THI5 DOOKIJ A PART OF THE LIBRARY OF THE TBWi C©LLICTI©N ©IF RICHARD G. MILLER c-tf- /VttJL. From the collection of the n m PreTinger i a xJibrary p San Francisco, California 2006 U- O'/Vt WORKS OF NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN PUBLISHED BT JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. A General Introduction to Forestry in the United States, with special reference to recent forest conservation policies 293 pages. 137 figures. 6 by 9. Cloth. Logging — Principles and Practices in the United States and Canada 284 pages. 153 figures. 6 by 9. Cloth. Logging — Transportation 327 pages. 167 figures. 6 by 9. Cloth. The American Lumber Industry 279 pages. 39 figures. 6 by 9. Cloth. Forest Products: Their Manufacture and Use Second Edition, Revised. 447 pages. 120 figures. 6 by 9. Cloth. By the Late F. MOON AND N. C. BROWN Elements of Forestry Second Edition. 409 pages. 71 figures. 5J by 8. Cloth. A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY IN THE UNITED STATES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO RECENT FOEE8T CONSERVATION POLICIES BY NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN Professor of Forest Utilization, The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED 1935 COPYRIGHT, 1935, BY NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN All Rights Reserved This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher. 2/36 PRINTED IN U. S. A. PRESS OF BRAUNWORTH & CO.. INC. BOOK MANUFACTURERS BROOKLYN. NEW YORK To FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT This volume is respectfully and affectionately dedicated. The only American to receive the Sir William Schlich medal jor meritorious services in forestry, he is distinguished for his contributions in advancing the cause of forest conservation by governmental enactments. Through his far- seeing vision, able and unswerving guidance and unsur- passed leadership, forestry has emerged to a place of general understanding, recognition, and appreciation by the American people. FOREWORD The American people have enjoyed the use and benefit of suf- ficient primary natural resources to develop this nation to a position of great strength and prosperity. If our people will learn how to use, manage, and maintain them for the widest present and permanent benefits and to apply this knowledge gained by experience through the coming years, it is likely that our natural resources may continue to contribute in very substantial fashion to further strength, pros- perity, and happiness. Our forests, next to our soils, are our most precious natural re- source. Around this vast resource, occupying approximately one- fourth of our total land surface, is built a new concept of national planning. The work to be accomplished is conservation, management, and enhanced use, and this is a challenge not for the next few years but for many generations to come. Our rich and varied forests are capable of supplying our domestic requirements and a very extensive and profitable export trade that should inure to the benefit and pros- perity of our people. It is of great importance that due consideration be given to the conservation of our forest resources. This work is intimately integrated with other primary resources, chiefly soil, water, and mineral. It is significant that, within the past few years, a new appreciation and understanding of the contributions which our natural resources may make to the prosperity of the nation have developed. Through recent government emergency measures, conservation has enjoyed most noteworthy forward progress. It is hoped that this general treatise on the subject of forestry may contribute to a better understanding and appreciation of the part our forests may play in the welfare and happiness of the American nation. NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN. SYRACUSE, NEW YORK September, 1935 ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author wishes to express his appreciation to the U. S. Forest Service and the National Park Service, and to individual members of these organizations, for material and especially for their excellent spirit of cooperation and assistance. He is indeed grateful to the Forest Service for data on forest resources and other information as found in several publications, notably in the Copeland Report, Senate Document No. 12, 1933, and for the photographs shown as: frontis- piece, and Figs. 3 to 7 inclusive, 14, 16, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29 to 51 inclusive, 53 to 57 inclusive, 59, 60, 62, 67 to 70 inclusive, 72 to 74 inclusive, 77, 82 to 86 inclusive, 93, 96 to 109 inclusive, 116, 117, 119, 120, 122, 123, 128 to 135 inclusive, 137 to 139 inclusive; and to the National Park Service for Figs. 110 to 115 inclusive. The author is also indebted to a number of lumber manufacturers, state foresters, loggers, forest rangers, and others for valuable data and information secured on several visits to the National Forests, National Parks, and private operations in the Rocky Mountains, the Pacific Coast States, the South, and the Lake States. Many data were also obtained on visits to more than a hundred Civilian Conservation Corps Camps in the western states as well as to several in the south- ern Appalachian region and in the Northeast, and studies on the ground of the Tennessee Valley Authority, Plains Shelterbelt Project, and the Soil Conservation Service. To several colleagues of the fac- ulty of the New York State College of Forestry I am indebted for valuable suggestions, assistance, and criticisms. ABBREVIATIONS For brevity in the case of reiterated and frequently occurring ex- pressions, the following are generally used: Thousand board feet m.b.f. Board feet b.f . (one board foot = a piece 1" X 12" X 12") Thousand M Inches " Feet ' Horse power h.p. Diameter breast high d.b.h. (4% feet above ground) Free on board f .o.b. Per centum . . % xiii CONTENTS PART I HISTORY, ECONOMICS, AND IMPORTANCE CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION 1 1. Definition; social and economic implications 1 2. Why forestry is needed — summary of objectives .... 9 3. European methods changed to fit American conditions . . 14 4. Forestry as a profession 16 5. Principal branches of forestry 22 6. Arboriculture and forestry 24 II. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT ... * 26 1. Early beginnings 26 Arbor Day and its influence 26 2. The pioneering and nomadic lumber industry 27 3. Passing of the last resource frontiers 29 4. Federal activities and legislation to promote forest conser- vation 30 5. Leaders in the development of American forestry .... 32 III. FOREST RESOURCES; PRINCIPAL TREES AND REGIONS 34 1. General — forest regions 34 1. Eastern forest regions 34 2. Western forest regions 35 2. Areas 38 3. Ownership 39 4. Volume of standing timber 40 5. Leading commercial species 42 1. Western softwoods . . * 43 2. Eastern softwoods 47 3. Eastern hardwoods 48 6. Principal products of the forest ; growth and depletion . . 50 PART II FORESTRY TECHNIQUE AND MEASURES TO ACCOMPLISH A RATIONAL POLICY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT IV. THE TREE AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS 53 1. Definition 53 2. How a tree functions .... 54 xv xvi CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE 3. Characteristics of tree growth 55 4. Varieties of trees 56 5. How trees grow and reproduce 57 V. FOREST INFLUENCES 61 1. The forest as a community of trees 61 2. Silvics or forest ecology 61 3. Influence of forest on its environment 62 1. Climate . . 62 2. Soil 4. Forest types and their characteristics 63 5. Pure and mixed forests ..... 65 6. Factors determining the selection of species 66 VI. FOREST PROTECTION 67 1. General . 67 2. Forest fires — importance and extent 68 3. Causes of forest fires . 73 4. Methods of detection ...... 74 5. Methods of prevention 75 6. Methods of control and suppression 80 7. Southern forest fire problem 82 8. Forest insects . . . . . . . . 83 9. Forest fungi • 85 10. Domestic animals ., . . . . . . ... .... . 88 11. Wild animals , . . , . . 88 12. Sand dunes and miscellaneous .......... 89 VII. FOREST MENSURATION 91 1. General 91 2. Units of measure 91 3. Instruments commonly used . . . ...... . . 92 4. Log rules 93 5. Scaling '••••'- 93 6. Volume tables . . . . . : . . . .'. . 94 7. Cruising 94 8. Yield tables 95 9. Stumpage and stumpage appraisal 96 VIII. SILVICULTURE — METHODS OF NATURAL REPRODUCTION 99 1. Definitions and general considerations 99 2. Advantages of natural versus artificial reproduction . . . 100 3. Silvicultural systems 101 4. American versus European silvicultural systems .... 106 5. Silvicultural systems of cutting some representative types in the National Forests 107 IX. SILVICULTURE — METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION (REFORES- TATION OR TREE PLANTING 113 1. History and development 113 2. Conditions requiring tree planting 116 CONTENTS xvii CHAPTER PAGE 3. Seed selection .......... 117 4. Methods of seed collection . . . . . . . . . . . 117 5. Nursery practice — seed and transplant beds . .' .v . . . 118 6. When to plant 120 7. How and what to plant 121 8. Use of wild stock in planting 127 X. SlLVICULTURAL TREATMENT OF YOUNG AND IMMATURE STANDS (IN- TERMEDIATE CUTTINGS) 128 1. General . . . 128 2. Economic considerations 129 3. Silvicultural systems of treatment 131 4. General rules for thinning 133 XI. FOREST UTILIZATION— INDUSTRIAL FORESTRY . » . . , . .'..... 135 1. General — importance of lumber and associated industries . 135 2. Advantages of wood construction . . * ... . . . 138 3. Logging methods and procedure . . 139 4. Selective logging 147 5. Manufacture and conditioning . ... * . . . . . . 152 Principal species of lumber and producing states . . . 154 6. Costs of producing lumber . • . . . 155 7. Lumber distribution : 156 XII. FOREST UTILIZATION — WOOD USES AND ECONOMICS 159 1. Properties and their relation to uses of wood 159 • 2. Principal sources of waste in the forest and at manufacturing plants 164 3. Economic conditions determining degree of utilization . . 166 4. Industrial forest policies 167 5. Developments in reducing woods and sawmill waste . . . 169 6. Forest products 172 1. General 172 2. Cross ties, poles, piling, and mine timbers .... 174 3. Wood pulp and paper — rayon and fiber boards . . . 175 4. Fuelwood . . . . . 177 5. Veneers and plywood 178 6. Naval stores 179 7. Cooperage . . .'.. . . , 181 8. Tanning materials and dyewoods 181 9. Wood distillation . . . .- . _.. • .. 181 10. Maple syrup and sugar 182 11. Rubber 183 7. Trends toward stability of location, employment, and output 183 XIII. FOREST UTILIZATION— TIMBER PRESERVATION : . . . • ,-. . . . 185 1. History and importance 185 2. Materials treated 185 3. Requirements of good preservative . 186 4. Principal methods of preservation . . . 186 XV111 CONTENTS PART III ORGANIZATIONS AND AGENCIES TO ACCOMPLISH A RATIONAL FOREST POLICY CHAPTER PAGE XIV. THE FOREST SERVICE AND THE NATIONAL FORESTS . . . . . . 190 1. History and development *. ... 190 2. Extent and location of National Forests 193 3. Organization of the Forest Service 193 4. Organizatoin and work of a National Forest 202 5. National 'Forests as models of forestry practice 204 XV. THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE AND NATIONAL PARKS 205 1. History and development 205 2. Purposes and functions as distinct from National Forests . 208 3. Location, size, and features of the National Parks .. . . 210 XVI. STATE FORESTS AND FOREST POLICIES .......... 213 1. History 213 2. Number and character of state forest organizations . . . 214 3. Functions and activities 214 4. Trends and policies 217 XVII. COUNTY, TOWN, AND COMMUNITY FORESTS 219 1. General 219 XVIII. PRIVATE FORESTRY 221 1. Relative importance 221 2. Past history and trends — what has been accomplished . .221 3. The farm woodland and the small timber tracts .... 223 4. Principal difficulties and deterrents to the practice of private forestry 225 PART IV EDUCATION AND RESEARCH XIX. FORESTRY EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 228 1. Schools of forestry 228 2. What forestry graduates do 230 XX. FOREST RESEARCH 232 1. General 232 2. Principal activities . . . 234 CONTENTS »X PART V FORESTRY IN THE NEW GOVERNMENTAL PROGRAMS CHAPTER PAGE XXI. GENERAL .238 1. Enlarged National Forest acquisition program 239 XXII. EMERGENCY CONSERVATION WORK (CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS) 241 XXIII. THE TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY .......... 249 XXIV. THE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE 255 XXV. THE PLAINS SHELTERBELT PROJECT 263 XXVI. THE PUBLIC DOMAIN GRAZING ADMINISTRATION (DIVISION OF GRAZ- ING CONTROL) 272 XXVII. FORESTRY, LAND USE, AND NATIONAL PLANNING 275 APPENDIX BIBLIOGRAPHY 281 THE NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY ACT, THE LUMBER CODE AND FORESTRY 284 COMMON AND BOTANICAL NAMES OF TREES 288 INDEX . ... 291 GENERAL FORESTRY PART I HISTORY, ECONOMICS, AND IMPORTANCE CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. DEFINITION; SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS Forests have always played an important part in the economic structure of our nation. They may be used for the continued eco- nomic and social betterment of the people. Forestry may be briefly defined as the best use of the forest. It is the art and science of managing our forests and converting the product to best serve mankind. Continuity of production and use is the central theme. Heretofore, our forests, during the colonial and expansion periods of westward development, have been viewed largely as a resource to be exploited. Little thought was given to the future of our natural re- sources. Forests served as a deterrent rather than as an aid to civi- lization during the early generations. Now, sustained yield manage- ment, treating the forests as a source of periodic crops, has replaced the former practice of exploitation and wastage. Thus, forestry deals with the growing and use of successive crops of timber. Perpetuation and continuous productivity of the forests to serve the manifold social and economic benefits of our people have become recognized as one of the most important aspects of our internal development. Forestry has also been defined as the growing and use of successive crops of timber on lands unsuited to agriculture. Forestry is some- times described as a part of agriculture. It is really a separate and distinct subject, however. It is closely allied to agriculture and pro- vides a soil crop. But forestry is also closely integrated with engi- neering, transportation, chemistry, and the broad field of business and economics. Forestry is planned economy for the best management and utilization of our forests and forest lands, which include approxi- 2 INTRODUCTION mately five hundred million acres * of land surface, or about one- fourth of the total area of the United States. Borne on a crusading wave of enthusiasm to prevent a possible timber famine, forestry has been extended to include within its concept not only the production FIG. 1. — A typical stand of virgin longleaf and shortleaf pine in the South. The South contains about 39% of all the commercial forest area of the country. This is largely southern pine composed of four species (longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly and slash pines). Because of the large areas available in 11 southern and south- eastern States, the long, warm growing season, with abundant precipitation and rapid growth, proximity to important domestic and export markets, and the increased areas available for timber growing, this region will probably be the most important one for the growth of lumber and other forest products in the future. of timber to meet our material requirements of construction, fuel, and allied objectives, but also the much broader and socially related fields of achievement. For example, the desired objectives under some con- ditions may be provision for the finest type of recreational facilities; * Including commercial and non-commercial forests as well as potential forests, the total area is about six hundred million acres. DEFINITION: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS 3 the propagation of bird, fish, and animal life for recreation through hunting and fishing; the prevention of erosion to protect both forest and agricultural soils; the control of water flows for power, irrigation, or potable purposes, or perhaps for scenic and aesthetic enjoyment. In each region of the country, the particular kind of forestry practiced must lend itself to the local requirements. Population growth and trends, the excellent systems of highways, the need for health and camping facilities in the woods, and the demand for water for recla- mation purposes are factors to be considered. Thus, multiple-purpose forestry has replaced the former narrow concept of a single objective — that of wood production. The automobile and improved highways have vitally changed our national habits. In contrast to the thousands of a decade ago, mil- lions are now seeking recreation, health, and enjoyment in the forests. National planning for land use is crystallizing largely around forest areas and forest problems. With surplus agricultural crop production, the reversion to forest of many areas formerly tilled, the decreasing per capita consumption of lumber to less than one-half that of 1911, and with better fire protection and improved growing conditions, it seems likely that we may be able to grow sufficient timber to meet our future requirements. This is probable in spite of increasing popu- lation. The fear of a timber famine does not seem justified, and as forestry was developed in Europe because of a threatened fuel famine, so it is likely that the objectives and definitions of forestry may change through the years. During the brief space of the past thirty years, the province of the field of forestry has greatly expanded. For- estry is intimately entwined with the daily lives and welfare of a very important portion of our people. This social and economic integration has come to be recognized and better understood both by the techni- cians engaged in the profession and by the public. Furthermore, it is due in no small measure to some of the concepts of the recent conser- vation and relief programs in which forestry has played such an important part. Already much of our lumber production from the South, North, and East comes from second-, third-, or fourth-growth forests. The small sawmill has replaced the big sawmill unit as the larger source of production east of the Rocky Mountains. Thus the importance and significance of forestry and the part it may play in the life of the nation have been much strengthened and more fully appreciated. Certainly the conservation policies of recent years have greatly stimu- lated the interest of our people in the part forests may play in our national well-being. INTRODUCTION Forests and employment have been given a new significance. The development, stability, and permanence of our forest communities are being encouraged and appreciated. The interdependence of forestry, agriculture, and industry are being recognized and understood. The FIG. 2. — Excellent specimens of virgin Douglas fir 5 to 6 feet in diameter with 80 to 100 feet of clear trunks without branches. Some of these trees may produce 15,000 board feet or more each. This tree produces a high grade construction lumber which is shipped in large quantities via the Panama Canal to the Atlantic Seaboard. Some acres contain as much as several hundred thousand board feet. The average virgin, merchantable stands contain 50,000 to 60,000 board feet per acre. About 62% of all the nation's saw timber is found in the 3 Pacific coast states, principally in Oregon. Photo by J. D. Kress. social possibilities of forestry and the work of the woods are being integrated with our national life. Forestry includes the conservation of timber, grazing, water flows, scenery^ wild life, and recreation facili- DEFINITION: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS 5 ties, as well as the development of forest communal life and the production of materials for the maintenance of industry. Transportation has been an important problem in our forest areas. Forests naturally lie in rather remote and inaccessible regions or even in the wilderness. The desire to make these areas accessible for rec- reation, hunting, and fishing, the restoration of health, and the enjoy- ment of the scenery under the most attractive and healthful condi- tions, has induced the construction and improvement of transporta- FIG. 3.— Boy Scout camp in the Flathead National Forest, Montana. The scouts are assembled for roll call and flag raising. Recreation camps have been estab- lished in our forests in all parts of the country. tion by highway, rail, or water. These same facilities also make pos- sible the easier removal of the products of the forest. The materials may be timber, minerals, sheep for wool or mutton, cattle for beef and other meat products, furs and other by-products of game animals, resin for the manufacture of naval stores, as well as many other com- modities. The principle of sustained yield management * of our for- ests has therefore been greatly broadened beyond the primary objec- tive of timber production of materials for shelter and construction. Forestry has to do with trees individually and collectively. More than one thousand species of trees are recognized in the United States. * This and other technical terms used in forestry are explained later in the text or in the selected bibliography found in the Appendix. 6 INTRODUCTION This nation was exceedingly fortunate in having possession of the richest and most valuable forests to serve every utilitarian need of mankind. From trees and forests are obtained a vast array of prod- ucts useful in arts and industries in addition to lumber, fuel, paper, and other major products. From trees, either native or exotic, are manufactured gums, syrups, fibers, laces, oils, perfumes, dyes, drugs, chemicals, tannins, food, beverages, tar, pitch, turpentine, paint, rub- ber, and cork. Trees are the highest expression of plant life. Some FIG. 4. — Deer in Wayah Game Preserve, Nantahala National Forest, North Caro- lina. Game management, timber growing, watershed protection, and recreation may be practiced on the same areas without conflict of objectives. Some areas may be closed to hunting, others developed chiefly for grazing or recreation. Multiple purpose forestry is being accepted and adopted in many of our public and privately owned forests. trees, like the giant sequoias of California, are the largest and oldest living things, their ages ranging up to about three thousand years. Some of these magnificent specimens of nature's handiwork are more than thirty feet in diameter and three hundred feet in height. The balsa wood of South America is lighter in weight than cork and serves many useful purposes. The greenheart and lignum vitae are exceed- ingly heavy and durable woods. The Panama canal gates are built of greenheart. Lignum vitae is used to make bowling balls, and for DEFINITION: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS 7 other applications where a hard, heavy wood is required. Quebracho from Paraguay is so hard that a strong nail cannot penetrate it even under heavy blows. The study of trees and how best to grow them under a great diver- sity of climatic, altitude, and soil conditions, and how to convert trees and their products best to serve mankind, is most fascinating and absorbing. Recent in its interest and application in this country, for- FIG. 5. — One of the many hundreds of Civilian Conservation Corps camps located in the western National Forests. This is a tent camp along Priest Lake in northern Idaho in a forest completely destroyed by fire. These snags (standing dead trees) will be cut and the area reforested by planting western white pine and ponderosa pine trees. estry has been practiced in Europe for several centuries. The forests of Sweden, Denmark, and Finland are so vital in their domestic and foreign commerce, as well as important in their social benefits, that wide popular recognition is given them. The author believes that, in the coming years, forestry will receive the recognition it deserves in its application to the daily lives and welfare of large numbers of our people. Forestry has shown the way to national and regional land plan- 8 INTRODUCTION ning. Surely the nation must have a program of planned economy for a resource which is renewable and capable of yielding such a myriad of benefits to mankind. Prior to our federal and state policies of forest conservation, which were inaugurated early in this century, we paid little if any attention to this valuable resource. For many decades prior to 1900, our policy was characterized by wasteful ex- ploitation, frequent and destructive forest fires, negligence toward young and growing forests and their possibilities, and an attitude of indifference toward forest insects and diseases. Our forests were once considered inexhaustible. A laissez-faire attitude toward our forests and soil resources was widespread. The same attitude was largely displayed toward the non-renewable resources such as oil, coal, iron, and other metal deposits. Farmers have been exceedingly wasteful of our soil resources. The last westward frontiers have been discov- ered and developed; the expansion of our population into the great agricultural belt of the Central West and across the Rockies to the Pacific Slope has slowed down. An agrarian people has quickly changed its occupations to industrial vocations. The growth of great urban, commercial centers replaced agricultural expansion and de- velopment. Social and economic forces have been seeking readjust- ments in our living conditions and our thinking processes. Conserva- tion is replacing the spirit of widespread exploitation in many of our national habits and methods. Primitivism which signalized our atti- tude toward our forests is being replaced by a recognition of their worth for present and future generations. The values to be derived from their perpetuation and conservation are being widely realized. Today forestry is a recognized profession, charged with the responsi- bility of managing and putting to the best use a considerable share of the entire land surface of the United States. Thus it is indicated that forestry is a combination of those things that have to do with trees and forests. It embraces the field of plant- ing trees, of properly cultivating our forests to obtain the best results, the harvesting of the mature forests, together with the conservation of the products to serve mankind. The broad field of recreational use, with the closely related hunting, fishing, and game management, is also involved in the study of forestry, as well as the protection of the forest against fire, insects, disease, rodents, erosion, and the influence that forests may have upon water flows. The reverse of planned forest economy is found in the experience of other countries, such as China, Palestine, and Spain, where forests have been denuded and burned until many mountains are barren of forest cover, erosive floods are prevalent, top soils are washed to lower WHY FORESTRY IS NEEDED— SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES 9 levels, and much wood must be imported at great expense to the people. 2. WHY FORESTRY IS NEEDED— SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES Approximately one-fourth of the land area of the United States, or approximately 500,000,000 acres, is forest land, and a still larger area, perhaps 600,000,000 acres, is potential forest land. This latter area is greater than the entire land surface east of the Mississippi FIG. 6.— The heavily timbered shores of the irregularly indented coast line of southeastern Alaska generally contain from 25,000 to 150,000 b.f. per acre. It consists largely of western hemlock with smaller quantities of Sitka spruce, western red cedar and Alaska cedar. Photo taken on the north arm of Hood Bay. River. It is vitally important that some national plan be devised for the management and care of this vast domain in order best to serve the needs of the nation. In normal times we have been using our forests more rapidly than they have been growing. It is vitally important that a permanent timber supply be assured for the future generations of the country. Forests may serve many purposes in the life of the nation. The ob- jectives sought are closely related. They may be summed up as fol- lows. They are not listed in the order of their importance because in some regions one objective may be far more important than another. 10 INTRODUCTION 1. The Production of Wood for Construction Material. Shelter, next to food, is of major importance in our daily lives. An abundant, readily available, and reasonably priced supply of lumber and other forest products must be assured for future use. 2. The Conservation of Water Supply. Water is of vast impor- tance, not only for potable supplies and for irrigation, but also for furnishing the source of electric energy, the maintenance of a proper level in our canals and navigable streams, the prevention of floods, erosion, and silting of streams, and allied purposes. The maintenance FIG. 7. — Mt. Washington looking across Big Lake, Santiam National Forest, Oregon. Some of our virgin wilderness areas should be maintained in their pristine beauty unspoiled by commercial development for the enjoyment and pleasure of future generations. of a favorable water table in our soils is vital in some sections, as in southern California. 3. Provision for Adequate Recreational Facilities. During pioneer days, people had little interest in the forests. With the almost uni- versal use of the automobile by our people and the development of excellent highways, many are enjoying the forest as a source of recrea- tion. Millions are visiting our National and State Forests and our National Parks for refreshing their minds and bodies. The forest has assumed a recognized value for recreation in an inexpensive and primitive fashion. Recently, in one year, there were four million visitors to our National Parks, thirty-five million to National Forests, WHY FORESTRY IS NEEDED— SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES 11 and about fifty million to State Forests and Parks. With a growing population and increased time for leisure, more people are likely to use our forests in the future. 4. The Development and Propagation of Wild Life. The forest is the natural habitat of fur-bearing animals and game. Many of our forest streams supply excellent fishing facilities. Denuded and burned watersheds vitally affect the amount and kinds of fish and FIG. 8.— The great Tillamook fire of August, 1933, in Oregon, which covered more than 300,000 acres, burned for 11 days and killed over 11 billion board feet of valuable timber, resulting in a loss estimated at over two hundred million dollars. This view was taken from a plane at 9,000 feet altitude, 35 miles distant from the fire. The height of the smoke column was about 40,000 feet and the fire front was 25 miles wide. Ashes from this fire were deposited in Portland many miles away. game available. About thirteen million people enjoy hunting and fishing each year. To supply adequate hunting and fishing in our forests is an important part of forestry. Many game refuges, breed- ing grounds, and wilderness areas are being reserved for game man- agement and protection. 5. Forests as Livestock Ranges. In many parts of the country, notably in the West, many millions of cattle, sheep, horses, and goats 12 INTRODUCTION depend upon grazing in the National, State, and private forests as well as on Indian reservations for their summer feeding grounds. There are 83,000,000 acres of National Forest range land. The man- agement of forests may include the maintenance of grazing facilities in many parts of the country. In farmers' hardwood woodlots, grazing may be injurious to forest growth. 6. The Development and Maintenance of Scenery and Aesthetic Values. Although closely related to recreational facilities, the aes- thetic effects in our forest regions as well as in the Great Plains are coming to be valued and encouraged. Forestry has a definite obliga- tion to maintain the beauty spots and outstanding scenic features for the benefit of future generations. On all the National Parks and Monuments, and on many of the National and State Forests, this phase of the subject is receiving considerable attention. 7. Employment. The best and most efficient development and use of our forests mean the giving of employment to large numbers of people. The value of the products of our forests has averaged about $2,000,000,000 a year in normal times. The forest and woodworking industries directly employ about 1,300,000 workers, or about %*/%% °f the gainfully employed people of the country. The building industry depends largely upon forest products and gives employment to an additional 2,500,000 people. The number of people employed in our forest industries exceeded 50,000 in each of ten states of the nation. In Washington and Oregon about 135,000 persons, or one-eighth of all those gainfully employed, were so engaged. Forest industries brought approximately $250,000,000 annually into these two states. The per- petuation of our forests to furnish employment to large numbers of people would be a sufficient objective in itself to justify a compre- hensive national plan of forestry for the United States. On the basis of the number of wage earners, the lumber and timber products in- dustry (sawmill and logging operations) are in normal years the lead- ing industries in the states of Washington, Oregon, Mississippi, Idaho, Arkansas, New Mexico, Florida, Louisiana, and Montana. The in- dustry was first in total wages paid in all these states as well as in California. In Europe, under sustained yield management, forest employment is closely associated with farm work and the wood-using industries. On the basis of full-time employment, about one worker is required for every 100 acres of forest in Austria and Switzerland, one for every 125 acres in Denmark, and one for every 167 acres in Prussia. In Czechoslovakia, there is one worker for every 35 to 50 acres, including the industries. When work in logging, transportation, manufacture, WHY FORESTRY IS NEEDED— SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES 13 and the industries is included, generally about three times as many men are required as in strictly forest work. 8. Influence on Climatic Factors. Forests are generally recognized to have a very definite effect on climate. Forests tend to ameliorate the extremes of temperature. Hot summers are generally made cooler by the presence of large numbers of trees. Forested regions are gen- erally less affected by cold weather than treeless plains. Trees when FIG. 9. — A Caterpillar Diesel 75 h.p. tractor bringing in several logs with Hyster- Willamette arch. Choker lines of steel cable are placed around the ends of each log and brought up and underneath the load to facilitate skidding and reduce tractive resistance. These tractors are replacing railroad spur line tracks and power skidding under some conditions. Tractor skidding is much less destructive to reproduction and young growth than power skidding. Tractors are used with selective logging which is a silvicultural as well as utilization phase of forestry. Logging is when our forests may be best treated to insure future growth. The axe is the best silvicultural tool. grouped together in rows as shelterbelts have a marked influence in decreasing the extreme chilling effects of winter winds. The tran- spiration of large quantities of water through the leaves of trees defi- nitely cause forests to be cooler than treeless areas in the same region. Forests also serve as snow breaks and they are extensively used for shade for both man and beast. 14 INTRODUCTION 3. EUROPEAN METHODS CHANGED TO FIT AMERICAN CONDITIONS Forestry has been successfully practiced in many of the European countries for several centuries. Ideal conditions for profitable and successful forestry prevail in central and western Europe. The dense population, scarcity of areas available for timber growth, and paucity of available forest products resulting in relatively high prices for them constitute ideal conditions. In spite of the inten- sive development of forestry, many of these countries such as Germany, France, and Belgium, are ex- tensive importers of lumber and other forest materials. Although these prod- ucts are generally expensive and every effort is made to re- place wood by the substitution of other materials, there is a very extensive de- mand for wood. Even under ideal conditions, modern civilization cannot satisfactorily get along without wood for shelter or the four thousand distinct and separate uses for which wood has been demonstrated as the best avail- able material. The per capita consumption of forest products is very much lower in Europe than in this country. It is estimated that probably 80 to 94% of all wood grown in Europe outside of Russia, Finland, and Sweden is utilized, whereas in this country only 34% of the trees felled in our forests is ultimately utilized in one form or another. FIG. 10. — A good stand of nearly mature Norway spruce in Saxony, Germany. There is a strong tend- ency toward the logging of smaller sized trees through- out the East and South in the United States. Forests handled under a systematic plan of management as in Europe mean the production of trees that are small, symmetrical and clean of limbs. Our forests gener- ally grow more rapidly than in Europe. When our virgin forests are cut, logging practices will be simpli- fied and the tendency toward truck and tractor trans- portation will be greatly increased. This stand con- tains about 10,000 board feet per acre and has been thinned several times to increase the rate of growth. Photo by the author. EUROPEAN METHODS TO FIT AMERICAN CONDITIONS 15 At first, attempts were made to emulate European methods in the management of our American forests. But European methods of planting, cultural thinnings and improvement cuttings, as well as silvi- cultural systems of reproduction and utilization practices cannot be readily adjusted to fit American conditions. Forestry is intimately related to the social and economic structure of any civilization. Until wood becomes much more scarce and therefore more valuable, we will be able to practice only an ex- tensive rather than an intensive system of forestry in this country. In Europe, the largest trees are generally utilized for saw logs; smaller trees of spruce are used for pulpwood, and the bal- ance of the tree stem is utilized for fuel wood or other purposes, including the smallest limbs and twigs. Bark of one of their prin- cipal trees, Norway spruce, is stripped and used in tanning. In extreme cases stumps are grubbed out and used for charcoal and fuelwood. Even the leaves and forest litter serve for kindling. Fuels such as coal and wood are scarce and therefore command attractive prices on their markets. The keynote of commercial for- estry is the ability to sell the products at a good profit. A technique and system based upon an American form of silvi- FIG. 11. — Control dams as used in Switzerland. For many years, erosion control has been an important part of the forestry operations in the moun- tainous sections of Europe. The im- portance of erosion control and the part forests play in this work has re- cently been recognized in the United States. Photo by the author. culture, and a forest practice founded upon our social and eco- nomic conditions, must be evolved, instead of following materially in the pathway of European forestry. One very important lesson that we may learn from European practice is that lumber and other materials are generally produced from a large number of relatively small but permanently located sawmills and forest industries. This condition results in the stabilization of employ- ment as well as in location of industry. This is in marked contrast to the past nomadic character of our sawmill industry where mills 16 INTRODUCTION established for cutting a given tract were dismantled and towns aban- doned when the virgin timber had been removed. The stabilizing of our sawmill communities and the permanence of mill locations will contribute much to the employment and social welfare of our people. It is very doubtful if we will ever be able to practice the intensive forms of silviculture and forest management which one admires so much in European forestry, as in the Black Forest and the Saxon forests of Germany, the Swiss forest of the Sihlwald near Zurich, the Italian forest of Vallombrosa, near Florence, the famous municipal forest of Epinal or the beautiful forests of Compiegne, Fontainebleau, and Versailles in France. 4. FORESTRY AS A PROFESSION Forestry is relatively young in this country. It is an old and respected profession and occupies an important position in the na- tional life of many European nations. Work in the forestry profes- sion requires a thorough grounding in and knowledge of our social order, our economic and political systems, business methods, and pro- fessional ethics, as well as a comprehensive understanding of trees, wood, and forests and the part they play in our national economy. The subject requires a complete understanding of the tree as a plant, how it grows and reproduces, singly and in association with others, and how each species may be best converted into articles useful in commerce and industry. A study of forestry and its component parts generally requires four or five years of college training, and frequently additional years for specialization and training in advanced phases of the subject. Recently, forestry has assumed such a significant place in the life of the nation that it is becoming recognized and accepted as an important and integral part of our activities. The conservation of our natural resources is one of our great na- tional problems. The ideals and purposes of forestry were for several years in direct conflict with many of the accepted and established cus- toms and practices of the country, notably in the West. Many preju- dices against and much opposition to the accepted principles of for- estry had to be overcome. The forester, therefore, must in many respects be a good missionary to help to educate the public about the value of forests. As in law, medicine, theology, engineering, and other professions, adequate training in the ethics, ideals, and standards is necessary, as well as in the principles and practices of forest con- servation. Forestry deals essentially with the woods and with the business of converting the products of the forest into useful materials. FORESTRY AS A PROFESSION 17 There should, therefore, be a genuine interest in the principles of forest conservation. There should exist in the prospective student of forestry a real love of the forest and of the objectives of the pro- fession. Both a sentimental and a practical interest in the woods is very necessary. Many young men are attracted to the profession as a result of their camping, hunting, fishing, picnicking, or tramping experiences in the woods. Perhaps a vacation spent in a Boy Scout camp, or a FIG. 12. — A driving crew moving logs with pea vies into the main current of the Clearwater River, Idaho. Forests and forest industries furnish employment for over one million men. It is important that forests be maintained, protected and regrown to keep these industries operating on a permanent basis. school or vacation camp in the woods, has aroused one's latent primi- tive interest in the forest. Everyone naively likes to "get back to nature." The rushing brooks, the wild flowers, bird life, magnificent scenery, the challenge of mountain climbing, or the study of the vari- eties of trees, flowers, birds, and insects, may be the initial entree to the subject. There is a healthful, natural reaction of young men to the many interesting phases of life in the woods. This is most admirable and commendable, but the impressions of these first ventures into the realm of forestry are generally made under the most favorable cir- cumstances such as plentiful and wholesome food, a warm, com- 18 INTRODUCTION fortable bed, good water, stimulating companions, and pleasant scen- ery and surroundings. These are naturally conducive to developing one's interest in the woods. Some have read stories of forest rangers, or seen rather romantic pictures of them riding about the wilderness trails on horseback. The work of the forester may include all these attractive features, but it may also mean working under the most difficult and arduous conditions of cold weather, rain, snow, or excessive heat. Fighting forest fires may mean working steadily for twenty hours or more FIG. 13. — Serious and advanced stages of erosion along Little Bayou Sara in Louisiana. Adequate control of erosive slopes is an important part of forest conservation. Photo by G. H. Lentz. under the most trying conditions of smoke and heat, with little or insufficient water and food. Timber appraisals are sometimes made in winter on snowshoes, or in swamps where one is wet most of the day. One must appreciate that, during an apprenticeship period of several years, a young graduate forester may spend much of his time in the woods far removed from the customary pleasures and surround- ings of urban life. Frequently strenuous physical labor under adverse conditions is required, so that a vigorous, healthy physique is desirable. Fire fighting, wood chopping, construction work, trail building, sur- veying, timber estimating, and logging work may require one to carry a heavy pack, or burdensome instruments, up steep mountains, in FORESTRY AS A PROFESSION 19 dense timber encumbered with windfalls, or may necessitate wading in streams. One should be familiar with horses, canoes, and woods tools, as well as with automobiles and perhaps with the diamond hitch or tump line. Resourcefulness, physical endurance, leadership, and a cheerful disposition are desirable traits in facing many of the woods problems. The nature of the work may require frequent changes of head- quarters, and thus it may be difficult to establish a home until ad- vancement in position may require living in a larger community with FIG. 14. — Fruit Growers Supply Company's mill and box factory, Susanville, California. This mill cuts 300,000 board feet in eight hours. This was one of the pioneer companies in the establishment of a sustained yield plan of forest management on their extensive timber holdings of about 142,000 acres. This company is owned by an association of fruit growers to supply wooden boxes for fruit shipments. It also sells lumber in the open market. In the left center is the jack-ladder to haul logs from the storage pond to the second floor of the mill. Refuse burner is shown at the right. greater opportunities for home life. Those occupying administrative positions of responsibility may be expected to spend from 35 to 65% of their time in the forest or away from home, supervising, directing, and inspecting the work of others. One must be adaptable and so- cially minded to get along with all kinds and conditions of people who are earning their livelihood from the woods. If one is industrious, lends oneself to the work at hand, exercises good judgment, gets along well with his superiors and subordinates, there are ample opportunities for success. A forester must love and enjoy his work, his associations, and his profession. There is little that is monotonous about the work. 20 INTRODUCTION New problems, new conditions, new policies, and new developments must be constantly faced and handled. Forestry is a fascinating, con- structive, and interesting profession for those who enjoy and are adapted to the life of the woods and the business of converting and utilizing the products. FIG. 15. — Several million people enjoy our National Parks every year and about 35 million people visit our National Forests. Still more visit our State Parks and Forests. The recreational values of forests are coming to be widely recog- nized and appreciated, with the improved highways, low priced motor cars and the natural human desire to get "back to the woods." The principal qualifications requisite for success in the profession may be briefly summarized as follows: 1. Thorough technical training in a good undergraduate or grad- uate school of forestry, involving from four to six years of college work. Here the technique of the subject is learned, as well as the ideals, ethics, objectives, and standards of forestry. The attitude toward the work and the profession developed in a school of high standards may be of considerable importance in the success of the individual. The training should be approximately equivalent to that required of a doctor, lawyer, minister, or engineer. The training should be highly specialized in the theory and practice of forestry, but it FORESTRY AS A PROFESSION 21 should also include broad cultural subjects and activities. Forestry deals with people as well as with trees, so that humanistic training is of large importance. 2. Resourcefulness, self-reliance, and honesty. Intellectual honesty is a prime requisite. Men of high integrity are required in both gov- ernment and state services, as well as in private practice. Frequently men are thrust into places involving great responsibility, initiative, resourcefulness, tact, and diplomacy. A native honesty and strong character are of great importance. FIG. 16. — Effects of erosion in a region of 60 inch rain-fall following depletion of vegetation by smelter fumes. Copper Basin, Oconee County, Tennessee. This was once a heavily forested region. 3. A strong and healthy constitution. A forester's work may be very exacting, physically as well as mentally. Long, hard trips in remote wilderness areas under difficult climatic conditions by horse, canoe, snowshoes, or on foot are commonplace, especially in inacces- sible forest properties. 4. Spirit of public service. One seldom sees immediate results of efforts in forestry. Trees require many years to mature. There must be a spirit of altruism, of making the country a better and happier place in which future generations may live. One looks forward for results not only a few years but for several generations or even cen- 22 INTRODUCTION turies. There are many strong implications of service throughout the profession of forestry. One must be imbued with this spirit of con- structive helpfulness in the upbuilding, reconditioning, and mainte- nance of our forest resources. 5. Executive and administrative ability. The management of large tracts of timberland; the appraisal, purchase, and handling of forest products; and the management of industries dependent upon the forest as a source of raw materials all require men of vision, tact, personality, experience, judgment, and ability. It is quite apparent from the above that forestry is an exceedingly exacting profession — one that has to do with almost every phase of human activity. Certainly there is little that is monotonous about the work and the life of a forester. He is very likely to travel rather widely and come into contact with many interesting people who derive their livelihood from the woods. It is an invigorating, stimulating and healthful profession and one that challenges the best efforts of those that select it for their life work, 5. PRINCIPAL BRANCHES OF FORESTRY The subject of forestry is generally classified into five principal branches. They are briefly described here in order to emphasize the widespread scope of the subject. Most of them are treated later in the text, especially those of a fundamental and elementary nature. Some subjects, such as dendrology, forest finance, and valuation, are so involved or the field so broad that they are not included in a text of this type. 1. Forest Protection. Forest protection is the safeguarding of the forest against damage or injury. It is fundamental and prerequisite in all forestry work. The principal enemy of the forest is fire. Forest management or any other phase of continued forestry work is impos- sible without adequate forest fire protection. Many varieties of insects and fungi attack both living and dead trees. In some regions, protection of the forest from grazing animals is of major importance. Other natural agencies involved in forest protection are atmospheric, such as wind, frost, and lightning, which may cause damage to standing timber. Shifting sands, landslides, and avalanches also are destructive. This subject likewise includes protection of forests against trespass or injury by mankind. 2. Silviculture. Silviculture is the art of producing, reproducing, and tending a forest. It is the application of the knowledge of silvics in the management of a forest. Silvics is the science which treats PRINCIPAL BRANCHES OF FORESTRY 23 of the life habits and behavior of trees in the forest, and is sometimes considered synonymous with silvicultural characteristics. The han- dling of forests to obtain the best results in the maintenance of growth and reproduction is fundamental in the knowledge of forestry. The forester must know the habits of trees and the forest influences which affect the life of individual trees as well as the tree community. He FIG. 17. — A Caterpillar Diesel 75 h.p. tractor skidding logs in the Feather River region of California. must know how to plant, improve, and cut our forests. In Europe, silviculture is the most important part of forestry. 3. Forest Utilization. Forest utilization is the most profitable and efficient use of forest products. It includes the conversion of standing timber into forms useful in human economy and the arts. It embraces the harvesting of the forest crop, the logging and transportation of the raw material, chiefly logs, to the market, and their manufacture 24 INTRODUCTION into various useful commodities. It also includes the merchandising and distribution of these products. The logging, manufacturing, and distribution of forest products play a very important part in the life of the nation. The main branches of forest utilization are the prop- erties and uses of wood, the cutting of the trees, and transportation of the logs to the manufacturing plant, known as logging, the manu- facture, conditioning, and treatment of the products, and the distribu- tion of those products to their ultimate use. Forest utilization gen- erally determines the intensity with which silviculture may be prac- ticed. It is the "bottleneck" through which successful timber growing or forest production must be passed. Until our virgin forest resources shall have been depleted, forest utilization constitutes a most impor- tant phase of American forestry. 4. Forest Management is the practical application of the principles of forestry to a given forest area. It embraces such subjects as the measurement of the present and potential yield of the forest, engi- neering, such as surveying and mapping tracts of timber, road making and the building of forest structures, and such subjects as forest organ- ization, forest valuation, and finance. It includes the making of working plans under which forest properties are continuously managed. 5. Forest Policy and Economics include the principles which de- termine the administration of the forest for its best permanent man- agement and use. The question of federal, state, and private respon- sibility in the management of our forests, the manner in which a plan of forestry is adjusted to our social and economic systems, are included within this branch. An important aspect of forest policy is the history and development of the subject and its relation to the political system, of the country. Forest laws and other legislation involving taxation and administration of forests are also included. The part which for- estry plays in general land use planning is a subject of large current importance in the life of the nation. The conservation of water, forests, and forage is closely related and integrated. 6. ARBORICULTURE AND FORESTRY Arboriculture deals with the planting, care, protection, and treat- ment of individual trees, particularly in their use for ornamental or decorative purposes in lawns, parks, home grounds, and along the highways. Forestry is concerned with the growing, protection, and use of large areas of trees. There is a distinction, therefore, between the two. Arboriculture includes what is frequently known as city forestry, municipal forestry, and tree repair. It is an important part of land- ARBORICULTURE AND FORESTRY 25 scape architecture and is closely allied to forestry. It is also regarded as a part of horticulture. The aesthetic use of trees in ornamental treatment and landscape design has become widely recognized and valued throughout the country. From a broad viewpoint, therefore, arboriculture is a part of forestry. Every forester should know how FIG. 18. — A beautiful vista along a highway. Many of our roadsides are charac- teristically bare of planted trees to furnish shade and protection as well as for the beautiful scenic effects they render and add to the pleasures of motoring. to plant, protect, repair, and care for individual trees about the home or along the streets and highways as well as large groups of trees known as forests. Many large municipalities have employed city foresters whose duties are the proper planting, protection, and care of street trees and those found in parks and about public buildings and grounds. CHAPTER II HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 1. EARLY BEGINNINGS Nowhere in the world have the forests more fully met the varied requirements of mankind nor have they proved more beneficial in their utility than in North America. The early colonial settlers along the Atlantic seaboard found a most magnificent forest, rich in variety of both hardwoods and softwoods. Qualities of strength, durability, workability, beauty, and fitness were present in this native timber to meet the needs of either a primitive or advanced type of civilization. During a period of about two hundred years the more fertile and accessible valleys were cleared of timber by an exceedingly slow and extremely laborious process. The early settlers of Virginia, the Caro- linas, Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania used the forest first for shelter and fuel. It harbored the hostile Indian and the savage beast, yet provided game for sustenance, and furs and timber for the first export business. Generally the forest was a deterrent to settlement. The dense primeval forest had to be cleared for agri- culture, and yet forest conservation was initiated even in colonial days. William Penn required that one acre of forest be left for every five acres cleared in Penn's Woods. Regulations were early passed in Massachusetts to safeguard the future of the forests. To insure ade- quate facilities for national defense, Congress appropriated $200,000 in 1799 to purchase a timber reserve for shipbuilding purposes, and in 1827 an attempt was made to grow live-oak in the Southeast for the same reason. Sentiment in various states began to crystallize in the direction of forest conservation. In 1873, Congress passed the Timber Culture Act. This sought to encourage forestation in the treeless prairie region of the Great Plains by issuing a deed for 160 acres of public domain to any settler who planted and retained 40 acres in timber. Arbor Day and Its Influence. Arbor Day was conceived and first promoted by J. Sterling Morton, and it was first observed in Nebraska in 1872. Morton was then a member of the State Board of Agri- 26 THE PIONEERING AND NOMADIC LUMBER INDUSTRY 27 culture and later became U. S. Secretary of Agriculture. The idea of planting trees on the great central plains quickly became popular. The observance of this day has grown rapidly and spread to every state in the union, our territorial possessions, and many foreign coun- tries. Kansas and Tennessee proclaimed Arbor Day in 1875, North Dakota and Ohio in 1882, and thereafter the other states throughout the nation. Usually the day is fixed for each state or arranged by proclamation or at the option of the governor. Arbor Day has had a profound influence in spreading a better knowledge of trees and an appreciation of their value. Although trees originally were planted for shade and windbreak purposes, the realiza- tion of their significance and importance in the life of our people has been given great impetus by an annual observance of this day. Pro- gressive educators have come to realize the need of presenting the forest problem in the schools. This has resulted in the creation of a very helpful understanding among the future citizens of the country. It has no doubt contributed very materially in formulating a favor- able public sentiment. This, in turn, has made federal and state legislation for the protection and care of our forests much more simple and easy. 2. THE PIONEERING AND NOMADIC LUMBER INDUSTRY The American lumber industry is the oldest and one of the largest and most representative industries. From the earliest days it has pioneered in cutting down our forests to provide shelter for our rapidly increasing population. Next to food, shelter is the most urgent neces- sity of mankind. The lumber industry developed primarily along readily available systems of water transportation. This continued almost unbroken during the pioneer and the colonial stages of devel- opment until about 1860, when railroad facilities began gradually to replace water transportation in moving logs and lumber to market. For many years the center of the lumber industry was in Maine. The first sawmill was established in Berwick, Maine, in 1631, although there were said to be sawmills installed after the settlement of James- town, Virginia, in 1609, and those driven by the wind in 1622 to 1630 on Manhattan Island, New York City. Until 1840, the lumber in- dustry was centered largely in Maine and New England. Virgin white pine trees were often found from 130 to 160 feet in height and from 40 to 50 inches or more in diameter. It is reported that some even attained a height of 250 feet and a diameter of 80 inches. In 1850, New York became the leading lumber state of the nation. 28 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT It produced 20% of the total lumber supply, and Albany was the great lumber mart. In 1860 the center of the lumber industry shifted to Pennsylvania, and by 1892 the peak production of white pine was reached in the magnificent stands of this species in Michigan. For nearly 300 years, therefore, white pine continued to be the leading lumber tree of the nation. It was the most useful species found in our American forests. Then quickly the lumber industry shifted to the yellow pine forests of the South which were used for the upbuild- ing of the great central west during the later periods of westward FIG. 19. — Map showing progress of lumber industry with dates of peak production and leading species in principal regions. expansion and development. The peak of the southern pine produc- tion as well as the all-time peak of the American lumber industry was reached in 1909, when 46 billion board feet of lumber from all species was produced. By 1920 the bulk of the virgin timber was removed from the South, and some of the same families who for generations were engaged in the lumber industry, having followed it westward to Michigan and then to the South, now turned to the Pacific Coast. The peak of lumber production in the Northwest came in 1926 when some 8 billion board feet of Douglas fir was produced. Owing to the inroads of substitutes and economic conditions, national lumber pro- duction rapidly decreased until in 1932 it sank to 10% billion board PASSING OF THE LAST RESOURCE FRONTIERS 29 feet, in contrast to the 38 billion feet reached during an average of pre-depression years. Heretofore, lumber production has largely been of virgin timber. Within recent years, however, under improved methods of fire protec- tion and cutting practices, our second-growth forests are renewing themselves splendidly. For example, the South, up to 1935, still re- tained its position as the leading center of lumber production in the country. In the four North Carolina pine states, Virginia to Georgia inclusive, the peak of lumber production was not during a period of the removal of the best virgin stands but in 1926, at least a quarter of a century after removal of practically all the virgin timber. It is apparent that the forests are growing up more rapidly than had been anticipated. The fear of a timber famine is no longer felt. The nomadic lumber industry has changed rapidly within recent years. Small mills have replaced the large lumber-production units. Prob- ably 80% of all the lumber produced east of the Rocky Mountains comes from the small portable and stationary mills. This is an im- portant contribution to the stability of employment, location, and output. "Ghost cities" that quickly rose with the installation of large logging and sawmill operations, and then as quickly disappeared with the removal of the virgin stands, are being replaced by small, permanent communities which are utilizing the products of the forest at nearby sawmills and at various woodworking plants. This is indeed the very essence of good forest management. 3. PASSING OF THE LAST RESOURCE FRONTIERS During recent years the last resource frontiers have been crossed. We have discovered and determined the location of the best mineral, oil, soil, water, and forest resources. The westward expansion and settlement have slowed down. There has been a sharp decrease in immigration and a steady increase in population of about 10% per decade. There has been a rapid shift from agrarian to industrial occupations, which has resulted in a vast increase in our great urban centers and a decrease of our rural population. Concentration and consolidation of population have replaced the former periods of pio- neering and of developing our frontiers. This stabilization in industry, the internal development, the population growth, and the concentra- tion of agricultural efforts on our best soils have directly influenced our forest policies. Thus, per capita consumption of lumber and other wood products has dwindled to about one-half that of 25 years ago, owing to the inroads of substitute materials for wood, the in- 30 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT creased use of natural gas, coal, and electricity instead of fuelwood for cooking and heating purposes, and the decreased construction of frame houses concurrently with changing habits of mankind and the tendency to live in concentrated centers, as in apartment houses. 4. FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND LEGISLATION TO PROMOTE FOREST CONSERVATION A knowledge of the history and development of forestry in the United States is necessary for proper understanding of the evolving of a national forest policy. Definite progress was made over a period of approximately fifty years before the present system of forestry came into being. Much discussion, deliberation, and legislation marked the development of federal forestry activities. Almost from the earliest colonial times, fears were expressed for the future of our forest resources. Until recently, little definite information has been available regarding our timber resources, and even at the present time an exhaustive survey is being conducted by the Forest Service to obtain more accurate knowledge of these resources. Although there were many and ineffectual attempts by the federal authorities to encourage forest conservation and growth usually for purposes of national defense, the year 1876 saw the first definite results of the attempt to formulate a federal forest policy. In 1876, Congress appro- priated $2000 to employ a competent man to investigate the timber conditions of the country and report upon them. A program of federal legislation has been passed in the following sequence of events: 1876 — First federal appropriation for forestry. Dr. Franklin B. Hough appointed with investigational and informational duties. June 30, 1886 — Division of Forestry created in the Department of the Interior. This marked the first definite recognition of the im- portance of the forest problem. March 3, 1891 — The President was authorized to establish forest reserves to be created from the public domain, and on March 3, 1891, the first federal reserve, known as the Yellowstone Park Timber Lands Reserve, was proclaimed by President Harrison. This was the begin- ning of our present National Forest system. June 4, 1897— The present National Forest Act was passed, pro- viding for the acquisition and administration of our National Forests, then known as Forest Reserves, under a definite, workable law. June 1, 1901— The title, Division of Forestry, was changed to the Bureau of Forestry. February 1, 1905— The Bureau of Forestry became the Forest Service, under Gifford Pinchot; and during the next few years under FEDERAL ACTIVITIES AND LEGISLATION 31 President Theodore Roosevelt, there was a great expansion in the area of National Forests created from the public domain in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States. March 1, 1911 — The Weeks Law was passed providing for the ac- quisition of National Forests in the East by purchase of forest prop- erties on the headwaters of navigable streams. Heretofore our Na- tional Forests could only be created out of the public domain or unalienated lands belonging to the Federal Government. This act provided for the creation of the National Forest Reservation Com- mission and also for cooperative fire protection with the individual states in providing for an adequate system of fire prevention, detec- tion, and suppression. June 7, 1924 — Clarke-McNary Bill signed by the President. In effect the President and Congress established on a statutory basis a fundamental forest policy for the United States. This provided for effective cooperation with the various states in forest-fire prevention and suppression, authorized a study of forest taxation, authorized cooperation with the various states in production and distribution of forest tree seeds and plants for reforestation purposes, provided as- sistance for the owners of woodlots in establishing, improving, and renewing them, and provided for increased purchases of National For- est lands and other miscellaneous purposes. Congress amended this act in 1931 to extend the provisions of the act to territories and island possessions. March 22, 1928 — The McSweeney-McNary Bill was passed, pro- viding for a definite program of forest research. April 30, 1928— The McNary-Woodruff Bill was passed, author- izing appropriations aggregating $8,000,000 for the extension of the National Forests by purchase during the next three years. November 12, 1930 — President Hoover appointed the United States Timber Conservation Board which was formally organized in 1931. After considerable discussion the members of this board presented several conclusions and recommendations for the furtherance of a national forest policy. 1933 — With the inauguration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt came a succession of presidential and congressional acts which had a very important bearing upon the development and progress of our federal forest activities. Among these may be mentioned the National Industrial Recovery Act, the Emergency Conservation Work, the Ten- nessee Valley Authority, and the Soil Conservation Service. All these are briefly described later in the text. June, 1934 — President Roosevelt announced the Great Plains Shelterbelt Project, providing for the relief of unemployment and the protection of homesteads from the drying influences of severe winds by tree planting. This is also described later, in the text. 32 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 5. LEADERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN FORESTRY Any constructive movement determining national development and policies naturally revolves around a relatively few men of thought and action. The development of forestry has been remarkably rapid, con- sidering the nation-wide scope of the work to be done and the great variety of objectives in each locality and region. Many men with botanical, geological, or other scientific training and many public- spirited citizens were active in the early days of the movement. These men contributed very materially to the development of thought, the inspiring of general interest in the subject, and the crystallization of this sentiment in the form of laws. Among those who were chiefly responsible for the development of American forestry in the early days were Franklin B. Hough, first Chief Forester, and Gifford Pinchot, first professionally trained forester in this country, who after serving on the Biltmore estate in North Carolina, became Chief Forester in 1898 and later served under President Theodore Roosevelt. He was very influential in the organization and tremendous expansion of the work of the Forest Service. He was also instrumental in the forma- tion of the Yale School of Forestry in 1900, the first permanently established professional school in the country. He later served two terms as governor of Pennsylvania. Dr. B. E. Fernow was one of the early chief foresters of the old Division of Forestry, and in later years he served at the forestry schools at Cornell, Penn State, and Toronto. Professor Filibert Roth was an active and able leader in the government service and for many years was at the head of the forestry school at the University of Michigan. Dr. Carl Schenck, one of the first professional foresters, also served on the Biltmore estate in North Carolina; later, in 1898, he organized the Biltmore Forestry School, continuing as a lecturer at several American forestry schools. The last three foresters received their professional training and preparation in Germany. They introduced into this country many of the ideals and standards and much of the inspiration of German for- estry, and they contributed a marked influence on the early develop- ment of forestry as practiced in the United States. Two presidents, Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin D. Roosevelt, have been outstanding in their contributions to the development of American forestry. The first was responsible" for arousing real in- terest in forestry throughout the country, and provided for an enor- mous expansion of our areas in National Forests by setting aside a LEADERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN FORESTRY 33 very large share of these areas from the public domain as provided for in the Act of 1891. President Franklin D. Roosevelt has unquestionably made the most notable contribution of any single man in this country, and he was the first American to receive the Sir William Schlich medal for meritorious services in forestry. He is responsible for giving the people of the American nation a new understanding and appreciation of the value of our forests. In reconstructing and rebuilding our forests, both public and private, through the Civilian Conservation Corps, National Industrial Recovery Act, Soil Conservation Service, Tennessee Valley Authority, Public Domain Grazing Act, Great Plains Shelterbelt Project, enlarged acquisition policy for National Forests in the East, creation of the Natural Resources Board, and many other projects inaugurated in the first years of his administration, he has advanced the cause of forestry more substantially than any other one man. Other men making notable contributions of thought, energy, and action have been: Col. Henry S. Graves, second Chief Forester of the United States, and organizer and dean of the Yale School of Forestry; Col. William B. Greeley, third Chief Forester of the United States and later secretary-manager of the West Coast Lumbermen's Asso- ciation of Seattle; Charles Lathrop Pack of Lakewood, New Jersey, and his son, Arthur Newton Pack, of Princeton, New Jersey, both of the American Tree and Nature Associations, who have been active and effective in educating the public regarding the importance of forests and forestry; and George D. Pratt, active in the development of wild life and recreational forestry, and president of the American Forestry Association for several years. CHAPTER III FOREST RESOURCES; PRINCIPAL TREES AND REGIONS 1. GENERAL— FOREST REGIONS The commercial forests of the United States comprise about 25 % of the total area of the country, or about 60% of the primeval forest area. Originally they occupied 822,238,000 acres, or nearly one-half of the total land surface of the country. Much of our forest is found at high elevations in the mountainous regions, conspicuously in the western states where the timber is rela- tively inaccessible, of insufficient size or of inferior quality to be of commercial importance for saw logs, pulpwood, or other forms of forest products. Forests in these locations are chiefly valuable for watershed protection and seldom enter commercial markets. Many of our forests have been cleared for agricultural purposes, or burned, or are located in swamps. Under these conditions they are of little or no value in furnishing usable commodities. The U. S. Forest Service has separated the American forests into eight broad major regions. They occur in natural geographic and topographic units and generally exhibit distinctive and similar prob- lems. In some regions, notably in the East, similar types of forests are found in two or more regions. On the other hand, hardwoods are concentrated largely in the Mississippi delta, the southern Appa- lachians, and adjacent sections of the southeast region which is largely devoted to southern pine. For the purpose of description and analysis, the forests have been divided into the following regions and subregions. Special attention is given to the Southeast and Pacific Coast regions because of their past and prospective importance as centers of forest industries and as sources of lumber production. 1. Eastern Forest Regions. 1. New England, embracing the five New England States. 2. Middle Atlantic States, embracing the five states of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware. 34 GENERAL— FOREST REGIONS 35 36 FOREST RESOURCES; PRINCIPAL TREES AND REGIONS 3. Lake States, embracing the states of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. 4. Central States, including the eight central states from West Vir- ginia to Missouri and Iowa, inclusive, and from Tennessee to Lake Michigan. 5. The Southeast, including the eleven South Atlantic and Gulf States from Virginia to Texas, inclusive, and Arkansas and Eastern Oklahoma. Subregions: (a) Southern pine from Florida to Arkansas and Texas, inclu- sive. (b) North Carolina pine from Virginia to Georgia, inclusive. (c) Appalachian hardwoods. (d) Southern bottomland hardwoods. (e) Cypress in Florida and in southern river bottoms. 2. Western Forest Regions. 6. Northern Rocky Mountain States, embracing Montana and Idaho. 7. Southern Rocky Mountain States, embracing Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and western South Dakota. Subregions : (a) Central Rocky Mountains of Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and western South Dakota. (b) Southwest, including New Mexico and Arizona. 8. The Pacific Coast region, including the three states of Washington, Oregon, and California and the Territory of Alaska. Subregions: (a) Northwest Douglas fir in Washington and Oregon west of the Cascade Mountains. (b) Ponderosa pine in Oregon and Washington east of the Cas- cade Mountains. (c) California pine. (d) Redwood in northwestern California. (e) Southeastern Alaska. These regions have been arranged in geographical order from east to west and north to south. In order of importance, from the view- point of total forest area, they are arranged as follows: GENERAL— FOREST REGIONS 37 REGION 1. Southeast 2. Pacific Coast 3. Central 4. Lake States 5. Northern Rocky Mountains. 6. Southern Rocky Mountains. 7. New England 8. Middle Atlantic States . TOTAL FOREST AREA (THOUSAND ACRES) 191,739 66,685 64,249 55,895 32,329 30,570 27,273 27,139 Total for United States 495,879 PER CENT OF TOTAL 38.7 13.4 12.9 11.3 65 62 5.5 5.5 100.0 200 400 600 800 Billion Feet Board Measure 1000 Softwoods Hardwoods FIG. 21. — Softwood and hardwood saw timber stands of the United States by regions. In order of importance from the viewpoint of total standing saw timber, they are arranged as follows: 1. Pacific Coast 2. Southeast 3. Northern Rocky Mountains 4. Southern Rocky Mountains 5. New England 6. Lake States 7. Central 8. Middle Atlantic . Total for United States . STANDING SAW TIMBER PER CENT (MILLION FEET, B.M.) OF TOTAL 1,041,628 62.9 199,279 11.9 146,388 8.7 125,956 7.5 57,875 3.4 35,887 2.1 34,622 2.0 26,150 1.5 1,667,803 100.0 38 FOREST RESOURCES; PRINCIPAL TREES AND REGIONS 2. AREAS The total forest area of the country is 495,879,000 acres, of which only 188,645,000 or about two-fifths contain merchantable saw tim- ber. The balance of the forest area contains second growth of insuffi- cient size to produce saw logs, also cordwood and miscellaneous young timber not at present of commercial utility. SOUTHEAST PACIFIC COAST CENTRAL LAKE STATES NORTHERN ROCKIES SOUTHERN ROCKIES NEW ENGLAND MIDDLE ATLANTIC i i i i i i 191,739,000 Acres 38.7% 66,685,000 Acres 13.5% 64,249,000 Acres 12.9% 55,895,000 Acres 11.1% 32,329,000 Acres 6.6% 30,570,000 Acres 6.3% 27,273,000 Acres 5.5% 27, 139,000 Acres 5.4% Saw Timber Area 188,645,000 Acres Other Forest Area 307,234,000 Acres 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 Millions of Acres FIG. 22. — Commercial forest area of the United States by character of growth and regions. The total area is about 500 million acres of commercial forest. Only about one-half the saw-timber area is virgin or old growth. The second-growth timber, especially in the South, however, is rapidly growing up to commercial size. Second-growth timber already plays an important part in the lumber markets of the country, as described elsewhere. OWNERSHIP 39 About 39% of all our forest areas and over one-fourth of the saw- timber areas are found in the Southeastern forest region, including the so-called pineries, and contain about three times the area devoted to forests found in any other region. Only 26% of our forest area occurs west of the Great Plains, yet it contains the bulk of the volume of standing timber. Thirteen per cent of the total forest area of the country embraced within the Pacific Coast region contains 62% of all the saw timber left in the country. Of the total area devoted to forests only about one-fifth or 98,855,000 acres is of virgin or old growth. About 75% of this area is found west of the Great Plains. 3. OWNERSHIP Ownership of our forests has been subdivided into three classes, namely: (1) private; (2) federal; and (3) state, county, and municipal. 1. Private Companies or Individuals Own 79% of Our Total For- est Area. These are chiefly lumbermen, farmers who own large areas of woodlots in small and scattered tracts, pulp and paper companies, and others interested in owning and holding forest properties. Most of the larger holdings controlled by private companies are found in the Pacific Coast region and in the South. Many of these companies own or control from 300,000 to several million acres of timberland. 2. Federal Agencies Own or Manage 18% of Our Forest Area. A large share of this area is in National Forests which are operated by the U. S. Forest Service, a relatively small percentage is controlled by the U. S. Indian Service and the National Park Service, War Department, etc. A very large percentage of these federally controlled forests is found in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States. In some states such as California, Idaho, Montana, and Oregon, a large share of the forest area is found within the National Forest boundaries. A small percentage of the National Forests is located in northern New England, the Lake States, the Southern Appalachian Mountains of the Southeast, and in Pennsylvania, Arkansas, and several southern states. 3. States, Counties, and Municipalities Own 3%. There has been a pronounced forward move in the acquisition of forest areas by these agencies since the World War. More than thirty states now own or control forests. New York and Pennsylvania each have more than two million acres which are set aside in their state forests and parks. Of the 188,645,000 acres of saw timber, 126,265,000 acres are owned 40 FOREST RESOURCES; PRINCIPAL TREES AND REGIONS by private individuals or interests; 59,277,000 acres are owned and managed by federal agencies; and the balance, or only 3,103,000, is owned by the states and local political units. It is apparent, there- fore, that the private companies own the bulk of the remaining stand- ing timber, both in area and in volume. Public ownership (federal, state, county, etc.) embraces only 4% of all the forest land in the East, whereas in the West it includes 65%. As a large share of our forests is privately owned, logging methods have been pursued without any governmental supervision and con- Federally Owned or Managed State County and Municipal 45 Million Acres FIG. 23. — Graph showing public ownership of forest lands in this country. Only about 21% of our total forest area is so owned. Private ownership is represented in the balance or 70%. Federal ownership is represented largely in the National Forests. There are also extensive forests in the National Parks, Indian Reserva- tions and Military Reservations. trol and, therefore, with little reference to the continuity of yield and the assurance of future cut adequate in either quantity or quality. 4. VOLUME OF STANDING TIMBER The standing saw timber in the United States amounts to 1,667,- 803,000,000 b.f. or about one-third the original stand. Eighty per cent of the commercial saw timber is old or virgin-growth. The U. S. Forest Service estimated the standing timber in 1920 to be 2,214,- 893,000,000 b.f. Hardwoods and Softwoods. Eighty-nine per cent of the standing timber consists of softwoods and 11% of hardwoods. VOLUME OF STANDING TIMBER 41 Eastern and Western Forests. The region west of the Great Plains contains 79% of all the remaining saw timber far removed from the great consuming markets of the nation. The three Pacific Coast Douglas F 0 200 400 600 800 IOOO I20O 1400 Billion feet, board measure Tupelo Yellow Poplar Cotton wood - Aspen All Other---- 100 200 3OO 400 Billion feet, board measure soo FIG. 24. — Saw-timber stand of the United States by important woods. States alone contain 62% of all the saw timber. About 90% of the softwood saw timber is in the West and only 10% in the East. The entire eastern forests contain only 21% of the standing saw timber. Lumbering and clearing for agricultural purposes have re- 42 FOREST RESOURCES; PRINCIPAL TREES AND REGIONS moved a very large portion of the once rich and varied forests of the region lying mainly east of the Mississippi River. In spite of the large areas devoted to forests in the Southeast, those states contain only 12% of the saw timber, but they possess an important and rapid growing second-growth forest which has great possibilities for the future. Practically no hardwoods of large commercial importance are found in the Rocky Mountain or Pacific Coast States. Character of Growth. Of the total stand of softwoods, 86% is of virgin or old growth, the large majority of which is found in the Pacific Coast States as noted above. Only about one-third of the hardwoods is of old or virgin growth and they are found largely in the Southeastern states with relatively small portions in the Lake States, New England, and Central States. 5. LEADING COMMERCIAL SPECIES The leading species found in the saw-timber forests of the country are as follows: SPECIES Total of all species MILLION FEET BOARD MEASURE 1,667 803 PER CENT 1000 Douglas fir 530,197 318 Ponderosa pine 251 560 16 1 True firs 131 933 79 Southern yellow pine 118,132 70 Western hemlock 86,464 5.1 Western spruce .... 61582 37 Oak 60,753 36 Redwood 57,233 3.4 Birch, beech, and maple 49943 29 Lodgepole pine 43,276 26 Miscellaneous . 15.9 Altogether about 60 commercially prominent species are found in the lumber markets of this country. Two species, Douglas fir and ponderosa pine, comprise nearly one-half (46.9%) of all the standing timber. Many kinds of wood formerly regarded as of little value or even worthless have entered the lumber markets within recent years. Among these now assuming some prominence which formerly were considered either of inferior quality, rather difficult to season, or suf- fering by comparison with other valuable species, are western hem- lock, tupelo and black gum, western larch, and even red gum and beech. Most of these woods have important intrinsic values and are now more favorably regarded in the lumber markets. Some of the LEADING COMMERCIAL SPECIES 43 true firs, aspens, and others have been of more recent recognition and acceptance on our markets. It is apparent from the above that one species, namely, Douglas fir, comprises nearly one-third of all the saw timber in the country, and nearly one-half of all the western softwoods. Oak is the leading hardwood species available in the American forests. About 25 species (or groups of species as southern pine and the true firs) comprise 93.6% of the total stand of saw timber. Three species of softwood, namely, Douglas fir, ponderosa pine, and south- ern yellow pine, compose 54% of the total standing timber of the country. A brief description of the leading species is as follows: 1. Western Softwoods. Douglas fir is the most important tree from the viewpoint of standing timber, representing 31.8% of the remaining timber of the country. The center of production is Wash- ington, but most of the standing timber of this species is found in Oregon. About 80% of the standing Douglas fir is found in the two states of Oregon and Washington, which produce about 95% of all the Douglas fir. This species, recently superseding in quantity south- ern pine, is the most important present source of construction lumber and timber. It reached its peak production of 10,411,000,000 b.f. in 1926. It is shipped widely to both domestic and foreign markets. Large volumes are shipped to the Atlantic seaboard, via the Panama Canal, and to southern California. This tree grows both in pure stands as well as in mixed stands with western hemlock, western red cedar, and sometimes with Sitka spruce, the true firs, and others. It occurs over large areas west of the Cascade Mountains in the two states of Oregon and Washington and in British Columbia, and is widely distributed over most of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States. Average stands over large areas are found containing from 30 to 60 m.b.f. per acre, and with an average of about 40 m.b.f. on extended areas within the commercial region in Washington and Oregon. Some stands are found with from 200 to 400 m.b.f. on single acres. Indi- vidual trees have been found to produce up to 50 m.b.f. Ponderosa pine is the most widely distributed pine in North Amer- ica. It comprises 16.1% of all the remaining saw timber and has advanced rapidly in lumber production during the past several dec- ades. Seventy per cent of this species is found in the three Pacific Coast States. It reaches its largest size both in diameter and height in California, but is produced chiefly in Oregon. These two states produce more than 60% of this species. It is the third most important 44 FOREST RESOURCES; PRINCIPAL TREES AND REGIONS kind of lumber found in our American markets. It is also cut to some extent in Washington and Idaho, and in all the western mountain states. True Firs. These are chiefly white fir, Abies concolor, red fir, Abies magnified, and noble fir, Abies nobilis. They are found principally in Washington, Oregon, and California in frequent mixture with Doug- las fir and sugar pine, and occasionally ponderosa pine at the higher elevations. White fir entered the lumber markets prominently for the first time in 1929 when 307,000,000 b.f. were reported by the Census Bureau. This species was exceeded in production by only six western softwoods. The true firs include 131,933,000,000 b.f. of standing timber and are exceeded in volume of saw timber only by Douglas fir and ponderosa pine. They will probably enter the future lumber markets still more prominently because of the large available stands and the large size of the trees. At present they are used locally on the Pacific Coast for common and inexpensive forms of lumber and timber. Western Hemlock. There are 86,464,000,000 b.f. of saw timber of this species. It has recently entered the lumber markets in sub- stantial volume. It is found almost entirely in Washington and Oregon and is a very prominent tree in British Columbia and the coastal section of southern Alaska. It enters the Atlantic Coast lumber trade where it is often sold interchangeably with Douglas fir and for the same general purposes. It is even preferred to fir for some uses. Formerly considered of little or no value, it is now logged commonly in most of the large operations of the North Pacific Coast. Spruce. There are 61,582,000,000 b.f. of spruce. Of this, 36,000,- 000,000 b.f. are chiefly Engelmann spruce in the Southern Rocky Mountain region, largely at high elevations in Colorado. There are about 12 billion b.f. of Sitka spruce, which reaches extremely large size along the Pacific Coast from Oregon to southern Alaska. It is frequently logged in both pure stands and in mixture with other species in western Oregon and western Washington. There are immense stands of this species in the Olympic Peninsula. There are over 12 billion b.f. of spruce in the Northern Rocky Mountains. This consists largely of Engelmann spruce in northern Idaho and western Montana. A small amount of blue spruce is found in the Southern Rocky Mountain region, chiefly in Colorado. Redwood. In the narrow strip along the northern California coast, which extends into southwestern Oregon, 57,233,000,000 b.f. of stand- ing redwood saw timber is found. This consists of large trees up to 10 feet or more in diameter and 300 feet in height. There is suffi- LEADING COMMERCIAL SPECIES 45 cient redwood to last more than 100 years at a normal annual cutting rate, which has been about 500,000,000 b.f. Lodgepole Pine. This is one of the most widely distributed coni- fers in the West. It seldom reaches large size, trees occurring only up to 16 inches d.b.h. This size lends itself readily to cross tie and pole production. There are 43,276,000,000 b.f. of lodgepole pine. It is found chiefly in the Southern Rocky Mountain region where over 26 billion b.f. occur; 14y2 billion b.f. are in the Northern Rocky Mountain region and a little more than 2 billion b.f. in the Pacific Coast region. Sugar Pine. This is the largest pine in the world, some specimens being found up to 10 to 12 feet in diameter and 250 or more feet in height. It is one of the most valuable species of white pine, producing a high- grade finish, pattern, and box lumber. It reaches its best de- velopment in the central Sierra Nevadas where stands occur up to 100,000 b.f. per acre. The good commercial timber varies from 20,000 to 40,000 b.f. per acre, with an average of about 30,000 b.f. Three hundred and forty-nine million board feet of sugar pine were produced in FIG. 25. — Sitka spruce 8 feet in diameter. This tree is usually found in association with western hemlock, Douglas fir and western red cedar and sometimes grows in pure stands. It is the source of much lumber used for airplane construction, boats, scaffold plank, box boards and many other materials. 1929, and there is a total re- maining stand of 35,516,000,000 b.f., all of which is found in the Pacific Coast region, chiefly in California with a small amount extending into southern Oregon. Western Larch. There are 26,118,000,000 b.f. of western larch chiefly in the Northern Rocky Mountain region of western Montana and northern Idaho. About 8 billion b.f. are found on the Pacific Coast region in Washington and Oregon. In 1930, 173,753,000 b.f. were cut. This produces a hard, heavy, durable wood which is used chiefly for construction purposes. It occurs in mixture with western white pine and ponderosa pine. Butt logs of larch will not float in 46 FOREST RESOURCES; PRINCIPAL TREES AND REGIONS stream driving; they are shaky and therefore are generally left in the woods. Western White Pine. This is one of the most valuable trees in the country and is one of the three important white pines which are merchandised widely and used for high-grade finish, pattern, and box FIG. 26. — Typical example of thrifty western white pine left on timber sale area after cutting by the selective logging method from along the west branch of the Priest River in the Kaniksu National Forest in northern Idaho. Low stumps were cut and merchantable timber taken to 6" in the tops. Western white pine is one of the most valuable trees left in our American forests. lumber. There are 19,508,000,000 b.f. of standing timber of this spe- cies, over 15 billion of which are found in the Northern Rocky Moun- tain region largely in northern Idaho and to some extent in north- western Montana. About 4 billion b.f. are found in the Pacific Coast region, chiefly in Washington. Every year about 424,000,000 b.f. of this species are normally cut. In the census figures it is tabulated with northern or eastern white pine. LEADING COMMERCIAL SPECIES 47 2. Eastern Softwoods. Southern yellow pine (including the four species of longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly, and slash pines) has been for thirty years or more the most important kind of lumber produced in this country. It is found widely scattered from eastern Texas to Virginia and from Arkansas to Florida. There are few remaining stands of virgin timber. They are found largely in Florida, Louisi- ana, and Arkansas. A large volume of southern pine known in the market as North Carolina pine, is still produced from the region ex- tending from Georgia to Virginia, inclusive. There are 118,132,000,000 b.f. of southern pine in the saw-timber stands. This is found almost entirely in the Southeast, but very small portions are found in the Central and Middle Atlantic regions as well. About 11% billion b.f. of southern pine were produced in 1929 and 7% billion b.f. in 1930. It reached its peak production with over 16 billion b.f. in 1907. More than half of the southern pine production now comes from the small mills. Spruce and Fir. These are red spruce and balsam fir which are generally found and sold together. There are 21,533,000,000 b.f. in saw-timber stands. Nearly 19 billion b.f. of this amount are still found in the New England States, with small quantities in the Middle Atlantic and Lake States and along the higher Appalachian Moun- tains. They are cut almost entirely for pulpwood. On some opera- tions, the butt and larger logs may be used for lumber and the balance for pulpwood. They are limited to the higher elevations in northern New England and the other regions, except in the Lake States where they are found chiefly in northern Michigan, northern Minnesota, and to a limited extent in northern Wisconsin. White and Norway Pine. For many years white pine was the pre- eminent lumber tree of the country and is probably the most useful all-around species ever produced in our American forests. There are 14,672,000,000 b.f. of white and Norway pine, most of which is second-growth. White pine forests occur in New England, where 8,390,000,000 b.f. are found. Also small quantities are found in the Middle Atlantic and Lake States and along the higher Appalachian Mountains in the Central and Southeastern regions. It is found at the higher elevations only in the southern part of its range. It is cut largely in small mill operations. Its outlet is chiefly for box lumber and for local building construction. Hemlock. There are 12,198,000,000 b.f. of hemlock which is widely distributed over the Northeast and Lake States. More than half of this quantity is found in the Lake States and New England regions. A smaller quantity is found in the other three eastern regions. It is 48 FOREST RESOURCES; PRINCIPAL TREES AND REGIONS practically all second-growth and cut on small operations except in Wisconsin where it is produced from a few large operations. It is pre- eminently used for small dimension and common lumber. It also finds an important outlet in pulp and paper manufacture, especially in Wis- consin. Cypress. A large portion of the virgin cypress has been cut. There are 4,140,000,000 b.f. of standing timber, a very large share of which is found in Florida where it is chiefly cut, and in the other southeast- ern states. A very small portion is found in the Central region. It is widely distributed throughout the lower Mississippi, Gulf, and south Atlantic coastal regions, where it is limited to the swamps and along streams. In 1930, 490 million b.f. were cut. It is one of the most valuable, durable, and useful species cut in the country and finds an outlet where durability, appearance, and workability are the chief requirements. 3. Eastern Hardwoods. Oak. Oak is cut from a large number of the 50 different species. It is widely distributed over the eastern and southern forests. There are 60,753,000,000 b.f. of oak, mostly in the lower Mississippi valley section of the Southeast region where more than one-half of the oak occurs. The Central region contains over 16 billion b.f. Smaller quantities are found in the Lake, Middle At- lantic, and New England regions, the importance of the stands being indicated by the order of mention. Oak has always been the most important hardwood and finds a wide and ready market for special- ized purposes, chiefly furniture, flooring, cross ties, automobile manu- facture, tool handles, etc. It is produced chiefly in Tennessee, Louisi- ana, and Arkansas, named in order of importance. In 1930, 1,661,- 000,000 b.f. were sawed. All oaks are generally classified as either red or white oaks. White oak is generally considered the more valu- able except in the southern Appalachian Mountains where red oak is the more valuable. Birch, Beech, and Maple. These species are grouped together as they occur generally in association in the same stands in our northern and northeastern forests. There are 49,943,000,000 b.f. of these species, about 21 billion b.f. of which occur in New England, about 3 billion in the Lake States, and small quantities in the other three eastern regions. Of these species, maple is the most important. In 1930, 601 million b.f. of maple were produced, 248 million b.f. of birch, and 138 million b.f. of beech. Red Gum. There are 15,488,000,000 b.f. of red gum in our saw- timber stands. This is found growing throughout the Southeast region, largely in the lower Mississippi valley states. In 1930, 694,000,000 LEADING COMMERCIAL SPECIES 49 b.f. were produced chiefly in Louisiana and Mississippi. An increas- ing volume is being produced from small mills. It is frequently sawed in small mills in connection with the production of yellow pine. Tupelo. There are 6,342,000,000 b.f. of tupelo gum, practically all of which is found in the Southeast in swamps and along the estuaries FIG. 27. — Old growth yellow poplar 69 inches in breast high diameter. This tree was "curly" grained and contained 9,000 feet of merchantable material. The seeking out and logging of such scattered high value special timber has been one of the most interesting phases of the lumber industry in the Appalachian Moun- tain region. Towns County, Georgia. and bays of the streams flowing to the south Atlantic and Gulf Coast. It is produced chiefly in Louisiana. In 1930, 254 million b.f. were produced. It is logged in connection with other hardwood species. Formerly considered somewhat undesirable, it now reaches important markets. Yellow Poplar. There are 5,192,000,000 b.f. of yellow poplar, most 50 FOREST RESOURCES; PRINCIPAL TREES AND REGIONS of which is found in mixture with other hardwood species along the stream bottoms of the Southeastern region. It is also found in all the other eastern sections. In 1930, 257 million b.f. were produced, mostly from West Virginia, Tennessee, and Alabama, in order of im- portance. This is the largest hardwood tree now found in our Amer- ican forests. It produces a high-quality lumber and a large percent- age of upper grades. Other species such as magnolia and cucumber are cut and sold as yellow poplar. Cottonwood and Aspen. There are 4,447,000,000 b.f. of these spe- cies, including southern cottonwood, swamp cottonwood, aspen or popple, balsam poplar, and black cottonwood of the West. Of all these species, a large proportion is found in Minnesota where 61 mil- lion b.f. were produced in 1930, and in Mississippi where 29 million b.f. were produced that year. Among the hardwoods produced east of the Great Plains which are relatively unimportant as compared with the above in quantity are ash, basswood, chestnut, elm, magnolia, black walnut, hickory, sycamore, butternut, black cherry, locust, hackberry, willow, and sev- eral others. 6. PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS OF THE FOREST; GROWTH AND DEPLETION According to a report * prepared by the Forest Service, the current annual growth of usable material on commercial forest areas of the country amounted to 8,912,000,000 cubic feet of saw timber and cord- wood growth. More than half of the saw-timber growth and also of the total forest growth is in the South, which has more than half of its forest area or about 100,000,000 acres in saw timber and cordwood. Much of the forests of the West, particularly on the Pacific Coast, is composed of over-mature timber which is making little or no net growth. The total timber cut, including lumber, fuelwood, and other forms of forest products, amounted to 14,495,308,000 cubic feet, thus exceed- ing the current annual growth as approximately 14 to 8. However, the estimate of the Forest Service as applied to timber cut was based upon an average for the five years 1925 to 1929, inclusive, which more nearly represents a maximum of wood consumption than an average over a long period of years. For example, the average production of lumber shown by the Forest Service for these five years was 38 billion *From "A National Plan for American Forestry," Senate Document 12, Washington, D. C., 1933. PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS OF THE FOREST 51 CO CO CO 1>» *>• 1C !>• iO O 00 l-H l-H CO tft> C^ C^ I-H i— I ' lO l>- CO O I »O CO Tfl '-H i~™i CO CO OS T—H OO *"H (M O «5 Tfl IQ i— I - . OS CO OO Tt< "tf i-H ^(NCO^t^ t^ CO 00 T^ 00 Ol^ CO -t>. i^COCO^O •'f CN >— iO CM CM oo 3 10 (M ^ -Q fcH OJ > : S «_: 5 ||ll|lll11|l||||llll •^s^ « R ^T3 >,oa K! "" bfi 9 1* 1 91' .-sS*: 18*11 lilt /«! g-^-2 S§5 n« 5 'Sog g S P s:«s §55 52 FOREST RESOURCES; PRINCIPAL TREES AND REGIONS b.f., whereas lumber production fell off in 1932 to about 10 billion b.f. or 26% of the average, and no doubt other forms of forest products decreased more or less proportionately. Furthermore, growth is con- 1 Total for all commodities 2 Lumber 3 Fuelwood 4 Hewed ties 5 Fence posts 6 Pulpwood 7 Mine timbers (round) 8 Veneer logs 9 Logs and bolts in manufacture 10 Shingles 1 1 Slack staves 12 Tight staves Miscellaneous Per Cent 100 50.8 27.6 4.4 4.3 4.0 1.6 1.6 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.6 1.5 ID O ID r^ m c\j o r^ — < • CO 00 ^"^ CO t"^ ^^ co" T-T Oi 00 O^ Oi O^ O5 Oi O5 O5 CJi Oi OO O^ Oi GO O5 CO OO Oi i? o 3 d = , CHAPTER XVI STATE FORESTS AND FOREST POLICIES 1. HISTORY During the reconstruction era following the Civil War, there was widespread enthusiasm for tree planting and the better protection of forests. Great fires had ravaged our woods, and a strong interest was displayed in planting the treeless plains of the prairie states. Still later, sentiment became focused on the subject, resulting in defi- nite legislative action. This appeared to be a national movement and was country-wide in its extent. Federal legislation in 1876, as de- scribed elsewhere, stimulated definite action by the states more thor- oughly than any other single factor. In 1885, state forestry made an auspicious beginning, for in that year, four states, New York, Ohio, Colorado, and California, enacted legislation formulating forestry or- ganizations. In the last two states, the value of forestry in protecting water flows for irrigation purposes was the initial stimulus. Crystal- lization of sentiment has continued along similar lines in these and many other states of the West. State forestry legislation became most active in New England and the East, then in the Lake States or Central West, and finally in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States. Although the southeastern and southern states were generally the last to take up state forestry, they have made notable progress during recent years, especially since 1921. Some of them now have the most effective laws and organizations in the entire country. Legislative action in state forestry generally follows the leader- ship of one or more able men, like J. T. Rothrock in Pennsylvania, where a Commissioner of Forestry was appointed in 1895 and an adequate policy for state forestry was enacted in 1897. S. B. Green made notable contributions in Minnesota and was a great bulwark of strength in formulating legislative action in 1899 to provide for forest conservation and better fire protection. A great forward advance was made in the period between 1901 and 1910, during the regimes of President Theodore Roosevelt and Chief Forester Gifford Pinchot. The influence of this president and his chief forester had great weight in the formation of both federal 213 214 STATE FORESTS AND FOREST POLICIES and state forest policies throughout the country. Prior to 1901, no technically trained foresters were employed in state service. There soon followed a wise insistence that state forest policies should be directed by trained and experienced foresters, and that they and their staffs should be free from political interference or influence. Disastrous forest fires, notably in Minnesota, California, Idaho, and New York, contributed to a quickening of activity in state organiza- tions, laws, and policies. The Weeks Law of 1911, providing for cooperative fire protection by the Federal Government in behalf of the various states on forested watersheds of navigable streams, exerted a powerful influence in the creation of additional state forestry organizations and the strengthen- ing of those already under administration. Now 39 states cooperate with the Federal Forest Service, as explained elsewhere. 2. NUMBER AND CHARACTER OF STATE FOREST ORGANIZATIONS Of the 48 states of the Union, 42 now have administrative agen- cies, laws, funds, and experienced personnel to carry on forestry activities. Pennsylvania has 61 technical men in its organization, and New York 57. The South generally leads the country in its legal provision for technical men to head the forestry work, and every southern and southeastern state now has an active forest organization. North Carolina was one of the first states of the Union to establish a forest policy and has been a consistent leader in the movement. Activities vary widely, depending upon the character of public sentiment reflected in legislation, urgency of certain phases of the work, and nature of the forest and its ownership. In some states, principal emphasis is given to protection from fire, insects, or disease; in others, to the acquisition and administration of state forests. Still others are principally concerned with planting of idle lands, shelter- belts, and windbreaks. Pennsylvania is generally recognized as hav- ing the most effective, balanced, and well-developed state forestry organization in the country. 3. FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES The work in each state as indicated depends upon local circum- stances and requirements for the various phases of forestry work. Altogether, however, the functions and activities consist of the fol- lowing : FUNCTIONS AND ACTIVITIES 215 1. The Purchase, Protection and Maintenance of State Forests. In some states, as in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, the state for- estry organization is also interested in the protection of private lands from fire and pest attacks. There has been a general tendency to extend fire protection either directly or cooperatively over all the for- ests of the state, irrespective of ownership. 2. The Establishment and Maintenance of State Tree Nurseries and Reforestation Activities. These have been the principal activi- ties in some states, as in New York, where little trees are distributed at cost to the people as well as for planting on State* Forests and lands owned by public agencies, like hospitals, prisons, colleges, and parks. There has been a widespread increase in the growing of forest trees for planting in many of the states, notably in Michi- gan, Indiana, Massachusetts, Wisconsin, Ohio, and several southern states. 3. Promotion and Stimulation of the Private Forest Owner to Practice Better Forestry. Separate divisions of the State Forest or- ganization are sometimes devoted to this single purpose. The work is done by written and oral advice to the owners of woodlands, the establishment of demonstration forest areas under management, and by practical cutting, planting, and improvement thinning demonstra- tions. Bulletins, pamphlets, and press releases are issued on matters of popular interest such as reforestation, fire protection, recreation, and management of woodlands. 4. Education and Extension. An important function of all State Forest Services is to educate the general public, including school chil- dren, regarding the necessity of more and better forests. This is ac- complished by radio broadcasts; talks before luncheon, women's, civic, patriotic, and fraternal clubs; exhibits at state and county fairs; Arbor Day celebrations; the distribution of publications dealing with the improvement of woodlands, reforestation, and fire protection. The laws of Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, and Tennessee require the teaching of forestry by the regular staffs of teachers in both primary and advanced public schools. In Ohio, South Carolina, and West Virginia, a course of study in forest-fire prevention for the schools is prescribed by law. Tennessee has led in requiring forestry to be included in the public-school curriculum. 5. Cooperation with the Federal Government and with Private Organizations in Fire Protection, in the Growth and Distribution of Trees, and in Woodlot Forestry. Under certain conditions, as ex- plained elsewhere, the Federal Government contributes funds to the various states for these activities. Aside from this, the individual 216 STATE FORESTS AND FOREST POLICIES states may cooperate in fire protection or in other work on private or corporate timber properties. 6. Research. Whenever educational institutions are present, this activity is generally left to them. If not, however, much investigative work may be carried on if funds are available. Special state-sup- ported research centers have been established, as at Mont Alto in Pennsylvania, Cloquet in Minnesota, and Roscommon in Michigan. There are now 4,395,000 acres in State Forests and another 2^ million in process of acquisition. There are also over 2% million acres in State Parks which are frequently managed or operated as State Forests. Of all the State Forests, 89% of the area is in the Northeast, the Middle Atlantic States, and the Lake States. The State Forests of Montana, Idaho, and Washington comprise a large share of the balance. There is a sharp distinction between the objectives of National Forests and National Parks. This, however, does not exist to the same degree in the management of State Forests and Parks. The federal distinction is best shown in the development and use of all resources in the National Forests, whereas there is no commercial use or development in National Parks. Often the objectives in manage- ment may be the same in State Parks as in State Forests. For ex- ample, in New York no cutting is permitted in over 2 million acres of State Parks in the Adirondack and Catskill Mountains, by consti- tutional prohibition, whereas in other State Parks, outside these mountainous areas, cutting is permitted. .Many of the western states obtained their State Forests from the school sections 16 and 36 in each township, which were allocated to the various states from the public domain. Each state has a somewhat different policy with respect to the distinction between State Forests and State Parks. Sometimes both come within the same department, and sometimes there is a separate organization for each activity. Similarly, the organization of the forestry work varies widely. The state forester is also known as director, forest commissioner, or chief of a division of a State Forest or conservation commission. He may be appointed by the governor as in Georgia, Montana, Iowa, Maine, and Vermont, or by a state board or commission as in Texas, Virginia, Florida, Mississippi, Michigan, Idaho, and Oregon. Tenure of office may be optional with his superior or for a definite term. He may be subordinate to a board, commission, or commissioner, or he may report directly to the governor. In relatively few of the states is the work under or connected with an agricultural board or de- partment. TRENDS AND POLICIES 217 More than 27,000 men are employed permanently or temporarily in our State Forest organizations, of whom only about 350 are tech- nically trained foresters. It is possible that gradually more trained personnel will be employed. Pennsylvania has more than 4000; North Carolina, about 4000; Tennessee, about 4000; New York, 3000; Vir- ginia, 1400; West Virginia, 9000; Washington, 386 men in their for- estry organizations, a very large proportion of whom are part-time men engaged principally on forest-fire protection. 4. TRENDS AND POLICIES Within recent years there has been a noteworthy expansion in the acquisition of State Forests and Parks, in better systems of fire and pest control, and in the reforestation of idle, burned, or submarginal lands. Facilities for recreation which include hunting and fishing have also been largely extended. The Civilian Conservation Corps pro- gram has greatly stimulated several of these activities. In order to obtain some of these 200-men camps, it was necessary for the states to own the lands on which these men were worked. Since the organi- zation of the Corps over 600,000 acres have been added to State Parks alone, and many hundred thousand acres have been added to the area of State Forests. Many states contain both Federal and State Forests, among them Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Vermont, New Hamp- shire, Idaho, Colorado, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas. In some states, local authorities are opposed to further extension of National Forests within their boundaries. Generally, however, various states have welcomed the purchase and establishment of federal forests. From a broad viewpoint, the Federal Government should acquire the more remote, inaccessible, poorer, and mountain lands for interstate watershed and water-flow protection, whereas the smaller units, the more accessible and better forest lands, should be acquired by the states. Some foresters think that a very large share of our forest lands should be owned and managed by such federal agencies as the Forest Service, National Park Service, and Indian Service. Others contend that a proper balance should be maintained between federal and state ownership. Still others believe that the further extension of federal ownership is undesirable within some states. The question of federal versus state rights is involved. Where both State and National Forests are found within a single state, there should be a coordination of policies and objectives. This is usually and happily the case, as both agencies are seeking the same common good and welfare of the people. 218 STATE FORESTS AND FOREST POLICIES In some states the major productive forest areas are already in National Forests, as in Idaho, Montana, and Colorado, so the oppor- tunities for expansion of State Forests may be limited. However, about four-fifths of all forest areas of all kinds are still in private ownership, so generally there is a large opportunity for considerable expansion of State Forests and Federal Forests as well. Many au- thorities believe, however, that we should encourage the practice of forestry by corporations and individuals, like farmers, lumbermen, mine companies, pulp and paper companies, water companies, fishing and hunting clubs, and resorts, rather than leave the responsibility entirely to federal and state agencies. In Arizona and New Mexico where there are large holdings of both state and federal forests, the state lands are managed and pro- tected and the mature timber is sold by the U. S. Forest Service under a joint agreement. In some states, as Nevada, Wyoming, and Utah, there are insufficient forest areas outside the National Forests to jus- tify an extensive or well-supported state forestry organization. CHAPTER XVII COUNTY, TOWN, AND COMMUNITY FORESTS For many centuries communal forests have been owned and oper- ated successfully in many parts of Europe. The establishment of community forests in this country may be directly attributed to the success attained by these forests in Europe, where in extreme cases the citizens of these towns are free of taxation for schools, roads, police, and fire protection because of the profits obtained from the practice of forestry on lands owned by these communities on the surrounding or adjacent hillsides. As early as 1882, Massachusetts authorized the acquisition of mu- nicipal forests. Later, New Jersey in 1906, Pennsylvania in 1909, Minnesota, New Hampshire, and Indiana in 1913, and Vermont in 1915 authorized the establishment of the communal forests. The city of Fitchburg, Massachusetts, claims to have established the first town forest under a state law in 1914. The communal forests, or those known as town or county forests, received considerable impetus during the decade after the World War. A special premium was offered to towns in Massachusetts for establishing forests. The Massachusetts Forestry Association was very active in this work. In New York, the town and county forest movement has made considerable progress, especially following the law passed at the be- hest of the State Reforestation Commission. State subsidies are offered to counties for the acquisition, planting, and management of county forests. Figures by Tillotson show that there are 390 town and municipal forests in New York, 90 in Massachusetts, 82 in New Hampshire, 45 in Michigan, 37 in North Carolina, 23 in Ohio, 23 in Connecticut, and several others in Pennsylvania, Alabama, South Carolina, and other states. Altogether there are 801 town and municipal forests in the United States, with a total acreage of 473,000 acres. Similarly, the county forest program has enjoyed progress during recent years. In Wisconsin, impetus was given by special legislation providing for state participation in expense. There are 11 county forests in Wisconsin with a total area of more than 46,000 acres. In 219 220 COUNTY, TOWN, AND COMMUNITY FORESTS New York a law was passed providing for state contributions up to $5000 per year to any county for land purchase and reforestation and protection. That state has 34 county forests with a total acreage of 18,000 acres. Other states having county forests are Illinois, with 7, and New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Mississippi, and New Hampshire. In Wisconsin tax-delinquent lands revert to the county. A large share of the county forests have been organized from this form of acqui- sition. Several counties in California have made substantial progress in forestry, notably Los Angeles, Ventura, and Santa Barbara. The first has annually appropriated as much as $1,000,000 for forestry work, chiefly fire protection for the nearby mountain watersheds. Fire fol- lowed by floods has done enormous damage in parts of the Sierra Madre and other ranges in southern California. Cooperation with federal, municipal, and private agencies has been active and effective. An excellent opportunity for luncheon clubs, civic organizations, chambers of commerce, boy scouts, and other local groups is provided in the purchase, planting, protection, and operation of community forests on the outskirts of nearly all our communities, except the largest urban centers and those located in regions of rich agricultural soils. More than 50,000,000 acres of land, located in nearly every state, are idle and abandoned, some of which could be profitably de- voted to county, town, or communal forests. Many water depart- ments of communities have planted millions of trees about the water- sheds to insure a clean and adequate supply of water for the future. CHAPTER XVIII PRIVATE FORESTRY 1. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE Private individuals, companies, and groups own 79% of all the commercial forest. These are chiefly lumbermen and farmers. Others representing ownership in this class are pulp and paper companies, mining companies (chiefly those owning large tracts of coal-bearing areas) water companies to protect the watersheds of drainage basins, and private estates which may be handled chiefly for aesthetic pur- poses but may also include commercial objectives as well. There are also hunting and fishing clubs and private corporations such as the Singer Sewing Machine Company, the International Harvester Com- pany, the Eastman Kodak Company, the Ford Motor Car Company, and many others which are interested in maintaining adequate re- serves of timber for the production of lumber, wooden parts, or wood products that are used in their manufacturing enterprises. Most of the larger holdings controlled by private companies are found in the Pacific Coast region and in the South. Some of these companies own or control 50,000 to 500,000 acres of timberland or more. It is very apparent, therefore, that if forestry is to be widely prac- ticed in this country, the privately owned forests furnish the greatest opportunities, at least in area. Some foresters believe that the government and states should own and control a very large share of our commercial forest properties. The high mountain areas, the protection forests at the headwaters of our major streams, and the remote and inaccessible forest areas that probably cannot be profitably managed by private individuals and corporations are largely contained within our National and State For- ests and Parks. The better class of timberlands should be left to private ownership. There is a proper balance between private and public ownership which should be maintained in the future unless it becomes a part of our governmental policy to own, control, or operate many forms of enterprises. This policy, however, does not seem to fit in with our American traditions. 221 222 PRIVATE FORESTRY 2. PAST HISTORY AND TRENDS— WHAT HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED The practice of forestry on privately owned property is often referred to as industrial forestry. Many attempts have been made by private owners to perpetuate and continue the growth of timber on their properties. The earliest efforts were in the direction of better fire protection to prevent both current and prospective losses of growing timber. Then several companies attempted conservative cutting methods designed to assure the future growth of timber by taking only the larger trees, by leaving seed trees, by more complete and efficient utilization and by other methods intended to serve both the present and future requirements of the forest-holding company. Still later, several companies, particularly in the Northeast, the red- wood region, and the southern pine region, established nurseries for growing trees for reforestation purposes. Notable examples were the Brown Company nursery at Oquossoc, Maine, the large nurseries and plantations of the Great Southern Lumber Company at Bogalusa, Louisiana, and the Industrial Lumber Company at Elizabeth, Louisiana, and several redwood lumber companies in northwestern California. Con- currently with this progressive advance, many attempts were made better to control insects and diseases, especially in Maine, New York, and the Lake States. Through studies conducted by the U. S. Forest Service, improved methods of turpentining were introduced in the longleaf pine and slash pine forests of the Southeast. Still later, many companies introduced cutting methods intended to promote natural regeneration and thus increase the rate of growth on a sustained yield basis. The Finch Pruyn Company cuts its spruce pulpwood timber to an 8-inch minimum diameter limit in the Adirondacks in New York. Several companies in cooperation with the Forest Service have made careful studies to determine the profitable diameter limits for cutting, which is discussed later under the subject of selective logging. A study * was made to determine the extent of forest management policies on private holdings of more than 1000 acres. This survey disclosed that 268 companies were making definite efforts to grow timber on over 20 million acres; 42 additional companies were giving their holdings excellent care without definite timber-growing purposes but where favorable opportunities existed to practice forestry. These companies represent over 2 million acres. There were 178 companies * Conducted by a committee of the Society of American Foresters, Washing- ton, D. C., under the chairmanship of S. W. Allen, 1930. More recently revised .by the U. S. Forest Service. THE FARM WOODLAND AND SMALL TIMBER TRACTS 223 using careful cutting methods intended to permit natural regeneration on over 10 million acres. About 40 companies were attempting to put their holdings on a sustained yield basis on 3l/2 million acres. There were 253 companies providing effective fire control indepen- dently of public cooperation in addition to other forestry activities on about 17 million acres. Seventy-five companies were practicing close and intensive forms of utilization on their logging operations on about 5 million acres. Fifteen companies maintained nurseries for growing trees for planting, the number of trees produced annually being 30 million. Seventy-six companies were planting trees and had planted over 100,000 acres. In addition to these definite advances in the practice of forestry on private holdings, 79 companies employed foresters in timber production, the total number employed being 146. Seventy-seven companies use consulting foresters on a part-time basis. Sixty companies were spending money to eliminate or control insects or diseases, and 46 companies in the South and Southeast were using improved methods in turpentining operations on 1,500,000 acres of longleaf and slash pines (chiefly second-growth timber). Some com- panies have logged their forests two or three times and still have a good stand of rapidly growing young timber for another cut. These figures indicate a very definite forward advance in the progress of forestry on private holdings. Some of the best opportunities are on farmer's woodlots, and much progress has been made there. However, a very large opportunity exists for improved practice of forestry on the smaller tracts and woodlots, especially east of the Mississippi River, as indicated else- where in the text. 3. THE FARM WOODLAND AND THE SMALL TIMBER TRACTS The farm woodlands offer excellent opportunities for the practice of forestry, and considerable progress has been made in that impor- tant private ownership group. Farm woodlands comprise 25% of all the commercial forest land of the nation — about 126 million acres. East of the Rocky Moun- tains they include more than three-fifths of all the forest. Probably the most stable form of private ownership is represented in these small tracts. A crude form of forestry has generally been practiced on these properties, which are usually from 5 to 50 acres or more in extent and constitute an important part of the farm. These wood- lands have supplied fuelwood for home consumption (generally about 17 cords per family per year), or for sale. They are also an impor- 224 PRIVATE FORESTRY tant source of supply for saw logs for lumber, for repairs, bridges, and construction work about farms, posts and rails for fencing pur- poses, and for miscellaneous uses, such as maple syrup and sugar in the Northeast and North, and naval stores in the Southeast. Of all the commercial forests privately owned, these woodlots contain about 35 million acres of saw timber estimated to contain 123 billion b.f. compared with 90 million acres in industrial ownership, estimated to contain 864 billion b.f. Therefore they constitute a very important source of our timber supplies. The tendency in the management of these small tracts has been to fell the better species and the larger trees for current needs and to leave the poorer individual trees and species to develop into the forests of the future. This constant elimination of the better-quality stock and the failure to improve growing conditions has very generally resulted in a gradual deterioration of the woodlot as a source of farm timbers and products for sale in the future. Too many small trees that would produce a 2"x4" piece or small boards have been cut. These small and medium-sized trees grow rapidly and are laying on a most favorable rate of wood growth. They should not be cut until they reach larger sizes. Many woodlands have been planted in the prairie states for shel- terbelts and windbreaks. Many trees have also been planted on the farmsteads and in connection with woodlots for shade purposes for both man and animals. Submarginal lands have been planted on many farms for timber, Christmas trees, and fence posts. The chief problem of the woodlot owner is to know when, where, and how to sell his surplus timber products at a profit. The woodlot may be the important or major source of farm income. Too frequently the entire lot is sold for a lump sum to a portable-mill owner or lumberman without proper cutting restrictions. Perhaps a few of the best trees may be sold at a relatively low price for stumpage. Many owners sacrifice a good growing stock for immediate cash returns. Sometimes this is unavoidable. A vast total quantity of Christmas trees, cords of pulpwood, poles, piling, posts, grape stakes, mine timber, veneer and cooperage logs, distillation wood, and other materials are produced on these small tracts. In fact they compose a large source of these materials in many sections of the South, the Central States, the Northeast, and the Lake States. Even in Wash- ington and Oregon the farm woodlot is becoming of real importance. The total value of woodlot produce was 242 million dollars in a recent year. The South and Southeast contain more than 57 million acres of farm woodlots — more than any other region. PRINCIPAL DIFFICULTIES AND DETERRENTS 225 The best stimulus for improved farm woodlots is in finding a profitable outlet for the products. Much emphasis is given to better planting, thinning, cutting, protection, and other silvicultural prac- tices, but little has been accomplished to assist the farmer in securing a good price for his product. If his forestry efforts are successful and profitable, he will be encouraged to practice better forestry on his woodlands for the future. R. K. Day of the Forest Service has pointed out that one owner in the Ohio Valley has kept an accurate record of cash sales for 13 years since the World War. He received a total cash income of over $10,000 or a return of $10.73 per acre per year from 75 acres of farm woodlands. The area is classified under the Indiana tax law so the yearly taxes do not exceed 10 cents per acre. All the work was done by the farmer and his immediate family, and no hired teams were employed. This owner cut, sold, and delivered 266,000 b.f. of hard- wood logs at an average price of $35.00 per m.b.f. He also sold and delivered 643 cords of fuelwood at an average price of $3.10 per cord, and supplied his own needs of 25 cords per year. Although over 700 b.f. per acre were cut during the last two years, the woods appear to be at least 90% stocked. Much damage to reproduction and young growth has been inflicted by the grazing of domestic animals, especially in the hardwood for- ests of the Central States, as in Indiana, Ohio, and Kentucky. Considerable progress in woodland management was achieved through the Clarke-McNary Act of 1924. Since then, 39 states have provided for forest extension work through the various state agricul- tural colleges to assist in establishing, improving, and renewing wood- lots, shelterbelts, windbreaks, and other forest growth, and in mar- keting or cutting the products. Forestry work with the 4-H Clubs has been effective and promises much for the future of woodlot for- estry. In effect, many farm woodlands are already managed on a sus- tained yield basis. A woodlot in northern New Jersey has supplied one family for six generations with a regular source of fuelwood, posts, and farm timbers, and the forest was generally maintained in excellent condition. 4. PRINCIPAL DIFFICULTIES AND DETERRENTS TO THE PRACTICE OF PRIVATE FORESTRY Many factors have tended to discourage or prevent the more rapid practice of forestry on private timber property. Among these may be mentioned the following: 226 PRIVATE FORESTRY 1. Taxation. The burdens of annual taxation have been adduced as a deterrent to the practice of forestry. As it requires many years for a tree crop to mature, the cumulative effects of the tax burden may operate adversely when a woodland owner contemplates a defi- nite plan of management. Many states have enacted measures to relieve this burden. Deferred or low current taxes are paid until the crop is ready for cutting and then a yield tax is applied. Various forms of yield or crop tax have been applied with some degree of success. Indiana, Louisiana, Wisconsin, and Oregon have successful taxation laws in effect. In some states there is a tax on the cutting in order to pay for the conservation measures in effect. In many states, as in New York, advantage has not been taken of the yield tax principle as applied to plantations and young growth. 2. Long-Time Investment. The cumulative effect of interest charges, protection expenses, depreciation of improvements and other structures may be so large and burdensome that it may be difficult to hold forest properties over extended periods of time. This is an excellent argument in favor of state and federal ownership as con- trasted with private ownership. Although the people pay taxes for the maintenance of our state and federal forests instead of the indi- viduals assuming this responsibility, many lumber companies as in the Northwest have been forced to liquidate their timber investments because the carrying charges for interest as well as taxation and other overhead expenses have been too burdensome to carry, in spite of the purchase of these holdings at a relatively low stumpage value. 3. Hazards of Fire or Pest Injury. In some regions, the danger of loss by fire is exceedingly serious and the costs of protection are very burdensome. In others, insect and fungus attacks have forced immediate cutting and liquidation. The hazards from these enemies of the forests have been a serious deterrent to the practice of forestry. It is possible that a system of forest fire insurance may be devised and that protective methods and organizations may be so improved as to minimize these damages and make the premium on insurance rates low enough to be attractive to private owners. 4. Low Prices for Forest Products. Many farmers and other forest owners have not received sufficiently high prices to justify any capital expenditure for forest improvements and maintenance such as planting, fire lines, and improvement cuttings. The market prices received for forest products are probably the greatest single factor in determining the intensity of forest practices in this country. High prices for forest products will greatly encourage the practice of for- PRINCIPAL DIFFICULTIES AND DETERRENTS 227 estry. Conversely, low prices will not encourage the private individual to handle his forests on a sustained yield basis. 5. Unstable and Uncertain Markets. Separate from the low price factor is the fact that prices for forest products vary over a wide range. Owners should take advantage of the crest of price cycles if possible. Changing customs, the increasing introduction and use of substitutes, have made the prices for lumber and other forest products very unstable, uncertain, and unattractive at times. Under these conditions, it is impossible to forecast, accurately, prices to be ex- pected for many of our products. It is likely that the high prices of 1920 may not be reached again for several years. 6. Public and Private Apathy and Ignorance. There has been a failure on the part of both federal and state governments properly to assist private owners to practice forestry. Too few laws are on our statute books to encourage forestry on private property. t The lending power of the federal and state governments at low rates might well be put into effect as has been done to encourage other private indus- tries and activities. PART IV EDUCATION AND RESEARCH CHAPTER XIX FORESTRY EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 1. SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY Forestry education in this country began with the Biltmore Forest School established by Dr. Carl Schenck on the Vanderbilt estate, at Biltmore, North Carolina, in 1898. This was a forestry academy and some of the time was spent in traveling to various forest regions of this country and in Europe. The first professional collegiate school of forestry was established at Cornell University in 1898; it was dis- continued in 1903 and re-established in 1910. The first permanently established school was located at Yale University in 1900. This country has twenty-four professional schools of forestry. They generally offer four- or five-year courses of instruction. There are four professional forestry schools in Canada. Three schools, namely at Duke, Harvard, and Yale Universities, are solely on a graduate basis. Two state-supported schools offer semi-professional training at ranger schools, namely, at Wanakena, New York, and Mont Alto, Pennsylvania. In addition to these schools of professional character, some courses in forestry are offered at a large number of agricultural, engineering, teachers, liberal arts, and other colleges, as well as at normal schools and junior colleges. Some schools give a pre-forestry training in fundamentals which lead directly to later attendance at schools of professional rank. At least some course of instruction in forestry, either of a professional or non-professional nature, is offered at over 95 colleges and universities. The following list compiled by H. H. Chapman shows the pro- fessional schools of forestry with their locations, departmental status, and degrees given. 228 SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY 229 fa a O2 O2 rn PQ PQ pq "«H ^3 (^i CO fa •- o .„ tt 02 | & PQ PQ ^J ^ £ 3 a — & _« D e » ^ H "^ iq «r< O O 7 .0.0 I .2*8 -B .S ^ ° ;il r o3 a a. si : - .2 "g . -T m JH 1 i - < ^ > e tmimmaiitmm n <; o -' § I| 33 -S *J 0 W •a a acMMo * O * IIIIllIIIllllll ||S 1 1 1 tf O 02 _- *— i o> i^ § ^ . > ll8 02 PH ^ 3 1^ .8 3po o ^ 02 b •*-* * 1 KJ O ^_rt03"HlH'MK'2d a g ^ g '3 .2 -g .a § WS^J^^P^^ o o 1 c3 O2 o -t3 bC P T3 fc o fl »-• £o£(S 0) O «~ CQ ^ 3 •Tn bfl t2 P 230 FORESTRY EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 2. WHAT FORESTRY GRADUATES DO * According to a study by Graves and Guise, approximately 80% of the graduates of the professional forestry schools are engaged in some phase of forestry occupations and activities. This compares favorably with other professions. However, forestry is still a rela- tively young profession. In many ways, occupations are expanding and new fields of activity are being developed. Graduates of forestry schools are employed in many more occupations than a decade or more ago. It is likely that the field of employment will expand with the broader conception of the province of forestry in the coming years. According to the above authorities, the graduates of forestry schools are employed as follows: OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS PERCENTAGE U. S. Forest Service 27.4 Other federal services 5.9 Forest industries 29.2 State services 11.1 Educational institutions 9.3 Tree and landscape agencies 3.6 Graduate study 3.2 County and municipal services 3.0 Consulting forestry 2.1 Forestry and trade associations 1.6 Private estates 1.4 Foreign services 1.2 Forest tree nurseries . 1 .0 Total 100.0 Annual earnings generally begin at $1800 on graduation, and aver- age incomes of men twenty years after graduation indicate salaries of $4700. Those with advanced degrees such as the master's and doctor's generally receive higher salaries than those with the bache- lor's degree. Those with the master's degree show average incomes of $5500 twenty years after graduation. The various emergency conservation and social employment meas- ures inaugurated under President Franklin D. Roosevelt and dis- cussed elsewhere have added very materially to the employment possibilities in forestry. In fact, there has been a great dearth of well- trained, experienced, and skilled foresters for the various technical * For an elaboration of this subject see "Forestry Education" by Graves and Guise, Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut, 1932. WHAT FORESTRY GRADUATES DO 231 positions that have been available. Enrolment in the forestry schools has reflected these increased opportunities. In nearly all the schools a substantial increase in the number of students has been noted since 1933. Many agricultural, teachers, engineering, and normal schools and junior colleges as well as those with the usual liberal arts cur- ricula have offered electives or credit courses in forestry or forest conservation. CHAPTER XX FOREST RESEARCH 1. GENERAL Research may be described as the systematic study of certain phenomena by the experimental or investigative method. From a broad viewpoint, this nation is still in the infancy of knowledge re- garding many aspects of forestry and forest products. We know relatively little of the silvicultural requirements of trees and the part they play in tree associations. We know comparatively little about wood and its multiple physical and chemical characteristics. Al- though trees, forests, and wood are commonplace things in our daily lives, and much study has been given them, an exact and scientific knowledge of their relationship to our national welfare is still rela- tively little understood. Research has been conducted largely by our federal agencies, universities, colleges, and private industries and individuals. Large industrial groups, such as those engaged in the manufacture of auto- mobiles, chemicals, clothing, iron and its many by-products, electric devices, and telephones, maintain large, well-equipped research de- partments. The efficient growth of forests and the adequate utiliza- tion of forest products are matters of such wide public concern that federal agencies have taken the leadership in forest research. In fact, from the very earliest organization of our federal forestry agencies, research has been one of the principal activities. For many years prior to the creation and organization of our National Forests, re- search was one of the most important aspects of the forestry move- ment. This continued. until 1915, when the branch of research was established in the U. S. Foreign Service by the then chief forester, Henry S. Graves. The general expressed purpose was the greater efficiency of the three main departmental activities of the Forest Ser- vice, namely, those dealing with regulation, research, and extension. It became recognized that the great responsibility and objective of the Forest Service was to secure the complete use of all the forest lands of the country and of their products. 232 GENERAL 233 The most important act which has provided for a definite policy of research was the McSweeney-McNary Forest Research Act of 1928. This specified what research was to be done, set up a definite program of field units, and outlined a ten-year financial program with certain restrictions, which includes a statement of the national need for research and the rate at which an efficient organization can be developed. Hawley, in his book on Silviculture previously referred to, has pointed out that the experience of many years is necessary to develop adequate and efficient methods of silvicultural treatment of our forests, in relation to silvicultural systems as well as in thinning and cutting immature stands to improve the rate of growth, composi- tion, and general condition of the stands. Recently the demand for knowledge obtained through research has been greater than ever because of the large amount of man power available for work in the woods through the Civilian Conservation Corps (Emergency Conservation Work), the Tennessee Valley Au- thority, drought relief in the Middle West, chiefly in connection with the Shelterbelt Project, the marketing agreement with the naval stores producers in the South, the President's National Resources Board, the National Research Council, the special cabinet committee on rivers and waterways, the Soil Conservation Service, housing programs in- volving the use of lumber, and several other unemployment relief measures. The acquisition of submarginal lands and the broadening of the uses of lumber and other forest products have also intensified the importance of research. When the Civilian Conservation Corps was organized in 1933, many thousands of men were available for improvement and cultural thinning in our young, ragged, and immature stands of timber. With almost 600,000 men available for all types of woods work in 1935, it became necessary to employ them on useful, constructive work in the woods. Some of the research problems had not been sufficiently studied to give fundamental facts necessary to put many of these young men to work in stand improvement activities. For example, in stands of young lodgepole pine timber containing from 5 to 20 thousand trees per acre, the question of the number of trees to elim- inate and the spacing of trees left, was not readily answered. Ade- quately trained foresters, familiar with the results of research, were not available in sufficiently large numbers to meet many of these problems. Briefly summarized, research seeks to obtain in the briefest pos- sible space and time, and at the lowest possible expense, the funda- 234 FOREST RESEARCH mental facts and knowledge that appear to be important in the field of forestry. The objectives may be stated as follows: 1. To establish markets for forest products and make it better possible for lumber and associated products to compete with other materials, especially those substitutes which have en- croached, sometimes unfairly, for purposes where wood is the best and most inexpensive material. 2. To maintain the greatest productivity and the best use of for- est land for timber growing. 3. To examine the effects of forests and other natural vegetative cover on the regulation of stream flow and the prevention of erosion and floods. 4. To attain the most productive use of forest ranges for the graz- ing of domestic animals consistent with timber growing, water- shed protection, and native wild life. 5. To continue the forest in the best possible condition to meet the recreational needs of the nation. 6. To obtain information for the continuance of the forest as a center of game management and protection for wild life con- sistent with other uses and developments. 7. To evolve the best methods of economic and social life in for- est communities. Expressed concretely, the objectives of research are to make our forests render the widest and finest economic and social usefulness to our people. 2. PRINCIPAL ACTIVITIES The principal work in forest research is done by the Forest Service through its various agencies, bureaus, and experiment stations. One of the outstanding examples of systematic and successful research is found at the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis- consin, which has eminently demonstrated its efficiency in increasing the knowledge of wood and its possible uses. As stated by Clapp in the Copeland Report, "Forest products are falling behind in the com- petition with other materials because, for one thing, less is known of their properties and how to use them. It is conceivable that forest products research can be made one of the chief competitive weapons to maintain an increased consumption and hence of an aggressive, constructive, plan-wise effort to make certain the use of forest land and to keep available for public use a material of high intrinsic value." The Forest Service conducts 11 regional forest experiment stations, PRINCIPAL ACTIVITIES 235 the headquarters of 6 of which are maintained at and in cooperation with universities. These stations are located as follows: Allegheny Forest Experiment Station, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Appalachian Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, North Caro- lina. California Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cali- fornia. Central States Forest Experiment Station, Columbus, Ohio. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ephraim, Utah. Lake States Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, Minnesota. FIG. 116.— General view of U. S. Forest Products laboratory at Madison, Wis- consin, where a large staff of scientists and specialists are working on wood utilization problems. Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut. Northern Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Missoula, Mont. Pacific Northwest Forest Experiment Station, Portland, Oregon. Southern Forest Experiment Station, New Orleans, Louisiana. Southwestern Forest and Range Experiment Station, Tucson, Ari- zona. Financial provision has also been made for the Central Rocky Mountain Station. In recent years 29 experimental forests and 4 experimental ranges have been set aside by formal proclamation, and 24 natural areas 236 FOREST RESEARCH have been established for investigative purposes. Additional experi- mental forests and natural areas are being selected. It is planned to have from 5 to 10 experimental forests in each forest region. Appropriations made available for forest research during a recent fiscal year were over 2% million dollars. Nearly 2 million dollars of this amount was available for current research expenditures and the balance for research investments, chiefly construction work, equip- ment, and acquisition of land. The chief divisions of experimental work in the Forest Service in order of importance from the viewpoint of appropriations are: 1. Forest products. 2. Forest management. 3. Forest survey. 4. Range investigations. 5. Watershed protection. 6. Forest economics. 7. Forest taxation and insurance. The chief studies in the field of forest products which have to do with the more efficient utilization of forest crops are the use of lumber and wood in the building field, selective logging, studies of the pre- vention of sap stain on lumber, the use of lumber for cooperage, timber preservation, painting, better seasoning and kiln-drying prac- tices, and improvements in the manufacture of pulp and paper from wood. In the field of forest management, studies are being made of cutting methods, slash disposal, fire control, silviculture and naval stores research, tree planting, problems in the prairie states, and im- proved nursery and reforestation practices. Watershed protection and forest influence investigations are conducted in connection with flood and associated problems in southern California, the Boise River watershed, the Appalachian Mountains, and in many other parts of the country. Range investigations are devoted to artificial reseeding problems, studies of grazing capacities and time of use on special types of ranges, control of rodents, and the general improvement of range conditions. In the field of forest economics, dependable data are being sought by public administrators, economists, and industrial- ists. This includes the study of tax delinquencies in many sections of the country, the relation of improved logging methods to sound timber management plans, time and cost studies on logging operations to improve the technique, forest fire insurance for the ponderosa pine and redwood regions of California, and a study of stumpage and log prices. Within the general field of forest economics, the nation-wide PRINCIPAL ACTIVITIES 237 forest survey is being conducted. This includes an inventory of forest land and timber, an appraisal of present and potential growth, a study of requirements, and the interpretation of them in relation to each other and to other economic factors as a basis for forest poli- cies and programs. The field work has been largely completed in the Pacific Northwest and is being actively conducted in the South and the Lake States where 120 million acres and 55 million acres re- spectively have been covered. The study of the fundamental re- search phases of forest taxation is completed. Active studies are also being conducted by the various State For- est services as well as other governmental agencies. At several schools of forestry, some of the faculty members devote all or part of their time to research. Some states and schools have established very suc- cessful research stations, such as at Cloquet, Minnesota; Mont Alto, Pennsylvania; the Yale Forests in Connecticut and New Hampshire; the Duke Forest in North Carolina; the Harvard Forest, at Peter- sham, Massachusetts; the Arnot Forest in connection with Cornell University; the Pack Demonstration Forests in New York and Wash- ington; and the Bates Forest in Maine. They are conducting research in several phases of forestry, particularly as applied to local and regional problems. Many private studies have been conducted by some of the large lumber companies, frequently in cooperation with state or federal agencies. Among these may be mentioned those at Urania and Bogalusa, Louisiana, northern Idaho, and in many sections of the West and Northeast on problems of forest management or utilization, especially in connection with selective logging, reforesta- tion, fire control, and improved utilization practices. Several of the schools of forestry have established laboratories in kiln-drying, timber preservation, timber testing, and pulp and paper manufacture, as a part of their school activities, both for research as well as for educational purposes. PART V FORESTRY IN THE NEW GOVERNMENTAL PROGRAMS CHAPTER XXI GENERAL Shortly after his inauguration on March 4, 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt began the formulation and organization of many im- portant conservation programs which have immeasurably advanced the cause of forestry throughout the country and have generally en- joyed widespread public approval. Many of these programs are directly connected with the unemployment relief situation to fit the economic requirements of the time. Social relief has been combined with the development and expansion of our forest resources. These have succeeded definitely in relieving the serious unemployment situa- tion and also have contributed in a very substantial way to the up- building, development, and extension of our forest resources. These administrative enactments under presidential guidance described later have already resulted in the following improvements of our forest conditions generally. 1. Increased stimulus to reforestation by planting millions of trees on submarginal and abandoned farmlands, burned, idle, and eroded areas in National and State Forests as well as on privately owned land under the guidance of or in cooperation with federal, state, and local agencies. Planting on state and federal lands amounted to 164 mil- lion trees in 1934. 2. The further reduction of serious hazards in our forests from fire damage as well as serious depredation from tree insects and diseases. 3. The improvement of the general growing conditions of our young and immature stands of timber, chiefly in our National and State Forests, by weeding, thinning, improvement cuttings, and pruning. 4. A marked increase in the areas of National and State Forests as well as in State Parks as a result of the interest in our public 238 ENLARGED NATIONAL FOREST ACQUISITION PROGRAM 239 forests stimulated both directly and indirectly by presidential or leg- islative enactments. 5. The integration of social and economic phases of forestry ac- tivities with industrial, power, and other developments, as in the Tennessee Valley Authority and elsewhere. 6. The improvement of conditions for the management and con- tinuance of wild life resulting in better hunting and fishing facilities. This has been accomplished by stream improvements, the construc- tion of many hundreds of fish dams, and the increase in facilities for rearing and distributing trout and other fish and game birds. 7. The betterment of facilities for recreational use of the forests. Increased leisure time combined with the automobile and good roads have given new impetus and significance to forests for healthy recrea- tional and outdoor enjoyment of many kinds. The Civilian Con- servation Corps program in the National Forests, National Parks, as well as in State Forests and Parks has made a notable contribution in this direction. 8. The opening of the forests by means of roads, trails, and bridges, for better fire protection and recreational development, and the in- creased values of forest products by making our woodlands more accessible and available and therefore more valuable. These are the outstanding benefits derived from this enlarged for- estry program. Many more incidental and indirect benefits may be cited. This enumeration could very well include many more improve- ments in our general forest conditions which have inured directly to the greater prosperity, welfare, and happiness of the American people. ENLARGED NATIONAL FOREST ACQUISITION PROGRAM The Weeks Law of 1911, mentioned previously, provided for the first purchase of eastern National Forests on the watersheds of navi- gable streams. This program was greatly strengthened and enlarged by the Clarke-McNary Act of 1924. For many years, however, the fed- eral appropriations for the acquisition of these eastern National Forests has proceeded at the rate of about 2 million dollars annually. In July, 1933, President Roosevelt allocated 20 million dollars from the Emergency Conservation Work funds for additional purchases of Na- tional Forests. In December, 1934, he allocated 10 million dollars additional from the same funds and in 1935, several million dollars from general funds. This means that the system of National Forests in the East, South, and Lake States has been greatly enlarged. The total areas purchased are about 12 million acres. 240 GENERAL There are 69 established purchase areas — that is, locations in which the U. S. Forest Service is planning to extend and consolidate its National Forest properties. Among these, 2 are in New England, 14 in the northern Lake States, 16 in the southern Appalachian region, 24 in the southern pine region, 11 in the Ozark section of Missouri and Arkansas and the Central Mississippi region, and 2 in Puerto Rico. Some of the largest and most important areas acquired have been in southern Missouri, east Texas, central Louisiana, northern and southern Mississippi, southern Illinois, eastern Kentucky, South Caro- lina, North Carolina, northern Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and northern Minnesota. CHAPTER XXII EMERGENCY CONSERVATION WORK CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS The Civilian Conservation Corps is a combined social relief and conservation program. It was primarily designed to relieve distress FIG. 117. — Meal time at the first Civilian Conservation Corps camp, known as Camp Roosevelt, established in the George Washington National Forest in Virginia in April, 1933. and unemployment. It constitutes the greatest forward impetus that forest conservation has received since the early years of the present century, from President Theodore Roosevelt and his chief forester, Gifford Pinchot. It has provided a great opportunity to accomplish many things in the woods that foresters have wanted to do for years. 241 242 EMERGENCY CONSERVATION WORK This program was announced by President Franklin D. Roose- velt within a few days after his inauguration, and was approved on March 31, 1933. Within three weeks the first camp was established in Virginia. By July 1, 1933, about 310,000 young men were en- listed— the largest peace-time enrolment in the history of the country — more than served in the Spanish-American War. The rate of re- cruitment exceeded the busiest days of the World War. Over 1,200,000 men have been benefited by service in the work. In April, 1935, it was decided to expand the program to 1937 so that there would be about 600,000 men in about 2900 camps. FIG. 118. — Civilian Conservation Corps camp located in the Rocky Mountain National Park near Estes Park, Colorado. At the left are the army officers' and foresters' quarters, cooking and mess tent, and on the right are the pyramidal tents, each holding 6 men, with recreation tent on the extreme right. Four federal departments participated in the program, as follows: the Labor Department selected the men as to age and need for work from the unemployment relief rolls of each locality; the War De- partment enrolled the men, conditioned them in the various posts, transported them, and erected and operated the forestry camps; the Agriculture and Interior Departments were charged with the respon- sibility for the work done in the woods, chiefly through the Forest Service of the former department and the National Park Service and the Indian Forest Service of the latter. Approximately 80% of the camps were located on federal properties, and these two departments were charged with the responsibility for approximately 98% of the projects. Most of the camps were located in National Forests. A CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS 243 smaller number were located in State Forests, National Parks, State Parks, and Indian Reservations. Several were assigned to the Ten- nessee Valley Authority, Soil Conservation Service, and other federal projects for work in connection with them. The principal features of the program may be summarized as fol- lows: 1. It was primarily designed for unmarried men, 18 to 25 years of age, who had dependents at home. 2. The men were fed, housed, and clothed by the government and paid $30 per month, of which $25 was allocated to dependents at home — parents, brothers, sisters, etc. FIG. 119. — Morning roll call in one of the Civilian Conservation Corps camps near Maupin, Oregon. This is located in the heart of a ponderosa pine stand in the Cascade Mountains. About 200 men were assigned to each camp. An army officer served as Camp Commander and the Forestry Superintendent assisted by several forestry foremen had charge of the work in the woods. 3. The enrolment was predicated on a population basis so that men were selected chiefly from the larger urban centers. They were, therefore, largely city boys, untrained in the work of the woods and unskilled in the use of woods tools like the axe, cross-cut saw, peavy, cant hook, and bulldozer. 4. To each camp 200 men were assigned. The camps were operated by camp commanders, generally army captains, and a few assistants. The forestry work was supervised and directed by a camp superin- tendent and generally from 8 to 15 forestry foremen. 244 EMERGENCY CONSERVATION WORK 5. The men were expected to be engaged a minimum of 8 hours a day including lunch, or 40 hours a week. Saturdays were given over to camp clean-up and miscellaneous duties. Often from 1 to 3 hours were .required in going from the camp to the work and back. 6. No army discipline or drilling with rifles, that is, no militariza- tion, was permitted. They were civilian rather than military camps. 7. The men generally lived in barrack-type buildings in winter and frequently tent camps in summer, depending upon weather and climatic conditions. The chief buildings were the mess and cook halls, FIG. 120. — Building a lookout on Mt. Bradley in the Shasta National Forest, California. Mt. Shasta in the background. a recreation hall, tool house, and sleeping quarters for the army of- ficers, forestry supervisors, and the enrolled men. 8. Only about 32 to 41 cents per man per day was allocated for food supplies. This, however, did not include the cost of transporta- tion. The men generally gained from 10 to 25 pounds apiece during the 6-month enrolment period. Medical attention was available in all camps practically every day. 9. The number of camps varied from about 1450 to 1700 from 1933 to 1935, when they were nearly doubled. They were located in every state in the union but chiefly in the heavily forested regions of CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS 245 the South, the Northwest, the Lake States, the Rocky Mountains, the Appalachian Mountains, and the Northeast. During the first period of 6 months, California had 168 camps, chiefly in National Forests, Pennsylvania had 88 camps principally in State Forests, and Idaho had 96 camps, principally in National Forests. Some states had only two or three camps. The results of the program have been most beneficial, for the moral and physical as well as the mental well-being of the men. It has also greatly re- lieved distress in many hun- dreds of thousands of American homes. Moreover, it has effec- tively assisted industry in its economic recovery by the pur- chase of over 16,000 automotive units, chiefly small motor trucks, at a cost of over $12,000,000. Over 200,000,000 b.f. of lumber have been purchased for the erection of barracks and other camp structures. About 2,000,- 000 feet of water pipe, 4,500,000 pairs of shoes, 80,000 fire ex- tinguishers, 166,000 wash basins, 600,000 folding cots, 400,000 FIG. 121.— A Caterpillar Diesel 50 h.p. tractor building a road through the forest on the slopes of Mt. Hood in Oregon. This is known as a trail builder or bulldozer and does the work of ap- proximately 150 men and several teams of horses. It will remove trees up to 14" in diameter without previous cutting or preparation. Many roads are built with these tractors to make the forest more accessible for fire protection, to permit recreationists to enjoy the forest and to make it possible to transport the timber products more cheaply to market. brooms and many miscellaneous items were purchased in order to maintain these camps. The railroads were benefited very materially by the transportation of many men. Since most of the men were enrolled in the East and the work was largely in the South and West many of them were transported long distances. Approximately 24,000 out of a total of about 30,000 men in New York State were transported to the Rocky Mountain and the Pacific Coast States during the first enrolment. The greatest single achievement, however, has been in the upbuild- ing and development of good citizenship in a great army of young American men. Although trained and educated for life, these boys 246 EMERGENCY CONSERVATION WORK had little if any opportunity to obtain positions. The potentialities, therefore, for good or bad were enormous. The program has very materially benefited the morale, the sense of responsibility, initiative, and enterprise of large numbers of future American citizens. The program has also advanced forest conservation from 20 to 50 years ahead of the normal progress. The work of the boys in the camps and the accomplishments may be summarized briefly as fol- lows: 1. Probably the most important work was the improvement of the existing stands of timber by cultural thinning and the removal of over- FIG. 122. — Play time at one of the Civilian Conservation Corps camps in western Wyoming. The forestry work hardened the muscles of city boys, who were un- trained and unskilled in the ways and work of the woods. They generally gained several pounds in weight apiece. The improved morale and training for better citizenship were outstanding features of these camps. The men have advanced the cause of forestry several years ahead of its past normal progress. mature, diseased and insect-infested trees. Over 4,000,000 acres have been treated in this fashion, chiefly in the southern states, the Lake States, and the Northwest. 2. The renewal of forest cover by planting many millions of trees and the establishment of many tree nurseries have been other notable features. Over 3,000,000 acres have been planted to young trees, and over 560,000 pounds of tree seeds have been collected for reforesta- tion projects. CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS 247 3. The elimination or diminution of forest destruction by forest pests, such as the white pine blister rust, the white pine weevil, and the Dutch elm disease. Over 5,000,000 acres have been treated for insect and disease control in addition to the protective measures as indicated in connection with cultural thinning. 4. Reduction of serious fire hazards by the removal and elimina- tion of inflammable material along the highways and trails and on old logging operations. The cleaning up to reduce fire risks has been one FIG. 123. — Members of a Civilian Conservation Corps camp with their coyote pup mascot. The boys were encouraged to protect wild life and become in- terested in the proper care, protection and management of game and fish life in our National Forests, and State Forests and Parks. The coyote is a predatory animal and together with mountain lions and wolves are generally discouraged on public forests throughout the West. of the most important phases of the work. The construction of fire towers, telephone lines, and firebreaks, and the felling of snags (stand- ing dead trees) have contributed in a most important way to a solu- tion of our fire problem. Several million acres have been treated and cleaned up, many miles of roadsides have been made safe from fire, over 35,000 miles of telephone lines have been built, and over 1000 lookout towers have been constructed at high elevations. 5. The construction of forest highways and trails in order to remove 248 EMERGENCY CONSERVATION WORK and transport forest products and to make these forests accessible for recreational purposes has been of vast importance. Forest roads and trails assist in the system of fire prevention and control. More than 50,000 miles of these highways have been built, and many thou- sands of foot and horse trails have been constructed. 6. The reduction or control of soil erosion by building dams, plant- ing trees and other plants, and similar methods. Over 1,000,000 dams have been built, thus benefiting over 1,500,000 acres. In the Tennes- see River Valley and along the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, and in many other sections of the country, the control of serious erosion in both our agricultural and forested districts is of great importance. 7. The improvement of conditions for wild animals, birds, and fish. Over 3000 fish dams have been built. Provisions for our wild life have been a recognized part of the program. 8. Rodent control. This is conducted principally in National For- est areas in the West to improve grazing conditions. Over 10,000,000 acres have been treated in this way. Ground squirrels, gophers, and other rodents have done a tremendous amount of damage on many grazing areas in the West. In addition, many roads and trails have been landscaped; many corrals and forest structures, such as rangers' cabins, tool houses for fire protection, and lookout cabins, have been built; many springs have been developed to assist the grazing of sheep and cattle; six air- plane landing fields have been constructed; and even coal mine fires have been combated. CHAPTER XXIII THE TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY The Tennessee Valley Authority was created by act of Congress on May 18, 1933, and is managed by a board of three directors ap- pointed by the President with the approval of the Senate. As ex- pressed by President Roosevelt: The continued idleness of a great national investment (the Muscle Shoals development) in the Tennessee Valley leads me to ask Congress for legislation Paducab; G A. \ FIG. 124. — General outline of the basin of the Tennessee River showing the sites of the Wilson, Norris and Joe Wheeler dams. The shaded areas lie within the drainage basin of the Tennessee River, which is located in parts of 7 states. necessary to enlist this project in the service of the people. It is clear that the Muscle Shoals development is but a small part of the potential public useful- ness of the entire Tennessee River, such as, if envisioned in its entirety, trans- cends mere power development; it enters the wide fields of flood control, soil erosion, afforestation, elimination from agricultural use of marginal lands, and distribution and diversification of industry. The Authority is clothed with the power of government but pos- sessed of the flexibility and initiative of private enterprise. It is charged with the broadest duty of planning for the proper use, con- servation, and development of the natural resources of the Tennessee 249 250 THE TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY River drainage basin and its adjoining territory for the general social and economic welfare of the nation. In 1933, $50,000,000 was author- ized for the project which embraces more than 40,000 square miles and encompasses the drainage area of the Tennessee River and its tributaries in Tennessee and portions of six other states, namely, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Kentucky. More than 2,000,000 people live within this area, and about 6,000,000 people are in the immediate adjoining sphere of influence. The project includes various purposes of development, but one of the principal branches of the work is the Division of Forestry. The principal objective of this division is the development and maintenance of proper protection forests. This includes all those phases that have to do with the control of watersheds, principally the prevention of soil erosion, the reforestation of eroded and gullied areas and submar* ginal agricultural lands, forest engineering, and the study of the steps necessary to put into operation the proposed control of water and streams before they flow into the larger rivers. The foresters in the Division of Forestry have been described as vegetative engineers because to a large extent the chief objective is in the direction of protecting the navigation and water flow for the large engineering structures in the streams of the Tennessee basin. The chief emphasis is therefore placed upon protection forestry. The Division is chiefly concerned with the problem of soil erosion throughout the Tennessee Valley because this represents one of the major difficulties that have to be faced in assuring proper protection. There is, therefore, a direct interest in the submarginal and abandoned farm lands. This interest is centered principally in the critical erosion areas rather than in the large tracts of mountain forest lands which are not being eroded to any appreciable extent. The area of eroded lands has been estimated at 500,000 acres in the upper valley area above Chattanooga and 300,000 acres below, or a total of 800,000 acres. The protection of the Tennessee Valley watersheds makes it obliga- tory for the forestry officials to concern themselves with the adequate care and management of these mountain forest areas, and for this reason efforts are made to stimulate the further acquisition and devel- opment of National Forests on the westerly slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains as well as in such State Forests, National Forests, National Parks, and State Parks as may occur on the smaller areas in the mountain forests, principally on the Cumberland and nearby ranges. THE TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY 251 The policy of the Forestry Division is eventually to place a very large share of the mountain forest lands of the Tennessee Valley under organized forest management, either by the U. S. Forest Service, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the National Park Service, or the State Forest services. Considerable progress has already been made in this direction. Under the $30,000,000 made available for increased pur- chase of National Forests, considerable areas are being acquired in the Tennessee Valley drainage area, particularly along the headwaters FIG. 125. — An example of the advanced stages of erosion found in many parts of the country, especially in the Southeast, South and the Central States. Erosion control by tree planting is an important part of the work of the Ten- nessee Valley Authority. of the mountain streams and to consolidate National Forests already purchased. The possibility of developing municipal and town forests through- out the valley is also being given considerable attention. The area immediately adjoining and surrounding the lakes will be gradually allocated to the Division of Forestry for administration, particularly where they all may be under forest cover. Detailed plans have already been made for the area about Norris Lake and other power lakes. These areas, however, do not compare in size with the National Forest districts. The management of these forest properties 252 THE TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY about these lakes will be on a much more intensive basis than on either the National or State forests because the erosion problem is much more critical and it is necessary that the greatest possible protection be afforded the slopes and shores adjoining these lakes. In the administration of lands, the Division of Forestry is devel- oping all possible resources, such as wild life and fisheries, and in some instances grazing in fenced pastures may be leased. The fundamental purpose is to develop all the possible uses of the Tennessee Valley forests that will provide employment for the people and thus tend to stabilize rural living conditions as far as possible. Considerable atten- tion is given to a plan of Forest Workers Holdings, somewhat along the lines of the British Forestry Commission. In this way it is hoped to create and develop the greatest possible social uses of the forest land. There are approximately 6,000,000 acres of farm woodlands within the confines of the valley. The Division of Forestry plans to coop- erate with the extension foresters of the various valley states and assist them in woodlot extension activities. It is planned to acquire some of the most critically eroded areas, particularly those concerned with the submarginal and frequently abandoned lands. Approximately 15,000 acres had been purchased by April 1, 1935. These areas will be administered as protection forests by the Division. In 1933, twenty-five Civilian Conservation Corps camps were as- signed to the Tennessee Valley Authority. This number has varied from one enrolment period to another so that between 3800 and 5000 men have been available for forestry operations. Thirteen of these camps are now located in Tennessee, four in Virginia, and two in Alabama. Requests for additional camps have been made for the fifth enrolment period. Up to 1935, 7,750,000 trees were planted on erosion control areas by the men of these camps, and several million trees will be planted each year. Three tree nurseries have been established; two for forest trees, and one for tree crops. One of the forest tree nurseries has been established near Clinton and is operated with the help of Civilian Conservation Corps workers. Seeds for the nurseries are gathered by the same workers. They shake them out of black locust trees, cut off the cones of pines, and pick the seeds from red cedar trees. The other forest nursery is located at Wilson Dam, Alabama, and has an ultimate capacity of about 15,000,000 trees. The principal trees grown in the two forest tree nurseries for re- THE TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY 253 forestation, chiefly for erosion control, are such pioneer species as black locust, shortleaf and Virginia pines, and red cedar. The "climax" species such as yellow poplar, various oaks, Asiatic chestnut, and black walnut are either seed spotted or else planted in mixture with the pioneer species so that a mixed stand will be the final result. A very interesting phase of work in the Forestry Division is the development of tree crops. This includes the growing, development, and establishment of all the best-known varieties of nut trees and other crop trees, such as honey locust, persimmon, Asiatic chestnuts, and pawpaw. The entire southern part of this country and even for- eign sources are being searched for the best available species. The tree crop nursery of the Division of Forestry not only seeks to grow trees from seeds and nuts, but also to specialize in grafting and bud- ding species and in breeding trees of all kinds which will be suitable for tree crops. These trees will provide food for wild life, cattle, hogs, sheep, and men. Two large forest tree nurseries are engaged in plant- ing stock for general reforestation purposes. Species grafted and budded for superior varieties are black walnuts, wild black cherry, filberts, pecans, hickories, persimmons, blight-resistant Asiatic chest- nuts, pawpaw, and similar crop trees. They are being planted con- currently with the soil erosion and reforestation projects. A particu- larly interesting development is the breeding of plants for food for birds and other forms of wild life. The Division of Forestry conducts an educational program both in the Civilian Conservation Corps camps and at the town of Norris, and in other centers about the Norris Lake. The project includes the giving of lectures, presentations of exhibits, and showing of motion pictures and lantern slides and even the teaching of the principles of grazing and elementary forestry. Plans are under way for the development of woodsmen training courses for men who will work on a part-time basis on lands owned or controlled by the Authority. The need for both intensive and extensive forest land classification and forest planning is recognized in order to put into effect the above activities. Studies have been continued on land classification in four degrees of intensity in the Valley. First is the study on a very exten- sive scale of the forest and erosion conditions of the entire 28,000,000 acres included within the Valley. Automobiles, airplanes, aerial photographs, and field reconnaissance have enabled the officials to com- plete a large amount of this work. A study of second-degree intensity is that of land classification, forest needs, and erosion conditions in the Clinch-Powell River watershed extending above the Norris Dam into Virginia, an area of approximately 1,856,000 acres. This study in- 254 THE TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY eludes not only soil erosion and general forest conditions but also the conditions of the inhabitants and their relationship to possible future forest development. The study of third-degree intensity is that of lands which are or will be owned immediately surrounding Norris Lake, totaling approximately 100,000 acres. On this area, an intensive detailed study has been made of such factors as forest cover, slopes, land use of both a present and potential nature, location of roads and trails, and of all other points of interest, and the information has been incorporated on a series of maps. This study is so thorough that it is quite comparable to the detailed maps used by European foresters in the intensive management of their forests. It is planned to use the data so obtained to set up a completely comprehensive forest economy on the Tennessee Valley Authority lands around Norris Lake, coordinating all natural resources, to be handled on a sustained yield basis, with permanent part-time and full-time forest workers living on or adjacent to the lands. A fourth and very intensive study has been made in cooperation with the geographers of the Authority in sampling the conditions found in one of the counties of eastern Tennessee. Under this plan, all lands are carefully examined on areas as small as five acres in extent. An effort is made to secure the most minute details to fit in and to be integrated with the other divisions of the larger plan. The objective is to create a complete land use program for the entire region. This fourth study is in counties where the forestry division activities are limited almost exclusively to farm woodlands and the smaller erosion control areas. CHAPTER XXIV THE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE The Soil Erosion Service was authorized under the National Indus- trial Recovery Act and was created by order of Secretary Harold L. Ickes, Public Works Administrator, in August, 1933, with an initial allocation of $5,000,000 of PWA funds. Later, additional allocations of $15,000,000 were made available for this Service which was oper- ated under the Department of the Interior until April, 1935, when it was transferred to the Department of Agriculture and renamed the Soil Conservation Service. The program of the Service represents the first attempt in the his- tory of the nation to organize large and comprehensive erosion and flood-control projects in representative watersheds of the major agri- cultural regions. The plan for each project involves the coordination of necessary engineering, forestry, and cropping measures carried out conjointly as the character of the land and its condition may prescribe. The fundamental objective of the Soil Conservation Service is to preserve the great agricultural wealth of the country from impoverish- ment and depletion through the washing away of the fertile top soil and the gullying which follows. Closely related to the subject of soil erosion are the problems of reservoir and stream silting and general flood control. Precipitation in the form of rainwater and snows should be retained as far as possible in the soil where it falls, instead of permitting it to enter the streams and add to their burden of soil debris for deposit on the rich bottomlands at lower levels and in the channels of navigable and other streams. More than 400 million tons * of suspended solid matter pass out of the mouth of the Missis- sippi River every year. In pursuit of these objectives, the major purpose of the Service is to establish soil erosion demonstrations on a- watershed basin in those regions where erosion is a critical factor in agriculture. Within its province is included all lands concerned with the drainage basins of selected watersheds. * Enough top soil is lost annually in the Mississippi River basin to build 1250 farms of 160 acres each with a soil depth of 12 inches. 255 256 THE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE There is an intimate relationship between soil cover and the like- lihood of erosion. This means that forest, farm, and pasture lands are included within the general purview of the Service. About 100,000,000 acres of the most fertile lands of the nation have been rendered essentially worthless by being stripped of their top soil by sheet erosion and by gullies. Approximately 75% of all the farm lands of the United States are located on slopes subject to erosion. The last stages of the erosion processes usually assume the form of FIG. 126. — Civilian Conservation Corps boys planting trees on erosive slopes on Soil Conservation Service project in West Virginia. Trees not only keep these lands from erosion, but protect the lower, rich valleys from burial by poor soils. Photograph by Soil Conservation Service. gullying. It is estimated that in addition to the 100,000,000 acres of formerly cultivated lands that have been practically ruined, an addi- tional area of about 125.000,000 acres still in cultivation has lost all or a large portion of its top soil, and a further area of 100,000,000 acres of crop land is threatened in the future. There is abundant evi- dence that the problem of soil erosion is one of profound economic importance in many sections of the country. Hundreds of millions of dollars' damage are caused annually through direct depletion or de- struction of fields and pastures; the silting of rivers, stream channels, and ditches; damage to highway and railway fills and embankments; THE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE 257 Thin soil mixed with rock fragments Sparse vegetation -Wide sandy washes CONCAVE UPWARD Stream incapable of transporting all weathered material Uniform depth of soil under slope STRAIGHT SLOPE Weathering movement down slope and removal balanced An intermediate condition partaking of many special conditions I Distinct Soil Profile H Mass movement or soil creep, supplies stream with soil- IE Little or no surface wash under a complete mantle of vegetation and its litter Vegetation near water's edge CONVEX UPWARD Soil creep and bank stream erosion operate as geologic norms of erosion Erosional potentials created by - stream cutting into country rock Zone of accelerated erosion 4 EFFECT OF ACCELERATED EROSION ON NORMAL SLOPE PROFILES Reversal of processes as result of cultivation on slopes in convex profile topography showing typical convex profiles under vegetation and concave under cultivation FIG. 127. — Characteristic slope profiles responsive to geological norms of erosion. (After W. C. Lowdermilk.) 258 THE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE the choking of culverts and smaller bridges; and the covering of valuable valley lands with relatively unproductive erosional debris. The pollution of irrigation, power, and pure water streams with exces- sive loads of loam and clay washed away from the steeper slopes has resulted in considerable damage to fish life. Enormous quantities of detritus have been washed away from the rich agricultural lands along the lower slopes and valleys. The accompanying illustration * shows the relation of character- istic slope profiles to the nature of erosion. FIG. 128. — Red pine and black locusts planted by Civilian Conservation Corps boys along check dams in Clermont County, Ohio. Methods of Procedure. The requirements of each type of land, proper consideration being given to soil types, slopes, precipitation, and cover, determine the measures to be applied. It is necessary to coordinate the experience of the forester, the agronomist, the soil spe- cialist, the erosion specialist, and the agricultural engineer, and fre- quently the game management specialist. It is an established prin- ciple of the Soil Conservation Service to enter any affected area only on the invitation of the landowners involved. The procedure is to require 50% of the owners or more to cooperate and make definite * From Transactions of the American Geophysical Union's Fifteenth Annual Meeting, 1934, by W. C. Lowdermilk. THE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE 259 contributions to the work as well as to agree to maintain all structures, dams, plantings, and other improvements for a period of five years. The principal reliance is upon vegetation as a means of control. There are two general types of erosion by water: (1) sheet erosion, or the general washing away of the soil; (2) gully erosion, which often includes the advanced stages after sheet erosion has washed away the top soil. Wind erosion is still another problem requiring slightly modi- fied control methods. Two classes of control measures are used in curbing erosion: (1) FIG. 129.— An erosion control project along the Angeles Crest Highway in South- ern California. Boys of the CCC camps are planting shrubs and other plants to prevent the soil from washing away during and after heavy rains. vegetative methods, such as the planting of grasses, trees, and shrubs; (2) mechanical methods, such as dams of various types or terracing. Under the Service an attempt is made to control arroyos in the West by means of diversion dikes and dams to spread the available water over the upland plains in order to increase the growth of grass, trees, and other types of vegetation. The principal species of trees used in the vegetative control work are black locust, willows, cottonwood, various species of pine, includ- ing white, red, shortleaf, and slash and Russian olive and caragana. 260 THE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE The last two are used chiefly in the West. Also many types of grasses, herbaceous plants, and shrubs serve for this purpose. In the Wisconsin project, for example, some of the steep timbered areas, now eroding because of excessive grazing, will be taken out of use and given complete protection in order to stop the excessive runoff of rainwater, which has been speeding down across the cultivated slopes, ripping them to pieces or planing off the more fertile topsoil. Pastures will be established on certain areas too erosive for field crops, that furnish feed for quail and ruffed grouse. Eventually, sportsmen are expected to come from Milwaukee, St. Paul, Chicago, FIG. 130. — Construction of erosion control dams by the use of rocks, timbers and brush near the summit of Trout Creek Pass, Cochetopa National Forest, Colo- rado. Havoc wrought by cloudbursts is being repaired and further damage prevented. and other places to pay the farmer for the privilege of hunting in his timbered lands that will be restocked with game. Below the forested land, those steep slopes now washing rapidly to a condition of low productivity will be taken out of clean-tilled crops and put into per- manent pasture to furnish the grazing that formerly was supposed to have been provided by the timbered areas. The general method employed by the Soil Conservation Service in checking erosion is to put the slopes too steep or otherwise unfit for practical farming into trees and the lower slopes into leguminous plants, grasses, and other types of vegetation which possess soil-hold- ing qualities. Waste lands and those seriously eroded which are un- suitable for cultivation or pasture are planted to trees such as black THE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE 261 SOIL EROSION CONTROL PROJECTS OF SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE Department of Agriculture PROJECT No. NAME OF PROJECT OFFICE LOCATION APPROXIMATE ACRES 1 Coon Creek La Crosse, Wis. 100000 2 | West Tarkio River Bethany, Mo < 175,000 1 Big Creek 150 000 I 3 Sangamon River I Urbana, 111. . 140000 4 Elm Creek Temple, Tex. . . . 200 000 5 South Tyger River Spartanburg, S. C. 125 000 f Wildhorse Creek ( 50000 6 { Pullman, Wash < \ South Palouse River Arroyo Las Posas ( 150,000 25000 Santa Paula, Calif. \ 9 10 Arroyo Grande Stillwater Creek Navajo Stillwater, Okla Albuquerque, N. Mex 150,000 16 000 000 Limestone Creek Mankato, Kans. ifjfl OflO f Deep River 90000 12 High Point, N. C I 1 Brown Creek } 70000 I 13 Reedy Creek Spencer, W. Va 100 000 14 Salt Creek Zanesville, Ohio 100 000 f Cooley Creek . . . 100000 15 \ Minden, La. . . < Cypress Creek I 47 000 I 16 Plum Creek Albion, Nebr 70 000 17 East Cadron Creek Conway, Ark. . . . 12f; OflO 18 Buck & Sandy Creeks Dadeville, Ala. nooflfl 19 Sandy Creek Athens, Ga. lOflflflfl 20 Duck Creek Lindale, Tex 25 ftflfl 21 Okatibbee River Meridian, Miss. . i so nnn 22 Banister River Chatham Va inn nnn 23 Soil Erosion Survey State College, Pa 24 Soil Erosion Survey Ithaca, N. Y 25 Gila River SafTord, Ariz. c oflonon 26 Root River, Minn La Crosse, Wis 150 000 27 Dalhart Area Dalhart, Tex 15000 28 Reedy Fork, N. C Greensboro N C 44 ftflO 29 Crooked Creek Indiana Pa 1 1 K nnn 30 Fishing Creek Rock Hill S C KI nnn 31 Corralitos Creek Watsonville, Calif 67,200 262 THE SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE locust and shortleaf pine in the lower Central States, the South, and Southeast. There is little difficulty with erosion in the forested areas that are not over-grazed or seriously burned, particularly where the forest litter has not been destroyed by surface fires. Where gullies have reached the advanced stages, check dams of various forms must be constructed. The edges of gullies are leveled off, and grass and trees are planted to prevent further washing. Usually the successful control of erosion, particularly of gullies, consists of an application and coordination of all these measures. Terracing alone is not suffi- cient to check soil erosion. Although terracing may be a very useful instrument in some phases of this work it is generally found that a combination of all methods must be pursued in order to obtain satis- factory results. CHAPTER XXV THE PLAINS SHELTERBELT PROJECT President Roosevelt announced this project as a drought-relief measure in June, 1934, and it was started by the Government on July 21. Headquarters were established at Lincoln, Nebraska, and the work is under the U. S. Forest Service. The first plantings were made about the middle of March, 1935, in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. Planting started in Nebraska, early in April and was continued north- ward as the spring season advanced. The long-continued and very serious drought of 1934, following a most severe winter season, caused intense suffering among the people and enormous losses of crops and cattle throughout the Great Plains region. A state director has been appointed for each state with headquarters at Manhattan, Kansas; Bottineau, North Dakota; Oklahoma City. Oklahoma; Brookings, South Dakota; Lincoln, Nebraska; and Wichita Falls, Texas. Objectives. The principal objective of this project is to establish and maintain shelterbelts in a zone about 100 miles wide, extending from Canada to the Panhandle of Texas along the eastern margin of the Great Plains region. A shelterbelt is a dense plantation of trees about 100 to 165 feet wide and of various lengths located to pro- vide the maximum protection from prevailing winds. Relief is to be furnished the people of this region by the employment of residents who otherwise have little, if any, cash incomes, and the disbursement of necessary funds for the purchase or lease of lands and supplies. The shelterbelts will provide windbreaks, snowtraps, sandtraps, and shade in a region where trees are generally absent. The trees will mitigate the effects of future drought by preventing quick drying and subse- quent blowing of soils. They will protect growing crops from exces- sive drying and may modify the extremes of temperature as trees and all forms of plant life cool the atmosphere during the growing season. The living conditions for man, beast, bird, and vegetation will be im- proved. Altogether, the project should be beneficial to the region in which the planting is done. The people who settled the prairies fully understood the value of trees. They came from parts of the country in which trees grew 263 264 THE PLAINS SHELTERBELT PROJECT naturally and where the benefits of forest growth had become a matter of everyday life. They had a keen appreciation of the changes that could be effected by tree planting, and in typical pioneer fashion they proceeded to produce groves, windbreaks, shelterbelts and shady woodlands. FIG. 131.— Location of Shelter-belt project. Dotted areas were selected for first plantings. Shelterbelt planting has been conducted during a period of 50 years or more, stimulated largely through the passage of the Timber Culture Act of 1873. There are already estimated to be 2 million acres of shelterbelts planted in the Dakotas, eastern Montana, eastern Colo- rado, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas since 1873. No forest program has so seized the popular sympathy or appealed so strongly, especially in the prairie plains states, as the present pro- THE PLAINS SHELTERBELT PROJECT 265 posal to create shelterbelts there. It has been conclusively demon- strated that trees can be successfully grown in the plains region where the available annual rainfall does not fall below 18 inches and in some sandy soils where the precipitation is as low as 15 inches per annum. The function of the shelterbelt project is to produce trees in the relatively treeless Middle West to reduce the destructive effects of wind. It is believed that this will result in conserving moisture, and will stabilize the productiveness of the land, develop game and recrea- CROSS SECTION OF TYPICAL SHELTER BELT ON TEN ROD STRIP Prevailing Wind EFFECTS OF SHELTER BELTS ON WIND VELOCITY PROTECTED ZONE 1 ( Some [Protection )i i Distance i ' = 10 times" i height of i [_winqbreak] SHELTERBELT Composition Only Approximate i_ Distance =20 times height of windbreak 1 BY U. S. FOREST SERVICE FIG. 132. — Diagram showing cross section of typical shelterbelt and effects of shelterbelts on wind velocity. tional resources, and make the countryside a much better place in which to live. The purpose is not to withdraw any considerable areas from agriculture and change it to a forest region, but to make a part of it more habitable and more valuable for agriculture through tree planting. Trees will therefore be planted on farm land rather than on range land. Acquisition and Control of Land. Stability of land tenure is neces- sary for a project of such permanency and size. The project is based on the premise that the Government shall own or control all lands on which trees are planted. Under private control trees are seldom given 266 THE PLAINS SHELTERBELT PROJECT the protection and cultivation that may be necessary to insure satis- factory development and extended life. The entire plan is based upon a general public improvement and not a subsidy or a dole to some of the residents of the region. The land will be purchased in fee simple or controlled through leases purchased by rights or through cooperative agreements. General Location of the Shelterbelt Zone. Shelterbelts are planted at intervals of about 1 mile and consist usually of 10 to 20 rows of trees. Nearly every possible variation in form, direction, and FIG. 133.— Bessey Nursery, Nebraska National Forest, Nebraska, along the Nio- brara river. Successful plantations of 13,000 acres of ponderosa pine, jack pine and several other species have been made over a period of several years from these extensive Federal nurseries which1 have an annual capacity of 2,500,000 trees. About 1200 acres are planted annually on these sand hills. arrangement will be used, depending upon the location of the prevail- ing winds and other local circumstances such as topography, soil, and the needs of the local farmsteads. Careful studies of soil, climate, and vegetative factors during the early stages of the project have been made to determine location. They will extend from the northern boundary of North Dakota in a general southerly direction for a dis- tance of about 1000 miles. The eastern boundary generally coincides with the western limit of a region where previous experience gives some reasonable assurance of future success in tree planting. Starting at the northwest corner of Rolette County, North Dakota, the zone THE PLAINS SHELTERBELT PROJECT 267 extends south approximately along the 100th meridian to a point near the southwest corner of Mclntosh County on the south line of North Dakota, thence southeast to Ganvalley on the 99th meridian, then straight south to a point south of North Platte, Nebraska, thence to the northwest corner of Gove County, Kansas, thence southeast to Dodge City, Kansas, and to the northwest corner of Harper County, Oklahoma, and southwest to the southwest corner of Scurry County, Texas. In general, the location is designed to provide the most benefits from tree planting. The area is reasonably productive but subject FIG. 134. — One year's successful growth of Russian olive planted near Dalhart, Texas. to intermittent droughts. Climatic records show7 that droughts sim- ilar to the one of 1934 are of periodic recurrence. Records indicate a recurrence of more abundant precipitation. If the shelterbelts can be established during a period of normal precipitation, it is likely that they will be able to withstand future droughts and perhaps ameliorate their dangerous effects. Some existing plantations which antedate the serious drought of 1890 are the basis for this planting. Within a zone approximately 100 miles wide and 1000 miles long, trees will be planted on approximately one-fortieth of the area. Agri- culture is not to be crowded out. Generally, planting will assume the form of strips 8 to 10 rods wide through the central portion of each section of land consisting of about 16 to 20 acres out of each square 268 THE PLAINS SHELTERBELT PROJECT mile of 640 acres. The width of shelterbelts will be at least 100 feet if the planting is to be effective. A strip 8 rods or 132 feet wide will be obtained by purchase or lease from the landowner and fenced against stock of all kinds, the extra space being needed for extension of roads and the overhanging branches of trees. Roadways will extend inside the fences, and sandtraps will be used to protect the young trees. Planting strips will not always follow the same direction or plan. Shelterbelts may also be planted along section lines where they will not interfere with road development. A straight-line planting gives protection in only one direction. In the northern part of the zone, protection will be maintained from the northwesterly winds which blow constantly during the winter and early spring. In the south, however, south winds are much more prevalent, frequent, and de- structive, and east-west belts will be established in that section. General Planting Arrangements and Trees to be Used. Trees are planted close together in order to shade out grass and other sun-loving plants. They are not planted, however, so close as to make cultiva- tion in the early years of development difficult. The cost of fencing will be very large. Experience has indicated that when shelterbelts or tree groves are open to stock, they quickly deteriorate, owing to injuries, grazing, etc. The fencing of the shelter- belts and the preparation of the ground prior to planting are the largest sources of local employment. Many farmers are employed for this work. Many variations from the general straight-line planting are used, such as small clumps or groups of trees to furnish needed shade for stock in pastures, larger groves or blocks where picnic grounds or semi-parks are in demand and where the character of the surface and topography indicate a need for protection from soil erosion. The primary purpose, however, is to furnish protection from wind to the largest possible areas. This will promote the conserva- tion of the soil and will produce other economic benefits. Shelter and food will be provided for many types of game and insectivorous birds as well as other forms of animal life. The three principal requirements of the shelterbelt are sufficient height, length, and density. The tallest growing trees are placed in the center of the shelterbelts, and closely planted adjoining trees will force them to attain the maximum height growth. The shorter growing trees will be used along the sides, and shrubby growth on the edges. This shape, similar to a hip roof, will tend to guide surface wind currents upward. Evergreens can be used near the edges; retaining their branches near the ground they give greater assurance for the upward sweep of the winds and provide protection during both winter THE PLAINS SHELTERBELT PROJECT and summer. Altogether, however, the deciduous or hardwood trees appear better adapted to the plains conditions than evergreens, with the exception of red cedar and ponderosa pine. Thus the mass effect of tall and sheltering trees and shrubs with a combination of ever- greens and deciduous trees will create an effective and dense barrier against the winds. Openings in the shelterbelts will be left for roads, cattle lanes, and other local purposes. Before planting, the ground is plowed and fallowed for at least one summer to accumulate moisture. Deep penetration of the moisture FIG. 135. — Black locust plantation five years old, spaced 4x6 feet, near Medicine Lodge, Nebraska. is desirable if deep-rooted trees are to be used. This will be obtained by impounding by means of pits, side ditches, contour listing, and other measures in connection with ground preparation and cultivation as a means of sure survival and to encourage maximum height growth. Thus, moisture conservation is one of the major factors considered in planting and especially with shelterbelts. Weed growth will be dis- couraged by cultivation for several years after planting or until the trees shade the ground sufficiently to suppress such growth. Later the mulch provided by the leaf litter will serve the purpose of moisture conservation in the soil. 270 THE PLAINS SHELTERBELT PROJECT Great care has been exercised in the selection of trees to be used. The drought of 1934 and the survival of trees have furnished an excel- lent guide in determining the best trees to be used. Therefore rapidly growing trees or those easy to plant or handle in the nursery are not given first consideration. Altogether native trees of the western region that have become adjusted to the climatic and soil conditions through many years will be the favored species. The list varies from north to south, although red cedar is found naturally throughout the entire range and is the outstanding tree as a survivor of droughts. Green ash has proved to be very successful, although it is attacked in the South by borers and will be used sparingly, unless these pests can be controlled. Elm has proved to be a very satisfactory tree. Chinese elm is one of the foreign species which is believed to have great pos- sibilities. In the southern portion of the region, honey locust is the outstanding hardwood. Black locust is a vigorous and hardy tree in the South, but because of borers its extensive use is considered hazard- ous. Cottonwood is used on the moister situations throughout the range. Hackberry is also encountered throughout the range and can be used with safety in mixed plantations. Ponderosa pine and jack pine have proved successful in the Nebraska National Forest along the Niobrara River in northern Nebraska. Extensive plantations made by the Forest Service for the past several decades as well as many shelterbelts made by farmers and railroads throughout this re- gion furnish excellent guides for the species to be favored. Ponderosa pine has already proved its drought resistance, and although slow growing, is an excellent tree. Among other species are Russian olive, caragana, bur oak, choke- cherry, plum, hawthorn, willows on moist sites, black or Texan walnut, Russian mulberry, Austrian pine, osage orange, Chinaberry, Chinese arborvitae, Arizona cypress, and pecan. The last four species are used only in Texas and Oklahoma. Blue spruce and the first named species in this group are best adapted to the north and central portions of the shelterbelt range. Special emphasis is given to the collection of seed within the range and the latitudinal zones in which the trees will be planted. It is planned to grow and plant, beginning in 1936, about 200 million trees annually in this thousand-mile protective zone, and all available facilities will be utilized. Government nurseries will be in- stalled as needed at key locations where favorable soil and moisture conditions are available. Contracts are to be made with existing com- mercial nurseries for growing the little trees used in planting. Thus the nursery plans will be divided between organizations and facilities THE PLAINS SHELTERBELT PROJECT 271 already established but will include additional governmental nurseries, using all the trained personnel wherever available. Many state for- esters and their staffs and private nurserymen have acquired a great deal of valuable experience during the past 30 years or more in grow- ing and planting trees in this region. This experience will be fully utilized to obtain the most efficient and prompt results. Trees are generally grown in nurseries for one to two years. Many of the hardwoods develop large root systems and are sufficiently grown to transplant from the nurseries to the shelterbelt at the end of one year. Large trees will not be used because of the expense of trans- porting from the nursery to the field and the difficulty of survival. Assuming that the program will consist of a maximum of 100,000 miles of shelterbelt plantings, the following statistics are of interest: The length will be approximately 1000 miles from Canada to the Red River section in Texas ; the width will be approximately 100 miles with the western limit at approximately 18 inches of average annual pre- cipitation. The gross area of the zone is about 100,000 square miles or 64 million acres. The shelterbelt strips will be 8 rods or 132 feet wide or, when fenced, 10 rods or 165 feet wide. The direction of the individual shelterbelt strips will be determined by the prevailing winds. The total planting area will be approximately 1,600,000 acres, or 16 acres per square mile; when fenced, the total area will include about 2 million acres, or 20 acres per square mile. There will generally be 4 rows of shrubs and 17 rows of trees, making 1732 plants per acre. Thus a total of about 3 billion trees and shrubs will ultimately be planted. The distance between the rows of trees will be 6 and 8 feet, with shrubs 4 feet. The distance between the trees in rows will be 4 feet. It is estimated that there will be 212,500 miles of fences. Fence- posts placed 20 feet apart will mean 56,100,000 posts. About 60,000 carloads of material will be required, and 16 million man-days will be needed to consummate the work. These computations are based upon the maximum possible require- ments. Adjustments as appear advisable by local conditions will prob- ably result in some revisions. CHAPTER XXVI THE PUBLIC DOMAIN GRAZING ADMINISTRATION (DIVISION OF GRAZING CONTROL) The Taylor Grazing Act passed by Congress in 1934 provided for the establishment of grazing districts on the public domain by the Secretary of the Interior. This is an important conservation measure and marks a distinct forward step in a program of conservation that in the life of our nation may well rival such other conservation meas- ures as the forest, reclamation, and mineral resources measures. The term "public domain" is applied to the unappropriated and unreserved portion of the land still owned by the Federal Government in the so- called public land states. This vast public domain of 165 million acres lies chiefly in 10 far western states and occupies an area as large as the State of Texas. Approximately 95% of this area lies within what may be approximately termed the 15-inch annual rainfall region em- bracing the great intermountain basins lying between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges on the west, together with parts of the northern plains areas of Montana and Wyoming. The intermountain region embraces the great desert ranges of the West which with the exception of relatively small iso- lated farming communities is public domain. Some portions of it are broken up with grazing or dry farming homesteads, or by state-owned tracts, such as sections 6 and 36 in each township which have been given to the states as school sections by the Federal Government. For many miles on each side of certain of the transcontinental rail- road systems the public domain land often lies in alternate sections with railroad land. In order to carry out the administrative functions of this law, the Secretary of the Interior established a Division of Grazing. This Division will perform the technical function of determining methods and practices of management necessary to rehabilitate the depleted range lands. It will determine the proper number of livestock and period of use that may be properly allowed. It will undertake range improvements such as water development, rodent and predatory ani- 272 THE PUBLIC DOMAIN GRAZING ADMINISTRATION 273 mal control, eradication of poisonous plants, and other activities that will serve to render the land not only more useful today but of maxi- mum benefit to future American citizens. The program envisages FIG. 136. — Outline of the principal Public domain area shown in heavy type in the Rocky Mountain and Intermountain regions of the West. the accomplishment of these purposes through a system of cooperation with advisory boards of local stockmen that will aid in the program by furnishing invaluable information of the practical problems in- volved in the new undertaking. 274 THE PUBLIC DOMAIN GRAZING ADMINISTRATION Heretofore no governmental agency or organization has been charged with the administration of the public domain. It is estimated by the Division of Grazing that approximately 120,000,000 acres is usable grazing land. Substantially none is valuable for farming. Con- flicts between cattle men and sheep men as well as between ranchers and homesteaders have been frequent and somtimes serious. Because of the checkerboard pattern of most of the public and privately owned grazing land in the western states it has not been usual, for ranchers to fence their private holdings except in the more settled portions. A law prohibits the fencing of the public domain. Most of the public range has been seriously over-grazed; in some sections the pasture has been totally destroyed and erosion is gullying the land. Settled communities are generally very uncommon in this great area of graz- ing lands. There is some timber found on portions of the public domain, par- ticularly at the higher elevations and mountainous sections of the western states. As noted elsewhere, there are reported to be 22 million acres of wholly or partially timbered lands still unappropriated or unreserved within the public domain. Under the Taylor Grazing Act the Secretary of the Interior is au- thorized to provide for the protection, administration, regulation, and improvement of the grazing districts and to enter into cooperative agreements to insure the proper use of them. Grazing permits are to be issued to future users. Fifty per cent of the receipts from grazing fees under the Taylor Act is to be returned to the states in which the grazing district is located, 25 per cent is retained in the U. S. Treasury and 25 per cent is authorized to be appropriated by Congress for range improvements. Authority is granted to continue research in erosion and flood control and to carry on activities for the protection and rehabilitation of the grazing districts under the Secretary of the Interior. No land is being opened to homestead entries unless classi- fied as more valuable for the production of agricultural crops than for forage plants. The Taylor Act provides constructive administration and the re- habilitation of the most neglected portions of the public land holdings in the West. There has been some local sentiment in the western states in favor of turning over the public domain to the individual states. The general national sentiment, however, has been against this. CHAPTER XXVII FORESTRY, LAND USE, AND NATIONAL PLANNING Within recent years many conferences have been assembled and many committees and individuals have met to discuss the subject of land use in connection with local, regional, state-wide, and national planning. Frequently these discussions have revolved around the con- traction in areas devoted to agriculture and the expansion of forest areas, and how best to handle this problem. Articles and publica- tions have been issued freely on the subject. Planning consists of a systematic, continuous, and forward-looking application of the best facts and information available to programs affecting our individual and national welfare. In many states east of the Mississippi River, considerable land has been released from agricultural production or been permitted to become waste or aban- doned land. In April, 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt called the heads of several governmental agencies dealing in land and land use to confer with him and the Cabinet about the formation of a national plan for land use. This resulted in the creation of the National Re- sources Board, headed by Frederick A. Delano. The board appointed a series of technical committees, one each for land, water, minerals, power, industry, and transportation. The President instructed the board to prepare and submit by De- cember 1, 1934, a complete and detailed plan for a national land use policy. This report * set forth several considerations which are im- portant in devising plans for national planning, as follows: 1. The necessity and value of coordination of our national and local policies instead of allowing them to drift apart or pull against each other, with disastrous effect. 2. The value of forethought in national life, rather than after- thought— the value of preventing fires rather than putting them out. * See "A Report on National Planning and Public Works in Relation to Natural Resources," by National Resources Board, Washington, D. C., December 1, 1934. 275 276 FORESTRY, LAND USE, AND NATIONAL PLANNING 3. The value of the best plan for the most competent collection and analysis of facts. Many community, county, regional, and state-wide planning boards have been created during the past several years as a result of this widespread interest in planning. Their activities center largely around forest policies and plans for more and better forests and parks. In 1931, the National Land Use Planning Committee was informally es- tablished by the U. S. Secretary of Agriculture. Sentiment has no CLASSES OF LAND MILLION FOREST LAND: ACRES COMMERCIAL 495 NON-COMMERCI Al I2Q iTs" CROP LAND IN FARMS -4-13 PASTURE AND RANGE: IN FARMS 379 NOT IN FARMS 317 696" FARMSTEADS, ROADS, URBAN, WASTE, ETC 17*9 TOTAL LAND AREA..J9O3 FIG. 137. — Classes of land and their present use in the United States. doubt been crystallized in the direction of increased acquisition of public forests by federal, state, and county authorities. In nearly every state, a state-wide planning board has been created to study problems of forestry and forest conservation, water resources, farm- land abandonment, development of agriculture, the present and pros- pective use of power facilities, highways including railroads, and canals, in relation to transportation problems, population trends, and many others. Their studies have given forest conservation a new meaning and significance. Prior to this recent movement, Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Maryland, New Jersey, Virginia, and Washington created permanent planning commissions by legislative authority. Planning does not involve the regimentation of private enterprise or private lives. It does not necessarily include adherence to a fixed FORESTRY, LAND USE, AND NATIONAL PLANNING 277 or unchangeable system or plan of action. It does, however, involve a re-examination of trends, tendencies, and policies, so that our state and federal governmental programs may be better coordinated with the ultimate aim better to provide for the happiness and welfare of future generations. Any sound land policy should be designed to make our resources contribute the greatest possible permanent good to the national wel- FIG. 138. — Our forests, if concentrated together, would cover all lands east of the Mississippi River with 120 million acres additional. fare. It should put the various types of land into uses for which they are best suited and into the production of commodities and ser- vices needed in our communities. It should provide not only for present wise use but also for continued use by future generations. Land use management may assume the form of land zoning, which means the classification of lands with respect to the best uses from both the public and private viewpoints. 278 FORESTRY, LAND USE, AND NATIONAL PLANNING The undertaking by our forest industries to establish a system of commercial forestry on privately owned lands should be successfully supported by federal and state governments. The latter should pro- vide adequate fire prevention, equitable systems of taxation, advanced plans of forest management, protection against insects, diseases, and other injuries, and the general encouragement of sustained yield plans. The rate of population growth in the United States is slowing down perceptibly. Statisticians estimate that the maximum popula- tion will probably be reached about the year 1960 and will not be more than 150,000,000 people. After 1960, population is likely to decline. Northern European countries likewise face stationary or declining populations. Any plan of land use must properly contem- plate the per capita consumption of lumber and other forest products as well as the use of our forests for the multiple purposes described elsewhere in the text. The per capita consumption of lumber has dropped from 510 b.f. in 1907 to 275 b.f. in 1929, 150 b.f. in 1931, and 95 b.f. in 1932. The problem of land use planning has probably become most acute in the older settled sections of the Northeast, the South, and the Lake States. There are the following classifications of present land use in the United States according to the U. S. Forest Service: ACRES 1. Forest land, including commercial, non-commercial, and potential areas 615,000,000 2. Farm crop land 413,000,000 3. Pasture and range in farms 379,000,000 4. Pasture and range not in farms chiefly in the western states 317,000,000 5. Urban development including roadside areas, etc 179,000,000 Total 1,903,000,000 The original forest areas of the United States were about 820,- 000,000 acres. About one-fourth of the original forest area has been converted into crop, pasture, and grazing areas. But of that one- fourth, some 52,000,000 acres are now available through abandon- ment or for other reasons for growing trees. The U. S. Forest Service estimated that probably 25,000,000 to 30,000,000 additional acres may be available by 1950. The Forest Service has advocated a large-scale plan of acquisition of forests. The so-called Copeland Report of March, 1933, advo- cated additional public forests amounting to 224,000,000 acres, of which 90,000,000 should be acquired by the states and 134,000,000 by the Federal Government. Of the latter, 22,000,000 acres are already FORESTRY, LAND USE, AND NATIONAL PLANNING 279 in the public domain and the remaining 112,000,000 would be ac- quired by purchase as follows: 1,500,000 in New England. 1,500,000 in the Middle Atlantic States. 11,000,000 in the Lake States. 15,000,000 in the South. 5,000,000 in the West. New England Middle Atlantic. Lake Central .. South Pacific Coast N. Rocky Mt S. Rocky Mt All Regions.. 30 60 90 120 150 180 Million Acres Industrial Farm Woodland National Forest 210 240 270 Other Public FIG. 139. — Ownership of forest lands by regions. This program is roughly estimated to cost $500,000,000 for the Fed- eral Government and $250,000,000 for the states, to be allocated over a period of 20 years. Of the 52,000,000 acres of agricultural land now available through abandonment or otherwise, for forests, 31,000,000 acres are included in this program of public forest acquisition. Many authorities believe that both the Federal Government and the states should acquire considerable additional areas. However, it is also widely held that our forests should not be owned almost ex- 280 FORESTRY, LAND USE, AND NATIONAL PLANNING clusively by the public agencies. The high mountain areas should be owned, protected, controlled, and operated by the public agencies, especially at the headwaters of streams, where the chief function is to protect the watersheds from fire and where the forest will probably never attain great commercial importance. The better lands and smaller holdings, such as the farmers' woodlots, tracts of land on which timber may be quickly grown to supply the industries in our more settled communities, should be left to private ownership. In several states there has been some opposition to government ownership of National Forests, notably in Georgia and Maryland. The federal and state governments should own and control the forests where it is not possible for private individuals or corporations to make forestry a commercial success because of the long time required to grow a crop of trees, the physical and financial hazards involved, and the generally poorer locations of publicly owned forests. APPENDIX SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY, AND REFERENCES FOR MORE EXTENDED READING These are in addition to the numerous government publications available at low cost from the U. S. Forest Service, National Park Service, and several other governmental agencies, as well as State Forest Services and several schools of forestry. Many of these organ- izations have lists of publications available for distribution at low cost or free of charge. GENERAL FORESTRY "A National Plan for American Forestry." Senate Document 12, Washington, D. C., 1933. CRUMLEY, J. J. "Constructive Forestry for the Private Owner." New York, Macmillan Co., 1926. FERGUSON, JOHN ARDEN. "Farm Forestry." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1916. "Forestry Almanac." American Tree Association, Washington, D. C., 1933. GILL, T. H. "Tropical Forests of the Caribbean." Washington, D. C., Tropical Plant Research Foundation, 1931. GRAVES, H. S, and GUISE, C. H. "Forest Education." New Haven, Yale Uni- versity Press, 1932. HILEY, W. E. "The Economics of Forestry." Oxford, England, Clarendon Press, 1930. ILLICK, J. S. "Outline of General Forestry." New York, Barnes and Noble, 1935. MOON, F. F., and BROWN, NELSON C. "Elements of Forestry." Second edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1929. PACK, ARTHUR NEWTON. "Our Vanishing Forests." New York, Macmillan Co., 1923. PACK, ARTHUR NEWTON. "Forestry, An Economic Challenge." New York, Mac- millan Co, 1933. PACK, CHARLES LATHROP. "Forestry Primer." Washington, D. C, American Tree Assoc., 1935. PACK, CHARLES LATHROP, and GILL, TOM. "Forests and Mankind." New York, Macmillan Co., 1929. PACK, CHARLES LATHROP, and GILL, TOM. "Forest Facts for Schools." New York, Macmillan Co, 1931. PERRY, G. S. "Forestry in Sweden." Mt. Alto, Pa, published by the author 1929. RECKNAGEL, A. B, and SPRING, S. N. "Forestry." New York, A. A. Knopf, 1929. "Terms Used in Forestry and Logging." Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1905. ZON, R, and SPARHAWK, W. N. "Forest Resources of the World," vols. 1-2. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co, 1923. 281 282 APPENDIX FOREST INVESTIGATIONS BAILEY, I. W., and SPOEHR, H. A. "The Role of Research in the Development of Forestry in North America." New York, Macmillan Co., 1929. BATES, C. G., and ZON, R. "Research Methods in the Study of Forest Environ- ment." Washington, D. C., 1922. U.S.D.A. Bulletin 1059. CLAPP, E. H. "A National Program of Forest Research." Washington, D. C., American Tree Association, 1926. ZON, R. "Forests and Water in the Light of Scientific Investigation." Washing- ton, D. C., Forest Service, 1927. FOREST MENSURATION BELYEA, H. C. "Forest Measurement." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1931. BRUCE, D., and SCHUMACHER, F. X. "Forest Mensuration." New York, McGraw- Hill Book Co., 1935. GARY, A. "Woodsman's Manual." Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1932. CHAPMAN, H. H., and DEMERRITT, D. B. "Elements of Forest Mensuration," Albany, N. Y., J. B. Lyon Co., 1932. WINKENWERDER, H., and CLARK, E. T. "Handbook of Field and Office Problems in Forest Mensuration." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1922. SILVICULTURE AND MANAGEMENT BAKER, F. S. "Theory and Practice of Silviculture." New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1935. CHAPMAN, H. H. "Forest Finance." New Haven, Conn., Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, 1926. CHAPMAN, H. H. "Forest Management." Albany, N. Y., J. B. Lyon Co., 1931. ELDREDGE, I. F. "Management Plans, with Special Reference to the National Forests." Washington, D. C., 1928. U.S.D.A. Misc. Publication 11. HAWLEY, R. C. "The Practice of Silviculture." Third edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1935. HILEY, W. E. "Improvement of Woodlands." London, Country Life, Ltd., 1931. LEOPOLD, A. "Game Management." New York, Scribner, 1933. MATTHEWS, D. M. "Management of American Forests." New York, McGraw- Hill Book Co., 1935. RECKNAGEL, A. B. "Theory and Practice of Working Plans." New York John Wiley & Sons, 1917. RECKNAGEL, A. B., and BENTLEY, J. "Forest Management." Second edition New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1926. SAMPSON, A. W. "Range and Pasture Management." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1923. TOUMEY, J. W. "Foundations of Silviculture upon an Ecological Basis." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1928. TOUMEY, J. W., and KORSTIAN, C. F. "Seeding and Planting in the Practice of Forestry." Third edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1931. TROUP, R. S. "Silvicultural Systems." Oxford, Clarendon Press. 1928. TROUP, R. S. "The Silviculture of Indian Trees." Vols. 1-3. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1921. APPENDIX 283 FOREST PROTECTION FELT, E. P. "Manual of Tree and Shrub Insects." New York, Macmillan Co., 1924. GRAHAM, S. A. "Principles of Forest Entomology/' New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1929. HUBERT, E. E. "An Outline of Forest Pathology." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1931. PIERSON, H. B. "Manual of Forest Insects." Augusta, Maine, 1927. Maine Forest Commission Bulletin 5. SNOW, S. B., and KOTOK, E. I. "Role of Fire in Pine Forests of California." Washington, D. C., 1925. U.S.D.A. Bulletin 1294. FOREST POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION BOERKER, R. H. D. "Our National Forests." New York, Macmillan Co., 1918. TAYLOR, J. L. B. "Handbook for Rangers and Woodsmen." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1917. WOOLSEY, T. S., JR. "Studies in French Forestry." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1920. FOREST UTILIZATION BROWN, NELSON C. "Logging — Principles and Practices in the United States and Canada." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1934. BROWN, NELSON C. "Forest Products, Their Manufacture and Use." Second edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1927. BROWN, NELSON C. "The American Lumber Industry." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1923. BRYANT, R. C. "Logging." Second edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1923. BRYANT, R. C. "Lumber: Its Manufacture and Distribution." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1922. GIBBONS, W. H. "Logging in the Douglas Fir Region." Washington, D. C., 1918. U.S.D.A. Bulletin 711. HAWLEY, L. F., and WISE, L. E. "The Chemistry of Wood." New York, Chemi- cal Catalog Co., 1926. HAWLEY, L. F. "Wood Distillation." New York, Chemical Catalog Co., 1923. HAYWARD, P. A. "Wood, Lumber and Timbers." New York, W. L. Chandler, 1930. KELLOGG, R. S., and SMITH, F. H. "Lumber and Its Uses." Fourth edition. New York, Scientific Book Corporation, 1931. KELLOGG, R. S. Tulpwood and Wood Pulp in North America." New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1923. KLAR, M. "Technology of Wood Distillation." London, Chapman & Hall, 1925. KOEHLER, A., and THELEN, R. "The Kiln Drying of Lumber." New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1926. SCHORGER, A. W. "The Chemistry of Cellulose and Wood." New York, McGraw- Hill Book Co., 1926. 284 APPENDIX WOOD TECHNOLOGY AND DENDROLOGY BAILEY, L. H. "The Cultivated Conifers." New York, Macmillan Co., 1934. BROWN, H. P., and PANSHIN, A. J. "Identification of the Commercial Timbers of the United States." New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1934. GARRETT, G. "The Mechanical Properties of Wood." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1931. HARLOW, W. M. "Twig Key to the Deciduous Woody Plants of the Eastern United States." Second edition. Syracuse, N. Y. New York State College of Forestry, 1935. HARLOW, W. M. "Trees of the United States," Part I, Hardwoods; Part II, Softwoods. Third edition. Ann Arbor, Mich., Edwards Bros., 1934. HOUGH, R. B. "Handbook of the Trees of the Northern States and Canada." Lowville, N. Y., published by the author, 1907. RECORD, S. J. "Identification of Timbers of Temperate North America." New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1934. RECORD, S. J., and MELL, C. D. "Timbers of Tropical America." New Haven, Yale Univ. Press, 1924. SARGENT, C. S. "Manual of the Trees of North America." Second edition. Bos- ton, Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1926. PERIODICALS The following contain much valuable current information on forestry: Forestry News Digest, American Tree Association, 1214 - 16th St., Washington, D. C. American Forests, published monthly by the American Forestry Association, 1713 K St., Washington, D. C. Journal of Forestry, published monthly by the Society of American Foresters, Hill Bldg., Washington, D. C. American Lumberman, published bi-monthly, 431 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. Southern Lumberman, published bi-monthly, Presbyterian Bldg., Nashville, Tenn. Timberman, Spalding Bldg., Portland, Oregon. West Coast Lumberman, published monthly, at 71 Columbia Bldg., Seattle, Wash. Nature Magazine, published monthly by American Nature Assoc., 1214- 16th St., Washington, D. C. THE NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY ACT * THE LUMBER CODE AND FORESTRY The most significant, noteworthy advance in the progress of private or indus- trial forestry in the United States was the establishment of the lumber code and *This act was declared unconstitutional by the U. S. Supreme Court on May 27, 1935. This brief description is appended because of historical interest and the fact that many private owners of timber properties have voluntarity continued to observe the conservation features of the code. On June 19, 1935, the directors of the National Lumber Manufacturers Association urged members of the lumber industry to continue the progress made in forest conservation under the code APPENDIX 285 its provision "to conserve forest resources and bring about the sustained produc- tion thereof." The National Industrial Recovery Act was adopted in 1933, and the Forest Industries Code was approved by President Roosevelt on August 19, 1933. Article X of this Code provided for the conservation and sustained production of forest resources on the forest operations of all persons under the jurisdiction of the lumber code. Potentially, this affected 250 million acres of land owned by the lumber, industrial, and timber holding companies, and the 125 million acres of farm timberland which are commercially utilized. The lumber code was one of the first to be accepted and put into effect under this act. The importance of putting privately owned forest properties under a system- atic plan of forest management is at once recognized, when it is realized that practically four-fifths of our total forest area is owned by private corporations and individuals, including farmers. Although an elemental and extensive form of forestry has been extended to our federal forests and parks and to a small area of State Forests and Parks, and a measure of fire protection has been effective upon private forests, relatively little forest management has been prac- ticed on our private forest properties. The Code of Fair Competition for the lumber and timber products industries stated that it was the declared purpose of those industries and of the adherents to the code to accomplish the following: 1. To reduce and alleviate unemployment in these industries. 2. To improve the standards of labor therein. 3. To maintain a reasonable balance between the production and consumption of lumber and timber products. 4. To restore the prices thereof to levels which would avoid the further deple- tion and destruction of capital assets. 5. To conserve forest resources and bring about the sustained yield thereof. There were twenty-one main provisions of the lumber code designed to carry out these declared purposes. The lumber industry, through its properly delegated representatives and in cooperation with federal and state agencies concerned, established fundamental principles which served as a basis for conservation measures to be required on all privately owned logging operations. The Lumber Code Authority on Feb- ruary 9, 1934, adopted the following objectives for minimum standards for all forest regions as follows: 1. Protection of standing timber and young trees from fire and other de- structive forces. 2. Prevention of damage to young trees during and immediately following logging operation. 3. Provision for replanting cleared land after logging, if sufficient advanced growth was not already present. 4. To leave, where feasible, some portion of the virgin timber as basis for growth of the next timber crop. 5. Partial cutting or selective logging to be the general standard of forest practice. The original rules of woods practice, governing cutting operations for saw logs, became effective June 1, 1934. Compliance with the provisions of improved 286 , APPENDIX code practice was generally very good, considering the complex and diversified structure of the industry and the newness and vast size, of the undertaking. Forest conservation under the code was intended to be a joint enterprise, fol- lowing the recommendations of the forestry conferences held in Washington late in 1933 and early in 1934, in conformity with Article X of the lumber code. While industry was to carry forward its own activities, it was expected that the federal Congress would enact a broad legislative program, intended to pave the way for private forest management on an economic basis, by setting up a forest credits system comparable with the Farm Credit Act; that federal aid in fire protection, already granted to private timberland owners under the Clarke- McNary Act of June 7, 1924, would be extended in scope; that forest research would be broadened and directed at problems vital to forest production. Organization. Most of the provisions of the lumber code were put into effect through local or regional lumber manufacturers or similar associations, based either on geographical location or similarity of species or product. There were 128 administrative agencies of the various divisions, subdivisions, and groups. For example, of the many subdivisions, the hardwood division had 7, Southern Pine 1, the West Coast Logging and Lumber Division 4, the Woodworking Divi- sion 3, Wooden Package Division 8, the Red Cedar Shingle Division 1, the Veneer and Plywood 3, the Cross Arm Division 4, the Pole and Piling 11, and the Cross Tie Division 7. The governing body or agency responsible for the administration of the lumber code was the Lumber Code Authority, with headquarters in Washington. Production of forest materials varies widely with each section of the country — from structural timber and construction lumber to poles and piling and railway cross ties, from round-edged box lumber as in New England, to small squares of hardwood dimension from which are manufactured spools, bobbins, and chair rungs. Article X of the lumber code sought to assure for all regions a continuous supply of forest products, continuity of operation, stability of employment, and permanence of communities depending upon forests and forest products for em- ployment. This is the very essence of sustained yield forest management. One of the most important functions of the Lumber Code Authority was control of production, based upon expectation of market requirements. By the exercise of this function, it was expected that forest output would be balanced with growth, and that under wise management, promoting greater growth, a larger output would be obtained without impairment of forest capital. The minimum lumber prices which were in effect shortly after the code was adopted were suspended by the Administration in December, 1934. Under Schedule C, the Forest Conservation Code and Rules of Forest Prac- tice were put in effect through the following agencies: 1. Northeastern Lumber Manufacturers Association of New York City, in- cluding the Northeastern Hardwood Subdivision and the Northeastern Softwood Subdivision. 2. The Northern Hemlock and Hardwood Association of Oshkosh, Wisconsin, including the Northern Hemlock Division and the Northern Hardwood Subdivision. 3. The California Redwood Association of San Francisco, California, includ- ing the Redwood Division. APPENDIX 287 4. The Western Pine Association of Portland, Oregon, under which was included the Western Pine Division. This Division was the most widely diversified, because it had to do with rules of forest practice on all the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States where ponderosa pine grows. There were 7 districts, designated as follows: (a) Montana. (6) Idaho. (c) Washington. (oO Oregon. (e) California. (/) Arizona-New Mexico. (g) Rocky Mountains. The last included Engelmann spruce, lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine and Douglas fir types, whereas the other districts were predominately of ponderosa pine, except in the Idaho district where in the northern part of the state, Idaho white pine type is the most valuable. 5. The Hardwood Manufacturers Institute of Memphis, Tennessee, including the Appalachian and Southern Hardwood Subdivisions. 6. The Southern Cypress Manufacturers Association of Jacksonville, Florida, including the Cypress Division. 7. The North Central Hardwood Association of Indianapolis, Indiana, which included the North Central Hardwood Subdivision. 8. The West Coast Lumbermen's Association of Seattle, Washington, which included the West Coast Logging and Lumber Division. 9. The Southern Pine Manufacturers Association of New Orleans, Louisiana, which included the Southern Pine Division. 10. The Northern Pine Manufacturers Association of Minneapolis, Minnesota, which included the Northern Pine Division. Details of the rules of forest practice were formulated for each of these divi- sions by its respective conservation agency. For example, in order to insure forest lands being kept continuously productive in the southern pine region, it was specified that 100 trees of 4 to 7 inches in diameter 12 inches above the ground or 10 trees 8 to 11 inches in diameter, or 2 trees 12 inches or larger or equivalent combinations must be left by the operator per acre as a minimum. In longleaf pine forests, the minimum individual to be left was a tree 5 feet or more in height, and 4 trees per acre were required in the 12-inch or larger class. In all the Divisions, in order to promote development of sustained yield forest management as permanent operating policy, all persons who were certified by their division agencies as obtaining their raw materials from lands under their ownership or control that were managed on a sustained yield basis were awarded an additional production allotment of 10% under Article VIII of the lumber code. As indicated above, the Rules of Forest Practice varied considerably with each region and had to do with fire protection during and immediately following logging, cooperation and protection against fire, insects, and disease, the conser- vation of immature trees and young growth during and subsequent to logging, and provision for restocking the land after cutting through selective logging, planting, or other measures. 288 APPENDIX COMMON AND BOTANICAL NAMES The following is a list of the more important native species of trees found in the United States and Canada. COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME Ash, black Fraxinus nigra Ash, blue Fraxinus quadrangulata Ash, green Fraxinus pennsylvanica lanceolata Ash, white Fraxinus americana Aspen Populus tremuloides Aspen, largetooth Populus grandidentata Basswood Tilia glabra Beech Fagus grandijolia Birch, gray Betula populifolia Birch, paper Betula papyrijera Birch, sweet Betula lento, Birch, yellow Betula lutea Butternut Juglans cinerea Catalpa Catalpa speciosa Cedar, Alaska Chamaecyparis nootkatensis Cedar, incense Libocedrus decurrens Cedar, Port Orford Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Cedar, eastern red Juniperus virginiana Cedar, western red Thuja plicata Cedar, northern white • . . Thuja occidental^ Cedar, southern white Chamaecyparis thyoides Cherry, black Prunus serotina Chestnut Castanea dentata Cottonwood, black Populus trichocarpa Cotton wood, eastern Populus deltoides Cypress, southern Taxodium distichum Dogwood, flowering Cornus florida Douglas fir Pseudotsuga taxifolia Elm, American Ulmus am.ericana Elm, rock Ulmus racemosa Fir, alpine Abies lasiocarpa Fir, balsam Abies balsamea Fir, corkbark Abies arizonica Fir, lowland white Abies grandis Fir, noble Abies nobilis Fir, red Abies magnified Fir, silver Abies amabilis Fir, white Abies concolor Gum, black Nyssa sylvatica Gum, tupelo Nyssa aquatica Hackberry Celtis occidentalis Hemlock, eastern Tsuga canadensis Hemlock, western Tsuga heterophylla Hickory, bitternut Hicoria cordiformis APPENDIX 289 COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME Hickory, pignut Hicoria glabra Hickory, shagbark Hicoria ovata Hickory, water Hicoria aquatica Holly Hex opaca Hop-hornbeam Ostrya virginiana Ironwood, black Rhamnidium ferreum Larch, western Larix occidentalis Locust, black Robinia pseudocacia Locust, honey Gleditsia triacanthos Magnolia, cucumber Magnolia acuminata Maple, red Acer rubrum Maple, sugar or hard Acer saccharum Oak, black Quercus velutina Oak, bur Quercus macrocarpa Oak, chestnut Quercus montana Oak, live Quercus virginiana Oak, Oregon white Quercus garryana Oak, pin Quercus palustris Oak, post Quercus stellata Oak, red Quercus borealis Oak, scarlet Quercus coccinea Oak, southern red Quercus rubra Oak, swamp red Quercus rubra pagodaefolia Oak, swamp chestnut Quercus prinus Oak, swamp white Quercus bicolor Oak, water Quercus nigra Oak, white Quercus alba Oak, willow Quercus phellos Osage-orange Toxylon pomiferum Pecan Hicoria pecan Persimmon Diospyros virginiana Pine, jack Pinus banksiana Pine, Jeffrey Pinus jeffreyi Pine, limber Pinus flexilis Pine, loblolly Pinus taeda Pine, lodgepole Pinus contorta Pine, longleaf Pinus palustris Pine, northern or eastern white . . Pinus strobus Pine, Norway or red Pinus resinosa Pine, pitch Pinus rigida Pine, ponderosa Pinus ponder osa Pine, shortleaf Pinus echinata Pine, slash Pinus caribaea Pine, sugar Pinus lambertiana Pine, western white Pinus monticola Poplar, balsam Populus balsamifera Poplar, yellow Liriodendron tulipifera Redwood Sequoia sempervirens Spruce, black Picea mariana 290 APPENDIX COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME Spruce, Engelmann Picea engelmannii Spruce, red Picea rubra Spruce, Sitka Picea sitchensis Spruce, white Picea glauca Sycamore Platanus occidentals Tamarack Larix laricina Walnut, black Juglans nigra Willow, black Salix nigra Yew, Pacific Taxus brevifolia INDEX Aesthetic values, 12 Allen, S. W., 222 Animal damage, 88 Animals, domestic, 88 wild, 88 Arbor day, 26 Arboriculture, 24 Belyea, H. C., 91 Blister rust, 86 Branches of forestry, 22 Brown, H. P., 160 Bruce and Schumacher, 91 Causes of fires, 73 Chapman, H. H., 91, 228 Civilian Conservation Corps, 241 Clapp, E. H., 234 Clear-cutting methods, 101 Cline, A. C., 101 Collection, seed, 117 Control methods, fires, 80 Cooperage, 181 Coppice method, 105 Costs of lumber, 155 Cross ties, 174 Cruising, 94 Cutting, improvement, 131 in National Forests, 107 liberation, 130 Cuttings, intermediate, 128 Day, R. K., 225 Definition of forestry, 1 Depletion, 50 Demeritt and Chapman, 91 Division of Grazing, 272 Dunes, protection against, 89 Dutch elm disease, 87 Dyewoods, 181 Ecology, 61 Eggleston, N., 192 Elm disease, Dutch, 87 Emergency Conservation Work, 241 Employment, 12 Employment trends, 183 European methods, 14 Farm woodland, 223 Fernow, B. E., 32, 192 Fiber boards, 175 Fires, control and suppression, 80 detection, 74 forest, 68 prevention, 75 Forest fires, 68 Forest influences, 61 Forest insects, 83 Forest mensuration, 91 Forest policies, industrial, 167 Forest policy agencies, 189 Forest products, 172 Forest regions, 34 Forest resources, 34 Forest Service, 190 Forest utilization, 135 Forestry, and land use, 275 as a profession, 16 branches of, 22 difficulties of, 225 industrial, 135 private, 221 Forestry agencies, 189 Forestry education, 228 Forestry occupations, 230 Forests, State, 213 town, county, and community, 219 Fuelwood, 177 Fungi, forest, 85 Game in National Forests, 198 291 292 INDEX Game management, 197 Garratt, George, 163 Garver, R. D., 149 Graves, H. S, 33, 192, 230, 232 Greeley, W. B., 33, 192 Growth and depletion, 50 Guise, C. H., 230 Hawley, L. F, 163 Hawley, R. C., 63, 99, 130, 233 History and development, 26 Hough, F. B., 30, 32, 192 Industrial forest policies, 167 Industrial forestiy, 135 Influence on climate, 13 Influences, forest, 61 Insects, 83 Instruments used, 92 Korstian, C. F., 65, 113 Laws, history of, 30 Leaders in forestry, 32 Legislation, federal, 30 Lockard, C. R., 100 Log rules, 93 Logging, selective, 147 Logging methods, 139 Lowdermilk, W. C., 257 Lumber, costs of producing, 155 principal species cut, 154 Lumber cut, 154 Lumber distribution, 156 Lumber industry, history, 27 importance, 135 Lumber manufacture, 152 Maple syrup and sugar, 182 Measure, units of, 91 Mensuration, forest, 91 Mine timbers, 174 Morton, J. Sterling, 26 Munger, T. T., 100 National Forests, 190 silviculture in, 107 National Park functions, 208 National Park Service, 205 National planning, 275 Naval stores, 179 Nursery practice, 118 Objectives of forestry, 9 Ownership, 39 Pack, A. N., 33 Pack, C. L., 33 Paper, 175 Parks, National, 205 Percentage of trees used, 165 Piling, 174 Pinchot, Gifford, 30, 32, 192, 241 Plains Shelterbelt Project, 263 Planning, national, 275 Planting, 113 Planting wild stock, 127 Plywood, 178 Poles, 174 Policies, state forest, 213 Pratt, George D., 33 Preservation methods, 186 Preservation of timber, 185 Preservative, requirements of, 186 Primitive areas, 198 Private forestry, 221 Products, forest, 172 principal, 50 Professional requirements, 20 Properties of wood, 159 Pruning, 131 Public domain grazing, 272 Public relations, 201 Rayon, 175 Record, S. J., 160 Recreation, 197 Reforestation, 113 spacing, 123 Reproduction, natural, advantages of, 100 Research, 199, 216, 232 Resource frontiers, 29 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 31, 33, 189, 192, 238 Roosevelt, Theodore, 31, 32, 241 Roth, Filibert, 32 Rules, for thinning, 133 log, 93 INDEX 293 Salaries in forest service, 203 Sand dunes, 89 Sawmill waste, 169 Scaling, 93 Schenck, Carl, 32, 228 Schools of forestry, 228 Seed collection, 117 Seed selection, 117 Seed-tree method, 102 Selection method, 104 Selection of seed, 117 Selective logging, 147 Shelterbelt project, 263 Shelterwood method, 102 Show, S. B., 100 Silcox, F. A., 192 Silvics, 61 Silvicultural systems, 101 Silvicultural treatment, 128 Silviculture, 99 American versus European, 106 artificial reproduction, 113 in National Forests, 107 Soil Conservation Service, 255 Southern fire problem, 82 Spacing used in planting, 123 Species, commercial, 42 used in planting, 123 Stuart, R. Y., 192 Stumpage, 96 Stumpage values, 97 Systems, Silvicultural, 101 Tables, volume, 94 yield, 95 Tannins, 181 Taxation, 226 Tennessee Valley Authority, 249 Thinning, 131, 133 Tillamook fire, 72 Tillotson, C. R., 219 Timber preservation, 185 Timber values, 97 Timber volume, 40 Tourney and Korstian, 65, 113 Tree, definition, 53 Tree characteristics, 53 Tree planting, 113 Trees, number per acre, 124 Turpentine operations, 179 Uses of wood, 159 Utilization, factors of, 166 Values, stumpage, 97 Veneers, 178 Volume tables, 94 Waste, sources of, 164 Wild stock, 127 Wise, L. E., 163 Wood construction, advantages, 138 Wood distillation, 181 Wood pulp, 175 Wood uses and economics, 159 Woodland, farm, 223 Woods waste, 165 reducing, 169 Yield tables, 95 Zon, R., 149 ^f