the balance
can be whip-grafted the ensuing spring.

Many kinds of pears grow well on the quince, and come
some vears earlier into bearing. We have found the com-

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 573

mon quince to be equally as good as the Angers, when
worked side by side with them. The fruit produced from
trees worked on the quince is usually larger and better
flavored than on the pear, and the trees can be set much
nearer together. They come into bearing in two or three
years, but are not as long-lived as when worked on the
pear stock. In planting the trees on pear stocks they
should be set twenty feet apart; but as these will be
several years before they come into bearing, the spaces
should be filled up with dwarf trees, growing on the
quince stock, so as to have them, when planted, ten feet
apart. Thus a plantation of sixteen trees, set in a square,
on the pear stock, would require thirty-three on the
quince to fill the intervals — making a square of seven
trees on a side. This will prevent the attacks of the
quince borer, and add to the longevity of the tree.

The_soil must be kept clean and well tilled; but it
should not be deeply spaded within two feet of the trunks
of the trees. No fruit tree will be healthy or bear well
if the ground is deeply spaded near its stem. The pear
likes a deep, strong loam, similar to that required by the
apple. Iron is beneficial; hence the pear succeeds well in
our red clay loam, if deeply dug and sufficiently manured.
For pears on the quince stock, the soil should be deep and
cool. From the analysis of the wood and bark of the
pear tree, it is apparent that wood ashes and superphos-
phate of lime cannot but be very beneficial to the growth
and fruitfulness of the pear.

In pruning the pear, the object is to make it throw out
branches within a foot of the ground, and to encourage
its growth in its natural pyramidal shape.

Not much priming is required the first year; but any
shoot that, by overgrowth, threatens to destroy the
beauty of the tree should be pinched in at once. When
the tree is transplanted, if it has been out of the ground

574 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

for any length of time it must be severely shortened in.
If the tree has good roots, the top will soon be renewed.
Severe pruning at this time is the only way to make the
tree branch out near the ground, so as to shade the trunk
and give a tine pyramidal shape. To secure this, plant
maiden trees, or those one year old from the bud. When
they have grown one year, cut back the branches in
the winter; pinch in any shoots, during the summer, that
would mar the symmetry of the tree, or remove them en-
tirely, if supertluous.

Head back the leader each year, to strengthen the side
branches. The leader must be shortened more or less,
according to its vigor. A little practice will enable any
one of ordinary judgment to form his trees in the desired
shape. Do not let the branches remain so close together
that, wrhen they come to bear, they will cause the fruit
and foliage in the interior to suffer from want of air; keep
the lower shoots the longest by pinching those above,
when disposed to overgrow them. This makes a beautiful
tree, ornamental even for a flower garden.

A greater number of varieties of the pear are in cultiva-
tion than of any other fruit. Of those that have fruited
here, the following are the most desirable. The varieties
do not always observe with us the order as laid down in
the books.

Madeline. — Fruit medium, obovate, tapering to the
stem, which is long and slender, set on the side of a small
swelling; skin smooth, yellowish-green; calyx small, in
a shallow basin; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet, and
perfumed. Eipe from the 1st to the 15th of June.

Doyenne d'Ete, or Summer Doyenne. — Fruit small,
roundish, slightly turbinate; skin smooth, light yellow,
shaded with bright red, sprinkled 'with small gray or
russet dots; stalk rather short, thick, fleshy where in-

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 575

serted in the fruit, in a very slight depression; calyx
small, partly closed in a shallow, slightly corrugated
basin; flesh white, melting, juicy, and sweet. The best
very early pear; ripens with, and superior to, the Made-
leine; in Georgia early in June, in New York last of July.
Tree vigorous; au early and profuse bearer; leaves long,
oval, pointed, and dark green; seeds dark.

Bosc. — Fruit large, pyriform, somewhat uneven, taper-
ing gradually to the stalk; skin smooth, dark yellow,

Fig. 227 — Doyenne d'EtL-.

nearly covered with rich cinnamon russet; stalk varies
sometimes, being large and fleshy, as in the figure, or
long, rather slender, and curved; flesh white, melting,
buttery, abounding in rich, sugary, and delicious juice,
slightly perfumed. Ripens — Georgia, in September and
into October; New York, October and November. Tree
healthy and productive.

Louise (Bonne de Jersey). — Fruit large, oblong, pyri-
form; skin smooth, glossy, pale green in the shade, brown-

576 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

ish-red in the sun, sprinkled thickly with minute dots;
stalk about an inch long, obliquely inserted without
depression or with a fleshy base; calyx small, open, with

Fig. 228— Bosc.

rather long segments, in a shallow, uneven basin; flesh
greenish-white, very juicy and melting, and excellent.
Ripens — Georgia, August 10th, and through the month;

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 577

New York, September and October. The tree is an up-
right, vigorous grower, forming a fine pyramid. The fruit
is much better on the quince than on the pear.

Bloodgood. — Fruit medium, turbinate (at the South

Fig. 229— Louise (Bonne de Jersey).

often oblate), generally thickening abruptly to the stalk;
skin yellow, considerably russeted in dots and net-work
patches; calyx large, open, in a slight depression; stalk
obliquely inserted, about an inch long, dark brown, fleshy
at its base; flesh yellowish-white, buttery, with a rich
37

578

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

musky aroma, melting and sweet; core small. Georgia,
last of June; New York, last of July. Generally larger
than iu the figure.

Manning's Elizabeth. — Growth of tree moderate;
shoots reddish, dotted with brown; fruit rather small,
regular oblate inclining to obovate, or Doyenne-shaped;
skin smooth, bright yellow, dotted with russet, with a

Fig. 230— Bloodgood.

bright red cheek; stalk scarcely an inch long, often a little
fleshy at its base, inserted in a shallow, regular cavity;
calyx open, in a broad, shallow basin; flesh white, juicy,
melting, with a sprightly saccharine flavor. Ripens —
Georgia, July 10th; New York, middle and last of August.
The best pear of its season ; productive.

Bartlett. — Fruit large, irregular, knobby, obtuse-
pyriform, often much more oblong than in the figure; skin
very thin, smooth, clear light yellow, with a slight blush
in the sun, sprinkled with minute russet dots and with

FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 579

faint russet markings towards the stem; stalk about an
inch long, stout, in a shallow cavity; calyx small, partly
open, in a very shallow, slightly plaited basin; flesh white,

Fig. 231— Bartlett.

exceedingly fine-grained, melting; full of agreeable,
vinous juice. Ripens — Georgia, through August; New
York, September. Specimens that fall before they are
fully grown, ripen nicely in the house. Sometimes too

580 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

acid, but one of the most desirable sorts.

land, 1770. Tree quite fruitful, and bears young.

Brandywinb. — Fruit above medium, varying from
ooiate-depressed-pyriform to elongated pyriform; skin
yellowish-green, dotted and sprinkled with russet, with
a bright red cheek; stalk flesh v where it joins the fruit;

-Brandywinc.

calyx open; basin shallow; flesh white, juicy, melting,
sugary, and somewhat aromatic. Georgia, ripe the midj
die of July; New York, the last of August. Growth
vigorous and upright; leaves small, deep glossy green;
productive.

White Doyenne. — The White Doyenne, or Virgalieu,
is one of the most esteemed pears. Fruit medium to large
size, generally larger than the figure, varying from
obovate-pyriform to oblate; skin clear pale yellow, regu-

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 581

larly sprinkled with small dots, with a tine red cheek;
stalk from one-half an inch to over an inch Ion*;-, generally
a little curved, and planted in a small, round cavity; calyx
small, closed, in a shallow, generally smooth basin; flesh
white, fine-grained, buttery, melting, with a rich, deli-

Fig. 233— White Doyenne.

cious flavor. Ripens — Georgia, in August; New York,
September to December.

Henry the Fourth, or Ananas d'Ete. — Fruit varies
from the size figured to small, roundish pyriform, irregu-
lar, skin pale greenish-yellow, clouded with darker green,
and dotted with gray specks; stalk about an inch long,
twisted obliquely, planted on an irregular prominence,
or under a swollen lip; calyx small, closed; basin shallow

582

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

and abrupt; flesh Avhite, exceedingly juicy aud melting,
with a pleasant perfumed flavor; a dull fruit externally,
but a nice dessert pear, bearing abundantly, aud con-
tinuing to ripen several weeks. Ripens — Georgia, from
the 20th of July into September; New York, September.

Selleck. — Fruit varies from obovate to obtuse-pyri-
form, somewhat ribbed; skin fine, rich yellow, thickly

Fig. 234 — Henry the Fourth

dotted and sprinkled with russet, full russet about the
base of the stalk; stalk long and curved, fleshy at its inser-
tion in a moderate cavity; calyx partly closed, in a small,
uneven basin; flesh white, firm, juicy and melting, sugary,
with a rich, aromatic flavor; keeps well without decay at
the core; a very valuable sort. Uipens in Georgia, 20th
of August; New York, in September.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

583

Van Assciie. — Tree vigorous and fruitful, with red-
dish-brown shoots and plump buds; fruit medium, or
large, turbinate, inclining to conical, in very large speci-
mens oblate; skin light yellow, with numerous russet and
red dots, with a bright red cheek; stalk an inch long,

Fig. 235— Selleck.

rather stout, obliquely planted in a slight depression;
calyx partly closed, in a broad, deep, and wrinkled basin;
flesh white, fine-grained, juicy, with a delicate blending
of sweet and acid, and a rich, excellent flavor. Ripens—
August in Georgia; October, in New York. Generally
larger than the engraving.

Duchesse d'Angouleme. — Fruit very large, obovate,
varying from oblong to oblate, with a knobby, uneven
surface; skin dull greenish-yellow, dotted and spotted

584

GARDENING FOE TITE SOUTH.

Fig. 237— Seckel.

FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 585

with russet; stalk about au inch long, quite stout, set with
an inclination in a rather deep cavity; calyx closed, set in
a narrow, somewhat knobby basin; flesh white, buttery,
very juicy, with a rich, sugary flavor. Excellent for so
large a pear. Brings the very highest prices in market.
Ripens — Georgia, the latter half of August into Septem-
ber; New York, in October. From France.

Seckel. — Fruit small, generally obovate; skin at first
brownish-green, at last becoming yellowish-brown, with a
bright red, russet cheek; stalk half to three-fourths of an
inch long, slightly curved, set in a slight depression; calyx
small, open, in a very shallow basin; flesh whitish, but- ,
tery, very fine-grained and melting, filled with rich,
sugary, aromatic juice. Ripens — Georgia, the last half
of August and into September; New York, September and
October. Tree of slow growth, but remarkably healthy
and productive. Origin — Philadelphia. This is by many
considered, and perhaps justly, the very best variety of
pear.

Clairgeau. — Fruit large, pyriforin, with unequal
sides; skin warm yellow, inclining to fawn, thickly sprink-
led with large, yellow dots, with russet tracings and spots,
shaded with orange and crimson; stalk short and stout,
often fleshy, and inserted by a lip at an inclination, or in
an uneven cavity; calyx open, with stiff segments; flesh
yellowish, buttery, very melting and juicy, with a sugary,
vinous flavor. Ripens — Georgia, September to October
10th; New York, October to January. A beautiful fruit,
often so much larger and broader than the cut, that it
could not be figured on this page. Tree vigorous, and an
early and profuse bearer.

Lucrative. — Fruit medium, obovate to obscure pyri-
form; skin pale yellowish-green, with dots and traces of
russet; stem varying from short, stout, and fleshy, to more

586

GARDEAIXG FOE THE SOUTH.

than an inch long, often obliquely inserted in a slight
cavity; calyx open, in a medium basin; flesh fine-grained,
melting, full of rich, sugary, and delicious juice. Ripens —
Georgia, in August; New York, last of September. A

Fig. 238— Clairgeau.

Flemish variety. Tree of moderate growth, very fruitful,
and bears young; one of the very best.

Archangel. — Fruit above medium size, obovate-pyri-
form; skin smooth, shining, greenish-yellow, sprinkled
with russet dots; stalk an inch long, inclined, fleshy at

FEUITS VAEIETIES AND CULTURE. 587

its insertion, and surrounded by russet; calyx small and
closed; basin small and uneven; flesh yellowish-white,
tender and melting, abundant in sugary juice, with an
agreeable perfume; an excellent fruit. Tree healthy,
vigorous and fruitful. Ripe — Georgia, last of August;
New York, October.

Sterling. — Fruit medium, and varying from oblate to
obovate, or obscure pyriform; skin yellow, with a few
russet patches, and a mottled crimson cheek; stalk
medium, inserted in a slightly plaited cavity; calyx small,

Fig. 239— Sterling.

open, in a medium basin; flesh somewhat coarse, juicy,
melting, with a sugary, brisk flavor. Ripens — Georgia,
July 15th; New York, the last of August. Keeps a long
time after gathering, and is an excellent fruit to send to a
distant market. Very desirable. Tree vigorous and up-

588 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

right, with yellowish-brown wood. An early and pro-
ductive bearer.

Passe Colmaii. — Fruit large, varying from obovate to
obtuse-pyriform; skin rather thick, yellowish-green, turn-
ing yellow when mature, a good deal russeted about the
eye and at the base of the stalk; stalk rather long, often
fleslry at its base, inserted iu an uneven cavity; calyx
open, in a slight, regular basin; flesh yellowish, tine, melt-
ing and juicy, with a sweet, rich, aromatic flavor. A
rapid grower and profuse bearer, but if the fruit is not
well thinned, it will be small and astringent. Georgia,
October and November; New York, December.

Glout Morceau. — Fruit large, varying in form from
obovate to obtuse-pyriform, and often depressed somej
what; skin pale greenish-yellow, marked with small dots,
russeted about the stem, with a brownish cheek on the
more exposed fruits; stem long, slender, in a slight cavity;
calyx mostly open, in a rather deep basin; flesh white,
fine-grained, very melting, juic3T, sugary, and perfumed.
A fine, pyramidal, healthy grower, and quite fruitful.
Georgia, October and November; New York, December.

Josephine de Malines. — Fruit" medium, truncate, ob-
conic; skin yellowish, somewhat russeted, especially
about, the base and crown, and sprinkled with russet dots;
stalk long, stout, curved, inserted in a moderate, russet-
lined cavity; calyx small, open, with caducous segments,
in a slight basin; flesh greenish-white, buttery, very juicy,
sugary, melting and perfumed. An excellent keeper.
Georgia, October to January, and has been kept until
March ; New York, November, and through the winter.
Tree productive and vigorous.

Belle Epine Dumas (Duchess de Bordeaux). — Fruit
medium or large, long-pyriform; skin green, becoming
greenish-yellow as it ripens, with small brown dots, and

FEUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

589

at the South is generally somewhat marked with russet
about the base and stem; stalk long, rather stout, curved
a little, swollen at the base, inserted in a slight depres-
sion; calyx small, partly closed, in a shallow, regular
basin; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy, rich, sugary, and

240— Josephine de M alines.

perfumed; core medium, with large, long, pointed seeds.
Georgia, October; New York, November and December.
Parsonage. — Fruit medium or large, obovate, in-
clining to obtuxe-pyriform; skin warm yellow, rough,
often shaded with dull crimson, netted and thickly dotted
with russet; stalk short, stout, curved, fleshy at its inser
tion; calyx open, with short, stiff segments, in a russeted,
shallow basin; flesh white, somewhat coarse, granular,

590

GAKDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

sugary, and refreshing. In Georgia it has kept until
November. Tree fruitful and healthy.

Columbia. — Fruit large, oblong-obovate, or pyriform,
often simply obovate, broadest in the middle; skin
smooth, pale green, turning yellowish when ripe, with a

Fig. 241— Columbia.

soft brown cheek, dotted with russet, with a little russet
also about the stalk and calyx; stalk about an inch long,
rather stout, slightly curved; calyx small, partly closed,
in a shallow basin; flesh white, fine-grained, melting and
abundant in rich, sugary juice. Ripens in Georgia from
the 15th of August to the last of September, and is not

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 591

excelled by any other pear; in New York, November, and
is said to be variable there, but generally fine.

St. Germain (round). — Fruit large, irregular, oval-
pyriforni, tapering to the eye and stalk; skin yellowish-
green, a good deal covered with russet, with a brown
cheek; stem stout, swollen at its insertion, generally
planted obliquely by the side of a small, fleshy swelling;
calyx small, open, in a very shallow basin ; flesh yellowish-

Fig. 242— St. Germain.

white, a little gritty, melting, juicy, rich and sugary.
Georgia, October and November; New York, November
and December. This is one of the most desirable pears
grown at the South. Tree healthy and productive, and
the smallest fruits always of excellent flavor.

592

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Fig. 244— Lawrence.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

593

Winter Nelis. — Fruit medium to small, varying from
oblate to roundish obovate; skin yellowish-green, but
generally a good deal covered with russet; stalk an inch
long, curved, and planted in a narrow cavity; calyx open,
in a shallow basin, with stiff, short segments; flesh pale
vellowish-white, fine-grained, buttery and melting,

Fig. 245 -Easter Beurre.

abounding in rich, sugary, aromatic juice. Ripens —
Georgia, in October; New York, December.

Lawrence. — Fruit large, obovate, obscurely pyriform;
stalk rather short, inclined, inserted by a lip or in a slight,
regular depression; cavity generally partly closed, in a
broad, shallow basin; skin fine lemon yellow, uneven,
sprinkled thickly with small dots; flesh white, a little
granular, buttery, with a very rich, sugary, aromatic
38

594

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

flavor. Georgia — September 20th to October 20th; New
York, November to January. Tree of moderate growth,
very healthy; an early and abundant bearer. Far the
most desirable pear of its season.

Fig. 246— LeConte Pear (after S. H. Rumph

Easter Beurre. — Fruit large, obovate or obtuse-pyri-
form; skin yellowish-green, sprinkled with large russet
dots, and marbled somewhat with greenish-russet; stalk
rather stout, in abrupt cavity; calyx usually small,
closed, in a plaited basin; flesh white, fine-grained, but-

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 595

tery, juicy, and sweet. Georgia, November to March;
New York, January to May. Succeeds best on quince.

Jaminette (Josephine). — Fruit large, varying in form
from obovate, narrowing to the stalk, to oblate; skin
green, turning to pale yellowish-green when ripe, dotted
with brown, and marked with russet; stalk rather short,

Fig 247— Kieffer Pear (after S. H. Rumph)

obliquely planted in a slight depression (in obovate speci-
mens without depression), and surrounded with russet;
calyx small, open, in a slight basin; flesh white, a little
gritty at the core, juicy, buttery, and sweet. A good
fruit, but must be eaten as it begins to soften, or will be
found decayed at the core. Georgia, October.

LeConte. — This is a vigorous grower, and well
adapted to South Georgia, Florida and the coasts of

596 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Alabama, Louisiana and Texas. The fruit is very large;
skin smooth and light yellow. The tree is prolific, and
ripens its fruit in July.

Kieffer. — This is one of the best pears for cooking
purposes. It is said to be a seedling of the LeConte or

Fig. 248— Superfine.

Chinese sand pear. It is a very popular fruit in South
Georgia and Florida. A productive and valuable late
pear. To secure the best results with this pear it should
be grafted on a LeConte or. Japan pear stock.

The Georgia Horticultural Society in the proceedings

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 597

for 1896 recommends the following grouping of the varie-
ties of pears for market in the order of maturity:

On Quince Stock. — Giffard, Archangel, Superfine,
Howell, Duchesse d'Angouleme, Seckel, Buerre d' Anjou.

Fig. 249— Anjou.

Superfine. — This pear originated in Prance. The
fruit is round pyriform, of a yellow-crimson russet color,
and of a butter-melting texture; the flavor is vinous.
The fruit is medium quality.

Anjou. — Obtuse pyriform shape; rather above medium
in size; color greenish-crimson; quality good, and tex-

oys GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

ture melting, with a perfumed vinous flavor. The fruit
ripens at a medium date.

Howell. — This pear originated in Connecticut. The
fruit is a yellowish-red color; vinous, juicy flavor, and it
is a good dessert and market variety.

Fig. 250— Howell.

Garber. — This is a seedling of the Chinese sand pear,
and is very popular in many portions of the South. It
ripens between the dates in which the LeConte and
Kieffer pears mature, and therefore in those orchards

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 599

where the three varieties are found, a succession of fruit
is obtained. The tree bears young and abundantly.

On Standard.— Doyenne d'Ete, Clapp's Favorite,
Bartlett, Lucrative, LeConte, Flemish, Clairgeau, Law-
rence, Kieffer, Easter, and Winter Nelis.

Oriental Type. — Mikado, Garber, Mme. Von Siebold.

The (Smith pear is highly endorsed by the Florida
Horticultural Society as equal to the LeConte in its vigor
and productiveness, and having the advantage, perhaps,
in earliness and quality.

Pears suitable for Middle Virginia, Western North
Carolina, North South Carolina, North Georgia, North-
east Alabama, .Middle Tennessee:

Angouleme, Duchess de, Lawrence,

Anjou, Giffard,

Bartlett, Garber,

Bloodgood, Louise Bonne de Jersey,

Bosc, Lucrative,

Brandy wine, Madeleine,

Clairgeau, Malines, Josephine de,

Columbia, Seckel,

Easter Beurre, Summer Doyenne,

Howell, Superfine,

Kieffer, White Doyenne,
Winter Nelis.

Pears suitable for Eastern Virginia, Eastern North
Carolina, southern half of South Carolina, southern half
of Georgia, all of Alabama except the northeastern por-
tions, Mississippi, Southern Arkansas, North Louisiana,
and Eastern Texas:

Angouleme, Duchess de, Lawrence,
Garber, LeConte,

Kieffer, Seckel.

600 GARDENING FOE, THE SOUTH.

Pears suitable for Southern Louisiana and Florida:

Garber, LeConte,

Kieffer, Smith.

Marketing. — The fruit must be gathered before fully
ripe, because otherwise it will be too mellow for shipping
properly. It will ripen sufficiently in transit. Tack in
the same manner recommended for apples, in half-bushel
crates, or, if the crop is a large one, in barrels. Face up
as directed for appl

PERSIMMON.— f Diospyros.)

American Persimmon or Date Plum (D. Virgin iana,
L.). — This tree is very common in its wild condition
throughout the South, and, not until within recent years,
has any systematic effort been put forth to improve the
fruit by cultivation.

In its wild condition the fruit of the persimmon varies
greatly in size and flavor. Some are large and more or
less pleasant to the taste, while others are quite small
and varying also in the degre of palatableness. Within
recent years a number of improved varieties have been
developed by experimenters, until new we have more
than a dozen excellent forms which produce fruit of
superior quality. The following are some of the best,
described by the Pomological Division of the United
States Department of Agriculture and the Indiana Ex-
periment Station:

Daniel Boone. — The fruit is roundish oblate; yellow,
with a dull blush in the sun. Skin rather tough ami
seeds numerous; quality good, though net so rich as some
other varieties. Season, October and November. Tree
handsome, productive, and a vigorous grower, with very
large, thick leaves.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

601

Early Bearing. — This was introduced by James Lit-
tle, Cartersburg, Hendricks county, Indiana. Fruit,
round-ovate; medium to large; dull yellow and of good
quality. Ripens earlier than Daniel Boone, and, though
smaller, is a more desirable variety. The tree is a good
grower, early bearer, and very productive.

■m

":j5fc , _

Fig. 251 — Daniel Boone. Reduced. Indiana Agricultural Ex-
periment Station Bulletin 60.

Early Golden. — Oblong, medium to large, rich yel-
low color, very sweet, and of excellent quality; skin thick
and seeds few in number. Ripens in September without
frost. Twigs and under side of leaves covered with
whitish down. Tree productive and handsome. Intro-
duced from Illinois.

602

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Golden Gem. — Koundish or slightly oblong; medium
to large in size; color dark red orange to red; seeds few;
flesh soft, very sweet and rich; free from astringency,
even if picked before fully ripe. Commences to ripen
about the last of August and continues till October. This
variety was brought to notice by Mr. Logan Martin, of

Fig. 252— Early Bearing. Reduced. Indiana Agricultural Ex-
periment Station Bulletin 60.

Borden, Indiana, who found the original tree on his farm
thirty-five years ago. He has propagated from this by
budding, and now has more than three hundred trees,
including top-worked wild and young trees growing in
the nursery. He reports that the persimmon pays him
better than any other fruit.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

60:3

Hicks (synonym Superior). — Originated by E. H. True-
blood, Indiana. A choice native variety, the trees of
which have been propagated and their fruit marketed
locally for many years. Size medium; color dull, grayish
red; seeds somewhat numerous, of medium size; flavor
sweet and rich, free from astringency when fully ripe;

Fig. 253 — Golden Gem. Reduced. Indiana Agricultural Ex-
periment Station Bulletin 60.

very good. Specimens of the fruit of this varietj", dried
in the shade without sugar, were found to be of excellent
quality, and almost equal to imported dates. Mr. Hicks
reports that the fruit begins ripening early and continues
for a period of six weeks, and that the tree is very pro-
ductive. The orignal tree has not failed to fruit annually
for the past twenty-five years.

604 GARDEXIXG FOR THE SOUTH.

KEMrER. — We have not ascertained the history of this
variety, but learned from a report of the Division of
Pomology, United States Department of Agriculture,
that it was originated in Tennessee, and is one of the
best varieties thus far named and introduced.

Kansas. — This was introduced from Missouri. The
fruit is roundish, slightly oblate; rather large; splashed
with red on yellow ground ; flesh tender, rich, and highly
flavored. Season, September. The tree is productive
and is very handsome in general appearance.

Marion. — Originated by Samuel Miller, Missouri. This
native persimmon is a large, handsome fruit, with few
seeds, ripening in October. The original tree was found
growing near Fulton, Missouri, on land owned by J. H.
Marion, and is said to have larger leaves and blossoms
than the common persimmon.

Shoto. — This variety was introduced by A. (J. Cham-
bers, Danville, Hendricks county, Indiana. The fruit is
oblong-ovate, slightly conical; large to very large; color
dull yellow, with blush in the sun; rather tough skin and
few seeds; quality very good. Season, October. Tree an
early bearer, productive, and a vigorous grower. The
original tree began bearing at three years of age.

Smeech. — Fruit, roundish-oblate; medium size; dull
yellow, with red splashes; superior quality, being very
rich and sweet. Tree a good grower and productive. In-
troduced from Pennsylvania.

Propagation. — The persimmon grows readily from seed,
but there is no certainty that fruit, even equal to that
produced by the original tree, will be obtained. It is
therefore best to graft on the common wild stock in early
spring. The splice or cleft method of grafting can be
used with success. The stock should be healthy and from
one to two inches in diameter. For a description of these

FBUITS VABIETIES AND CULTURE.

60 ;

methods of grafting the reader is referred to the chapter
devoted to this subject. The trees should be planted in
the orchard with ample space to allow for future growth
and expansion. Twenty to thirty feet will not be too
much space between the trees and between the rows.

Fig. 254— Shoto. Reduced. Indiana Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletin 60.

Frequent cultivation by plowing and harrowing will im-
prove the condition and growth of the trees.

Japan Persimmon (D. kali). — This species of the per-
simmon was introduced into the United States a number
of years ago from Japan, and it is well known among all
horticulturists throughout the country. The trees grow
to a remarkable degree of perfection in the South, and

CO 6

(iARDKXIN'O F(>I{ THE SOCHI.

the fruit is larger and superior in quality to the Ameri-
can species.

In its propagation and cultivation the same methods
are used as practiced with the American persimmon.
When grafted on the native plant the Japan persimmon

Fig. 255— Costata Persimmon. Div. Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agri.

becomes peculiarly suited to the South, and it is doubtful
whether any other section of the country can produce the
fruit of equal perfection in quality. There are few ene-
mies known to attack it, and it is a very prolific and
vigorous tree. The character of the fruit varies consider-

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

607

ably with the varieties. Some produce dark flesh, while
others give a lighter shade in color. These two classes
also differ in taste. The dark flesh kinds may be eaten
with relish before they are quite ripe, and there is not
the unpleasant astringent taste detected in the light
flesh colored kinds before fully ripe. Of course all fruit
of the persimmon becomes much improved when com-
pletely matured. The dark flesh kinds also give more
seeds that the light flesh varieties. Some of the latter
are termed seedless.

Fig. 2.56 — Hyakume Persimmon. Div. Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agri.

The best varieties of the Japan persimmon are as fol-
lows:

Costata. — Size above medium, salmon red, round
conical pointed, quality fair, ripens late. The flesh is
light yellow, with very few seeds. The fruit will keep a
long time after pulled from the tree. Tree vigorous and
rather ornamental with broad leaves.

Hachiya. — Very large, weighing as much as ten
ounces; obovate pointed, dark red with deep yellow flesh,
few seeds and an astringent taste until fully ripe. Fruit
ripens early; good grower, but rather shy bearer.

608

GAliDEA'IXG FOR THE SOUTH.

round obovate, orange red, quality good and ripens near
the middle of the season. The flesh is yellow in color,

Fig. 257— Okaine.

Okame. — Large fruit, dark red on the skin and round
oblate. Good quality and medium early in ripening. This
is not a favorite market variety, because of the difficulty

FKL'ITS VARIETIES AND CTLTUKE.

609

in getting all of the fruit to ripen uniformly, but it is
highly prized for home use because of the long season,
the beauty and fine quality of the fruit. It is called one
of the seedless varieties.

Tanenashi. — This is one of the best in flavor of all
the Japan persimmons. The fruit is large, round conical

Fig. 25S— Yeddo-ichi Persimmon.

pointed, brown in color, and the flesh an orange yellow.
This is an excellent market variety.

Yeddo-ichi. — This is also an excellent fruit in quality;
medium size, round oblate, dark red, flesh mahogany
brown, with dark spots. The tree is upright and a pro-
lific bearer.

Yemon. — With some authorities this fruit stands third

39

610 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

in the degree of excellency. The astringency in this fruit
disappears as it begins to soften; it is a large fruit, round
conical pointed, skin salmon red and flesh deep red. The
tree is vigorous and productive.

Zengi. — One of the earliest to ripen, and is edible from
the middle of September until the latter part of October.
The flesh is dark brown and the quality is good. This is
one of the seedy varieties.

Fig. 259 — Zengi Persimmon.

Marketing. — The persimmon should not be marketed
until the astringency has been destroyed by the fruit be-
ing fully ripe. Many of the varieties can be picked be-
fore entirely ripened and housed in a well-ventilated
place until the ripening is completed, when they may be
packed in baskets used for strawberries. When the fruit
is left on the trees until after frost strikes it the keeping-
qualities are greatly reduced, but if it is gathered before
frost and just before fully ripe the fruit will generally
keep for a month. A little experience will determine this
point with accuracy.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 611

PINEAPPLES. — ( Ananassa saliva.)

There are at least twenty varieties of the pineapple
cultivated in Florida, but the following are considered to
be the standard forms.

Cayenne (smooth). — Conical form, above medium in
size, yellow color, best quality in taste. The plant pro-
duces broad leaves, almost free from spines, which is a
great advantage in its cultivation. It does not yield
slips, and it is therefore difficult to propagate.

Egyptian Queen. — Fruit medium size, conical, yellow
color; excellent quality. This plant is also cultivated for
market purposes, but on a limited extent.

Pernambugo. — leather small, oblong, yellow in color,
and of excellent quality.

Porto Rico. — Is a general favorite; the fruit is large,
round, yellow with a good flavor, but not equal to the
last two. The plant is robust and produces well; it
is an excellent shipping fruit. The plant forms an abund-
ance of suckers and slips.

Ripley Queen. — Medium size, conical, yellow in color,
and very good quality.

Red Spanish. — Also called " Black Spanish/' " Ha-
vana," " Strawberry," " Scarlet Key," etc. It is generally
cultivated for the market, although it is not equal to the
other varieties in flavor. It is, however, hardy, easier to
cultivate and stands the varying conditions better. The
size of the fruit is medium, round, yellowish red in color.

In propagating the pineapple several methods are
used.

1. From suckers, which grow near the base of the
plant.

2. From " rattoons," which are the buds below the sur-
face of the ground shooting up into suckers.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 613

3. From slips produced by buds just uuder the fruit.

4. From the crowns at the top of the fruit.

5. From seeds.

The suckers, either from the buds above or below the
ground, are strong and vigorous. The rattoons are gen-
erally left on the parent plant to grow to maturity with-
out transplanting. These will usually fruit in about one
year. The suckers from the buds above ground are
broken off and transplanted. The slips are smaller than
the suckers, and are more abundant on the parent plant.
These slips are also broken off after the fruit is har-
vested, and after they mature, which may be determined
by the brown color of the stem at the base, and they are
transplanted. Fruit is produced by the slips in about
two years. Propagating by slips is the usual method
practiced' by the Florida growers, because it is thought
that better fruit is produced than that obtained from
suckers. The crown is generally shipped with the fruit
when it is sent to market, so that this method of propa-
gating is seldom adopted. Reproduction by planting the
seed is resorted to sometimes when it is desired to de-
velop new varieties.

In planting the soil must be well prepared and cleared
of all weeds and trash. The plants are set out in beds
18x20, 20x22, or 30x36 inches apart, depending upon the
size of the plant. The offsets are prepared by trimming
and smoothly paring a few of the lower leaves to encour-
age the rapid formation of roots. Plant at least three
inches deep in the soil in the case of suckers, and about
two inches in the case of slips. July, August and Sep-
tember are the months in which the transplanting is
done. An acre generally holds about 9,000 plants.

The fertilizer used is one rich in nitrogen. This may
be secured in cottonseed-meal or fish guano, applied at
the rate of 1,000 or 1,500 pounds per acre. Florida soft

614 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

phosphate, kainit or potash salts and cottonseed-meal
will make a good fertilizer.

Cultivating under open sheds is now practiced in some
portions of Florida, and strong claims have been made
concerning the merits of the system. It is claimed that
the fruit matures sooner, is larger and better flavored
than when grown in the open field. The moisture is not
so rapidly evaporated, and the soil is therefore kept in
better condition. These sheds are covered with slats
1x3 inches and 18 feet long, separated 3 inches, so that
sunlight can enter. The north and west sides are boarded
up.

Marketing. — The fruit is gathered just before ripe by
breaking from the plant, care being taken not to bruise
it. It is taken to the packing-house and cooled. The
stem is neatly trimmed, and the entire fruit is wrapped
in paper. The crown is not cut off. The style of crate
used is what is known as barrel or half-barrel crates. In
the first eight to ten pineapples are packed, and the
latter is used to ship the fancy varieties of fruit.

PLITM.— (Prunus.)

The plum tree is probably a native of Asia, whence it
was early introduced into European gardens. The tree
grows from fifteen to twenty feet high, and is conspicu-
ous early in spring for its white blossoms.

Loudon asserts that probably the natural color of
the fruit is black; but the cultivated varieties are of
various shades of green, yellow, red and blue. It is a
delicious dessert fruit, in its best varieties, and is very
much esteemed for pies, tarts and preserves.

It is also dried for winter use. The prune, or dried
plum, enters considerably into commerce. When fully
ripe, plums are, in moderate quantity, very nutritious

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 615

and wholesome, but in an unripe state are more apt to
disagree with the stomach than most other fruits.

Prunes are dried by artificial heat. They are laid
singly, without touching each other, on plates, which are
placed in ovens, after the bread is removed, or in kilns
prepared for the purpose, and occasionally moved and
turned. In order to have them fair and glossy, they must
be suddenly cooled when taken from the oven. They
should be dried carefully and gradually. They are excel-
lent when dried with sugar, as directed for peaches.
From the analysis of the stones, bark, leaves and wood,
it is evident that common salt is one of the most essential
manures to apply to the soil in which the plum is culti-
vated. Burnt clay, swamp muck, common salt, and wood
ashes are among the best fertilizers.

Propagation and Culture. — The plum is generally bud-
ded or grafted upon stocks raised from the seed of some
free-growing variety. The Chickasaw plum, however,
makes a very good stock; it should be grafted at the
collar, and transplanted so deep that the scions can
throw out roots. This stock makes very pretty dwarf
trees for the garden. By this mode, the tree can be pro-
pagated at any time during the winter months.

Stone fruits require to be grafted early in the season.
In transplanting where they are to remain they should
be twelve feet apart. The best soil for the plum is a
heavy clay loam, moderately rich. As the plum throws
out long, straggling branches, which are unsightly and
unproductive, this should be remedied by shortening in,
as with the peach, so as to form a round, compact head.
Most stone fruits require to be shortened in, more or less,
or the growth becomes unsightly and the tree short-lived.
It is an excellent plan, where practicable, to plant a
tree or two near the door of the house and kitchen, where
there is considerable passing and repassing, and the

<Jl<> GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

fested by the great enemy to stone fruit — the curculio —
which is quite a timid, as well as cunning, insect.

Species. — There are seven distinct species of the
Prunus grown in this country, viz.: Prunus Americana, or
native group; Prunus angustifolia, or Chickasaw group;
Prunus hortulana, or wild goose group; Primus domesiica,
or European group; Prunus cerasifera, or Marianna group;
I 'run us iriflora, or Japanese group; Primus puiuila. A
great many varieties have been developed from these
species, some of which have been cultivated in the South-
ern States for a long period of time.

VARIETIES.

Prunus Angustifolia.

Caddo Chief. — Fruit red, oval, small; ripens about
the middle of May.

Lone Star. — Fruit red, oval, small; ripens in middle
summer; quality fair. This plum originated in Texas.

Newman. — Fruit rather large, oval, yellow, quality
very good; ripens in Middle Alabama from July 8th to
August 25th. The tree is low and spreading.

Yellow Transparent. — Originated in Texas; good
market plum; fruit large, oval, yellow, and it ripens
early.

Prunus Hortulana.

Cumberland. — Fruit average size, round, yellow in
color and sweet flavored. Originated near Augusta,
Georgia, from seed secured in the Cumberland Moun-
tains. The fruit ripens about the latter part of August.

Golden Beauty. — An excellent plum which was origi-
nated in Texas. The fruit is round-ovate, dark yellow,
medium late.

FKUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

617

Wild Goose. — A cling stone variety, sweet and good
quality, small, round and purple in color. Kipens early
in June, and is an excellent market plum.

Missouri. — Fruit rather large, round and deep yellow.
Excellent quality. Late.

Primus Domestica.

'^^^^^a^S^S^^^

f

Im ^Sm^KB&k
% 11

'4

Wjjm

Fig. 260— German Prune (after Bailey). Primus domestica.
Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 131.

Bingham. — Fruit large, oval; skin deep yellow, spot-
ted with red toward the sun; stalk in a small cavity; iiesh
yellow, juicy, rich and delicious; clingstone; tree a fine
grower and good bearer. Ripens July 1st.

Columbia. — Very large, roundish; skin brownish-pur-

618 GARDENING FOR THE SOOTH.

pie, with fawn-colored specks; bloom thick and blue;
stalk an inch long, stout, in a narrow cavity; flesh orange,
not very juicy, sugary, rich, and excellent; freestone.
Ripe June 20th. A magnificent variety, of excellent
quality. Tree hardy and productive.

Damson (French Damson, Free Damson, Purple Dam-
son, Blue Damson). — Fruit small, oval and purple, with
a decided bloom. Flavor rather acid. Very productive.
Suitable for cooking. Late.

Duane's Purple. — Branches downy ; fruit very large,
oblong, swollen on one side of the suture; skin reddish-

Fig. 261— Green Gage.

purple in the sun, paler in the shade, dotted sparsely
with yellow specks, and covered with lilac bloom; stalk
slender, of medium length, in a narrow cavity; flesh
amber-colored, juicy, sprightly, moderately sweet, adher-
ing partially to the stone. Ripe — Georgia, July 10th;
New York, August 10th, with the Washington.

Green Gage. — Fruit medium size; freestone; ripens
in August.

Jefferson. — Fruit of the largest size, roundish oval;
stalk an inch long, pretty stout; suture distinct; skin
golden yellow, purplish-red on the sunny side, and thinly
covered with white bloom; flesh deep orange, a little dry,

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. C19

good; not equal to the description in the books. As the
tree bears abundantly, and the fruit ripens late, hangs
long on the tree, and is entirely free from decay, it is
indispensable. The handsomest of all plums. Ripens
last of July and first of August.

Imperial Gage. — Fruit large, oval, greenish-yellow;

Fig. 262— Jefferson.

quality excellent. Ripens in July, and it is very produc-
tive.

Lombard. — Fruit medium size, round-ovate, violet red
in color, flesh yellow; good quality. This plum is adapted
to light soils, and it is an early, productive variety.

Prince's Yellow Gage. — Fruit medium size, broad-
est toward the stalk; suture slight; skin golden yellow,
slightly clouded, and with copious white bloom; stalk
an inch long, inserted in a small cavity; flesh deep yel-

620

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

low, sweet, juicy, and fine flavored; freestone; tree very
productive; fruit lasts a long time. One of the best for
a long time in this climate. Ripe June 10th.

Fig. 263— Imperial Gage.

Fig. 264— Lombard.

Fig. 265— Prince's Yellow Gage.

2(Jb' — Washington.

Red Magnum Bonum, or Purple E<;<;. — Large and
beautiful ; egg-shaped ; violet red, deeper in the sun, with

FEUITS VARIETIES AXD CULTURE. 621

small gray dots; flesh greenish, rather firm, juicy, and
agreeably subacid; freestone. A fair plum for the table,
and makes the best of preserves. Ripens July 10th. Not
much subject to rot.

Rivers' Early Favorite. — Fruit medium, or a little
below, roundish oval, with a shallow suture; stalk very
short; skin deep blackish-purple, sprinkled with russet
dots, and covered with a thin, blue bloom; flesh greenish-
yellow, very juicy, sweet, of excellent flavor, separating
freely from the small stone; shoots, slender, slightly
downy. Ripens — Georgia, June 15th to 30th; New York,
August 1st. An excellent, early, dessert plum, following
immediately the Jaime Hative. Productive.

Washington. — Tree vigorous; leaves large, broad,
glossy and rumpled; wood light brown; fruit very large,
roundish oval; suture shallow, except at the stalk; skin
pale greenish-yellow, faintly marbled with green,
changing at maturity to darker yellow, with a bright
blush in the sun; stalk short, in a shallow, wide cavity;
flesh yellow, firm, sweet, and luscious; stone pointed, and
separates freely. Ripens — Georgia, early in July; New
York, the latter half of August. This is one of the most
attractive and desirable varieties in all sections.

Primus Cerasifera.
DeCaradeuc. — This plum ripens early in June, and is
sweet and juicy. The fruit is round, medium size, yellow,
.with brown red tinge.

Primus Triflora.*
These plums have become very popular within the
past ten or fifteen years, and many varieties have been
developed from the original species. The propagation is

*The illustrations accompanying the descriptions of the Japan plums are
by Prof. L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University Experiment Station.

622

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

accomplished by budding on stocks of the Marianna plum
of the cerasifera species, or on peach roots. The follow-
ing represent some of the best varieties:

Abundance, or Yellow Botan (similar to Chase). —

Fig. 267 — Japanese Plum. Abundance (after Bailey). Botan.
Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 106.

One of the best of the group, and more widely planted
than, possibly, any other species. It ripens its fruit in
the latter part of June. The fruit is round-ovate, above
the average size, brownish-red in color, with yellow

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. bVd

ground, flesh yellow. Thinning the fruit increases the
size.

Berckmans, or Sweet Botan. — Named in honor of
Mr. P. J. Berckmans, of Augusta, Georgia. The fruit is
large, green in color, with a dull purple hue. Freestone
and good quality. Ripens the latter part of June.

Burbank. — The fruit is round and above medium size,

Fig. 268— Japanese Plums. Berckmans (after Bailey). True Sweet

Botan. Sweet Botan. White Flesh Botan. Botan.

Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 139.

purple yellow. Kipens the latter part of July. The tree
has a spreading habit.

Chabot (Bailey, Yellow Japan, Chase). — The fruit is
medium size, round-ovate, red tinged with purple. Fol-
lows Burbank in ripening towards the end of July. The
flavor is somewhat acid. Clingstone.

Louisiana (Normand, No. 15). — This plum originated

6l>4

OAi;r>i:.\i\<; for the south.

with Mr. J. L. Normand, of Marksville, Louisiana; it is a
hybrid of the Japan and native plum.

Kelsey. — A very large plum, round-ovate, yellowish-
red, excellent flavor and juicy. Semi-clingstone, pit

Fig. 269— Burbank Plum. Division of Pomology,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

small. Ripens from the middle of July to the end of
August. One of the best Japan plums.

Kerr (Hattankio, 2). — Fruit ovate, yellow in color and
average size; fine flavor, juicy and subacid; clingstone.
Ripens about the middle of June.

Normand. — Fruit rather above medium, round, in-
clining to heart-shaped, skin and flesh yellow, with fine

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTUftE. bH.J

flavor. Freestone. The tree grows to a symmetrical
shape.

Red June and Red Negate. — By some authorities
these two forms are pronounced to be the same, but they

Fig. 270— Japanese Plum. Chabot (after Bailey). Bailey. Yellow Japan.
Chase. 'Cornell Experiment Bulletin 106.

are sold by the nurserymen as distinct varieties. The
Red June produces a fruit of average size, heart-shaped,
dark red, with a decided bloom, making a handsome
plum. This is a fine early variety. The tree is a vigorous
grower, and very productive.

40

626

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Satsuma. — Sometimes called Blood plum, because of
the dark red color of the fruit. Size average to above
medium, round to broad conical. The flavor is excellent.

Plums suitable for Middle Virginia, Middle North
Carolina, Northern South Carolina, Northern Georgia,
Northeastern Alabama, and Middle Tennessee:

Fig. 271— Japanese Plums. Louisiana (after Bailey). Normand No. 15.
Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 139.1

Abundance,

Green Gage, or Bavay,

Burba nk,

Chabot,

Columbia,

Damson,

Duane Purple,

Imperial Gage,

Jefferson,

Kerr (Hattankio, 2),

Lombard,

Newman,

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

027

Prince Yellow,

Sat sum a,
Washington,

Wild Goose.
Flunis suitable for Eastern Virginia, Eastern North

Fig. 272—1. Kelsey P'mm. 2. Satsuma Plum.
(Div. Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agri.)

Carolina, Southern South Carolina, Southern Georgia,
all of Alabama except the northeastern portions, Missis-
sippi, Southern Arkansas, Western Tennessee, Northern
Louisiana, Eastern Texas:

6-28

GARDENING FOB THE .SOUTH.

Abundance,
Berckmans,
Burbank,
Caddo Chief,
Caradeuc de,
Chabot,
Cumberland,
Georgeson (LTattankio),

Golden Beauty,
Kerr (Ilattankio, 2),
Lone Star,
Newman,
lied Negate,
Satsuma,

Transparent, Yellow,
Wild Goose.

Fig. 273— Japanese Plum. Red June (after Bailey). Shiro-Smouo. Cornell
Experiment Station Bulletin 106.

Plums suitable for Southern Louisiana and Florida:

Babcock,

Berckmans,
Burbank,

Kelsey,
Satsuma,
Wild Goose.

Marketing. — Pick the fruit just before ripe, so that it
will not decay in transit. The ripening will take place

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

629

Pack carefully
either in climax maskets or in 24-quart strawberry cases.
It is best to use smaller cases than usually adopted in
shipping other fruit, but one-third bushel crates will

Fig. 274— Japanese Plum. Georgeson (after Bailey). Hattankio No. 1.
Hattankio. Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin 106.

serve very well if the plums are firm and in good condi-
tion. Pack firmly, so that there will be no shifting of the
fruit during its transit to market, because the bruising
will soon cause it to rot ; moreover, the packages present

630

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

a much more attractive appearance when the plums are
packed firmly and neatly in the baskets or crates. The
shipment should be quick and prompt.

POMEGKANATE.— ( Punka Granatum.)

This plant is generally grown for ornament, although
some people like the fruit. There are five varieties, viz. :

v*Jti&t

^w%&&

Fig. 275 — Pomegranate (Acid).

Acid, Dwarf, Turple, Sweet and Violet. The plant makes
an attractive addition to the lawn or yard because of the
beautiful orange red flowers and the large yellow apple-
shaped fruit. The fruit has such a large quantity of seeds
it is difficult to eat, but a pleasant, cooling drink is made
by bruising the seeds in a glass of water and sweetening
with sugar.

The plant is propagated by seeds, cuttings or layers.

FRUITS VARIETIES AKD CULTURE. (531

It is hardy in all sections of the Gulf States south of a
line drawn through Middle Alabama.

QUINCE. — (Cydonia vulgaris.)

The Quince is a small, hardy tree, seldom growing over
twelve to fifteen feet in height; thickly branched; with
ovate leaves, whitish underneath, on short petioles; the
flowers are white or pale pink color, and the fruit appears
on shoots of the same year's growth, varying in shape,
but having a resemblance to that of the apple or pear. It
is, when ripe, highly fragrant, and of a fine golden yellow
color, making the tree quite ornamental. Quinces are
seldom eaten raw, but for baking, stewing, preserving,
marmalades, or pies, along with apples, they are much
esteemed. They are also dried for winter use, giving an
excellent flavor to dried apples and peaches.

For these purposes the quince has been long in cultiva-
tion, having been in great esteem among the Greeks and
Romans. The mucilage from the seeds was formerly used
in medicine instead of gum-water. The quince is propa-
gated from seed, layers, slips or cuttings, and grows very
readily from the latter. Cuttings, if planted about the
time the buds commence swelling in the spring, rarely
fail to grow. Quinces usually reproduce themselves from
seed, but occasionally vary. Quince stocks are very much
used for budding the pear upon, for which the Angers
quince is preferred, although we have found the common
or apple-shaped equally good in every respect. The
quince likes a deep, moist soil and cool exposure, growing
naturally upon the banks of streams. It, however, grows
to admiration in any good, rich, friable soil, and no tree is
more benefited by manuring, especially with vegetable
manure. Salt is said to act beneficially if applied during
winter. If applied occasionally in small doses at a dis-

632 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

tance from the trunk, the fruit will not drop; plant the
trees ten feet apart.

The quince i.s subject to the blight, like the pear, and is
also attacked by the borer which infests the apple; the
blighted portion must be cut off and burned, as with the
pear. The borer must be dug out.

The best fruit is obtained from those trained in the
form of a tree, but on account of the borer it is best to use
the bush form with three or four main stems, so if one
is destroyed there are others left to take its place. Thus
trained, the bush should be moderately pruned, or the
fruit will be inferior. If there is an over-crop, the fruit
should be thinned. The quince begins to bear when three
or four years transplanted. Varieties:

Apple on Orange-Shaped. — This is the common
variety, with large, roundish fruit, with a short neck;
skin light golden yellow; flesh firm, but stews tender;
leaves oval; shoots slender. If the core be cut out and
the hole filled with sugar and baked, it forms a fine
dessert dish.

Peak-Shaped. — Fruit large, pyriform, oblong, taper-
ing to the stalk; skin yellow; flesh of firmer texture than
when preserved, and not quite as good in flavor and color
as the former. Fruit ripens a fortnight later, and when
picked, keeps much longer; leaves oblong-ovate. Tree
of more vigorous growth, but does not bear so well.

Portugal. — Fruit still more oblong, of lighter color,
milder flavored, and of better quality than the preceding
kinds; leaf larger and broader; shoots stouter; ripens
between the other two; a shy bearer, pretty good as a
stock for the pear. Tree larger than the other varieties.

ANGEPtS. — A variety of the last, the strongest grower
of all the quinces, and much used for pear stocks. The
fruit is said to be larger and better than any other kind.

FBUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 633

Chinese Quince (Cydonia Sinensis). — Leaves resemble
those of the common quince in form, but have a glossy
surface; the flowers are rose-colored, with a delicate
fragrance, similar to that of the violet. The fruit is very
large, oblong, and somewhat ribbed like a muskmelon;
skin golden yellow; flesh hard and acrid, but is said to
make a desirable preserve. A very beautiful shrub when
in fruit.

THE RASPBERRY.— (Rubus.)

The Raspberry is a low, deciduous shrub, of which sev-
eral species are common along the fences, both in Europe
and America. The large-fruited varieties most esteemed
in our gardens all originated from the long cultivated
Rubus Idoeus, or Mount Ida Bramble, which appears first
to have been introduced into the gardens of the south of
Europe from Mount Ida. It is now quite naturalized in
some parts of the country. Besides this we have growing
wild the common black aud white raspberry, or Thimble-
berries (Rubus occidentalis), and the red raspberry (Rubus
strigosus), with very good fruit.

Uses. — The raspberry is held in general estimation, not
only as one of the most refreshing and agreeable fruits
for the dessert, but it is employed generally for pre-
serving, jams, ices, sauces, tarts and jellies; and on a
larger scale by confectioners for making syrups, and by
distillers for making brandy. Raspberry wine is made
in the same way as currant wine, and is considered the
most fragrant of all domestic wines.

Pro pa [jatum. — The raspberry is propagated by suckers
or by dividing the roots. The seeds are planted only when
new varieties are desired.

Soil and Culture. — The best soil is a rich, deep loam,
rather moist than dry, provided it is not too much ex
posed to our hot Southern sun. The raspberry succeeds

634 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

best at the South when planted oil the north side of a
fence or building, but whore it can have the morning sun;
planted in the shade of trees ii never does well. (Jive a
good manuring every spring with well-rotted stable
manure, and keep clear from grass and weeds Avith the
hoe; prune out the old dead canes every spring. A fine
late crop can readily be'obtained by cutting over the
whole stool, in the spring, to within a few inches of the
ground. They will then shoot up fresh wood, which
comes into bearing in August or September.

Varieties. — The finest raspberries iu general cultivation
for the dessert are the Red and White Antwerp, < Juthbert,
Fastolf, Golden Queen, Orange, French, Franconia,
Gregg, Philadelphia, Shaffer's Colossal, and Turner.

The common American lied is most esteemed for
flavoring liquors, or making brandy and cordials; and the
American Black is preferred by most persons for cooking.

The ever-bearing varieties are esteemed for prolonging
the season of this fruit.

Red Antwerp (A*. Idoeus). — This variety is also known
as Old Red Antwerp, Knevett's Antwerp, True Red Ant-
werp, Ilowland's lied Antwerp, Burley, etc. It is the
common lied Antwerp of England and America, and is
quite distinct from the North River variety, which is
shorter in growth, and has conical-shaped fruit. Canes
strong and tall; spines light red, rather numerous, and
pretty strong; fruit large, nearly globular, color dark red,
with large grains, and covered with a thick bloom; juicy,
with a brisk vinous flavor.

Fastolf (R. Idoeus). — One of the most vigorous of the
foreign varieties, and does very well in Georgia. Fruit
very large, roundish, conical, purplish-red; tender, rich,
and high -flavored. Canes strong, erect, branching, with
strong spines. The foregoing are all that we can recom-
mend for Southern cultivation from personal experience.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

635

The variety cultivated in the Northern States is very
large; many of them we have tested here with but poor
sue cess.

Cuthbert (R. strigosus). — This is one of the most de-
sirable raspberries for the South. The fruit is red, large,

Fig 27G— Gregg Raspberry (after Bailey). Natural size. Cornell
Experiment Station Bulletin.

juicy and fine flavored. It ripens about Hie middle or
latter part of May.

Gregg (/»'. occidentalis). — Fruit large round-ovate, black
to dark purple. Ripens a short time before the Cuthbert.
This is one of the best of the black-cap varieties. A
favorite market variety.

G3G

GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

Golden Queen (/?. strigosus). — An excellent summer
variety; fruit is large and round-conical, yellow color;
prolific and good flavor.

Schaffer's Colossal (./?.. ncglectus). — This is one of
the cap varieties. The fruit is very large, round, of a < 1 11 1 1
purple, with an acid flavor, ami productive. A hardy
plant for the dry summers of the South. Late and a good
shipping fruit.

Turner (A*, strigosus). — A red raspberry and, like the
last, suitable for the South', because it withstands the

Fig. 277— Golden Queen Raspberry.

hot summers admirably, and it produces fruit of excel-
lent quality and beauty.

Marketing.— The fruit must be packed in small
baskets holding not more than a pint because in greater
bulk the berries are easily crushed and ruined by their
own weight. These pint boxes are then placed in cases
holding twenty-four pints, with ample ventilation, so
that the fruit will keep cool. Ship promptly and over the
shortest routes, since the raspberry will not keep long
after being gathered.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE.

637

STRAWBERRY.— (Fragaria.)

The botanical name of the Strawberry is derived from
the delightful fragrance of the ripe fruit. Its common
name has arisen from the ancient practice of laying straw
between the plants, to keep the ground moist and the
fruit clean. This fruit is fragrant, delicious, and univer-
sally esteemed. The first offering of the season, in the
way of ripe fruit, nothing that conies after it can excel " a
dish of ripe strawberries smothered in cream," or fresh
from the plant. It is, indeed, the most popular and whole-
some of all the small fruits; for, besides its grateful
flavor, the subacid juice has a cooling quality peculiarly
acceptable in summer. In addition to its excellence for
the dessert, it is a favorite fruit for making jams, ices,
jellies, and preserves.

The English wood strawberry was the first brought
into cultivation. Says old Tusser, turning over its culti-
vation to the ladies, as beneath his attention:

" Wife, unto the garden, and set me a plot
With strawberry plants, the best to be got,
Such growing abroad, amid trees in the wood,
Well chosen and picked, prove excellent good."

Plants taken directly from the field into the garden
yield at once a tolerable crop. This climate is well
adapted to the culture of this fruit, since by giving the
plants a due supply of moisture, fruit can be gathered
the greater part of the summer and autumn.

In its natural state, the strawberry generally produces
perfect or hermaphrodite flowers; the hermaphrodite are
those which have both the stamens and pistils so well
developed as to produce a tolerably fair crop of fruit.
Cultivation has so affected the strawberry in this respect,
that there are now three classes of varieties. First, those
in which the male or staminate organs are always per-

Gob

GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

feet; but the female, or pistillate organs, are so defective
that they will very rarely bear perfect fruit. Those are
called staminate. Second, those in which the female, or
pistillate organs, are perfect; but in which the male
organs are generally so defective that they cannot pro-
duce fruit at all, unless in the neighborhood of, and fer-
tilized by, staminate or hermaphrodite plants. Impreg-
nated by these, they bear enormous crops. Third, those
which, like the native varieties, are true hermaphrodites;
that is, perfect in stamens ami more or less perfect in
pistils, so that they generally produce a tolerable crop,

Fig. 27S.

Imperfect or

Pistillate.

Fig. 279.
Perfect or Bisexual.

and, in favorable seasons, the pistils being fully de-
veloped, they will produce a good one.

This is called the staminate class in some books. The
first of these classes, the staminate, rarely producing
fruit, and running exuberantly to vine, should be dug up
wherever found, since the hermaphrodite are productive,
and equally useful for fertilizing. It is to the pistillate
varieties, fertilized by the hermaphrodite, that we must
look for large crops of fruit.

In beds of each of these varieties, seedlings will spring-
up, differing from the parents; but runners from any
variety will always produce flowers of the same class and
similar in all respects to the parent plant. By the due
admixture of hermaphrodite and pistillate plants, five
thousand quarts have been picked from an acre at Tin-

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 639

cinnati, where the strawberry season is usually less than
a mouth.

Potash, soda and phosphoric acid are the elements
most likely to be wanting in the soil. Wood ashes and
the carbonates of potash and soda prove very beneficial
applications.

Propagation and Culture. — To raise the strawberry in
perfection requires good varieties, a proper location, care-
ful cultivation, vegetable manure, mulching the roots.
aud regular watering.

The strawberry bed should be in the lowest part of the
garden, succeeding best on a bottom near some little
stream of water, where the soil is moist and cool; no trees
or plants should be allowed to overshadow it, to drink up
the moisture of the soil. New land is the best, aud the
most easily kept free from weeds. The soil should be
dug or plowed deep.

It is not required to be very rich, unless with decayed
vegetable matter, as animal manures produce only a
growth of vine. Plant good, vigorous runners from old
stocks, three feet apart each way; three rows of pistil-
la tes, and then one row of good hermaphrodites, and so
on, until the bed or plot is filled ; cultivate precisely as
jou would corn, and as often. As the runners appear, cut
them off, and keep the plants in hills; this is a much bet-
ter plan than to permit them to run together and occupy
the entire surface of the ground; after the beds have done
fruiting, still keep them clear from grass and weeds, and
when the leaves fall from the trees in the fall, give a good
coat of these as a winter protection.

There is no fruit which has been so greatly improved
within the last few years as has the strawberry, in size,
productiveness, and flavor; it is now as generally culti-
vated as the apple or any of our standard vegetables.
Most of the then esteemed varieties are now superseded

640

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

by new and improved ones. The following represent
some of the most desirable varieties for the South:

The following varieties are early strawberries:

Bubach (No. 5), Hoffman,

Cloud, Lady Thompson,

Crescent, Meek,

Greenville, Michel (very early).

The following varieties are medium in maturing;

Bederwood, Haverland,

Captain Jack, Jessie,

Cumberland, Neunan,

Downing, Parker Earle,

Enhance, Sharpless,

Wilson.

The following varieties are late strawberries:
Brandy wine, Gaudy, Eureka,

The following varieties are especially desirable for
most sections of the South: Bederwood, Brandywine,
Bubach No. 5, Crescent. Cumberland, Downing, Enhance,
Candy, Greenville, Haverland, Hoffman, Lady Thomp-
son, Michel Early, Neunan, Parker Earle, Sharpless,
"Wilson.

The following arc good market varieties, and will ship
well: Bederwood, Bubach No. 5, Cloud, Crescent, En-
hance, Gandy, Haverland, Hoffman, Lady Thompson,
Michel, Neunan, Parker Earle, Wilson.

Bubach, No. 5 (pistillate). — The plants are vigorous in
some seel ions and weak in others. Leaf large, runners
few, fruit large, irregular in shape, inclined to conical,
light red ; not a good shipper.

Plate 17 — Jessie Strawberries.

(641) Plate 18-Bubach No. 5 Strawberries.

41 Photographs by B. L. Watts, Tennessee Experiment Station.

642

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Varieties.

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Enhance

Enormous

Eureka

Gandy

Greenville

Hoffman

Jessie

Lady Thompson

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successfully grown. ** Very successful.

Cloud (pistillate). — A vigorous southern plant which
resists drought well; fruit medium, firm, subacid and
ripens evenly. Fairly good shipper.

( Jrescent (pistillate). — Vigorous plant with dark green
foliage; fruit medium size, dull red; productive; many
runners; stands dry weather well. A good shipper.

Cumberland (hermaphrodite). — Few runners, injured
by dry weather; leaf surface large and deep green; fruit-
large, excellent in flavor; too soft for shipment to distant
points, but a good home berry; very prolific.

Plate 19— Gaudy Strawberries.

(613) Plate 20-Haverland Strawberries.

Photographs by R L. Watts Tennessee Experiment Station.

644 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Gandy (hermaphrodite). — Some planters report this
plant as " strong, vigorous with plenty of runners,"
others again say that " it is a weak grower, setting few
runners." Fruit large and well shaped; ripens evenly;
quality good and ships well. Popular in Mississippi.

Haverland (pistillate). — Highly thought of in many
sections. Leaves with long steins and dark green in
color; vigorous and prolific. Fruit large with excellent
flavor; color deep red; excellent market berry.

Fig. 280— Sharpless Strawberry.

Hoffman (hermaphrodite). — A southern type, vigor-
ous in growth, with numerous runners; fruit long,
medium sized ; dark red and firm; acid taste. Productive
and one of the best market varieties.

Michel's Early (hermaphrodite). — A strong, healthy
plant, with large leaves; many runners. Fruit medium
size; excellent quality. Withstands heat and dry weather
well.

Sharpless (hermaphrodite). — A good home berry, but
not suitable for market purposes. Fruit of excellent
quality, and very large and irregular in shape; dark red
in color.

FRUITS VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 645

Wilson's Albany (hermaphrodite). — This is a very
popular strawberry, although not of first quality iu
flavor, being rather too acid, but as it is a very hardy
variety, vigorous grower, and very productive, it will
long be a favorite fruit for domestic cultivation. Fruit
large, very dark red, conical in form, trusses short and
stout; leaves large, dark green, with short petioles. An
enormous bearer, and continues for a long time. One of
the most desirable varieties. A standard sort.

Marketing. — Pick the fruit with the stem attached,
and gather it early in the morning, while the dew is on
the plant; the fruit will stand handling much better in
this condition than it will after the sun has risen and
dried off the dew, causing the strawberry to soften.
Transport to the packing-house, spread out to dry. Care-
fully assort, rejecting all fruit except the large and well-
formed kinds. Pack in baskets firmly, but do not jam,
and handle as little as possible, so that the " bloom" will
not be destroyed. Select a reliable commercial house
and ship the fruit direct to it; and endeavor to establish
a good name by sending only the best fruit in the best
condition.

646 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

CHAPTER XVII.

USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE.

The following pages contain a few tables and formulae which the
practical gardener will find useful in the prosecution of his profession.
This information has been culled from standard authorities, and can,
therefore, be relied upon for accuracy.

Whitewash:

The following receipt for making whitewash is used by the United
States Government for whitewashing the light-houses, and is almost
as serviceable as paint. It gives a brilliant surface:

Slake with boiling water a half bushel of lime, cover during the
operation to keep in the steam; after straining add a peck of salt,
which has been dissolved in warm water; then add a thin paste made
from three pounds of ground rice stirred in while hot; then add a half
pound of Spanish whiting and one pound of glue previously dissolved
in water. Add five gallons of hot water to the mixture, stir well, and
allow to stand for a few days well covered. This whitewash must be
applied hot.

Absorptive Power of Soils (Henderson):

100 pounds of pure clay absorbs 70 pounds of water.

100 pounds of sand absorbs 25 pounds of water.

100 pounds of clay loam absorbs 50 pounds of water.

100 pounds of chalk absorbs 45 pounds of water.

100 pounds of loamy sand absorbs 40 pounds of water.

100 pounds of calcareous sand absorbs 25 pounds of water.

Schubler's Experiment Shows that —

1,000 tons of pulverized soil will absorb moisture when exposed to the
atmosphere, as follows:

Sandy clay 26 tons.

Loamy clay : 30 tons.

Stiff clay 36 tons.

Garden mould 45 tons.

USEFUL TABLES AXD' FORMULAE.

647

Amount of Lund in Different Fields:

10 rods x 16 rods 1 acre-

5 rods x 32 rods 1 acre-

8 rods x 20 rods 1 acre.

4 rods x 10 rods 1 acre.

5 yards x 968 yards 1 acre.

10 yards x 484 yards 1 acre.

20 yards x 242 yards 1 acre.

40 yards x 121 yards 1 acre.

220 feet x 198 feet 1 acre.

110 feet x 369 feet 1 acre.

60 feet x 726 feet 1 acre.

120 feet x 363 feet ■ 1 acre.

200 feet x 108.9 feet I acre.

100 feet x 145.2 feet i acre.

100 feet x 108.9 feet I acre.

25 feet x 100 feet «57 acre.

25 feet x 150 feet 109 acre.

4356 square feet 10 acre.

Number of Trees or Plants to an Acre (Henderson):

30x30 48 6x6 1210

25 x 25 69 5x5 1742

20x20 10S 5x4 2178

19 x 19 120 5x3 2904

18 x 18 134 5x2 4356

17 x 17 150 5x1 8712

16 x 16 170 4x4 2722

15 x 15 193 4x3 3630

14 x 14 222 4x2 5445

13 x 13 257 4x1 10390

12 x 12 302 3x3 4870

11 x 11 360 3x2 7260

10 x 10 435 3x1 14520

9x 9 537 2x2 10890

Sx 8 680 2x1 21780

7x 7 888 lxl..'. 43560

648

GARDENING FOR THE Sol -111.

Comjjosition of Vegetables and Fruits.

(Department of Agriculture.)

Water.

Nitrogen.

Free
Extract.

Vegetables:

Asparagus

Beans (Lima)

Beans (String). . .

Beets (Red)

Beets (Sugar)

Cabbage

Carrot

Collards

Celery

Corn (Green)

Corn (Sweet)

Cowpea

Cauliflower

Cucumbers

Eggplant

Kohl-rabi

Lettuce

Mushrooms

Onions

Parsnips

Okra

Pumpkins

Radishes

Potatoes (Irish). .
Potatoes (Sweet).
Peas (Green). .

Rhubarb

Spinach

Squashes

Ruta-baga

Tomatoes

Turnips

Fruits :

Apples

Apricots

Bananas

Blackberries

Cherries

Cranberries

Grapes

Muskmelons

Lemons

Oranges

Pears

Persimmons

Pineapples

Plums

Pomegranates

Raspberries

Strawberries

Watermelons

Whortleberries.

Nuts:

Almonds

Butternuts

Chestnuts

Cocoanuts (Flesh)
Coeoanuts (Milk)

Filberts

Hiokorynuts

Peanuts

Pecans

Walnuts (Black )

94.00
68.46
87.23

87.10
94. r.O
75.40
81.25
14.80
90.80
96.00

92 93
91.10
95.90
88.10
87.60
83 oo
87.41

93 lo
91 NO
98.00
71 10

94.40
92. 10
88. 10
88 60

91.26
90 50

84.11

85 00
66 25

83 91

86.10

88 90

77 40

89 50
89.30

86 90

84 40
66 10
89.28

78 40
76.80
85.82

90 80
92 10

9 20
3 00
2.50

1.80
7.15

2 20
1.50
1.80
2.10
1.10
4 50
1.10

3 10
2 81

20 75
1 60
0.80
1 15
2.00
0.97
3.50
1.40
1 60
1.99
0.90
1 30
2.20
1.50

1 06
(i 60

2 10
0.90
1 20

1 10

I 41
0.94
1.10
0.40
1.30

II Oil

1.00

0 80

0 60
0.80
0.39
1.00

1 50

0 99

1 00
0.40
0.66

6 20

5 70

0 40
15.60
15.40
25.80
11.00
27.60

ii :so
0.69

o io

0.10
0.40
0.40

0 60
0.10

1 10
1.10
1.44
0.80
0.20
0 31
0.10
0 20
0.40
0 30
0.50
0 40
0 10
0.10
ii in
0 40
0.55
0 70
0 50
ii 20
0 20
0.47
0 20

0.28

135
2.08
0 84

0 60

1 60

0.90
0.20
0.50
0.70
0.26

1 60

54.90
61.20

5.40
50.60

1 50
65 30
67 40
38.60
71 20
56 30

7.52

8 00
9.80
5.80
9.20
6.30
3.30

19.70
13 67
55 72
1 90
1.80
4.U
5.50

1 60
6 80

9 40
13 50

6 oi
3.90
5.80

18 80
22.70
14.48
3.60

2 40
9 10

7 50
5.84
6 20

11 26
13 40
28 88

5 03
11 14

9.90
19 20

9 30

7 20
11 60
14.10
:il.50

9 :si
•Jo 10
19.50
12.60

5.50

6.70
10.31

17.30
3.50
42 10
27.90
4 60
13.00
11.40
24.40
13.30
11.70

USEFUL TABLES AATD FORMULAE. 649

Distances Apart for Planting Fruits in Commercial Plantations (Year Book
Department of Agriculture, 1897) :

Apple 40 x 40

33x33
32x16

Apple (dwarf) 15 x 15

10x10

Pear 24 x 24

20x20
16x16

Pear (dwarf) 16 x 16

12x12

Quince 16 x 16

12x12

Apricots 30 x 30

25 x 25
20x20

Cherries (sweet) 30 x 30

24x24
20x20

Cherries (sour) 20 x 20

16x16

Peach 20 x 20

20x16
18x18
13x13

Plum ; 20 x 20

18x18
16x16

FiS 40 x 40

20x20

Kaki 20 x 20

01ive 25 x 25

20x20

Orange and lemon 30x30

25x25
Grape 8 x 10

.6x8
Almond 24x24

20x20
Chestnut 40 x 40

30x30
20x20

Pecan 50 x 50

40 x 40

650 GARDENING FOE THE SOUTH.

Walnut 50 x 50

40x40

Blackberries 6x 8

6x 6

Raspberries fix 4

Currants and gooseberries 6 x 8

Strawberries lx 4

1 x 3

lxl

Cranberries 2x 2

The distance suitable for fruit trees and plants in commercial plan-
tations varies considerably in different regions. The more important
factors in determining the proper distance for any given species are
the fertility of the soil, the supply of soil moisture, the habit of growth
and relative vigor of the varieties, and the necessity of providing suffi-
cient space for operating -spraying machinery in combating insects and
fungi. Observation of local practice affords the safest guide in doubt-
ful cases.

Time When Sect] Should Sprout.

Days.

Bean 5—10

Beet 7—10

Cabbage 5—10

Carrot 12—18

Cauliflower 5—10

Celery 10—20

Corn 5—8

Cucumber 6 — 8

Endive 6—10

Days.

Lettuce 5—10

Onion 6 — 8

Pea 7—10

Parsnip 6—10

Pepper 10—20

Radish 9—14

Salsify 3—6

Tomato 7—12

Turnip 6—12

Injurious Temperatures.

(W W. Mammon in Weather Bureau Bulletin 23.)

Table of temperatures at which the following plants are liable to re-
ceive injury from frost, compiled from information received from horti-
culturists, orchardists, and gardeners throughout the entire Pacific
coast

The temperatures given are,
in contact with the plant itself

USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE. 651

nearly as possible, those of the air

Plants or Fruits.

I % *

s I £ 3
■° 2 % o

Plants or Fruits.

Almonds

Appies

Apricots

Asparagus
Bananas

28
27

so

29
31

30
29
31
29
31
29
31

32

30
30
32
29
32

23
20
30
20
3L

Beets

Cabbage

Cantaloupes

"•62'

25
15-27
30-31
20 27

28

Cucumbers

Cymlings or

squash

Flowers*

Grapes

Grape fruit

31

31
31
31

30
30

' 31

31

31

31
31
31
31
31

31

31

31
31

30
31
31

31 '

32

30

30
28
28
28

Lettuce

Mandarins

12-28

28

Okra

31

Olives

30

31

Ml

U18
l $24

Onions

Orangesf

Parsnips..

Peaches ...

Pears

Peas

Plums

Potatoes :

Irish

Sweet

Prunes.

Radishes

Shrubs, roses, or

trees

Spinach

Strawberries. .

Tangerines

Tomatoes

Turnips

Watermelons

Wheat

Walnuts, English

26-30

' '28

Depends on variety, f Injured at 2° higher if continued foui
§Green.

GARDEN CALENDAR.

t Ripe.

Upper Sections. — Virginia, North Carolina, North Georgia, North
Alabama, Tennessee.

Middle Sections. — Lower South Carolina, South Georgia, Middle and
South Alabama, Mississippi.

Southern Sections. — Southern Louisiana and Florida.

January — Upper Sections. — Prepare hot-beds and cold frames and sow
seeds of Cauliflower, Cabbage, Beets, Lettuce, Onions, Radishes.
Prepare land for Potatoes.

Middle Sections. — Land made ready for English Peas and Irish
Potatoes; later in the month sow Peas in open ground, also Rad-
ishes.

Southern Sections. — Sow Carrots, Beets, Leeks, Mustard, early
Radishes, and Turnips. Sow in a frame Cabbage, Broccoli, Cauli-
flower, Endive, Kohl-rabi, Lettuce. Celery, Parsley, and Cress.
In the hot-bed sow Eggplants, Pepper, and Tomatoes for early

652 GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

transplanting. Sow Cucumber seeds in pots for forcing, transplant
into hot-beds after the appearance of the third leaf. Plant Peas
of the marrow fat and black-eyed varieties. Set out Cabbage plants
sown in November. Onions should be transplanted early in this
month, so that the bulbs will form soon.

February — Upper Sections. — Sow in hot-beds Cabbage, Cauliflower,
Beets, Lettuce, Onions, Radishes, Eggplants, Pepper, and Toma-
toes. Sow in open ground the latter part of the month Beets, Car-
rots, Celery, Kale, Parsley, Radishes. Set out Onion sets, Horse
Radish, hardy Lettuce plants.

Middle Sections. — The early planting of Potatoes may now be ac-
complished. Sow early English Peas. The seeds mentioned in
January for the Southern sections may be sown at this time for
the Middle section.

Southern Sections. — Sow Beets, Carrots, Cabbage, Cauliflower,
Leeks, Lettuce, Mustard, Parsnips, Kohl-rabi, the early varieties of
Turnips and Radishes. Transplant Cabbage, Cauliflower. Divide
Shallots and set out. Plant all varieties of Peas. Sow Aspa-
ragus seeds or plant the roots. Give plenty of air during the fair
days to the hot-beds to prevent the plants from becoming too ten-
der before transplanting. Towards the close of the month, if the
weather will permit, early Corn can be planted and bush Beans.
Melons and Squashes will do well if planted this month and pro-
tected by some covering against the cool nights.

March — Upper Sections. — All kinds of hardy seeds may now be placed
in the ground, such as Cauliflower, early Cabbage, Celery, Aspara-
gus, Carrots, Leeks, Lettuce, Parsley, Parsnips, Onions, Peas,
and Salsify. Sow under glass Eggplants, Pepper, and Tomatoes.
Plant Irish Potatoes, Onion sets, Asparagus roots, and set out
Cauliflower, Cabbage, and Lettuce plants from the hot-beds, after
hardening. Prepare the land for early planting of Melons and
Squashes.

Middle Sections. — All kinds of hardy seeds may be sown. Cauli-
flower and Cabbage plants should be transplanted. Shallots divided
and set out. Sow Celery for seasoning, and also Parsley and Cress,
Kohl-rabi and Turnips. Plant all varieties of Peas, and sow
Asparagus or plant the roots, if not placed in the ground previously.
As soon as the weather is favorable plant bush Beans, Cucumbers,
Squash, and Melons, but protect the tender plants as they come up
by the use of bell glasses or small boxes covered with glass. Near
the close of the month plant Sweet or Sugar Corn, and also early
Corn for the market.

Southern Sections. — This is the month for sowing bush and pole
Beans, and, towards the end of the month, plant Lima Beans;
plant, also, Cucumbers, Leeks, Mustard, Lettuce, Celery for cutting.

USEFUL TABLES AM) FORMULAE.

653

Parsley, Melons, Okra. Early varieties of Peas may be still planted.
Set out, the last of the month. Tomatoes, Eggplants, and Peppers;
plant Sweet Corn for continued crop.

April — Upper Sections. — Sow in the open ground Cabbage, Tomatoes,
and Lettuce, and plant early Irish Potatoes. Sow the seeds of
Beets, Carrots, Asparagus, Artichokes, Celery. Onions. Parsnips,
Radishes, Parsley, Salsify, Spring Kale. Set out Cabbage plants,
Asparagus roots, and Onion sets. Plant early Corn, bed Sweet
Potatoes, plant Peas, Snap Beans, and, towards the end of the
month, Cantaloupes, Cucumbers, Melons, Squashes, and Strawberry
plants.

Middle Sections. — Plant all varieties of bush and pole Beans, and,
later in the month, Lima Beans also. Plant Cucumbers, Squashes,
Okra, Early Peas; sow Lettuce, Celery for cutting, Radishes,
Mustard, Carrots, Parsley; set out Eggplants, Tomatoes, and Pep-
pers in the open ground.

Southern Sections. — Sow all kinds of Beans, Carrots, Cucumbers,
Corn, Celery for cutting, Endive, Lettuce, Mustards, Melons, Pars-
ley, Radishes, Squashes. Cauliflower may be sown this month, as
it takes some time to mature, especially the Italian varieties.

May — Upper Sections. — Most garden seeds can be sown this month,
such as Carrots, pole and snap Beans, Lima Beans, Corn, Cucum-
bers, Cantaloupes, late Cabbage seeds for setting out for fall use,
Tomatoes, Salsify, Peas, Okra, Squashes, Pumpkins, Sweet Potato,
and Eggplants.

. Middle Sections. — Such kinds of garden seeds as Melons, Okra,
Lima Beans, and Corn may be safely planted during this month.
Set out Sweet Potatoes.

Southern Sections. — With the exception of Okra, the white and
yellow summer Radishes and Endive, very few vegetable seeds
are sown during this month. If the large white Celery is sown
at this time it will be necessary to shade and water during the
dry, warm weather. Special care in cultivation must be taken of
the growing crops. Melons, Cucumbers, Squashes may be planted
when the Onions and Potatoes are taken up.

June — Upper Sections. — Cabbage, Eggplants, Peppers, Potatoes, and
Tomato plants may be set out during this month. Sow late Cab-
bage and Cauliflower for winter use Plant late Potatoes for the
winter. Plant Cantaloupes, Watermelons, Cucumbers, Squashes,
Pumpkins, Sweet Corn, and Snap Beans.

Middle Sections. — Plant pole and snap Beans, Sweet Corn, Cucum-
bers for pickling, Cabbage for fall crop; Celery seed also sown now.

Southern Sections. — The growing crops will require all the atten-
tion of the gardener, and very few seeds will be sown during the

6 54: GARDENING FOB HIE SOUTH.

month. Corn may be planted for the late supply of roasting ears;
some varieties of the hardy, prolific Beans and summer Radishes
may be sown at this time; towards the end of the month Tomato
seeds may be put in for the late crop. Plant Sweet Potato Vines.

Jn.v — Upper Sections. — Snap Beans and Sugar Corn may be planted
for succession crops. Set out late Cabbage plants for winter use;
also Celery plants. Sow Ruta Baga; plant Cucumbers for pickling
and table use, and late Potatoes for winter.

Middle Sections. — Plant Ruta Bagas, Turnips, Endive, Cauli-
flower, Cabbage, Celery for early crop. Give the vegetables care-
ful attention in cultivation to destroy all weeds and keep the
ground in a loose, open condition for the proper absorption of
moisture from the atmosphere and the rapid development of the
plants.

Southern Sections. — Sow late Tomatoes and plant Corn for a late
crop. Towards the end of the month bush Beans may be planted.
In the middle of the month sow Cabbage seeds for winter use.
Still plant Sweet Potato Vines.

August — Upper Sections. — Continue planting Snap Beans for table use.
If Cabbage and Celery plants have not been planted, set these out
early in the month and water the Celery regularly, as this is a
dry month. Lettuce for fall heading may be planted now. All
kinds of Turnip seeds may be sown.

Middle Sections. — Set out fall Cabbage; sow Kale, Ruta Baga, and
Turnip seeds; English Peas and Snap Beans for fall use may be
sown during this month; the main crop of Celery must be set out
at this time. Lettuce sown under glass for winter use will be a
valuable crop.

Southern Sections. — Bush Beans, Peas, and late Cabb ge will be
planted during this month; also, Kale and Brussels Sprouts.
During the first of the month sow Cauliflower seeds. Sow White
Strasburg Radish and Yellow Turnips, and near the end of the
month the red varieties of Turnips may be sown. This is the time
for sowing Celery, and some Celery plants may be set out at this
time if they are watered and shaded. Set out Tomato and Shallot
plants for late crops Kohl-rabi and Ruta Baga seeds may be
sown.

September — Upper Sections. — Sow Onion seed. Put out Onion sets. Sow
winter Radish, Kale, Spinach, Turnips.

Middle Sections. — Sow Kale for winter use; sow Spinach in drills;
plant Onion sets; sow broadcast Turnip seeds for salad, and sow
Radishes for late crop.

Southern Sections. — Most of the seeds mentioned for August can
also be sown during this month, in addition to Parsley, Beets,

USEFUL TABLES AXD FORMULAE. 655

Carrots, early varieties of Peas, Lettuce, and Corn Salad. Trans-
plant Celery in the ditches prepared for it, and set out Cabbage
and Cauliflower plants. Begin sowing Creole Onions after the
middle of the month.

October — Upper Sections. — Sow Kale, Mustard, Turnips for salad,
Spinach, and Lettuce. Put out Onion sets.

Middle Sections. — Sow Kale and winter Spinach. Transplant
Celery to the trenches prepared for it; plant Onion sets and Shal-
lots. Plant all kinds of Radishes, Carrots, Salsify, Beets, Parsley,
Endive, Kohl-rabi; Corn Salad and Turnips may be sown this
month. Sow Cabbage and Cauliflower in frames.

Southern Sections. — Towards the end of the month the Marrow
Fat and Black-Eyed Peas and English Windsor Beans may be
planted. Sow Cabbage, Cauliflower, Brussels Sprouts, Carrots,
Beets, Parsley, Parsnips, Radishes, Spinach, and Lettuce. Near
the end of the month begin earthing up the Celery plants and
water frequently.

November — Upper Sections. — Sow Lettuce and early varieties of Cab-
bage seeds in cold frames, leaving off the glass to harden the
plants.

Middle Sections. — The first of the month sow Carrots and protect
with litter. Sow Cabbage and Cauliflower in frames.

Southern Sect inns. — Sow all varieties of winter vegetables. For
spring heading sow late flat Dutch and Drumhead Cabbage; late
varieties of Peas will also do well this month. Prepare hot-beds
for Cucumber seeds.

December — Upper Sections. — Hot-beds and green-houses must be used
for vegetable seeds during this month. Very little can be done in
the open ground.

Middle Sections. — The same is true with this portion of the
South. December is generally a severe month for tender plants,
and the hot-beds and green-houses must be depended upon for all
character of sowing.

Southern Sections. — Carrots, early Cabbage, Endive, Lettuce, and
Radishes may be sown during this month in the far Southern sec-
tions. Early Erfurt Cauliflower may be sown, and the Marrow
Fat and late varieties of Peas. Prepare the ground for planting
fruit trees. Prune fruit trees.

656

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

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USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE. 057

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658

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USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULAE. 659

Weights and Measures.
Troy Weight—

24 grains 1 pennyweight.

20 pennyweights 1 ounce.

12 ounces 1 pound.

Apothecaries' Weight —

20 grains 1 scruple.

3 scruples 1 drachm.

8 drachms 1 ounce.

12 ounces 1 pound.

Avoirdupois Weight —

27.34 grains 1 drachm.

16 drachms 1 ounce.

16 ounces 1 pound.

Long Measure —

12 inches 1 foot.

3 feet 1 yard.

5| yards 1 rod, pole or perch.

40 rods 1 furlong.

8 furlongs 1 statute or land mile.

3 miles 1 league.

Square or Land Measure —

144 square inches 1 square foot.

9 square feet 1 square yard.

30J square yards 1 square rod.

40 square rods 1 rood.

4 roods 1 acre.

640 acres 1 square mile.

Liquid Measure —

4 gills 1 pint — 28.875 cubic inches.

2 pints 1 quart — 57.75 cubic inches.

4 quarts 1 gallon— 231 cubic inches.

63 gallons 1 hogshead.

2 hogsheads 1 pipe or butt.

2 pipes 1 tun.

Dry Measure —

2 pints 1 quart.

4 quarts 1 gallon.

2 gallons 1 peck.

4 pecks 1 struck bushel.

660

GARDENING FOB THE SOUTH.

The Metric System of Weights and Measures.
Metric Units in English Equivalents:

Inches.

Feet.

Yards. Miles.

Centimeter . .

. . . . 0.393685
. . . . 3.93685

0.032807
0.328071

Decimeter . . .

0.109357

Meter

39.3685

3 280711

1 09363

Decameter . . .

....393.685

32.8071

10.9357

Hectometer . .

328.071

109.357 0.0621347

Kilometer . . .

3280.71

1093.57 0.6213466

Myriameter ..

32807.1

10935.7 6.213466

Are— 154988 sq. in.. 1076.4 sq. ft., 119.60 sq. yds., 0.0247 acres.
Hectare— 107.64 sq. ft., 11.960 sq. yds., 2.471 acres.
Liter— 33.8 fluid ounces, 1.0567 liquid quarts, 0.02838 bushels.
Gram — 15.43234 grains, 0.03527 ounces avoid., 0.0022 lbs. avoid.
Kilogram — 2.2 lbs. avoid.

Foot— 0.3048 meters, 3.048 decimeters, 30.48 centimeters.

Mile— 1609.344 meters, 1609 kilometers.

Acre— 40.4685 ares, 0.4046 hectare.

Gallon— 3.7854 liters.

Pound — 0.4535 kilogram, 4.535 hectograms.

Ton (2,000 lbs.)— 907.1 kilograms, 0.9071 tonne.

Bushel— 35.237 liters.

A cubic foot is equal to —
1728 cubic inches.

0.8036 struck bushels of 2150.42 cubic inches.

3.2143 pecks.

7.4805 liquid gallons of 231 cubic inches.

6.4285 dry gallons.
29.922 liquid quarts.
25.714 dry quarts.
59.844 liquid pints.
51.428 dry pints.

0.2667 barrel of three struck bushels.

0.2375 liquid barrel of 31* gallons.

662

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Legal Weight of a

a

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24
46
60
60
32

24
46
60

24
46
60

25
46

21

60
60

25
46
60
60

24
46
60

24
45
60

64

28
46
62

60

60
60

55

40

46
33

33

33
40

10
40
57

57

57

57

50

57

57

IS

57

57

52

57

52

28
55

28

28

45

p' " , Ji

48
33
33

Dried

33

33

33
40

33

33

89

40

Peas*

60

46

60

60

60

60

60
24

60

60

Potatoes, Irish

60
60

60
50

60

60

56

60

60
55

70

60
55

60
46

60
55

60
55

60

60
56

60

48
32

60

32

55

Turnips

55

;,,,

55

55

55

60

60

56

USEFUL TABLES AXD FORMULAE.

663

Bushel in Each State. *

5

3

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57

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56

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24

46

60

■Jl
46
60

25

22
46
62
60

22

46
60
60

24
46
60

26
46
60

26

28

46

28

25

24

46

46

60

fin

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

50

40

33

33

33

33

33

54

56

57

57
25

57

57

56

57

5.0

57

56

57

54

£6

50

57

38

28

33

28

25

28
II

98

28

33
33

33

33

32
28

33
36

28

28

33

28

33

33

28
28

60

98

45

60'

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

50

60

28

60
56

60

60

60
50

60

60

60

54

60
55

60
50

60

56
55

60

60
50

60
50

60
55

60
55

60
56

60

60
54

60

56

58 55

55

55

55

56

55

50

55

56

60

42 56

*Local usage sometimes varies from legal enactment. All States recognize the use of the
standard United States bushel, without reference to weights of articles measured, and some
States no longer legalize any other.

664

GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH.

Every intelligent gardener should have some, if not all, of the fol-
lowing books on the shelves of his library to guide him in the proper
cultivation of his garden:

Asparagus Culture, by Barnes and Robinson.
American Fruit Culturist, by Thomas.
Annals of Horticulture, by Bailey.
American Pomological Society, Proceedings of.
Apple Culture, Notes on, by Bailey.

Bulletins of the States' Experiment Stations. (The name of each
gardener should be on the mailing lists of these stations and
the bulletins should be carefully read and filed for reference.)

Bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture. Many
valuable bulletins and circulars are issued each year by this
department.

Cauliflowers, by Brill.

Celery for Profit, by Grenier.

Cabbages and Cauliflower, How to Grow, by Gregory.

Draining for Profit and Health, by Waring.
Drainage, Farm, by French.
Dictionary of Gardening, by Nicholson.
Drainage, Tile, by Chamberlain.
Drainage, by Miles.

Farm, Gardening and Seed Growing, by Thurber.

First Principles of Agriculture, by Voorhees.

Fruit Garden, by Barry.

Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, by Downing.

Fertility of the Land, by Roberts.

Fruit Growing Principles, by Bailey.

Gardening for Profit, by Henderson.

Gardening and Farm Notes, Market, by Landreth.

Grape Growers' Guide, by Chorlton.

Grape Training, by Bailey.

Garden Making, by Bailey.

Greenhouse Construction, by Taft.

Grape Culturist, by Fuller.

How Crops Feed, by Johnson.
How Crops Grow, by Johnson.
Handbook of Plants, by Henderson.
Horticulturists' Rule Book, by Bailey.

USEFUL TABLES AAD FORMULAE. 665

Injurious Insects of Farm and Garden, by Treat.
Insects Injurious to Vegetation, by Harris.
Insects. Manual for Study of, by Comstock.
Insects Injurious to Fruits, by Saunders.
Insects and Insecticides, by Weed.

Landscape Gardening, by Elliott.

Manures, Talk on, by Harris.
Manures, A Treatise on, by Griffith.
Mushrooms, How to Grow, by Falconer.

Nursery Book, by Bailey.
Nut Culturist, by Fuller.

Olive, The, by Marvin.

Onion Culture, The New, or Onions for Profit, by Grenier.

Ornamental Gardening, by Long.

Onion Raising, by Gregory.

Pear Culture for Profit, by Quinn.
Potato Culture, Sweet, by Fitz.
Peach Culture, by Fulton.
Propagation of Plants, by Fuller.
Potato Culture, The New, by Carman.
Potato Culture, by Terry.

Success in Market Gardening, by Rawson.
Spraying of Plants, by Lodeman.
Soil, by King.

Truck Farming in the South, by Oemler.

INDEX

PAGE.

Achras sapota 531

Agaricus camprcxtris ....362, 363

Allium ascolonicum 422

c<l»t 379

fistilosum 381

porrum 348

sativum 342

Schcenoprasum 322

Almond 147, 456, 648, 649

common 456

cultivation 456

pistache 457

princess 457

sultana 457

Alternaria solani 166

Amanita muscaria 366, 367

phylloides 365, 366

Ammonium sulphate 71

Amygdalus communis 456

Ananassa sativa 611

Anasa tristis 141, 142

AnetJium graveolens 448

Angelica 444

Anise 444

Anisopteryx pometaria ...126, 127

A nthensis nobilis 447

Anthracnose 155, 156

Aphis brassicos 122

gossypii 133

.4 nona cherimolia 531

muricata 531

reticulata 531

squamosa 531

Allium graveolens 310

var. na.pa.eeum 321

Appelius. M 192

Apple. .117, 118, 120, 127, 144,

457, 648, 649

Albemarle pippin 479

Arkansas 458

Baldwin 459

Bachelor 459

Ben Davis 459, 460

Black twig 458

Bough 459, 460

Buckingham 459, 461

Buff 461, 462

PAGE.

Buncombe 471

Byers 459

Camak's sweet 461, 462

Carnation 463

Carolina aromatic 463

Crab 457

Cullasaga 463

Disharoon 465

Early harvest 464, 465

Early red 473

Fall pippin 465

Hall 465, 467

Hockett's sweet 467

Homony 477

Horse 465, 466, 467

Johnson's fine winter... 479

Jonathan 467, 469

Julian 466, 467

Limbertwig 468, 469

Maiden's blush 468, 469

Mangum 469, 471

Margaret 470, 473

Meigs 470, 471

Mountain belle 471

Nickajack 471, 473

Oconee greening 472,473

Red astrachan 473,475

Red fall pippin 471

Red June 472, 473

Red winter Pearmain... 471

Romanite 474, 475

Rome beauty 474, 475

Shockley 475, 477

Smokehouse 478

Sops of wine 476, 477

Stevenson 477

Striped June 473

Summer queen 476, 477

Taunton 478

Waddel's hall 477

Watson 478

Winesap 479

White Juneating 478

Yellow June 478

Yellow New York pippin 479

Yopp 479

York Imperial 479

(667)

668

PAGE.

Apples adapted to —

Alabama 481

Arkansas 481

Florida 482

Georgia 481

Kentucky 481

Mississippi 481

North Carolina 481

South Carolina 481

Tennessee 481

Texas 481

Virginia 480

Gathering the fruit 482

Marketing 482

Apricot... 147, 483, 535, 648, 649

Bungo 485

Breda 485

Dubois 484

Early golden 484

Hemskirke 485

Hubbard 485

Large early 484

Moorpark 485

Musch 485

Orange 484

Peach 484

Royal 485

Santa Fe 485

Artichoke 188, 261

Cultivation 262, 265

Jerusalem 265

Arachis hypogcea 343

Archangelica officinalis 444

Artemisia abrotanum 454

absinthium 455

dracunculus 431

pontica 455

Artotrogus debaryanvs 158

Ashes 48, 57

Asparagus 82, 188, 266, 648

Columbian mammoth . . 270

Conover's colossal 270

Cultivation 267

Palmetto 270

Marketing 271

Asparagus officinalis 266

Aspidiotus pemiciosus 144

A spidi i, lax camellia' 145

Juglans-regiw 145

Atkinson, G. F 26, 167, 361

A triplex hortensis 385

Avocado pear 531

Azotin 71

Bacillus amylovorus 154

Bailey, L. H 26, 508, 533, 621

PAGE.

Balm 188, 445

Banana 486, 487, 648

Baracoa 487

Cavendish 487

Dwarf 487

Chinese 487

Golden 487

Hart's choice 487

Horse 487

Martinique 487

Orinoco 487

Marketing 488

Barbarca vulgaris 329

Basil 188, 272

Cultivation of 273

Baskets 102

Beans. 120, 134, 188, 274, 648, 650

Algiers 276

Black speckled 277

Black-eyed wax 279

Bunch 274

Bush 274

Burpee's bush 279

Broad Windsor 275

Carolina 274, 279

Culture 275, 280

Dark prolific 277

Dutch case knife 27B

Dwarf 276

Extra early refugee 279

Early Mohawk 276

Early Valentine 276

English broad 274

French kidney 276

Henderson's bush 279

London horticultural 277

Newington wonder 276

Royal kidney 276

Long pod 275

Lima 274, 279

Mazagan 274

Pole 271

Sieva 274

Snaps 274

Types of 277

Wardwell's kidney wax. 279

Wax 276

White prolific ... 277

Marketing 283

Beets.. 82, 118, 188, 284, 648, 650

Bassano 284

Culture 286

Early eclipse 284

Early long blood 284

Extra early Egyptian... 284
Extra early turnip 284

669

PAGE.

Klein Wanzleben 285

Lentz 285

Long blood 284

Mangel -Wurzel 285

Sugar 285

White 288

Marketing 290

Bene 446

Berckmans, P. J 26, 34, 545

Beta vulgaris 284

cida 284

Bibliography 664

Birds Ill

Blackberry 488, 648, 649

Dallas 490

Early harvest 489

Kittatinny 489

Wilson's early 489

Marketing 490

Blood, dried 71

Bones 75

Boneash 76

Boneblack 76

Bonemeal 76

Boneset 446

Borage 188, 446

Bora (/o officinalis 446

Bordeaux mixture 184

Borecole 290

Culture 291

Dwarf green curled

Scotch 291

Early curled Siberian 291

Marketing 291

Brassica alba 375

Brassica napvs var oleifera. . . 413

var esculenta 413

nigra 375

oleraeea —

var bullata-major 296

var botritis cauliflora. 292, 306

var capitata 293

var caulo rapa 348

var fimbriate! 290

var (/em in if era 292

rapa 436

Broccoli 188, 292

Marketing 292

Bruchus pisorum 150, 151

obtectus 151

quadri maculatus 151, 152

Brussels sprouts 292

Bryson, Miss Ann 465

Budding 211

Bulbs 197

Bullace 503

page.
Burnet 188

Bushel, legal weight of
(Table) 663

Cabbage. 28, 82, 121, 122, 132,

1S8, 293, 648, 650

All seasons 296

Curled savoy 296

Culture 297

Drumhead savoy 296

Early drumhead 296

Early flat Dutch 295

Early Jersey Wakefield. 294

Early Winningstadt 295

Early York 296

Express 296

Flat Dutch 296

Henderson's early sum-
mer 295

Improved Brunswick . . . 296

Large late drumhead 296

Preserving 302

Premium flat Dutch 296

Red Dutch 296

Savoy 296

Succession 296

Marketing 303

Cwoma nitens 155

Calocasia esculenta 430

Camak, James 21, 24

Camomile 188

Cantaloupe 358

Acme 357

Atlantic City 358

Baltimore 358

Culture 359

Emerald green 358

Gold Jenny 358

Jenny Lind 358

Pineapple 358

Shippers' delight 359

Marketing 361

Capsicum 188, 394

Caraway 188, 447

Carbonbisulphide 184

Carica papaya 531

Carpocapsa pomonella 119

Carrot 82, 188, 304, 648, 650

Altringham 304

Culture 305

Early French short horn, 304

Early horn 304

Half long Dan vers 305

Long orange 305

Marketing , 306

Varum Carri 447

670

PAGE.

Gastanea dentata 539

Japonica 539

pu mi la 539

sativa 539

Cauliflower 28, 82, 122,

123, 188, 306, 648, 650

Culture 307

Early Erfurt 307

Snowball 307

Marketing 310

Celeriac 321

Celery. .82, 123, 188, 310, 648, 650

Culture 313

Giant paschal 311

Giant white 313

Golden heart 311

Golden self bleaching,

311, 319

Marketing 320

New culture 313

Sandringham 313

White plume 310

Census report on cotton 55

Verasus avium 491

vulgaris 491

Cercospora apii 158

Ceratocystis fimbriata 155

Chamomile 447

Charcoal 59

Chards 264

Cherimoya 531

Cherokee rose 34, 36

Cherry.... 118, 127, 132, 147,

490, 648, 649

Belle magnifique 494

Bigarreau 491

Blackheart 491

Black tartarian 493, 494

Downer's late 492

Duke 491, 494

Early Richmond (Kent-
ish) 497

Elton 491, 492

English Morello,

169, 490, 491, 494, 495

Heart 491

Kirtland's Mary 493

Late Kentish 497

Mahaleb 491

May duke 491, 495

Mazzard 491

Napoleon (Royal Ann),

492, 493

Plumstone Morello 495

Reine Hortense 494

Rockport 492

PAGE.

Sweet Montmorency. 491, 495

Marketing 497

Chervil 188

Chestnut, V. K...'. 367

Chestnut 537, 648, 649

American 539

Burbank's early 537

Japan 539

Marron de Lyon 539

Spanish 539

Chinese yam 335

Chinquapin 539

Chionaspis furfuirus 145, 147

Chittenden, F. H... 133

Chives 322

Culture 322

Chrysobothris femorata 117

Chrysophyllum coenito 531

Cichorium endivia 339

Citron 555

Lemon 555

Lyman 5L>5

Orange 555

Citrullus vulgaris 440

('Urns acida 555

aurantium 549

bigaradia 549

decumana 555

Japonica 555

linonium 553

medica 555

nobilis 549

trifoliata 34

Cives 188

Clary 448

( 'ladosporium fulvum 154

carpophilum 154

Clisiocampa Americana 118

Cocoanut 496, 497, 648

Cocas nucifera 497

Cold frames 88, 92

Lollards 648

Composition vegetables and

fruits (Table) 648

Composts 67, 68

Conotrachelus nenuphar 138

Copper carbonate 184

sulphate solution 184

Coprinus atramentarius ..370, 371

comatus 371

Coriander 188, 448

Coriandrum sativum 448

Corn. 120, 188, 323, 648, 650

Adam's extra early 324

Country gentleman or

shoe-peg 324

671

PAGE.

Crossby's extra early 323

Culture 324

Dent 323

Egyptian 324

Flint 323

Husk 323

Marblehead 324

Marketing 324

Nonesuch 324

Pop 323

Roslyn hybrid 324

Soft 323

Stowell's evergreen 324

Sugar 324

Sweet 323

Triumph 324

Corn salaa 188, 328

Corylus avellana 540

Cottonseed meal 71

Coville, F. V 26

Cow Peas 328, 648

Black 329

Clay 329

Crowder 329

Large lady 329

Mush 329

Red 329

Ripper 329

Rice 329

Sugar 329

Small lady 329

Unknown 329

Crates 102

Crataegus pyracantha 34

Cress, American 188, 329

Garden 329

Indian 377

Winter 188, 329

Crambe maratima 418

Crossing and hybridizing 195

Cucumber.. 126, 134, 140, 188,

330, 648, 650

Culture 331

Early cluster 330

Early frame 331

Long green 331

Thorburn's uver-bearing, 331

White spined 331

Marketing 334

C urn in is mclo 357

anguria 331

sativvs 330

Cucurbita pepo 407

melopepo 428

Currant... 144, 147, 205, 497, 650
Cherry 499

page.

Fay 499

Red Dutch 498

White Dutch 498

White grape 499

Versailles 499

Victoria 499

Marketing 499

Cuttings 203, 206

Custard apple 531

Cydonica sinensis 633

vulgaris ■ 631

Cynara scolymus 261

Daucus carota 304

Desmia maculata 129

Devil wood 544

Dewberry 490

Austin 490

Downings 490

Lucretia 490

Stubbs 490

Marketing 490

Diabrotica vittata 125

D ias pis lanatus 145

Diospyros Kaki 605

Virginiana 600

Dioscorea batatus 335

alata 337

satira 337

aculeata 337

Dill 448

Diseases (see Plant Diseases).

Doryphora decemlineata 126

Dolichos 274

Drainage 46

Du Breuil, M 222, 231

Earle, F. S 26

Eggplant 151, 188, 337, 648

Black Pekin 338

Culture 338

Improved N. Y. purple.. 338

Long purple 337

Marketing 339

Elecampane 449

Elliott, Bishop 21

Entomosporium maculatum . . . 159

Endive 188, 339, 650

Broad leaved Batavian.. 340

Culture 340

Long green curled 340

Epicaute vittata 118

Eriobotryta Japonica 529

Eschallot 422

Eugenia j umbos 531

672

PAGE.

Eupatorium perfoliatum 445

Exanthema 172

Exoascus deformans 159

pruni 159

Faba vulgaris (see Vicia).

Falconer, Wm 361

Fencing 34

Fennel 188, 449

Fertilizers 51

Fidio viticida 127, 128

Fig 132, 499, 649

Black Ischia 502

Blue Genoa 501

Brown Turkey 501

Brunswick 500

Celestial 501

Common white 501

Green Ischia 502

Lemon 501

White Ischia 502

Marketing 502

Ficus carica 499

Filberts 540, 648

Cosford 540

Lambert 540

Purple 540

White 540

Fish, dried 71

Fceniculum vulgare 449

Forwarding early crops 86

Frost protection 17, 254

Fragaria 637

Fruits 456

Fungi 107

External 107

Local 107

Fungous disease 107

External 107

Local or penetrating 107

Fungicides 184

Fusicladium dendriticum .... 162

Garden 27

Aspect 28

Form of 27, 30

Inclination 28

Laying out 32

Plan of 31, 33

Profits of 85

Situation of 27

Size of 30

Galloway, B. T 164

Garden calendar 651

Garlic 188, 342

Gherkin 331

PAGE.

Gooseberry 147, 205, 502

Champion 503

Chautauqua 503

Downing's seedling 503

Houghton's seedling 503

Pale red 503

Red jacket 503

Marketing 503

Grafting 211, 215

Cleft 218

Inarching 220

Mode and time :... 216

Root 219

Splice 217

Whip 217

Grafting wax 216

Grape fruit 555

Granadilla 531

Grapes 130, 503, 648

Agawan 514

Arbor system 512

Berckmans 514

Bertrand 514, 516

Brighton 514, 516. 524

Brilliant 514, 518, 519

Catawba 505, 514, 516

Caywood system 511

Champion 514

Clinton 514, 516

Concord 514, 516

Cynthiana 514, 516

Delaware... 514, 516, 525, 526

Diana 514, 516

Elvira 514, 516

Fertilizers for 506

Flowers 514

Gcetha 514

Green Mountain ....514, 525

Hartford 514

Herbemont 514, 516, 522

Horizontal system 512

Ives 514, 516

Kniffin system 511

Lenoir 514, 516

Lindley 514

Missouri 514, 516

Moore's diamond. 51 4, 516, 520

Moore's early 514

Niagara... 515, 516, 518, 520

Noah 516

Norton 515, 516

Perkins 515, 516

Peter Wylie 515

Salem 515

Scuppernong 503, 515,

516, 517

INDEX.

673

PAGE.

Training and pruning. . . 507

Triumph 515

Tender pulp 515

Thomas 515, 516

Varieties suited to sec-
tions 514

Warren 522

Wilder 515

Winchell 525

Wine 516

Worden 515

Marketing 525

Green, E. 0 315

Green, Gen. Nathaniel 545

Greenhouses 94, 95

Ground nut 343

Ground pea 343, 648

Culture 344

Georgia 344

North Carolina 344

Spanish 343, 344

Tennessee White 344

Virginia 344

Marketing 345

Guano 77

Guavas 527

Apple 527

Cattley 527

Chinese 527

Common 527

Mexican 527

Strawberry 527

White winter 527

Glycyrrhiza glabra 451

Gypsum 58

Hair 71

Hares 113

Halsted, B. D 157

Hammon, W. W 650

Haltica chalybea 130

Haven, O. P 528

Hedge 35

Eelianthus tuberosus 265

EeUothis armigera 120

Henderson. Peter 26, 95, 313

Herbs 443

Heterodera radicola 152

Hibiscus esculentus 378

Eibiscus sabdariffa 424, 531

Eicoria ovata 540

pecan 541

Hilgard, Dr 55

Hog plum 531

Holly, American 37.

Hop 347

43

PAGE.

Horehound 450

Horseradish 188, 345

Hot-beds 88

Howard, Mr 146

Humphray, J. E 170

Humulus lupulus 347

Hybridizing 195

Hyssop 188, 450

Hyssopus officinalis 450

Implements 17

Inarching 220

Insects 107

Angumois moth 112, 113

Apple-tree tent caterpil-
lar 118

Apple root blight 116

Apple root borer 117

Apple worm 119

Blister beetle 118

Boll worm 120

Cabbage worm 121, 123

Cabbage louse 122

Canker worm 126

Classification of 108

Codling moth 119

Colorado potato beetle.. 126

Corn worm 120

Cucumber beetle 125

Curculio 138

Cut worm 124

Defoliating 108

Grape leaf folder 129

Grapevine fidia 127

Grapevine flea beetle 130

Harlequin bug 131

Horn worm 150

June beetles 132

Leaf-footed plant louse.. 133

Melon louse 133

Melon worm 134

Nematode root galls 153

Onion fly 136

Oyster-shell bark louse.. 143

Peach-tree borer 134, 135

Pea weevils 151

Plum weevil 138

Root feeding 108

San Jose scale 145, 148

Sap sucking 108

Squash bug 141

Squash vine borer 139

Tobacco worm 150

Tomato worm 150

Turnip flea beetle 141

Weevils 151

Woolly aphis 114, 115

674

PAGE.

Insecticides 184

Inula helenium 449

Ipomaa batatas 401

Jamaica sorrel 531

Japan medlar 529

Japan persimmon (see Per-
simmon).
Japan plum (see Plum).

Jerusalem articnoke 188

Jenkins, J. C 21

Johnson & Stokes 26

Juglans regia 542

cineria 543

nigra 543

Sieboldiana 543

Kainit 70

Kale (see Sea Kale).

Kerosene emulsion 124

Kerowater 184, 185

Kin kans 555

Knapsack sprayer 177

Kohlrabi 348, 648

Kcethen, E. L 258

Kumquat 555

Marumi 557

Nagami 557

Lachnostema fusca 132

La-stadia Bidwelli 163

Lactnra satira 352

Land, amount of (Table) 647

Lavender 188, 451

Lavendula vera 451

Layering 200

Leaf mould 62

Leek 188, 348

Culture 349

Scotch champion 349

Land on clay 349

Large Rouen 349

Marketing 351

Leggett's powder gun 176

Lemon 546, 553, 646, 649

Belair 555

Eureka 555

Genoa 555

Imperial 555

Japan hardy 34

Sicily 555

Villa Franca 555

Lens esculenta 351

Lentil 188, 351

Lepidium sativum 329

Leptoglo8su8 phpUopus ,,.,.. 133

PAGE.

Lettuce 28, 82, 123, 188,

352, 648, 650

Brown Dutch 353

Boston market 353

Butter 352

Culture 354

Cos 352

Deacon 353

Early cabbage 352

Grand Rapids 354

Hanson 354

Henderson's New York.. 353

Mammoth Salamander... 353

Royal cabbage 353

White Paris Cos 353

Marketing 357

Ligustrum amurense 35

Lime 48, 54, 112

Lime and salt mixture 61

Limes 555

Mexican 555

Persian 555

Rangpur 555

Tahiti 555

Liquid manure 67

Liquorice 451

Lodeman, E. G 508

London purple 184

Loquat 529

Lucuma mammosa 531

Lycopersicum esculentum 432

Macartney rose 34, 36

Macrocentrus delicatus 120

McGowan nozzle 179

Maramee apple 531

Mangifero Indira 529

Mangoes 529

Apple 531

Apricot 531

Common 531

No. 11 531

Margoramia hyalineata 134

Manures 51, 56, 64, 66

Marigold 188

Marjoram 188, 357

Pot 357

Sweet 357

Marl 58

harruMum vulgare 450

Martin, Logan 602

Marketing 99

Marlett, Mr 146

Massey, W. F 95

Meat scraps 71

Medicinal herbs ,,.....,.... 443

675

PAGE.

Melissa officinalis 445

Melon 126, 134, 188, 357

Canteloupe 357

Water 440

Mentha piperita 452

pulegium 452

viridis 452

Melicocca bijuba 531

Melittia satyrini form is. . .139, 140

Mice 113

Mint 188, 452

Moles 113

Monilia fructigena 164

Moore, Jacob 520

Morns alba 533

var Tartarica 533

var venosa 533

Japonica 533

latifolia 533

nigra 533

rubra 533

var tomentosa 533

Muck 61

Mulching 241

Mulberry 532

Black 533

Downing's ever-bearing. 533
Hick's ever-bearing .... 534

Lampasas 533

Multicaulis 533

Nervosa 533

Red 533

Russian 533

Stubb's 534

White 533

Munson, T. V 16, 518

Murgantia Mstrionica 131

Muriate of potash 71

Musa Cavendishii 487

orientvm 487

paradissica 487

sapientium 487

Mushroom 361, 648

Common 363

Culture 371

Deadly amanita 366

Fly amanita 366

Ink cup 371

Shaggy 371

Muscadine 503

Muskmelon 140,357

Mustard 132, 188, 375

Black 375

White 375

Mytilaspis pomorum 143

PAGE.

Nasturtium armoracia 188, 345

officinalis 440

Nasturtium 377

Nectarines 535

Boston 536

Downton :.. 536

Early violet 536

Elruge 536

New white 536

Stanwick 536

Night soil 66

Nitrate of potash 71

Nitrate of soda 70, 71

Nitrogen 70

Nozzle, Vermorel 178

McGowan 179

Nuts 536

Ocymum basilicum 272

minimum 272

Oedema 166, 167

Okra 188, 378, 648

Olives 544, 649

Nevadillo Bianco 545

Picholine 546

Cultivation 544

Olea Americana 544

Europea 544

Oleomargarine refuse 71

Onions 82, 188, 379, 648, 650

Culture 381

Extra early red 380

Giant rocca 380

Large red Wethersfield. . 380

Potato 380

Prize taker 380

Silver skinned 379

Southport white globe.. 380

Red Bermuda 379

Top 381

Tree 381

Welsh 381

White Bermuda 379

White queen 380

Yellow Strasburgh 379

Yellow Danvers 379

Marketing 385

New culture 381

Oospora scabies 167

Orach 385

Oranges 16, 133, 134, 546,

648, 649

Alligator 546

Bitter sweet 549

Bitter Seville 548

Mandarins 549

676

PAGE.

Phillip's bitter sweet 549

Satsuma 550

Sweet 549

Bessie 550

Boone 550, 553

Centennial 550, 553

Double imperial navel, 550

Du Roi 550, 553

Early oblong 550

Enterprise seedless

550, 553

Foster 550

Hart's late 551, 553

Higley's late 551

Homosassa 551,553

Imperial blood 551

Kid Glove 550

Jaffa 551, 553

King 551, 553

Majorca 551, 553

Maltese blood 551

Maltese egg 551

Maltese oval 551, 553

May's best 551

Navel 553

Nonpareil 551, 553

Old vini 551

Paper rind 551

Parson Brown ....551, 553

Pineapple 551, 553

Sanguinea 551

St, Michael's blood 551

Sweet Seville 551, 553

Tangerine 548, 550

Valencia late 551

Vinous 551

Washington navel

(Bahia) 551

Wild 547, 548

Marketing 557

Origan inn ma.rjoro.no. 357

onites 357

Osage orange 34, 147

Otaheite 531

Packing 99

Packing house 100

Paris green 184

Parsley 188, 386

Champion moss 386

Celery leaved 386

Hamburg 386

Market gardener's 386

Parsnip 82, 188, 388, 648

Pa stin area satira 388

Passiflora ednlis 531

PAGE.

Pawpaw 530, 531

Pea 82, 120, 188, 390, 648, 650

Alaska 390, 391

Alpha 390, 391

American wonder. . .390, 391

Culture 391

Champion of England.. 390

Daniel O'Rourke 390, 391

Eclipse 390

Horsforl 390

Large white marrowfat. . 390

Market garden 390

Premium gem 390, 391

Pride of the market 390

Sugar 391

Tom Thumb 390, 391

Yorkshire hero 390

Marketing 394

Peanut (see Ground Pea).

Peach 132, 133, 147, 557, 649

Alexander 562

Amelia 568

Angel 563, 569

Baldwin's late 567

Bidwell's late 568

Bidwell's early 568

Beer's smock 568

Cabler Indian 569

Chinese cling 565

Columbia 564

Countess 569

Crawford's early ....... 564

Crawford's late 564

Cultivation of 559

Dorothy, N 569

Drying 559

Eaton's golden 567

Early cream 569

Elberta 564

Ever-bearing 566,567

Ferdinand 569

Florida Crawford 569

Foster 564

George IV 563

General Lee 568, 569

Gibbons 569

Grosse Mignonne 563

Hale 563

Honey 570

Imperial 570

Jewel 570

Kerr Jessie 568

Late admirable 565

Late rareripe 565

Lemon cling 565

Maggie 570

677

PAGE.

Mountain rose 568

Oldmixon cling 564

Onderdonk 568, 570

Pallas 570

Peento 567, 570

President 565

Pruning 557

River 563

Sneed 568, 570

St. John 568

Stump 564

Suber 570

Taber 570

Thurber 570

Tillottson 563

Triumph 564

Victoria 570

Waldo 568, 570

York 563

Suitable for different

sections 569

Marketing 570

Pear.. 117, 120, 133, 134, 144,

147, 570, 648, 649

Cultivating 572

Gathering the fruit 5il

Preserving fruit 571

Propagating 572

Pruning 573

Quince sojck 597

Oriental type 599

Standard stock 598

Suitable for different

sections 599

Varieties:

Ananas d'ete 581

Anjou 597

Archangel 586, 597

Bartlett 578, 579, 599

Belle epine Dumas... 588

Beurre d'Anjou 597

Bloodgood 577, 578

Bosc 575, 576

Brandywine 580

Clairgeau 585, 599

Clapp's Favorite 599

Columbia 590

Doyenne, white ...580, 581
Doyenne d'ete. 574, 575, 599
Duchesse dAngouleme,

583, 597
Duchesse de Bordeau. 588
Easter Beurre. 593, 594. 599

Endicott 597

Flemish 599

PAGE.

Garber 598, 599

Gifford 597

Glout Morceau 588

Henry the Fourth. 581, 582

Howell 597, 598

Jaminette 595

Josephine de Malines,

588, 589

Kieffer 595, 596, 599

Lawrence ....592, 593, 599

LeConte 594, 595, 599

Louise (Bonne de Jer-
sey) 575, 577

Lucrative ....585, 586, 599

Madeline 574

Manning's Elizabeth.. 578

M.kado 599

Mme. Von Siebold.... 599

Parsonage 589

Passe Colmar 588

Pound 591

St. Germain 591

Seckel 584, 585, 597

Selleck 582, 583

Smith 599

Sterling 587

Summer Doyenne 574

Superfine 596, 597

Van Assche 583, 584

Virgalieu 580

Winter Nelis..592, 593, 599

Pecan 133, 147, 541, 648, 649

Biloxi 542

Centennial 542

Colorado 542

Louisiana 542

Mexican 542

Paper shell 542

Pride of the Coast 542

Stuart 542

Texas paper shell 542

Van Deman 542

Pennyroyal 188, 452

Pepper 394, 650

Culture 394

Bell - 394

Cayenne 394

Large sweet Spanish.. 394

Long 394

Tomato 394

Marketing 395

Peppermint 452

Persica gratissima 531

vulgaris 535, 537

678

INDEX.

PAGE.

Persimmon 147, 600, 648

American:

Daniel Boone 600, 601

Early bearing ....601, 602

Early golden 601

Golden gem 602, 603

Hicks 603

Kemper 604

Kansas 604

Marion 604

Shoto 604

Smeech 604

Superior 603

Japan 14, 605

Costata 606, 607

Hachiya 607

Hyakume 607

Okame 608

Tanenashi 609

Yeddoichi 609

Yemon 609

Zengi 610

Marketing 610

Propagating 604

Peridromia saucia 124

Petroselinum sativum 386

Phaseolus lunatus 274

multiflorus 274

vulgaris 274

Phorbia ceparium 136

Phosphate of lime 73

Insoluble 73

Reverted 73, 74

Rock 78

Soluble 73, 74

Phosphoric acid 72

Phosphates 73

Photinia Japonica 529

Phyllanfhus distichus 531

Phyllotreta vittata 141, 142

Phytophthora infestans 171

Pickers' tags 106

Pieris monuste 121

protodice 121

rapw 121

Pimpinella anisum 444

Pimpha annulipes 120

Pindar 343

Pineapple 611, 648

Black 611

Cayenne 611

Egyptian queen 611

Havana 611

Pernambuco 611

Porto Rico 611

Red Spanish 611

PAGE.

Ripley queen 611

Scarlet key 611

Strawberry 611

Fertilizers for 513

Marketing 514

Propagating 511

Pinery 512

Pipings 210

Pisum sativum 390

Pits 88, 93

Plant diseases 107, 153

Apple scab 161, 162

Celery leaf blight 158

Cherry rot 164

Classification of . 108

Damping off 158

Die back of orange 172

Fire blight 154

Grape black rot 163

Leaf blight 154, 159

Lemon scab 173

Orange blight 171

Peach rosette 168

Peach rot 164

Peach-tree curl 159

Peach yellows 168

Plum black knot 169

Plum pockets 169

Plum rot 164

Potato downy mildew.. 171

Potato leaf blight 166

Potato rot 171

Potato scab 167

Quince rot 164

Red rust 155

Sweet potato rot 155, 157

Tomato leaf curl... 166, 167

Plawrightia morbosa 169, 170

Plum... 27, 131, 144, 147, 514,

535, 648, 649

Babcock 628

Bingham 517

Caddo chief 516, 628

Chickasaw ....484, 515, 516

Columbia 517, 626

Cumberland 516, 628

Damson 518, 626

De Caradeuc 521, 628

Duane purple 518, 626

Golden beauty 515, 628

Green gage 518, 626

Imperial gage. 519, 520, 626

Jefferson 518, 519, 626

Lombard 519, 520, 626

Lone star 516, 628

Missouri 517

PAGE.

Newman 516, 626, 628

Prince's yellow gage,

519, 520, 627

Purple egg 520

Red magnum bonum . . 520
River's early favorite. 521
Washington... 520, 521, 627
Wild goose... 517, 627, 628
Yellow transparent,

516, 628

European group 516

Mariana group 516

Native group 516

Japan 14, 622

Abundance ...622, 626, 628

Bailey 623

Berckmans 623, 628

Burbank..623, 624, 626, 628
Chabot...622, 623, 625,

626, 628

Chase 622

Georgeson 628, 629

HattanKio 626

Kelsey...624, 626, 627, 628

Kerr 624, 628

Louisiana 623,626

Normand 623, 624

Red June 625, 627, 628

Red negate... 625, 627, 628

Satsuma 625, 627, 628

Sweet Botan 623

Yellow Japan 623

Marketing 628

Propagation and cultiva-
tion 15

Suitable for Alabama... 626

Florida 628

Georgia 626

Louisiana 627

Mississippi 627

North Carolina 626

South Carolina 626

Tennessee 626

Texas 627

Virginia 626

Plusia brassicce 123

POMEGRANATE • 630, 648

Acid 630

Dwarf 630

Purple 630

Sweet 630

Violet 630

Potash 69

Potato 82, 120, 395 648

Irish 118, 126, 133,

151, 188. 395

PAGE.

Beauty of Hebron 396

Burbank 396

Carman No. 1 396

Culture 396

Early Essex 396

Early rose 396

Early Puritan 396

Late beauty of Hebron, 396

Pearl of Savoy 396

Peerless 396

Pride of the South.... 396

Rochester 396

Rural N. Yorker No. 2, 396

Second crop 399

Triumph 396

Marketing 401

Sweet 133, 188, 401

Barbadoes 401

Bunch yam 401

Bush or vineless 401

Culture 402

Early goluen 401

Georgia yam 401

Hayman 401

Jersey 401

Pumpkin yam 401

Red Brazilian 401

Red Nansemond 401

Southern queen 401

Spanish yam 401

Sugar (Creole) 401

Sugar yam 401

Tennessee yam 401

Yellow yam 401

Marketing 407

Privet 35

Profits of gardening 85

Propagation of plants.... 186

By cuttings 203

By division 186, 197

By layering 200

By roots 200, 210

By seed 185

Protoparse Carolina 149, 150

ceteris 150

Pruning 222

General principles of. 226, 231

Implements for 225

To improve form 227

Mode of operating 225

To reduce fruitfulness. . 229

To renew growth 228

Summer 224

Time for 223

At transplanting 229

Winter 223

680

PAGE.

Prunus Americana 516

Armeniaca 483

a i m list i folia 516

cerasifera 516, 521

domestica 516, 517

hortiilona 516

pumila 516

triflora 516, 521

Pumpkin 140, 188, 407, 648

Cashaw 407, 408

Purslane 188

Psidium yini jam 527

Cattleianum 527

lucidum 527

l'iniica ijraiiiititiii 630

Pyracanth 34

Pyrethrum 184

Pyrus communis 570

mains 457

Quince.... 117, 144, 147, 631, 649

Apple shaped 632

Angers 632

Chinese 633

Japan 38

Orange shaped 632

Pear shaped 632

Portugal 632

Radish 188, 408, 648, 650

Black Spanish 410

Black winter 410

Chartier 410

Culture 410

Chinese rose colored

winter 410

Early scarlet short top. 410

French breakfast 410

White turnip rooted 410

Yellow summer 410

Marketing 413

Rampion 188

Rape 188, 413

Raspbeiujy 82, 144, 147,

633, 648, 650

Colossal 634

Cuthbert 634, 635

Fastolf 634

Franconia 634

French 634

Golden queen 634, 636

Gregg 634, 635

Orange 634

Philadelphia 634

Red Antwerp 634

Shaffer colossal 634, 636

Turner 634, 636

PAGE.

White Antwerp 634

Cultivation 633

Propagation 633

Marketing 636

Raphanus sativus 408

Rhubarb 188, 414, 648

Rheum 414

Ribi s nigrum 498

oxycanthoides 502

ruorum 498

Riley, Dr 125

Rhysopus nigricans 157

Root cuttings 210

Rosemary 188, 453

Rose apple 531

Rosmarinus officinalis 453

Rosa laevigata 36

bracteata 36

Rotation of crops 80, 111

Ross, B. B 70

Rue 188, 453

Rubus Canadensis 490

Tdoeus 633

occidentalis 633

neglectans 636

strigosus 633

trivialis 490

villosus 488

Rumex 424

Rumph, S. H 26

Runners 198

Rutabaga 132, 188, 648

Rata graveolens 453

Sage 188, 453

Salsify 188, 416, 650

Salt 112

Salvia officinalis 453

sclarea 448

fannina exiriosa 134, 135

Saperda caudida 116, 117

Sapodilla 531

Katun ja 418

Savory, summer and winter,

188, 418
Savoy cabbage (see Cabbage.)

Schizoneura lanigera 114, 115

Schubler's experiment 646

Science, what it has done for

gardening 13

Scorzonera 188

Sea kale 418

Culture 419

Dwarf German greens.. 419
Dwarf green curled

Scotch 419

681

PAGE.

Early curled Siberian... 419

Norfolk 419

Seeds 186

Maturity and soundness. 186

Preservation 194

Time required to germi-
nate 192

Time of sowing 188

Time when sprouting

(Table) 188, 650

Vitality .: 188

Sesamum orientale 445

Shaddock 555

Aurantium 555

Blood 555

Forbidden fruit 555

Hart 555

Josselyn 555

Mammoth or orange.... 555

Pernambuco 555

Triumph 555

Walter 555

Shading 241, 242

Shallot 188, 422

Shell bark hickory 540

Sitotroga cereallela 113

Slum sisarvm 423

Skirret 188, 423

Slips 199

Slingerland, Prof 137

Smith, E. F 169

Soda 54, 70, 71

Soils 39

Absorptive powers of

(Table) 646

Argillaceous 39

Calcareous 42

Depth of 43, 49

Improvement of 45

Organic 42

Sandy 40

Texture of 45, 48

Solatium melongena var oriyc-

rum 337

tuberosum 395

Sorrel 188, 424

Sour sop 531

Southernwood 454

Spanish lime 531

Spearmint 452

Spinach 28, 82, 188, 425, 648

Bloomsdale 425

Lettuce leaved 425

Long standing 425

New Zealand 427

Prickly seeded 425

PAGE.

Round leaved 425

Savoy leaved 425

Winter 426

Spinacia oleracea 425

Spondius lutea 531

Spraying 107, 174

Spraying calendar 184

Spray pumps 183

Squash 120, 126, 140,

188, 428, 648

Bell 428

Boston marrow 428

Cashaw 428

Canada crook neck 428

Culture 429

Custard marrow 429

Hubbard 428

Perfect gem 428

Summer 428

Valparaiso 428

Vegetable marrow 428

Winter 428

Marketing 430

Star apple 531

Starnes, H. N 26, 506, 508

Strawberry 28, 82, 132,

133, 637, 648, 650

Bederwood 640, 642

Belmont 642

Brandywine 640,642

Bubach No. 5 640, 642

Captain Jack 640, 642

Cloud 640, 642

Clyde 642

Crescent 640, 642

Cumberland 640, 642

Downing 640, 642

Enhance 640, 642

Enormous 642

Eureka 640, 642

Gandy 640, 642, 643, 644

Greenville 640, 642

Haverland..640, 642, 643, 644

Hoffman 640, 642, 644

Jessie 640, 641, 642

Lady Thompson ....640, 642

Meek 640, 642

Michel 640, 642, 644

Neunan 640, 642

Parker Earle 640, 642

Sharpless 640, 642, 644

Tennessee 642

Wilson 640, 642, 645

Cultivation 639

Propagation 639

682

PAGE.

Varieties 640

Marketing 645

Subsoil 50

Suckers 198

Sugar apple 531

Sugar corn (see Corn).

Sulphate of potash 70

Sulphur 54

Summer cultivation 250

Superphosphate of lime 78

Swamp muck 61

Sweet potato (see Potato).
Swiss chard 288

Taber, G. L 26

Tables and formulae, useful. 646

Tag pickers 106

Tamarind 531

Tamarindis Indica 531

Tankage 71

Tansy 188

Tan bark 62

Tanyah 430

Tarragon 188, 431

Temperatures, injurious (Ta-
ble) 650

Terraces 29

Tiles , 46

Thyme 188, -431"

Common 431

Lemon 432

Tobacco stems 71

Tomato.... 120, 123, 151, 188,

432, 648, 650

Acme 432

Atlantic prize 432

Beauty 432

Buckeye State 432

Cardinal 432

Chemin market 432

Culture 434

Dwarf champion 432

Early ruby 432

Fordhook 432

Golden queen 432

Green gage 433

Ignotum 433

Lemon blush 433

Livingston's beauty 433

Livingston's favorite 433

Matchless 433

Mikado 433

Moore 433

New peach 433

Paragon 433

Perfection 433

PAGE.

Ponderosa 433

Volunteer 433

Marketing 436

Tanacetum vulgare 455

Tetragonia cxpansa 427

Thorough wort 446

Thomas slag 79

Training 222, 233

Tragopogon porrifolium 416

Transplanting 235

Preparation of soil for.. 235
Preparation of trees for. 238

Herbaceous plants 239

Tree box 38

Trees, number to acre (Ta-
ble) 647

Distance to plant (Table) 648

Trenching 50

Tropceolum via jus 377

minus 377

Trucking 99

Trueblood, E. H 603

Tubers 197

Turnip 82, 123, 132, 188,

436, 648, 650

Culture 438

Early white flat Dutch.. 436
w Extra early purple Milan 436

*>~*%Golden ball 437

*■•• ^Purple topped Swede 437

•* • '/Rutabaga 437

Skirving's improved

Swede 437

Swedes 437

Sweet German 437

White globe 436

Yellow Aberdeen 436

Marketing 439

Vaughan Seed Co 26

Valerianella olitoria 328

Van Buren, J 21, 24

Van Slyke, L. L 73

Vermorel nozzle 178

Verrucosis of sour orange

and lemon 173

Ticia fana 274

Vigna cat jaw/ 328

Yi'tis vinifera 503

aestivalis 503

Bourguiniana 503

labrusca 503

rotundifolia 503

Waddel, J. P.

21

INDEX.

C83

PAGE.

Walnut 542, 648, 650

Black 543

Butternut 543

English 542

Japan 543

Madeira 542

White 543

Ward, M. A 21

Watering 241, 243

Water cress 440

Watermelon 133, 440, 648

Arkansas traveller 440

Boss 440

Dixie 441

Florida favorite 441

Jones 441

Kolb gem 441

Lone star 443

Mclver sugar 441

Pride of Georgia 443

Rattlesnake 441

PAGE.

Scaly bark 443

Sugar loaf 443

Marketing 443

Watts, R. L 26, 519

Weeds, most harmful (Table) 656

Weights and measures 659

Whale-oil soap solution 184

Whitewash 646

White hellebore 184

Wine 516

Wood ashes 57

Wormwood 188, 455

Roman 455

Yew 38

Zea maize car anylaca 323

var everta 323

var identata 323

var indurata 323

var saccharatum 323

var vaginata 323

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