A GENERAL INTRODUCTION

THE NATURAL HISTORY

MAMMIFEROUS ANIMALS,

WITH A PARTICULAR VIEW OF THE

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN,

III THE MORE CLOSELY ALLIED GENERA OF THE ORDER

QUADRUMANA, OR MONKEYS,

BY W. C. LINN^US MARTIN, F.L.S.

N

Illustrated with 296 anatomical, osteological, and other incidental
Engravings on vvopdcand L? full. plate representations

ol* aiihiialp, .dru,vvn by

\YILLIA-M BARVKY.

WRIGHT AND CO. PRINTERS, 76, FLEET STREET, LONDON.
MDCCCXLI.

°

B10LO«Y
LIBRARY

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NATURAL HISTORY,

&c.

INTRODUCTION.

THE earth and the waters display the energy of the creative fiat —
they teem with life. To whatever part of Nature's domain we direct
our attention, a countless throng of living beings bursts upon our view,
and overwhelms us with astonishment. Not only are the woods, hills,
and plains peopled by the larger tribes of earth and air, but every
leaf has its colony, every drop of water its busy multitude. . Varying in
size, in form, in structure, and in habits, all, from the gigantic Elephant
to the microscopic animalcule, play their assigned parts, and conduce,
each in its station, to the order and harmony of nature. Amidst this
profusion of life, a due balance of power and number is maintained, by
the influence of species upon species. They are destined to act and
re-act upon each other, and a law of destruction and renovation is per-
petually in operation, by which the proportions of animal existence are
preserved in their just equilibrium. Multitudes are doomed to become
the prey of others — whole races seem created , as though for slaughter ;
but, great as is the loss, the increase is equivalent, in order to the pre-
servation of the species. Yet, as regards individuals, the instinctive
means of attack on the one hand, and of self-preservation on the other,
are such, as to equalize their respective chances. Speed, caution, watch-
fulness, inaccessible retreats, the nature of their clothing, and even
its colour, alike protect the timid and the defenceless ; while the bolder
oppose force to force. Those that are most obnoxious to destruction
are the most prolific ; their numbers are rapidly recruited : while such •
as are secure in their bulk, strength, and prowess, only increase in a ratio
sufficient to replenish the losses occasioned by accident, or by natural
dissolution. Insects, for example, are the common prey of birds and
beasts, reptiles and fishes, and, often, of each other ; yet who has ever
known their numbers perceptibly thinned ? at all events, it is unquestion-
able that the myriads destroyed are replaced by other myriads. How

357925

2 '•>»* \ /''*;• f - I^IRODUCTION.

great is the daily havoc made among fishes ! they are the prey of each
other : the Cachalot, the Grampus, the Porpoise, the Otter, and the Seal,
devour them in multitudes : thousands of oceanic birds find in them
their natural aliment, whilst man draws them by shoals from the deep ;
such, however, is their astonishing fecundity, that all these losses are duly
repaired. The number of eggs in the roe of the Codfish has been calculated
to be 3,686,760,— of the Flounder 1,357,400,— of the Herring 36,960,—
of the Mackarel 546,680,— of the Smelt 38,280,— of the Sole 100,360,— of
the Tench 383,250. Of an increase by numbers like these no examples
exist among the higher classes of vertebrata, viz., Birds and Mam-
malia : still, the law of the balance of increase and decrease is not the
less established among them : hence we justly conclude, that each part of
the creation depends upon another ; and though, at a slight glance, all may
seem confusion, it will be found, upon mature reflection, that order and
a due equipoise of parts are the results of a scheme equally well adapted
and wisely ordained.

On the advantages attending the study of Natural History, it is super-
fluous to enlarge. So many animals are directly or indirectly subser-
vient to the necessities, pleasures, or luxuries of man, — from so many
does he experience direct or indirect injuries, that a knowledge of them
is almost indispensable to his existence : .our table, our dress, our house-
hold furniture, and a variety of conveniences which we enjoy, will remind
us, if we reflect for a moment, of a multitude of animals, which, in one
way or other, are essential to our comfort ; and we may with equal ease
form a catalogue of such as, on the contrary, are injurious to our welfare.
But, leaving out of the question the necessity thus imposed upon us,
of gaining a general knowledge of natural objects, we may observe,
that the study of natural history is peculiarly fitted for strengthening
and enlarging the mind : it disciplines the memory, it demands the
exercise of patient investigation, it enforces an attention to minutiae, it
leads us to detect differences, where none but the practised eye would
perceive them, and to trace out analogies, or affinities, which reflec-
tion alone can discover : its aim is truth ; and so far it must be a
noble and exalted pursuit. If to correct the imagination, and strengthen
the powers of reason, be among the advantages attending the study of
the exact sciences, not less beneficial are the results attending the study of
Nature. Yet, independently of this consideration, Nature holds out other
motives to excite our interest ; she asserts her intrinsic value, and, while
claiming our admiration of her work, speaks of unerring wisdom and
almighty power.

To every man, whose heart is well attuned, whose feelings are pure and
undebased, Nature presents 'a thousand charms : at every step she de-
lights him with new wonders, she invites him to acquaintance, and well

DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 3

is he rewarded who obeys her call. The votary of Nature deems no
object unworthy of examination, none destitute of interest ; nor does the
spirit of philosophic inquiry suffer him to rest satisfied with a casual
glance at the multitudinous phenomena around him : he is not content
merely to wonder and admire ; but, urged onward, he attempts to
trace %back effects to their causes ; he investigates, he discriminates, he
analyzes, he combines, and, still proceeding in his course, endeavours to
obtain a glimpse (imperfect it may be) of the mighty plan of creation, —
a knowledge of the grand scheme, by which the whole is blended into
unity.

So various and manifold are the subjects of Nature's empire,
that, were the life of one man, however zealous and indefatigable he
might be, lengthened out to twenty, nay, a hundred times beyond the
allotted term, his materials would be unexhausted ; he would still
have much to study, and, after all, leave a systema nature to be en-
larged and corrected by those who should come after him. Hence
the advantage of co-operating numbers, each working in his favourite
department, and contributing his portion of labour to the public good.
The result is an accumulated mass of riches, which, transmitted to our
immediate successors, may be by them assayed, refined, and increased,
and, in due order, passed on to generations following. The wisdom, then,
of selecting a portion of Nature's empire, on which to concentrate our
energies, is very apparent. We may — nay, we must — survey the whole,
in order to study a portion to advantage ; but while in the one case we
content ourselves with a general outline, in the other we follow out the
minutest lines, tracing them through all their several curves and ramifi-
cations.

Cuvier, whose philosophic labours are appreciated by every lover of
science, has divided the ANIMAL KINGDOM into four grand Divisions, or
Sub-kingdoms, viz : —

1. Animalia Vertebrata.

2. Animalia Mollusca.

3. Animalia Articulata.

4. Animalia Radiata.

These divisions answer to the Spini-cerebrata, Cyclo-gangliata,
Diplo-neura, and Cyclo-neura of Dr. Grant — terms, which this celebrated
anatomist has adopted in reference to the development of the nervous
system, and as being, from the importance of that system in the economy
of animal life, more definite and, philosophical than those usually em-
ployed. It is with the first Sub-kingdom, or Subregnum, namely, Animalia

INTRODUCTION.

Vertebrate, or Spini-cerebrata, that we are immediately concerned, inas-
much as it is that which includes the Mammalia, the class to which this
work is devoted.

The vertebrate section (Vertebrata or Spini-cerebrata) of the animal
kingdom contains five great Classes, agreeing in the following particulars :
First, — In the possession of a brain and a spinal chord (medulla spinalis),
conjointly enclosed in a cranium and vertebral column, whence emerges
a well-developed nervous system ; Secondly, — In the possession of an
internal osseous fabric, or skeleton ; Thirdly, — In the number of the limbs
never exceeding four ; Fourthly, — In the possession of organs of vision,
hearing, smell, and taste ; Fifthly, — In the mouth consisting of two jaws,
placed one above the other, and not on opposite sides ; Sixthly, — In
the heart being muscular, and the blood red ; Seventhly, — In the indi-
vidual distinctiveness of the sexes.

These five classes are : — I. Mammalia. — II. Aves. — III. Reptilia. —
IV. Amphibia.— V. Pisces.*

* The arrangement of the animal kingdom by Dr. Grant, beginning from the lowest type of
organization, and proceeding to the highest, is exemplified in the following table :—

ANIMALIA.
I. — Subregnum CYCLO-NEURA, or RADIATA.

Classis 1. Polygastrica. (Infusory Animalcules, as Cercaria, &c.)
2. Porifera. (Sponges.)
•3. Polypifera. (Zoophytes, as Gorgonia, Caryophyllia, Corals, Hydra, &c.)

4. Acalephae. (Sea-nettles, Physalia, Beroe, Rhizostoma, Velella, &c.)

5. Echinodermata. (Sea-stars, Echini, &c.)

II. — Subregnum DIPLO-NEURA, or ARTICULATA.
Classis 6. Entozoa. (Internal parasitic Worms.)

7. Rotifera. (Wheel-like Animalcules, as Hydatina.)

8. Cirrhopoda. (Barnacles, &c.)

9. Annelida. (Leech, Nereis, Worm, &c.)

10. Myriapoda. (Centipedes, &c.)

11. Insecta. (Insects.)

12. Arachnida. (Spiders.)

13. Crustacea. (Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps.)

III.— Subregnum CycLO-GANGLiATA, or MOLLUSCA.
Classis 14. Tunicata. (Pyrosoma, Cynthia, &c.)

15. Conchifera. (Bivalve-shelled Molluscs, as Mussels, Oysters, &c.)

16. Gasteropoda. (Slugs and Univalve-shelled Molluscs, as Snails, land or marine.)

17. Pteropoda. (Clio borealis.)

18. Cephalopoda. (Cuttle-fish.)

IV.— Subregnum SPINI-CEREBRATA, or VERTEBRATA.
Classis 19. Pisces. (Fishes.

20. Amphibia. (Frogs, Newts, &c.)

21. Reptilia. (Snakes, Lizards, &c.)
22 Aves. (Birds.)

23. Mammalia. (Mammiferous animals.)

Other Physiologists give a modification of this arrangement, separating into a fifth class termed
Acrita ("AKPITOS, confusus, o, non, and Kpivu, cerno), the Acalephce (or Sea-nettles), the Slerelmin-
tha (or solid intestinal worms with a parenchymatous structure), the Polypifera (or Zoophytes;, the
Porifera (or Sponges), and the Polygastrica (or infusory Animalcules), animals in which the nervous

ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. 5

PISCES (fishes) may be described as oviparous animals, with cold and
red blood ; with a bilocular heart, that is, a heart consisting of one
auricle, and one ventricle ; breathing by permanent branchiae, or gills ;
with extremities modified into fins, for aquatic progression ; having the
body covered with scales ; bones more or less cartilaginous ; the vertebrae
with a funnel-shaped cavity on each articular surface, filled with an
elastic intervertebral substance, on which, as on a sort of cushion, each
vertebra moves ; the mouth destitute of salivary glands ; the teeth nu-
merous, and irregular ; no external ears ; the eyes destitute of eye-
lids. Respiration is effected by the transmission of water through
the mouth, over the surface of the fringe-like branchiae ; and the blood is
transmitted to the gills from the ventricle, whence, instead of returning
immediately to the heart, it is conveyed, by the branchial veins, to the
body : these veins, after giving branches to the anterior parts, unite to
form the aorta, which sends the arterialized blood through the rest of
the system, without the aid of a systemic heart : the brain does not fill
the cavity of the cranium ; it consists of a medulla oblongata, optic lobes
of great magnitude, cerebral hemispheres, olfactory tubercles, and a
cerebellum.

AMPHIBIA. — Oviparous vertebrate animals, with cold and red blood,
and with a naked skin ; commencing life as aquatic beings, immediately
after exclusion from the egg, and sometimes continuing aquatic through
life. They have, therefore, when young, branchiae, by which to breathe,
and a bilocular heart like that of a fish, together with a cup-shaped
cavity on each articular surface of the bodies of the vertebrae. The
greater number of Amphibia, as the Frog, Toad, and Newt, are caduci-

matter does not assume the form of threads, as it does in the higher cycloneurose animals (Sea-
stars, for instance), but is diffused through their homogeneous composition. The following is an
arrangement given in a Course of Lectures by Professor Owen : —

ANIMALIA.
I. — Subregnum ACRITA.
Classis 1. Polygastrica. Classis 4. Sterelmintha (Tape-worms, &c). ;

2. Spongiae. 5. Acalephae.

3. Polypi.

II. — Subregnum NEMATONEURA (NJj^ia, a thread, Net/pov, a nerve).

Classis' 6. Echinoderma. Classis 8. Epizoa (external parasites).

7. Coelelmintha (transparent soft 9. Rotifera.

cavitary intestinal worms).

III.— Subregnum HOMOGANGLIATA, ('O/*os-, a pair, or two alike, Ta^Xiov, the knot of a nerve.)
Classis 10. Cirripeda. Classis 13. Arachnida.

11. Annelida. 14. Crustacea.

12. Insecta.

IV.— Subregnum HETEROGANGLIATA ('Erepoy, other, 'ErepoTnr, diversity). Taj^Xiov.
Classis 15. Tunicata. Classis 18. Pteropoda.

16. Palliobranchiata. 19. Gasteropoda.

17. Lamellibranchiata. 20. Cephalopoda.

V.— Subregnum VERTEBRATA.
Classis 21. Pisces. Classis 23. Aves.

22. Reptilia. 24. Mammalia.

0 INTRODUCTION.

branchiate : * thus, at a certain epoch they undergo a metamorphosis ; the
gills become obliterated, the lungs developed, the heart acquires three
cavities, viz., two auricles, and one ventricle. The perennibranchiate -f
Amphibia, as the Proteus, the Axolotl, and the Siren, though they
acquire lungs, do not lose their branchiae ; they are permanently
aquatic. The skin of the Amphibia is a highly sensitive and secreting
surface, and the blood, circulating through its vessels, becomes partially
arterialized ; hence it compensates for the limited use of the lungs,
during submersion, or hibernation. The toes are destitute of claws ;
there is no external auditory apparatus ; the brain in the perennibranchiate
group, and in the larva or tadpole state of those which, as the Frog or
Newt, lose the gills, resembles that of the fish : as the metamorphosis
of the tadpole takes place, and the legs and arms become developed, the
cerebral hemispheres enlarge, but present neither convolutions nor ven-
tricles or internal cavities. Limbs variable, — four or two.

REPTILIA. — Vertebrate animals, with cold and red blood, with true
lungs ; oviparous : the heart has two auricles and one ventricle ; the latter
cavity receives both the venous and the arterialized blood, and is divided
more or less by an ascending imperfect valve ; the body is covered with
scales, or horny plates ; there is either no external auditory apparatus, or
only a simple orifice, open in some, in others covered with a transparent
tympanic membrane, and, in a few, as the Alligators, protected by a move-
able valve. Brain, with the cerebral hemispheres exceeding the optic
lobes in magnitude, and containing each a distinct ventricle ; the cere-
bellum remarkable for its proportionate smallness. Limbs variable, —
four, or two, or wanting.

AVES (Birds). — Vertebrate animals, with warm and red blood ; ovi-
parous : heart with four cavities, viz., two auricles and two ventricles,
whence there is a distinct pulmonic and systemic circulation ; lungs
ample, but fixed, and communicating with extensive air-cells, and also with
the cavities of the bones of the extremities, which (except in a few, as the
Penguins and great Auk) are destitute of marrow. The brain fills the
cavity of the cranium ; the hemispheres extend backward, cover the
optic lobes, and come into contact with the enlarged and sulcated, or
furrowed, cerebellum, but they are still destitute of convolutions ; the
optic lobes are large, but separated from each other to the sides of the
medulla oblongata ; the olfactory tubercles are small. The eyes have
not only eyelids, but a third membraneous covering, or membrana nic-
titans, capable of being drawn over the eye at pleasure ; the ears are
open externally ; the jaws are covered with a horny sheath, forming a
beak. There is no epiglottis. The limbs are always four, the anterior

* Having perishable gills, from caducus, perishable, bronchia, a gill.
t Having permanent gills (perennis, permanent).

BRAIN OF MAMMALIA. 7

pair of which (with a few exceptions) are destined for organs of flight.
The body is covered with feathers.

MAMMALIA. — Vertebrate animals, with warm and red blood ; with true
lungs, free and divided : the heart consists of two auricles and two ven-
tricles, and, together with the lungs, is enclosed in a distinct chest,
divided from the abdominal cavity by a diaphragm, or muscular partition.
The jaws are furnished with teeth emerging from deep alveoli ; the limbs
are generally four, sometimes two ; the epiglottis is distinct. The mode
of reproduction is viviparous ; the young are suckled on the mother's milk,
secreted in mammary glands, which open by ducts, externally. The
brain is highly developed ; the hemispheres contain large ventricles,
and are usually convoluted ; the optic lobes are small, concealed, solid,
and divided by a transverse furrow ; the spinal chord is less, in propor-
tion to the cerebral mass, than in the inferior classes. In the lower Mam-
malia, as the Rodentia and Marsupialia, the brain approximates to that
of the bird, and is destitute of external convolutions; but in none do
the cerebral hemispheres cover those of the cerebellum, till, ascending in
the scale, we arrive at the higher Simiae, — and these are eclipsed by Man
in all that constitutes the highest condition of cerebral development.

Here it may be observed, that the cerebral system not only exhibits
an ascending series of advances, from the lowest fish up to the highest
mammal, but that, in the highest mammal, a parallel series of advances ob-
tains, from the fish-like condition of the brain, at an early foetal stage, up to
its complete development. In the human foetus, for example, the optic
lobes, as in the fish, are larger than the hemispheres, and are hollow within ;
and their cortical portion in like manner predominates. The cerebral
hemispheres are then, as also in fishes, particularly the osseous fishes,
destitute of internal ventricles and external convolutions, having a smooth
cortical surface ; a wide longitudinal canal runs down the centre of the
spinal chord, as in fishes, and the cerebellum appears in the form of a
simple lobe — its permanent condition in the highest of those animals.

As it is to the brain that all impressions produced by external
agents on our bodily senses are conveyed — as it is here that the incite-
ments to bodily motion originate — as it is in this mysterious labora-
tory that all mental operations are conducted — moreover, as, according to
the degree of excellence of this organ, so is the grade of the animal in the
chain of being, we are called upon to enter into a few details respecting
its parts and composition. It has been already stated that, among the
vertebrate classes, we find the brain the most completely developed in
the Mammalia — and, among the Mammalia, in Man : to the human brain,
therefore, it is that our observations have now especial reference. This
wonderful organ, which may be regarded as the central axis, to which
the whole nervous system converges, and which is, in fact, the expanded

8 INTRODUCTION.

termination of the medulla oblongata, consists of two substances, form-
ing, together, a soft compressible mass ; these substances are regularly
disposed, but their distinct physiological influence and properties yet
remain to be discovered : the one is termed the cineritious or cortical, the
other the medullary substance. The cineritious or cortical substance is of
a greyish colour, soft, and appears to the eye to be of an homogeneous
composition : it is, however, permeated by minute blood vessels, the
presence of which may be demonstrated by means of coloured injections.

The medullary substance is firmer in its texture than the cineritious ;
of a white colour, and perfectly opaque : it consists, as is discernible by
means of a lens, of fibres disposed in different directions ; and it would
appear to be comparatively destitute of blood vessels, or to have them of
extraordinary minuteness, as coloured injections do not penetrate through-
out the whole of its parts. In the brain, exclusively so called, the cine-
ritious matter invests the medullary substance, which latter constitutes the
mass of the interior : in the medulla oblongata, on the contrary, the cine-
ritious matter is posited in the interior. Chemistry throws but little
light on animal physiology, or the vital properties of organs, in living
bodies : to learn, therefore, that the brain, as analyzed by Vauquelin,
consists of water, fatty matter, white, and reddish ; of albumen,
osmasome, phosphorus, acids, salts, and sulphur — or that, in the cineri-
tious matter, Professor John detected muriate of soda, a sulphate, the
phosphates of lime, soda, ammonia, and magnesia, with a trace of the
phosphate of iron, and silica, is but of trifling importance. The brain,
then, thus constituted of a cineritious and a medullary substance, is
divided into several parts, and covered with certain membranes for its
better protection : of these, the first is the dura mater, which lines
the skull ; it forms also various processes, or expanded sheets, which
divide between or support the different parts of the brain ; and it forms,
moreover, between its folds, large tortuous canals, or sinuses, for the
reception of the venous blood : it is of a tough and fibrous tissue, and
is closely connected with the internal table of the cranial bones, by means
of numerous blood vessels. Beneath the dura mater is a more delicate
membrane, beautifully transparent, enveloping the brain, but without dip-
ping into its convolutions : it is termed, from its fineness, the arachnoid
membrane (membrana arachnoidea).

The third membrane is the real investment of the brain : it is termed the
pia mater, and is of exceeding thinness and vascularity, exhibiting numer-
ous blood vessels, which are beautifully distributed over it, and which
pass from it into the cineritious substance of the brain itself. Instead of
simply investing the brain, it follows all its convolutions and inflections,
and lines its different cavities.

The brain, considered as a whole, when fully developed, consists of

BRAIN OF MAMMALIA. 9

the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata, the continuation
of which latter is termed the medulla spinalis.

The cerebrum constitutes, in Mammalia, by far the largest mass, and, in
Man, it occupies the whole of the upper and anterior portions of the cranial
cavity. It is primarily divided by a deep vertical fissure, running, longi-
tudinally, into two nearly equal parts, termed hemispheres. Each of
these hemispheres is made up of three lobes, — an anterior, a middle, and
a posterior. The anterior lobe is frontal, and rests on the orbital plate of
the frontal bone, a plate which constitutes the roof of the orbit ; the middle
rests on the sphenoid and temporal bones ; the posterior covers and rests on
the cerebellum, in Man, but not in the lower Mammalia. Gently separating
the two hemispheres of the cerebrum (between which is inflected a redu-
plication of the dura mater), at the bottom of the fissure may be observed
a white transverse body, or commissure, termed the corpus callosum,* and
also an anterior and posterior medullary chord or commissure (commis-
surae cerebri anterior et posterior). Underneath the corpus callosum is
the delicate partition between the ventricles, termed septum lucidum, of
which the inferior side is vaulted, and forms the fornix. On the respec-
tive sides of the septum lucidum are the cavities of the cerebrum, termed
its lateral ventricles, which communicate with each other near the middle
of the fornix. In the lower and interior parts of each ventricle is a curved
medullary process, termed, from its form, cornu Ammonis. In the anterior
part of each ventricle is a pyramidal process of a cineritious colour,
exposing, when divided, a striated texture, whence it is termed corpus stria-
turn. Behind these are two eminences of a white colour, called thalami
nervorum opticorum, and between them is a third ventricle. After death
these ventricles are found to contain a serous fluid, more or less in
quantity. Behind the thalami is the pineal gland (which Des Cartes re-
garded as the seat of the soul), remarkable for containing, at least very
commonly, small gritty concretions of phosphate of lime, which, when the
gland is crushed between the fingers, communicate a rough sand-like sen-
sation to the touch. Beneath the pineal gland, are the optic lobes, of
an insignificant size compared to what they are in fishes (where they
are hollow, and exceed the cerebral hemispheres), and divided into four
parts ; hence called corpora quadrigemina.

In each lateral ventricle is a tissue of vessels, termed the choroid plexus,
which is spread upon the thalami, the pineal gland, and the optic tubercles.

The cerebellum, in Man, is covered by the posterior lobes of the cere-
brum, and rests on the floor of the occipital bone ; in the lower Mammalia,
the Orangs and Monkeys excepted, it is not covered by the cerebrum, but
is placed behind that portion of the brain. Its surface is beautifully

* It will be seen, hereafter, that the corpus callosum does not exist in the marsupials.
VOL. I. c

10 INTRODUCTION.

marked by transverse furrows, which are parallel and contiguous. It is
of firmer consistence than the cerebrum, and is composed of cineritious
matter, through which the medullary substance ramifies in an arborescent
manner, so that, upon a longitudinal section being made, the medullary
matter appears like the stem and branches of a tree, trained regularly
against a wall. To this arrangement of the medullary matter the appel-
lation, arbor vitae, has been given. The cerebellum is divided into two
lobes, or hemispheres, and the medullary union, or commissure, between
them, is termed the vermiform process. At the inferior part of the cere-
bellum, where it rests on the commencement of the spinal chord, is a small
cavity, termed the fourth ventricle, at the bottom of which is an angular
impression, termed, from its resemblance to a writing pen, calamus scrip-
torius. This fourth ventricle is, in fact, a continuation of the third, with
which it communicates by a passage termed the aqueduct of Silvius.

The commencement of the spinal chord (or rather, perhaps, its termi-
nation, before merging into the brain), while yet within the cranial cavity,
is formed by four crura, or medullary stems, two of which proceed from
the cerebrum, and two from the cerebellum. The cerebral crura arise
between the anterior and middle lobes ; those of the cerebellum from its
base, or trunk of the arbor vitae. The body, formed by the union of
these crura, is termed the medulla oblongata. Its line of separation from
the cerebrum is indicated by a transverse medullary band, striated trans-
versely, and termed the pons Varolii, or tuber annulare (bridge of Va-
rolius, or annulated eminence), which, of course, can only be seen by
viewing the brain in its basal aspect.

Passing from the tuber annulare, the medulla oblongata is marked with
a longitudinal furrow down the middle, and with one on each side. Within
each lateral furrow is a slight eminence, termed corpus olivarium ; and
between the lateral furrows and the medial are two oblong elevations,
termed corpora pyramidalia. Invested with a continuation of the mem-
branes covering the brain, the medulla oblongata now enters the spinal
canal, marked, on its dorsal aspect, by a longitudinal furrow, and having
also a groove on each side — the indications of its component fasciculi.
The precise influence of all the parts above enumerated, physiologists do
not pretend to explain. It is, however, ascertained, that, with the pre-
sence, or full development of certain parts, is associated mental elevation
in the scale of being ; while an incompleteness of union between the
different portions of the brain, the rudimentary condition, or absence
of certain parts, and the development of others, accompany mental,
and, it may be said, also, organic inferiority. To render the foregoing
description more intelligible, the following illustrations of the brain, in
different aspects, are annexed ; that representing its base, shewing the
origin of the nerves arising from it.

1, 2, 3. Three Views of the Human Brain.

Fig. 1. View of the upper surface of the brain.— a, a, a, a, the cerebrum, divided by the fissure, 6, ft, into two hemi-
spheres; each hemisphere consisting1 of three lobes, as seen on the basal view, fig. 2.

Fig-. 2. Basal view of the brain — a, a, anterior lobes of the cerebrum ;— 6, b, middle lobes of ditto;— c, c, posterior lobes
of ditto;— d, d, cerebellum;—*, pons Varolii ;—f, medulla oblongata ;— ^, peduncle of the infundibulum ;— A, the pituitary
gland ;— t, i, olfactory nerves;— fc, optic nerves. The other nerves, the origin of which is seen in this view of the brain, can-
not, in so small a figure, be individually marked.

Fig. 3. Vertical section of the brain.— o, a, a, convolutions of the cerebrum;— S, cut surface of the cerebellum, shewing
the arbor vitae ;— c, c, the great commissure, or corpus callosum ;— d, the septum lucidum ;— e, the fornix ;-/, the anterior
commissure ;— #, the posterior commissure ;— h, the soft commissure ;— i, the pineal gland;— fc, corpora quadrigemma, or
uptic lobes, divided into four parts;—/, pons Varolii, or tuber annulare, cut;— m, cut surface of the medulla oblongata;— n ,
fourth ventricle ;— o, infimdibulum.

According to Cuvier, the characters which distinguish the brain of
Mammalia from that of the other red-blooded vertebrata, consist in the
existence of the corpus callosum, the fornix, the cornu Ammonis, and the
tuber annulare ; in the position of the tubercula quadrigemina upon the
aquaeductus Sylvii ; in the absence of ventricles, or cavities, in the optic
thalami ; in the position of these thalami within the hemispheres, and in
the alternate white and grey lines within the corpora striata. The cha-

12 INTRODUCTION.

racter peculiar to the brain of birds, he adds, consists in " the thin and
radiated septum, which shuts each anterior ventricle on the internal side.

" The character of the brain of reptiles depends on the position of
the thalami behind the hemispheres.

" The character of the brain of fishes consists in the tubercles of the
olfactory nerves, and the tubercles situated behind the cerebellum.

" The three last classes, viz., birds, reptiles, and fishes, have, in com-
mon, the following characters of the brain, distinguishing between them
and Mammalia : — neither corpus callosum, nor fornix, nor their depen-
dencies. Some tubercles, more or less numerous, situated between
the corpora striata and the optic thalami, — the thalami containing ven-
tricles, and being distinct from the hemispheres. The absence of any
tubercle between the thalami and the cerebellum, as well as the absence
of the pons Varolii.

" Fishes, in common with birds, have certain characters which do not
exist in the other classes, namely, the position of the optic thalami
under the base of the brain, and the number of the tubercles placed before
these thalami, which are commonly four.

" Fishes and reptiles have, as a common character distinguishing them
from Mammalia and birds, the absence of the arbor vitas in the cere-
bellum.

" All red-blooded animals have the following cerebral characters in
common: — the principal division of the brain into hemispheres, optic
thalami, and cerebellum ; the anterior ventricles double, the third and
fourth single ; the aquaeductus Sylvii ; the infundibulum ; and a com-
munication between all their cavities. The corpora striata, and their
appendices, called hemispheres, in the form of a vault. The anterior
and posterior commissures, and the valve of the cerebrum. The bodies
named pineal and pituitary glands. The union of the great single
tubercle, or cerebellum, by two transverse crura, with the rest of the
brain, which gives origin to the two longitudinal crura of the medulla
oblongata.

" It appears, moreover, that certain relations exist between the
faculties of animals and the proportions of their common parts. Thus,
the intelligence they possess appears more perfect, in proportion to the
volume of the appendix to the corpus striatum, which forms the vault
of the hemispheres. Man has that part greater, and more reflected, than
the other animals. In proportion to the descent from Man, it is observed
to become smaller, and smoother on the surface,* and that the parts
of the brain are less complicated or united with each other, but seem to
be unfolded, and spread out longitudinally. It even appears that certain
parts assume, in all classes, forms which have a relation to particular

* In some of the Marmozet Monkeys, if not in all, it is smooth, as in the Rodentia.

BRAIN OF MAMMALIA. 13

qualities of animals : for example, the anterior tubercula quadrigemina
of the Carp tribe, the most feeble and least carnivorous of ordinary
fishes, are proportionably larger than in the other genera, in the same
manner as they are in the herbivorous quadrupeds. By following these
inquiries, we may hope to obtain some knowledge of the particular uses
of each of the parts of which the brain consists." — (See Anat. Comp.
vol. ix. p. 8.)

It appears, for instance, that, in the herbivorous Mammalia, the ante-
rior lobes of the corpora quadrigemina exceed the posterior, while the
reverse obtains among the Carnivora ; in Man and the Simise they are
nearly equal. In the lower Mammalia, as the Rodentia and Marsupialia,
the cerebral hemispheres present the lowest grade of development among
mammals, being not only the smallest, but being, also, destitute, or nearly
so, of those convolutions by which the superficies of the brain, in the
./higher orders, is actually increased. The Pachydermata and the Rumi-
nantia occupy an intermediate station, in this respect, between the Rodentia
and the Carnivora, the Simiae and Man, in which latter groups we find
the convolutions of the cerebral hemispheres deep and symmetrical, and
also the cerebellic laminae numerous. In proportion to the development
of the cerebral hemispheres, is that of the optic thalami and the corpora
striata ; while the magnitude of the olfactory tubercles, and the depth of
their cineritious investment, increase in an equal degree with the degrada-
tion of the cerebrum, as is remarkably exemplified in the Marsupialia. It
may, further, be regarded as a rule, that where the cerebrum, in the Mam-
malia, is least expanded, the spinal chord increases in comparative circum-
ference, as is found in the herbivorous races generally ; whereas, in the
higher groups, as the Carnivora, not only the cerebral and the cerebellic
hemispheres, but the great commissure between the two cerebral hemi-
spheres— the crura prolonged from them, and also the pons Varolii — are
relatively larger.

With respect to the spinal chord, compared with the cerebral mass,
it is smaller in Man than in other Mammalia ; but is continued com-
pletely down the spinal canal.* From the spinal chord are given off
the nerves of sensation and motion; the former from the posterior, the
latter from the anterior columns, and the motor roots and anterior
columns are smaller than the sensitive : in Man, the sensitive roots of the
spinal nerves are larger than in other Mammalia. It is, however, when
the brain of the Mammalia, generally, is compared with that of the lower
classes, that its superiority becomes manifest. In the Mammalia it is, that
the central axis, to which the nervous system converges, is most developed,
and has its parts most intimately united, so as to form a perfect and com-

* In many Mammalia the spinal chord divides, before it has reached the termination of the vertebral
canal. In the Hedgehog, indeed, it is remarkable that the chord does not pass, in an undivided condi-
tion, beyond the extent of two-thirds down the canal.

14

INTRODUCTION.

pact whole. While, in the lower classes, the brain is, as it were, spread
out, and its component parts thrown asunder, it is here braced up, if the
expression may be allowed, to the establishment of a full communication
between its hemispheres and their dependencies ; and, consequently, to the
more perfect connexion of every part of the great nervous system concen-
trated in this focus. It may be observed, too, that the great sympathetic
nerve is here the most fully developed, and most thoroughly blended with
the spinal and cranial nerves. Constituting a system of its own, forming
ganglia along the spinal column, and in the cavities of the chest and abdo-
men, as well as plexuses, or intricate meshes, whence the vital organs are
abundantly supplied, it pervades the whole of the nutritive system, and
constitutes a chain of communication, a bond of mutual dependance, and
the source of harmony of action between all the organs of animal and
vegetative life, the functions of which depend upon its agency.

Much has been said by anatomists and physiologists respecting the
weight of the brain compared with that of the body, but with very inconclu-
sive results : it has, moreover, from very early times, been asserted, that
Man has not only a brain comparatively larger, with regard to the weight
of the body, than the lower animals, but that he has positively a larger
brain than any of them ; neither of these propositions is absolutely true. It
is in the development of the cerebral hemispheres, the complexity and
volume of the apparatus (especially of the corpus callosum), by which
its several parts are brought into communication, and the increased ex-
tent given to the surface of the hemispheres, by means of the convolu-
tions, that the brain of Man rises above that of other Mammalia.
Nevertheless, the size of the human brain is a remarkable character ;
but, as if to prove that its superiority consists in the arrangement and
development of its parts, it is smaller, compared with the bulk of the
body, than in many of the passerine birds ; and though it absolutely
exceeds the brain of some of the large Mammalia, it does not exceed the
brain of all. In the Rhinoceros, however, it is smaller than in Man ; for
Sparrman found the cranial cavity, in the enormous two-horned Rhino-
ceros of Southern Africa, to'be only six inches long and four inches deep ;
and, on filling a skull of this animal with peas, it barely contained one
quart ; while a human skull, measured at the same time, required nearly
three pints to fill it. Tiedemann observes, that the brain, in the average
of the human race, attains its full size towards the seventh or eighth
year.* Its weight in the male f varies, between three pounds three ounces,

* Soemmerring says, erroneously, that the brain does not increase after the third year. Gall and
Spurzheim, on the other hand, are of opinion, that it continues to grow till the fourteenth year. The
brothers Wenzel have shewn, that the brain arrives at its full growth about the seventh year ; and
this is confirmed by Hamilton's researches.

t The brain of Cuvier weighed four pounds eleven ounces four drachms and thirty grains, Troy
weight ; that of the celebrated surgeon, Dupuytren, four pounds ten ounces, Troy.

BRAIN OF MAMMALIA. 15

and four pounds six ounces ; in the female, between two pounds eight
ounces, and three pounds eleven ounces, Troy weight. In a child, six
years old, Haller found it to be two pounds twenty-eight drachms and
a half. In Tyson's Chimpanzee, the weight of the brain was eleven
ounces seven drachms, while the stature was only twenty-six inches : a
proportion, Lawrence observes, equal to that of the human subject ;
which, however, is not the case, inasmuch as the shortness of the lower
limbs of the Chimpanzee, compared to the bulk of the body, renders the
admeasurement of the animal fallacious, when opposed, in this point of
view, to that of Man. With respect to the comparative weight, or size,
of brain, between Man and the lower animals, there is much difficulty in
arriving at correct estimates ; nor, when attained, do we thence derive any
results of importance. Monro states, that he " found the brain of a large
Ox not to weigh more than one-fourth part of the human brain, whilst the
weight of the Ox was six times greater than that of the Man ; or the brain
of Man was, in proportion to his weight, twenty-four times heavier than
that of the Ox :" on the contrary, according to Cuvier, the brain of the
Seal is larger in proportion to the body than in Man, as is also that of the
Sai (an American Monkey). But, admitting these facts, what is the infe-
rence ? It cannot be concluded, from the latter, that the animals in question
are intellectually superior to Man ; or, on the other hand, that the Ox is
inferior to these animals ; it may, or it may not be — and, in either case,
as is very plain, the mere size of the brain, compared with that of the
body, affords no index, which is only to be sought for in the modification
of its parts, and their respective degrees of development. Moreover, this
test is invalidated by the fact, that, while the weight of the body varies
from a multitude of circumstances, is increased by the development of the
muscular system, resulting from athletic exercises, and by the accumula-
tion of fat, or is diminished by emaciation during illness, or a flaccid state
of the muscles, the weight of the brain is not sensibly affected, but remains
stationary. Hence the contradictory scales of comparison given by dif-
ferent authorities. The ratio in the Cat, for example, is stated by one
author to be as one to eighty-two, and by another as one to 156; and,
according to the observations of different physiologists, in some Dogs it is
as one to forty-seven, and in others as one to 305.*

* The weight of the brain, compared to that of the body, in Man and certain other animals, has
been thus stated by physiologists :—

Child, six years old, as ..

Adult human being

Gibbon and Mangabey ....

Malbrouck

Callitriche and Patas .,

32
85
48
24
41

Saimiri 1 ... 22

Sagou 1 ... 11

Sai (Cuvier) 1 ... 25

Sai (Ebel) ... i ... 16

16

INTRODUCTION.

Seeing, then, that the size of the brain, in comparison with that of
the body, could not be taken as the test of intellectual endowments,
Soemmerring proposed, between Man and other animals, a criterion,
which he considered to be much less deceptive than a comparison of
the body with the brain ; namely, that of the brain with its own nerves.*
His theory is, that, as far as mere animal existence is concerned, a
small portion of the brain is sufficient to influence the nerves ; and that,
therefore, the surplus quantity beyond this small portion (a portion not
determined) will be available for the purposes of intellectual operations ;
so that where the greatest surplus exists, there the highest intellectual
capacity will be enjoyed. Man, for instance, whose bodily powers are
only moderate, has the largest brain in proportion to the nerves, and
to the demand made upon their agency, as regards mere animal life.
After Man come the Simiae. As a further illustration of his position,
to which he says he was conducted by a most careful and accurate
comparison of a great number of brains, he remarks, that the largest
Horse's brain in his possession weighed one pound seven ounces,

Ouistiti, as

Coita

Macaque

Magot

Vari

Bat

Mole

Bear

Fox

Ferret

Beaver

Hare

Rat .'...'..".'.'.".'..."..".."..'...'

Mouse

Field Mouse

Elephant

Sheep from 1 to 192 to

Ox from 1 ... 750 to

Horse from 1 ... 400 to

to

25 to 1

28

... 41

... 86

... 105

... 84

... 96

... 36

... 265

... 205

... 138

... 290

... 228

... 76

... 43

... 31

... 500

... 351

... 860

... 700

... 254

... 102

Dolphin ............................................................ from 1

Among birds, in the Eagle, the proportion is as 1 to 260 ; in the Falcon as 1 to 102 ; in the Goose as 1 to
360 ; in the Cock as 1 to 25 ; in the Red-breast as 1 to 32 ; in the Chaffinch as 1 to 27 ; in the Sparrow as
1 to 25 ; and in the Canary bird as 1 to 14 : among reptiles, in the Frog as 1 to 172 ; in the Tortoise as 1
to 2240 ; in the Turtle as 1 to 5688 ; and among fishes, in the Carp, as 1 to 560 ; in the Pike as 1
to 1305 ; in the Shark as 1 to 2496.— HALLER, El. Phys., 1. x. s. 1. EBEL, Obs. Neu., in LUDWIG'S
Script. Neu., vol. iii. p. 150. SOEMMERRING, Korp. ver. Neg. v. Eur. p. 61. CUVIER, Anat. Comp.
Led. ix. art. 5. LAWRENCE, Lect. p. 123, note.

* " Desmoulins is of opinion, that the brain decreases in size in old people. From this circum-
stance he explains the diminution of the functions of the nervous system and intellectual powers.
The truth of this assertion has not, as yet, been determined. The brothers Wenzel and Hamilton
deny it. It is remarkable, that the brain of a Man, eighty-two years old, was very small, and weighed but
three pounds two ounces two drachms ; and the brain of a Woman, about eighty years old, weighed
but two pounds nine ounces one drachm. I have generally found the cavity of the skull smaller in
old Men than in middle-aged persons. It appears to me, therefore, probable, that the brain really de-
creases in old age, only more remarkably in some persons than in others." — Professor Tiedemann, on
the Brain of the Negro; Phil. Trans. Royal Soc.— Part n. 1836.

BRAIN OF MAMMALIA. 17

and the smallest adult human brain he ever met with exceeded this
weight by fourteen ounces and a quarter ; yet the nerves on the base of
the former were of ten times greater magnitude than were those on the
base of the latter. " It must not, however, be concluded," he ob-
serves, " that Man has smaller nerves than any other animal. In order
that my ideas may be better understood, I shall state the following
hypothetical case : — Suppose the ball of the eye to require six hundred
nervous fibrils in one instance, and three hundred in another, though
only half the size of the former ; and farther, that the eye with six hun-
dred fibrils possesses a brain of seven, and that with three hundred of only
five, drachms ; to the latter we ought to ascribe the largest brain, and a
more ample capacity of registering the impressions made on the organs
of vision ; for, allowing one drachm of brain to each hundred fibrils,
the brain which is absolutely the least will have a superfluous quantity
of two drachms, while the larger has only one. That the eye, which is
supplied with a double quantity of fibrils may be a more complete organ
of sense, may be readily admitted, but the remark is inapplicable to the
point in question."

The statement of Soemmerring, that Man possesses a larger brain than
any other animal, compared with its nerves, is probably correct. It is,
however, by no means an established fact, that nerves of the same mag-
nitude do require the same proportion of brain for the exercise of their
respective functions ; or that the same nerve in different animals demands
an equal quantity ; or, farther, that the proportion of brain required by a
large nerve, is greater than that required by one of inferior size. More-
over, to say that the size of the brain, compared with its nerves, affords
an index of the differences existing between Man and the lower animals,
or between different animals, with regard to intellectuality, is an assump-
tion unsupported by solid proof.

After all, the most striking characteristic of the human brain consists in
the prodigious development of the cerebral hemispheres — no animal, what-
ever may be the proportion which the brain bears to the body, affording a
parallel. Not any quadruped approaches Man in the magnitude of the he-
misphere of the brain ; namely, that part of the organ, which serves as the
principal instrument of the intellectual operations. Hence arises the cor-
responding development of the anterior portion of the cranium ; the index,
at the same time, of the development of the cerebral hemispheres, and of
their predominance over the portion of the cerebral mass devoted to the
external senses ; and hence, also, is the volume of the cranium in Man
greater, compared to that of the face, than in any other mammal.

Allusion has already been made to the low condition of the brain of
the Marsupialia : with this condition is associated a parallel inferiority of
intellect. The low grade of development of the brain in these animals is

18 INTRODUCTION.

not only seen in the diminution of the cerebral hemispheres ; in the
smoothness of their surface ; in the more or less complete removal of the
cerebellum from the cerebrum, so as frequently to bring the corpora qua-
drigemina (or optic lobes) into view, as in the Opossum ; and in the mag-
nitude of the olfactory ganglia ; — but, in the absence of that union, by
means of the great commissure (corpus callosum), which exists in ordinary
Mammalia, and of which the extent is in proportion to the development
of the cerebral hemispheres.* In birds the corpus callosum is entirely
wanting ; the union between the cerebral hemispheres consisting only in
a rudimentary fornix, and in the anterior, posterior, and soft commissures,
which are also present in ordinary Mammalia (see fig. 3, p. 11). Now,
in the Marsupialia, as has been shewn by Professor Owen, a small com-
missural medullary band represents the corpus callosum, but does not
unite the masses of the two hemispheres above the ventricles, as in other
mammals (see fig. 3, p. 11, c, c); and is, in fact, the fornix, or commis-
sure of the hippocampi, into which its fibres, running along the floor of the
ventricles, pass. Here, then, is a cerebral condition approximating to that
of birds, between which class and the ordinary Mammalia, as it respects
the development of the brain, the marsupials are intermediate. The
anterior commissure is remarkable for its comparative magnitude, being
in proportion to the size of the ganglion, or protuberance forming the root
of the olfactory nerve.

The annexed sketches represent the upper surface of the brain of the
Chimpanzee (fig. 4) ; of the Tigress (fig. 5) ; of the Kangaroo (fig. 6) ;
and of the Wombat (fig. 7).

The Chimpanzee is the most anthropomorphous, or man-like, of the
Simiae, and, accordingly, we find an approach to Man in the general form of
the brain (fig. 4), and the proportions of its respective parts. Its general
form, viewed from above, is a short oval, and the convolutions of the
cerebral hemispheres (a, a,) are well marked. Nevertheless, the cerebellum
(b, &,) is not completely covered by the cerebrum, but projects beyond the
posterior line of the latter, so as to be visible, which, on reference to
the brain of the human subject (fig. 1, page 11), will be found not to be the
case in Man. In the Orang, the posterior projection of the cerebellum
is carried somewhat farther. In the feline animals, of which the Tiger is
an example, the brain (fig. 5) presents us with a still greater departure, in
form and proportions, from that of Man : — the cerebellum (b, b,) is com-
pletely posterior to the cerebral hemispheres (a, a), the comparative mag-
nitude of which is diminished; notwithstanding, the convolutions are
strongly marked. The medulla oblongata (c,) has now acquired a greater

* It is found that extensive and intimate communication, by means of this great commissure, between
the cerebral hemispheres, has more influence upon, or accordance with, intellectual superiority, than
has the mere size of the hemispheres.

BRAIN OF MAMMALIA.

19

volume, proportionately to the mass of the brain, than is found either in
Man or the Chimpanzee. Descending lower in the scale, we at last arrive at

the marsupial group, — of two animals of which, the brains are here repre-
sented. That of the Kangaroo (fig.6) shews the cerebral hemispheres (a, a) ;
not, perhaps, so much diminished in bulk as narrowed anteriorly, and
almost destitute of convolutions on their surface. The cerebellum (6, 6,)

2U INTRODUCTION.

is remarkable for the development of its lateral lobes, and for the trans-
verse striae with which it is marked. In the brain of the Wombat (fig. 7) the
cerebral lobes (a, a,) are, in form and smoothness, like those of birds, and
do not cover the enormous olfactory lobes, or ganglions, which may be
seen projecting from the base of the cerebrum to some distance anteriorly
(d, d). In the Opossum the degradation of form is still more complete —
the cerebrum is small, the olfactory lobes project greatly, and the optic
lobes, or corpora quadrigemina, separate considerably between the cere-
brum and the cerebellum. For additional valuable information on the
structure of the brain in marsupial animals, see Professor Owen, Phil.
Trans. Parti, for 1837.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

WITH the perfection of the nervous system of the Mammalia is neces-
sarily connected a perfection in the totality of their organization ; but this
perfection, instead of arising from the multiplication of organs, is rather
the result of the progressive refinement of structures common to all the
vertebrata. It is by the modification of organs that Nature proceeds,
in her establishment of the grades of being ; and hence, whatever ex-
ternal or subordinate differences may be perceived among the higher
classes, a uniformity pervades the general plan upon which they are
fashioned. Nature, so to speak, appears to have proposed to herself
a model by which to be guided, and to the essentials of which she
has rigorously adhered. She has bound herself by laws which are
fixed and immutable : not that she has circumscribed her power ; not
that her forms are servile copies of some standard, from which she
never deviates ; on the contrary, her developments are as varied as her
resources — she delights in a profusion of diversities : to the air, to the
earth, to the water, she accommodates the multitudes of her creation,
providing them, according to their necessities, with the means by which
they are enabled to fill their destined stations. All this is done with
an exquisite simplicity, a happy fitness, an ease and elegance, which
leave all human works and devices at an immeasurable distance. It is
effected, not by perpetual accessions of new parts, not by cumbrous ma-
chinery, to which, at every step, something has to be added, but by a
series of modifications, bearing immediate relationship to the great end
to be attained.

It will be evident, upon consideration, that the general contour and
proportions of the body are determined by its internal osseous framework,
or skeleton ; for it is to this framework that the muscles are affixed ;
it is upon its parts, as levers, that they act ; and within it are enclosed

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 2

the organs of animal life and of the senses ; yet, if we compare the
fish, the reptile, the bird, and the mammal, so great is the variation
of form between them, that it is only by an analysis of the parts of
this framework, and a consideration of its essentials, that we become con-
vinced that the laws of simple modification have not been deviated from.
The presence of an internal skeleton is peculiar to the vertebrata, and
two parts of this skeleton are essential, as connected with the great cen-
tres of the nervous system, the brain, and spinal chord, which they en-
close and protect : these two parts are the skull and the vertebral
column :* the other parts are their accessories, and may be present or
absent as the conditions of existence render necessary : these acces-
sories are the ribs and the limbs, or extremities. The skull encloses
the brain, and in the cavities of its facial portion lodge three of the organs
of the senses ; viz., those of sight, taste, and smell. The organs of
hearing are in the cranial portion : the sense of feeling is more or less
universal over the body.

The vertebral column adjoins the skull, and consists of numerous dis-
tinct bones, by the due junction of which a canal is formed, enclosing
that prolongation of the brain, termed the spinal chord. The structure of
the vertebral column allows it considerable flexibility of motion, and in
many animals it is carried out, by the addition of supplemental bones,
into a tail.

The ribs, attached to the vertebral column posteriorly, and anteriorly to
the sternum, or breast-bone (when this is present), encircle the organs of
animal life — the heart and the thoracic viscera. They are seldom wanting,
but their number is subject to great variation ; in some Snakes they amount
to hundreds. The limbs are never more than four in number : they are,
however, subject to the utmost modifications of form ; they range from
the hand of Man to the solidungulous foot of the Horse, or the paddle
of the Whale — from the wing of the bird to the fin of the fish — through a
thousand gradations ; yet ever preserving their intrinsic characters. In
some, as in the cetaceous mammals, one pair is wanting, and this is
always the posterior ; in others, as Serpents, either both pairs are deficient
or, as in the Boa and Python, one pair, the posterior, exists in a rudi-
mentary condition, but not destitute of utility.

The following sketches may be taken as representations of the
osseous framework, as modified in Mammalia, birds, reptiles,-)- and fishes.
In each example, the skull encases the brain ; and the vertebral column,
the spinal chord. The organs of sight, smell, taste, and hearing, have,

* The skull itself is to be regarded as consisting, elementarily, of vertebras modified in their parts,
so as to become a case for the brain.

t The reptiles of Cuvier are now usually divided into Reptilia and Amphibia; the latter correspond-
ing to his order of " Batraciens."

#» INTRODUCTION.

in each, the same respective situation ; but the modification of the bones
of the skull, vertebral column, and organs of locomotion, is greatly
varied : in the fish, indeed, the bones of the cranium, in particular,
present what, in reference to Mammalia, may be termed an elementary
condition.

10

11

Of the above figures, 8 is the skeleton of the Lemur ; 9, that of the
Eagle ; 10, that of the Alligator ; 11, that of the Carp. In all the above
examples of the vertebrata, the essentials of the osseous framework are
present : it is easy, however, to see how the extremities are modified in
each ; and how, from the almost human Jimbs of the Lemur, they merge
into the swimming organs of the fish ; — the modification of the ribs and
sternum is, also, no less remarkable.

The importance attached to the structure of the osseous framework
of the Mammalia, as conducive to a correct knowledge and just ap-
preciation of the various groups of which the class consists, has been
acknowledged by all naturalists, and will be a sufficient justification

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 23

of the course here pursued, in instituting a more detailed examination of
the skeleton, and of the parts composing it, than is usually adopted in

works of the present nature. The advantage is self-evident. It must be
assumed that Man is the standard, and that, as animals approach or recede
from that standard, they approach or recede from the type of animal or-

INTRODUCTION.

ganization : it is, therefore, to the structure and arrangement of parts, as
exemplified in his frame, that our reference is to be made, by way of

comparison. Three representations of the human skeleton are here given :
an anterior view (fig. 12); a lateral view (fig. 13); and a posterior view
(fig. 14).

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

The first thing that strikes us, on contemplating the human skeleton,
is its express adaptation for the erect attitude, and a bipedal mode of pro-

14

gression ; the two superior extremities being free. With this adaptation,
as exhibited by the limbs, are combined the condition of the whole of
the osseous structure, and, in accordance therewith, the disposition of the
muscular and ligamentary systems.

26 INTRODUCTION.

The skull, globe-like, rests poised, or nearly so, on the summit of
the vertebral column ; its facial portion being so placed as to give the
greatest advantage to the organs of the senses seated in it, connected
with the exercise of their respective offices. But this anterior direc-
tion of the visage, in the natural erect attitude, decidedly militates against
a quadrupedal posture ; for, from the situation of the condyles of the
skull, independently of the structure of the cervical portion of the column,
and of the arrangement of its muscles, the head could not be raised,
so as to admit of a free range to the organs of vision, were such a posture
assumed. The vertebral column, which sustains the head, ribs, thoracic
viscera, and upper limbs, regularly and considerably enlarges, as it de-
scends, in proportion to the gradual increment of the superincumbent
pressure ; while, in order to allow a favourable distribution of the impended
weight, it forms a series of gentle curves, alternating in opposite direc-
tions ; the curve of the cervical region being convex anteriorly, that of
the dorsal region concave, and that of the lumbar region, again, convex.
The solidified termination of the spinal column is denominated the sacrum ;
it makes an obtuse angle with the spine, and forms the posterior wall
of the pelvis, to which latter the whole weight of the trunk is trans-
mitted ; and on which, also, immediately rests the main portion of the
abdominal viscera ; so that the entire pressure of the upper parts is here
concentrated. The pelvis constitutes the basis of the trunk; and its
strength, form, relative position, and wide expanse enable it efficiently to
support the superstructure ; the iliac regions are widely expanded, while the
sacrum curves forward ; the whole forming a basin-like cavity, the walls
of which not only enclose certain viscera, and support those of the
abdomen, but, as before stated, constitute also the broad basis of the
entire trunk : the lower limbs now receive the burden, and are
sufficient for its easy maintenance. The femur is most powerfully
articulated with the pelvis, by means of a round head, deeply lodged
in a socket, or acetabulum, and adequately secured by ligaments :
it is the strongest and largest of all the long bones in the human
frame. Owing to the length of its neck (cervix femoris), which con-
nects the head of the bone with the shaft, and forms an angle with the
latter, the femur is thrown laterally out from the pelvis, so as to
give room for the voluminous muscles of the thigh, and, by the disen-
gagement of the shaft from the hip-joint, to admit an increased extent of
rotation also. Thus, the transverse dimensions of the base of the trunk
are enlarged — greater firmness in standing being the result, without
impediment to progression. The shaft of the femur is not perpendicu-
lar, but inclines inward, so that the knees approach each other, and are
brought perpendicularly under the pelvis, the weight of the body bearing
obliquely upon them ; this oblique direction of the femur necessitates

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 27

an increase in the comparative length of its internal condyle, otherwise
the direction of the tibia would be oblique, which would interfere with
the position of the feet, and with freedom of progression. The obli-
quity of the shaft, the superior length of its inner compared with its
outer condyle, arising from the breadth of the pelvis, and the length
of the cervix, combined with the necessity of bringing its lower end
perpendicularly under the pelvis, in reference to the secure support of
the trunk, are characteristics of the human femur. Its axis, also, coin-
cides with the centre of gravity, and its line of direction follows that of
the trunk. In all these conditions it displays a strong contrast to that
of even the most anthropomorphous Ape ; in which the cervix femoris is
comparatively short, the shaft straight, and the two condyles of equal
length, the entire bone forming an obtuse angle with the vertebral column,
if the latter be perpendicularly raised; — which angle, in quadrupedal
Mammalia, elevated on the hinder extremities, is necessarily still more
acute.

The human knee, as Camper remarks, is of greater depth than width,
while that of the Orang is less deep than wide ; a proof that this animal
is not destined to a vertical mode of progression. The extent of the arti-
cular surfaces of the knee-joint in Man, affords, also, a more ample basis of
support than the extent of the same part in quadrupeds ; at the same time
that the leg can be continued perpendicularly from the femur, the whole
constituting a firm column beneath the superincumbent weight. The arti-
culations, indeed, of the tibia, both with the femur and the foot, are of such
a character as not to allow of our ordinary mode of progression being
otherwise than vertical. At the ankle, a broad base of support is
produced by the great expansion of the tibia and fibula : of these, the
former only is articulated to the femur, but the latter concurs with it
at the ankle, in forming a sort of mortise, for the reception of the
articulating surface of the astragalus, by means of which the super-
incumbent weight is thrown on the pedal arch. The ankle, therefore,
is mechanically so strong and secure, that, notwithstanding the great
weight it has to support, and the mobility with which it is indispensably
endowed for the purposes of progression, its dislocation, under ordi-
nary circumstances, is almost impossible.

The foot is placed at a right angle with the leg ; it is prolonged ante-
riorly, and that, not by the length of the moveable phalanges of the toes,
but by the increase of the tarsus and metatarsus : it is also broader than
its analogue in the Ape tribe, generally ; and the thumb, or great toe,
placed on the same level with the others, is the longest and strongest
of all, and cannot be brought to antagonize with them. The bone of
the heel is of great size, particularly at its posterior projection, to which
the tendons of the great muscles of the calf are firmly attached.

20 INTRODUCTION.

The position, then, of the skull, the character of the vertebral
column, and of the pelvis, and also the great development of the lower
limbs, and their bearing upon the feet, shew that the erect attitude is that,
alone, which is capable of being naturally maintained by Man. But, again,
an examination of the general characters exhibited in the osseous frame-
work of the chest, and superior extremities, tends also to convince us,
that there is, as far as even these are concerned, an insuperable barrier
to the quadrupedal attitude. The great breadth of the chest in Man,
compared with its antero-posterior depth, necessarily places the scapula
in a dorsal situation, so that the glenoid cavity, for the reception of the
head of the shoulder-bone, has an obliquely lateral aspect : it is very
shallow ; materially differing, in this point, from the deep acetabulum, or
socket, for the reception of the head of the thigh-bone. Now, were Man
to attempt the quadrupedal attitude, the head of the shoulder-bone
(humerus) would be brought to bear, not against the centre of the shal-
low glenoid cavity, but against its sides, or edge ; and, in this critical
situation, the superincumbent weight would have to be sustained : but
the ;lax structure of the shoulder-joint, allowing freedom of motion
to the greatest possible extent; the distance to which the shoulders
are thrown apart by the clavicles ; the structure of the elbow-joint ; the
rotatory motion of the fore-arm on its own axis ; the arrangement of
the parts of the hand, in which the moveable phalanges are so largely
developed, and the carpus, or solid part, reduced within so small a com-
pass ; the position of the hand, which, instead of being at right angles
with the fore-arm, is continued from it in the same line, and, indeed,
cannot, without pain, be brought into a right angle ; — all these arrange-
ments, while they tend to unfit the anterior extremity as an organ
of support, admirably qualify it for the important and dignified pur-
poses to which it is destined in the economy of our race.

Of all the lower Mammalia, the Quadrumana (and among them the
Orang and Chimpanzee) approach, in the arrangement of their osseous
framework, and, consequently, in their attitude, the nearest to Man ; but,
inasmuch as their structure differs from that of Man, in many essential
particulars, so do these well-marked departures from the human type of
organization indicate a corresponding difference in their natural attitude ;
which, conformably with their intermediate organization between the
biped and quadruped, is neither horizontal nor erect, but oblique or
diagonal. The Ape tribes, however, as will be explained more fully
hereafter, are organized as scansorial" (or climbing) Mammalia ; and their
tottering posture, when they attempt the erect attitude on the ground,
contrasts very strikingly with their ease and activity among the branches
of the forest.

The muscular forces, by which the bipedal progress, in the erect atti-

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 29

tude, is performed, are proportionate to their office : with the expansive
pelvis, we find, also, the glutaei muscles assuming a figure and degree of
development found in no other animal except Man. The mass which
they form, not only braces the thigh-bone firmly, in its perpendicular
bearing from the ilium, when he stands erect or walks, — not only gives
firmness to the femur, in supporting the weight of the trunk, — but enables
him to sit upright in a state of rest, while awake, the organs of the senses of
sight, smell, and hearing still preserving their advantageous direction ;
but which direction, were he obliged to lie down like the quadrupedal
brute, in order to repose, would be so prone, as to militate against the
express uses to which Man, as an intellectual being, applies them. To
such a being the advantages of an upright sitting posture (a posture not
even allowed to the Simiae) is self-evident. In the Simiae the glutaei
differ greatly in their arrangement from those of Man. In the former,
the elongation of the os ilium renders the glutaeus medius and minimus
larger ; while the muscle analogous to the glutaeus maximus is the smallest
of the three. The Carnivora and Rodentia exhibit the same proportional
diminution of the glutasus maximus. " Solus homo," writes Adrian
Spigel, " ex omnibus animalibus commode sedet ; cui carnosae et magnae
nates contigere, et pro subsellio, pulvinarique tomento repleto inserviunt,
ut citra molestiam sedendo, cogitationibus rerum divinarum animum rec-
tius applicare possit."

The extensor muscles, and the flexor muscles of the knee, in lower
animals, present, in their relative proportions, the converse to what is
found in Man. In the lower animals, not only are the flexors of the knee
stronger than in Man, but inserted so much lower down the tibia, as to
retain the knee in a naturally bent condition ; while the extensors are
weaker than in Man, who requires them to be powerful, both to throw
the leg forward and upward, in walking or running ; also, to keep the tibia
firm in standing, so that the knee-joint may not totter, or give way.

The muscles which lift the human heel are so large as to form pro-
minent calves, a characteristic peculiar to Man ; and which is in itself
a sufficient proof that the legs are destined to support and move the
whole machine.*

* Dr. Arnott has made some very interesting observations on the muscles which constitute the
human calves. " The heel," he says, " by projecting so far backward, is a long lever for the strong
muscles which form the calf of the leg, and terminate in the tendo Achillis, to act by. These muscles,
by drawing at the heel, lift the body, in standing on the toes, in walking, dancing, &c. In the Negro
foot, the heel is so long as to be ugly in European estimation, and its great length rendering the effort
of smaller muscles sufficient for the various purposes, the calf of the leg in the Negro is smaller in
proportion than in other races of men. In a graceful human step, the heel is always raised before
the foot is lifted from the ground, as if the foot were part of a wheel rolling forward, and the weight
of the body rests, for a time, on the forepart of the foot and toes. The muscles forming the calf,
lift the heel, by drawing at the tendo Achillis, and produce a bending of the foot in a corresponding
degree. But where strong wooden shoes are used, or any shoe that will not yield nor allow this bend-
ing of the foot, the heel, in walking, is not raised at all, until the whole foot rises with it ; so that the
muscles of the calf are scarcely used, and, in consequence, soon dwindle in size, and almost disappear.

oU INTRODUCTION.

As respects the position of the heart, some striking differences are
observable between Man and quadrupeds ; and the final cause of such
differences must certainly be ascribed to the destination of the former to
an erect, as of the latter to a horizontal mode of progression. The
form of the chest in Man, which may itself be taken as an index of his
erect attitude, permits the heart to assume an oblique direction to the left
side, and to rest on the diaphragm, to the tendinous expansion of which
muscle the pericardium is firmly attached ; but, in quadrupedal Mammalia,
the heart is seated in the centre of the chest, supported by the sternum,
while, between its investing membrane and the diaphragm, a considerable
space intervenes.*

The arteries which supply the brain are so subdivided, in the gene-
rality of quadrupeds, as to prevent the blood from flowing with undue
rapidity into that organ : in Man, however, no such provision exists for
moderating its influx : in the horizontal mode of progression, therefore,
it would be poured into his brain with such copiousness as to expose
him constantly to the peril of apoplexy.

As a sequel to this general review of the human skeleton, with refer-
ence to its fitness and adaptation for the erect attitude, the modifications
of parts presented by the osseous framework of the lower Mammalia,
according to the scale they occupy in the chain of being, and the modes
and purposes of their existence, have now to be considered. It may here
be observed, however, that a complete system of comparative osteological
anatomy is neither allowable by the nature or limits of this work : it will
be sufficient that such an outline of the subject is given as may be of
some value to the naturalist. It has been already said, that the skull
and the vertebral column are the essential parts of the skeleton. The
skull first demands attention.

The bones of the skull may be divided into two sections ; those

Many of the English farm-servants wear heavy stiff shoes ; and, in London, it surprises one to see the
drivers of country wagons with fine robust persons in the upper part, but with legs that are fleshless
spindles,— producing a gait at once awkward and unmanly. One regrets that, for the sake of a tri-
fling saving, fair Nature should be thus deformed. The wives and sisters of those men, and their bro-
thers who are otherwise employed, are not thus mis- shapen. An example of an opposite kind is seen in
Paris, where, as there are no side- pavements in the streets, and the ladies consequently walk, almost
constantly, on tiptoe, the great action of the muscles of the calf has given a conformation of the leg
and foot, to match which the Parisian belles proudly challenge all the world. They are not aware, pro-
bably, that it is a defect in their city, to which the peculiarity of their form is in part owing."— Elements
of Physics, pp. 212-13-14.

With regard to these otherwise excellent remarks, it is proper to observe, that the tiptoe mode of
progression, although decidedly tending to a fine development of the calf, naturally produces, in the
same ratio, an undue increase of breadth in the forepart of the foot ; which, indeed, is conspicuously
displayed in the Parisian females, as compared with the more plantigrade women of the British metro-
polis.

* Dr. Roget says, " Evidence is afforded of the human conformation being expressly adapted to the
erect position of the body, by the position of the heart, as compared with quadrupeds." Accord-
ing to Mr. Lawrence, " the Orangs (S. Satyrus, Troglodytes, and Gibbon) have it placed as in Man,
and the pericardium attached to the diaphragm ; in other Simiae," he adds, " the apex only is a little
inclined to the left, and touches the muscle."

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

31

of the cranium, in a strict sense, and those of the face : the former
encase the brain ; the latter are situated anteriorly, and more or less
below, forming various recesses for the lodgment of the organs of sight,
smell, and taste.

As the skull encases the brain, it must be very evident that its shape
and dimensions will greatly depend upon those of the cerebral mass it con-
tains ; and, as the relative volume of this may be taken as a test of the
grade of intellect, the study of the skull of animals is pregnant with

more than ordinary interest.
In the class to which this
work is restricted, the skull
is more or less arched,
or domelike, in its contour.
Commencing above the eyes,
to the chambers of which it
forms a projecting ledge and
roof above, it sweeps round
to its commencement, encir-
cling the brain, and is pierced
by certain apertures, or fo-
ramina, for the ingress of
arteries, and the egress of
veins and nerves. In Man,
it consists of eight bones
(at least in his adult condi-
tion), united to each other
by the interlocking of their
serrated edges, the lines of
junction being technically
termed sutures. The forehead is occupied by the frontal bone, which, in
the human subject, consists of a single portion, as it does also in the
Monkey tribes : in most Mammalia, however, it is divided by a mesial
suture ; such, indeed, is the case even with the human species, at an
early stage of existence, but it is usually (not always) closed before
maturity, so as to be obliterated ; whilst in these lower animals it
remains unconsolidated, except in certain cases, during life.

The sides and top of the head are formed by the two parietal bones,
(one on each side,) joined together by the sagittal suture, and also
to the frontal bone by the coronal suture. The temporal bones, and the
wings of the sphenoid bone, also, enter into the lateral portions of the
skull : the back part is formed by the greatest portion of the occipital
bone ; the base consists of the remainder of the occipital bone (and es-
pecially the portion termed its basilar process, anterior to the great fora-

Fig. 15. Lateral View of the Human Skull.-l, frontal bone; 2,
parietal bone ; 3, occipital bone ; 4, temporal bone ; a, mastoid process
of temporal bone ; 5, sphenoid bone j 6, malar bone ; 7, superior max-
illary bone ; 8, nasal bone ; 9, lachrymal bone, or os unguis ; 10, In-
ferior maxillary bone.

INTRODUCTION.

men), and of the body of the sphenoid bone ; which latter, together with
the ethmoid, intervenes between the skull and the nasal cavities, and
enters into the division and arrangements of these cavities.*

The face is situated anteriorly to the vault of the skull, and, in Man,
below its frontal portion. It consists, in the human subject, of fourteen
bones, viz., two nasal, two lachrymal, two superior maxillary, two malar,
two palate, two turbinated bones, one vomer, one inferior maxillary. In
the lower Mammalia, however, two additional bones may be reckoned,
viz., the intermaxillary, in which are implanted the incisor teeth : these
bones, indeed, exist separately in the human subject at an early stage, but
soon become united indissolubly with the superior maxillary, to which,

in other Mammalia, they
remain affixed only by
a suture. The annexed
illustration (fig. 16) will
convey a clear idea of the
respective situation and
connexion of the bones
of the skull and face. It
represents a section of the
human skull, with the ex-
ception of the lower jaw.
Though the contour of
the face varies throughout
the different groups of the
Mammalia, and though
its relative situation and
magnitude, with regard
to the cranium, are perpetually altered, still it is made up of the same
aggregate of parts as in Man, however they may be modified in detail :
they bear, also, the same general relationship among each other, and
form the same hollows, or chambers, for the same organs of sense. The
orbits of the eye, for example, in the human skull, are bounded within,

* In the lower Mammalia, the number of the distinct bones entering into the formation of the skull,
varies, because certain of the bones which, in Man, become consolidated into single pieces, often, in the
former, remain subdivided into their pristine elements through life : such is the case with the temporal
and occipital bones. Hence Meckel observes, that " the number of bones which, in the adult and
normal state, compose the skull of mammals, cannot be fixed by a general rule, because it is subject
to variation ; yet, it may be said never to exceed twenty-eight,— of which eleven are proper to the
cranium, seventeen to the face." In the Rodentia, for example, the squamous portion of the tem-
poral bone remains distinct from the petrous ; and the tympanic bulla is often separate also. The
occipital bone usually consists of a basilar, or occipital portion, and an upper, or squamous portion,
which is sometimes unconsolidated ; while, anterior to this, in many Rodentia, and other animals,
an interparietal bone, of variable size and figure, intervenes between the posterior angles of the
two parietals. The sphenoid bone is also divided into two portions,— an anterior and posterior : the
posterior is formed of the body of the sphenoid and the alse majores ; the anterior portion gives off
the alae minores.

Fig. 16. Section of the Human Skull — a, frontal bone ; 6, parietal bone ;
c, c. occipital bone ; d, temporal bone ; e, e, sphenoid bone ; f, f, ethmoid
bone ; </, nasal bone ; h, turbinate bone ; t, «', i, superior maxillary bone ; k,
palate bone ; I, vomer; m, frontal sinus.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 33

partly by the frontal bone, partly by the superior maxillary, and partly
by the malar — also by the lachrymal, and partly by the sphenoid and
ethmoid, and a process of the palate bone. The frontal bone forms the
upper margin of the orbit ; and a reflected plate, termed the orbital pro-
cess, concave below, forms the roof of the recess within : the floor and in-
ternal margin are formed by the superior maxillary bone ; the outer mar-
gin and side are formed, first, by the malar bone ; and, more internally, by a
portion of the wing of the sphenoid ; the inner wall is formed by the la-
chrymal bone, and a plate of the ethmoid : the orbitar plate of the palate
bone is seated at the bottom of the orbit.

The recess, thus walled around, is (in Man) of a conical figure, with
various foramina and fissures for the transmission of the optic nerve, and of
the various nerves to the muscles of the eye, and to the face. At the inner
angle of each orbit is a canal in the lachrymal bone, for the transmission
of the tears, and leading into the nares : this lachrymal bone, which is small
in Man, and altogether within the orbit, is much more developed in many
quadrupeds, advancing externally, and encroaching upon the superior
maxillary bone. This is seen, to a remarkable extent, in the Horse.

It is here to be observed, that the funnel-shaped orbits in the human
skull have an anterior aspect, and are nearly parallel to each other, ex-
cepting that they slightly diverge as they proceed from within, so that
the base, or external margin, of each is thrown somewhat obliquely out-
ward ; a peculiarity which, in the lower Mammalia, is carried much farther.
In the Monkey tribes, the direction of the orbits, and their form, are
nearly as in Man ; the margin, however, of the frontal bone projects
more decidedly, so as to constitute, in many, a bold superciliary ridge,
the forehead being at the same time depressed to its level. In other
Mammalia, however, as the Hare, the Deer, the Horse, &c., the orbits
are, more or less, lateral, so that the eyes, instead of seeing only such
objects as are in front, have a wide sphere of vision, comprehending
at least three parts of the horizon, or of a circle drawn around. The
design of Nature in this arrangement is very evident: the animals
whose eyes are most completely lateral, are those whose food is placed
under them, and whose structure unfits them for a life of rapine :
quiet and timid, they have not, with eyes intent upon their victim, to
keep up a persevering chase, — nor have they, by the concentrated fierce-
ness of their look, to paralyze the awe-struck victim, and render it an
easy prey ; on the contrary, they themselves are the sufferers : ordained
by Nature's law to become the food of the carnivorous, without weapons
of resistance, or active defence, they have to maintain a continual watch.
Hence, in order to preserve the race from extinction, one mode, at least,
by which the design of Nature is accomplished, and it is one of passive
defence, results from the wide scope permitted to their organs of vision,

34 INTRODUCTION.

which affords them timely notice of approaching danger. In these ani-
mals, the eyes are generally large, full, and protuberant. The eye of
the Giraffe, for example, is remarkable for its beauty. It is ample, and
beams with an expression of gentleness, in accordance with the creature's
character : one of the most striking circumstances connected with it is its
prominence ; and, so much so is this the case, that the eye-ball is per-
fectly apparent to any one standing in a right line behind the animal,
while the person, occupying such a position, is equally visible to the
Giraffe. A native of the hills and plains of Africa, abounding in fero-
cious beasts of prey, among which the Lion is its most formidable enemy,
the Giraffe takes in the horizon at a glance, almost without moving ;
and, thus enabled to discern an enemy at a considerable distance, he may
browse at ease on the foliage of the mimosa.

The annexed sketch (fig. 1 7) represents a posterior view of the head
of this singular and interesting animal ; the lateral
position and prominence of the eyes are very con-
spicuous.

The lateral, or semilateral aspect of the orbits, in
the lower Mammalia, tends to place the fundus, or
bottom, of one orbit in opposition to the fundus of the
other ; and this, the more completely, the more late-
ral their situation ; so that, instead of forming nearly
parallel conical cavities, as in Man and the Simiae,
they are so opposed, that a transverse line across the
frontal bone traverses each in its natural direction.

Thus, While the margins are thrown apart, the orbits, at their fundus, more
or less approach each other ; the extent of the intervening space depending
on the posterior dilatation, and the general magnitude of the nasal cavity.
The distance between the eyes, or the margin of the orbits, varies, there-
fore, according to the breadth of the forehead, and the development of
the nasal organs, and is often very considerable, while yet the fundus of
each orbit, as in the Hare, may closely approximate. In the Horse, the
distance between the orbits, from margin to margin across the skull,
equals the distance of the occiput from a line drawn between them.

Though the orbits are widely separated in the Carnivora, their axis
is much more obliquely anterior than in the Deer or Antelope ; therefore
the aspect of the eyes is far less lateral : in this respect, however, there
is great variation throughout the different genera.

In many of the aquatic Mammalia, as the Beaver and Coipus, the
orbits, widely separated, have their axis directed obliquely upward, so that
the eyes appear as though placed almost on the upper surface of the skull —
a situation advantageous to the animals while swimming, because it enables
them to look upward, without the necessity of turning the head.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 35

In Man and the Quadrumana alone do we find the orbits walled
around, internally, so as to form isolated recesses. In some herbivorous
quadrupeds, as the Deer, the Horse, &c., only the external ring, or margin,
of the orbit, is complete. It is incomplete, however, in the Rodentia, as the
Beaver, the Rat, the Hare, &c. The same observation applies, also, to the
Carnivora, at least, as a general rule. In the Horse, the Deer, and the An-
telope, the external angular process of the frontal bone joins an angle of
the malar bone, so as to perfect the ring ; but this ring stretches over a
concavity, by which the orbit fully communicates with the temporal fossa,
the wing of the sphenoid failing to complete the wall of separation.
In the human skull, the large spheno-maxillary fissure* in the orbit,
which opens into the temporal fossa, is the first step toward throwing
the orbit and temporal fossa into one. In the Monkeys this fissure is
less considerable, it advances less forward, and separates between the
alveolar ridge of the superior maxillary bone and the pterygoid process
of the sphenoid, including only a small portion of its wing. The orbits
are, in fact, proportionally deeper in the Simiae than in the human subject,
and are separated from each other by a much narrower space, occupied
by the nasal cavities.

In the human skull, the malar bone, carried backward, unites with a
long process of the temporal bone (the zygomatic process), in order to
form the zygomatic arch, beneath which passes the temporal muscle, to
be inserted into the coronoid process of the lower jaw ; and the lower edge
of this arch gives rise to the masseter muscle, which also acts on the same
lever. In Man, the zygomatic process of the malar bone is short, so that
the arch is principally formed by the zygomatic process of the temporal
bone ; but, in many of the Mammalia, the reverse is the case. In the
Monkey, the two branches, which form the arch, are nearly equal. In
the Dog, the malar bone is reduced to a narrow strip, sending backward
a long acute branch, which is overlaid by the corresponding branch
of the temporal bone : in other animals the malar bone is reduced
still more, and thrown more backward, a process of the superior maxil-
lary bone taking its place j so that, in the form of a narrow slender slip,
it constitutes the centre of the zygomatic arch, between the suborbital
branch of the maxillary and the zygomatic branch of the temporal bone.
This is seen in the Rat, and many other Rodentia ; in the Hedgehog,
Mole, and other Insectivora. In some of the Insectivora, as the genera
Centetes, Ericulus, and Echinops, and in the great Ant-eater among the
Edentata, it is absent ; the zygomatic arch being incomplete. In the
Antelope, Deer, and Horse, especially the latter, the malar bone is large,

* This fissure intervenes between the orbital plates of the sphenoid and the superior maxillary bones ;
but the malar and palate bones also enter into it ; the former bounding it anteriorly, the latter pos-
teriorly.

«30 INTRODUCTION.

advances anteriorly, and sends back but a small zygomatic branch, the
zygoma itself being greatly contracted.

With the extent and character of the zygomatic arch are connected,
not only the position and expression of the eye, but also the habits and
manners of the animal. In carnivorous animals, the force of whose jaws
is very great, the volume of the temporal and masseter muscles is
immense : the temporal muscles occupy the whole of the sides of the
skull, beginning from the mesial line down the cranium, which in many,
as in the Wolf, Hyaena, &c., is elevated into a strong ridge, for their
firmer and more voluminous attachment. (See fig. 18, representing the
zygomatic arch and temporal muscle of a carnivorous animal.) Now, as
the space beneath the zygomatic arch is filled up by the temporal muscle
18 passing beneath, it must be evident that the

span and spring of the arch will be an index
^^^^ of the volume of this muscle, while its extent

* "SlR'^^^B^ Mm an^ strength will be in accordance with those
of the masseter ; at least, generally : for, in
the Horse, a projecting ridge is carried for-
ward from the zygoma, across the lower edge
of the malar bone, and for the space of nearly two inches on the maxillary
bone, in order to allow of the development of this important muscle of
mastication. In the Cow, this muscle is less developed than in the Horse,
and there is no projecting ridge of the malar bone.

In Man the zygomatic arch is small, the temporal muscles are mode-
rate, and the force of the jaws is comparatively limited. In the Ape
tribe, the zygomatic arch is larger, and the temporal fossa deeper.

In the Elephant the zygomatic arch is of moderate stoutness, but
spans a vast concavity, filled by temporal muscle of enormous volume.

In the Hippopotamus the zygomatic arch is short and strong, and
stretches over a deep temporal fossa; this is also the case in the Horse:
but, as already said, a spinous ridge runs from it anteriorly, for the more
extensive attachment of the masseter. This arch is broad and strong in the
Kangaroo. In the Chlamyphorus and the Armadillo it is slender and
weak ; but, at the same time, it affords an extensive line for the attach-
ment of the masseter. The same form occurs in the Mole, in which the
zygomatic arch assumes the appearance of a straight osseous thread.

In the Ruminantia the zygomatic arch is short, and the temporal
fossa circumscribed ; but the masseter is not confined to the zygoma,
being also attached to the greater part of the side of the superior maxil-
lary bone, beginning close below the orbit. In rodents the anterior
part of this arch consists, as previously observed, of a branch, or some-\
times (as in the Coipus) of a double branch, surrounding a large foramen,
projecting from the superior maxillary bone ; the malar bone, reduced

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 37

in its dimensions, occupies the centre, and the zygomatic process of the
temporal bone forms the posterior part of the arch. The arch, in these
animals, varies greatly in strength and form. In the spotted Cavy it is
expanded to an extraordinary degree, but it is thin, and internally concave.
In the Capybara, Coipus, and Beaver, it is very strong and extensive ; as
might be expected in animals capable of using their teeth so effectually.
In the Squirrel it is of moderate strength ; in the Rat it is slender ; in the
Hare it is strong, from its breadth, but is compressed, and forms the lower
margin of thes enormous orbit. Turning from these animals to the Car-
nivora, we find the zygomatic arch of great extent and stoutness, and
consisting of a long process of the malar bone, overlaid by the usual
process of the temporal bone, which is bold and strong : the zygoma,
moreover, does not only take a simple arched sweep backward, but
is arched upward also, by the bending down of each extremity, the
line of anterior declination falling precisely on the centre of the lani-
ary molar (carnassiere), the point in which the force of the jaws is con-
centrated. It will be evident that the muscular fibres arising from the
lower edge of this arch are straining, when in action, against that modi-
fication of form which enables inert bodies to bear the greatest weight,
or application of power. In these animals, the ball of the eye, seated
in an orbit exposed and open, is protected by ligamentous expansions,
which, in a certain sense, isolate it, and its own muscular apparatus. It
is, however, more immediately affected by the violent contraction of the
temporal muscle, in ferocious, than in graminivorous Mammalia; and
starts forward, whilst they rend the flesh of their victims, so as to pro-
duce an expression of the most implacable fury.

Proceeding from the orbits, or recesses, of the organs of vision, to the
nasal cavity, it may be stated, that this cavity occupies the space partly be-
tween, and partly below, or before, the orbits. It is covered, externally, by
the two nasal bones (consolidated, in the Monkeys, into one), and is divided,
internally, by a longitudinal septum, or partition, formed by a vertical
plate of the ethmoid bone and the vomer : the floor of this divided cavity
consists of the palatal plates of the superior maxillary bones, and be-
hind those, of the true palate bones ; which, together, constitute the roof
of the mouth. The nasal cavities open, anteriorly, by the two nostrils,
a cartilaginous septum being continued from the osseous division within.
Posteriorly, they open into the fauces, or throat, by two canals, termed
posterior nares. A duct, also, from the inner angle of each orbit, leads
into each nasal cavity, for the purpose of conveying the tears, or fluid,
secreted to wash the eye : hence it is termed the ductus lachrymalis.
The interior of the nasal cavities is filled with the turbinated processes
of the ethmoid bone, and also with the two inferior spongy or turbinated
bones, of which the shape can scarcely be described, otherwise than by

oo INTRODUCTION.

calling them sponge-like laminae, irregularly convoluted. Over the
walls of these cavities, and over these turbinated and spongy plates, a
fine mucous membrane is spread, on which the minute and multitudi-
nous fibres of the olfactory nerves ramify. In most animals the olfac-
tory apparatus is far more extensively developed than in Man ; on the
sense of smell depends their selection or discovery of food : thus it
ministers to their necessities, — but to their necessities alone. Though
among the savage tribes of the human race, the sense of smell, from
habitual exercise, as a consequence of an almost brute-like mode of life,
may be more acute than in civilized races, — yet in Man it is less dis-
criminative than in most other Mammalia. Nature does not bestow
her gifts without designing to confer advantage ; and, where none is to
be gained, the endowment, which, if possessed, might be even injurious,
is denied. Man does not depend, for his daily maintenance, on the per-
fection of this sense, which, to so many of the lower race, is of main
importance. He can, indeed, distinguish and relish the grateful odour
of flowers, the summer scents that fill the air with fragrance, and the
perfume of gums and spices : he is affected with disgust by the noisome
effluvia of other objects, but he cannot, like the hound, track the foot-
steps of the distant quarry ; nor, like the Buffalo or Rhinoceros, perceive,
by his power of smell, the approach of the Lion, or other enemies. The
sense of smell ministers less to the animal necessities in Man than in the
brute, but more to the intellectual faculties : modified, as he possesses
it, it becomes an agent in the acquisition of knowledge, and is a source
of pleasure or disgust, unconnected with the mere supplies of life.

It is here to be observed, that, besides the true nasal cavities*
which have already been pointed out, there are connected with them
other cells, or cavities, lined by a continuation of the same membrane,
but of a thinner texture, and supplied by a finer mesh of blood-vessels.
Two of these cavities are in the frontal bone (or one in each frontal
bone where that bone is double), above the orbits ; they are termed the
frontal sinuses. One occurs in each superior maxillary bone, below the
eye, and is termed the antrum Highmorianum (cavern of Highmore) ;
and two of inconsiderable size exist in the body of the sphenoid. In Man
the frontal sinuses are of small extent, and are usually defined by a slight
projection of the bone, to be perceived above the inner angle of each eye,
on the edge of the forehead.

In the Ape tribe, notwithstanding the strong superciliary ridge, which
gives such a peculiar and sinister expression to the countenance, these
sinuses are obliterated.* In many Mammalia, however, they are of
large extent, and occupy the whole of the forehead and crown, giving an
appearance of greater development to the anterior part of the brain than

* At least the Author has been able to detect no trace of them, even by making a section of the bone.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

39

19

is truly warranted. Though large and extensive in carnivorous animals,
they are ordinarily far more so in the graminivorous races. In some va-
rieties of the Goat, the skull, if regarded without reference to the frontal
sinuses, would appear to have a prominent forehead, the index of a deve-
loped brain ; but the prominence is deceptive, being merely that of the
tabular covering of these sinuses, which are upwards of an inch in depth ;

divided from each other, and again
subdivided by very thin parti-
tions ; while, at the same time,
they extend not only over the
whole front of the skull, but are
continued, into the osseous core of
the horns,* for fully three parts of
its length. The same arrangement
of the frontal sinuses prevails, also,
in the Ox. (See fig. 19, the section
of a skull of the Ox, in which the extent of these sinuses is displayed).

Of all quadrupeds, however, there is none which has the frontal
sinuses developed to the great extent which is found in the Elephant :
it is from these that the forehead in this animal acquires its remark-
able advancement and elevation. Divided into numerous cells of an
irregular structure, they occupy the front and top of the skull ; and,
from their1 great depth, give the head a bold and imposing appearance,
which is altogether fallacious. But, though the external table of the
frontal bone (here single), by which they are covered, is thin, and easily
20 broken, there is no probability of killing the

Elephant by aiming at its forehead ; for the
true cavity of the skull, occupied by the brain,
is of comparatively small extent, and seated
far back, — a situation produced not only by
the enormous extent of the frontal sinuses,
but also resulting from the space taken up
by the alveolar processes, in which the roots
of the ponderous tusks are so deeply im-
bedded. It was from ignorance of these
facts that so great a difficulty occurred in
destroying the Elephant at Exeter 'Change, a
few years since ; the painful details of which are,
no doubt, fresh in the memory of most of our

readers. An Elephant-hunter would certainly have killed the animal at a
single shot. The annexed sketch (fig. 20) represents the developed state

* The osseous core, or support, of the horny sheath in the Ox, Antelope, Sheep, and Goat, is a mere
process of the frontal bone.

40

INTRODUCTION.

of the frontal sinuses, and the situation of the cranial cavity, of the Asiatic
Elephant.

With respect to the antrum Highmorianum, or maxillary sinus, this
cavity, which communicates laterally with that of the nose, is of moderate
size in Man, and is seated above the sockets of the three last molar teeth :
in the Simiae it is nearly, if not quite, obliterated. It is of moderate size
in the Ox, Goat, and other ruminants ; but does not appear to exist in the
Carnivora, and many other animals. In the Ox there are shallow cells
between the two tables of the bones forming the palate.

The last facial recess to be noticed, as containing the organs of
one of the senses, is the mouth, in which are seated those of taste.
It is covered, or roofed above, by the palatal processes of the supe-
rior maxillary bone, and by the two palate bones ; its boundary being
circumscribed by the alveolar ridge, or process, of the superior max-
illary bone, and by the inferior maxillary, or bone of the lower jaw,
including also the teeth.

In Mammalia, generally, from the Simiae downward, we find two
additional bones, separating between the superior maxillary bones, and
containing the upper incisor teeth : these two bones are termed the inter-
maxillary, and their shape and size are subject to great variation. Though
not found separate in the human subject, when adult, or even when very
young, they nevertheless exist distinct at an early period of his exist-
ence ; but become anchylosed to the maxillary, even before birth : in
other Mammalia, however, they retain their distinctiveness. It is in
these bones that the tusks (improperly so named) of the Elephant are
imbedded. The first tooth on each side, in the true maxillary bones, is
the canine, — at least, where such a tooth is afforded. The lower jaw in
Man, consists of a single bone, and it is the same in the Simiae and Pa-
chydermata ; but in most of the Mammalia the lower jaw permanently
consists of two elongated portions, united by suture in front, where it
presents a retreating angle more or less acute : the space of union
between them is termed the symphysis of the lower jaw, and the lower
incisor teeth are placed half on one side of it, and half on the other.

In one respect, this important bone, the lower jaw, which takes so
large a part in determining the contour and expression of the face, ex-
hibits a character in the human subject to be found in no other animal, viz.,
that projection at the anterior part, or angle, termed the chin, without
which the human face would lose all its dignity, and approximate to the
muzzle of the brute. A full and well-formed chin, is one of the points
which, in their statues of heroes and gods, the ancients delineated with
admirable felicity.

In Mammalia the lower jaw, of all the bones of the head and face,
is alone independently moveable. There is a smooth space, usually more

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 41

or less concave, on the under surface, at the root of each zygomatic
process of the temporal bone, to which its condyles, or articulating
processes, are elaborately adapted : thus, the jaw moves upon the
cranium. The extent of motion, depending on modifications of the ar-
ticulating surface, which the lower jaw possesses, differs materially in
different tribes of Mammalia ; but ever harmonizes with the structure
of the teeth ; and, consequently, has reference to the nature of the food,
and the general economy of the species. Hence, let the comparative
anatomist examine only the characters presented by this articulation, and
he will be able to sketch a broad outline of the habits and manners of
the animal. In some, as, for example, the Ox and Sheep, a free lateral
motion of the lower jaw being necessary, its condyle is adapted to,
and works upon, a wide, and even somewhat convex surface : in others,
the condyle is tightly fitted into a deep concavity, with an elevated
rim before and behind, which prevents the slightest movement of the
jaw from side to side, restricting its action to a mere scissor-like open-
ing and shutting : such is the case in the ferocious Carnivora. In others,
again, there is an intermediate state of freedom : but, on this part of the
subject, there will be occasion to enlarge hereafter.

Within the recess formed, as described, by the bones of the jaws and
of the palate, is seated the tongue, the chief organ of taste, abundantly
supplied with gustatory nerves : it serves, besides, by its muscular action
and sense of feeling, to direct the food between the teeth ; and, after
mastication, to propel it, by pressure against the palate, into the fauces,
or back of the mouth, whence it passes down the oesophagus, by means of
the action of the muscular fibres of that tube, into the stomach. The
mouth receives a copious supply of saliva from the parotid and sublingual
glands, and is thus kept sufficiently moist ; a state requisite to the exer-
cise of the sense of taste in full perfection, no less than to the muscular
use of the tongue : we here say nothing of the necessity of this fluid being
mixed with the food we swallow. It is in the mouth, then, that the first
preparation of our food for assimilation takes place, and nature has wisely
ordained, that, with this important duty, should be connected a sensation
of pleasure derived from the taste of agreeable viands. The sense of
taste is closely allied to that of smell ; both receive impressions from
the odorous particles of bodies : one from their volatile atoms mixed
with the air, the other from the bodies themselves only, when in con-
tact with the organ. The tongue, in Man, is covered with soft papillae,
invested with a thin cuticle, and appearing like the pile of velvet. In
the Cat tribe the papillae are horny, sharp, and retroverted : the tongue
of the Ox is villous towards its anterior part ; but the minute degrees
of difference, in the character of the surface of the tongue, need not be
here particularized.

INTRODUCTION.

The sense of taste aids that of smell in the choice of food, and,
among the lower mammals, coinciding with their natural instincts, it is one
of the tests, according to which they receive or reject whatever is sub-
mitted to it ; the disagreeable being hurtful, — the agreeable, except in
rare cases, innocent and proper. Man has not these instincts, or, if he
have, it is during the helplessness of infancy only ; his like or dislike of
certain viands is, to a great extent, the result of habit. The Greenlander
relishes train oil and half-putrid fish, or the rank flesh of the Whale, from
which we should turn with disgust.

So far, then, from the foregoing observations, may be understood the
nature of those recesses of the face, in which are seated the organs of
sight, smell, and taste. With regard to the organs of hearing, they are
contained in certain cavities of the temporal bone, of a curious and intri-
cate arrangement, which cannot be altogether passed over without some
explanatory notice. In Man, it may be premised, the temporal bone
consists of two portions ; viz., the squamous and the petrous portion :
the squamous portion is, in shape, somewhat like an oyster-shell, and
conjoins with the parietal and a portion of the sphenoid, to form the
lateral wall of the skull ; the petrous portion, an irregular mass of bone,,
enters into the base of the skull, and is hollowed, to contain the organs
of hearing : in addition to the petrous portion, may be noticed, the mas-
toid portion, or process, as it is termed, which is also filled with cells
communicating with the internal ear. At an early period of existence
these parts are all distinct, but they afterwards become consolidated.
In many of the lower mammals, however, the temporal bone remains
permanently divided into its primitive elements.

The ear consists of an external cartilaginous organ, or concha, the
shape and form of which need not be now particularized, and of an internal
apparatus. From the external ear, or concha, a funnel-shaped canal,
termed the meatus auditorius, leads into the internal chambers ; it curves
gently inward, till its course is stopped by a membrane extended across
it, and separating it from the cavity beyond : this membrane, from its
resemblance to the parchment stretched over a drum, is called the mem-
brana tympani ; the cavity beyond being called the tympanum. The
membrana tympani consists of two films of delicate cuticle, continued
from the lining of the meatus auditorius on one side, and of the tympanum
on the other, with minute radiating muscular fibres between them : by
means of this fine muscular apparatus, its tension can be varied, according
to the strength or character of the vibrations of the atmosphere ; and, as
these fibres are inserted into the extremity of the first of a curious series
of little bones, their action, determined by the stimulus they receive from
the atmospheric vibrations, adjusts these bones in an according ratio.

The tympanum is an irregular cavity filled with air, and has three re-

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

markable openings : one is termed the Eustachian tube, and it leads to
the back of the posterior nares : its commencement is osseous, but it is
continued by a cartilage. The use of this tube is twofold : in the first
place, it serves, like the hole in the side of a drum, for the necessary pur-
pose of establishing a communication between the tympanum and the
atmosphere, without which the due vibration of the membrana tympani
could not be produced ; in the second place, it assists in the conveyance of
atmospheric vibrations to the internal ear : hence persons hard of hearing,
as it is expressed, or persons listening very attentively to a distant or
slight noise, keep the mouth moderately open. When the Eustachian
tube is stopped up, by the inflammation of its lining membrane, from cold
or other causes, distinctness of hearing is materially affected. With the
tympanum, on the side opposite the Eustachian tube, the cells of the mas-
toid process immediately communicate, and may be regarded as an appendix
to that cavity. At the extremity of the tympanum are two other orifices,
namely, the fenestra ovalis, and the fenestra rotunda (the oval and the
round windows), between which the bone is rounded and prominent, form-
ing what is termed the promontory. These orifices lead to a maze of
cells and tubes, termed the labyrinth : this labyrinth is composed of
the vestibule, the cochlea, and the semicircular canals. The vestibule
opens posteriorly, by several holes, into the semicircular canals, and by one
anteriorly into the cochlea. The semicircular canals are three in number —
a superior, a horizontal, and a vertical canal. The cochlea, so called from
its resemblance to a spiral shell, consists of a tube revolving spirally, to the
extent of two turns and a half, round a central pillar, or modiolus. The
fenestra ovalis, above referred to, "leads from the tympanum to the vesti-
bule, and the fenestra rotunda to the cochlea. Figs. 21 and 22 present

22

^*^?*33^

21

Internal ear :— a, meatus auditorius ; J>, tympanic membrane;
r , the chain of small bones i communicating between the tympa-
num and the fenestra ovalis; d, cavity of the tympanum; e,
semicircular canals; /, cochlea; K, vestibule, composing the
labyrinth ; h, Eustachian tube ; i , auditory nerve, entering at
the back of the vestibule.

An enlarged view of the semicircular canals,
vestibule, and cochlea, composing the laby-
rinth :—e, e, e, the three semicircular canals;
/, the cochlea; g-, the vestibule ; fr, the fenestra
ovalis ; I, the fenestra rotunda.

44 INTRODUCTION.

views of the internal ear, by which the foregoing description may be more
clearly understood. The curious cavities of the labyrinth are all lined
with a most delicate membrane, on which the minute filaments of the
auditory nerve (portio mollis of the seventh pair) are ramified, and are
also filled with a peculiar fluid, termed the water of Cotunnius, the aqua
labyrinthi, or perilymph. Within the vestibule and the semicircular
canals, but not extending into the cochlea, is a continuous sac of deli-
cate membrane, floating in the perilymph, and assuming nearly the form
of the parts through which it is extended : it is united to the vestibule
by nervous filaments, which ramify upon it, and it contains a fluid,
termed by Blainville, " la vitrine auditive," from its resemblance to the
vitreous humour of the eye. The vestibular portion of this curious
sac, or series of membraneous inner tubes, is composed of two cavities
communicating with each other (one termed utriculus, the other sacculus),
each containing a small mass of white calcareous matter, resembling chalk,
suspended in the vitreous fluid, by the intermedium of minute nervous
filaments. The use of these bodies is unknown : they are, however,
always present, and are larger and harder in aquatic than in terrestrial
Mammalia ; and it cannot be doubted but that they serve some important
office.

It yet remains to describe the series of small bones alluded to, the
first of which is connected with the membrana tympani. These bones
serve as the vibratory conductor between that membrane and the more
interior parts of the labyrinth (fig. 23) : they are four in number, and are
termed, from their shape, malleus, or hammer
(A) ; incus, or anvil (B) ; os orbiculare, or
tQ spherical bone (c) ; and stapes, or stirrup (D).
Each is susceptible of motion, and the tension
of the chain they form is regulated by the mem-
brana tympani, and other muscular fibres. The malleus rests with its
handle on the membrana tympani, and is united by its head to the incus ;
of which latter a long process joins the os obiculare, a minute bone situ-
ated between this branch of the incus and the stapes ; the base of the
stapes rests upon the membrane spread over the orifice termed fenestra
ovalis. Of all these bones the stapes seems to be the most important :
it is that which immediately imparts the vibrations of the air to the peri-
lymph contained in the winding channels of the labyrinth : hence it is
indispensable, and it has been ascertained that, though the other bones be
lost by disease, this, alone remaining, preserves the sense of hearing from
being utterly destroyed.

Such, then, is a sketch of the auditory apparatus in Man. In the
lower Mammalia it is essentially the same ; but the mastoid process very
often ceases to fulfil the same office as in Man, and is merely a simple

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

45

process, even where present, but is often so degenerate as not to be dis-
tinguished ; while, to compensate for its loss, a large tympanic bulla, or
cavity, convex externally, thin and hollow, is superadded : this bulla
being, in fact, an enlargement of the tympanum, for the reception of a
greater volume of air to be acted upon by vibrations of the atmosphere,
and thus to fulfil more thoroughly the office of a drum. The tympanic bulla
is beautifully developed in the Rat, and numerous rodents, — in the Cat,
Dog, and other Carnivora. Fig. 24 represents the mastoid process in
Man, and figs. 25 and 26 the tympanic bulla in the Cat.

24.— a, Mastoid process of the human skull . 25 a, Basal view of the tympanic bulla of the Cat. 26._<j, A nearly

lateral view of the same.

The form of the concha, or external ear, differs remarkably in different
Mammalia, and in all (where present) it is far more moveable than in Man,
or the Simise, which, in the form of the ear, resemble him the nearest.
The use of this part, in collecting and condensing the undulations of the
atmosphere, is evident ; hence we observe, that the Ox, or Horse, while
listening, turns the ears in different directions, the better to receive the
atmospheric vibrations flowing from various quarters. In the more timid
and defenceless of the Mammalia, the external ear is often large, and
the sense of hearing extremely acute : we find this to be the case with
the Hare, the Chinchilla, and many other rodents, and with the Deer
and Antelope. In aquatic Mammalia, as the Whale, Dolphin, &c., there
are no external ears, and the passage leading to the tympanum is a carti-
laginous tube, narrow and winding, with a minute external aperture,
capable of being firmly closed — a structure evidently intended as a pre-
ventive to the entrance of water. In the Seal this passage makes a cir-

46 INTRODUCTION.

cular turn; and in the Ornithorhynchus, in which the osseous orifice of
the internal ear opens with a basal, or downward aspect, and is, moreover,
very minute, the cartilaginous canal winds round the temporal bone, and
its earless external orifice is capable of being contracted or dilated at
pleasure. The Hippopotamus possesses the power of closing the exter-
nal orifice of the meatus auditorius by means of a muscular apparatus, in
order to exclude the entrance of water while below its surface ; and the
Water-shrew, the Mole, and other diving and burrowing animals, have
the same power. In Man, and other Mammalia, the wax, as it is termed,
secreted by small glands on the lining membrane of the meatus auditorius,
is evidently intended to prevent the intrusion of insects, and to restrain
particles of dust from farther ingress.

With regard to the perfection in which the sense of hearing is en-
joyed by Mammalia, there appears to be a great range of variation.
Many are capable of hearing sounds at a distance far beyond the limits
of the human senses ; while others are familiar with tones, which, though
produced close at hand, are either scarcely, or not at all, appreciable by
the human organs. It would appear, from many circumstances, that
animals derive pleasure from musical sounds, and are diversly affected
by various tones, or notes, produced within their hearing : to ascertain
the extent of the influence of such a cause, is almost impossible ; but
in Man alone " the concord of sweet sounds," acting like a charm upon
the imagination, produces delight, and ever-changing emotions.*

* It is interesting to know how severe and constant practice, under the discipline of necessity,
sharpens the senses in the human being : not, indeed, to the degree in which they are possessed by the
brute, which depends solely upon them for the acquisition of food and the avoiding of danger ; but to an
extent surprising to the natives of civilized countries, where such a mode of exercising them is never
needed. We all know how practice improves the ear in the discrimination of musical notes, and from
this may judge what it will do for the other senses.

The Calmucks, says Pallas, who, in his frequent intercourse with the Nomadic tribes of Asia, had
most excellent opportunities of observing the powers of their external senses, " have a fine nose, a good
ear, and an extremely acute eye. On their journeys and military expeditions they often smell out a fire,
or a camp, and thus procure quarters for the night, or obtain booty. Many of them can tell, by smelling
at the hole of a fox, or other animal, whether the creature be there or not. By lying flat, and putting
their ear to the ground, they can catch, at a great distance, the noise of horses, of a flock, or of a single
strayed animal. But nothing is so surprising as the perfection of their eyes, and the extraordinary dis-
tance at which they often perceive, from inconsiderable heights, small objects, such as the rising dust
caused by cattle or horsemen ; more especially as the undulation of the boundless steppes, or plains, and
the vapours which rise from and float upon them, in warm weather, render things very obscure. In the
expedition which the Torgot Vice-Chan Ubaschi led against the Kubanians, the Calmuck force would
certainly have missed the enemy, if a common Calmuck had not perceived, at the estimated distance of
thirty versts, the smoke and dust of the hostile army, and pointed it out to other equally experienced
eyes ; when the commander, Colonel Kischmskoi, could discern nothing with a good glass. They pur-
sue lost or stolen cattle, by the track, for miles over deserts. Kirgises, or even Russians, in the wild
parts of the empire, are equally able to follow and discriminate tracks by the eye. This, indeed, is not
difficult on soft ground, or over snow ; but it requires great practice and skill to choose the right, out of
several intermingled traces, to follow it over loose sand or snow, not to lose it in marshes or deep grass,
but rather to judge, from the direction of the grass, or from the depth of the print, in snow or sand, how
long it has been made."— PALLAS, Samm. Hist. Nach. Th. 1. pp. 100, 101.

The Hottentots, according to Barrow, " by the quickness of their eye, will discover Deer, and other
sorts of game, when very far distant ; and they are equally expert in watching a Bee to its nest. They

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 47

We find, then, that, of the recesses for the organs of the senses, those
of hearing are placed exclusively in the cranium ; those of sight, between
the cranium and the face ; while those of smell and taste belong to the
face exclusively. And here it may not be out of place to inquire into
the relative proportion which obtains between the face and the cranium ;
and the results attendant upon the preponderance of either portion.

The face being entirely devoted to the organs of smell and taste, it
must be very evident, that the more these organs are developed the
more volume will the face acquire, and the greater will be its proportion
to the cranium : hence, in all animals conspicuous for smell or taste, or
in which the jaws are instruments for the seizing or taking up of food,
the facial part greatly preponderates, and the animal nature outweighs
the intellectual. Man, in the development of the cerebral hemispheres,
and, consequently, in the proportionate expansion of the cranium to
the face, exceeds every other mammal : not only so, but, which is more
important, in the amplitude of its frontal portion, corresponding to the
magnitude of the anterior lobes of the brain. The nearer animals
approach Man, in the development of the brain, the nearer do they
approximate to the standard of intellectual excellence ; and, consequently,
of elevation in the scale of being : but, as animals differ much from each
other in the proportions which obtain between the cranium and the face,
and, indeed, as different races of the human family also present certain
degrees of variation, physiologists have attempted several methods, by
which to arrive at an exact knowledge of the respective proportion of the
two parts, justly regarding it as a point of interest and importance.
Among these methods, the most simple, but one which, as regards the
human race, is by no means satisfactory, and, as it respects the lower
Mammalia, not always applicable, is the employment of the facial angle,

no sooner hear the humming of the insect, than they squat themselves on the ground, and, having
caught it with the eye, pursue it to an incredible distance." — (BARROW, Travels in Southern Africa,
vol. i. p. 160.) The following anecdote is related, by the same writer, of a Hottentot, who, being unwell,
was left behind, on a journey : " He had fallen asleep," says our author, " about the middle of the day,
and had not awakened till night. Though very dark, and unacquainted with a single step of our route,
he had found us by following the track of the wagon. At this sort of business a Hottentot is exceed-
ingly clever. There is not an animal among the numbers that range the wilds of Africa, if he be at all
acquainted with it, the print of whose foot he cannot distinguish. The print of any of his companions'
feet, he would single'out among a thousand."— Ibid. p. 370.

Turnbull says, speaking of the New Hollanders, "the quickness of their eye and ear is equally sin-
gular ; they can hear, and distinguish objects which would totally escape an European. This circum-
stance renders them very acceptable guides to our sportsmen in the woods, as they never fail to point
out the game before any European can discover it."— TURNBULL, Voyage round the World, 2nd ed. p. 92.

In reference to a native of New Zealand, named Moyhanger, who sailed with him to England, Savage
states, " It was worthy of remark how much his sight and hearing were superior to [those of] other per-
sons on board the ship : the sound of a distant gun was distinctly heard, or a strange sail readily dis-
cernible, by Moyhanger, when no other man on board could hear or perceive them." — SAVAGE, Some
Account of New Zealand, p. 101.

Cruise, again, speaking of some New Zealanders, who were with him, at sea, in the Dromedary, says,
" So acute was their sight, that though there were very good glasses on board, they were almost always
the first to discover a new object."— CRUISE, Journal of a Ten Months' Residence in jy. Zealand. Lon-
don, 1823, p. 18.

48

INTRODUCTION.

originally proposed by Camper. The mode of ascertaining this angle is,
by drawing a line from the most prominent part of the forehead to the
edge of the upper incisors, and then by marking a basilar line from the
external aperture of the ears to the lower edge of the aperture of the
nostrils, so as to bisect the previous line : the angle, thus formed, is
termed the facial angle, which Camper states to be fifty-eight degrees in
the young Orang, seventy in the young Negro, and eighty degrees in the
European ; the acuteness of the facial angle being supposed to be in pro-
portion to the inferiority of the subject, in the scale of mental develop-
ment, and vice versa.

The following figures of the skull and head of a young Negro (figs. 27
and 28), and of an ordinary European (figs. 29 and 30), are from Camper,
and illustrate the application of the facial angle.

27 29

27, 2S._The skull and facial outline of a young Negro. 29, 30.— The skull and facial outline of an ordinary European

As, however, from the varying position of the auditory foramen, and
also of the jaws, with respect to the cranium, the angle thus formed
fails as a test, Cuvier proposed, by way of amendment, that a basilar
line be drawn parallel to the floor of the nostrils; the angle formed
with which, by a facial line drawn from the anterior convexity of the
forehead to the greatest prominence of the alveoli, whether the point of
contact be external or not, he states to be sixty-seven degrees in the
young Orang, seventy degrees in the adult Negro, eighty-five degrees in
the adult European, and ninety degrees in the European child.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

49

The subjoined figures (31 and 32) shew Cuvier's mode of ascertaining
the facial angle, They represent the skull of a young Orang, and the
skull of the Hog,

31

A well-developed skull and forehead, and an expanded intellect, have
been regarded as co-existents in every age : a forehead " villanous low"
is Shakspere's expression, with reference to the Ape (see Tempest} ;
and in the Two Gentlemen of Verona, Julia, drawing a comparison
betwixt herself and Silvia, says " Ay, but her forehead's low, and
mine's as high." Again, if we turn to the statues of antiquity, we find
that the unrivalled artists of Greece regarded an advanced forehead as
one of the characteristics of dignity and beauty, and the indication of a
refined and exalted nature. Hence, in their personifications of ideal
sublimity, with the boldness of genius, acting on the indications of Nature,
they overstepped her boundary, and, feeling that a facial angle of eighty-
five would fail in embodying their conceptions, they advanced it to 100
degrees, — and thus impressed the statues of their gods and heroes with
an air of superhuman grandeur. This is the maximum to which the
facial line can be raised without falling from the sublime to the distorted.
" If the facial line," says Camper, " be more advanced, the head appears
monstrous and hydrocephalic. But, it is remarkable that the most
ancient Greek artists have adopted precisely this maximum, while the
Romans have been contented with an angle of ninety-five degrees, which
is not so agreeable. The two extremes, then, of the human facial angle,
are seventy degrees and 100 degrees: they comprise all the grada-
tions, from the Negro to the sublime beauty of the ancient Greek. If
we descend below seventy degrees we have an Orang ; if still lower, 3,
Dog; then a Bird," &c. The ancient standard of beauty, however, "does
not exist in nature, but is purely imaginary, and what Winckelman calls
the beau-ideal."

It was, however, only in their personifications of mental pre-eminence

VOL. I.

50

INTRODUCTION.

that the ancients exhibited an overshadowing forehead ; for their tact
and discrimination had led them to perceive that, in proportion to the
extraordinary development of the muscular powers, are the powers of
the sensorium, the capabilities of mental exertion, limited ; and, conse-
quently, that a diminished volume of the skull would be conjoined with
limbs displaying the beau-ideal of animal force. Their observance of,
and adherence to, nature, in this point, are exemplified in the statues of
Atliletse, of Hercules, and of the Gladiators.

But the inapplicability of the facial angle, to the lower orders of
Mammalia, must be very manifest to any one who reflects, for a moment,
upon the magnitude of the frontal sinuses, which, in so many instances
(as in the Elephant, see fig. 20), give to the forehead an air of deceptive
projection: besides this, there is another circumstance which militates
against this test as being generally applicable. In numerous animals, and
especially in the rodents, the nasal cavities are raised so much, and occupy
so large a space, that the cranium falls, as it were, behind them, without
the slightest anterior elevation ; so that it would be impossible to deter-
mine through what points the facial line should pass. Nor is this all ;
for even where it is applicable, it is not a sure test, inasmuch as it is sub-
ject to great alteration during the progress of the animal from infancy to
maturity. In the Ape tribe, and especially in the Orang-outan (Simla
Satyrus, Linn.), this circumstance is peculiarly striking. The young
Orang-outan is remarkable for a well-developed forehead, to which the

face bears such a just proportion, and
is so situated, as to invest the whole
with a character and expression
closely approaching that of a little
Negro ; but, as maturity advances, the
bones of the face develop amazingly ;
the jaws shoot forward, acquire pro-
digious size, and are furnished with
large teeth ; the forehead flattens and
falls back ; the cranium, as the face enlarges, gradually assuming a more
backward position, and the contour of the whole becoming deteriorated and
brutalized. Of the extent, to which this change in the Orang-outan is
carried, the annexed sketches (figs. 33 and 34) will convey a better idea
than mere verbal description.

After all, as a test, by which to determine the relative proportion
which the face bears to the cranium, the facial angle is altogether
insufficient : a much more correct and satisfactory mode has, therefore,
been proposed, which consists in making a longitudinal vertical section
of the whole head, and measuring the respective areas which the skull
and face occupy, the lower jaw being excluded. (See fig. 16, for a

Skull of youug Oranjj.

Skull of adult Oraiig.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 51

section of the human skull; and figs. 19 and 20, for sections of the
skull of the Ox and Elephant.) In the adult European, the area of a
section of a skull is almost four times that of the face ; in the Negro,
according to Cuvier, the comparative area of the face exceeds, by about
a fifth, that of the European. In the Ape tribe, the area of the skull
averages little more than double that of the face, and often not so much.
In most Carnivora the respective areas are nearly equal. In the Roden-
tia the area of the face nearly doubles that of the skull. In the rumi-
nants and Pachydermata the area of the face is from three to four
times as extensive as that of the skull. In the Cetacea there is great
variation ; and the elongated slender form of the face makes it difficult
to ascertain the relative proportions very correctly.

Another test has been proposed for determining the intellectual grade
of an animal ; namely, by measuring the relative extent of the anterior
and posterior development of the cranium, on each side of a line drawn
over the skull, from the orifice of one ear to that of the other ; the degree
of intellect being, as it is assumed, in proportion to the amplitude of the
anterior section. This test, however, is utterly fallacious ; for the position
of the auditory foramen varies with regard to the cranium, irrespective
of the volume of the latter, and of the magnitude of the anterior lobes of
the brain. The compass of the zygomatic arch, for example, in the Dog
tribe, throws the orifice of the ear close to the edge of the vertical
occipital bone ; and the same obtains in the Kangaroo : therefore the
Dog and Kangaroo, having the greatest proportionate volume of cranium,
anterior to a line drawn from ear to ear, ought to be more intelligent
than the Orang, — or even Man ; and certainly equal in intelligence to
each other ; whereas the Kangaroo is among the most stupid of Mam-
malia, while the Dog is remarkable for sagacity. This part of our subject
may be dismissed by reiterating the observation, that the only test of
intellectual superiority is to be found in the development and perfec-
tion of the brain itself — that of Man being the standard ; and that all
attempts at obtaining a satisfactory result, from the application of lines
and measures, have proved futile and abortive.

The position of the skull, the situation of the foramen magnum (or
orifice, through which the medulla oblongata emerges into the vertebral
canal), and of the articulating condyles on each side of this foramen, by
which it is connected with the spinal column, next demand attention.

It need not be observed, that, with the position of the head, and, con-
sequently, the situation of the articulating condyles of the occipital bone,
are connected certain modifications of the general frame, adapting it for
the upright, oblique, or horizontal attitude. Now, the situation of these
condyles varies, from being basal, or nearly so, in Man, to a completely
posterior situation in a line parallel to that of the projecting muzzle in

52 INTRODUCTION.

the Whale : in the one case the skull rests upon the vertebral column,
in the other it projects in a straight line from it ; and, between these two
extremes, there are several gradations, the shape and characters of the
occipital bone varying in proportion.

In Man the occipital bone is convex exteriorly, and, sweeping under
the cranial cavity, forms the greatest portion of its base ; but in the
lower Mammalia, as the Cat, Dog, Horse, &c., it rather forms its poste-
rior wall, descending abruptly, and at an acute angle, from its union with
the parietal bones, its cuneiform process (anterior to the foramen mag-
num) alone, in union with the sphenoid, forming the narrow floor of the
cranial cavity, which is not carried back, as in Man and the Simise, beyond
the foramen magnum. On each side of this foramen are the condyies, —
but not precisely on each side of it ; they are more or less anterior to it,
obliquely pointing towards each other, so as nearly to touch in front. In
Man, who, of all animals, can be said to possess a face (in the restricted
sense of the word) in contradistinction to what we term a muzzle, the
condyies have a basal situation, and form points, upon which the skull is
balanced, having a situation nearly centrical, between the back of the occi-
put, and the anterior part of the superior maxillary bone : they constitute
the antero-lateral margin of the foramen magnum ; and are elongated, and
rise in the middle like a bridge, their posterior end being about the centre
of the foramen : but the centre of the foramen magnum is not the exact
centre of gravity. In various skulls of the human subject (European), which
have been purposely measured, drawing a line, from the alveolar processes
of the two middle incisor teeth, to the posterior part of the occiput, this
point has been found to vary from half an inch to an inch, and rather more,
nearer the occiput than the facial point of measurement.* As, then, the

* Daubenton says, the human skull is so well placed, as regards equilibrium, that were the vertical
line of the body and neck prolonged, "upward, it would pass through the summit of the cranium
(Memoires, &c., p. 568): and, in another part of his article, he speaks of the human head as being
placed in equilibrio, as on a pivot (p. 570). Cuvier says, the position of the two condyies, upon which
the head rests, is such, that they nearly bisect a line drawn from the most projecting part of the occiput
to the [incisor teeth : the consequence of this disposition, he adds, is, that, in the vertical attitude,
the head is in equilibrio upon the spine (Lemons, &c. i. 225): and, again, the head, in an upright
position, is in a state of equilibrium on the trunk, its articulation being strictly centrical in reference
to its own bulk. Virey observes, in the white man, and especially in the European, the occipital
aperture is directly under the cranium, so that the head is posited in equilibrio on the atlas (Diet,
des Sciences Med. vol. xxi. p. 194). Cloquet says, this opening in man looks downward, and is
found nearly in the centre of the head (?) which is in equilibrio on the vertebral column (Anat. de
I'Homme, vol. i. p. 117): and Abernethy states, "that the condyies are placed so exactly parallel to
the centre of gravity, that when we sit upright, and go to sleep in that posture, the weight of the head
has a tendency to preponderate equally, in every direction, as we see in those who are dozing in a
carriage : nay, their heads sometimes," he adds, " revolve in a circle, like the head of Harlequin on
the stage" (Phys. Led. p. 115). Mr. Lawrence, however, insists, that the head is not placed in a state
of perfect equilibrium, in the vertical altitude on the spine ; the parts in front of the column not
exactly counterbalancing those behind it. " The occipital condyies," he says, "are manifestly nearer
to the occipital tuberosity than to the most prominent part of the jaws, and thus the greater share of
the weight is in front of the joint. Place the occipital condyies on any point of support, and the head
will incline forward, unless it be held in equilibrio by a force applied behind. The preponderance is
greater when the lower jaw is added ; and it is still further increased by the accession of the tongue,

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 53

ring of the first vertebra fits the margin of the foramen, to the back part
of which a process of the second, to be described hereafter, is attached,
the rest following, one below another, there will be a slight tendency of
the skull to fall forward (as it does when we sleep sitting upright, the
muscles being then relaxed), requiring a proportionate degree of muscular
effort to counteract it. In the Ape tribe the foramen magnum, and, conse-
quently, the condyles, are placed far more backward than in the human
subject. The skull of an adult Monkey, purposely examined, measuring
from the fore-teeth to the occiput four inches and a half, has the condyles
only one inch from the posterior margin of the latter. In younger exam-
ples, owing to the imperfect development of the upper jaw, the distance
from the fore-teeth to the condyles is comparatively less : in all, however,
it is very considerable, so as to destroy even an approach towards an
equipoise of the skull on the vertebral column. In the adult Orang, the
measurement from the alveolar process of the front teeth to the posterior
edge of the occipital condyle is 6| inches, and from the posterior edge of
the condyle to a vertical line, parallel with the extent of the occiput, less
than two inches. In the adult (female) Chimpanzee, the same admeasure-
ments are respectively 5j and 1|, or nearly two inches. When we turn
to the skulls of animals of other orders, we find that the condyles have
retired to the extreme posterior limits of the cranium, and that their
aspect is partly basal, partly posterior, the head being suspended from
the end of the neck, whether this be carried horizontal, or, as in the
Camel, vertical ; the weight of the whole head and face being anterior to
the first vertebra. Hence, as in the Ox, where the head is ponderous, and
the neck, in order to allow of grazing, necessarily long, the spinous pro-
cesses of the cervical and dorsal vertebrae are of vast size and strength,
and not only serve for the attachment of voluminous muscles of enormous
power, but also for the insertion of a strong elastic ligament (ligamentum
nuchae), which proceeds along them from the back of the skull, the strain
of which it materially serves to support. In the neck of the Bull we
see a fine example of vast power, nor less so in the neck of the Wapiti
deer, which wields his antlers, weighing from forty to sixty pounds, with

muscles, and other soft parts. This inclination of the head forward is counteracted, in the living body,
by the extensor muscles ; and their constant exertion is necessary for maintaining the head in equi-
librio on the vertebral column. Whenever their action is suspended, as in the case of a person falling
asleep, in the erect attitude, with the head unsupported, that part, abandoned to the force of gravity,
immediately nods forward" (Lect. pp. 175-6-7). Richerand says, the articulation of the head to the
vertebral column being nearer to the occiput than to the cranium, and not corresponding to its centre
of gravity, its own weight is sufficient to make it fall on the forepart of the chest (Siemens de Phys.
p. 407). And again : though the articulation of the head to the cervical column, does not correspond
either to its centre of magnitude, or to its centre of gravity, and though it is nearer to the occiput than
to the chin, its distance from the latter is much smaller than in the Monkey, and other animals
( Ibid. p. 411): Magendie also fortifies the assertion of Mr. Lawrence, by stating,'.that the point of support
being nearer to the occiput than to the anterior part of the face, the head tends, by its weight, to fall
forward, but is maintained in equilibrio by the action of those muscles which are attached to its
posterior part (Siemens de Phys. i. 362).

INTRODUCTION.

Cervical vertebrae
uftheWimle.

35 prodigious force and rapidity. In the Cetacea, or Whale tribe,

however, distinguished by the enormous size and weight of
their head, which is carried in a continuous line from the body,
(the contour of this approximating to that of a fish), nature
pursues a different method : here the independent mobility of
the head, inasmuch as it is not needed, is circumscribed to
the utmost ; and it may be said that there is no neck, the
vertebrae (see fig. 35) composing it being consolidated
together, and the whole reduced into a compass consistent,
indeed, with strength, but not with flexibility : yet is their
number usually seven, as in other Mammalia.

It is curious to compare such a structure with that exhibited by the neck

of the Giraffe, elongated and swan-
like, and surmounted by its small
and graceful head (see fig. 36) ; but
in each case the necessities of the
animal are admirably provided for,
and the habits and economy of each
are in accordance with its organi-
zation. And so it is with Man.
His skull, resting on the vertebral
column, requires no voluminous
muscles to support its weight : he
has neither to graze the meadow,
nor browse upon the foliage of the
trees, nor dart through the waves ;
neither does he seize his prey like
the Lion. The muscles of the neck,
therefore, are comparatively feeble
and small, and are adapted solely
for giving to the head its true de-
gree of motion in various direc-
tions : they, however, harmonize
with the general contour of the
body, and in the athletic are
marked and developed. As, to
Man alone is given the " os sub-
lime," so alone in him has the
neck that peculiar form, or " tour-
nure," which, while it adds so much to the air of dominion impressed
upon the human figure, is accompanied by a variety of minuter differences,
seized upon most happily by the ancients, as characteristic of the demi-
god, the philosopher, and the gladiator. To feel and understand this, the

Skeleton of the Giraffe.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA,

55

reader has only to compare the statues of female beauty with those of
Hercules, and these, again, with an Apollo or Antinous.

As we recede from the human subject, whose skull rests nearly
poised on the vertebral column, and in whom the plane of the foramen
magnum is nearly horizontal, or, rather, directed somewhat obliquely
upward towards the face, we find the plane of the foramen magnum
to alter materially in its direction, becoming more and more vertical, and
directed obliquely upward and backward. In many of the Ape tribe,
it is nearly horizontal, or, if oblique, its obliquity is in a contrary
direction to that of the plane in the human skull : in the Dog, Cat, &c.,
its obliquity is still greater ; till, at length, in some animals, and among
them the Cetacea, it becomes completely vertical. The diversities ob-
servable in the plane of this foramen, the degree of which influences, as
will be perceived, the position of the head, with regard to the spine,
are aptly illustrated by Daubenton's occipital angle. This angle is
formed by the intersection of a line, a, b, drawn, in the direction of the
foramen, with another, c, d, drawn from its posterior edge to the lower
margin of the orbit. See the annexed sketches (fig. 37).

Illustrations of the difference of degree in the occipital angle.

The angle thus given amounts, in the Dog, A, to sixty-two degrees ;
in the Lemur, B, to forty -seven degrees ; in the Orang, c, to about
thirty-seven degrees; but in Man, D, to no more than three. — (See
Daubenton, in Mem. A cad. Sc. Paris.)

A consideration of the skull leads to that of the vertebral column ;
a pile of bones, articulated together, of no less interest than importance,
constructed, so as to give grace and flexibility to the body, and yet pre-
serve from injury the medulla spinalis, enclosed in a continuous canal :
its design is both unique and beautiful. The mode of union subsisting
between its separate bones is so contrived, that, while the column, as a
whole, possesses considerable freedom of motion, the individual mobility
of each is very limited : but, to understand the mechanism of the spine

56

INTRODUCTION.

clearly, it will be best to examine, singly, one of the bones of which it
consists. Each vertebra, then, has a main portion, termed its body,
usually of a compressed circular, or oval form, having an anterior
and posterior flattened, or slightly concave, surface, by which it is
united to the body of the one preceding it, and also to the body of the
next in rotation. Sometimes, however, the body is elongated (as in the
cervical vertebrae of the Giraffe), and, instead of having a flat anterior and
posterior articulating surface, has a convex articulating surface ante-
riorly, and a concave one posteriorly, in order to effect a ball and
socket mode of articulation with the one preceding and the one succeed-
ing it. To the body a (fig. 38), certain processes, or projections, of con-
siderable magnitude, are appended, which bound, posteriorly, a large
38 aperture, forming, when the vertebral column is not taken

to pieces, a canal for the reception of the spinal chord.
Of these processes, one, 5, is termed the spinous ; four
are termed the oblique, c, c, c, c ; and two the transverse,
d, d : a, represents one of the articulating surfaces of the
body of the vertebra. When in their proper situation,
the flattened bodies being in apposition, the two lower
and two upper of the oblique processes of each adjoining
vertebra are connected together, the lower of one ver-
one of the vertebrae, tebra, being overlaid by the upper of the vertebra next
succeeding. The bodies of the vertebrae, it must be observed, are not
in immediate contact ; for between them is interposed a substance of
considerable thickness, of a cartilaginous nature, and highly elastic, to which
the flexibility of the spine of the Mammalia is entirely owing. Were the
bones formed into a column, by being simply fitted together, without this
intervening cushion, the whole would be rigid, and incapable of those varied
movements which it exhibits. This plan of allowing motion, by the
interposition of thick elastic cushions, is, in the vertebral column, attended
with one singular and most important advantage ; viz., that while the whole
column may be bent forward, backward, or laterally, into arches of
various degrees of flexion, each separate bone has, in itself, but a very
limited sphere of mobility, whence it is impossible for the relative position
of any two to be so abruptly and decidedly altered as to produce an acute
angle in the column — a mode of flexure, which could not take place
without injury to the medulla spinalis enclosed in the canal, which has
been already spoken of.

The true vertebral column is divided into several portions : the cer-
vical, or that of the neck ; the dorsal, or that of the back ; the lumbar,
or that of the loins ; and the sacral, which is consolidated, and joins the
pelvis : by these appellations are designated the separate vertebrae of
each of these divisions.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

57

Besides the cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae, there are
those supplemental rudimentary vertebrae, termed coccygal or caudal, which
constitute the tail : these usually have no distinct body and processes, nor
any aperture for the transmission of the spinal chord ; but are simply
elongated bones, placed end to end.

In general, though not always, the cervical vertebrae are shorter and
smaller than the dorsal or the lumbar ; but their breadth is considerable,
owing to the amplitude of the transverse processes, which are bifurcated,
and which (if not in all, at least in the greater number of the vertebrae,)
are perforated at their base, for the transmission of the cervical vein and
artery. In Man, and many other animals, as the Kangaroos, various
Pachydermata and Rodentia, the foramen, thus formed, exists in all the
seven cervical vertebrae: in others, on the contrary, as the Elephant,
the Rhinoceros, the Hog, the Horse, most ruminants, and the Quad-
rumana, it does not exist in the seventh vertebra. In the Tamanoir,
according to Meckel, it is absent in the second, third, fourth, and seventh
vertebrae, while it is distinct in the others. In the Giraffe, the perforations
for the arteries are large ; they are present in the seventh, as well as in the
rest of the cervical vertebrae ; but they are situated above the transverse
processes in the side of the bodies of the vertebrae : and Professor Owen
observes, that, although this position of the arterial foramina is somewhat
peculiar, yet that, in this respect, the Giraffe comes nearer to the horned
ruminants than to the long-necked Camelidae. The following figures (39,
40, 41, 42, 43), represent one of the cervical vertebrae of Man, in different
aspects.

40

Figs, 39 to 43. A cervical vertebra in different aspects.

Fig. 39, Superior view. 40, Inferior. 41, Anterior. 42, Lateral. 43, Posterior.— a, the body of the vertebra ; b, the
spinous process, bifurcate at its extremity ; c, c, the oblique processes ; rf, d, the forked, or branched, transverse processes i
«, e, the cervical foramina; /, the spinal canal. IThe same letters "refer to the same part in all the above figures.)

In all Mammalia, from Man downward, the number of cervical ver-
tebrae is seven, — this rule, however, is not without an exception. Some

58 INTRODUCTION.

Cetacea are said to have only six, and the three-toed Sloth, or Ai,* has
nine. Mr. Bell, indeed (see his valuable paper in the Transactions of the
Zoological Society, part i., 1834), regards the eighth and ninth vertebrae in
this animal as assignable rather to the dorsal than the cervical division of
the vertebral column, in consequence of their having a small bony append-
age, considered to be a rudimentary rib, attached to an articular surface
on each transverse process. The appendages of the eighth vertebra
are very minute, being only four-tenths of an inch long ; in the ninth
they are six lines in length, and nearly two in breadth. Meckel, who
was acquainted with the existence of these appendages in the ninth only,
hints at the possibility of this vertebra being dorsal. It is, nevertheless,
to be remarked, that the cervical foramen exists in both these supernu-
merary vertebrae.

That the number of the vertebrae of the neck, in all the mammiferous
animals, with the above exceptions, should not exceed seven, is very
remarkable, when we compare the long neck of the Giraffe with the
short neck of the Elephant, or call to mind the contour of the Whale-tribe,
where this part forms no distinguishable appearance, but is lost in the
unwieldy fish -like figure of the body: but this difference in the length
of the neck of Mammalia depends upon the form of the vertebrae, and
not upon their number. In the cetaceous animals they are (as
before stated) not only very thin, but anchylosed, or ossified together,
so as to admit neither of flexion nor of rotatory motion; in the
Giraffe, on the contrary, whose pliant neck towers among the foliage of
the trees, they are elongated to an extraordinary degree.f This elonga-
tion, we need scarcely add, is inconsistent with the support of such a
skull as that of the Elephant, with its ponderous tusks, or with the pre-
sence of such antlers as load the head of the Wapiti, or the Elk.

Of the cervical vertebrae, the first two differ materially from the rest,
and are exceptions to the general form which obtains among them.
The first vertebra, or the atlas (figs. 44, 45, 46, 47, 48), as it is fanci-
fully named, consists of an anterior portion, which may be termed its
body, and a posterior arch, with tranverse processes, and a small spinous
process. On the sides of the ring thus formed, are certain articulating
surfaces, answering to the oblique processes of the other vertebrae, namely,
two concave, on its superior aspect, into which are fitted the condyles of
the occipital bone, and two on its inferior aspect, for the reception of the

* Meckel found eight cervical vertebrae in a skeleton of the Bradypus Torquatus, in the Paris
Museum. — See Traite General d' Anatomic Comparee, p. 397 and 430, where reference is also made to
the AI.

t With respect to the cervical vertebrae of the Giraffe, Professor Owen observes, "that they are not only
remarkable for their great length, but also, as has been recently shewn by Dr. Blainville, for the ball
and socket form of the articulations of their bodies ; the convexity being on the anterior extremity,
and the concavity posteriorly, agreeing, in this particular, with the vertebrae of the Camel."— Proc
Zool. Soc., 1838, p. 21.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

59

superior oblique processes of the vertebra next succeeding. On the inner
aspect of the body is a smooth surface, to which is fitted a process

44

45

Figs. 44 to 48.— Atlas, in different aspects.

Fig. 44, Superior. 45, Inferior. 46, Anterior. 47, Lateral. 48, Posterior.-a, the body of the atlas ; b, its posterior
arch ; c, the small spinous process ; d, rf, the articulating- cavity of the superior oblique processes, for the reception of the
condyles of the occipital bone ; e, the smooth inner surface, for the reception of the odontoid process of the axis ; /, f, the
inferior oblique processes, or articulating surfaces, by which the atlas is united to the superior oblique processes of the
axis ; g-, g, the cervical foramina; h, A, the transverse processes. (The same letters refer to the same part in all the above
figures- )

(termed odontoid, or tooth-like) arising from the next vertebra, called
the axis, or vertebra dentata (figs. 49, 50, 51, 52). The transverse pro-
cesses are simple, and larger than those of the other cervical vertebrae. The
odontoid process, which constitutes the main distinguishing feature be-
tween the second vertebra and the remaining five of the neck, arises from
the upper surface of the body of the bone, and proceeds upward within
the narrow body of the atlas, where it is firmly secured by ligaments, so
contrived as to prevent its slipping, or pressing against the medulla spin-

50

Figs. 49 to 52.— Axis, in different aspects.

Fig. 49, Superior view. 50, Inferior. 51, Anterior. 52, Lateral.— a, odontoid process arising from the body of the bone >
fr, spinous process; c,c, the oblique processes, superior and inferior; d, d, the transverse processes. (The same letters refer
to the same part in all the above figures.)

alis, while the atlas revolves upon it as a kind of axis. The motion
allowed to the head, by the articulation of the skull upon the first cervical

60

INTRODUCTION.

vertebra, is slightly backward and forward ; whilst the mechanism of
the vertebra dentata limits the motion of the atlas upon it to one which
is rotatory. The first movement is exhibited by slightly nodding, the
neck being held firmly upright ; the second, by turning the head from
side to side, the neck being still retained in the same rigid position.

From the vertebrae of the neck we pass to the dorsal vertebrae, or those
of the back : in these the spinous processes are long, and more or less
inclined backward, their shape being flat, or compressed laterally. In
all animals, which have to support either a ponderous head, a head placed
at the extremity of a long neck, or, more especially, a head produced into
a snout destined for ploughing up the ground in quest of food, as in the
Hog, these spinous processes are of extraordinary length and stoutness, and
indicate the volume of the muscles acting upon the back of the skull,
the transverse occipital ridge of which is, accordingly, more or less pro-
minent. To the top of each of these processes the ligamentum nuchae at-
taches itself, as it passes along the spine. It is to the dorsal vertebrae
that the ribs are articulated : each rib has its head fitted into a depression
formed by the bodies of two vertebrae, so that every dorsal vertebra
(except the last) has on each side two ribs, partially united to its body ;
while each rib is farther united, by a tubercle, at the point where it
forms an acute arch, to the transverse process of the lower vertebra, or

Figs. 53 to 57.- Dorsal vertebrae, in different aspects.

Fi£. 53, Anterior. 54, Posterior 55, Superior. 56, Inferior. 67, Lateral.— a, body; b, spinous process; c, c, oblique
processes ; d, <Z, transverse processes. (The same letters refer to the same part in all the above figTires.)

that which is the lowermost of the two, to which its head is affixed. As
exceptions to this mode of union, it may be observed, that the last ribs
are, in many instances, affixed to single vertebrae, and to the bodies of
them alone. In the Cetacea, the ribs, at least the anterior ribs, are at-

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 61

tached by their head to the body of one vertebra, and b.y their tubercle
to the transverse process of the succeeding vertebra, while the posterior
ribs are attached, exclusively, to the extremity of the transverse pro-
cesses. In the Monotremata the ribs are solely attached to the bodies
of the vertebrae. The mobility of the ribs is much influenced by the
modifications of their union with the vertebrae, their freedom being in
proportion to the simplicity of the attachment.

The ribs may thus be considered as part of the spinal column ; not,
indeed, as essentials, but as accessories. They vary in number, in form,
in length, and in volume, in different Mammalia : in all, however, they
describe an arch, and terminate in a cartilaginous, or, sometimes, osseous
continuation, by which the anterior (the number being subject to variation)
are attached to the sternum, a long, flat, narrow bone, often permanently
divided into several parts, and forming the front of the chest. Those
ribs which do not join the sternum, their cartilaginous terminations falling
short, and ending in the muscular parieties, or sides of the chest, are
termed false, in contradistinction to the others, which are termed true.

The following is a table, which the student may find of some use,
and which he may enlarge, according to his own observations.

A TABLE OF THE NUMBER OF THE RIBS OF

MAMMALIA.

Total on

True.

False, each side.

Man . . . . .

on each side 7 .

. 5 . . 12

Orang-outan ....

f -. - . . 7 .

. 5 . . 12

Chimpanzee

7 .

. 6 . . 13

Black Ape (Macacus niger)

~. .. ".. . 8 .

. 4 . . 12

Kalong (Pteropus) . .

. . . 7 .

. 6 . . 13

Bat . . . . . .

... 7 .

. 5 . . 12

Mole .....

8 .

. 5 . . 13

Hedgehog ....

7 .

. 8 . . 15

Bear

9 .

. 5 . . 14

Seal

10 .

. 5 . . 15

Glutton ....

9 .

. 5 . . 14

9 .

. 5 . . 14

Otter

9 .

. 5 . . 14

9 .

. 4 . . 13

Cat

9 .

. 4 . . 13

Wolf

9 .

. 4 . . 13

Cross Fox ....

9 .

. 4 . . 13

7 .

. 6 . . 13

Hare

7 .

. 5 . . 12

Guinea Pig ....

Armadillo . . • .

6 . . 7 . . 13

varies in different species 11-12

Elephant ....

7 .

. 13 . . 20

Wild Hog ....

7 .

. 7 . . 14

Rhinoceros ....

7 .

. 12 . . 19

8 .

. 10 . . 18

Dromedary ....

7 .

. 5 . . 12

Giraffe . . •- '"•

8 .

. 6 . . 14

Ox

8 .

. 5 . . 13

INTRODUCTION.

Stag

True,
on each side 8 .
6 .

False.
. 5
. 7

Total on
each side.
. 13
. 13

6 .

. 7

. 13

6 .

. 11

. 17

Echidna

6 .

. 9

. 15

And here it may be observed, that the human thorax, or chest, is of
much greater breadth than depth, while that of quadrupeds is laterally
compressed ; hence, their fore limbs more closely approximate, and, con-
sequently, afford a much more efficient support to the anterior part of the
trunk than they would, if as widely separated as in Man : on the other
hand, the great transverse dimension of the human thorax necessarily
demands a corresponding distance between the shoulders, by which the
arms enjoy greater freedom of motion than in quadrupedal Mammalia ;
while, at the same time, the anterior preponderance of the trunk is
diminished, so as to harmonize with the structure of other parts of the
frame, by which Man is adapted for a vertical attitude. In this posi-
tion the weight of the abdominal viscera falls chiefly upon the pelvis ;
but, in quadrupedal Mammalia, the case is very different ; and, there-
fore, in order to sustain the viscera, the body being in a horizontal
position, the sternum, compared with that of Man, is much elongated, and
the ribs are, for the same purpose, not only often more numerous than in
the human skeleton, but more nearly approach the pelvis ; so that, toge-
ther, they contribute to the support of the abdominal viscera, and this,
more particularly in the Ruminantia and Pachydermata, as is well exem-
plified in the skeleton of the Elephant (fig. 58).

The third division of the vertebral column begins with the vertebra
succeeding the one to which the last false rib is articulated, and ends at

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA,

63

the sacrum, or sacral portion of the column. The vertebrae, included in
this division, are termed lumbar ; and they may be at once distinguished,
especially in the human subject, by their superior size, and the great
development of the transverse processes (see human skeletons, figs. 12,
13, 14), indicating the volume of the lumbar muscles. In the Horse, the
Ox, the Antelope, and especially in the Porpoise, Whale, and other
Cetacea, the development of the transverse processes is both conspicuous
and characteristic.

With respect to the spinous processes of the lumbar vertebrae, they
are less elongated than those of the dorsal, and especially of the anterior
dorsal vertebrae ; and, in general, their direction is opposite. The spi-
nous processes of the dorsal vertebrae point obliquely backward, those
of the lumbar vertebrae obliquely forward ; at least, as a general rule :
whence it would seem to follow, that, at the point of junction between
the dorsal and the lumbar portions of the vertebral column, the spinous
processes of each part must meet in abrupt opposition. This is not
precisely the case ; for, if it were, the centre of motion in the spinal
column would necessarily lie between two vertebrae, and the flexure
would be acute. There is, however, a transition from the posterior-
oblique bearing of the spinous processes of the dorsal to the anterior-

rigs. 59 to 63. Lumbar vertebrae, in different aspects.

Fig. 59, Anterior. 60, Posterior. 61, Superior. 62, Inferior. 63, Lateral.— a, body; ft, spinous process; c, c, oblique
processes ; rf, d, transverse processes ; e, spinal canal. (The same letters refer to the same part in all the above tigures.)

oblique bearing of those of the lumbar vertebrae ; the processes of the
lower dorsal and those of the superior (or anterior) lumbar vertebrae

'64 INTRODUCTION.

gradually assuming a horizontal direction in Man, or a vertical direction in
quadrupedal Mammalia ; so that, instead of being confined to one point,
the centre of motion is diffused over the space of the three or four last
dorsal, and two or three first lumbar vertebrae, an abruptly acute curve
being thus avoided.

Professor Owen observes, that " the relation which the structure of
the vertebral column bears to the mode of progression of a quadruped
is extremely interesting, and enables us to judge, in some degree, from
the spine alone, of the locomotive faculties of a fossil species." If we
attend to the progressive motion of any heavy animal, as the Ox, we shall
find the flexibility of the vertebral column (at least of its dorsal and
lumbar portions) to be very restricted, and its centre of motion indefi-
nite : it seems destitute of that suppleness which we see so marked in
the Weasel, or the Cat. Now, if the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae be
examined, they will be found short, and with only a thin layer of
elastic cartilage intervening between their bodies ; while their large,
strong, spinous processes have no point between them, to which they
definitely converge. In animals endowed with great flexibility of body,
as the Cat, the Leopard, &c., this converging point is clearly marked,
and the oblique bearing, in a direction opposing that of the dorsal and lum-
bar vertebrae, is very decided : added to which, the bodies of the ver-
tebrae are, comparatively, longer, and the layer of cartilage, interposing
between each, is, relatively, of greater thickness than in the Ox.
Some animals have no centre of motion in the back, as the Arma-
dillo, the Chlamyphorus, &c. ; and in these the spinous processes are all
equally directed backward. The progressive motion of such animals is
automaton-like : their legs seem to go by means of machinery, the
action of which affects no other part of the body. No inflexions of the
spine accompany the movements of the limbs : the two extremities of
the vertebral column are not alternately raised and lowered as in the
bounding Leopard ; but the back preserves its uniform level, however
rapid may be the motion of the limbs. It is from this circumstance that
the rapid movements of the Armadilloes, in the gardens of the Zoological
Society of London, have never failed to excite surprise.

The next part of the spine, for examination, is the sacrum.

The narrowness of the sacrum, and the deficiency, in expansion and
volume, of the iliac bones, and of the pelvis altogether, in the two most
anthropomorphous of the Simiae, compared with similar parts in the human
subject, are worthy of especial notice. (See figs. 64, 65, 66, 67.)

The os sacrum (a), or that solid portion of the vertebral column which
is regarded as its fourth division, is, in the human species, somewhat
triangular in shape ; concave on its inner aspect, and convex at its back :
it originally consisted of five distinct vertebrae : at an early period, how-

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

65

ever, these portions become ossified, or consolidated, into one mass, but
which permanently retains the marks of its previous separation. In
man it is broad at its upper part, and becomes narrower as it proceeds ;
but in the lower Mammalia it is much narrower above, and does not
assume a form so decidedly triangular. The os sacrum unites with the
iliac, or haunch bones, to form the pelvis (or basin-like cavity, to the sides
of which, externally, the thigh-bones are articulated), and is continued by
the additional vertebrae, called the coccygal, or caudal, which have been
previously alluded to. In quadrupedal Mammalia the os sacrum, no
longer required to enter into part of a widely expanded pelvis, loses that
breadth and solidity, by which it is so characterized in the human subject.
Even in the Chimpanzee and Orang its lateral diameter is very much
diminished (figs. 66 and 67) in comparison with that of the human
subject (figs. 64 and 65) ; but, among the lower Mammalia, it appears
merely as two or three of the last lumbar vertebrae consolidated together,
and continued (especially in animals furnished with a tail organized for
any particular purpose, as the Beaver or Kangaroo,) by the caudal
vertebrae, amply developed for some distance.

65

Figs. 64, 65. Anterior and posterior view of the human pelvis. 66. Anterior view of the pelvis of the Chimpanwe.
67. Anterior view of the pelvis of the Orang.-o, os sacrum; *, the coccygal extremity, composed of caudal or coccygal
vertebra, varying in number in different Mammalia ; c , c, iliac bones ; d, pubic bones ; e, e, ischiatic bones ; /, /, acetabu-
lum, or socket, for the reception of the head of the thigh bone. (The same letters refer to the same part in all the above
figures.)

In the human subject the coccyx consists of four caudal or coccygal
vertebrae, which, however, often unite into one undivided portion. In most
Mammalia, their number is far greater : they consist, with the exception
of the first few, of long bones, dilated at each extremity by the rudiments

66 INTRODUCTION.

of the transverse processes, and united, end to end, like the joints of
the fingers, decreasing as they proceed ; but without any canal for the
prolongation of the spinal chord. In some, however, they assume a more
important character, and constitute the framework of an organ intimately
connected with the peculiar economy of the species. In the Sapajou
Monkeys of South America, for example, which have the tail adapted
for grasping, and by which they are assisted in their progress among
the branches, there is, at the base of each of the caudal vertebrae, on its
under surface, two processes, between which the tendons of vigorous
muscles of flexion are continued.

The Beaver is another example in point. Using its broad scaly tail
as a paddle and rudder, the action being an up-and-down stroke, as in
the Porpoise and Whale, the transverse processes, accordingly, are not
only not obliterated, but remarkably broad and large, indicative of
the development of the muscles by which the tail is influenced. The
Porcupine also may be adduced. In this animal the transverse processes
of each caudal vertebra are less remarkable than the spinous : the tail
is covered with a forest of quills, which are capable of being strongly
agitated; and hence the development of the spinous processes, for the
attachment of the necessary muscles.

1 With regard to the lumbar, sacral, and caudal portions of the verte-
bral column of the Cetacea, no rigid or definite line of demarcation sepa-
rates the one part from the other : in fact, no distinction exists among
them. The Cetacea have not a true pelvis ;* and, consequently, no hind
limbs : their body tapers off like that of a fish, and ends in a horizontal
fish-like tail. It may, however, be remarked, that the large transverse
processes, which so strikingly characterize the primary lumbar vertebrae,
gradually diminish, as the vertebrae approach the tail ; and, in the several
ultimate vertebrae, they disappear entirely.

The following table of the number of the vertebrae in Mammalia is
taken, partly from data collected by Cuvier (see his work on Comparative
Anatomy), but chiefly from facts, which have fallen under the Author's
personal observation.

Species. Dorsal. Lumbar. Sacral. Caudal.

Man 12 ... 5 ... 5 ... 4

Orang-outan . . . 12 ... 4 ... 5 ... 3

Chimpanzee . . . 13 ... 4

Hoolock Gibbon . . 13 ... 5 ... 4 ... 3

Capuchin Monkey . . 12 ... 7 ... 3 ... 21

Patas . . . . 12 . . . 7 . . . 3 . . . ?

Proboscis Monkey . . 12 ... 7 ... 3 ... 23

Bonnet Monkey . . 12 ... 7 ... 3 ... 20

* The rudiments of the pelvic bones may be detected in the Cetacea, but nothing more.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

67

Species.

Dorsal.

Lumbar.

Sacral.

Caudal.

Mandrill Baboon

12 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 13

Chameck Spider Monkey

14 .

. . 4 . .

. 3 .

. . 32

Black-fronted Lemur

12 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 20

Vespertilio murinus

11 .

. . 5 . .

. 4 .

. . 12

Vespertilio noctula

12 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 6

Rhinolophus Ferrum equinum

12 .

. . 6 . .

. 3 .

. . 12

Galeopithecus Temminckii .

13 .

. . 6 . .

. 5 .

. . 16

Hedgehog ; . . ; , •

15 .

. . 7 . .

. 4 .

. . 12

Tenrec ....

18 .

. . 6 . .

. 3 .

. . 14

Shrew . . . « . •

12 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 17

Mole . . . . .

13 .

. . 6 . .

. 7 .

. . 11

Polar Bear

13 .

. . 6 . .

. 7 .

. . 11

Brown Bear .

14 .

. . 6 . .

. 5 .

. . ?

Badger ....

15 .

. . 5 . .

. 3 .

. . 16

Glutton ....

16 .

. . 5 . .

. 3 .

. . 18

Suricate ....

14 .

. . 6 . .

. 3 .

. . 12

Kinkajou ....

14 .

. . 6 . .

. 2 .

. . 28

Racoon ....

14 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 20

Enhydra ....

14 .

. . 6 . .

. 2 .

. . 19

Marten ....

14 .

. . 6 . .

. 3 .

. . 18

Weasel ....

14 .

. . 6 . .

. 3 .

. . 14

Civet ....

13 .

. . 6 . .

. 3 .

. . 20

Lion .....

13 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 25

Tiger ....

13 .

. . 7 . .

. 4 .

. . 19

Chetah ....

13 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 21

Couguar ....

13 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 22

Cat

13 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 22

Fennec ....

13 .

. . 7 . .

. 2 .

. . 20 imperfect.

Wolf

13 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 19

Fox ....

13 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 20

Hyaena ....

16 .

. . 4 . .

. 2 .

. . '!

Mauges Dasyurus

13 .

. . 6 . .

. 2 .

. . 16

Kangaroo (M. Bennettii)

13 .

. . 6 . .

. 2 .

. . 24

Wombat ....

15 .

. . 4 . .

. 5 .

. . 11

Ornithorhynchus

17 .

. . 2 . .

OAC sacral and
• '20icaudal.

Echidna ....

15 .

. . 4 . .

. . 15 ditto.

Lagotis (Cuvieri)

12 .

. . 7 . .

. 2 .

. . 26

Porcupine ....

14 .

. . 5 . .

. 4 .

. . 8

Hare ....

12 .

. . 7 . .

. 4 .

. . 20

Rabbit

12 .

. . 7 . .

. 2 .

. . 20

Caelogenus.

14 .

. . 5 . .

. 3 .

. . 10

Agouti ....

12 .

. . 8 . .

. 4 .

. . 7

Acouchi ....

13 .

. . 7 . .

. 4 .

. . 16

Beaver ....

14 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 23

Flying Squirrel (Pteromys n

i-7 j2

. . 8 . .

. 3 .

. . 27

tidus ....

3

Marmot ....

13 .

. . 7 . .

. 6 .

. . 22

Field Mouse, Arv. agrestis .

13 .

. . 6 . .

. 1 .

. . 19

Arvicola riparia

13 .

. . 6 . .

. 1 .

. . 23

Capromys (Fournieri) .

16 .

. . 7 . .

. 5 .

. . 20

Black Rat .

13 .

. . 6 . .

. 4 .

. . 32

Water Rat

13 .

. . 7 . .

. 3 .

. . 23

Mouse ....

12 .

. . 7 . .

. 4 .

. . 24

Chinchilla

13 .

. . 6 . .

. 3 .

. . 22

68

INTRODUCTION.

Species.
Ant-eater
Pangolin .

Weasel-headed Armadillo

Chlamyphorus

Elephant

Wild Hog .

Tapir .

Collared Peccary .

Rhinoceros

Hippopotamus

Duyong .

Camel . ",«.«. .'-•

Dromedary . . . ,;"•

Stag . .'..-..

Giraffe

Gazelle * .

Sheep . .

Ox . . . .

Horse . . . u

Quagga . . .r.

Seal, Phoca vitulina .

Dolphin . . .

Porpoise . . . %

Dorsal.

Lumbar.

Sacral.

Caudal.

15 ...

3

. . . 5 . .

. 30

15 ...

5

. . . 3 . .

. 28

11 ...

3

Coneconsoli-7
Idated body.)

15

11 ...

3

. . ditto .

. 11 imperfect.

26 ...

3

. . . 4 . .

. 24

14 ...

5

. . . 4 . .

. 20

20 ...

4

. . . 3 . .

. 12

14 ...

5

. . . 4 . .

. 6

19 ...

3

. . . 4 . .

. 22

15 ...

4

. . . 7 . .

. 14

18 ...

oo f lumbar, si

12 . . .

7

. . . 4 . .

. 17

12 ...

7

. . . 4 . .

. 18

13 ...

6

. . . 3 . .

. 11

14 ...

5

. . . 4 . .

. 18

13 ...

5

. . . 5 . .

. 11

13 ...

6

. . . 4 . .

. 15

13 ...

6

. . . 4 . .

. 16

18 . . .

6

. . . 2 . .

. 17

18 ...

6

. . . 7 . .

. 18

15 . . .

5

. . . 2 . .

. 12

13)
13>

Total number sixty-six.

Thus far the more essential parts of the skeleton have been consi-
dered in a general point of view : those parts which every mammiferous
animal must possess, and which, modified as they may be in the several
groups of which this class consists, still retain so striking a resemblance
to each other, as to leave us in no doubt with respect to the unity of the
plan upon which they were modelled and arranged. Those less essential
parts of the skeleton, the extremities, or limbs, now demand attention ;
and though here the same unity of design prevails, yet so great a dis-
similarity, as regards their particular conformation, exists among Mam-
malia, from Man downward — to so great a degree of modification are
they subject, so different are the uses to which nature appropriates theni,
that, at first, their structural relationship is not very cognizable. Upon
examination, however, it is found that this relationship does exist, though
it is not equally palpable in every instance. The modifications of parts,
moreover, do not proceed in a regularly progressive order, as we advance
along the chain of being : the alterations are, as it would appear, fluc-
tuating, and depend upon the purposes for which the organs are especially
designed, — whether as graspers, wings, scrapers, simple columnar sup-
ports, instruments of destruction, or paddles. Multiform, therefore,
are the changes which exist, and great is the range of variation, among the
organs of locomotion, in the Mammalia, from Man, through the ter-
restrial and aquatic quadrupeds, to the ocean-born Cetacea, in which

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 69

the fore limbs are changed into oars, and every trace of hind limbs
has disappeared. To follow out, thoroughly, this part of the subject,
while yet limiting the observations on it to the class under review,
would occupy more space than the plan of this work will admit. It is,
however, so interesting, and so important a topic, that it would be un-
pardonable not to present something like a general outline of its principal
features.

In all Mammalia, excepting the Cetacea, there are four limbs ; — in
pairs, two anterior and two posterior ; — and in all, Man excepted, these
limbs are organs of locomotion ; not, perhaps, of locomotion exclusively,
for, in many, the anterior pair, and, in some, both pairs, are constructed for
grasping and retaining ; and in others, again, the fore limbs are employed
as weapons, with which to strike : but these are not the sole purposes to
which the organs in question are destined ; on the contrary, though the
Monkey may seize with his hand, or grasp with his foot, though the
Squirrel may hold the fruit on which it is feeding, or the Lion dash the
Antelope to the ground with the stroke of his paw, still, in these cases,
and in every other, all the limbs are, in the strictest sense, organs of
locomotion. Not so in Man. Of the four limbs with which he is
endowed, the posterior, or lower pair, alone, are agents of progression ;
the anterior, or upper pair, being free ; and this freedom is connected
with Man's attitude, his upright bearing, his exalted intellect, and his
rank in creation. Thus, while the four limbs of brutes are simple organs
of locomotion, or, at most, are endowed with the mere power of grasping
or seizing — a power only occasionally exerted — while they are all
required to take a servile part in transporting the body from one
location to another, the arms of Man are free : their form, their pro-
portions, their parts, their situation, all accord with this exemption
from bondage.

When the arm of Man is alluded to, in a general sense, every part,
into which the anterior extremity is divided, is included in that term ;
the whole, indeed, constitutes the organ, and no portion is independent
of another. It is usual, however, and convenient, to divide it into the
shoulder, the true arm, and the hand by which it is terminated : of
these parts the hand is the first which demands consideration, for,
because the hand is what it is, the remainder of the extremity is
modelled as we find it ; the arm is adapted to the hand, — the hand is
essential to Man. Without the hand, the arm would be useless ; and
without the arm, the uses of the hand would be very circumscribed.
To the arm and the hand, then, as the type of the anterior extremity in
the lower Mammalia, — as exhibiting the most complete degree of
development in all their parts, and that for duties and services of the
most important nature to the most important of all animals, considerable

70 INTRODUCTION.

attention is due. The human hand, in every age, has excited the atten-
tion of the reflecting and the wise, and has been often and forcibly
referred to, as direct proof of consummate art, and design, in the
creation of our frame. Let us contemplate, for a moment, the uses to
which it is applied, and the extent of its power, as a means of acquiring
knowledge, in order that its vast importance may be properly estimated.
In the first place, then, it is the grand organ of touch, or tact ; the in-
strument, by means of which we gain an acquaintance with more of the
physical properties of matter than through any other organ of sense.
Without it, the eye would never, perhaps, duly learn to appreciate,
correctly, many of the external properties of matter, the forms, the
relative size, the distance, or the position of bodies ; and it is the touch
which aids, regulates, and corrects the conclusions deduced from the
ideas gained through the medium of sight. It is a coadjutor to the eye,
though the eye, in its turn, aids the hand : for example, touch will not
inform us of the colour of any object — colour is an impression upon the
organ of vision alone ; but touch gives us its hardness or softness, its
lightness or weight, its warmth and texture, its smoothness or rough-
ness ; thus, one organ aiding the other, we gain a knowledge which
neither, alone, would communicate ; and the one, taught, as it were,
by the other, will, independently, communicate a degree of information
respecting qualities, which the other can alone appreciate. Such is
the association of ideas, that the sight of a feather brings to mind its
softness, its lightness, its warmth, and elasticity, though the sight only
recognises colour and form ; but experience has taught, that, with such
a form and colour, these properties, cognizable by touch alone, are
always conjoined.

The faculty which we commonly denominate the sense of touch, and
which, though generally diffused over the whole surface of the body, is
refined to a keener perceptibility, a more exquisite delicacy, in the
hand, depends upon the mesh of nerves, with which this organ is
abundantly supplied : it is upon the pulpy tips of the fingers that this
tissue of nervous papillae especially prevails, and that the highest degree
of tact resides. Hence it is by the application of the tips to bodies,
that the most distinct impressions are received. The discriminating
sensibility which resides in the human hand, and in that alone — con-
stituting an important sense which ministers to the mind, — being a
faculty not needed, at least in high perfection, by the lower orders in
the scale, is wisely denied where its possession would be out of harmony.
In fact, the brute can hardly be said to possess it at all ; for even those
tribes, the Simiae, for example, which, as far as external configuration
goes, approach the nearest to Man, resort but little to its aid ; they
evidently do not possess it as Man does ; and, if they did, it would be

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 71

of little use. Knowledge is not their sphere ; their wants, desires, and
pleasures are corporeal, not intellectual.

It need scarcely be observed that, under the term, hand, is included
the part from the joint of the wrist to the point of the fingers, Its general
outline, the fingers being closed, approaches an oval : at the back part
it is inclined to be convex ; on the inner aspect, or palm, concave : it
is divided into a solid basal, and a digital, portion, comprehending the
fingers.

The solid part of the human hand consists of the carpus, or wrist,
and an anterior portion termed the metacarpus. The metacarpus is
that upon which the fingers are immediately based. The convexity of
the external aspect of this solid portion, and its palmar concavity, have
been mentioned above ; this concavity, which certainly results, in the
first instance, from the arrangement of the bones, is rendered more
apparent, in consequence of the adductor muscles of the thumb and first
finger forming an elevation on one side, and the flexor muscles of the
little finger an elevation on the other, so as to bound a central depression.
The moveable part of the hand consists of the thumb and fingers : and it
will be well, before proceeding farther, to attend to their mutual rela-
tionship, and to their modes of action.

It may be observed, then, that each finger, divided into three joints,
is capable only of being inflected towards or upon the palm, and of being
returned to its horizontal position. Such, however, is the muscular arrange-
ment, that no single finger can be fairly doubled down, though it admits
of partial inflexion ; as may be easily discovered, by trying to bring
each finger, separately, to a bent position against the palm, in the same
manner as when all are fairly doubled down. The stress of the fingers
is directly toward or against the palm ; not so that of the thumb, which
cannot be brought to press firmly against the palm, to which it merely
applies itself laterally. The position and the direction of motion allotted
to the thumb, render it antagonist to the fingers. To the tips of each
of these, either successively or all together, it can oppose its tip ; and,
when the fingers are doubled upon the palm, or folded around any
object, it presses obliquely upon them with great power, thereby ma-
terially adding to the firmness of the grasp. Man has, by far, the most
perfect thumb ; that of the Ape being so short as to oppose, with dif-
ficulty, the tips of the fingers : in some of the Simise, as will be seen
hereafter, this member is even wanting, or in a rudimentary condition ;
and in none of them is it fairly opposable to the fingers.

It has been often asked, why the fingers are of unequal length ? a
question involving much in the answer. Ease and facility, in the ever-
varying and multitudinous performances which the fingers are called upon
to execute, are of the first consideration ; and to this point has Nature

72 INTRODUCTION.

attended, not only in their arrangement, but in the inequality of their
length ; the advantage of which is forcibly perceived in all our nicer and
more delicate manipulations. In numberless instances the graduated
length of the fingers is of the utmost service ; for, without such an ine-
quality, they would continually interfere with each other, and their action
would be clumsy and constrained. When, however, the fingers are folded
upon the palm, the tips are brought to a level ; as, also, in grasping a ball ;
not so when we grasp other bodies in the common way : yet, in holding
the fencing foil, we, in some degree, make them correspond ; but it is in
an oblique direction, resulting from the peculiar manner in which the
hilt is held ; the first finger being less closed than the second, the second
than the third, and so on. In this oblique manner, which combines
firmness with ease, we often hold various objects, as the table-knife, the
poker, &c. The fingers in the annexed sketch (fig. 68), which is a back
view of the osseous framework of the hand, are thus bent. Fig. 69
exhibits a palmar view of the hand.

Two views of the human hand.

Fig. 68. Posterior view. 69 Palmar view.-<j,a, carpus; b, ft, the metacarpus; c, c, the phalanges of the finger*.
(The same letters and figures refer to the same part in both the above illustrations.)

The bones of the carpus, or wrist, are small, very irregular, and
angular in their figure, wedged together, and bound in their respective
places by ligaments.

Anatomists commonly divide the carpal bones of the human hand

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 73

into two rows, — a basal and an anterior, — each containing four. All
the bones of the basal row, excepting one (the little os pisiforme), are
connected with the fore-arm, at the moveable articulation of the wrist.
The basal row consists of — the os scaphoides (1) ; the os lunare (2) ;
the os cuneiforme (3) ; the os pisiforme (4). The anterior row con-
tains— the trapezium (5) ; the os trapezoides (6) ; the os magnum (7) ;
the os unciforme (8).

The os scaphoides, or scaphoid bone, so called from its fancied resem-
blance to a hollow oblong vessel, or boat (Sxa^, vas oblongum, or 2/ca^oy,
fossa), is united to the radius of the fore-arm on one part, and to several
of the carpal bones on the other ; and, among them, to the os lunare, so
termed from the crescent shape of that side which is in contact with the
scaphoid bone : it is, also, articulated to the radius. The os cuneiforme,
or wedge-shaped bone, is in apposition with the extremity of the other
bone of the fore-arm, termed the ulna ; and has, on its internal surface,
the fourth bone of the basal row, viz., the os pisiforme. This little bone
derives its name from its resemblance, in figure, to a pea. The tendon of
that muscle of the wrist, called flexor carpi ulnaris, is inserted into it, and
it gives rise to a muscle for drawing down the little finger, termed ab-
ductor minimi digiti. Of the anterior row, the first in order is the os tra-
pezium, having four unequal sides at its back part, whence it has obtained
its name. It rests upon the scaphoid bone, and, in a pulley-like depression,
receives the head of the first or metacarpal bone of the thumb. To the
trapezium succeeds the os trapezoides, so called from the irregularly
quadrangular figure of its back part : it sustains the first metacarpal bone,
viz., that of the first finger. The next is the os magnum, or large bone of
the wrist : it sustains the second metacarpal bone, and rests on the
scaphoid and lunar bones. The last is the os unciforme, or hooked bone,
which obtains its name from a thin, broad, excavated projection, standing
toward the palm, and affording, in its sulcus, both a channel, or passage,
and a protection to the tendons of certain muscles of the fore-arm, which
draw down the fingers : it rests upon the os lunare and os cuneiforme,
and supports the two last metacarpal bones, viz., those of the third and
little fingers. The metacarpal bones are based upon the carpus, on which
they have an obscure and limited motion. Their number, of course, cor-
responds with those of the four fingers and the thumb : they are, in shape,
long and round, enlarging into heads at each extremity, where they are
in contact with each other, a space intervening between the bodies : in
these spaces are lodged certain small muscles, termed interossei, passing
along, from the carpus to the fingers.

The orderly disposition of the bones of the fingers, each into three
rows, has suggested their appellation of phalanges, or phalangal bones,
in allusion to the martial phalanx of the Greeks. The first phalangal

74 INTRODUCTION.

bone of each finger is united to its corresponding metacarpal, by a
simple articulation, which only admits of the hinge-like motion of
flexion and return. To this first row succeeds a second, consisting of
smaller bones, but of a like character and mode of articulation. Next
follows the third row, consisting of still smaller bones, similarly arti-
culated, but less independent, and more limited in the degree of motion
allotted to them.

Little or no difference characterizes the bones of each finger, separately
viewed, excepting that of relative magnitude. Those of the middle finger,
as it is termed, being the longest and largest ; those of the fore finger,
next in thickness, but not in length, the bones of the third finger being
rather longer : the little finger has the shortest and most slender bones.

The thumb is situated obliquely, with respect to the fingers ; i. e.
neither directly opposite to, nor on the same plane with them, but is
capable of being brought to antagonize with all or each separately. This
counteracting agency, which the thumb maintains against the fingers,
requires that its bones should be thick and strong, in proportion to their
length : they are two in number, excluding the metacarpal bone, which
is articulated with the trapezium of the carpus, the union being such as
to allow of a more free (but still limited) action than is possessed by
the metacarpal bone of ,any of the fingers ; a degree of motion need-
ful, inasmuch as, without it, the thumb could not act the part of an
antagonist to the fingers with requisite facility. The first true phalangal
bone of the thumb is stout and short, with a large base hollowed into an
oblong cavity, in order to its resting securely upon its metacarpal bone ;
the joint, thus formed, is especially strong and well knit ; but more con-
fined, and less expeditious, than hinge-like joints in general. The ulti-
mate bone of the thumb proceeds, also, from a basal portion, of great
extent, hollowed into two concavities, for the reception of two pulley-like
projections of the bone, to which it is articulated. The hinge of this joint,
thus contrived, is very secure, while it possesses tolerable freedom.

This elaborate mechanism is provided with a system of muscles fully
adequate to its active employment, in the various simple and combined
movements of which it is organically susceptible. The hand, therefore,
while possessing sufficient solidity for the performance of such of its
offices as require considerable strength and powers of resistance, is
enabled, by its wonderful mobility, to execute an endless multitude of the
most precise and delicate operations ; to modify its shape according to the
differences of form in external objects, and to move upon and feel them,
at a number of different points, with degrees of pressure infinitely variable.

As an organ of touch, the perfection of the human hand is owing, in a
great measure, to its admirable structure as an instrument of prehension.
Other parts of the surface of the body are capable of receiving impres-

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 75

sions of temperature, or mere contact ; but the hand, alone, is qualified for
ascertaining, strictly, the size, figure, consistency, and general character
of objects, by the test of touch. Its palmar surface is exquisitely sensitive
in every part, and particularly so at the tips of the fingers, where the
nervous papillae are not only much developed and exposed, but, according
to some authors, positively erectile, if excited. The pulpy parts, beneath,
form adipose cushions, supported by the nails, which, from their powers
of resistance, manifestly tend to improve the mechanism of the organ, by
rendering the tips of the fingers capable of being closely pressed upon
external objects.

The nails are horny plates, which arise out of the true skin, and grow
from a pulpy root : they are closely attached to the soft parts, and cannot
be separated without intense pain. Besides serving as a support and de-
fence to the tips of the fingers, they act, also, as a barrier, between the
nerves of the part beneath, and external bodies, so as to intercept the com-
munication of definite impressions to those nerves, in order that the nervous
energy may be the more fully concentrated on the part appropriated to
touch, and that the impressions there received may be vivid and unmixed.
Man uses the nails neither as weapons of offence, nor as scrapers for turning
up the earth, nor as hooks with which to climb or cling. In most of the
lower animals, however, these parts are of great importance in the economy
of their habits and modes of life, and are accordingly modified through a
variety of gradations. In the Lion, or Tiger, the claws are fashioned
into cutting-hooks (fig. 70), sheathing the last joint of the toes, and

capable of being protruded or retracted at pleasure. In the Armadillo
and Mole they assume a scraper-like form, and are hard and firm
(fig. 71, nail of the Mole). In the Horse they form a hoof, or sheath, to
the extremity of the limbs (fig. 72) : yet, in every instance, they are only
modifications of the same organ, — the thin, rounded, delicate nail, which
forms so elegant and appropriate a finish to the finger of the human hand.
As is the hand so must be the arm : that is, the structure and capa-
bilities of this organ will influence the mechanism of every part connected
with it ; and where it enjoys the highest sensibility and freedom, and is
the depository of a sense ministering to the mind, there must the arm be
so fashioned as to enable it to fulfil every purpose for which it was
intended.

76

INTRODUCTION.

The hand is united to the fore-arm, consisting of two bones, — the
one called the radius, the other the ulna (figs. 73, 74, 75).

73

Figs. 73, 74, 75. Three views of the human fore-arm and hand.— a, The lower part of the humerus, entering1 into the
elbow-joint; b, the ulna, of which the protuberance, c, at its upper end, advancing upon the humerus, as distinctly shewn
in figs. 73 and J5, is termed the olecranon ; d,the radius. (The same letters refer to the same part in all the above figures.)

The hand is more immediately, though not exclusively, connected
with the carpal extremity of the radius ; and this articulation, thus formed,
is free and flexible : the movements, however, which this articulation
allows to the hand, are merely up and down, and, to a certain degree,
from side to side. But the hand is capable of pronation and supination
(that is, of being turned round, so as to present, alternately, the back
part, and the palm, uppermost). On examining the radius, it will be

discovered that to this bone is the power in
question to be attributed. Its humeral ex-
tremity, or that part which enters into the
elbow-joint, is dilated into a well-defined
circular head, a (fig. 76), flattened, or rather concave, at the end, for the
reception of a tubercle of the humerus ; and upon this tubercle the
radius rotates on its own axis, while, at the same time, it is duly secured
to the ulna, b (figs. 73, 74, and 75), by ligaments. The ulna (the ole-
cranon process of which, c, figs. 73 and 75, forms the point of the elbow
on which we lean) is very strongly united to the humerus, a deep semi-
circular depression receiving the head of that bone, and the articulation
being strictly hinge-like. When, therefore, we bend the elbow-joint, the
radius and ulna move together ; but, when we revolve the hand upon
itself, the radius rotates ; its rotation, at the humeral end, being simply
round its axis : while, at the carpal end, it moves in a sort of cycloid, with
respect to the carpal end of the ulna. The hand, and, indeed, the whole
of the arm, derive a rotatory power, also, from the nature of the shoulder-
joint, which allows the head of the humerus to play freely in the glenoid

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

77

cavity of the scapula ; as will be best understood by referring to the an-
nexed figure (77).

The bones which enter into the formation of the shoulder, consist of
the humerus, or single bone of the arm, the scapula, and the clavicle.
The humerus, at its lower extremity, is articulated with the radius and
ulna, the mechanism of the elbow-joint resulting from their peculiar union.
The upper extremity of this long cylindrical bone is moulded into a round
head, standing obliquely backward: this head is received into a very
shallow cavity (called the glenoid cavity) in the anterior angle of the
scapula, a (fig. 77) ; and is retained in its situ-
ation by ligaments, which allow to the arti-
culation the greatest liberty.

Of all the joints in the human frame, that
of the shoulder is by far the most free ; and
this freedom is necessary, in order that Man
may use his hands without any impediment.
He can rotate the arm from the shoulder,
describing a large circle with the hand : he
can, in like manner, raise the arm or depress
it, thrust it forward or draw it backward, at
will ; but this extent of motion, which handed
animals alone enjoy, depends not only upon
the nature of the connexion of the humerus
with the scapula, but upon the character of
the scapula, and the mode of its union with the
body. The point or tip of the human shoulder
is produced by the extremity of a large process
of the scapula, termed the acromion, d (fig. 77), overhanging the joint.
From this process, d, to the top of the sternum, f, proceeds a long bone,
shaped something like the italic letter /, termed the collar-bone, or clavi-
cle (clavicula), c. Its presence is of great importance: it keeps the
shoulders at a proper distance, and apart from the sides of the chest, pre-
venting the muscular stress, which is perpetually exercised upon the arm,
as a lever, from drawing it inward. It may be taken as a rule, that all
animals which freely use the hand either for holding, digging, climbing,
or flying, and, consequently, have the fore-arm in a greater or less degree
capable of revolving, possess the clavicle more or less developed. In many
animals it is much stronger than in Man, as, for example, in the Echidna,
the Mole, the Chlamyphorus, the Armadillo, &c. In these creatures,
whose anterior limbs are expressly formed for digging, and are, besides,
endowed with extraordinary power, the clavicle is thick and rugged,
with bold processes, for the better attachment of voluminous muscles, which
act upon the arm ; and it is capable of enduring the utmost stress. In the

Lateral view of the osseous framework
of the human chest and shoulder, shewing,
a, the scapula ; b, the humerus ; c, the
clavicle ; d, the acromion process of the
scapula ; e, the coracoid process of the
scapula; f, the sternum.

78 INTRODUCTION.

Monkey the clavicle nearly resembles that of Man : in the Bat, the
Kangaroo, &c. it is also perfect ; but, in the feline tribe, which strike
their prey, but can hardly be said to use the arm, it is rudimentary, and
is neither attached to the scapula nor to the sternum, but is concealed
between the muscles. In the canine race, it is at its lowest stage of
imperfection.

In the ruminant, and pachydermatous orders, the clavicle does not exist:
their fore limbs are merely organs of support and progression. The fore-
arm is neither rotatory nor ends even in an approximation to a hand ; hence
the motion of the shoulder is accordingly limited to that of a common hinge.
The direction of the muscular stress upon the fore limbs of the Horse does
not tend to draw them inward, that is, closer toward the chest ; for,
being organs of mere progression, they are only thrown forward at each
step. The Horse cannot whirl the arm round ; he cannot extend the
limb in every direction ; his foot is no organ of touch, of grasping,
of burrowing, or of flying. Admirably adapted for its purpose, the fore
limb of the Horse requires no clavicle ; nay, the presence of a clavicle,
in such an animal, would be a palpable misfortune, as will be perceived
when the scapula is more fully examined. In considering the union
of the scapula with the trunk, two points are to be attended to : first, its
connexion to the sternum by means of a clavicle ; and, secondly, its attach-
ment to the ribs, by means of the muscles arising from the ribs, and
inserted into it. In all Mammalia, whether the clavicle exist or not,
the scapula is bound to the ribs by muscles ; but where the clavicle is
wanting, as in the Horse, Deer, Elephant, &c., this is the sole mode by
which it is attached to the trunk. By these muscles, the scapula, desti-
tute of a clavicular union with the rest of the osseous framework, can
be placed, at once, in the most favourable position, and retained there
with surprising firmness, or altered with the greatest rapidity. In pro-
pelling themselves, the Horse and similar quadrupeds plunge forward
in such a manner as to let the weight of the body fall on the anterior limbs :
hence, if the shoulder were locked to the chest by a clavicle, this bone
would be immediately fractured, or dislocated, by the violence of the con-
cussions ; but these concussions are expended upon the elastic muscles,
binding the scapula to the chest, and which yield and recover themselves
alternately. Here, then, the presence of a clavicle would be a positive
disadvantage.

There is, however, another circumstance, which also tends to counter-
act the effects of a shock upon the shoulder ; viz., the diffusion of the
concussion through the whole limb. And this leads to a consideration
of the position of the bones of the limb with respect to each other ; for,
were they to bear perpendicularly on each other, not even the muscles
which attach the scapula to the chest could well support the jar. The

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OP MAMMALIA. 79

position of the scapula in Man, and in those of the lower Mammalia which
possess a perfect clavicle, is almost flat on the dorsal aspect of the ribs,
its long or acute angle having a posterior direction. This will be easily
understood by a reference to the previous
sketch (fig. 77) ; but, in the Horse, it occu-
pies a different position (fig. 78).

In the first place, the aspect of the scapula
in the horse is more lateral, being almost hori-
zontal, obliquely verging inward ; while, with
respect to the humerus, it inclines backward at a
considerable angle. The humerus itself is not
perpendicular : on the contrary, it sweeps ob-
liquely backward as it proceeds, and forms, at
its union with the ulna and radius, another angle.
The angles, which the different portions of the
osseous framework of the limb make with each

Osseous framework of the chest and . 1 -i-rv ill 11

shoulder of the Horse.-^., The scapula; other, tend to amuse the shock ; each, by a re-

coil, lessening the violence of the concussion— a
with the radius. concussion which, were the bones placed per-

pendicularly below each other, so as to form a straight columnar sup-
port, would not only injure the bones themselves, but jar the whole
frame. While considering the angle, which the bones of the limbs (for
the same principle will be found in the hinder extremities) naturally
present, with respect to each other, it may be observed, that rapidity
and suddenness of action, and hence velocity of motion, are immediately
connected with it. It is, in fact, the obliquity of the bones of the limbs,
with respect to each other, which gives to the Deer and the Antelope that
springiness and elasticity — that power of instantaneously bounding, so
characteristic of the race — that facility, which they display, of leaping,
or starting away, without apparent effort, or the necessity of previously
bringing the limbs into a position for the first impulsive movement.
When, however, the limb has to support an enormous weight, pressing
directly down upon it, this decidedly angular arrangement of its bones is no
longer admissible. Hence the almost perpendicular bearing of the mas-
sive bones of which the limb of the Elephant is constructed— a limb,
which may be compared to the gnarled stem of some old oak, heavy and
clumsy, but admirably in keeping with the unwieldy bulk it supports.

A more explicit survey of the comparative structure of the anterior
limbs of the Mammalia, and the analogue of the human hand, as it is
modified through various groups — from the paw of the Monkey, to the
solipedous foot of the Horse, the bisulcate foot of the Ox, or the paddle
of the Whale, — may be next attempted. It has been seen how the hand
and arm of Man harmonize ; and the way, in which the clavicle becomes

80 INTRODUCTION.

an index of the extent of freedom possessed by the arm, has been
explained : it remains to shew with what structural modifications of the
carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges, its presence is consonant, and with
what it is incompatible.

Among all the lower Mammalia, none approach, in structure of the
hand and arm, so near to Man as the Quadrumana : the differences,
however, are many and important. In the first place, the hand is
longer, in proportion to its breadth, than in Man, and this, more parti-
cularly in some groups than in others, in which, as in the Orangs, the
Gibbons, and Semnopitheci, the fingers are not only greatly elongated, but
79 the palm, instead of being expanded and

concave on its inner aspect, is narrow
and flat, and tapers from the wrist. This
modification of form, together with the
comparative shortness and feebleness of
the thumb, is exhibited in the annexed sketch (fig. 79) of the hand of the
Orang,

Confining our observations to the osseous structure of the hand, it is

at once obvious, that the carpus,
in the Simise, occupies a very cir-
cumscribed space, compared with
the analogous part of the human
hand : the first step toward the
contraction of the carpus is here

Hand of the Orang,-a,carpU8; 6, xnetacarpus; c, phalanges. ^^ . neverthelesS) with cemin

exceptions, as in the hand of the Orang (fig. 80), the number of bones in
the carpus exceeds, by one, that in the human carpus — the second row
having five, instead of four, distinct bones ; the first row, four, as in Man.
The elongation of the metacarpal bones of the fingers is also remarkable,
while the metacarpal bone, and the two phalanges of the thumb altogether,
only extend to the termination of the metacarpal bone of the first finger.
In some of the Simise this degradation of the thumb is carried much
farther, the part being, if not absolutely wanting, reduced to a mere rudi-
ment. Compared with the hands of Man, those of the Simiae are rude and
imperfect instruments : constructed as tree-climbing organs, they are
incapable of the manipulations which the human hand executes with the
utmost facility ; notwithstanding, they adequately serve the wants of
these animals, and harmonize with their general economy. It is,
therefore, in accordance with their arboreal habits, that the hinder
graspers of the Simiae are as hand-like as the anterior, perhaps more
so : for, in these latter organs, the thumb is far more developed ;
never, indeed, becoming rudimentary, even in those instances in which
it is the most reduced in the anterior graspers.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 81

The ulna, and the radius, in the fore-arm of the Simise, resemble those
of Man ; excepting that the radius is the stoutest of the two : the humerus
is long and slender ; and the clavicle has a less decided flexure than
in the human subject.

The hands, then, of the Simiae are rude imitations of those of Man,
organized as instruments of climbing. In the Cheiroptera, or Bats, a wing-
handed race, which emulate ihe bird in traversing the regions of the air, the
modification of the hand is such as to fit it for an organ of flight : the
carpus is reduced to a comparatively small space, and consists of two
bones in the first row, and four in the second. Of the first row the
internal bone is by far the largest, and supports the first metacarpal
bone ; the bones of the second row are compressed laterally, and, with
the exception of the second, are elongated ; each supports a metacarpal
bone. The metacarpal bones, setting aside that of the thumb, are of
singular length and slenderness ; as are, also, the phalanges of the
fingers, which taper gradually to a point, like the extremity of a fishing-
rod, and having their joints so constructed as to fold laterally. The
thumb, on the contrary, is short, and comparatively stout ; consisting of
a metacarpal bone, based upon the large bone of the carpus, and two
phalanges, the last of which is terminated by a strong hooked claw. The
fore-arm is remarkable for its great length, and consists essentially of the
radius only ; for the ulna is reduced to a mere stylet, situated behind the
radius at its commencement, and there entering into the elbow-joint: free
at this part, it often merges, at its apical portion, into the radius ; — its
degree of development, however, varies in different species ; and in some,
as the common Bat, it can scarcely be said to exist. In the Flying Lemur,
or Colugo (Galeopithecus), a similar modification of the ulna is found. In
this animal, the ulna, though more developed than in the Bats, is still rudi-
mentary : it is separated superiorly from the radius, for about a third of
its length, whence it insensibly blends with the radius, and terminates
before reaching its extremity. The humerus in the Bats is long, with a
round voluminous head ; the clavicles are large, as are also the scapulae,
the acromion processes of which are long, and directed forward. Over
the anterior extremities of the Bat, thus modified (fig. 81), is stretched a
semi-transparent membrane, which encloses the fingers, leaving the thumb
almost free : it embraces the whole of the arm, and thence extends to
the hinder limbs, and often between the latter, so as to include the tail.
This membranous wing, to which the bones act as stretchers, is capable of
being folded up while the animal is at rest ; on the ground the Bat shuffles
itself along awkwardly, buf can climb about the rugged bark of a tree, or
the wires of a cage, with considerable facility, using the strong claw of its
thumb, and its hinder feet (the toes of which are also furnished with
hooked claws), in its progressive motions. The use of the wings, or of

VOL. I. M

INTRODUCTION.

the hands and arms, as an apparatus of flight, supposes great power in
the muscles by which they are governed : hence the length and strength
of the clavicles, and the size of the scapulae, and of the keel, which, as in
birds, runs down the sternum, for the attachment of voluminous muscles,
destined to work the expansive organs of flight. It is a curious circum-
stance, that the membranous wings of these animals (and the expanded
membranous ears of many of them), are the scat of a most refined degree

Skeleton of a Bat.— a, scapula; b, clavicle; c, sternum, with its elevated keel; rf,humerus; #, radius; /,ulna; g-, carpus;
A, metacarpal bones ; t, phalanges of fingers ; k, the thumb.

of sensibility : they are supplied abundantly with nerves ; and, as experi-
ments prove, are capable of appreciating the vibrations of the atmosphere,
its currents, and its quiescence, to such a nicety, that, if the eyes of a
Bat be covered, it directs its course, avoiding obstacles in its way, and
threading the intricacies of obstructed passages, apparently with as much
facility as though its sight were in perfect exercise.

The spade-like hand of the Mole (figs. 82, 83, 84,) affords another

example of the modifications of this organ for an especial purpose. Its
anterior extremities are admirably adapted for the mining operations in
which it employs its existence. The first thing that strikes us is the

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 83

strength, breadth, and solidity of the hands ; the shortness of the fingers ;
and the size and robustness of the nails, which are concave below, and
terminate in an acute point. As organs of excavation, they cannot be
exceeded ; and it will be found, that the whole of the anterior limbs, and
the arrangement of the osseous framework generally, are in perfect har-
mony. The carpus, a, of fig. 83, which represents the bones of the Mole's
hand, is short, but broad, and consists of eleven bones : the first row
having four ; the second, or anterior row, six. In addition to which, a
lateral bone of large dimensions, and compressed form, b, convex on its
outward aspect, extends from the carpal extremity of the radius to the an-
terior extremity of the first metacarpal bone, not only enlarging the
breadth of the hand, but adding to its firmness and solidity. The bones
of the first row are the scaphoid, the semilunar, a large pisiform, and a
cuneiform bone. The number, in the anterior row, depends upon a super-
numerary bone between the scaphoid, the great, and the cuneiform bones ;
and a small bone placed on the radial side of the trapezium. The
metacarpal bones, c, are short and thick, as are the phalanges of the
fingers, d, except the terminal phalanges, which are long, and sheathed
with powerful nails : these last phalanges, only, can be folded down
towards the palm, and, indeed, are alone free. The fore-arm consists
of the ulna and radius. The ulna is large and flat : its superior extre-
mity, or olecranon, is greatly developed, and of remarkable breadth, in
order to afford a full and secure attachment to the voluminous extensor
muscles of the fore-arm : the radius is placed at the inside of the ulna,
in accordance with the outward tournure of the hand. The humerus,
instead of being a long bone, is a thick, square, irregular mass, pre-
senting bold projections for the attachment of muscles, and especially
those of rotation. The clavicles, like the humerus, differ from those
in all other Mammalia, and are short square bones, with a very re-
markable peculiarity in their articulation. They are joined, as usual,
to the sternum, by a large articulating surface ; but they are also united,
by a moveable articulation, to the greater portion of the head of the
humerus ; this junction being strengthened, anteriorly, by a strong
ligament. It is by a ligament only that they are connected with the sca-
pulae : these bones (the scapulas) are remarkable for their length and
narrowness ; their acromion process, also, which is considerable, does
not advance to unite immediately with the clavicle.

The following sketch (fig. 85) represents the skeleton of the Mole.
The anterior limbs are thrown as far forward as possible ; for it is to
a projecting portion, a, of the sternum, ft, which advances from the
chest, that the clavicles are affixed. Down this advanced portion, a
keel, like that on the sternum of birds, is continued, for the attach-
ment of the enormous pectoral muscles, which are inserted into the

INTRODUCTION.

humerus, as far as possible from its union with the scapula : therefore
their action is to bring the arm backward, the palms of the hands being
turned obliquely outward. The muscles of the scapulae are distinguished
rather for length than volume : — length imparts rapidity of motion ;
volume gives power. The muscles of the scapulae are elevators of

Skeleton of the Mole.

the humerus ; and the nature of their duty does not so much require
power as celerity, in order that the action of burrowing may proceed
with the least lapse of time between each stroke. A glance at the ske-
leton of this animal is sufficient to shew, that its whole power is concen-
trated in the anterior extremities, and, in this respect, it exceeds all other
burrowing animals.

A comparison of the limbs of the Mole with those of other animals of
similar habits, will be interesting. From these, the Armadillo, one of the
Edentata, may be selected. This animal, not, indeed, a miner par excel-
lence, like the Mole, is yet a burro wer in the earth, excavating deep
retreats for itself, in which it passes a great portion of its existence :
unlike the Mole, however, it does not follow its prey under ground, but
comes abroad to feed.

The general strength and solidity of the bones, composing the skele-
ton of the Armadillo (fig. 86), cannot fail to excite attention ; while those

Skeleton of the Nine-handed Armadillo.

of the fore limbs display, very admirably, the characteristics which denote
its habits and modes of life. The expansive convex scapula, a, with a

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 85

double spinous ridge, indicating great muscular development ; the strong
clavicle, 6 ; the short, thick humerus, c, with its rugged tuberosities ; the
stout fore-arm, d ; the hook-like olecranon, e, of the ulna ; the firmly
knit union of the bones of the carpus (differing in number, in different spe-
cies), with those of the fore-arm, and with each other ; the strength of
the well-armed fingers ; and the compact and solid structure of the whole
hand, indicate the purpose for which it is especially designed. Nor is this

Skeleton of the Chlamyphorus.

indication less evident in the Chlamyphorus (fig. 87) ; an animal which,
while it approaches, in some points of its structure, to the Mole, displays
a still more decided affinity to the Armadillo. The scapula, a, is here,
also, spacious, with a double spinous projection ; the clavicles, b, distinct,
and largely developed ; the bones of the arm prodigiously thick and
irregular ; the hands stout and short ; and the fingers enveloped in large
spatulate nails. It is somewhat remarkable that, though the clavicle is
so perfect in the Armadillo, and in most of the Edentata, as the Sloth, Ant-
eaters, &c., it is not found in the Great Ant-eater (Myrmecophaga
jubata), nor in the Pangolins (Manis) ; though the hands of these animals,
armed with claws of immense size, are expressly adapted for digging.
In the Ornithorhynchus and the Echidna, the bones of the arm and
shoulder are very remarkable ; an approximation, in the structure of the
latter, to that of birds, and, still more, that of
Lizards, being very apparent. The scapula,
in the annexed representation of the chest and
shoulder of the Echidna (fig. 88), is large and
strong, its shape somewhat resembling that
of a Turkish cimeter, being indented with a
semilunar hollow on its posterior margin : it
is concave on its external surface, so that
it does not adapt itself to the arch of the
ribs. The sternum consists of four portions,
chest of the Echidna. exclusive of a bone conjoined to its anterior

extremity, termed, by Cuvier, the Y-shaped bone, a, a, from its resem-

86 INTRODUCTION.

blance to that letter. This he regards as analogous to the os furcatum, or
merrythought, in birds ; which, in the Adjutant, the Pelican, and one or
two more, is, indeed, ossified at its apex to the anterior point of the keel
of the sternum, and, in others, united by cartilage. Now, it is incon-
testable that the two transverse portions of this bone are real clavicles :
they are united to a process of the scapula, analogous to the acromion in
Man and other animals ; and their evident office is to keep the shoulders
firmly apart.

The articulating cavity of the scapula, b, which receives the head of
the humerus, is deep, and from its lower margin a rhomboidal process,
c, c, is carried out, which, like the accessory, or coracoid clavicle of birds
(being, indeed, its analogue), rests upon the first true sternal bone, and
in part, also, against the lower limb of the letter-Y-bone. This process
is the coracoid projection of the scapula, enlarged, and continued to the
sternum, so as to form a second clavicle. It will be perceived, besides,
that there is a bone marked d, d, filling up, to a great extent, the space
between the coracoid clavicle and the handle of the Y-bone, which latter
it passes over. This portion occurs, but in a cartilaginous state, in the
Lizards ; and, indeed, it is partially cartilaginous in these lowest of the
Mammalia.

On referring to the arm of the Echidna, in the preceding sketch, the
great strength and solidity of the humerus, with its bold projections, and the
large size of the radius and ulna, will appear very remarkable, justifying
an opinion expressed by Lieutenant Breton, that there is no quadruped
which possesses equal comparative powers.* The bones of the hand, or
paw, are solid, and compacted together, insomuch that the huge claws
seem to be the only indications of a digital division. The carpus is
broad and short, and composed of eight bones, irregular in their figure,
but fitted admirably together ; the metacarpal bones are as broad as
long ; the phalangal bones are short and thick, except the last on each
finger, which supports the nail. It is, at once, evident, that the organ,
thus fashioned, is expressly adapted for digging and excavating the solid
earth. The arm and hand of the Ornithorhynchus, though very powerful,
are more slightly made ; and the fingers, which are longer and more dis-
tinct, are connected together by webs, adapting the hand as an oar, in
conformity with the aquatic habits of the animal. Nevertheless, it is a
burrowing organ ; but the Ornithorhynchus makes its deep galleries in
the soft soil which composes the banks of rivers and stagnant waters.
It has been observed, that the Pangolins, and Great Ant-eater, have
no clavicles — a circumstance which limits the action of the arms to
one kind of motion. These animals have immense power, and use

* See Zoological Proceedings for 1834, p. 23.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 87

their hoof-like claws with great effect in demolishing ant-hills, built of
indurated earth, in order to obtain the insects on which they feed : hence
the bones of the anterior limbs indicate, in their solidity, and the
abrupt spines and projections covering their surface, the vast force of the
muscles which act upon them. It might, indeed, have been suspected,
that, in these animals, some trace, at least, of clavicles would have
appeared : such, however, is not the case. In the Sloth this important
bone, the clavicle, is articulated not only to the acromion of the scapula,
which is remarkably elongated, but to the coracoid process also ; these
two processes absolutely meeting at their points, so as to enter mutually
into union with that bone. The scapula is large ; the humerus is long
and slender, as are also the bones of the fore-arm. The hand is a most
extraordinary piece of mechanism : it is a hook (trebled in one species,
and doubled in another) ; — a hook for clinging to the branches of the
forest, on the underside of which the Sloth habitually lives, suspended
with the back downward. In this manner it proceeds (like a fly on the
ceiling) with great rapidity. To have given the Sloth a grasping hand
would have been futile ; because no voluntary muscles could endure a
perpetuity of action, which must necessarily be continued without inter-
ruption, as well during the repose, as during the exertions, or progression,
of the animal. To avoid this, the hand (and the same observation applies
to the hinder extremities) is so constituted, as to act mechanically as a
hook. Externally, the skin envelops every part, except the enormous
claws ; and these claws, of an arched figure, have a tendency inward,
viz., towards the palm or sole ; insomuch that, when the animal is removed
from its branch, and placed on the ground, where it is absolutely helpless,
these claws fold down close upon the palm, requiring the action of the
extensor muscles to restore them to their usual state, which is one of
flexion, at right angles with the palm. Now, it is well to observe, that the
inward contraction of these claws is not the result of muscular action, but
occasioned by the simple elastic action of ligaments destined to effect
it ; whilst to unclose them requires voluntary muscular exertion. The
wisdom of this curious and beautiful arrangement is evident. The Sloth
lives suspended, and the flexion of its hooks, and the security of its hold,
are effected by the elasticity of these guardian ligaments, which, like spiral
springs, are ever in operation, counteracting the tendency of the body's
weight to unclose them. Fig. 89 represents the arm and hand of the Sloth
(Ai) ; in this species the carpus, d, is composed of six bones ;* four in the
first row, two in the second : the scaphoid is the largest. The bones of the
metacarpus, e, are all consolidated together at their base, and, with the
anterior carpal bones ; they consist of three large bones, on which rest

* In the carpus of the Unau there are seven bones.

88 INTRODUCTION.

the phalanges of the three fingers ; and two rudimentary lateral bones,
of which the outermost is extremely small. The fingers consist of the
ordinary number of phalanges, f: of these the first row is short, and
consolidated with the metacarpal bones ; the second phalangal row is

elongated, as are also the ungueal
phalanges : these latter are greatly
compressed and curved ; and the
pulley-like articulation, formed be-
tween each and the preceding pha-
langal bone, is very deep and narrow,
so as to produce the utmost firmness.
Nature has aimed at rigid, unyield-
ing strength, and has obtained the

Arm and Hand of the Sloth.— o.humerus; 6, radius; c, ulna; TCSult sllC Wished. The long

d. carpus; e, metacarpus ;/, phalanges. 01 i i • i r • i i

of the Sloth being thus furnished

with hooks, it can reach to a distant branch, and there fix itself with
facility ; or, while clinging to one branch, can draw towards itself another,
loaded with buds, fruits, or leaves, which offer a grateful repast.

Turning to the Rodentia, with a view to the general structure of the
hand and arm, the osseous framework of these parts is more perfect, as
might be expected, than in most of the lower Mammalia. The Squirrel,
and the Beaver, and others of this order, use the arm with great facility,
and are able to hold their food between their paws while they nibble it
with their teeth : they have no opposable thumb, but the fingers are usually
free ; and the hand of many of them, especially of such as climb, bears
a great similarity to that of the Marmozet Monkeys of America.* The
fore-arm is endowed with the liberty of pronation and supination (though
in some, as the Porcupine and Agouti, for instance, this power is limited) ;
and the majority of this species, as far as the author has had an opportunity
of examining, have a tolerably perfect clavicle. In the Cavies and the
Porcupines it is most rudimentary ; the first row of carpal bones usually
consisting of three ; in the Hares of four : the second, or anterior row,
usually of five, sometimes of four. The metacarpus generally consists of
an inner small bone, supporting the phalanges of a minute thumb ; and
of four long bones, of which the two middle extend beyond the rest.
As habits and modes of life differ so greatly among the Rodentia, the
development and form of the phalanges are accordingly modified.

Passing from the Rodentia to the truly carnivorous races — of which
the feline group may be regarded as the type — it may be stated, that,
with a corresponding restriction in the movement of the shoulder and

* A Squirrel sitting up, engaged in devouring a nut, its favourite food, holds the fruit between the
rudimentary thumbs of the paws brought together, and not between the fingers, as might be
supposed.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 89

fore-arm, and a conformable degeneracy in the structure of the hand,
the clavicle is either totally deficient, or, at most, exists but in a rudiment-
ary state, compared with it, as in the Ape and other Mammalia. In
the Dog, indeed, whose paws are far removed from hands, the clavicle is
extremely small ; and in the Hyaena (an animal decidedly related to the
Civets) it is still more rudimentary, being a minute slender bone lodged
between the muscles. In the feline group, however, where the arm is a
weapon of destruction, and is, consequently, endowed with a certain degree
of freedom, the clavicle is rather more developed ; yet in the Lion it is
scarcely two inches in length, and is neither joined to the scapula nor
sternum.

The arm and paw of one of the larger of the feline animals is an
object deserving the most profound consideration, and appealing to our
mind, in the strongest manner, as a proof of design. The strength
and solidity of the bones, the dense, voluminous, and strongly marked
muscles, are at once apparent. The Lion's arm, stripped of the skin, is,
indeed, a fine display of the beau ideal of active, but irresistible power.
Descending to minutiae, one of the first things to be noticed is a perfo-
ration at the lower part of the humerus near the joint, through which the
humeral artery passes, on its way to the fore-arm, instead of running
round the bone, above the articulation of the elbow, as is the ordinary
course. Some anatomists have supposed, that this passage of the artery,
through the perforation in question, is a provision for the security of
the vessel against injury, to which it might be peculiarly liable in feline
animals, which habitually use their arms with great violence and energy.
How this effect can result from such a cause, is not very apparent ;
nor does it seem at all clear, that there is any necessity for an especial
mode of giving protection to this artery. Besides, the fact is, that this
foramen occurs, not only in the humerus of the feline race, but among
many other Mammalia also. In the Quadrumana it is occasionally
found, especially in the Marmozets and the Lemurs : in the Mole, the
Chrysochloris, the Racoon, the Badger, the Hedgehog, the common Seal,
the Opossum, the Kangaroo, and the Wombat, it is also met with ; as
well as in many of the Rodentia ; the Gerboas, Squirrels, Marmots,
&c. The Edentata, with the exception of the three-toed Sloth, and
the Megatherium (an extinct animal, known only in a fossil state),
exhibit it in a very remarkable manner ; and none more so than
the Ornithorhynchus and Echidna. In the Cetacea, the Pachydermata,
the Ruminantia, and in Man, the humerus is not perforated, and the artery
passes round the bone. It would appear, that the passage of the artery,
through a foramen of the humerus, results, simply, from the extensive
development of the inferior extremity of that bone — a development, which
gradually takes place with the progress of ossification, but which, far

VOL. I. N

90 INTRODUCTION.

from throwing the artery out of its original course, close to the body of
the bone, on the contrary, encircles it. For a long time this extension of
the humerus would be in a state of cartilage, and still longer only par-
tially ossified, being united to the body of the humerus, by an inter-
vening layer of cartilage ; till, at length, some time after birth, or when
the animal is on the eve of maturity, the whole would become one solid
mass, with a perforation for the artery, not disturbed, by this process, from
its original direct and nearest route to the fore-arm : so that the pur-
pose, in the present case, would be to secure as undeviating a way as
possible, for an artery conveying blood to large and powerful muscles,
the energy of which depends on a full uninterrupted stream of the vital
fluid.

To return, however, to the feline race, it may be observed, that the
fore-arm enjoys a limited degree of pronation and supination, as might
be expected in animals of their habits and manners, with which the paw
is an engine of destruction. The bones of this organ are remarkable for
their hardness : those of the carpus (five in the anterior row, four in the
basal row) are strongly locked together : the metacarpal bones, and the
phalanges of the fingers, are well knit, and almost as solid as ivory. The
thumb (if it may so be called) is, however, in a mere rudimentary condi-
tion, as in the Dog ; being of little or no importance. The paw is not,
indeed, an instrument endowed with delicacy of touch, or with the power
of grasping : it is a weapon armed with talons, which terminate, or
sheath, the last bone of every finger : these talons are strong, hooked,
and sharp, and are, moreover, kept habitually retracted, within a sort of
hood, or sheath ; so that they are not only concealed, but also prevented
from touching the ground, as do the claws of the Dog and Wolf, which
are thereby rendered blunt, and incapable of inflicting serious injury. The
Lion, the Tiger, the Panther, and the Leopard, take their prey by surprise.
Endowed with the sense of sight in high perfection, and capable of seeing
by night as well as by day, they creep cautiously and silently toward
their victim, crouching, as they proceed, behind any available covert, till
the fatal moment arrives, when, with a bound and roar, they hurl their
victim to the earth, lacerated by the blow, to which their weight, and the
concentrated energy of their muscular powers, give an irresistible impetus.
Looking at the formidable paw of one of these animals, it is found to be firm,
sinewy, and flexible ; its efficiency cannot be mis-
taken. Two circumstances require especial notice —
it is padded with an elastic cushion below, and its
talons are not visible. The foot of the Lion is
padded on the sole with a springy cushion of gra-
nular fat, two inches in thickness ; and a similar, but smaller cushion is
placed under each toe ; and other feline animals are similarly provided
(fig. 90). The object of this is, first, to render the tread so noiseless,

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 91

that the quick ears of the timid prey may not catch the foot-fall of the
prowler ; and, secondly, that the concussion produced by the impetuosity
of the bound, and which, in spite of the angle made by the bones of the
limb, with respect to each other, would, to a certain extent, still be felt,
may be farther broken, so that neither the shoulder nor the spine may
receive a shock from the violence of the plunge — an act, in which the
whole of the muscular energy is concentrated. These pads, moreover, give
a certain springiness and elasticity to the tread, facilitating the usual move-
ments of this and similar animals, which consist of a succession of easy
bounding steps, and, at the same time, so raising the tips of the toes, as
to throw the sheathed talons upward, and prevent their being worn, or
blunted, against the ground. This will be easily understood by consult-
ing the annexed sketches. We see, in the first (fig. 91), the talon re-
tracted into its sheath ; so that its point is barely visible amidst the fur ;
which, indeed, must be parted a little to discover it at all : while, in this
state, the pad effectually prevents its being brought into contact with
stones, or the inequalities of rugged and uneven ground.
91 92

Figs. 91,92. A toe of the Lion's paw, with the claw sheathed and unsheathed.

But this talon can be unsheathed and thrown forward in a moment,
as in the figure (92). This effort is voluntary ; not so the return of
the weapon to its scabbard. In the Sloth, as already noticed, the ten-
dency of its hooks, governed by an elastic ligament, is to press toward
the palm: but here, an elastic ligament so acts, that the talon rolls
back on its hinge, resuming its retracted condition, the counteracting
effort being suspended. The talon encases the last phalangal bone of
the toe : this bone is so articulated to the next, by a rolling, hinge-like
joint, on which it freely works, as to pass down by its outer side (which
is flattened off in order to remove every obstruction), and thus gain a
more ample sweep of retraction. This action is effected by a ligament
which passes from the upper arch of the last phalangal bone, obliquely
downward to a sesamoid bone, placed on the next bone near the joint,
to which it is firmly bound.* The action of this elastic spring is

* Sesamoid bones are rather to be regarded as a deposition of bony matter, in parts disposed to its
reception, as ligament, cartilage, &c., than as intrinsic portions of the skeleton : they are larger and
more numerous in the hands and feet of such as take laborious exercise.

INTRODUCTION.

counteracted by that of the flexor muscles, voluntarily or instinctively
exerted on a tendon of great size and power, running beneath the bones
of the toe, and inserted into the base of the claw -bone at its anterior part,
like the string of a pulley. In the very act of striking with violence,
these flexor muscles are strongly contracted, brace up the tendon, and
throw out the talon, which, when the act is over, returns into its sheath.
The following sketches, representing the claw protruded and retracted,

will convey an idea of this exquisite piece of
mechanical contrivance (figs. 93, 94) : — a, is
the claw-bone, or last phalangal bone, joined
to 6, the penultimate : c, is the oblique elastic
ligament, which rolls the claw-bone back,
assisted by tendons, d, of the extensor muscles
of the paw seated on the fore-arm, which also
share in this work ; the muscles relaxing in-
voluntarily when the flexors contract, and
resuming, on the relaxation of the flexors, their
habitual tension : e, is the strong tendon of the flexor muscles, bound
down at ft so as to be kept firmly along the under side of the bone.

Thus far has been sketched a cursory outline of the modifications to
which the analogue of the human hand is subject ; and hitherto it has
preserved a resemblance, more or less faint, to its great prototype. But
its leading peculiarities have yet to be considered, as exhibited in what
may be termed the unclaviculated races — those which not only have no
clavicle, but the construction of whose shoulder does not possibly admit
of it. Many animals, which have paws divided into rude fingers, and
which use the paw and arm with some degree of facility — as the Bear,
the Coati, the Paradoxurus, the Hyaena — either do not possess it, or
have it in the merest rudimentary condition : still they may
possess this bone ; its presence would not be an incongruity ;
and the anatomist can only determine the fact by inves-
tigation : but here the whole construction and use of the
limb forbid it, militate against it, and give the conviction,
that its presence would be an evil. With the impossibility
of the existence of the clavicle are associated two kinds of
limbs : the one, a hoofed, prop-like organ of progression ;
the other, a simple, paddle-like instrument, for propelling a
fish-like body through the water : the first is seen in the
Pachydermata and the Rurninantia ; the second, in the
Cetacea' and Seals.

A sketch is annexed of the fore limb of the Elephant
(fig. 95). The general massiveness of the bones, and their almost per-
pendicular bearing on each other, are not now to be considered ; nor

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

is it needful to linger over the scapula and the humerus. But our
attention is arrested by the bones of the fore-arm, which, in the
solidungulous group, and in the ruminants, offer a conformation very
unlike what has hitherto been noticed ; inasmuch as they generally
constitute only a single bone. In the Elephant, however, the Rhinoceros,
the Hog, the Tapir, and the Hippopotamus, the radius, a, and the
ulna, 6, are perfect ; the ^former bone assuming an anterior position to
its associate. The carpus, c, consists of short, thick, solid bones (eight
in number in the Elephant), with which are articulated those of the
metacarpus, five in number in the Elephant, and
four in the Hog, the Tapir, and the Hippopotamus,
corresponding to the. number of the toes. In the
Elephant, Tapir, and Hippopotamus, the toes are
very short, and almost buried in the skin : in all,
they are sheathed at their extremity with hoofs, or
hoof-like nails. It is on these hoofs, which tip the
last bone of the toes, that the Hog rests ; the re-
maining bones (that is, the other phalangal bones —
the carpal and the metacarpal) bearing nearly per-
pendicularly upon this point.

Fig. 96 represents the foot of the Hog: a, a,
the two large middle metacarpal bones ; b, the pha-
langes, following them ; c, the small lateral metacarpal bone, to which
another on the opposite side corresponds ; d, the phalanges of the small
lateral toe, those on the opposite side being only partially seen.

By way of contrast, the fore limb of the Horse, a solidungulous
97 animal, that is, in which the digits are all consoli-

dated into one, may be next noticed. Here the
fore-arm, a (fig. 97), consists of a single bone ;
made up, it is true, of an ulna and radius ; but the
ulna is only to be traced in the olecranon process,
6, shewing itself as a fixed appendix to the radius,
c. The carpus, d, consists of seven bones (four in
the first row, three in the second) : to these succeeds
a long metacarpal bone, in one solid piece, known by
the name of the canon bone, e ; and to this succeed
three phalangal bones,/, forming one digit: the first
is termed the pastern ; the next, the coronet, or
crown bone (both often termed pastern bones) ; and
the last, the coffin bone, which is enclosed in a hoof
of thick, firm horn : on this the Horse treads, and with an elastic step ;
a circumstance resulting from the oblique position of the bones of the
leg and foot, but especially from the yielding of the pastern, its elasticity

Lateral view of the bones of
the foot of the Hog.

•b of the Horse.

INTRODUCTION.

being provided for by a ligament, which passes down the back of the
canon bone, and along the pastern, to the coffin bone. The expansibility
of the hoof must not be overlooked ; it is essential to a free and safe
step, but is too often irreparably injured by the mode of shoeing usually
pursued by farriers. Under the coffin bone, and to which it forms a
sort of sole, is a part called the frog, consisting of an elastic fatty
cushion, covered by a triangular elevation of horn ; at each step the frog
yields beneath the superincumbent pressure, and, swelling out laterally,
expands the heels of the hoof. This frog ought always to touch the
ground : it does so naturally ; and, where bad shoeing prevents it (the
crust of the hoof bearing all the weight of the body, and the shock of
every step, as the animal trots, 'along a hard road), inflammation and
disease ensue.

It has been said that the canon bone of the Horse, representing the
metacarpus, consists of a single piece : there is, however, on each side,
at its inferior extremity, a slender styloid bone, narrowing to a point as
it proceeds upward. These bones must be regarded as rudiments of
two additional metacarpal bones : they enter
into the construction of the pastern joints.

With a general resemblance to that of
the solid-hoofed animal, the fore limb of the
ruminant is distinguished by peculiar cha-
racters. The radius, a, and ulna, b, though
consolidated together, are here plainly distin-
guishable, a deep furrow separating between
them. In the fore limb of the Giraffe (fig. 98),
the Deer, and of some Gazelles, this furrow
opens into a fissure, c, d, both at the upper and
lower end of the bones : in the Ox and Sheep,
the superior fissure is alone perfect ; in the
Camel there is none. The metacarpus, e,
consists of two rows of bones, at what is
commonly called the knee : the first row con-
taining four ; the second, two, or (as in the
Camel) three. The metacarpal bone (canon,
or shank bone) is single; furrowed, however,
throughout its whole length — a circumstance
indicating that it existed in two portions, at an
early period, before ossification was complete.

All ruminants have a cloven foot ; that is, they have two toes, each
consisting of three phalangal portions : the first is united to the extre-
mity of the canon bone by a hinge-like articulation ; the last is cased with
a hoof. In the Hog, it will be observed that there are four distinct toes ;

Fore limb of the Giraffe.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

95

the outer toe on each side being, indeed, shorter than the two middle ones,
but quite as perfect. The ruminant has two toes only ; it is truly cloven-
footed : still, at the extremity of the canon bone, will be often found
the vestiges of a lateral toe on each side, both in the skeleton and in
the living animal : it consists of a sort of spur, or rudimentary hoof,
supported by one or two little osseous stylets. This circumstance has
led some to object to Cuvier's assertion, that, wherever we see the track of
a cloven hoof, we may be sure that a ruminating animal has passed : be-
cause it may be fancied that the
Hog is as much a cloven-footed,
or bisulcate animal, as the Deer.
Fig. 99 represents two truly
cloven feet, «, b, compared with
the foot of the Hog, c.

From terrestrial Mammalia, let us turn to those which inhabit the
ocean, and plough their way through its rolling waters — the mighty
Cetacea, as the Grampus, and the Whale ; animals destitute of hinder
limbs, and in which the pair, analogous to the anterior limbs of other
mammals, are reduced to the condition of paddles, being utterly des-
titute of the slightest power of prehension.

100 The annexed sketch (fig. 100) shews the hand and

arm as exemplified in the paddle of the Dolphin. In
the living animal the bones of the hand are imbedded
in a cellular tissue, the whole being invested with a
covering of skin ; so that the phalanges of the fingers
are agglutinated together, and neither enjoy, nor need,
anything like independent motion : the organ is, in fact,
a mere paddle, or oar ; yet it has to be worked, with
vigour and celerity, in a medium far denser than air.
Hence the large expanse of the scapula, a, for the attach-
ment of voluminous muscles, and the thick arid solid
structure of every bone. The humerus, 6, is short
and massive, as are, also, the bones of the fore-arm,
viz., the radius, c, and ulna, d ; the carpal bones, e, form two rows,
and are succeeded by those of the metacarpus, /, which are flattened in
shape, and usually five in number. The number of the fingers, g, is the
same as that of the metacarpal bones ; but they vary, both in their
respective lengths, and in the number of phalangal portions of which they
respectively consist. Ordinarily, the portion analogous to the thumb
is composed of two phalanges ; sometimes, however, as in the Dolphin,
of only one. The phalanges in the fingers of the common Whale, are,
four for the second and third, five for the middle finger. In the com-
mon Dolphin the middle finger consists of five phalanges ; the second and

96 INTRODUCTION.

fourth of four phalanges : but these may, perhaps, vary ; for Cuvier assigns
nine to the second, and five to the third finger. In one species of Dol-
phin the second finger has been found to consist of eleven, and the third
of eight phalanges ; the thumb (or its analogue) of three, and each of the
two other fingers of two.

The structure of the flat paddle of the Cetacea will bring to mind

the similar organs possessed by those strange extinct reptiles, the Plesi-

IQI 102 osaurus and the Ichthyosaurus

(figs. 101, 102), whose fossil
relics, discovered in the lias
deposit, excite our admiration
and astonishment, and throw us
back upon a distant epoch,
when the land and the waters

Paddle of the Plesiosaurus. Paddle of the Ichthyosaurus. teemed With raCCS which haVC

long disappeared from the face of the globe.

In their organization for an aquatic mode of life, the Seal tribe approach
the Cetacea. They possess, however, a posterior, as well as an anterior
pair of limbs ; and, though the absence of clavicles limits the freedom of
the short humerus, they can crawl along the shore, or scramble up the
ledges of rocks, or icebergs.

103 -x?53f\ The illustration (fig. 103) represents

the osseous structure of the paddle, or
flipper, of the Seal. The carpal por-
tion, d, is broad, but so compressed as to
occupy but a trifling space between the
bones of the fore-arm, 6 and c, and those of
the metacarpus, e. The metacarpal bones,
e, five in number, are large, and decrease
gradually from the first to the last. Of the fingers, /, the first (the ana-
logue of the thumb) exceeds the rest in length : it consists, however, of
only two phalanges ; the other fingers, which decrease gradually in length,
are composed of three.

The paws of these animals, though expressly made for swimming, are
not, it is evident, so truly paddle-like as those of the Whale or Porpoise :
the anterior pair are plainlv divided into strong toes, armed with nails,
and webbed : the posterior limbs are feeble ; but the toes are still distin-
guishable, and serve as supports to a large extent of web, constituting an
apparatus admirably adapted for propelling the animal through the
water, and calling to mind the feet of the Diver (Colymbus), or Great
Auk (Alca impennis), both as to appearance and position.

This rapid survey of the hand of Man, and its analogue in the lower
Mammalia, leads, next, to a consideration of the inferior extremities.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 97

Of all the Mammalia, in Man alone the posterior limbs are the sole
organs of progression ; and in him they are exclusively appropriated to
this purpose. Walking erect, his posterior limbs have to bear the whole
of the body's weight, and to maintain its due equilibrium. Let him run,
or leap, or walk, whether slowly or rapidly, these organs sustain him, pre-
serve him steadily and firmly in his usual attitude, and obey him, as far
as the power with which they are endowed will admit. It need hardly be
observed that the feet are incapable of grasping, being destitute of an
opposable thumb, and that they are plantigrade ; that is, so constructed,
as to allow the sole, from the heel to the toes, to be fairly applied to the
surface of the ground ; while, at the same time, the arched form of the
instep contributes, with the action of the large muscles of the calf (the
tendons of which are inserted into the heel), to secure an elastic step,
and a free, yet firm progression. Allusion has been before made to the
volume of muscles on the leg (forming, what is termed, the calf), as essen-
tial to the elastic step of Man. No other animal possesses a well-formed
and decided calf, because no other animal walks as he does : at each step,
while one foot is in the act of advancing, and just before it is brought to
the ground, the heel of the other foot is raised by the action of these
muscles, so as to throw the weight of the body momentarily on the
toes. Hence the strain on the tendo Achillis, in walking ; — a strain in-
creased while running, leaping, or dancing ; or on dropping from any
height upon the toes (a mode dictated By instinct, in order to break the
concussion) ; and there are not infrequent instances, where a sudden
and violent effort has occasioned the rupture of this tendon, into which
the muscles of the calf converge. The action of these muscles is that of
flexors of the ankle-joint : they draw the foot backward, and, in this
position, retain it with great power, and more or less permanently, as the
occasion may be. If we stand on tip-toe for a length of time, we begin
to feel the muscles of the calf aching with fatigue ; and the same sen-
sation, succeeded by stiffness, results after a toilsome walk ; after skating,
dancing, and similar exercises.

Not only do the lower limbs of Man differ from those of all other
animals in the possession of the calf, but, also, in general configuration ;
in the proportions of the parts composing them ; and in the superiority,
as to bulk, which they exhibit, compared with that of the arms. With the
exception of the Kangaroo, the Gerboa, and a few other rodents, no
other animals exhibit anything like this disparity, because their four
limbs are all equally organs of locomotion ; all equally sustain the body's
weight. In such as use the fore limbs for striking, seizing, digging, &c.,
as well as for the purpose of locomotion, the anterior limbs even greatly
preponderate in volume, in many instances. Such is the case in the Ape
tribe, the nearest to Man in external configuration ; — for example, in the

98 INTRODUCTION.

Orang Outan ; let his small ill-fashioned legs, incapable of supporting his
body upright, be compared with the long muscular arms, of superhuman
strength, by which he swings himself from tree to tree with astonishing
agility. The same law prevails in the burrowing Insectivora, the Mole,
and the Chlamyphorus ; in the Echidna and the Armadillo ; and in the
Carnivora generally.

The reason of the development of the inferior extremities in the
human subject, is as apparent as that of their deterioration in the lower
races enumerated above. In earliest infancy this predominance is not
so apparent : the childhood of Man is a state of utter helplessness : months
elapse before he can commence, with tottering steps, his first locomotive
essay ; and years pass away before his foot is firm and free — before he
rejoices " in the strength of his youth." During this interval, a relative
development of the lower limbs, beyond that of any other portion of the
frame, has gradually taken place, and has given to the figure its perfect
and true proportions.

With the development of the lower limbs are immediately connected
the magnitude and the breadth of the pelvis ; it consists of two distinct
portions, each being united to that division of the vertebral column called
the sacrum ; and thence taking a circular sweep, round and forward, so
as to meet in the front ; thus enclosing an area, of which the sacrum
constitutes the dorsal, or back wall (figs. 64, 65). Each of these
pelvic bones was originally divided into three, meeting in the cup-like
cavity which receives the head of the thigh-bone ; and though, at an
early period, they become ossified, so as to lose all trace of their primary
division, anatomists still appropriate three distinct names — the ilium, the
ischium, and the pubis — to the three respective parts ; the general title of
pelvis (from its basin-like figure) being applied as a designation to the
whole. The ilium, or iliac portion, c, c (figs. 64, 65, 66, 67), consti-
tutes the broadly-expanded upper part, on each side of the sacrum, a :
the ischiatic portion, e, e, extends downward from the acetabulum, /, f,
whence it rises upward, forming the lower margin of a large orifice (the
thyroid, or ischiatic foramen), to join the pubic portion, d, d, which
extends from the anterior portion of the acetabulum, sweeping forward
to meet its fellow in the fore part of the pelvis, the two bones being
united together by a ligamentous cartilage.

In no Mammalia is the pelvis so capacious, relatively, as in the human
subject ; for, as its development is connected with the attitude and loco-
motive powers of the species, and, as in no other Mammalia are seen the
same attitude, and the same locomotive powers, so in none, not even in the
Ape, does it resemble that of the human race : it varies, remarkably,
among different genera, in its figure, and in its relative proportions : in the
Cetacea it is in a merely rudimentary condition. In the Seals the iliac

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA. 99

portion is short and contracted, compared with the ischiatic and pubic
portions : it varies, however, in breadth, length, and figure, in different
species. In many of the Insectivora the pelvis is narrow and elongated,
the parts composing it being slender, and the ischiatic opening very large.
In the genus Chrysochloris, however, this orifice is very minute, the
ischiatic portion being greatly developed.

Among the Edentata — in the Armadilloes, Pangolins, and Ant-eaters,
— the iliac bones are thick, elongated, and curved slightly downward ; the
ischiatic bones are large, having a broad tuberosity reflected posteriorly
outward ; the pubic portion is considerable, and the ischiatic opening of
great size.* In the Sloths the iliac bones are ample, and the pelvic
cavity large ; in the Megatherium the iliac bones are also of great extent,
but the pelvic cavity is contracted ; their ample spread in the Elephant,
likewise, is very remarkable. Without attempting to describe the changes
of form and proportion, in every genus, which the bones of the pelvis
exhibit, the peculiar characters of this part of the osseous framework,
ever present, in one great group of the Mammalia, cannot be omitted.
The Marsupialia have two additional bones entering into the composition
of this part of the skeleton, which are not found in any other mammals.
These two bones are long, slender, and compressed, and are united, at
one of their extremities (spread out more than the opposite), to the pubic
bones, one on each side of their mutual junction, or symphisis : their office
is to support the abdominal muscles, and not the marsupium, or pouch,
of these animals ; for they are found in the males as well as females ; and,
in those instances, as in the Ornithorhynchus and Echidna, where no mar-
supium exists. The pyramidalis muscle is attached to their inner edge,
whence it radiates to the mesial abdominal line ; and a small transverse
muscle, arising from the skin on each side, passes over these bones toward
their upper extremity, acting as a support and compressor to them. The
presence of these bones (usually denominated the marsupial bones), as
an unvarying character in the skeleton of all the Marsupialia, is very
remarkable ; the more so, as they bring to mind the modification of the
sternum and ribs in the Saurian reptiles ; and are coincident, if not with
an oviparous, at least with a mode of reproduction which may be termed
ovo-viviparous.-j"

Leaving, then, the pelvis, the posterior extremities next demand atten-
tion. As the arm consists of a humerus, fore-arm, and hand, the inferior
extremity is correspondingly divided into the thigh, the leg, and the foot.
The thigh-bone, or os femoris, in the human subject, is a large and strong
cylindrical bone, slightly arched backward, having a round head at its upper

* The irregular figure of the pelvis of the Chlamyphorus will be best understood by referring to
the sketch of its skeleton (fig. 87).

t Ovo-viviparous, producing young, in an egg, which is hatched internally, and previously to exclu-
sion by the parent.

100

INTRODUCTION.

extremity, terminating a short neck, rising obliquely upward, from two
large projections at its base : the larger and higher of these is known
by the name of the trochanter major ; the smaller and lower by that of
trochanter minor : they serve for the attachment of the rotatory muscles
of the thigh.

The inferior extremity of the thigh bone enlarges into a pulley-like arti-
culating surface, which enters into the construction of the knee. The head
of the thigh-bone (fig. 104) is firmly braced down, in the
cup-like cavity of the pelvis, by various ligaments ; and,
in particular, by one, a, the ligamentum teres, which arises
from the top of the head itself, and is affixed to the bottom
of the cavity ; so that when the hip-joint is dislocated, this
ligament must necessarily be ruptured : in some few Mam-
malia it is wanting. It is not possessed by the Orang
Outan (though it is found in the Chimpanzee and Gibbons), nor by
the Elephant, the Sloth, the Seal, the Enhydra, the Walrus, or the
Ornithorhy nchus .*

In most Mammalia the thigh-bone is much shorter than in the human
subject, and is so concealed as not to be perceptible in the limb as it
appears in the living animal ; whence has arisen the erroneous practice oi

calling that part the thigh, which really cor-
responds to the leg.

The knee-joint (fig. 105), that is, the arti-
culation of the tibia, or large bone of the leg,
with the extremity of the os femoris is firmly
knit and well secured by ligaments, being also
protected, in front, by a bone called the patella,
or knee-cap. This bone may be regarded as a
moveable olecranon, enveloped by the tendon

Lateral and anterior view of the knL- of the powerful CXtCnSOr mUSCleS of the leg,

o, femur; i, pateiia; c, tibia; <*, Simla, which tendon is inserted into the exterior part
of the top of the tibia. It is not found in the Bats ; nor does it occur in the
Kangaroo, and several other marsupial animals ; at least, in these ani-
mals, it exists but in a state of cartilage. The tibia, so named from its
resemblance to an ancient flute, and which forms the principal bone of
the leg, is assisted by a slender bone, termed the fibula (or perone), which
runs along it somewhat laterally, and forms the outer point of the ankle ;
the inner portion being formed by the tibia. At its two ends the fibula
is enlarged and compressed, the upper end being united to the tibia, the
lower having an attachment to the base of the foot (fig. 106).

In ruminants, and the solid-hoofed Mammalia, the fibula is at its mini-

* It is said to be wanting in the Tucutuco (Ctenomys Braziliensis), a small rodent animal.— See
Zool. Voyage, Beagle, Mamm. p. 80 ;— but of this there is some doubt.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA.

101

mum of development ; being, in the Horse, a small styloid bone, attached
to the upper part of the tibia ; and, in the ruminants, a little square bone,
at the lower end of the tibia, forming the outer
ankle.

The foot comes next under consideration ;
for which the previous examination of the
hand will have prepared the way. Like the
hand it is divided into three parts — a basal
part, termed tarsus ; an intermediate, termed
metatarsus ; and the phalanges of the toes
(digiti pedis). The tarsus, in the human foot
(figs. 107, 108), consists of seven bones : — the
astragalus, d ; the os calcis, c ; the os navicu-
lare, e ; the os cuboides, i ; and three cuneiform
bones, /, g, h. These bones constitute the
instep, with the arched contour of which we are
well acquainted. The cuboid bone on the out-
side, and the three cuneiform bones succeeding,
make up the anterior row, or that on which
the metatarsal bones are based : the tibia and
fibula conjoin with the astragalus — a large
irregular bone, having a polished, and some-
what depressed, articulating surface — to form

paSfarc.^TinrfrfibTa^^asTrTgaius'; the ankle-joint. Among themselves, like those
/>oscalcis> of the carpus, the tarsal bones are all com-

pacted together in solid array. The os calcis, or heel bone, is situ-
ated below and behind the astragalus : it is the largest bone of the
tarsus, and receives the tendo Achillis, to which reference has pre-
viously been made. The os naviculare interposes between the astra-

108

Leg of human skeleton — a, femur; b,

Figs. 107,108. Two views of the bones of the human foot:-*, tibia; b, fibula; c, os calcis; <*, astragalus; e, os naviculare;
/, first cuneiform bone; g,A, the two other cuneiform bones; t, os cuboides ; k, metatarsal bones; /, phalanges.

galus and the three cuneiform bones ; the cuboid bone rests against the
anterior projecting part of the os calcis. The metatarsal bones are
larger and stouter, in proportion to the toes, than the metacarpal are, as
compared with those of the fingers ; otherwise they resemble them in

102 INTRODUCTION.

shape and general character. The first, or great toe, analogous to the
thumb (though not antagonizing with its fellows), consists of two pha-
langal portions ; the others, of three.

With regard to the lower Mammalia, the number of bones forming the
tarsus, and the general figure of this part of the foot, are very variable.
In many instances two bones are found consolidated into one, which, in
the human, subject, are distinct ; in some, bones present in Man are
absent ; in others, one or more supplemental bones are present. The
Camel and the Horse, for example, have only two cuneiform bones ; in
the ruminants generally, the os naviculare and os cuboides form a single
bone ; in the Daman the internal cuneiform bone is wanting. In the mo-
notrematous marsupials, and in most of the rodents, there are supple-
mental tarsal bones ; and in many of the latter the os naviculare is
divided : in all, however, the os calcis and the astragalus are present, and in
most instances the os calcis projects considerably. In the Pachydermata
and Ruminantia its elongation is remarkable : it receives a tendon analo-
gous to the tendo Achillis in Man, and commonly termed the hamstring.
The astragalus is remarkable for the deep pulley-like articulation, by means
of which it is united to the tibia : in the Horse, Elephant, and Daman,
it is united, anteriorly only, to the os naviculare ; in the ruminants, also ;
in the Hog, Rhinoceros, and Hippopotamus, it is united also to the cuboid.

As there is great difference between the general contour and the
destined uses of the hands and the feet of Man ; while, on the contrary,
from a sameness of use, the anterior and posterior paws, or feet, of the
lower Mammalia, resemble each other, excepting in very minor particulars
(as the number of digits, &c.) ; it follows, that the metatarsal bones, and
phalanges of each pair, in the latter, will be mere copies of each other, or,
at least, exhibit but trifling variations. To this remark, the pedimanous
marsupials (as the Phalangers), in which the hind feet are furnished with
an opposable thumb ; the Kangaroos, Gerboas, Viscacha, and others, in
which the fore limbs are short, and the hinder limbs greatly developed ;
the Bat, in which the reverse exists ; and the Mole, which has the fore
feet constructed as spades, &c., are exceptions. In the Quadrumana, the
posterior pair are as truly prehensile as the anterior, perhaps more
so ; the thumb, in many genera, as the Lemurs, and various American
Monkeys, being better developed in these hinder hands than in those
which terminate the arms.

In the Simise, as in Man, the number of the tarsal bones is seven ; in
the solidungulous animals it is six ; in the ruminants, five, with the ex-
ception of the Camel, in which it is six, and of the Giraffe, in which it is
four. In the Hog, Tapir, Elephant, Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, &c., it
is seven ; but, in the Daman, only six.

In the tarsus of the Ornithorhynchus nine bones are found : four in the

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF MAMMALIA 103

anterior row, supporting the phalanges, viz., a cuboid, and three cunei-
form bones : behind the latter is a large os naviculare ; between which
and the tibia and fibula, is the astragalus (being articulated to both) ; on
the outside of the astragalus is placed the os calcis, of considerable size,
articulated both to the astragalus and the fibula. Resting partly on it, but
chiefly on the os naviculare, and lower extremity of the tibia posteriorly,
as a supplemental os calcis, is a large round bone, superior in size to the
os calcis, and supporting another, but smaller, which forms the base of a
powerful spur (in the male), bending upward and inward : this latter
bone, in the spurless female, is merely rudimentary. Meckel states, that
the two-toed Ant-eater has nine tarsal bones ; the Marsupials and Car-
nivora have usually seven.

In the Aii the anterior bones of the tarsus are anchylosed together,
and with the metatarsal ; the astragalus and os calcis being alone distinct.
In the Rodentia the number of tarsal bones is augmented by the division
of the os naviculare, or scaphoid bone, into two portions ; and often, also,
by the presence of a long compressed supplemental bone, along the inner
side of the tarsus, as in the Beaver : this bone is, however, wanting in the
Hamster, the Squirrel, the Cavy, and the Porcupine : nevertheless, a
division of the second cuneiform bone, in the latter, renders the number
nine. In the Hare, the tarsus consists of six bones only. The arrange-
ment of the phalanges and of the metatarsal bones is analogous to those
of the metacarpal bones and phalanges of the anterior limbs.

With respect to the metatarsus, in the solipedous Pachydermata, and
in the ruminants, it agrees with the metacarpus : in the former it is accom-
panied by two rudimentary stylets. In the Pachydermata, generally, and
in all other orders, the number of metatarsal bones is the same as that
of the toes ; but they are by * no means of equal size and volume.
Where the toes are short and feeble, the metatarsal bones will be feeble
also, as is seen in the outer toe of the Armadillo. In the Kangaroo, the
two first, or internal metatarsal bones, are remarkable for their slender-
ness and close approximation to each other ; each bears a small toe, and
both are joined together as far as the claw. The third metacarpal bone
is very robust and large, and sustains a strong elongated toe, armed with
a hoof-like nail. The fourth metacarpal bone is short, and, though far
inferior in bulk to the third, exceeds the first and second both together.
In the Opossum, the first metatarsal bone stands apart from the others,
and is flattened : in its situation, and in its opposableness to the foot,
this bone, and the two phalanges which it bears, represent a thumb.
In the Helamys, a rodent of South Africa, the first metatarsal is blended
with the first cuneiform bone of the tarsus. It is, however, in the
Gerboa, that the metatarsus is most remarkably modified. In this spe-
cies (Dipus Sagitta) the toes are three ; but the metatarsus consists

104 INTRODUCTION.

only of one long, slender, canon-like bone, with three pulley-like articula-
tions at its inferior extremity, for the first phalangal bone of each toe :
the middle of these articulating surfaces is the longest and narrowest.
This long metatarsal bone must, indeed, be regarded as consisting, ele-
mentarily, of three, consolidated together. In the Alactaga, however
(Dipus Jaculus), the two outer toes have each its own metatarsal
bone, but very slender, and only extending up each side of the middle
metatarsal bone for about one-third of its length.

The metatarsal bones in the Bat are short and slender ; while, on the
contrary, the metacarpal bones (excepting that of the thumb), are, as
before stated, extremely elongated.

Of the arrangement and number of the toes in different groups of
Mammalia, and of the forms and modifications of the nails, or claws,
which sheath the last, or ungueal phalanx, nothing need here be said ; as,
this topic, and, indeed, the peculiar characters of the feet, both anterior
and posterior, will be enlarged on in the treatment of each group re-
spectively. The delineation of a broad outline will be, in the first place,
sufficient, and the filling up will be a progressive work, as the orders,
families, and genera, into which the Mammalia resolve themselves, come,
in turn, under especial consideration ; and, if more attention has been
hitherto bestowed on the human skeleton than on the osseous framework
of the lower orders, it is because a clear knowledge of the parts of
which that consists, and of their mutual arrangement, is essential to an
appreciation of the differences and modifications traceable throughout the
class.

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA.

IT is only within the last few years, that the importance of the dental
system of Mammalia, as being intimately connected with their economy,
and, consequently, with their systematic arrangement, has been clearly
perceived and acknowledged. From Aristotle to Ray, although the
form, differences, and relative position of the teeth were not altogether
unnoticed, no definite attempts were made to deduce, from their
characters, those general rules, now received and appreciated by the
naturalist ; or to systematize the facts presented by them, with a view to
the establishment of great natural groups, or orders, — the first step in the
true science of zoology. It is unquestionable, indeed, that Aristotle
indicated three kinds of teeth : namely, front teeth, projecting teeth
(canines), and back teeth ; the latter being either flat, or, as in the
Gats and other Garni vora, saw- like, when regarded all together ; and he,
moreover, remarked, that, in ruminating animals, the front teeth, or

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA. 105

incisors, of the upper jaw were wanting ; but, nevertheless, no zoological
principles, by which to be guided in the study of Mammalia, resulted
from these notices : the zoological value of the dental system remained
in obscurity.

It is not designed here to trace the progressive increase of attention
which has been directed to the dental system, from Ray to the present
era : _much less to expatiate on the effects of that attention, so ma-
nifest in the scientific works of this epoch — an epoch signalized by
the rapid progress of philosophy in every department. In some in-
stances, perhaps, too much weight has been attached to dental characters,
to the exclusion of those afforded by other organs. Hence, guided
by the anomalous condition of its teeth, Linnaeus and others have
referred the Aye-aye, of Madagascar, a lemurine animal, to the order
Rodentia, under the erroneous denomination of Sciurus Madagascariensis.
In like manner, Pallas, and various naturalists, regarded the Hyrax as a
rodent ; instances, however, of this mistaken and exclusive regard to
the teeth do not lessen the value of the characters they really present.

Being instruments for seizing or collecting food, and also for reducing
it to a state in which it is fitted for transmission from the mouth to the
stomach — the teeth, as must be evident, will vary materially, according to
the nature of the food to be subjected to their action ; and, consequently,
they furnish a clue to the instincts and manners of an animal ; for instinct
and organization have a mutual dependance upon each other. In
Mammalia, the teeth are placed in a series, along the edge of the upper
and lower jaw bones, so as to oppose one another, and are fixed in
cavities, or sockets, termed alveoli, from the bottom of which they
originally arose.* Their number varies, and, in a few species, they are
altogether wanting : in some, as the Sheep and Deer, they are exclusively
appropriated to the procuring and preparation of food ; in others,
however, as the Dog, Tiger, &c., they are also used as weapons of
offence.

The teeth may be regarded as consisting of two parts ; viz., a
crown, which is the part external to the socket ; and a root, which is
the part remaining implanted in the socket.

Examination proves, that the crown does not usually consist of one
homogeneous mass ; but of two, and sometimes three, different substances,
which have received distinct appellations. In ordinary cases, the crown
consists of a central substance, essentially resembling bone, termed
ivory, enclosed in an envelope of enamel. With respect to the third
substance, it is termed cortical, crusta petrosa, or ccementum ; and by
its intervention, like a cement, masses consisting of ivory, encased in

* In other classes of Vertebrata, the situation of the teeth varies. Among fishes, for example, they
not only occur on the true maxillary bones, but on the palate, the vomer, the tongue, and on the gullet.
VOL. I. P

106

INTRODUCTION.

enamel, are soldered together : such teeth are compound ; the grinders
of the Elephant are an example. Ivory, enamel, and crusta petrosa,
combine, according to F. Cuvier, in four different modes of arrange-
ment. Some teeth are composed of ivory, enamel, and crusta petrosa ;
others of ivory and enamel ; others (as in the Cachalot), of ivory and
crusta petrosa ; and others, again, of ivory only. Ivory consists of
gelatine and phosphate of lime, and, when cut, has a silky, fibrous
appearance ; the fibres, which are, in fact, minute tubes, being nearly
parallel to the external surface of the tooth. The enamel is much harder
than the ivory, which it merely envelopes, and from which it can be
separated : it consists essentially of fluate of lime, and, a section being
made, it presents the appearance of brilliant needles, perpendicular to
the surface of the ivory. Crusta petrosa, or cortical substance, is of
the same composition as ivory, consisting of gelatine and phosphate of
lime : it is, in fact, an outer layer of ivory, deposited after the formation
of the internal ivory and enamel (in compound teeth), from a peculiar
membrane. In teeth, consisting only of ivory and cortical substance,
the latter assumes the place of enamel, and is deposited over the ivory,
varying in thickness according to circumstances. On the teeth of the
Cachalot, it is of great thickness, and its structure is dense and compact.
In the compound molars of the Elephant, it forms a thick solid bed, in
which the folds of enamel, investing the ivory (fig. 109), appear to be im-
pacted.* According to the experiments of F.
Cuvier, the anterior part of the incisors of the
Rodentia is covered with a delicate layer of cor-
tical substance, which, as in the Beaver, the
Porcupine, and many other species, is of a bright
orange colour — this colour is said to be owing to
the presence of iron in the form of a simple

Griudiug surface of Elephant's tooth. -j T •• j • • n -i -r-i-i i •

oxide. In the dentition of the Elephant, instances

are presented, at the same time, of the simplest and of the most com-
pound structure of teeth : the grinders are compound, as already stated —
the tusks are solely ivory.

The following valuable observations are from a paper by Professor
Owen, " On the structure of teeth, and the resemblance of bone to ivory,
as illustrated by microscopical examination of the teeth of Man, and va-
rious existing and extinct animals." In this paper Professor Owen
alludes to the recent investigations of Purkinje, Miiller, and Retzius, with
respect to the intimate structure of teeth, and follows up the results of
their experiments by a detail of the conclusions to which his own re-

* In the Horse, the cortical substance, forming the external part of the molars, is of great
thickness ; as it is, also, in the molars of the Hippopotamus. On the summits of the projecting surfaces,
in the molars of the Ruminantia, it is thin, but becomes thicker in the depressions between them.

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA. 107

searches have led. He observes, " that, until a very recent period, the
analogy of tooth to bone was supposed to extend no farther than related
to the chemical composition of the hardening material ; while the arrange-
ment of this earthy constituent, as well as its mode of deposition, during
the growth of the entire tooth, were considered to be wholly different from
that of bone, and to agree with the mode of growth of hair, and other so-
called extravascular parts, with which teeth in general closely correspond
in their vital properties." To this he adds, " that the supposed proofs of
the laminated structure of teeth (in favour of their distinction from bone),
derived from the appearances presented by the teeth of growing animals
fed alternately with madder, and ordinary food, and by those which
often occur during the decomposition of certain teeth, which are then
resolved into a series of concentric or superimposed laminae, were equally
applicable to true bone, and quite unavailable in illustrating the point
under consideration ; and that the appearances presented by the
superficies of vertical sections of teeth, viewed with the naked eye, or a
low magnifying power, were due, not to the intervals of separate and
superimposed lamellae, but to the different refractions of light caused by
the parallel undulations or alternations of structure of minute tubes,
proceeding in a contrary direction to the supposed lamellae. This
apparently lamellated structure, however, is not constant, nor equally
plain in different teeth : on the contrary, the fractured surface, or the
polished surface of the human, and many other teeth, presents a silky or
iridescent lustre, which has attracted the attention of several anatomists."
Hence Malpighi conceived, that the teeth were composed of minute fibres,
reticulately interwoven ; and Leuwenhoeck, in 1683, discovered, that these
apparent fibres, were, in reality, minute tubes. In 1835, this tubular
structure of ivory was re-discovered by Purkinje and Fraenkel,
who, moreover, " added to dental anatomy several new and interest-,
ing facts relating to the structure of the enamel ; pointing out, more
especially, the form and characteristic transverse striae of the component
crystals ; and, farther, they determined the true osseous nature of that
distinct layer of substance, which had been previously known to surround
the fang in the teeth of Man, and which they once observed to be
continued upon the enamel of a human incisor." This, Professor Owen
has discovered to be identical in its structure with the cement (crusta
petrosa), which enters more abundantly into the composition of the
compound teeth of the Herbivora. After adverting to the experiments of
Professor Miiller, on the nature and contents of these dental tubuli,
Professor Owen refers to Professor Retzius of Sweden, and states, that,
" besides confirming the fact that the ivory or bony constituent of
a human tooth consists of minute tubes, lodged in a transparent me-
dium, disposed in a radiated arrangement, with the lines proceeding

108

INTRODUCTION.

m a direction perpendicular to the superficies of the tooth, Professor
Retzius has more particularly observed and described the dichotomous
branching of the primary tubes ; the minuter ramuli sent off, throughout the
course of the main tubes, into the clear interspaces ; the calcigerous cells,
with which those fine branches communicate ; the terminal ramifications
of the tubuli, and their anastomoses with each other, and with calcigerous
cells at the superficies of the ivory or bony part of the tooth." According
to Professor Retzius, the function of these branched and anastomosing
tubes is nutritive : they convey, " by capillary attraction, a slow current
of nutritive, or preservative fluid, through the entire substance of the
tooth ; which fluid may be derived either from the superficies of the
pulp, in the internal cavity of the tooth, or from the corpuscles and cells
of the external layer of cortical substance or coementum ; with the tubes
radiating from which corpuscles, the fine terminal tubes of the ivory
anastomose." In addition to the determination of the nature and
arrangement of the dental tubuli, Professor Owen has proved the
existence of other component substances in teeth, besides those usually
described and admitted ; the microscopic characters of which are alike
distinct from those presented by ivory, enamel, cement, or true bone.

One of the substances, he states, is " characterized by being traversed
throughout by numerous coarse canals, filled with a highly vascular
medulla, or pulp, sometimes anastomosing reticularly ; sometimes
diverging, and frequently branching ; sometimes disposed nearly parallel
with one another, and presenting more or fewer dichotomous divisions.
The canals, in many cases, are surrounded by concentric lamellae, and
thus resemble, very closely, the Haversian canals of true bone ; but the
calcigerous tubes, which everywhere radiate from them, are, relatively,
much larger. The highly-organized tooth-substance, just described,
differs from true osseous substance, and from the coementum, in the
absence of the Purkingian corpuscles, or cells. This structure is
exemplified in the teeth of many fishes, and in some of the edentate
Mammalia.

" Another component substance of tooth more closely resembles true
bone and cement, inasmuch as the Purkingian cells are abundantly
scattered through it : it differs, however, in the greater number and
close parallel arrangement of the medullary canals. This structure is
exhibited in the teeth of the Megatherium, Mylodon, and other extinct
Edentata."

An attempt will not be made to follow Professor Owen through his
elaborate details of the modification of the above-named dental substances
in various fishes, reptiles, and Mammalia ; but those, who are interested
in minute anatomy, are referred to the original paper. (See the Eighth
Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.) His final

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA. 109

remark, however, cannot be omitted, namely, — " that, through the endless
diversity, which the microscopic texture of the teeth of different animals
presents, the universal law of the tubular structure can be unequivocally
traced ; and, that the general tendency of the modifications observable, in
descending from Man to the lower classes of the vertebrate animals, is a
nearer approximation of the substance of the tooth to the vascular and
organized texture of bone." With reference to the application of the
tubular structure of the teeth, to the explanation of their pathology, a
new field, as Professor Owen observes, is opened ; from the cultivation
of which some valuable practical improvements in dental surgery may
result. In the use of the microscope, for the examination of thin
slices of fossil teeth, with a view to the determination of the natural
group, to which the animal itself belonged, when other characters fail,
or when a complete tooth is unattainable, we have a new and impor-
tant test.

With respect to those groups of Mammalia, in which the teeth
present the usual structure of compact ivory, enamel, and cement,
they have been minutely described in several genera, by Professor
Retzius.

The bearing, however, of the microscopic discoveries in dental
structure, upon the natural history of the Mammalia, is rather remote than
immediate : to the naturalist, the forms, the number, and the arrange-
ment of the teeth, are of primary importance ; and it is upon these points,
conjointly with others, that his groups of the Mammalia are founded :
nevertheless, he is glad to receive aid in his pursuit, or confirmation as
to the justness of his views, from the researches of the microscopic
anatomist, who, in his investigations of the intimate structure of the
organs in question, traces modifications exclusively peculiar to the
natural families, or genera, established on other data.

An examination may now be made into the general characters, which
the roots, or the fangs, of the teeth present, as to their relative degree
of perfection.

The roots of teeth are either real or fictitious. In the first case,
the root consists of either ivory, solely (the enamel ending at the com-
mencement of the root, commonly called its neck), as in Man, the
Carnivora, Ruminantia, &c. ; or of ivory and coementum, as in the
Cachalot. When the root is fictitious, it is a mere continuation of the
crown, whatever that may consist of, with the same arrangement of its
parts. Teeth, with fictitious roots, continue to grow, at least to a late
period of life. The tusks of the Elephant, the incisor teeth of all rodents,
and the molars of many, as of the Hare, Cavy, and Arvicolae, are ex-
amples ; but not the molars of the Squirrels and true Muridae, or Rat
tribe. The formation of the teeth takes place in what anatomists have

110

INTRODUCTION.

termed a capsule, which is, in fact, an apparatus for their production,
seated in the alveolar cavity of the maxillary bones.* Like every other
part of the system, the teeth are the result of a process of secretion.
The apparatus, by which the material of the teeth is elaborated, and
which, at the same time, also determines their form, is, itself, more or
less complicated, according to the structure of its product. It consists,
then, of a pulp and two membranes.

The pulp, or bulb, consists of a spongy, or tuft-like, mass of blood-
vessels and nerves, and is destined for the secretion of the ivory of the
tooth. Its form is that of the tooth which it produces : it is, indeed, the
mould, upon which the ivory is modelled. The first capsular membrane
is the enamel membrane : it envelopes the bulb, following its form and
contour ; but terminates at its base, corresponding to the neck of the
tooth, which part is the boundary of the enamel in teeth with true
roots. This membrane is brittle and translucid ; from its inner surface
(although F. Cuvier was unable to detect any vessels), it deposits,
particle by particle, on the ivory moulded by the bulb, the enamel with
which it is invested ; which, being fully accomplished, it becomes then
opaque and elastic, and, at last, finally obliterated. To the transparency
of this membrane, to its subsequent thinness, and to its total obliteration,
when the crown of the tooth is duly formed, the cause of its having
hitherto been overlooked is, doubtless, to be attributed. It is, however,
easily to be distinguished from the contiguous parts on the molars of
ruminants, and especially their posterior molars, immediately after birth.
To look for this membrane when the teeth are developed, is, of course,
useless.

The second membrane is that which deposits the cortical substance,
or crusta petrosa ; and which is even to be discovered where this sub-
stance does not enter into the composition of the teeth ; but in such cases
it is very thin, and seems to act merely as a protecting envelope to the
capsule. As the substance secreted differs little from the ivory, so, in
its structure, this membrane approaches the bulb, being highly vascular.
In compound teeth its function is very important. Following the sinuosi-
ties of the enamel-covered ivory, it fills, like an external pulp, the inter-
stices of the folds, and completes, by its secretion, the composition, which
the internal pulp and the enamel membrane have previously elaborated.

* " Les machoires presentant d'abord une seule alveole commune, vaste, mais peu profonde, dans
1'interieur de laquelle se developpent les sacs dentaires. Peu a peu il s'eleve des cloisons osseuses,
imparfaites au commencement, et parfaites a une 6poque plus reculee, qui divisent 1' alveole primitive
en plusieurs compartiments. Ces cloisons, qui formaient originairement une gaine ample a la dent
toute entiere, n'entourent plus tard que sa racine, a laquelle elles sont alors etroitement appliquees.
A mesure que celle-ci se developpe les arcades alveolaires augmentent considerablement de hauteur,
pour se retrecir ensuite, apres la chute des dents ; cette diminution du diametre vertical des arcades
dentaires tient au r6trecissement et a 1'acclusion des alveoles." — Traite Gen. d'Anat. Comp., par J. F.
Meckel. Vol. viii., p. 338.

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA. Ill

When the tooth, as in the Cachalot, is invested with cortical substance
only, this membrane, it may be presumed, takes the place of the enamel
membrane ; and, from the mass of matter it has to supply, must be of
great extent and thickness. By the evolution of the teeth it becomes
obliterated in its centre ; but its marginal parts amalgamate with the
gum, originally spreading over the whole. Thus, then, it is not until
the internal pulp and the enamel membrane have formed the crown
(where the crown is composed of ivory and enamel), that the cor-
tical membrane, or external pulp, assumes its functional office. One
part, however, of the process only is as yet finished ; the root has still to
be formed, in order that the tooth may rise. The enamel membrane
having disappeared, the bulb secretes the root ; and, where the cement
enters into the substance of the tooth, this membrane also contri-
butes its share. It must not be forgotten, however, that the root is
either real, or a mere continuation of the crown. In the first case,
it would seem that, having duly completed its task, the pulp loses its
productive energy, having become, during the process, enclosed within
the ivory of the crown, and reduced to a small space ; and hence the roots
are pierced at their points, for the transmission of the vessels and nerves
of this pulp, which sustain its vitality, and endow it with the highest sen-
sibility. In the second case, the elaborating apparatus continues active
during life, or, at least, till a very late period, ever carrying on a work of
ceaseless renovation, so as to raise up the tooth in proportion as it is
worn away. This process is beautifully exemplified in the incisor teeth
of rodents.

The dental capsules exist at an early stage of existence ; and the
teeth, though as yet undeveloped, are, to a great extent, formed at the
period of birth. This observation chiefly applies to the deciduous, or
milk teeth, which, in a few years, fall out, and are succeeded by a per-
manent series.

The terms, deciduous and permanent, founded upon the dental pheno-
mena observed in the human species, and some other animals, must not
be taken in a rigorous sense as applicable to the teeth of all Mammalia ;
for, among them, it has been proved that, on the one hand, there are
instances, in which the milk teeth fall before birth ; and, on the contrary,
that there are others, in which they are retained to a period long after
maturity. A statement of the progress of dentition, as presented in the
human species, and in one or two of such Mammalia as differ the most in
the routine of their dentition from that standard, will serve to give a
clearer idea of the matter than any other mode of explanation.

To begin, then, with the human species. The first dentition here
takes place from the sixteenth to the twenty-fourth, or thirtieth, month
after birth, and usually commences in the lower jaw : the incisors are the

112

INTRODUCTION.

first to make their appearance ; then, on each side, the first grinder ; next,
the canine tooth ; and, lastly, a second grinder. And here it is to be
observed, that they are grinders with four tubercles, and not bicuspid
grinders, which are placed next in order to the canine during this primary
dentition ; a fact, which is the opposite of what obtains on the completion
of the permanent teeth : this phenomenon appears to result from a
general law.

When the sixth, or eighth year is attained, the phenomena of the
second dentition commence by the development of a third molar, stronger
than those already noticed, and the strongest of the set about to be
formed. Next, all the teeth of the first dentition fall out (their roots
being more or less absorbed), exactly in the order in which they
appeared, and are replaced by others, stronger and larger, but of the
same character ; excepting that the two molars, succeeding the canine,
are replaced by false, or bicuspid molars. This operation is completed at
about the twelfth year ; soon after which the penultimate molar appears :
and, lastly, the back molar, or wisdom-tooth, which may be regarded as
affording something like an indication of a third dentition. The time of
the appearance of this tooth varies : it seldom cuts the gum till several
years after the others, and is occasionally delayed till near the thirtieth
year.

In Man, and most Mammalia, the permanent teeth are formed in cap-
sules peculiar to themselves, below the first series ; and their formation
is not only begun, but advanced, before the fall of the milk teeth, to such
a state, that, as these are successively lost, the vacancy is speedily sup-
plied. It is owing, no doubt, in a great
measure, to the vis a tergo, produced by
the outward pressure of the permanent
teeth, that the roots of the milk teeth be-
come absorbed, and the crowns finally
excluded from the jaws. The annexed
sketch (fig. 110) displays the relative situ-
ation of the two sets of teeth, previously
to the fall of the first.

In the Quadrumana, the permanent

View of milk, or deciduous teeth, the permanent teeth do not exactly follow in the track of

teeth being as yet undeveloped, and lying in their -i-i-i • n i i • -i 11

deep alveolar cav,ties.-a, the deciduous series; fc, the deClduOUS SCriCS ; IOr behind each QC-

the permanent series about to become developed. -j ,1 « r> ^ J" ±1

ciduous tooth is a foramen leading to the

cavity, in which the corresponding permanent tooth is in course of forma-
tion ; and through this its crown ultimately emerges, at the same time
that it forces out the deciduous tooth, and obliterates all trace of its
alveolus. During this process, the jaws, in the Simiae, greatly expand,
adapting themselves to the size of the permanent teeth, the canines of

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA. 113

which are of formidable magnitude. The development of the perma-
nent series is attended with great irritation of the system. The Simiae
suffer much at this epoch ; and, in the Dog, the second dentition is often
a painful process. In the human species, the first dentition would seem
to be the most critical ; owing, perhaps, to the comparative feebleness of
our race during infancy, but more to the development of the brain, and
the unobstructed flow of blood to that organ, which seems, at this era,
to be peculiarly liable to increased vascular action (the blood being
determined toward it in a more than ordinary ratio), ending in convul-
sions, or effusion within the ventricles.

Another sort of process must now be noticed, by which a succession
of teeth is secured, and which is found to obtain in the Phacochoerus, and
Elephant, among the Pachydermata, and in the Capybara, among the
Rodentia. This process refers solely to the molar teeth. Instead of the
molars being succeeded once, and once only, by a set formed below
them, it appears that an oft-repeated change takes place by the gradual
development of a molar, posterior to the others, and which, as a sort of
intruder, forces them forward as it usurps their situation ; so that the
first molar, which is the most worn (having been the longest used), is
ultimately dislodged by the pressure from behind it, and falls.

The Elephant, for example (in which animal this process is very
marked), will afford a good illustration of this mode of dentition.
The molars of this animal are four ; namely, one on each side in each
jaw. At first, the anterior ridge of each tooth only is apparent ; but
it advances, layer after layer of ivory and enamel imbedded in cortical
substance being added, till the tooth is perfect, and fully evolved. No
sooner, however, is this accomplished, than another grinder, which has
been preparing in a deeper socket beyond that of the first tooth, begins
to shew itself, and then gradually to advance ; and, while the first wears
by use, it is, at the same time, pushed forward by its successor, till, at
length, the ossification of its alveolus concurring with the efforts of the
posterior molar, its relics (for it is worn to an inconsiderable portion)
are expelled. That which has taken its place undergoes a similar fate,
and so on for seven or eight successive changes. Thus, the Elephant
has, first, one tooth only on each side (in each jaw), then two ; and,
afterwards, alternately, one and two, in succession, to the end of the
changes. On referring to the section of the skull of the Elephant (fig. 20),
the relative position of these teeth will be easily understood.

As it respects the dentition of the Rodentia, it has been affirmed, by
Cuvier, that all those, which have but three molars, experience only a
single dentition ; and that a second occurs only in such as have a number
beyond this : that is to say, the second dentition only changes the anterior
supernumeraries. He also states, that the teeth of the first dentition, in

VOL. I. Q

114

INTRODUCTION.

the Guinea Pig, are shed before birth. In the Hare tribe, it is a few
days after birth that the shedding of these teeth takes place ; at which
period, the little rudimentary incisors, which lie behind the large pair,
make their appearance.

The teeth of Mammalia have been divided into three kinds : — First,
incisors, or cutting teeth, arising from the anterior part of the superior
maxillary (intermaxillary in the lower orders) bones, above and from the
corresponding part of the lower jaw ; secondly, canines, succeeding the
incisors, one on each side; those of the lower jaw, when the mouth is
closed, advancing before those of the upper : to these succeed, on each
side, thirdly, the molars, or grinding teeth.

With respect to the names, by which the teeth are designated, it must
be confessed, that they are not of strictly universal application; for the
trenchant back teeth of the Felidae cannot be called molars, or grinders
(mola, a mill ; molo, to grind) ; nor is the term incisor better adapted to
the front teeth of the insectivorous animals : still, however, as these
terms are universally adopted, and as none of a comprehensive significa-
tion can be well devised, their use becomes a matter as much of necessity
as convenience. The incisor teeth vary, in form and character, almost
ad infinitum. In Man, and the Simiae, they are broad and com-
pressed, with a flat edge ; and the upper
and lower incisors are opposed to each
other vertically, or nearly so ; though less
truly in the Simiae than in Man : in both
they are large and important : in the Orang
their strength and thickness are very re-
markable (fig. 111). In the Bats they vary
in shape and importance ; and (as in the
genus Edostoma), those of the upper jaw
often differ, both in form and number, from
those of the lower jaw. In the Carnivora their number is six in each
jaw ; but they are small, feeble, and comparatively unimportant. In the
Insectivora they also vary, assuming, in many species, as the Shrews
(fig. 112), a prehensile character ; and are adapted, by their
length, and subulate, or awl-shaped form, for seizing small
objects of prey. Where the incisors are long, the canines
are little distinguishable from the lateral incisors, or from
the false molars ; but, where the canines are large, all the inci-
sors are small. In the Ruminantia there are no incisors in the
upper jaw ; and those of the lower jaw are flat, broad, and
oblique, so as to oppose their upper surface to the callous
gum of the upper jaw. The Pachydermata present great variation in the
character of the incisors. In the Horse we find them large and strong,

Incisors of
Shrew.

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA.

115

with flat broad edges, or surfaces, opposing each other, a central depression
shewing itself as each tooth is worn. In the Hog they are strong ; those
113 of the lower jaw projecting obliquely.

In the Hippopotamus (fig. 113) those
of the upper jaw are conical, and pro-
ject downward ; those of the lower jaw
horizontally, the two middle being ex-
tremely developed, long, and cylindrical.
In the Elephant there are no incisors in
the lower jaw ; and the two in the
upper assume the form of huge, cylin-
drical, recurved tusks, without a true
root. On the contrary, in that fossil
animal, the Dinotherium (an aquatic pa-
chydermatous animal), the incisors of the
Teeth of Hippopotamus. lower jaw sweep abruptly downward,

like the tusks of the Elephant, resembling them in shape (excepting that
they are rather incurved), and almost equalling them in magnitude.

114 The Rodentia have large curved inci-

sors, see the annexed figure (114), of the
mouth of the Capybara, without true roots,
with scalpriform, or chisel-like edges, of
great sharpness. The Edentata are desti-
tute of incisors. Among the marsupial
animals the true Opossums have ten inci-
sors above, and eight below ; the Dasyuri,
of Australia, have eight above, and six
below; the Phalangers (Phalangista, Geoff.)
have six incisors above, and two large pointed oblique incisors below,
as have, also, the Petauri and the Kangaroos.

The Wombat closely resembles the Rodentia, and has two incisors
in each jaw. The Cetacea have no incisors ; nor, indeed, can the teeth,
with which the jaws of certain groups (as the Dolphin, Porpoise, &c.)
are furnished, be called either by the term canine or molar : they are

Incisors of Capybara.

conical, prehensile, or seizing teeth, interlocking when the jaws are
closed, as in fig. 115, which represents the jaws of a Dolphin. There is,
however, one exception ; the Narwhal (Monodon), destitute of other teeth,

116 INTRODUCTION.

has two incisors, of which the right is usually found undeveloped within the
intermaxillary bone, while the left projects in the same line with the body to
the extent of several feet, being a straight, conical, spirally-twisted weapon,
analogous to the tusk of the Elephant. The Lamantins and Duyongs are
not properly ranked as Cetacea ; they are aquatic Pachydermata. Notice
has been purposely omitted of the Seal tribe (Phocidse), among which the
form and number, not only of the incisors, but of the other teeth, are too
variable to be the subject of a discursive review. The singular form
of the incisors in the Elephant and the Dinotherium has been noticed ;
but curiously abnormal forms of those teeth are met with where such
might be least expected. The Aye-aye, of Madagascar (Cheiromys), a
lemuridous animal, differs from all the Lemurs, in the form of these teeth,
and in the absence of canines. The incisors of this animal closely resem-
ble those of a rodent, having the same curve ; and those of the lower
jaw (as in the Beaver), sweep to the back of the ramus of the jaw,
beneath the roots of the molars : the points of the incisors resemble a
116 ploughshare. The ordinary Lemurs have (as seen in the

accompanying figure, 116) four incisors above, small, and
placed in pairs, with a central space between them, into
which are fitted the points of the lower incisors and lower
canines. The lower incisors are four in number, long,
compressed, and fitted close together, so as to appear like
Teeth of Lemur. one tooth, serrated, or consisting of comb-like parts;
their direction is oblique. The lower canines, which resemble the in-
cisors in every respect, excepting that they are stouter, have been
long regarded as incisors ; but erroneously, as will be pointed out
117 hereafter. In the Galeopithe-

are curiously formed : those of
the upper jaw are placed in
pairs ; those of the lower jaw are
also four : all are pectinated,
Teeth of Gaieopithecus. or, with a comb-like surface ;

those of the lower jaw deeply and delicately, even to the commence-
ment of the root. The canines (if so they may be called) participate,
also, in this pectinated structure.

The canine teeth are next to be considered. The upper canine tooth
(where present) succeeds the incisors at a greater or less interval ; it is the
first tooth on each side, in the true maxillary bones, the incisors being
always in the intermaxillary. The lower canine, on each side, always
advances before the upper canine, and is either in contact with its ante-
rior surface (as in the Tiger, fig. 118), fitting into a space between
that and the upper incisors ; or, as in the Horse (the male), it is not

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA.

117

canine,

in contact with the upper
human skull the lower canine

118

though still anterior to it. In the
passes within, but is still anterior to
the upper canine ; but there
is no space for its reception,
a character in which Man
stands alone. In the Simiae
the space is very marked. By
this rule, then, the canines of
the lower jaw, where their
form is that either of the in-
cisors or false molars, and
otherwise not distinguishable
from them, may be determined.
In many orders, as the Roden-
tia and Pachydermata, — the
Camels, Llamas, Musk Deer,

and Muntjacs excepted, — there are no canines. In the Camels and Llamas
there are canines in both jaws ; in the Musk Deer and Muntjacs only in the
119 upper, and these are very long and sharp, as ex-

hibited in the annexed figure of the upper jaw of
the Musk Deer. The Camels, Llamas, and
Musk Deer, it is curious to observe, have no
antlers ; and the antlers of the Muntjacs, ele-
vated on a long osseous peduncle, are of very
inconsiderable size. Rudimentary canines,
however, exist in many of the males of the Deer
tribe. With the exception of the Sloths, there
are no canines in the Edentata. It is in the
Carnivora that the canines assume their normal
development ; and the term canine, ordinarily
applied to them, indicates them to be especially developed in the Dog.
They are, when normal, longer than the other teeth, conical, acute, and
strong, often compressed, and with a cutting edge behind : their number
never exceeds one on each side in each jaw. In many animals they
are hugely developed into tusks, as in the Boar, the Phacochcerus, and
the Morse. In the two former animals, and their allies, those of the upper
jaw curve upward out of the mouth, and those of the lower emerge with
a similar curve, and are in contact with the anterior face of the upper
canines. In the Morse (fig. 120) they exist only in the upper jaw ; im-
bedded in enormous projecting alveoli, they sweep down, slightly
incurved, forming large, sharp tusks, or weapons of defence, perfectly
exposed (the lower jaw fitting in between them), and of twelve, or
eighteen inches, in length. In the Hippopotamus (fig. 113), the canines

Canines of Musk Deer.

118 INTRODUCTION.

form huge tusks : those of the upper jaw, though of considerable thickness,
are short and blunt, being worn by the canines of the lower jaw, which

curve upward with a bold sweep, and are of
great weight and thickness. On the con-
trary, among many of the Insectivora, and
in the Galeopithecus, as also in the lower
jaw of the Lemurs, the canines are at their
minimum ; and it is only with reference to

position that they claim the appellation. In
/ It I Iff ..^>— \ugrr * , » j;1

/ jf I if the Aye-aye there are no canines.

The molar teeth differ materially in
character and in number in different ani-
mals, bearing immediate reference to the
nature of their food. They are usually
divided into two groups ; namely, true
; of the Morse. molars, and false molars. The false molars,

where present, follow the canines, and are not only smaller than the true
molars, but of a different shape : they are either bicuspid, as in Man and
the Simiae ; or unicuspid, as in the Dog : their number in the Carnivora
never exceeds three on each side, in each jaw, excepting on the lower
jaw of Canis Megalotis, which has four.

The true molars are infinitely diversified. In Man and the Simiae
they exhibit a uniformity among each other, and have four tubercles on
their grinding surface ; excepting the last molar of the lower jaw in cer-
tain genera of the Simiae, which has five tubercles. In the Insectivora
they are crowned with acute tubercles, or conical points, more or less
elevated ; the Mole affords a good specimen of acutely tuberculated
grinders. In some of the Seals the molars are simple and conical ; in
others, they are divided into three pointed tubercles ; in others, again,
they are slightly three-lobed. In the Rodentia there are no false molars,
and the true molars are mostly laminated ; in ruminants, and in the
Horse and Elephant, there are no false molars ; and the molars, when
worn, also display a laminated structure.*

In the Edentata, the molars, where present, are simple and cylindrical.
In the Carnivora the molars are divided into false, carnivorous (carnas-
sieres), and tuberculous molars ; the number of the latter diminishing
according to the sanguinary habits of the species. The carnassiere,-}- or
carnivorous molar, succeeds the last false molar, and forms, as it were,
the base, upon which rests the anterior part of the zygomatic arch ; or, in
other words, a line following the curve of this arch will bisect the middle

* The laminae of compound teeth are disposed either transversely, longitudinally, or obliquely, and
present various forms — as of a trefoil in the Hippotamus ; of crescents in the ruminants ; of triangles
and irregular folds in the rodents.

t The carnassiere really belongs to the false series.

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA. 119

of the tooth : it is large, strong, and powerful ; of a compressed shape ;
and divided into two or more trenchant conical points, often having, also,
a small inner tubercle. The action of the carnassiere of the upper jaw,
with respect to its correspondent tooth in the lower jaw, is scissor-like.
Posterior to the carnassiere succeed the tuberculous molars, never being
more than three in number, except in the marsupials, in which they are
four. These are less numerous and smaller in the Cats and Mustelae than
in the Dogs : the Cats, in fact, have a small tuberculous molar only, in the
upper jaw, but none in the lower. In the Mustelae, or Weasel tribe, there
is a very small tuberculous molar below, and a larger one above. In the
Dog there are two tuberculous molars above, and two below : the first
tuberculous molar above, is large and strong ; its greatest measurement
is transverse. The sketch of the skull of the Dog (fig. 121) shews the
position of the zygomatic arch, «, with respect to the carnassiere, 6.

Skull of Dog.

In the Bears, the least carnivorous of the order, the carnassiere is
scarcely to be so called : and it is followed, in each jaw, by three large
tuberculous grinders, adapted for bruising vegetable substances.

Various formulae have been proposed, by which to give, as succinctly
as possible, the dental system of animals : the following is a specimen
of that most in use ; and it refers to the Dog : — Incisors, £f ; canines,
|Er ; molars, JlJ ; = 42.

In this formula the character of the molars is not expressed — a ma-
terial objection ; otherwise it is simple and intelligible. It indicates
that there are three incisors on each side above, and three below ; one
canine on each side, above and below ; and six molars on each side
above, and seven on each side below. But, as the character of the
molars is not given, the formula may be modified, with advantage, as fol-
lows : — Incisors, §-3 ; canines, |Ei ; molars, false, £1 ; carnivorous, |E} ;
tuberculous, £3 5 = 42.

The dentition of the genus Felis will stand thus : — Incisors, |E§ ;
canines, |E} ; molars, false, 5=5 ; carnivorous, |-Er ; tuberculous, S ; = 30.

The dentition of Man consists of — Incisors, l~2 ; canines, \2\ ; molars,
false, or bicuspid, ^ ; true, £3 ; = 32.

120 INTRODUCTION.

When there are no false molars, as in the Rodentia and Ruminantia, the
form will be thus: — Ox : incisors, £5; canines, 0 ; molars, Sri ; — 32.

As the teeth of each species of Mammalia are modified according to
the food upon which it is destined to subsist, so, according to the characters
of the dental system, will be the structure of the articulation of the
lower jaw, and its extent of motion. Where, for example, the food is
exclusively vegetable, and the teeth are adapted for grinding to a pulp,
the lower jaw must possess a considerable degree of motion, in order that
the molars may perform their office with due effect :*but where, as in the
Tiger, the food is exclusively of an animal nature, requiring not to be
ground, but cut up previously to being swallowed, and where the action
of the molar teeth resembles that of the blades of a pair of shears, the
movements of the jaw will be more limited, and the articulation altogether
more secure. Where the teeth are weapons, and the lower jaw has to
bear the strain of powerful muscles, in the acts of rending and tearing, and
of carrying away the carcasses of slain victims, there the articulation of
the lower jaw must be so constructed as to bear, without dislocation, the
stress to which it is subjected. The Dog is less purely carnivorous than
the Tiger. It has been seen that the Dog has two tuberculous molars
behind each carnassiere, and that the first tuberculous molar above is of
great size and strength ; but this animal crushes bones with ease — an
action throwing an immense strain of muscular force upon the articula-
tion of the lower jaw, and which it is accordingly fitted to sustain.
The strictness, or laxity, then, of the articulation of the lower jaw, as a
general rule, harmonizes with the dentition and the nature of the food,
upon which the teeth have to act ; regard, also, being had to the manner
in which they have to act upon it. The modifications, however, of this
articulation, are very varied: if, for instance, we compare the articu-
lation in question, as it appears in one group of herbivorous quadrupeds,
the rodents, with its construction, as observable in another herbivorous
group, the ruminants, a wide distinction will be found between them — a
distinction connected with the manner in which the lower jaw is used.

To point out the principal modifications of this articulation will now
be attempted ; and, in doing so, it may be premised, that the condyles
of the lower jaw, or, in other words, its articulating processes, are
received into a depression, more or less distinctly marked, at the base of
the zygomatic process of each temporal bone, anterior to the auditory
orifice, and termed the glenoid cavity. This cavity is lined with smooth
cartilage ; and so, also, is the condyle of the lower jaw : both, moreover,
are lubricated with synovial fluid, as are other articulations of the ske-
leton, such as the knee, elbow, ankle, &c. In Man, and most other Mam-
malia, this glenoid cavity is exclusively on the temporal bone; but, in
the marsupial animals, the extremity of the long zygomatic branch of the

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA.

malar bone enters into it, forming its external part, while a small portion
of its internal margin trenches upon the base of the spinous process of
the sphenoid bone. Indeed, in the human skull, the spinous process of
the sphenoid bone, though not entering into the glenoid cavity, would
seem to strengthen and elevate its internal boundary.

In Man the articulating condyle, a (fig. 122), is fitted into the glenoid
cavity, 6, and is so bounded behind by a ridge, c (the vaginal process),
that the luxation, backward, of the lower jaw is impossible; but the

123

Fig. 122. A lateral view of the articulating condyle of the lower jaw in Man, a, and of the glenoid cavity, *.
Fig. 123. Another view, shewiug their surfaces.

anterior boundary (a tubercle at the base of the zygoma,) being less
elevated, and being rounded off, also, so as to give more liberty of mo-
tion, easily permits dislocation in that direction ; an accident which often
occurs, when the mouth is opened very widely, as in gaping. The
cavity, however, is of considerable depth, and allows, in a certain de-
gree, of lateral and antero-posterior movements, especially of the latter,
to which the cartilage, intermediate between the condyle itself and the
face of the glenoid cavity, not a little conduces. Monro, in his Ana-
tomy of the Human Bones, &c., observes, that an intermediate move-
able cartilage, thin in the middle, thick at the edges, and, therefore,
concave on both sides, is connected firmly by ligaments to the condyle,
so as to follow its motions ; but so loosely to the temporal bone, as
readily to change its situation, from the cavity, to the zygomatic tubercle,
and return again, while the common ligament of the articulation affords
space enough for such a change backward and forward : but this liga-
ment, like other ligaments of the joints, by a hinge-like union, is strong
and short at the sides, to confine the lateral motions. The motions of
the human jaw — its muscular strength, and the character of the teeth,
accord with the multifarious diet of our race, of which the animal por-
tion, at least, has to be more or less prepared before its reception. In
the Simise the glenoid cavity is much more shallow than in the human
subject, and is destitute of any anterior wall, or tubercle, of the zygoma,
rising to form a barrier : in fact, it presents a flat surface, on which

INTRODUCTION.

the condyle plays ; but the freedom of the articulation does not appear
to be increased : indeed, the overpassing of the canines (of which the
lower are received into a space between the upper canines and the
incisors), would of itself interfere with a very free lateral grinding
movement. The muscles acting on the lower jaw are far more power-
ful than in Man : — in the Orang their volume is immense ; — and the
teeth of the Simiae are far larger and stronger in proportion : the incisors
are well adapted for the rough work of stripping off the husks of fruits ;
the molars, for masticating hard seeds, and other vegetable matters ; while
the canines are formidable weapons.

In the Carnivora, the articulation of the lower jaw is in character with
their dentition, and, therefore, very different from that of the human
subject, or the Simiae. On examining the skull of the Tiger, or Wolf,
we are struck with the boldness and strength of the zygomatic process of
the temporal bone, which starts out abruptly, at a right angle with the
side of the cranium, and then turns forward to unite with the zygo-
matic process of the malar bone. On the under surface of the base of the

124

125

Pig. 124. A lateral view of the articulrtttug1 etmdyle of the lower jaw in the Tiger, a, and of the glenoid cavity, It.
Fig. 125. Auother view, she wing- their surfaces.

zygomatic process of the temporal bone is the glenoid cavity, b (fig. 125),
in the form of an elongated canal, with an elevated margin before and
behind, extending along that process till it assumes its forward bend;
and, consequently, transverse to the cranium. To fit this cavity, the con-
dyle of the lower jaw, a, is accurately formed : it is a long transverse pro-
cess, rounded above, appearing as though a smooth cylinder of bone had
been transversely joined to the posterior part of the ramus of the jaw.
In Man, and the Simiae, the articulating condyle is thrown to a consi-
derable distance from the posterior angle of the jaw, and is as elevated as
the coronoid process : indeed, it is more elevated in Man : but, in the
Carnivora it is seated at the base of the coronoid process, just above the

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA.

123

acutely projecting posterior angle of the jaw, and on a line drawn through
the teeth from the alveolar margin of the canine.

The annexed sketches serve to illustrate this difference : fig. 126 is
the lower jaw of the Tiger ; fig. 127, the lower jaw of the Monkey : — a,
the condyle ; 6, the coronoid process (into which the temporal and mas-
seter muscles are inserted) ; c, the posterior angle.

126

127

Lower jaw of the Tiger.

Lower jaw of the Monkey.

In the Leopard, Tiger, &c., the distance from the condyle to the last
molar tooth is nearly as great as the distance from that molar to the ante-
rior face of the canine. The skull of a Leopard gives the following mea-
surement : — from the posterior molar (its back part) to the condyle, two
inches and three-quarters ; from the posterior molar to the base of the
canine, anteriorly, three inches and a quarter. In the Wolf and Jackal,
the distance from the posterior molar to the canine is twice as great as
from the last molar to the condyle. In the Polecat, and other genuine
Mustelac, the respective admeasurements are almost the same as in the
Cat tribe ; the distance between the last molar and canine, however, being
somewhat more proportionately increased. In the Carnivora, then (and
especially in the feline race, the Hyaena, &c.), the great muscular force,
acting on the lower jaw as a lever, is thrown as far forward as pos-
sible ; for the space between the last molar and the condyle is occupied
by the coronoid process, which, to its very base, receives the insertion
of the crotaphite muscles ; and the more these muscles are carried for-
ward, the greater will be their effect upon the lever of the jaw. The
strain of this lever is referred to its point of articulation : hence its
peculiar construction, which, admitting of only one action, a simple
hinge-like movement, promises firmness and security. No semi-rota-
tory, or lateral motion, can take place in such an articulation; for the
transverse condyle is closely fitted into a corresponding cavity : in some
animals, as the Badger, the edges of this cavity advance, and enclose the
condyle, so as to lock it permanently up : therefore the lower jaw cannot
be separated from the skull, within the glenoid cavities of which its arti-
culating processes are solidly fastened.

The characters of the trenchant molars of the true Carnivora, the

124 INTRODUCTION.

mutual action of which, on each other, resembles that of the blades of
shears, are inconsistent with the liberty of motion which the lower jaw of
Man and of the Simiae possesses, and, still more so with that of the lower
jaw of the ruminants. In these latter is seen a modification of the glenoid
cavity, the reverse of what obtains in the Carnivora ; one which admits
of a free, lateral, rotatory motion, in accordance with the structure
of the molars, which have to grind to a pulp the mass of herbage sub-
jected to their action. The glenoid surface — for cavity it can scarcely be
called — is somewhat in the shape of a half-moon, its concave edge (the
edge of the zygomatic process) being the anterior : its posterior margin is
elevated, but not very boldly ; and its face is flat, or rather, slightly
convex, with a shallow furrow, or trench, internally, and, posteriorly, at
the root of the elevated margin : to this surface the condyle of the lower
jaw is accurately fitted, so as to work upon it with great freedom of mo-
tion. The peculiar lateral movements of the jaw, by which the Cow
grinds the herbage to a pulp, are familiarly known ; and it is this lateral
motion, which the flat and open character of the glenoid surface allows.
In the Kangaroo, the glenoid surface very closely resembles that of the
Sheep and Goat, but not that of the rodents. The Llama and Camel
approach the Horse, in the character of the glenoid cavity. In the
Horse, this cavity is remarkable (fig. 128).

128

Full view of the articulating condyle of the lower jaw of the Horse, a, and glenoid cavity, b, shewing their surfaces.

Its anterior margin consists of a broad, smooth ridge, with a convex
surface, and arched somewhat like a bridge ; the central depression
is oblong, and externally shelves upward and backward, as though its
margin had been smoothly cut away ; while a bold process, sweeping
down from this oblique surface, just before the auditory foramen, bounds
the central depression posteriorly, and is applied to a depressed surface
on the inner part of the condyle of the lower jaw, a : from the outer part of
the condyle the oblique surface of the glenoid cavity, 6, retreats, so that the
greater portion of the condyle is not in contact with any part of the

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA.

125

glenoid cavity while the jaw is at rest. The motion allowed by this arti-
culation is a rolling movement from side to side ; but the jaw can neither
be advanced nor drawn back, — the bridge-like margin, c, preventing a for-
ward movement, and the long process, d, a posterior retraction.

The following figure (129) gives a lateral view of the same parts:
a, is the condyle of the lower jaw of a Horse ; 6, the glenoid cavity.

129

Lateral view of the articulating coudyle of the lower jaw in the Horse, a, and of the glenoid cavity, 6.

In the Rodentia, another and still different modification prevails, by
which a movement backward and forward is permitted, as well as
laterally. The glenoid cavity, instead of being transverse, is longitu-
dinal, without an anterior or posterior elevated margin : internally, it is
bounded by the flat surface of the squamous portion of the temporal
bone ; externally, by a portion of the zygomatic process, at the root of
which it is situated. In the Rat, Squirrel, &c., the condyle of the lower
jaw is a small convex surface surmounting an elevated branch. In the
Hare, however, this condyle is oval, anteriorly, and is continued back-
ward, becoming almost linear, along the broad margin of this branch
of the jaw : the anterior oval portion only is fitted into a small glenoid
cavity, while the rest is closely applied to the side of the temporal bone,
to which it is secured by ligament : hence, in the Hare, a lateral motion
of the jaw only is afforded ; the condition of the glenoid cavity, and
the fixedness of the condyles of the lower jaw, preventing an anterior and
posterior movement: whilst, in the Squirrel, Rat, &c., the movement
is obliquely lateral, first to one side, then to the other, the jaw alternately
advancing and retreating.

In the Cetacea, the articulation of the lower jaw is such as only
to permit a simple hinge-like movement, and its condyles are rigidly con-
fined, by fibrous ligaments, to the glenoid cavity. The teeth of the carni-
vorous Cetacea (the Dolphin, Porpoise, &c.) do not oppose each other,
but alternate with each other, so that those of one jaw pass into the inter-
spaces between those of the other. These animals do not masticate their

126 INTRODUCTION.

food, nor even divide it into morsels, as the feline animals do, but seize it
with a snap, and swallow it in an instant : to the office of seizing and re-
taining the slippery agile prey, upon which they feed, the teeth and jaws
of these aquatic tyrants are specially adapted. Eager as a hound in
the chase, they pursue, with relentless pertinacity, the shoals of fishes,
whose numbers they greatly thin ; for their appetite is voracious, and their
digestion rapid.

Thus, then, is the structure of the articulation of the lower jaw
consistent with the characters of the teeth, which are themselves modi-
fied according to the food upon which the animal is destined to subsist.
Where a grinding, mill-like action of the teeth is required, the articu-
lation is so fashioned as to give to the jaw the due degree of mobility ;
but where the action is simple, and scissor-like, or where the jaws are
destined to hold living prey, struggling within their vice-like gripe, there
the articulation is limited in its sphere of motion, and strengthened to
endure the strain thrown upon it by the efforts of the muscles.

ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, AND THEIR APPENDAGES.

THE digestive apparatus in the Mammalia, the due and healthy action
of which is essential to the well-being of the individual, is so compli-
cated and curious, as to demand a notice of it at some length : more
especially, as it presents certain modifications, in various groups of ani-
mals, important to be understood by the naturalist who would know
something more of living bodies than their external form, and superficial
characters. The digestive canal commences with the mouth ; and the
teeth are the first agents in the reduction of the food to a state proper for
transmission to the stomach. From the mouth, a muscular tube, the
oesophagus, leads to the stomach, in which the digestive process takes
place : — to this succeeds the intestinal canal ; during its course through
which, the digested mass, or chyme, is subjected to the absorbing action
of the lacteals, or chyliferous vessels, which take up the nutritious por-
tion, or chyle, and ultimately convey it to the heart, to be mingled with
the blood. Where the food is of a vegetable nature, or abounds with
an inferior portion of nutriment, the stomach and intestinal canal are far
more complex than in truly carnivorous animals, in which the stomach is
simple, and the intestinal canal short ; for the more highly animalized (if
the word may be allowed) the food, the more replete is it with nutriment,
and the more easily is that nutriment extracted.

The food of Mammalia consists of herbage, fruits, grain, and other
vegetable matter ; of molluscous animals, worms, insects, fishes, reptiles,
birds, and also of other Mammalia,

ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 127

In all herbivorous Mammalia the stomach is enormous, often highly
complicated, and the intestinal canal long : the material necessary for
the support of the system is not only very considerable in quantity, but
it requires to be ground to a fine pulp before its proper digestion can
be accomplished. In fish-eating animals, as the Porpoise and Dolphin,
the =stomach is complex, and the intestinal canal long, but simple.
These animals are necessarily voracious : their digestion is rapid ; but
the cold-blooded prey, upon which they feed, yields a less proportion
of nutriment, relatively to the quantity of material swallowed, than does
the flesh of hot-blooded vertebrata, on which the true Carnivora, for
the most part, feed ; so that these animals, destructive as they are, are
less voracious than are piscivorous Mammalia : the Tiger destroys life to
a far less amount than the Porpoise or Seal.

The mouth, as already observed, is to be regarded as the commence-
ment of the digestive apparatus : its posterior part, above, is bounded, par-
tially, by a fleshy curtain, termed the soft palate, or velum pendulum
palati. In the human subject, and the Chimpanzee, the apex of the
velum forms a small projecting glandular body, termed the uvula. From
each side of the uvula, the velum passes downward, in the form of a
double arch, on each side : the anterior arch sweeping from the base of
the uvula to the root of the tongue ; the posterior, to the side of the pha-
rynx. In the fleshy space between these arches lie the tonsils, certain
glands, which secrete a lubricating fluid. The common opening, between
the anterior and posterior arch, viz., the space bounded above by the soft
palate, is termed the fauces, or Isthmus faucium ; the posterior orifice of
which (capable, as may be seen, of being dilated or contracted) opens into
the pharynx, or wide commencement of the oesophagus. Into the fauces
opens the glottis, or entrance of the larynx,* of which the trachea, or

* The larynx, or vocal organ, is the commencement of the trachea, or windpipe, and consists of
several cartilages: viz., the thyroid cartilage, forming its anterior part, and its largest portion, and
placed immediately below the os hyoides ; the cricoid cartilage, situated immediately below the thyroid
and the first cartilaginous ring of the trachea, and generally forming a semicircular band— two arytenoid
cartilages, which are small, and supported on the posterior upper edge of the cricoid, and between the
two wings of the thyroid. These two cartilages form, between themselves and the thyroid, a longitudinal
fissure, extending from before/.backward, which is called the glottis, or rimaglottidis. From the arytenoid
cartilages on each side, to the thyroid, anteriorly passes a ligamentous expansion, narrowing the fissure
of the glottis, which, by the action of delicate muscles, may be widened or contracted : these ligaments
are termed the chordae vocales, or vocal chords ; they regulate the intonation of the voice, and modu-
late the notes of which it is capable, like the stops upon a flute. The rima glottidis is furnished with a
valvular cartilage, termed the epiglottis (present only in Mammalia), of a triangular shape, with a
broad base, and situated behind the root of the tongue : under ordinary circumstances it is elevated ;
but, in the act of swallowing, it is drawn down by certain small muscles, so as to fold over the rima,
the sides of which are, at the same time, closed together, in order that the food may pass over
without entering the larynx, an accident which sometimes happens. The trachea, or windpipe, is
continued from the larynx, and consists of a series of cartilaginous rings, imperfect behind (where the
larynx and oesophagus are in contact), invested with an external and internal lining, which form the
interspace between each ring. An inspection of the trachea of the Sheep, or Ox, will render this
explanation easily understood.

128 INTRODUCTION.

windpipe, is a continuation : the Eustachian tube, which leads to the in-
ternal ear, enters it on each side; and the two posterior nares enter
above.

The anterior portion of the mouth is roofed above by the true
palate, and bounded by the teeth of both jaws. The skin of the palate
is firm and tough, with a longitudinal ridge down the centre, and marked,
more or less, by transverse ridges and furrows. In some animals, as
the Rabbit, &c., these ridges and furrows are very numerous and
distinct. The floor of the mouth is occupied by the tongue, an organ
which exists in all Mammalia, varying, however, in shape and extent
of mobility : in general, it is broad, long, and rounded at the apex : it
is composed of muscles, and is based upon a peculiar bone, termed
the os hyoides (from its shape, which is supposed to resemble that of
the Greek v, upsilon). This bone consists of a body, or central por-
tion, and of lateral appendages, termed its cornua, which are continued,
by cartilage, to the basal part of the temporal bone.

The os hyoides varies greatly in figure, and in the proportions of its
parts, throughout the whole of the Mammalia ; and in a group of Ame-
rican Monkeys, termed Howlers (Mycetes), this bone presents a most
remarkable dilatation of its body, in the form of an enormous oval drum,
with thin osseous walls ; through an opening into
this drum passes a membraneous sac, distended with
air from the larynx ; and the vibrations of the air,
during the loud cries of these animals, are communi-
cated to the osseous case of the membrane, which acts
as a sounding board. (Fig. 130, represents the dilated
os hyoides of one of these species.)

yj In the Cetacea a principal feature of the os

o» Lyoid«, of Howling hyoides is its want of connexion with the larynx,

Moukey. m consequence of the elevated position of this tube.

The tongue is essentially composed of muscles ; which are either
proper (that is, not inserted into the os hyoides) or common (that is,
inserted into the os hyoides, or the lower jaw). Of the first series,
the greater number are in pairs ; that is, the same on each side : in the
Carnivora, there exists a bundle of cartilaginous fibres, enclosed in a
sheath, and running down the centre of the under surface of the tongue :
its form is worm-like ; and, indeed, it is known by the name of " the
worm." In the Dog, Cat, and Bear, it is very conspicuous : Blumenbach
has detected it in the Opossums, and Carus in the Mole. By its elas-
ticity it serves to give vigour to the movements of the tongue ; but, in
the Dog, it has been ignorantly regarded as the cause of rabies, or, at
least, as favouring the reception of this disease ; and hence it is often
cruelly torn away.

ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 129

The tpngue, then, is a muscular organ, provided with a vast multi-
tude of vessels and nerves, and covered with a delicate humid epithe-
lium, .or membrane, closely investing its papillae. Beneath this delicate
membrane there is, in animals generally (and remarkably so in the rumi-
nants), a reticular layer, of soft texture, termed the rete (or mesh) of
Malpighi, pierced by the papillae, which are, in many animals, consider-
ably elevated.

In numerous Mammalia the tongue is not only of use in turning the
food from side to side, or for assisting in deglutition, but it aids also in
collecting food : it acts as a feeler ; as a comb, or rasp ; and even as
an organ of prehension.

The Ox, with his free tongue, rolls the herbage of the meadow into a
sort of tuft, before seizing it between the gum pad and the lower in-
cisors : he also rasps his own coat, or that of his companion, with its
rough surface. In the Dog and Cat it is the sole agent, by which fluids
are conveyed into the mouth, by that action of the tongue termed "lap-
ping." The Giraffe twists his long, black, extensible tongue round leafy
branches of trees, in order to draw them toward his lips. In the Ant-
eater, the tongue is a long, slender, cylindrical organ, capable of great
extension, and covered with viscid saliva ; and it is the principal instru-
ment for conveying food into the mouth. This animal, having made for-
cible entrance into the houses of the Termite-ant, darts its tongue among
these insects, picks them up, and withdraws it, the action being rapid in
the extreme. In the Pangolins (Manis), the tongue is similarly con-
structed. In the Armadilloes (Dasypus), it is, also, long, slender, and
extensible ; moderately broad at the root, and gradually tapering to the
extremity. The Dasypus Peba may be seen to apply this instrument to
substances presented to it, with a rapid vibratile motion, reminding the
spectator of the manner in which the Wryneck (Yunx torquilla) uses
its long slender tongue, a id, apparently, with the intent, either by its
feeling, or sense of taste, of ascertaining its suitableness for food.

With respect to the sounds, or cries, uttered by the lower Mammalia,
the tongue has but little influence upon them ; its anterior portion, at
least, is but seldom, if ever, used, so as to produce a distinct consonant
utterance for the beginning or termination of any note or intonation. It is
otherwise in Man : here the tongue is an organ of speech ; not that it pro-
duces, but modifies, sound ; and the pronunciation of definite words, the
symbols of ideas, depends greatly upon its motions. In the formation of
consonant sounds, the lips, indeed, act a part, though a minor one, in com-
parison with the tongue. The consonant sounds of b, p, m, v, w, are
labial. Those of c, ch, s, sh, d, t, th, 1, r, tl, and others, which do not ob-
tain in our language, are produced by the pressure of the tongue against
the teeth, or the palate, with a discrimination acquired only by practice.

130 INTRODUCTION.

In Man, therefore, the tongue is not only subservient to his animal neces-
sities— it is not only an agent in the acquisition of a knowledge of certain
of the properties of bodies, by means of the sense of taste, but it is a most
important organ for the communication of our thoughts, wills, and feelings,
by the moulding of sounds into words, eTrea Trrepoevra, symbols to our ears,
and, once uttered, never to be recalled.

In many animals the cavity of the mouth is furnished with sacculi,
or sac-like appendages, commonly termed cheek -pouches, which open
into it, and serve as receptacles for food, which is carried in them, from
the spot where it is collected, to the retreats, or abodes, of the animals,
there either to be eaten immediately, or hoarded up for future use.
These cheek-pouches, in those of the Simiae which possess them, also
in the Hamster, the Arctomys, the Ornithorhynchus, &c., are formed
in the sides of the cheeks, exterior to the molar teeth, and run back
(lined with the membrane, which covers the cavity of the mouth), some-
times, to a great distance beyond the angle of the lower jaw, so as
to encroach upon the sides of the neck, as is seen especially in the
Hamster, the cheek-pouches of which, distended, are represented by the
following figure (131): the external skin, with the fur, is removed, so
as to exhibit their true form and extent. When filled with grain, they
are unloaded by the action of the muscles of the cheeks, and, among them,

by the greatly-developed buccinator.

In the Pacas (Ccelogenus), a group
of rodents, a fissure in the skin of the
cheeks, on each side, leads upward to
a cavity beneath the expanded zygoma :
but this cavity cannot be regarded as
a cheek-pouch ; it has no communica-
tion with the mouth, nor does it serve
as a receptacle for food: its use, in-

The Cheek-pouches of the Hamster. deed, is not Understood.

The lips having been mentioned, some notice may, in this place, be
taken of them ; and the rather, as, in several Mammalia, they are of
essential service, in the act of procuring food, or of transferring it to the
mouth.

All Mammalia have an upper and under lip, though, in many, the
under lip is slightly developed : they may be described as flexible mus-
cular curtains, covering the teeth, and forming, between them, the oral
orifice. Of their form, in the human species, little need be said : their
use, in the act of drinking, and the manner in which we close them during
the mastication of food, are well known ; but, besides their utility in
the reception of food, they are powerful in the silent expression of the
passions : by their varied movements, they denote mirth, or pleasure ;

ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 131

scorn, hatred, fear, and terror ; grief and agony : they have, also, a set-
tled or habitual expression resulting from their contour, which impresses
us with ideas of sternness, or of moroseness ; gentleness, or of good-nature.
In the lower Mammalia, though the lips may quiver with pain, their
movements, in general, are but an imperfect index of the feelings : the
smile of pleasure, and the curled lip of scorn, belong to Man alone. In
many animals, as the Cat, Dog, Hare, Rabbit, &c., the upper lip is more
or less bifid, or indented by a deep vertical division. In the Cat tribe, both
the lips are short, and of little use in the prehension of food ; but the
sides of the upper one are thickly beset with long bristles, the bulbs, or
roots, of which are in contact with nervous fibrils (branches of the superior
maxillary chord of the fifth pair), and are thus agents of touch. Noc-
turnal animals, in general, are provided with these feelers, as aids to the
eye, and as guiders in their stealthy movements. In many animals the lips
are capable of great protrusion, and possess a prehensile power of consi-
derable extent. The proboscis of the Elephant is but its upper lip
singularly elongated, and modified by the extension of the nostrils to its
extremity : but, setting aside this extraordinary proboscis, great mobi-
lity will be found in the lips of other animals. In the Rhinoceros, for
example, the under lip is broad and thick, and the upper is singularly
moveable : the Rhinoceros can protrude the latter, in the form of a cone,
or finger, twist it round food offered for reception, and turn the mor-
sel into his mouth : he can collect hay, or vegetables, by its means,
with great facility, or pick up the smallest fragments. The lips of the
Horse, again, are prehensile : by their means he seizes hay, or corn,
between his lips, and compresses the grass of the field into tufts, direct-
ing them between the teeth. The naked, slimy, upper lip, or muzzle, of
the Ox, on the contrary, has no such prehensile power ; but his tongue
avails him for the same purpose. In the Camel (and the same obser-
vation applies to most hairy-muzzled ruminants) the lips are truly pre-
hensile. The upper lip of this animal is cleft, and the two parts are
not only capable of being protruded, but of being compressed toge-
ther, so as to hold, between them, the branches, or twigs, of the dry
shrubs of the desert, and thus gradually to pass them into the mouth.
In the Hare and Rabbit, the bifid upper lip has a prehensile power,
though it is not capable of being protruded : the latter holds in its
lips a stalk of the dandelion, and gradually passes it back into the
mouth, till the whole is masticated. The upper lip of the Great Ant-
eater (Myrmecophaga jubata) is very flexible, and serves to take up
food ; being an assistant, in this respect, to the tongue of the animal.

Among the Carnivora, the Sloth-bear (Prochilus labiatus) is remark-
able for the mobility and power of protrusion enjoyed by the lips, between
which it seizes, with great address, food proffered for reception. In

132 INTRODUCTION.

general, however, the lips of the Carnivora are of no avail as organs for
the prehension of food. The true Cetacea have marginal lips only,

Among the aquatic Pachydermata, the Duyong has the muzzle broad
and flat ; and the sides of the upper lip are garnished with short, thick,
wiry bristles : it feeds upon the submarine algae and fuci, which grow upon
the rocks of the Indian seas ; but the extent to which it uses its upper
lip is not ascertained : most probably, its voluminous tongue, the surface
of which is covered with long villous papillae, is of important service.
The wiry bristles of the upper lip are, doubtless, feelers.

Leaving this discursive review of the tongue and lips, it may be ob-
served, as a general rule, that the food of all Mammalia, whatever it may
be, when taken into the mouth, is not swallowed without the addition of
certain fluids, afforded by various glands, in which it is secreted : of these
fluids, the principal is the saliva. The glands, ih which this fluid is elabo-
rated, are several ; namely, the parotid, placed before the ear, and at the
back of the articulating branch of the lower jaw ; the submaxiilary,
placed at the inner side of the posterior angle of the lower jaw ; and
the sublingual, placed at the root of the tongue. Besides the saliva, a
mucous fluid is furnished, from numerous crypts in different parts of
the cavity of the mouth. The use of the saliva,* or, rather, one of
its uses, is to moisten the food previously to its being swallowed. In
herbivorous animals, as the Ox, which grind their food to a pulp, the
salivary glands are very large, and secrete abundantly : the process of
chewing excites their elaborative action, and they supply their fluid in the
requisite quantity. Even the appearance of food, placed before an
animal in a state of hunger, causes a flow of saliva. When the general
system is diseased, or labouring under fever, the action of the salivary
glands is suspended, the mouth is dry, and the tongue parched with
thirst. Duly prepared, then, by the teeth, and moistened with saliva, the
food, by means of the action of the tongue and muscular wall of the
pharynx, is passed into the oesophagus, or tube leading into the stomach.
The oesophagus is muscular, its parietes, which consist of longitudinal
and of circular fibres, forming a tunic of considerable thickness : inter-
nally, it is lined with a smooth membrane, lubricated by a mucous fluid,
poured out from crypts dispersed over it. In the herbivorous Mammalia
it is narrower than in the Carnivora. In some herbivorous animals
the fauces, forming the back of the mouth, are funnel-shaped, opening
into the oesophagus, through a small orifice, surrounded by a sphincter
muscle of circular fibres, allowing only of the gradual transmission of
food, which has been previously reduced to a thorough pulp. The

* The saliva, besides tempering the food, moistens the mouth, and renders the action of the tongue
free and precise : in addition to which, according to M. Donne, it neutralizes, by the free alkali it con-
tains, the excess of acid in the gastric juice, in the intervals between digestion.

ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 133

Capybara, the Coipus, the Capromys, the Beaver, &c., present us with
this construction of the fauces, which was first pointed out in the
Capybara, by Mr. Morgan, in Linn. Trans., from whose illustration,
engraved in that work, the annexed figure (132), representing the

funnel-shaped constriction of the
fauces, a, and the minute ceso-
phageal opening, with its sphincter
muscle, 6, is taken. (See, also, ac-
count of dissection of the Capromys,
in Proceed. Zool. Soc. L., 1832, p.
73 ; and of the Coipus, idem, 1835,
p. 175.)

By the muscular action of the
oesophagus, the food is carried

Fauces of the Capybara. . , , . . .

through that tube into the stomach,

the laboratory of digestion. Hitherto the food has only undergone a
mechanical operation, — the separation of its parts, or their reduction to
a soft consistence ; it has now to be converted, by a chemical process,
into such a state as to render it fit for being taken up by the lacteals,
and for ultimately entering into the composition of the living frame.
The principal agent, in effecting this digestive process, is a peculiar
fluid, termed the gastric juice, secreted by the coats of the stomach,
and which has the singular property of dissolving, or converting, jnto a
pulp (termed chyme), all the substances adapted by nature as the food of
any given species ; for it would appear, from various experiments, that
the especial food of one animal, introduced into the stomach of another,
with whose nature it is not consonant, remains almost wholly unaf-
fected.* But, besides the gastric juice, which appears to be the secre-
tion of minute glands, though it is impossible, in most instances, to de-
tect them, a mucous, or mucilaginous fluid is poured out into the sto-
mach, the product of various mucous glands, or follicles, and of use in
defending the inner coat of the stomach from irritating substances. In
the stomach of the Beaver, at its cardiac portion, there is a curious glan-
dular apparatus, of a structure resembling that of the tonsils, being com-
posed of numerous small glands, or follicles, forming an aggregate of
about one inch and a quarter in length, and half an inch in thickness,
which, by numerous apertures, pour out a viscid secretion : in the Dor-
mouse, a similar structure exists ; and also in the Wombat and the Koala,
two marsupial herbivorous animals : this cardiac gland exists, also, in the
Duyong.

* A very remarkable property of the gastric juice is that of correcting putrefaction : it possesses,
also, the property of coagulating every animal fluid, — as milk, the white of an egg, jelly, &c., a preli-
minary to its solution of them into chyme.

134 INTRODUCTION.

The stomach (fig. 133) is divided into a cardiac and a pyloric portion.
The oesophagus, a, opens into the cardiac portion, b ; the pyloric portion,
c (which is thicker and more muscular than the cardiac), is that nearest to

the intestinal canal, and opens into it, by
an orifice, termed the pylorus, or pyloric
orifice, at the point, d; an aperture provided
with strong circular fibres, which, by their
action, close it up during the continuance
of the process of digestion.

In the Carnivora, the stomach is simple,
and lined throughout by a mucous mem-
simpie stomach. -a, the oesophagus; j, the brane ; but, in Man, and most animals with

cardiac portion of the stomach ; c, the pyloric

portion; d, the pylorus ; e, the duodenum, or a Simple Stomach, a slight COntraCtlOtt

commencement of the intestinal canal. i i i • • • i i T J

marks the division between the cardiac and

pyloric portions. In the cardiac portion of the stomach, to which the
food is first conveyed, it undergoes its preparatory digestive operation, and
is gradually transferred from that to the pyloric portion, which is the true
digestive division of the stomach. In many animals the cardiac portion is
a receptacle, in which the food may be softened, previously to its gradual
transmission to the pyloric portion, rather than a laboratory. Hence,
in many animals, as the Hare, the Water-rat, the Hamster, &c., the
cardiac and pyloric portions are so divided as to communicate by a
narrow channel, through which the food is transmitted by the muscular
action of the cardiac portion, which is lined with a smooth cuticular
membrane, or epithelium, while the pyloric portion is coated with the
normal villous membrane.

In the Horse, the Hippopotamus, the Hyrax, &c., the left, or cardiac
portion, is lined with a thick, white, epithelium, having an abrupt mar-
ginal termination at the commencement of the villous lining of the pyloric
portion. Among the Edentata, the stomach of the Manis presents a
similar structure.

In many animals, piscivorous, and purely herbivorous, the stomach is
much more complex than in the animals above noticed ; and, instead of
being simply divided by a constriction into two parts, is separated into
various compartments, or has, appended to its cardiac portion, various
sacculi, or supernumerary cavities, for the maceration of the food before
entering that of the pyloric division.

In the true Cetacea the stomach consists of several compartments,
succeeding from the left to the right, and communicating with each
other by means of narrow orifices. Among these divisions, it is the
first, or left, info which the oesophagus (which is short and spa-
cious) directly opens ; the last is the true pyloric portion. Cuvier
estimates the number of these compartments to be four ; Meckel, three ;

ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 135

Cuvier's fourth being, in his opinion, only the commencement of the
duodenum, greatly dilated, as in birds. The first stomach, into which
the oesophagus enters, is more or less rounded, very muscular, and lined
with a horny tissue, or epithelium (a continuation of the epithelium of the
oesophagus), and deeply furrowed. The thickness and hardness of this
membrane is greatly augmented toward the entrance of the first com-
partment into the second ; at which part the tunic presents elevations of a
tooth-like figure. The second compartment is narrower than the first,
and its lining membrane is much thicker : it is, moreover, deeply plicated,
longitudinally, as well as transversely, at its upper part, where its thick-
ness is decreased, and the epithelium abruptly interrupted.

The third cavity is narrower and much more elongated than the pre-
ceding, and rather resembles a portion of intestine than of the stomach :
it is lined by a smooth, moist, flexible membrane, and is destitute of
epithelium : the pyloric orifice is very narrow.* Cuvier observes, that
" the first stomach of the ordinary Cetacea appears to have been
modified, like their skin, by the aquatic habitat of these animals : it
takes the place of organs of mastication. The second, more glandular,
supplies, "by its abundant juices, the want of salivary glands ; the
others answer tolerably well to the manyplus and rud of ruminants."

Among the Pachydermata several are
remarkable for the complex character
of the stomach. In the Peccary two
pouches are added, to enlarge, as it
were, the cardiac portion : in the
Duyong the stomach is not only di-
vided, but has pouches superadded, as
well as a cardiac gland. The stomach
of the Kangaroo, one of the Marsu-
pialia, is curiously sacculated ; as it is
also in the Sloths. In the Ant-eaters,
Pangolins, Armadilloes, and Manis, it
is of a more or less globular figure, the
oesophagus and pylorus approaching
each other: the pylorus is of a conical

Stomach of nine-banded Armadillo. -a,o, the car- figure, and VCry ITiUSCUJar, with a

diac portion ; 6, the pyloric portion ; c, the radiation /»•••./»

of tendinous fibres, spreading from the pyloric por- *ber OI radiating IlbrCS Ott its

tion; d, the oesophagus ; e, the pylorus. c c , ,

surface, 01 a glossy lustre, passing up,

like a band, from it to the cardiac portion, which, in the stomach of
the Dasypus Peba, is slightly contracted in the centre, and exhibits a
tendency to the pouched, or sacculated condition, without, however,
really assuming it. The above sketch (fig. 134) represents the sto-
mach of the nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypus Peba).

* See MeckePs Anat. Comp.

136 INTRODUCTION.

Among the Quadrumana, one group of the Monkey tribes (the
genus Semnopithecus) is remarkable for the sacculated condition of the
stomach, no less than for its amplitude.

It is, however, in the Rurm'nantia, that the most complicated structure
of the stomach prevails — a structure connected with the process of rumi-
nation, or the return to the mouth, and remastication, of the herbage,
coarsely ground and swallowed, but which is to be remasticated to a
fine pulp, and then transferred to a different compartment from that
into which it was previously conducted. The stomach of the Ruminantia
consists (as seen in figs. 135, 136) of four distinct cavities : the oesopha-
gus, a, enters the first of these, viz., the rumen, or paunch, b, b, divided
by a muscular band into two pouches : to this succeeds the reticulum,
or honeycomb, c ; then the maniplus, or manyfolds, d ; and, lastly, the
abomasum, or rud, e, the true pyloric cavity, in which digestion really
takes place.

135 136

Stomach of Ox, two views.

Fig. 135, external; 13rl, laid open, so as to expose the internal structure.— a, the ossophagus; b, bt the rumen; c, the
reticulum; d, the mauiplus; e, the abomasum; /, the intestine.

It may be observed, that, between the most simple form of stomach,
and the most complicated, there are many intermediate grades ; and
that, among the most simple, and, also, the most complicated, im-
portant modifications occur, both as to form, the character of the lining
membrane, amplitude, and various other particulars. Hence it is, that
Cuvier divided the complicated class of stomachs into such as are simply
so, being composed of sacculi, or compartments, all having the same lining
membrane, and into compound stomachs (composes), which, in addition
to being complicated, are lined with membranes diversly organized. In
the same way may simple stomachs be divided : some, instead of being
universally lined with a mucous tissue, have the cardiac portion lined with

ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 137

a cuticular epithelium, as those of the Horse, the Rhinoceros, &c. ; and
some, again, as those of the Beaver, the Dormouse, &c., have a glandular
apparatus, in the cardiac portion, for the secretion of a mucous fluid.

This singular gland is seen in the
accompanying sketch (fig. 137)
of a portion of the stomach of
the Beaver : — the gland is partly
dissected, in order to shew its
conglomerate structure. Of the
ever-varying details presented
by the stomachs, both simple and
complicated, of the Mammalia,
a more detailed description will
be given, as each order, or fa-

Cardiac gland or the stomach of Beaver. ^J^ CQmes under review.

The commencement of the intestinal canal is termed the duodenum ;
and into this portion of the intestine two important secretions are poured
— one, the bile, secreted by .the liver ; the other, the pancreatic juice, a
fluid closely resembling saliva, and secreted by the pancreas, a large
gland, which, spreading beneath the mesentery (to which it is at-
tached), extends from the spleen, encircled by the fold of the duo-
denum. The use of the bile, and of the pancreatic juice, is not well
understood ; the never-failing presence, however, of organs for their ela-
boration, proves their importance. In most animals there is, beneath
the liver, and attached to it, a sac, termed the gall-bladder, acting
as a reservoir for the bile ; but this is not universally the case. It
is wanting in the Rhinoceros, Elephant, Hyrax, Hippopotamus, Pec-
cary, and Tapir, but is present in the Hog : it is wanting in the
Horse and its congeners : it is absent in many of the Rodentia, as Geo-
rychus, Cricetus, Mus agrarius, minutus, decumanus, musculus, sylva-
ticus, rattus, &c. ; also, in Loncheres, in Histrix dorsata, Histrix pre-
hensilis, and in several of the Squirrels. Among the Ruminantia, it
is wanting in the Camels and the Deer; in the Giraffe it is gene-
rally absent, sometimes present ; it is found in the Oxen, Sheep, and
Antelopes.

It may here be observed that, close to the cardiac portion of the
stomach, and connected with it by a fold of mesenteric membrane, lies the
spleen — a large, flat body, differing much in shape in different animals,
and consisting of a tissue of tortuous blood-vessels : its use has, hitherto,
baffled investigation.

The small intestines commence with the duodendum, and are some-
what artificially divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ilium : they are of
a muscular texture, lined, internally, with a highly vascular, delicate, vil-

138 INTRODUCTION.

lous membrane, often disposed in deep folds, or valvulae, and from which
exudes a lubricating, or mucous fluid, for its protection ; externally,
like the stomach, they are covered with a smooth, serous membrane.
In many of the Rodentia the duodenum is sacculated, or pyriform, at
the commencement. The small intestines are often highly convoluted,
generally longer than the large intestines, and bound to the spine
by a membrane, termed the mesentery, which enfolds them through-
out their length. In Man, and some of the lower Mammalia, the ex-
tent of the inner surface of the small intestines is increased by a regu-
lar series of transverse folds of the villous membrane, termed valvulae
conniventes : they are wanting in the Orang. Various mucous follicles
(glandulae aggregatae) are also disposed on their inner surface.

It is in the small intestines, after the mixture of the chyme with the
biliary and pancreatic secretions, that the formation of chyle takes
place : the mode of this change is imperfectly understood. By the
peristaltic action of the muscular fibres of the small intestines, the
digested pulp is moved gradually onward ; and a series of vessels,
termed lacteals, the absorbing mouths of which open on the lining mem-
brane, take up the chyle, in appearance like milk : these tubes traverse
the mesentery, where a system of conglobate glands (the mesenteric)
lie in their course, through which they pass, and at length merge into
the dilated origin of the thoracic duct, termed receptaculum chyli,
situated (in Man) on the first vertebra of the loins, to the right of
the aorta. This duct runs between the inferior muscles of the dia-
phragm (or muscular partition between the chest and abdomen), to
the right of the aorta ; it then ascends between the aorta and a vein
termed vena azygos ; it next crosses obliquely over to the left side,
behind the oesophagus and great curve of the aorta ; passes behind the
left carotid artery, and bends down, dividing into two branches, of which
the superior receives a large lymphatic vessel from the cervical glands ;
the two branches now unite, and the duct continues its course toward
the internal jugular vein, behind which it descends, and enters, at the
left side of this vein, into the left subclavian vein, through a valvular
orifice, mingling its contents with the blood, which is immediately trans-
ferred to the right cavities of the heart.

The coats of the lacteal duct, and those, also, of the lacteal vessels, are
thin and transparent : the former is provided with valves, so constructed,
as to allow the free passage of the chyle, but preventing its reflux.
If an animal be suddenly killed, an hour or two after a meal, and imme-
diately opened, the peristaltic action of the intestines will be seen in full
operation, and the lacteals will appear filled with their milky fluids :
these vessels, however, form only one part of the great absorbent
system of animals. Absorption takes place on the surface of the body,

ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 139

within the substance of the muscles, and in the cellular interstices be-
tween them. Mercury, opium, arsenic, &c. affect the condition of a
living animal, if applied to the skin, or to the surface of a wound ; and the
bite of a venomous serpent is followed by death, from the absorp-
tion of the poison ; but, beyond this, the very particles composing the
body itself are all gradually and progressively absorbed. The emacia-
tion of illness is owing, in a great measure, to the action of the absorbent
system, which takes away more quickly than the secreting vessels de-
posit. All that is absorbed is thrown into the blood, and what is useless
is expelled the system, partly by exhalant vessels, in the form of vapour,
or perspiration, and partly by means of the kidneys, which separate
from the blood its excrementitious portion, whence, by a tube (the
ureter) from each kidney, it is conveyed into the urinary bladder (in
Mammalia), and finally discharged.

Absorption takes place by means of a system of vessels, termed
the lymphatics, or lymph-carrying vessels ; their mouths, in the form
of pores, are universally spread over the surface of the body ; and
they are also multitudinous throughout its general structure. They unite
into large vessels, which ordinarily pass through glands, of which there
are several conspicuous groups in different parts of the body, and through
which the main lymphatic tubes take their course. In the neck, in the
axilla, and in the groin, these glands are very perceptible : whether
they are composed of cellular substance, or consist of a knot of lym-
phatic tubes, contorted and folded on each other, and surrounded by a
peculiar envelope, is not ascertained. Ultimately, the lymphatics merge
into the lacteal duct ; though it is asserted, by some anatomists, that
they communicate, in many places, immediately with the veins also ;
and this is very probable. Hence, by the nutritive vessels, or extreme
ramifications of the arterial system, on the one hand, and by the action of
the lymphatic system, on the other, the body is undergoing a perpetual
change. The use of food is to furnish to the blood a supply of nutritive
matter, in order that it may be ever prepared to meet the draught upon
its resources.

It has been stated, that the chyle is conveyed with venous blood
to the right cavities of the heart ; from the right ventricle of the heart,
it passes, mingled with the blood, through the ramifications of the
pulmonary artery in the cellular tissue of the lungs : here the vital fluid
becomes arterialized, by the action of the oxygen of the air we breathe,
and is returned to the left side of the heart, by means of the pulmonary
veins, to be thence distributed, a life-sustaining stream, to every part of
the system. How erroneous are the common ideas of the solidity of
animal bodies ! the frames of the massive Elephant, the thick-set, heavy
Rhinoceros, the huge Whale, are composed of millions of tubes —

140 INTRODUCTION.

arterial, venous, lymphatic, exhalant, and elaborative ; and, were the
heaviest exhausted of the fluids it contains, it would become a light
and shrivelled mass.

The small intestines, in most Mammalia, are very distinct from the
large intestines, into which they lead. The large intestines commence
by a pouch, more or less voluminous, termed the caecum, or caput
caecum coli : from this is continued the colon, often sacculated by bands
of muscular fibres running along its surface, contracting it into a series
of globular or ovoid pouches. From the lower part of the abdomen
(the iliac region), on the right side, where the caecum is placed, it mounts
up and crosses the upper part of the abdomen, under the edge of the
liver, sweeps down the left side, and, making a flexure (termed sigmoid,
from its resemblance to the Greek letter Sigma), assumes the name of
rectum. The internal lining is a mucous tissue, often disposed into val-
vulae, as in the human subject.

The caecum, in its volume and structure, bears, like the stomach
and intestinal canal (especially the small intestines), an immediate
relationship to the nature of the animal's diet. Other circumstances being
not contradictory, it may be taken as a rule, that animals existing ex-
clusively on vegetable food, have the caecum larger than those of car-
nivorous, or partly carnivorous, appetite : its state of complication,
moreover, is often in a sort of opposition to that of the stomach. Thus,
the diet being alike, animals with a very complicated stomach have the
caecum proportionately simple ; others, on the contrary, which have the
stomach simple, have the caecum not only very voluminous, but even
complex.

The presence of a caecum, and a definite division between the large
and small intestines, do not prevail in all Mammalia ; and, in most cases
where the intestinal canal is thus simplified, it is comparatively short.
In the Jnsectivora, in the Bears, Racoons, Coatis, and their allies, also in
the Polecats and in the Otters, there is no caecum, nor any rigid division
between the small and large intestines. In the Seals the caecum is either
wanting or it is very small ;* but in these piscivorous animals the in-
testinal canal is long. In the canine and feline races the caecum is of
inconsiderable development.

In the Cetacea, the intestinal canal is simple, but elongated ; being, to
the length of the body, as eleven or twelve to one : there is either no
caecum, or it is very rudimentary. Hunter states that, in the Balaena
rostrata, a small pointed caecum exists, like that of the Lion. In the genus

* In a specimen of the common Seal which the author had an opportunity of examining, a
small caecum existed ; the large intestines scarcely exceeded the small in circumference ; the total
length of the intestinal canal was fifty-two feet; the stomach was large; the pyloric portion elon-
gated, and bent suddenly upon the cardiac.

ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 141

C»cum of Oraug.

Balaenopterus, and also in the genus
Delphinorhynchus, there is a small
caecum.

In Man the caecum is tolerably
large and globular, with a long ver-
miform appendix, found only in the
human species, in the Chimpanzee,
the Orang, the Gibbons (in the last
very short), and in that marsupial
animal, the Wombat. In all the Si-
miae there is a well-developed caecum,
and also in the Lemurs. Fig. 138
represents the caecum of the Orang,
with a portion removed, so as to
shew the interior : a, the caecum ; b,
the vermiform appendage, seen hol-
low at its cut apex ; c, the entrance of the small intestines.

In the Ruminantia the intestinal canal is of great length, and the
139 caecum is long, smooth, and ample, terminating in a

blunt apex.

In the Pachydermata the caecum is generally
large and sacculated : in the Horse it is constricted,
by three bands of longitudinal fibres, into numerous
sacculi. In the Hyrax there is a triple caecal ap-
pendage (fig. 139) ; namely, a first, or true, caecum,
a, contracted into folds by three longitudinal
bands, and so made trifid at its extremity ; then,
at about the distance of two feet from this, the
colon, 5, opens into two conical caeca, c, c, having a
wide base, and narrowing to a vermiform termi-
nation. " In looking through the vertebrata," says
Professor Owen, " for an analogous formation of
the intestinal canal, we shall find the Hyrax stand-
ing almost alone in this respect. Among the Mam-
malia it is only in a few of the edentate species
that the double caecum is to be met with, as in
Myrmecophaga didactyla, Linn., and Dasypus sex-
cinctus, Linn., whilst in birds, although the double
caecum more generally prevails, yet an additional
single caecum, anterior to these, has only been found
in a few species."
In the Wombat there is a short, wide caecum, with a cylindrical ver-
miform process ; the colon is puckered into large sacculi, by two longi-

Triple caecum of Hyrax.

142

INTRODUCTION.

tudinal bands ; and, at somewhat more than five inches from the first
caecum, a second caecum presents itself, consisting of a pyramidal pouch,
of about three inches in length. (See Anat. of Wombat) by Prof. Owen,
in Proceedings of ZooL Soc. for 1836 ; p. 49, et seq.)

Among the Edentata, in the Dasypus Peba, there is merely a slight
dilatation of the colon, at the entrance of the ilium, but no true caecum ;
in the Dasypus sex-cinctus there are two short but wide caeca, between
which the small intestine enters the colon ; in the Myrmecophaga didac-
tyla there are two small oval caeca ; while in the Myrmecophaga Tamandua
there is no caecum. (See Cuvier's Lecons ; also Meckel.) There is no
caecum in the Sloths, which animals, as already stated, have the stomach
complicated.

In the Rodentia there is much diversity, as regards the caecum,
between the different genera, as well as in respect of the length of
the intestinal canal. In some, the large intestines exceed the small in
length ;* and, in most, the caecum is of enormous volume, far exceeding
the size of the stomach ; while the colon forms a kind of loop, or dupli-
cature, folding upon itself for a considerable distance, as in Capromys,
Coipus, Octodon, £c. In the genus Myoxus (Dormouse) there is no
caecum. In the Hares, Lagomys, Ancema, Agoutis, and Paca, the
caecum is very large, and sacculated by tendinous bands : in the genera
Mus, Bathiergus, Cricetus, Arctomys Sciurus, Dipus. &c. it is simple.
In the Hares, the caecum is at its maximum of development and com-
plication, its volume exceeding, by ten times, that of the stomach.

It would appear to be a general rule, that those of the Rodentia, such
as the Hares, which feed upon herbage, or succulent vegetable aliment,
have the longest and largest caecum ; that those which live upon grain,
as the Campagnols, the Hamsters, and the Lemmings, f and which are
very voracious, have also a caecum of great size, though, perhaps, in-

* Meckel observes, " In general, it may be established, that, among the rodents, the small intestines
are relatively shorter than the other portion. In the Beaver, the Mus amphibius, and Bathiergus,
the two portions are nearly of equal length ; or, -when there is a difference, they are as sixteen to fif-
teen, or as eight to seven. The proportion is still greater, as three to two, in the Beaver ; it is as
two to one in the Arctomys, the Hare, the Arvicola, and the Cricetus ; as five to one in the Hystrix, the
Ccelogenus, the Cavia ; as three to one in Pteromys, Hydrochoerus, and Sciurus ; as five to one in
Mus rattus, Mus musculus ; and, lastly, as five to one in Dasyprocta."

In Octodon, the small intestines are two feet six inches in length ; the caecum, three inches ; the
colon and rectum, one foot five inches and a half ; the length of the head and body together, seven
inches. In Capromys Fournieri (measuring, in the length of the head and body, one foot six inches),
the small intestines are seventeen feet ten inches; the caecum thirteen inches ; colon and rectum — (?)

In the Coipus, measuring, from nose to root of tail, one foot eleven inches, the small intestines
•were ascertained to be sixteen feet four inches ; the caecum one foot eleven inches ; the colon and
rectum four feet four inches.

t In the Lemming, the caecum is long (four inches), and sacculated at the base, whence it narrows
to an acute apex. Length of the small intestines, two feet six inches ; of the large, one foot seven inches
and a half. Length of the head and body of the animal, four inches and three quarters. The large
intestine, or colon, commences in the form of a loop, spirally twisted in its course, so as to appear
much shorter than it is in reality. — From Nutes of Diss. of Lemming, by the Author.

ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS, AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 143

ferior to that in the feeders upon succulent vegetables ; and that among
the omnivorous rodents, as the Black Rat (Mus rattus, L.), the caecum
presents the smallest proportions, In many genera, especially of the
murine group, the large intestine, after its origin, becomes narrower,
and forms numerous spiral convolutions on itself, the number of turns
being sometimes six: this peculiarity is observable in the Hamster, the
Lemming, the Spalax, and others.

In the marsupials a caecum generally exists ; in Phalangista the
caecum is long, and convoluted on the mesentery. In Dasyurus there is
no caecum. (See Account of Anat. of Dasyurus macrourus, in Proceed-
ings of Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 8.) In Didelphis the caecum is very short,
and simple. (See Account of Anat. of Didelphis Azarce, in Proceedings
of Zool. Soc. 1834, p. 102.) In the Kangaroo the caecum is rather larger,
and sacculated. In the Echidna the caecum is moderate ; but it is small
in the Ornithorhynchus.

The entrance of the small intestine into the colon is generally valvu-
lar, even where the caecum does not exist ; except, indeed, in the Bears,
Weasels, Otters, &c., and also in the Dasyurus.

The digested food having, in its passage through the small intes-
tines, parted with its chyle, the faecal part only is passed into the large
intestines, there to be accumulated, until nature requires its removal.
Where, however, the caecum, as in the Hare, is of extraordinary volume,
and the large intestines long and tortuous, it would appear that chyle
continues to be absorbed from the digested aliment in the colon, for a
considerable distance ; and, in carnivorous animals, destitute of a caecum,
this absorption most probably is continued till within a comparatively
short distance from the intestinal termination. The shortness of the
alimentary canal, the comparative simplicity of its course, and the absence
of a caecum, or, where present, its small size, together with the unsaccu-
lated condition of the colon, in carnivorous mammals, all tend to a quick
passage of the digested food, which, consisting of animal substances,
is assimilated with ease, while the excrementitious part, which might,
perhaps, run into a state of putrescence, has no impediments to delay
its expulsion.* In herbivorous animals, on the contrary, whose food
is of a lower kind of organization than that of the Carnivora, its delay
is requisite ; and, that none of the nutritious part be lost, it is passed
slowly over an extensive absorbing surface : hence the length and tor-
tuosity of the small intestines, the complexity of the caecum, puck-
ered into sacculi, and the sacculated or winding condition of the colon.

* In an insectivorous animal, Echinops Telfairi, Mart., the intestinal canal, simple, and destitute of
a caecum, measures nine inches, being not even twice the length of the animal, which is rather more
than five inches. — See Trans, Zool. Soc., 1839.

144

INTRODUCTION.

With regard to the proportionate length of the intestinal canal, as
compared with that of the body, it is, in Man, as about seven to one ;
in the Chimpanzee, as about six to one ; in the Simiae, generally, as
six or eight to one ; in the Carnivora, as three, five, or eight to one ;
in the Ruminantia, as eleven, or even twenty-eight to one ; in the Pachy-
dermata, as six, eight, or ten to one : in the Hyrax the intestinal canal
measures nine feet four inches, being six times the length of the head
and body.

In the Rodentia the length of the intestine varies with regard to the
body, but greatly exceeds it in all : in the Coipus the total length of
the intestine, including the caecum, is twenty-two feet six inches, the
head and body of the animal being one foot eleven inches, which is
about eleven to one : in Octodon it is as about seven and a half to one :
in the Seals it is as fourteen or fifteen to one.

Estimates of this kind, however, are not to be trusted, and are really
of less value than is imagined: the anatomist has to regard the capacity,
the valvulae, and the sacculi of the intestines, — conditions of structure,
which affect, materially, the extent of their inner surface, and for which
it is difficult to make due allowance ; but yet, without taking these con-
ditions into the calculation, the result cannot but be unsatisfactory in the
extreme : for it must be evident, that a very slender intestine, of great
length, may have a much inferior extent of inner surface to that of a
shorter intestine of greater volume, studded with elevated villi, furnished
with valvulae conniventes, or puckered into bold sacculi. The following
sketches represent the mucous lining of the duodenum of the Porpoise,

141

142

disposed in longitudinal folds (fig. 140) ; that of the small intestines of
the Bear, with its beautiful villous surface (fig. 141); and that of the
human colon, forming deep transverse valvulae (fig. 142).

THE INTEGUMENTS AND CLOTHING OF MAMMALIA.

145

Skin of Negro.

THE INTEGUMENTS AND CLOTHING OF MAMMALIA.

THE bodies of all Mammalia are invested with an external envelope,
more or less dense, more or less delicate, commonly denominated the
143 skin. The skin, however, is not a single sub-

stance, but consists essentially of the dermis, cutis,
or corium, and a double epidermal tissue ; the
lowermost of which, or that in immediate contact
with the corium, when coloured by a mucous
pigment, has been termed rete mucosum. Fig.
143 represents the section of the skin of a Negro,
with a portion of the external and of the internal
cuticle, or epidermis, turned down; the latter is
stained with the pigmentum nigrum, and is the
rete mucosum of many anatomists. That the pig-
mentum nigrum does not always imbue, even when
secreted by the corium, the internal epidermis, is proved by several pre-
parations in the Royal College of Surgeons ; of one of which, the annexed
sketch (fig. 144), exhibiting a section of part of the in-
teguments of the Porpoise, is a representation. This
preparation shews the cuticle divided into two layers,
of which the external is, apparently, about to be cast
off. The internal, or that next the cutis, would appear
to be made up of fibres, passing perpendicularly to
the surface ; but that appearance is owing to the pre-
sence of innumerable canals for the reception of the
long villi of the corium. The pigmentum forms a thin
layer beneath this cuticle, but is not mixed with it, or
extended to the surface, so as to influence its colour.*

In the skin of the abdomen of the bottle-nosed Whale (Delphinua
145 146

Tursio, Fabr.), which is white, there is no apparent pigment, but the ex-

* In the red-coloured legs of the Turkey, and other birds, the pigment forms a varnish beneath
the cuticle, as though a pencil, dipped in carmine, had spread a thin layer over the limb ; and it is as
easily washed away as if it had been thus laid on.

VOL. I.

146

INTRODUCTION.

ternal cuticle (see fig. 145), though thin, is very apparent: the internal
cuticle is a line in thickness, and presents a minutely wrinkled surface
on its outer layer.

On the skin of the back of the same animal (fig. 146) the colouring
matter is abundant, not only between the internal cuticle and the corium,
but between the two layers of the cuticle also, giving a dark colour to the
surface of the body. The rete mucosum, then, is only the internal cuticle
imbued, during its secretion, with a coloured pigment, which may, as is
proved, be deposited, in the form of a separate layer of mucus, and readily
washed away. The demonstration of the presence of this pigment is much
more easy in the Negro than in the white races of mankind : indeed, in the
latter, many physiologists and anatomists have been disposed to doubt, if
not deny, its existence ; yet, if it be really to this mucous layer that the
colour of the skin is owing, the varieties of complexion among the white
races of mankind, from olive to the fairest blond, sufficiently prove its
presence, however delicate its tint, or slight its quantity. In many animals
the colour of the skin is very fugitive. The rich violet and scarlet on the
muzzle of the Mandrill, and the fine orange on the face of the Douc
Monkey, fade soon after death, scarcely a trace of the original tints being
left behind. The skin of many of the Monkeys, when seen through the
fur, as on the chest and abdomen, is blue ; but, when the skin is taken off,
after death, and dried, all the colour is gone.

The corium, cutis, or true skin, is that which immediately covers the
muscles, fat, or cellular tissue beneath ; it is the innermost of the three
membranes, and varies much in thickness and density in different animals,
but is always flexible and elastic. It is composed of dense gelatinous
fibres, crossing each other in every direction, and, as it were, felted
together, so as to produce a compact and strong tissue, with numerous
perforations at given intervals. On the external surface of the skin the
fibrous tissue is so closely and compactly interwoven, as to exhibit
a smooth, continuous, membrane-like texture : on its internal, or adher-
ing aspect, it presents a looser structure ; and its fibrous threads merge
into those of the cellular, or adipose tissue, in contact with it, and over
which it is spread. Immersion in water, by separating the fibres of the
cutis, or chorion, and rendering their intervals more distinct, demon-
strates the arrangement of them, and of the tubular perforations, by
which the fibrous tissue, through the whole thickness of the cutis, is
penetrated, and which serve for the passage of hairs, of exhalants, and
of absorbents, as they come to the surface.*

The cutis is permeated in every direction by numberless arterial

* It is the cutis, or true skin, only, of which, by the process of tanning, leather is formed, the
cuticle, and all other parts, are separated previously to its immersion in the tan-pit. The structure of
the skin becomes impregnated with the principle called tannin.

THE INTEGUMENTS AND CLOTHING OF MAMMALIA. 147

and venous ramifications, the fine capillary terminations of which form,
on its surface, a network so minute, so interwoven, that the puncture of the
most slender needle is followed by a drop of blood : their numbers
baffle the utmost stretch of imagination. To these, predominating in size
on the cheeks, is owing the roseate hue of health : they evidently possess
a certain independency of action, and are influenced by the emotions of
the mind : hence the sudden flush of anger, the pallor of rage, and the
blush of shame. Many of these minute capillary tubes admit only the
serous portion of the blood, excepting when exercise or mental emotion
increases their action : multitudes open, by minute orifices, under the •
name of exhalants, transmitting a vapory exhalation, which, when con-
densed on the surface, is known as perspiration, or sweat. In addi-
tion to the exhalants, there are cutaneous follicles, secreting an unctuous
fluid, the excretory tubuli of which, also, open on the surface of the skin,
piercing through the epidermis. The absorbents, or opening tubes of
the lymphatics, are almost as numerous as the blood-vessels ; and the
nerves are equally multitudinous.

The nerves, indeed, seem to form a sort of villous tissue of their own,
on the surface of the cutis, which has been described, by Bichat, as the
" corps reticulaire," and, by others, is termed the nervous, or papillary
tissue. These papillae, which are often of a conical shape, consist of
fibres, like the hairs of a pencil ; and they are most distinct and abundant
where the sense of touch is most acute. On the palms of the hands, on
the tips of the fingers, under the nails, on the tongue, and on the soles
of the feet, in Man, they are in vast abundance, close together, and
arranged in regular lines, straight or winding : on the snout of the Mole
and Hog, and on the naked under-surface at. the extremity of the tail of
the Spider Monkey, the Opossum, &c., they are also very discernible.
Their existence on the skin of the Cetacea has not been detected.

Fig. 14T exhibits a section of the corium of the
Elephant, shewing it to be composed of an inter-
lacement of dense white fibres, of a ligamentous
nature, the interstices being occupied by the nervous
papillae, and by the vascular tissues concerned in
exhalation, absorption, and the secretion of the co-
louring and horny materials of the pigment and the

Corium of Elephaut. CUticle

The epidermis, or cuticle, consisting of an outer and inner layer,
is the external investment : it is thin and transparent, except in certain
parts of the body, where it assumes a degree of thickness according
to circumstances : on the palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet,
for instance, it is much thicker than on the body generally ; and on the
palms of hard labourers, especially those who use the spade and the

14-8 INTRODUCTION.

plough, it acquires, by continued friction, an almost horny texture. It
is capable of being raised by a blister, or by scalding water, from the
subjacent parts, and is, itself, insensible, being destitute of nerves :
indeed, neither these, nor vessels or tubes of any kind, enter into its
composition : it is neither fibrous, cellular, nor laminated, but would
appear to be formed by the hardening of the superficies of the mucous
surface beneath. It is, in fact, extra-organic, a sort of natural garment,
designed as a defence to the tender surface of the cutis, and as a pre-
ventive of the pain, which would otherwise be produced by the actual
contact of even the air with the nervous papillae. We know how
sensitive the denuded skin is, when abraded by a blister ; how pain-
ful the least touch ; nay, how distressing a sensation a cold and
drying air will occasion ; and how the system sympathizes with the
irritation of the nervous papillae. Were it not for the epidermis, we
should not be able to use our hands as organs of touch ;* and, without
it, our bodies, subjected to the " rude elements" around us, would thrill
with agony.

The epidermis is most accurately adapted to the cutis : it invests
the nervous papillae ; it admits the egress of the hairs ; it is perforated
by the minute exhalant tubes of the capillary vessels, the fine ducts of
the cutaneous or sebaceous follicles, and the orifices of the absorbents ;
yet it prevents the evaporation of the mucus, or of the moisture of the
c'utis, the softness and flexibility of which it duly preserves. The
beautiful lines which it presents on the palms, and on the tips of the
fingers, and the soles of the feet, are well known.

Where the body is covered with fur, as in most of the lower Mamma-
lia, the epidermis is often very thin, and, in some animals, it is so easily

separable after death, that their
skins are not to be preserved,
with the fur attached, without
difficulty; and it always be-
comes separated upon the com-
mencement of the putrefactive
process, slipping from the skin
in shreds.

On the dense, rough, naked
hide of the Elephant and the Rhinoceros, the cuticle is thick, and, in some
parts, almost horny, or studded with horny tubercles. On the tail of the
Beaver (fig. 148), the Rat, the Opossum, &c., it is semitransparent, and re-

* Shakspere observes, "The hand of little employment hath the daintier sense." (Hamlet.) Where
the epidermis is preternaturaHy thickened by hard labour, it is too complete a barrier between external
objects and the nervous papillae, and prevents accuracy or delicacy of touch ; it materially intercepts
the impression of agents upon the organs of the sense of feeling.

THE INTEGUMENTS AND CLOTHING OF MAMMALIA. 149

sembles the slough of a snake, which is, in fact, the epidermis of that
reptile. In the Cetacea it is smooth, and lubricated with an oleaginous
secretion, so as to prevent the macerating action of the water.

Such, then, are the nature and composition of the common integu-
ments, or skin, of the body : but the skin has appendages, destined for
various purposes — warmth, defence, or ornament, — which now claim
notice. These are hair, bristles, wool, and spines, scales and plates,
nails and horns.

Hair and wool, though they differ from each other in certain structural
peculiarities, are intrinsically the same ; and, therefore, until the differ-
ences be defined, they may be considered as one. Hair (including bristles
and wool) is of a horny texture, and grows from a secreting vascular
bulb, or root, seated below the cutis : from this bulb the hair is gradually
evolved : passing through a canal of reflected integument, which traverses
the corium, it emerges from the surface of the skin, and continues to
grow till it has acquired its full development. The intimate structure of
hair has been the subject of very opposite opinions. Leuwenhoeck
says, that hair consists of little strings, of which a thousand or more,
according to the thickness of the hair, combine to make it up : but
he was not able to determine the nature of these strings, though he
is disposed to consider them hollow. (See Phil. Trans. 1678, xii.)
Hooke (Micographia), speaking of the hairs of the head, in the human
subject, states, that, for the most part, they appeared to be cylindrical,
according to his microscopic experiments ; that some of them were
prismatic ; but that, generally, they were nearly round : he also ob-
serves that, throughout their length, they were transparent, although not
very clear ; the end nearest the root resembling a black, transparent
piece of horn. The roots of the horn were apparently smooth, and
tapering inward, somewhat in the form of a parsnip ; but were, as far
as he ascertained, destitute of filaments, or any vessels like the fibres of
a plant. The top, when split (as long hairs frequently are), resembled
the end of a stick beaten until frittered, there being, sometimes, half
a score splinters, or more. According to the same writer's experiments,
these hairs appeared to be solid, cylindrical bodies ; not pervious, like a
cane or bulrush, nor having an internal pith, or external rind, as in
Horse's hair, Deer's hair, and the bristles of a Cat.

It is singular, however, that the hair of the Horse and of the Deer,
and the whiskers of the Cat, should be pervious, and that the hair of
the head in Man should be solid : the inference, granting the correctness
of the statement respecting the hair of the Horse and Deer, is, that,
although Mr. Hooke failed in his endeavours to ascertain it, human hair
has the same internal structure ; and many circumstances tend to prove,
that it consists of an external rind, or sheath, and an internal pulp, or

150 INTRODUCTION.

pith : it would seem, besides, that the hair is not extra-vascular, as
has been supposed by many, although, undoubtedly, its growth is the
result of additions to its root, by the secreting power of the bulb.
The principle of vitality in the hair, may, indeed, be at a low ratio ;
nevertheless, in that singular disease, the plica polonica, the hair not
only enlarges in bulk, becoming swollen, and morbidly sensitive, but
it often admits the passage of the red arterial blood, and will bleed
when divided by the scissors ; a fact, in itself, sufficient to prove its
vascularity.* With regard to the difference between hair and wool, it
may be observed, that, in chemical composition, mode of growth, and
organic texture, they are the same ; but that they differ from each other
in certain points, till lately but little understood.

Hair is of two kinds, as respects its growth : one sort grows continually,
or, having attained its full extent, is not periodically shed ; if cut, it continues
to grow, like the incisor teeth of rodents, thereby demonstrating a persistent
activity of pulp — the mane of the Horse is an example. The second
sort, of which the fur of animals in general consists, grows to its full
extent, and, whether cut or not, is shed and renewed periodically.

The following illustration (fig. 149) will serve to shew the mode in
149 which hairs and bristles are developed

and pass through a membrane-line canal,
which traverses the corium.

The bulb, or root, consists of an in-
ner vascular pulp, «, invested with a
capsule, b. From the latter of these is
produced the outer part, or rind, of the
shaft of the hair, c ; from the former, the
inner, or central part, d. The whole bulb
is enclosed in a membranous cell, e,
to which it is not attached, but through
Growth of hairs. which the vessels and nerves, f, pass

to its pulp, a. This membranous cell, which encloses the bulb, is pro-
longed, as the shaft of the hair grows, to the surface of the skin. That a
tubular structure of hair results from its mode of growth (the base of the
tube in the bulb being filled with pulp), seems to be very apparent ; but
the tube in the shaft of the hair is, perhaps, often obliterated, or filled with
a dry, spongy pith. When hair falls away, it is in consequence of the
cessation of vital energy in the bulb, its blood-vessels becoming obliterated,
and, consequently, the supply of nourishment being cut off. Hair, how-
ever, is renewed, as are feathers after the moulting of birds ; a new bulb

* Grief, sudden terror, or long illness, turn the hair white ; and, as will be noticed more par-
ticularly in a future part of this work, its colour is affected by temperature.

•

THE INTEGUMENTS AND CLOTHING OF MAMMALIA. 151

being formed. The greyness of hair, from age, results from a deficiency
both of nutriment and colouring matter : the loss of hair, in old age (often,
indeed, at an earlier period), not followed by a renewal, is in consequence
of the secreting energies of the arterial system having begun to fail.

Bristles and spines are modifications of hair: they assume various
forms, and are more or less rigid. In a genus among the Rodentia
(Echimys), the spines, which are mixed with soft hairs, are bayonet-
shaped (fig. 150, of which a is a section) : in the Hedgehog (fig. 151),
and the Porcupine (fig. 152, of which 6 is an enlarged section), these
spines are sharp, rigid, and highly developed.

150 151

152

Bristles of Echimys, Hedgehog, and Porcupine.

If the skin of the Hedgehog be examined, the quills, with their roots
and sockets, may be seen extending to different depths, according to the
period of their growth. The newly-formed ones are deep, and terminate
in a broad basis ; but, as the growth of the quill proceeds, the reflected
integument, forming the socket, contracts, and draws the quill nearer the
surface. The pulp is, at the same time, progressively absorbed, so that,
at last, the quill is attached to the surface of the skin by a narrow neck
only, with a small terminal head, for firmer adhesion, below which the
remains of the socket and sheath exist in the form of a small bulb.

A similar mode of growth is exemplified in the spiny quills of the
Porcupine : these spines consist of a smooth, glossy envelope of horn, and
an inner pith, or medullary substance, of a soft texture, and of a pure
white. They grow from a bulbous root, formed within a cell below the
cutis, and containing, also, a portion of fat, in which the vessels, supplying
its pulp and capsule, are imbedded. The capsule consists of two mem-
branes, of which the innermost secretes the horny envelope, while the pulp
supplies the pith of the spine. The bulb is, itself, surrounded with a
membranous sheath, into the cavity of which, as discovered by F. Cuvier,
a duct opens, proceeding from a follicle, seated in the adjacent cellular
tissue, and partially divided into an upper and lower cavity, filled with
an unctous matter, which, during the formation of the spine, is transmitted
through the duct, either as a lubricating fluid, or as entering into its
composition.

The diagram (fig. 153), representing the bulb of the quill, or spine,
of the Porcupine, may serve to illustrate the foregoing remarks : «,
is a cut section of the root, in a capsule, 6, consisting of two mem-

152

INTRODUCTION.

Capsule and bulb of a cnticiilar spine
of a Porcupine

branes ; the pulp, c, which secretes the spine, has its surface fluted,
153 so that the horny matter deposited on it is

" '-.T moulded into diverging lamina}, carried up the
shaft, as the latter is pushed onward, whence
the quill has the appearance of being grooved,
— as, indeed, it would be, were not these la-
minae covered with a horny secretion from the
membrane of the capsule, as the quill recedes
from the pulp : c?, is the cell in which the bulb
is contained, and in which the vessels to sup-
ply the pulp and the capsule are distribut-
ed ; e, is the semi-divided crypt, containing
unctuous matter poured into the capsule during
the formation of the quill ; f, the cellular tissue ;
g, the skin.

If one of these spines be divided (as b, fig. 152), lines of the corti-
cal, glossy matter (black or white, according to the black or white part of
the spine which is cut) will be seen converging regularly from the external
coat, through the pith, to a central point, to which they are directed, or, vice
versa, from which they radiate to the envelope. The colouring matter is
only deposited on the glossy or horny envelope, and such is the case
with all hairs. It has been supposed, that the colour of the hair depends
upon that of the mucous tissue, through which it passes : the truth of
this may be doubted. The same cause, whatever that be, which colours
the mucous layer black, may also colour the hair, or bristles. In
variegated individuals of the Hog, for example, we find the patches of
black bristles growing from a black surface, the white bristles from a
white surface ; but there is no proof in this, that,
because the mucous layer is black, therefore the
hair is black. The beautiful blue colour of the
skin of the chest and abdomen in several Monkeys
has been already alluded to ; the hair of these
parts is white : again, in the human subject, jet
black hair sometimes accompanies the fairest
white complexion. Many animals have the
hair ringed with alternate bands of different
colours ; the skin beneath being white or whitish ;
and, in several, the hairs have a metallic lustre
(Aulocodus and Chrysochloris, for example),
without any correspondence in the colour of the

Bristles of Hog. HIUCOUS tisSUC.

The annexed figure (154) represents a section of the skin on the back of
the Hog. The cut surface exhibits the canals in the corium, containing the

THE INTEGUMENTS AND CLOTHING OF MAMMALIA.

153

roots of the bristles ; one of which, a, has been extracted, leaving a conical
pulp affixed to the bottom of the canal.

The following engravings exhibit,^ respectively, a section of the skin of
the lips of the Lion (fig. 155), and of the Sea Lion (Phoca leonina, fig. 156),

Whiskers of the Lion.

W hiskers of the Sea Lion.

•*:••?:• -•:' ^<*;

in which the sockets and bulbs of the whiskers are exposed, and the large
nerves displayed, which pass to them, rendering the whiskers feelers.

The hair of animals is usually arranged, with a certain degree of regu-
157 larity, in different forms or figures, the disposition of

which is best seen when the hairs are removed, the
orifices of the canals through which they passed being
exposed. The figures assumed by these orifices vary
materially: the annexed figure (157) shews their
rosette-like arrangement on the skin of the Camel.

Most animals have both wool and hair as their
clothing,* but the preponderance of the one over
the other differs materially in various animals, and
may be altered by climate, and other influences. The Sheep, in our
portion of the globe, the Llama of Chili, the Yak of Tartary, the
Camel, &c., are clad, almost exclusively, with wool. Abundance of
wool is mixed with the hair of the Deer; even the Tiger and the
Seal are not destitute of it ; and it abounds in the fur of the Hare, the
Beaver, the Chinchilla, and others ;-f but is always overlayed by the

Surface of Camel's skin.

* The Blood-horse of England is destitute of any particle of wool ; but the shaggy Pony of the
mountains of Wales, or of the bleak Shetland Isles, is half clad with it.

t " My opinion," says Mr. Flint, " is, that, with few exceptions, the covering of quadrupeds is
a mixture of hair and wool, varying greatly in their proportions to each other. Let us consider then
in their native state : they are exposed to the vicissitudes of the seasons, and, therefore, need a

VOL. I. X

154* INTRODUCTION.

hair. From the earliest times, wool has been known to possess the pro-
perty of felting, and felted cloth is of great antiquity. Pliny observes,
that wool of itself, driven into a felt, without spinning or weaving, serves
to makes garments ; and that, if vinegar be used in the working, such
felts are proof against the edge, or point, of the sword, and are capable
of arresting the progress of fire. (Lib. viii.) Mantles and counter-
panes of felt were used at Rome.* Now, hair, however long or deli-
cate it may be, does not possess the felting quality. In what, then, con-
sists this property in the one, and to what is to be attributed its absence
in the other ? And here, in justice, reference must be made to Mr. Youatt
(see his work on the " Sheep"), to whom the credit is due of demon-
strating the true characters of wool, the principles of felting, and the
difference between wool and hair.

Many are the theories upon which philosophers have attempted to
account for the felting of wool. The attraction of cohesion ; the elas-
ticity of the fibres, bent in every possible direction, and prevented from
returning to their original length by the adhesion of other fibres ; the
property, which certain hairs and vegetable filaments have, of attaching
themselves more and more to each other, in proportion as the fabric into
which they are united is beaten, — the fibres entangling each other in
circlets, and, by their elasticity, striving to return to their original
condition : these, and modifications of similar theories, were accepted
as a sufficient explanation. M. Monge was the first who ventured to
assert that a feathered, or barbed edge, must be the structure of the
surface of wool ; that " the surface is formed of lamellae, or little plates,
which cover each other from the root to the point, pretty much in the
same manner as the scales of a fish cover that animal from head to tail,
or like rows placed one over another, as is observed in the structure of
horns." On this theory, the truth of which M. Monge assumes, he ex-
plains the mechanism of felting, as accurately as though he had actually
seen the serrated edge of the wool.f

covering, at one time, to throw off the influence of the sun's rays, and, at another time, to retain the
animal warmth, when the surrounding temperature would otherwise rapidly withdraw it. Hair and
wool are bad conductors of caloric, and admirably adapted for both purposes, and they exist in actual
and relative quantity according to the altered situation and wants of the animal. Thus, in summer,
the fleece of the Arctic Hare is thin, as, I believe, is that of the Argali ; in winter, a fine wool fills
up the interstices between the hair, and protects the animal from the inclemency of the weather.
Here is an admirable provision for the wants of animals generally ; but we should stop short of the
exact adaptation of the fleeces to these wants, if we did not remark how necessary it is that the wool,
so indispensable to the retention of the warmth of the animal, should be protected by a coat of long,
smooth hair. Just imagine the Argali, or the Hare; or, to instance animals of the carnivorous genus,
the Sable, or Polecat, clothed with wool only, and what a miserable plight the poor animal would soon
be in ! The fleece would prove a constant impediment to its movements among underwood, if, indeed,
it were not entirely stripped off the back of the animal." — See Youatt on the "Sheep." p. 57 ; pub-
lished by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.

* Strong and thick felted covering, dyed with a pattern of various colours, has been found on
the body of a mummy from Thebes.

t " The workman," he says, "presses the mass with his hands, moving them backward and

THE INTEGUMENTS AND CLOTHING OF MAMMALIA. 155

M."Monge, however, did not see the peculiarity in question: and
it was reserved for Mr. Youatt to demonstrate it.* The true cause of
the felting property of wool, and, at the same time, its distinguishing
character, when contrasted with hair, consists, as ascertained by micro-
scopical experiments, in its serrated structure externally. When viewed
through a microscope of great power, and as a transparent object, the
fibre of wool assumes a ribbon-like form, with serrated edges ; but these
serrations, when the fibre is viewed as an opaque object, are found to
result from the presence of a succession of inverted cones encircling a
central stem, the apex of the superior cone being received into the cup-
like base of the inferior one ; and each cup-like cone has projecting and
indented edges, directed from root to point, as seen in figs. 158 and 159,
representations of Merino wool. These conical, or cup-like circlets,
are farther resolvable into distinct scales, or leaves, set regularly around

forward, in various directions ; this pressure brings the hairs against each other, and multiplies their
points of contact. The agitation gives to each hair a progressive motion toward the root ; but the
roots are disposed in different directions, in every direction ; and the lamellae of one hair will fix them -
selves on those of another hair, which happens to be directed a contrary way, and the hairs become
twisted together, and the mass assumes that compact form which it was the object of the workman to
produce. In proportion as the mass becomes compact, the pressure of the hands must be increased,
not only to make it closer, but, also, to keep up the progressive motion and twisting of the hairs, which
then takes place with greater difficulty." Thus near did M. Monge arrive at the truth.

* Mr. Youatt thus announces his discovery: " On the evening of the 7th of February, 1835, Mr.
Thomas Flint, woollen manufacturer, resident at Leeds ; Mr. Symonds, clothing agent, of Cateaton-street,
London ; Mr. T. Millington, surgeon, of London ; an esteemed friend, Mr. E. Brady, veterinary sur-
geon, at that time assisting the author in his practice ; Mr. W. H. Coates, of Leeds, veterinary pupil ;
Mr. Powell, the maker of the microscope ; and the author himself, were assembled in the parlour.
A fibre was taken from a Merino fleece, without selection, and placed on the frame, to be examined
as a transparent object. A power of 300 (linear) was used ; and, after Mr. Powell, Mr. Flint had
the first ocular demonstration of the irregularities in the surface of the wool, the palpable proof of the
cause of the most valuable of its properties, its disposition to felt. The fibre, thus looked at, assumed a
flattened, ribbon-like form. It was of a pearly-grey colour, with faint lines across it. The edges were
evidently hooked, or. more properly, serrated ; — they resembled the teeth of a fine saw. These
were somewhat irregular in different parts of the field of view, both as to size and number. The area
of the field was one-fortieth of an inch in diameter. By means of a micrometer, we divided this
into four, and we then counted the number of serrations in each division. Three of us counted all
four divisions ; for there was a difference in some of them. The number was set down privately, and
it was found that we had all estimated it at fifteen in each division. Having multiplied this by four,
to obtain the whole field, and that by forty, the proportionate part of an inch of which the field
consisted, we obtained, as a result, that there were 2400 serrations in the space of an inch, all of
which projected in the same direction ; viz., from the root to the point." The diameter of the fibre
was ascertained to be 1 -750th of an inch.

" We next endeavoured to explore the cause of this serrated appearance, and the nature of the
irregularities on the surface, which might possibly account for the production of these tooth-like
projections ; we, therefore, took another fibre, and mounted it as an opaque object." After some
difficulty, at length Mr. Powell succeeded; "and we were presented with a beautiful glittering
column, with lines of division across it, in number and distance seemingly corresponding with the
serrations that we had observed in the other fibre, that had been viewed as a transparent object.
It was not at once that the eye could adapt itself to the brilliancy of the object ; but, by degrees, these
divisions developed themselves, and could be accurately traced. They are not so marked as the
inverted cones which the Bat's wool presented, but they were distinct enough ; and the apex of the
superior one, yet comparatively little diminished in bulk, was received in the excavated base of the
one immediately beneath ; while the edge of this base, formed into a cup-like shape, projected, and
had a serrated, or indented edge, bearing no indistinct resemblance to the ancient crown. All these
projecting edges pointed in a direction from root to point."

156

INTRODUCTION.

the central stem, and varying, in number, size, and degree of projection,
in the wool of different animals. In some instances these scales are

159

i£— i>*6>'i--it— '
A fibre of long Merino wool, viewed as a trans-
parent object.

The same, viewed as an opaque object.

pointed, in others round. In the wool of the Bat (fig. 160), these cir-
clets are so decided as to produce the appearance of a series of cups,
placed one in another, and having indented edges. Though hair is
covered with scales, or rugosities, it has no serrations, or tooth-like pro-
jections ; the hair of the Tiger is covered with scales, like those on the back
of a Sole ; while, in the wool of the same animal, the serrations are distinct
and numerous, as they are, also, in the wool of the Bear, and of the Italian
Wolf-dog. The human hair, as ascertained by Mr. Gill, is of a cylindrical
form, and covered with scales, or rugosities, but without serrations.*

The engravings (figs. 158 to 169), from Mr. Youatt's work, serve to
illustrate the microscopic characters, here detailed, by which hair and
wool are respectively distinguished.

The wool of the Rabbit (fig. 161) is fine, with sharp, angular serra-

160

The wool Of a Bat, as exhibited by th«
microscope.

The wool of the Rabbit, opaque.

tions, to the number of 2880 in the inch, " being 160 more than in the

highly- valuable and felting Saxon wool." The fibre, however, has fewer

curls. The hair (figs. 162, 163) varies from ^ to ^5 part of an inch

162 163

The hair of the Rabbit, transparent.

The hair of the Rabbit, opaque.

in diameter, and is covered with a scaly incrustation, but cannot be said
to be serrated.

* Dr. Goring (see Brande's Quart. Jour., 1826, p. 433) describes the appearance of the hair of the
human head, beneath the lens of a microscope, as being " indented with teeth, somewhat resembling
those of a coarse, round rasp, but extremely irregular and rugged ; these all incline in one direction,
like those of a common file ; viz., from the origin of the hair toward its extremity." " It is singu-
lar," says Mr. Youatt, " that although nine years have passed, and the microscope has been consider-
ably improved, since Dr. Goring observed this structure of the hair, and almost every one, who pos-
sessed an instrument of much power, has been eager to gaze on this new discovery, no person has
been so fortunate as to detect a single serration on its edge." A truly serrated surface is, according to
Mr. Youatt, the character of wool only.

THE INTEGUMENTS AND CLOTHING OF MAMMALIA.

157

In the Seal, the wool is abundant beneath the compact hairs, and is
exceedingly fine, but the serrations are few, and far apart; the hair,
having about nine times the diameter of the wool, is beautifully covered
with scales, but there is not the vestige of a serration (fig. 164).

In the wool of the Bear (fig. 165), which is very fine, the serra-
tions were found to have a curious character ; " they resembled so

Seal's hair, a, and wool,

The wool of the Bear

166

The wool of the Wolf-dog-, transparent.

167

The wool of the Wolf-dog-, opaque.

many spires, projecting at irregular distances, and at an exceedingly
acute angle." In the Italian Wolf-dog (which has a considerable portion
of short wool beneath the hair), the serrations of the wool were found
by Mr. Youatt to be " superficial, and irregularly placed ; some of them
resembling small spines, and others looking like rounded prominences."
When viewed as an opaque object, the cup appeared to be " composed
of two, and sometimes three, leaves, with rounded extremities." (Figs.
166, 167.)

The wool and hair of the Tiger are here represented (figs 168, 169).

168

The wool of the Tig-ei- , transparent.

169

The hair of the Tiger, transparer

" The wool is beautifully fine ; it is only the thousandth part of
an inch in diameter ; its serrations are likewise numerous, amounting
to 2560 in the space of an inch. The hair is covered with scales,
resembling those on the back of a Sole, but with no serrations."

The differences, then, between wool and hair, according to Mr.
Youatt, are as follow : — The fibre of wool is crisped, or curled, the
curls increasing according to the fineness and felting property of the wool ;

158 INTRODUCTION.

and, in addition to this, it is decidedly serrated ; whilst hair, though
sometimes curled, but in a very limited degree, in comparison with
wool, has its edge only scaly, or rugose, and never truly serrated ;
and hence it is that hair, though it will entangle and harle, to a cer-
tain extent, will not felt into a compact mass.

Some animals, as the Pangolins (Manis), are clad in scales (fig. 170) ;
some, as the Armadilloes, in plates (fig. 171). Scales, in their mode of
growth, and in their general characters, are closely analogous to hair; they
arise from the skin (cutis) by a broad base, and are of a firm and horny
texture ; they vary in thickness and hardness ; and when lost, by accident,
are replaced. It does not appear, however, that, like hair, they are
periodically shed and renewed ; in which respect they resemble nails.
The scales of snakes are covered with epidermis, which is annually cast
off in the form of a slough, a new epidermis being prepared beneath the
old ; but, in the Pangolins, the epidermis does not extend beyond the

Scales of the I'angoliu. Plates of ^g Armadillo.

base of the scales, which are imbricated, largely overlapping each other,
and forming a dense and efficient coat of mail.

The Armadilloes are protected above with plates, which, instead
of being affixed to the skin by one edge only, as the scales of the
Pangolin, adhere, by the whole of their inner surface, to the cutis, and
are covered by the cuticle, which is thick and smooth. These plates
are, more or less, calcareous ; and, in one species, the Mataco (Dasypus
Apar, Desm.), they are completely osseous, and of great thickness.

The digital extremities of terrestrial Mammalia, are either protected,
as in Man, by slender, horny laminae, termed nails, or by stronger and
more curved sheaths, termed claws ; or by a thick mass surrounding the
phalanx, termed a hoof.

Nails, in their growth, are analogous to hairs ; they arise from a por-
tion fixed in the cutis, and adhering to it, termed the root. The nails of
Man, and the claws of other animals, appear to be formed of extremely
thin layers, placed one upon another ; the addition taking place on the

THE INTEGUMENTS AND CLOTHING OF MAMMALIA. 159

inferior surface ; and the external laminae are the largest. In every essen-
tial, except in mere form, the hoofs resemble nails, or claws. The horn
of Mammalia, that is, the horny sheath investing the osseous core, in the
Ox and the Antelope, consists of hairs agglutinated into a mass ; in
many species, and especially in the Prong-buck
(Antelope palmata), the peculiar composition of the
horn is very apparent (fig. 172, the dotted line of
which shews its osseous core) ; generally, indeed,
the basal part (affixed to the cutis), and from which
its growth proceeds, shews the fibrous nature of its
structure. It is not necessary, however, that horn
should sheath an osseous core : in the Rhinoceros,
the horn of the nose is solid ; but, in structure, it
agrees with the sheath of the bony processes on
the head of the Ox. Baleen (or whalebone, as it is
commonly, though erroneously, called), which forms
pendent plates, lining the palate of the Whale, is of
Horn of the Prong-buck, the same nature, and consists of fibres, resembling
hair, agglutinated together, and very easily separable
from each other. Few Mammalia have spurs ; they exist, however, in
the tarsus of the male Ornithorhynchus ; they are essentially nails, or
horn, of a conical shape, sheathing a bone, or osseous support ; the spur
of the Fowl, and the beak of birds, also, afford examples of the horny
sheathing of bone.

The chemical composition of hair, scales, and horn is the same ; the
essential appears to be gelatine and coagulated albumen. Vauquelin
detected two kinds of oil in hair ; one, varying according to the colour
of the hair from which it was extracted, black hair yielding black oil ;
the other, always white. Iron, oxyde of manganese, phosphate and
carbonate of lime, silica, and sulphur, have also been detected in hair.
Hair, submitted to the action of heat, in an open vessel, first swells, then
fuses, or liquefies ; subsequently, it emits a white flame, and resolves
into a black carbon. On distillation, it yields a reddish liquor, contain-
ing, prussiate of ammonia, a salt of ammonia, and an animal acid, which
Berthollet has denominated zoonate of ammonia.

It is not within our limits to enter into the structure and growth of
feathers, the peculiar clothing of birds : it may be observed, however, that
they are nearly related to hairs, and are formed in a sheath, which, when
the feather is complete, falls off, in the form of scales, or scurf; the quill,
or barrel, is the last part finished, which done, the pulp of blood-vessels,
&c., dries up, leaving only that tubular, chambered membrane behind,
which is familiarly known, as it appears in the common goose-quill.
Feathers, perhaps, might be characterized as hairs, or spines, at a

160 INTRODUCTION.

maximum of development. All feathers do not possess a web (which
consists of branches from the shaft, termed barbs, each barb being fur-
nished with minute branches, or barbules) ; on the contrary, the quill-
feathers on the rudimentary wings of the Cassowary are simple spines,
closely resembling those of the Porcupine, except that they have a thick,
hollow barrel, or quill, at their base.

ON SPECIES, HYBRIDS, AND VARIETIES; ON THE DURATION OF
LIFE, AND THE REPRODUCTION OF MAMMALIA.

IT is important to establish, if possible, a clear definition of the term
species. Species are fixed and permanent forms of being, exhibiting, indeed,
certain modes of variation, of which they may be, more or less, susceptible ;
but maintaining, throughout those modifications, a sameness of structural
essentials, transmitted from generation to generation, and never lost by the
influence of causes, which, otherwise, produce obvious effects. It is by
keeping this principle in view, that we unhesitatingly decide upon the specific
distinction between fossil reliquia of extinct animals, and those now extant,
of near affinity : between the Mammoth, and the Asiatic Elephant ;
between the fossil species of Rhinoceros, and their living representatives.
Species are permanent. Varieties are either accidental, or the result of the
care and culture of Man. In the former case, they are of rare occurrence ;
in the latter, they perpetually exhibit a tendency to return to their original
condition. The difficulty of keeping up any particular breed of Pigeons
or Rabbits is well known ; the Sheep continually manifests a tendency
to resume the dark colour of the wild Mouflon ; black Sheep annoy
the farmer, by appearing in the midst of the most carefully-bred flock.
The dog, that most modified of all modified animals, requires care and
attention, in order to prevent its varieties from degenerating. Time alone
produces no effect in altering species : the mummies of animals found in
the catacombs of Egypt resemble their living descendants ; the represent -
ations of animals on the relics of Egyptian temples, or delineated on the
outer cases, in which, for from two to three thousand years, the remains of
Man have been preserved, are the faithful figures of existing species. No
animal, by a series of mystical transformations, can become an animal of a
different species. Lamarck, indeed, considered species as the result of cir-
cumstances, and not as original products of the creative fiat : he considered
the higher" animals, and also Man, to have attained their present state by
a gradual transition, through an indefinite period of time, from the lowest
form of life ; each race, as it advanced in elevation, transferring its assumed
characters to its posterity, to be by. them still farther modified, until the con-

THE INTEGUMENTS AND CLOTHING OF MAMMALIA. 161

version of a monad into Man should be complete ; — a visionary theory, based
upon a shadowy assumption. " I have no doubt," he observes, " that all the
Mammalia have originally sprung from the ocean, and that the latter is the true
cradle of the whole animal kingdom. In fact, we see that the least perfect
animals are not only the most numerous, but that they either live solely
in the water, or in those very moist places where Nature has performed, and
continues to perform, under favourable circumstances, her direct or spon-
taneous generations ; and there, in the first place, she 'gives rise to the
most simple animalcules, from which have proceeded all the animal crea-
tion." (See Phi I os. ZooL, tome ii.) Time, the wizard time, is to pro-
duce all this. To ask for proofs of this transition, is useless ; to demand
the period of their occurrence, is to learn that these marvellous changes
took place in remote ages, to which Man cannot look back. " There is
good reason why we do not see these changes successively performed,
which have diversified the known animals, and brought them to their
present state. We see them only when they are finished, and not when
undergoing the change, and we very naturally infer that they have always
remained as we see them. If the average duration of the life of each
generation of mankind were only a second, and if a pendulum were
mounted, and in motion, then would each generation consider this pendulum
to be really at rest, having never seen it change in the course of their
lives ; the observations of thirty generations would not demonstrate any-
thing positive concerning the vibrations of this instrument. The revolu-
tions of myriads of ages, are as the single vibration of an immense pen-
dulum ; the time through which Man has occupied the globe, is scarcely
as thirty seconds ; we have not seen the pendulum perform half of one
vibration." With Lamarck, then, there is no such thing as species. Some
myriads of years since, a few gemmules, or embryos, of a sponge, instead of
attaching themselves to a stone, or rock, in the ocean, and there becoming
fixed, and assuming the characters of their poriferous parent, continued to
swim about, by means of their vibratilecilia : by degrees they advanced to
the shore, and, being left dry by the retiring tide, they ultimately became
semi-aquatic beings, of some form or other. Various were the transitions
through which they went. Finally, some returned to the ocean again ; and
their descendants, passing through a series of progressive changes, at length
attained the giant forms of Whales and Grampuses. Others, advancing
from the shore, walked inland : they tried to breathe the air, and, by dint
of repeated trials, effected their purpose : in some arose a desire to
taste their fellows ; and claws, and strong teeth, and great muscular energy,
were, ultimately, attained : others preferred a vegetable diet ; and plastic
Nature seconded their wishes : one was not contented with the herbage of
the ground, but took a fancy to the leaves of trees ; and, by trying to
obtain them, the neck became elongated ; more so in the next generation ;

162 INTRODUCTION.

and, at last, see the monad-sprung Giraffe : some wished to fly ; in pro-
cess of time, wings were obtained : some, for ages, contented themselves
with climbing trees, and leaping from branch to branch ; and, by dint of
striving to excel their first endeavours, the skin of their sides became extended
into the form of a parachute : finally, thus, in process of time, came the
world tenanted with all living things, Man being the ultimatum. Philo-
sophia " inepta, res ineptior nulla est." BufTon, and even Linnaeus,
denied the durability of species, and regarded the races of animals now
extant as the diverging products of a given number of original stocks ;
the descendants of which, intermingling together, produced blended and
degenerate races ; and so on, till, at length, the mixed intercourse of
those races ceased to produce a fertile progeny ; the extent to which
the production of fresh varieties, or species, can be carried on, being
determinate. Buffon, indeed, who pushed this theory to its extreme,
regarded all allied species as the descendants of a common stock, the
model of the race ; varied in their subordinate characters by the in-
fluences of climate, diet, and other causes ; and, by their intermixture,
producing other varieties. Hence, at some period, the primitive stock
only existed ; then sprang from those a race of degenerate descendants ;
and, ultimately, arose the products resulting from the mixture of these
descendants. Time has, to a great degree, obliterated the primitive con-
dition of the common type, to which the allied species are to be referred ;
yet, still, this type, or stem, is to be discerned, as the source from which these
off-sets have branched out. In fact, all allied species are mere varieties
of one common stock. Where a single species, as Man, forms the sole
example of the genus, the stock has been continued in a direct line,
without collateral branches, as in the case of the Elephant (which he
regarded as a single species), the Rhinoceros, the Hippopotamus, the
Giraffe, the Camel, &c. But, among the smaller and more prolific races,
the offsets of the common stock were numerous in proportion to their
fertility. According to these principles, Buffon reduced all the Mammalia,
with which he was acquainted, to about thirty-eight families ; each family
originally consisting, not of distinct species, but of varied, or modified, de-
scendants of a common parentage. This theory, however specious it may
be, is utterly untenable ; climate, food, and other contingencies may,
indeed, and do, produce certain effects ; they influence size, strength,
beauty of proportion, length of ears, or tail, or the fulness of the fur ;
but they affect not the anatomical structure of species ; they alter not the
characters of the internal organs, or the structure of the teeth.

The skull of the Chimpanzee, the proportionate length of its arms, the
presence of the ligamentum teres of the hip-joint, and the form of its
hands and feet, distinguish it, and ever will distinguish it, from its ally, the
Orang ; nor is it possible that these two could have descended from the

ON SPECIES, HYBRIDS, AND VARIETIES.

163

same primeval origin. Many of the Simiae, more different among each
other than the Orang and Chimpanzee, Buffon regards as mere varie-
ties : and so, also, with respect to other animals ; but upon the same
untenable premises. That distinct species will often breed together, and
produce offspring, is certain : in some rare cases, perhaps, this hybrid
progeny may be fertile inter se ; and, even if it be so, the fertility of the
offspring is no demonstrative proof of the common origin of both parents.
It may be regarded as a safe proposition, that hybrids, or the progeny of
two parents, each distinct as to species, never, or very rarely, occur among
animals in a state of nature. A few solitary instances are on record, with
respect to insects ; and a doubtful case has been noticed among birds, in
the Tetrao hybridus, of Norway ; supposed, by some naturalists (without
much reason), to be a hybrid, between the male Capercailzie (Tetrao uro-
gallus), and the female of the Black Grouse (Tetrao tetrix).* But, these
very rare instances apart, it is only among animals diverted, or, it may
be said, distorted, from a state of nature, with their instincts impaired by
domestication, and placed, by man, under circumstances preventing the
natural direction of their impulses or affections, or constraining, or inducing,
an artificial union, that the intercourse of different species takes place ; thus,
the Lion and female Tiger, caged together, have produced a hybrid progeny.

* There is no longer any doubt respecting the character of the Tetrao hybridus; it is a distinct
species, intermediate, in form, between the Capercailzie and Black Grouse, though much more
nearly allied to the former. Its scarcity, where both the other species are abundant, and its inter-
mediate appearance, seem alone to have excited the suspicion of naturalists, as to its being a hybrid .
See Mr. Yarrell's observations, in Proceedings Zool. Soc. 1831, p. 73.

164

INTRODUCTION.

An instance of this kind oecured some years since in Mr. Atkins's mena-
gerie ; and the preceding representation (fig. 173) of the young ani-
mals was taken from the life. The common Mule is the* produce of the
union of the Horse and Ass ; the Siskin, the Linnet, and. the Goldfinch
breed with the Canary-bird. Different species of Ducks, in confinement,
will breed together ; the same may be said of the Fowl and the Pheasant,
and the Pheasant and Grey-hen (Tetrao tetrix) — (see Proceedings Zool.
Soc. 1834, p. 52) ; and a hybrid has occurred between the Peacock and the
common Fowl. In all well-authenticated instances, however (unless, per-
haps, by man's express stratagem on the occasion), it is between animals of
the same natural genus that the union has taken place ; certainly, it is only in
such instances that any offspring has resulted ; indeed, it would seem, as
might be anticipated, that the nearer the alliance of species, the more readily
are they disposed to mutual intercourse ; as in the case of the Fowl and
Pheasant. But, with respect to the offspring, the question suggests itself,
whether such hybrids are, or are not, fertile inter se. In some cases we
think they are so ; in many cases, certainly, the hybrid is capable of pro-
creating with one of the two pure species, from the union of which it was
produced.* Instances are known of the mule having bred with the mare ;
and also of the female mule conceiving ; an occurrence said to be most frequent
in warm countries ; hybrid birds will also breed with an individual of the
parent race.-f- In these cases, there is a very near bond of affinity between the
individuals ; for hybrids between two given species are, really, farther apart
than a hybrid and an individual of one of the pure species from which the
former sprung. But whefe two species are themselves allied, in the nearest
possible degree (for we consider the distance between species to be graduated),

* In the Proceedings Zool. Soc. 1831, p. 66, occurs the following : — "A letter, addressed by Richard
Thursfield, Esq., to Dr. Roots, was read, in illustration of the history of a hybrid between the Hare
and the Rabbit, which was lately living at the society's farm. A gentleman, who was rearing a pair
of tame Rabbits, placed with them, when they were about two months old, a young buck Hare, appa-
rently about the same age, which became, in a short time, as domesticated as its companions. When
the doe Rabbit was old enough, she had, by the buck Rabbit and the Hare, a progeny, consisting of three
young ones, which resembled, in all respects, the mother and buck Rabbit, and of three mules. Two of these
mules shortly died; the third, a female, was reared with Rabbits of her own age, and, when six months
old, produced one young one: she was afterwards bred, from eight times, by tame Rabbits, and by a wild
one ; but no opportunity occurred of placing a buck Hare in confinement with her. Her progeny,
by a tame white Rabbit, with which she bred twice, consisted of two young ones, which were perfectly
grey, and of two which were spotted. The latter are still alive, and breed regularly, producing from
five to eight at a time. The average weight of the progeny of the mule female was about five pounds ;
one, however, weighed six pounds and a half. She died shortly after coming into the Society's posses-
sion. Mr. Owen having examined the body of this hybrid animal, after death, reported that its size and
colour were those of the Hare ; but its hinder legs were shorter than in that species, and agreed rather
•with those of the Rabbit. The length of its small intestines corresponded with that of the Hare ; its
caecum was seven inches shorter, while its large intestines measured one foot more than those of the
Hare."

t See an interesting account of the breeding of hybrids (between the Pheasant and Fowl), with a
Pheasant Cock, in Proceedings Zool. Soc. L., 1836, p. 84. Hybrids between the Pintail and common
Duck have bred with the male Pintail, from which they sprung, [and produced young, of which
a specimen was exhibited in December, 1831, before the Scientific Meeting of Zool. Soc. L. See Pro-
ceedings Z. S. L., 1831, p. 158.

ON SPECIES, HYBRIDS, AND VARIETIES. 165

it is, perhaps, possible, that the physical constitution of the hybrids between
them, may be so ordered as to enable them to reproduce offspring by their
mutual union ; and, moreover, that the fertility of hybrids inter se, may be
much influenced by the natural fertility of their parents, — that is, that where
two species, each, naturally, very fertile, produce hybrids, these hybrids
may partake of the prolific nature of both parents, to such an extent as to
be fertile inter se. However it may be accounted for, it cannot be doubted
that, in some few cases, the hybrids between really distinct species are fertile,
notwithstanding the weight of authority to the contrary.* According to
Buffon, the offspring of the male Goat and Ewe are prolific ; and if the ideas
of Mr. Eyton be correct, respecting the specific distinction between the
Chinese Hog and the common European Swine, the offspring of which are
fertile inter se, there is an interesting case in point. (See Proceedings
Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 23.)

It is commonly supposed, that the fertility of so-called hybrids, inter se,
is sufficient to prove the specific identity, or common primitive origin, of the
parents. The consequence is by no means clear. A permanent difference
of form, however trivial, distinct habits and instincts, transmitted from age
to age, however minute the distinction may be, are sufficient, it is con-
tended, to establish the originality and genuineness of species. How close is
the Grey-lag Goose (Anser palustris) to the Bean Goose (Anser ferus) ;
how near the Wild Swan (Cygnus ferus), to Bewick's Swan (Cygnus
Bewickii) ; and how much closer still is the latter to the Cygnus buccinator
of North America ; yet, on these instances (and we might fill pages with
others even more pertinent), the species are regarded as genuine, because,
however superficial or slight the differences may be between them, these
differences are constant ; nor would the fertility of hybrids between them
invalidate the conclusion. Besides, it would appear that, although the first
generation of hybrids may be fertile inter se, either their progeny, after
the first or second remove, cease to be so (the prolific power becom-
ing feebler), or that the progeny return back to the most influential of the
parent stocks, and completely merge into it ; so that the ad libitum conti-
nuance of a factitious race would seem to be denied by Nature. With this
allowance, then, must the non-prolific nature of hybrids, as a test of the
genuineness of species, be taken, rather than in an absolute, or unqualified,
sense. Nay, the very circumstance of hybrids returning (where they do not

• Pallas entertained the opinion that our Sheep, Dogs, and, perhaps, Poultry, are factitious beings,
not descended from any single wild original stock, but from a mixture of nearly allied primitive species,
whose hybrid offsprings have possessed prolific powers. He observes, that those domesticated animals
which either do not intermix with other species, or which produce with others an unprolific progeny,
are very little changed, however completely and anciently they may have been under the dominion of
Man : such, he regards to be the Horse, the Ass, the Ox, the Hog, the Camel, the Dromedary, and the
Rein Deer. The varieties of the Dog have ever been a stumbling-block in the way of naturalists ; but
we cannot regard the Sheep, or the domestic Fowl, as hybrids. The ideas of Pallas, however, are well
worth consideration.

166 INTRODUCTION.

absolutely cease to be prolific) to one of the original stocks, appears the
greatest proof possible of the specific genuineness of that stock, the attrac-
tive power of whose typical organization (to use the expression) is so pre-
valent as to reclaim to itself the unsettled hybrid, destitute of the stamp of
independent originality.

The hybrids between the Chinese Goose (Anser cygnoides), and the
common Goose, are prolific ; but, unless crossed again with the Chinese
Goose, the race soon returns to the characters of the ordinary domestic
species. (See Pallas. Act. Acad. Scient. Petrop. 178, p. 83, note ; p. 96.)

Neither the occasional fertility, then, of hybrids, inter se, nor the
production of offspring, by the union of a hybrid with one of the pure
species from which it sprung, demonstrates that the two species, from
which such hybrids originate, are falsely so called, and that they are mere
varieties of one common, primitive parentage.

That species branch out into varieties, and often permanent varieties
(at least, if strictly interbred together), cannot be disputed for a moment ;
it is on this principle of interbreeding between such, that the purity
of the Race-horse, of the Bull-dog, Hound, Setter, or Terrier is main-
tained, and the respective qualities of each prevented from degenerating ;
an alloy, by the intermixture of another breed, shews itself, generation after
generation, with more or less regularity and distinctness ; and, if farther
alloys be permitted, the result is, a mongrel generation, not a hybrid race.

One peculiar variety, which we see both in the human species and in the
lower orders of Mammalia, is the Albino. Albinos, among animals, are dis-
tinguished from simply white individuals, by the pale, pinky, and unnatural
tint of the skin ; the softness, and absolute whiteness of the hair, including the
eye-lashes ; the rose-colour of the iris, and the redness of the pupil. Often,
indeed, in the human subject, the skin is covered with a sort of scurf, and
is dry, or harsh, as if the excretions of the surface were suspended ; the
eyes are intolerant of light. Albinism is a variety by defect ; the colour-
ing principle of the skin, the hair, and the iris, and the pigmentum
nigrum of the eyes, are wanting ; so that the vascular choroid membrane
of the latter appears through the pupil ; while the vascularity of the
cutis, and of the iris, gives a pinkiness to the surface of the body, and
a deeper, or red, tint to the latter. The constitution of Albinos is feeble ;
and the intellectual powers are often, if not always, of comparative in-
feriority. Albinos appear among all nations ; they occur among the
fairest races of Europe, and among the darkest of Africa ; their pecu-
liarities exist from birth, and are transmissible by generation.* Among

* Albinos of the human race, were noticed by Cook at Tahiti (Otaheite), and by Wafer, in the
Isthmus of Darien ; their occurrence is frequent in the mountain regions of Europe, and not un-
common among the Negro races of Africa. Jefferson, in his Notes on Virginia, records several cases;
and, among them, one of an albino woman, from Guinea, who bore an albino child to a black man;
and another, of an albino Negress, who had a black daughter by a black man. We know of no

ON SPECIES, HYBRIDS, AND VARIETIES. 167

the lower orders of Mammalia, albinism mostly occurs only among
domesticated quadrupeds ; albino Elephants have been known ; and such,
there is reason to believe, are the white Elephants at the court of the
Birman empire; albino Ferrets, and Rabbits, and Mice are very com-
mon. Albinos, breeding together, produce Albinos ; but, if interbred
with the ordinary race, the peculiarity disappears in the descendants ;
breaking out, however, now and then, as if the tendency to it still lurked
in the blood.

These, and similar instances of occasional variety, do not happen very
extensively ; variety on a great scale does, however, occur ; and the exact
nature and origin of races, as they are termed, demand attention. The
subject is full of perplexity. The different races of mankind, for instance,
to go no further than the Negro and the European, have their respective
distinguishing characters ; but whether races are, exactly, varieties, that
is, the result of a combination of causes, which have operated on different
offsets of one origin, or are aboriginal, — and, if the latter, whether this abo-
riginality, which involves the creation of them as they are, destroys specific
indentity, so that the same species may have distinct primordial begin-
nings,— are points of great difficulty.

Tt may be observed, that no natural causes, with which we are ac-
quainted, appear to be capable of producing distinct races. With respect
to the Negro, for example (a term which has ignorantly been applied, in-
discriminately, to the whole of the black natives of Africa, as if they were
all one people), it has been asserted, and taken for granted, that their form
and colour have resulted from the heat to which they have been exposed,
generation after generation, which, with other minor agents, has blackened
their skin, thickened their lips, crisped their hair, and elongated the jaws
and the heel ; but these, if the true causes, would operate in like manner
in like circumstances. What the Negroes are now, they were 3000
years ago. The period, in which the change took place, eludes inves-
tigation ; nor can it be traced to the influence of climate or soil. An
European, exposed to the fervid rays of the inter-tropics, will, indeed,
become swarthy, tanned, and sunburnt, but not changed into a Negro.
The parts of his body not exposed, will not be affected ; his swarthiness
is accidental and temporary ; and his children will be of the ordinary

instance on record of Albinos intermarrying; but it cannot be doubted, by such a mode, a per-
manent variety might be produced. Wafer describes the Albinos of the Isthmus of Darien as
having very weak eyes, incapable of bearing the light of day, during which season they are sluggish
and dull; "yet, when moon- shiny nights come, they are all life and activity; running abroad, and
into the woods, skipping about, like wild bucks ; and running as fast by moonlight, even in the
gloom and shade of the woods, as the other Indians by day, being as nimble as they, though not so
strong and lusty." He previously observes, that " they are not so big as the other Indians ;" that
" they are comparatively weak, and not very fit for hunting, or other laborious exercises, and do
not delight in such." Albinos are well known in Java and Ceylon, and, also, on the continent of
India. The Hindoos regard them with horror, and cast their bodies, after death, like those of persons
afflicted with cutaneous diseases, to be devoured by the wild beasts.

168 INTRODUCTION.

degree of fairness. But the children of Negroes, born in North America,
or Northern Europe, — their children, and their children's children, — are
still genuine Negroes. If the colour and form of the Negro were condi-
tions thus acquired, such conditions would not be fixed and perpetuated ;
for, though like produces like — though the Race-horse, breeding with the
Race-horse, produces a Race-horse, or the Bull-dog, with its like, produces
a Bull-dog — still, the mere influence of climate, effecting, as it would
seem, only superficial and transitory impressions, does not establish them
upon the organization. No people, within the records of history, have
been changed into a race of Negroes.*

While, however, the Negro retains his fixed and distinguishing cha-
racters, he is not only surrounded by the descendants of European colonists,
retaining theirs, but by African tribes, not Negroes, differing in tint of
skin, physiognomy, hair, and general contour. The Abyssinians, within
ten degrees of the equator, and surrounded by Negroes, have a dark olive
colour ; have large, expressive eyes, and long hair. The Gallas, of the
same latitudes, a nation of considerable extent, have, also, a brown skin>
and long hair. The natives of Timbuctoo are not Negroes. In Mada-
gascar, two or three distinct races exist : a true Negro* race ; and an olive-
coloured, or yellowish-brown race, with crisp hair, termed, by Lesson,
Madecasses, apparently of the Papuan stock ; and, besides these, what
appears to be an aboriginal race, inhabiting the interior, with dark skins
and lank hair, called Virzimbers, a branch of the great Alfourou nation,
which is spread over the Moluccas, New Guinea, and, also, inhabits the
interior of the Islands of the Indian Archipelago. That the Negroes, then,
do not owe their peculiarities to the mere effects of the heat of the torrid

* Dr. Prichard observes : " Nothing seems to hold true, more generally, than that all acquired
conditions of body, whether produced by art or accident, end with the life of the individual in whom
they are produced. Many nations mould their bodies into unnatural forms : the Indians flatten
their foreheads ; the Chinese women reduce their feet to one-third of their natural dimensions ;
savages elongate the ears ; many races observe the rite of circumcision. We frequently mutilate
our domestic animals, by removing the tail or ears ; and our own species are often obliged, by disease,
to submit to the loss of limbs. That no deformity, or mutilation of this kind, is hereditary, is so
plainly proved by everything around us, that we must feel some surprise at the contrary opinion
having gained any advocates. After the operation of circumcision has prevailed 3000 or 4000 years,
the Jews are still obliged to submit to a painful rite. Docked Horses, and cropped Dogs, bring forth
young with entire ears and tails. But for this salutary law, what a frightful spectacle would every
race of animals exhibit ! The mischances of all preceding times, would overwhelm us with their
united weight, and the catalogue would be continually inc easing, until the universe, instead of dis-
playing a spectacle of beauty and pleasure, would be filled with maimed, imperfect, and monstrous
shapes." — Disput. Inau. Though accidental, or induced, deformities, are not always transmitted to
succeeding races, still this law only holds good to a certain extent ; for there is a remarkable ten-
dency, both in plants and animals, to transmit to their offspring the individual peculiarities which
they may possess ; not, indeed, those produced by the accidental loss of parts, but such " new
characters of organization as spring up with the breeds, and which, owing to our ignorance of the
circumstances of their rise, are termed accidental varieties." Thus, the short and bow-limbed Sheep
of New England, which have appeared within a few years, and of which the origin, in a male Lamb,
the product of an ordinary Ewe, is well authenticated, has become an established breed. Supernu-
merary toes, or fingers, are continued, as abundant examples on record prove, through many gene-
rations. Peculiarities in the physiognomy run through families, from generation to generation ; no
less than hereditary predispositions to various diseases.

ON SPECIES, HYBRIDS, AND VARIETIES. 169

zone, need not be insisted on. The question, then, arises, whether their
origin is to be attributed to that tendency to variation of form, which
obtains, more or less, throughout the animal kingdom, resulting from cir-
cumstances which elude our scrutiny, or, whether they are aboriginal, and,
in this sense, a distinct race ? Could we pierce the darkness of antiquity,
the obscure of by-gone time ; — could we work out a history of our
species, commencing with Man's first existence on the globe, we might
solve a question on which many are divided, and to which each party
brings plausible arguments. As it is, we must, on many points, remain in
conjecture, or with only analogy to guide us. One thing is clear, that nov
external, or physical causes, with which physiologists are acquainted, can
change a nation of the Celtic, or the Teutonic race, into the Negro, the
Papuan, or Alfourou. Formed for the regions they inhabit, and not by
them, the true circumstances of their primordial rise are lost in the night of
unrecorded ages.

But, supposing that the Negroes, or, that any well-defined races
of mankind, be aboriginal, it does not follow that their specific identity
with other races is, therefore, nullified. That they are of the same species
with the other families of mankind, according to the received ideas of
species, every circumstance tends to establish ; nor does this admission
interfere, in one way or another, with the question, either as to their
aboriginal creation, or as to their assumption, at some unknown period,
of their distinguishing characteristics. If, by the command of the Creator,
the earth became covered with grass and herbage ; if forests sprung up on
the hills ; then must millions of the same species of the vegetable king-
dom have, simultaneously, acquired existence ; there is, therefore, little to
startle us, in the admission that sucl^ may have been the case, also, with
respect to the animal kingdom.

Animals are born, — they attain maturity, — they propagate their species,
— they die. The dawn of an animal's existence is the first step toward
its death ; the law of death necessitates the law of reproduction. Every
species has a definite and natural duration of life ; a duration determined
by the laws of nature, but which cannot be known, except by expe-
rience. Hence it is, that a table of the natural duration of life, through-
out the whole of the animal kingdom, or even throughout the vertebrate
classes, involves a thousand insurmountable difficulties, in the way of its
execution. We cannot watch the days of the existence of animals in a state
of nature ; multitudes are absolutely beyond the sphere of our observation.
We cannot wander in the depths of the ocean, and study, in their na-
tive haunts, the countless thousands of living things which tenant the
briny waters ; and, therefore, we cannot estimate the natural duration of
their lives. But, setting all this aside, so many are the chances of life,
so few are the animals, within the range of our observation that die from

170

INTRODUCTION.

age alone, that the exact period of the duration of life, even in those which
man has domesticated, is not, in all cases, to be precisely ascertained.
Our data cannot be safely taken from single instances ; a collection of
examples is requisite : to carry out the necessary researches, through
the Mammalia alone, involves the labour of years, and will lead, at
last, only to general deductions. Something may be learned from the
extensive vivaria, which the rising taste for natural history has established
in so many parts of Europe ; but, unfortunately, animals in confine-
ment seldom reach maturity ; for, from the privation of liberty, the re-
striction of their bodily exercise, the unnatural food upon which they
often subsist, and from an impure atmosphere, and an uncongenial climate,
even should acute disease not sweep them off, their enfeebled constitution
sinks, by slow decay, and prematurely yields to death.

Hitherto, then, the little knowledge which we possess, respecting the
natural duration of the life of animals, appears to be more the result of casual
opportunities than of systematic observation. Events, apparently acci-
dental, have sometimes furnished us with facts, which diligence could not,
perhaps, have ascertained. It is not, however, to be supposed, that every
fact which has been, from time to time, observed by various individuals,
has been duly placed on record ; many have been lost, because their im-
portance has not been known ; and many others have not yet found their
way into the archives of science. It is, generally, considered as a rule, that
the sooner an animal arrives at maturity, the sooner is its existence ter-
minated ; and, without doubt, a certain degree of truth attaches to this
opinion ; more especially on a broad comparison of the vertebrate classes
among each other. A question, however, here opens : — what are we to
understand by maturity ? The maturity of Mammalia supposes the com-
pletion of growth, and the power of reproduction ; so, also, among birds ;
not so among reptiles and fishes, for these reproduce their species long
before the period at which their growth is stationary. The term, matu-
rity, therefore, in the sense in which we apply it to Mammalia and
birds, is not appropriate to these. Indeed, among the cold-blooded Ver-
tebrata, whose circulation is languid, whose natural heat is not much
above that of the medium in which they live, and whose tenacity of
life is proverbial, the natural duration of their existence might be sup-
posed to be considerable. Tortoises and Turtles drag on a life through
ages. In the Bishop's garden, at Peterborough, a Tortoise died in 1821,
which must have exceeded 220 years of age. The Lambeth Tortoise,
which was introduced into the garden in the time of Archbishop Laud,
about the year 1625, died, from some neglect on the part of the gar-
dener, in 1753 ; having been in the garden 128 years. Gilbert White
records several details respecting a Tortoise which had lived thirty
years in captivity ; and states, that another, in an adjacent village, " was

ON SPECIES, HYBRIDS, AND VARIETIES. 171

kept till, by tradition, it was supposed to be 100 years old." Some of
the huge Indian Tortoises, which have been kept, from time to time, in
the Gardens of the Zoological Society, London, could not have been
less than 200 years old, and, probably, much more, since their growth is
slow, and their size, when first hatched from the egg, small ; yet, some
have weighed upwards of 400 pounds. The same observations apply to
Crocodiles and huge Snakes, as Boas and Pythons ; but no well-authen-
ticated data have been obtained, upon which to form an estimate of their
longevity. An instance is known in which the common Snake (Tropido-
notus natrix) was kept eleven years in captivity ; but of the cause of its
death no account has been received.* The Toad is a long-lived animal ;
an instance is on record, of one having been kept, in a sort of half-domestic
state, for thirty-six years, when an accident caused its death.

With respect to fishes, whose growth is slow, and whose skeleton
never attains the consistency which it does even in reptiles, still less that
which characterizes the bones of birds and Mammalia, their existence
seems to be remarkably enduring. They inhabit a medium much less
liable to sudden alterations of temperature than is the atmosphere, and their
muscular powers are very great. The Pike has been known to live 267
years ; the Carp, 200 ; without ending, even then, their existence accord-
ing to the course of nature. It is probable that the oceanic fishes enjoy a
still longer date of life than the fresh-water species ; but no data exist
upon which to draw out even a limited scale.

Confining our observations to the Mammalia, it may be observed, that it
is difficult to reduce general rules to anything like universal application. It
may be stated, however, that the most prolific are, ordinarily, the shortest
lived. The smaller Mammalia, the Rodentia in particular, are very fertile ;
and their existence, on the average, is of short duration. -j- The fertility
of the Rodentia, however, is not so much intended as a counterbalance
to the natural death of the species, as to compensate for their destruction
by extrinsic causes ; for, so great is their loss by the agency of their preda-
tory foes, that, unless the numbers destroyed were rapidly recruited, the
annihilation of species would be in danger ; and, with their annihilation, -a
deficiency in that supply of food which they furnish to the Carnivora sub-
sisting upon them. On the other hand, it is reasonable to suppose that the
larger Mammalia, and more especially those which produce only a single
offspring in the course of every two years, will enjoy an extended duration
of existence : to a certain extent, such is the case. The age of the Ele-
phant, Rhinoceros, and Hippopotamus, is said to extend through centuries.
The Horse, however, is old at thirty, and so is the Ox : the age of the
Sheep is about fifteen years ; but none of these larger Herbivora produce,

* The skin of this Snake, prepared and mounted, is in the Mus. Zool. Soc. L.
t The age of the Rabbit is from five to seven years.

172 INTRODUCTION.

throughout the whole of their lives, as many offspring as the Rabbit does
in one year. Less obnoxious to destruction than the Rodentia, were they as
fertile, no pasturage would suffice for the multitudes which, in a few years,
would cover the land, destroying the vegetation around them, and, thereby,
working out their own destruction — death by famine. The Hog, however,
is long-lived, and very prolific. White, in his Natural History of Selborne,
mentions a Sow that produced young till beyond the age of fifteen,
when she was killed for bacon. Among the Carnivora there is great
variety, with regard to the longevity of species. The Bear of Northern
Europe lives till upwards of fifty ; the huge grizzly Bear, which died in
1839, in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, London, had existed in
the Tower for more than twenty years, and for six or seven in the Gardens,
previously to his death ; his age was very considerable, but cannot be ex-
actly ascertained. The Lion, probably, lives long ; he is mature in about
seven years. Pompey, which died in the year 1760, was known to have
been seventy years in the Tower ; and one brought from the River Gambia,
died at the age of sixty-three : the Dog lives from fifteen to twenty years ;
the Cat about fifteen.

Of the duration of the existence of the cetaceous Mammalia, no esti-
mate can be taken. Who has numbered the years of the Whale ? From the
solidity of the skeleton of this animal, the huge bulk to which it attains,
and the comparatively small size of the cub, which remains long under the
mother's care, it may be inferred, that it is among the longest lived of
Mammalia: — hundreds of years, most probably, roll away, ere its powers
decline, and it slowly yields to death.

The age which Man naturally attains is from seventy to eighty years :
the period at which he reaches maturity, differs much in different climates.
In the hotter latitudes, the age of puberty, the dawn of maturity, commences
very early ; later in the temperate, and still later in the more northern : in
temperate Europe, Man is mature at eighteen or twenty ; at twenty- five,
he has attained the fulness of manhood ; the succeeding twenty-five years
bring him to the borders of age ; the next twenty- five years conduct
him, at first by scarcely perceptible degrees, then by quicker, but still
gentle steps, to decay and final dissolution ; but many are cut off by
diseases, by accidents, and by intemperance, before the allotted time of
nature. Maturity is attained, by the female sex, a year or two earlier than
by the male.*

* Dans toute 1'espece humaine, les femmes arrivent a la puberte plutot que les males ; mais, chez
les differens peuples 1'age de puberte est different, et semble dependre en partie de la temperature du
climat, et de la quantit6 des alimens ; dans les villes, et chez les gens aises, les enfans accoutumes a
des nourritures succulentes et abondantes, arrivent plutot a cette etat ; a la campagne, et dans le
pauvre peuple, les enfans sont plus tardifs, parcequ'ils sont mal et trop peu nourris, il leur faut deux
ou trois annees de plus ; dans toutes les parties meridionales de 1' Europe, et dans les villes, laplupart
des filles sont puberes a douze ans, et les gargons a quatorze ; mais dans les provinces du Nord, et
dans les campagnes, a peine les filles le sont elles a quatorze, et les garcons a seize." — Buff. Hist. Nat.
torn. ii. p. 489.

ON SPECIES, HYBRIDS, AND VARIETIES. 173

In the warmer latitudes of Europe, females are marriageable at twelve
or fourteen years of age.* It is remarkable, however, that, in the hotter cli-
mates of the east, age comes on much earlier in the female sex than in the
male. Women are old at thirty or forty, in Arabia, Syria, Persia, &c. ;
whereas, the men retain their physical powers to an advanced period. f

Instances of extreme longevity among the human race, are far from
being unfrequent. Mr. Easton, of Salisbury, in a curious work on longevity,
has collected notices of 1712 persons, who exceeded their hundredth year ;
and, of these, many advanced considerably beyond that period.

The following are a few of the more recent instances : —

Thomas Parr . ,., diedinA.D. 1635 . . aged 152

Henry Jenkins .... 1670 .... 169

Countess of Desmond . . 1612 .... 145

Thomas Damme .... 1648 .... 154

Peter Torton .... 1724 .... 185

Margaret Patten . . . 1739 . . . . 137

John Rovir and his wife . . 1741 . . . 172,164

St. Mongaha Kentigen . . 1781 .... 185

Baron Larrey states, " that there were, at Cairo, thirty-five individuals,
upwards of 100 years of age." The Cenobites of Mount Sinai are reported
to attain, very frequently, to the age of 110 or 120. The Arabians of the
Desert are said often to exceed 100 years.

Maturity succeeds the age of puberty, and is the completion of the pre-
paratory steps, by which the system acquires the due conditions necessary
for the reproduction of the species. In the human species, the indicia of
approaching maturity are well known ; in the male sex, puberty is accom-
panied by a remarkable change of the voice ; it loses the feminine characters
which it previously possessed, and becomes deep and sonorous ; the larynx
acquires an increase of development, and the thyroid cartilage, hitherto
small, becomes large and prominent. J

* In Italy, the phenomena of the female economy are established at twelve years of age ; and in
the south of Spain, marriages take place at. that period. At Smyrna, women are sometimes mothers
at eleven or twelve years of age. In Persia, Chardin reports, that females are mature at nine or ten
years of age. The age of ten is the ordinary period, according to Niebuhr, in Arabia. In Jamaica,
says Mr. Long, the women attain earlier to maturity, and sooner decline, than in the northern climates :
they often marry very young, and are mothers at twelve years of age. Diversities of an opposite
kind are observed in northern climates. In the north of Germany, the system is not perfected until
the fifteenth year, according to Blumenbach. In some parts of Europe, the period is still more
tardy. — Prichard's Res. Phy. Hist, of Mankind.

t " Speaking of the Arab nations, Bory St.Vincent, says :— " Les femmes sont nubiles de tres bonne
heure ; quelquefois des 1'age de neuf ans, jamais plus tard que douze ou treize aussi perdent-elles
promptment la faculte d'engendrer, tandis que les hommes la conservent jusque dans 1'age avance."

I II y a des rapports singuliers, dont nous ignorons les causes, entre les parties de la generation et
celles de la gorge; les eunuques n'ont point de barbe; leur voix, quoque forte et percante, n'est jamais
d'un ton grave; souvent les maladies secretes se montrent a la gorge. La correspondance, qu'ont cer-
taines parties du corps humain avec d'autres fort eloignees et fort differentes, et qui est ici si marquee,
pourroit s'observer bien plus g6neralement ; mais on ne fait pas d'attention aux effets, lorsqu' on ne

174 INTRODUCTION.

The mind sympathizes with the physical changes of the system, it is
animated by views, hopes, and desires, unknown before ; childish thoughts
pass away, the mental powers expand, and Man stands confessed in all
the dignity of his intellectual and physical excellence.

In the female sex, the indicia of womanhood present corresponding
phenomena ;* the general form acquires fulness, and a more graceful con-
tour ; the voice, while it preserves its delicacy, gains power ; and new
emotions, developing with these physical changes, announce the dawn of
maturity.

If we turn to the lower Mammalia, we observe their bodily powers and
animal instincts to have now arrived at their completion. Obeying the
laws of Nature, the sexes form companionships, sometimes permanent ;
but, more frequently, only enduring till the conception, by the female, of
the offspring which she is destined to bear, bring forth, and suckle. Often,
as among the Seals, the Deer, &c., one male is the lord of many females,
whom he guards, with jealousy, from the approaches of a rival. In other
cases, a single male and female consort for the season, and mutually guard
and rear their offspring : generally, however, the whole care devolves upon
the female alone. Where animals form societies, as among the larger Apes,
the old males of each troop guard the females and their young, in time of
danger, and endeavour to secure their safe retreat.-)"

The affection of the females for their young, is devoted and powerful ;
but it is transient, enduring only till the latter are able to maintain their
own independence, nor is it participated in by the male, at least, in ordinary
instances ; nay, sometimes the female anxiously conceals her offspring from
the male, least he should destroy it.

The period of gestation, and the number of young produced at a
birth, vary materially, in different Mammalia. Among the larger Herbi-
vora, the females seldom produce more than one at a time ; the Elephant,

soupconne pas quelles en peuvent etre les causes ; c'est, sans doute, par cette raison, qu'on a jamais
songe a examiner avec soin ces correspondances, dans le corps humaine, sur lesquelles cependant roule
une grande partie du jeu de la machin animale : il y a dans les femmes une grande correspondance
«ntre'( la matrice, les mamelles, et la tete ; combien n'en trouveroit-on pas des autres, si les grands
medecins tournoient leurs vues de ce cote-la ? II me paroit que cela seroit plus utile que la nomencla-
ture de 1'anatomie. Ne doit-on pas e"tre bien persuade que nous ne connoitrons jamais les premiers
principes de nos mouvemens ? Les vrais ressorts de notre organization ne sont pas ces muscles, ces
veines, ces arteres, ces nerfs que Ton decrit avec tant d'exactitude, et de soin : il reside, comme nous
avons dit, des forces interieures dans les corps organizes qui ne suivent point du tout les loix, de la
mecanique grossiere que nous avons imaginee, et a laquelle nous voudrions tout reduire." — Buff. Hist.
Nat. torn. ii. p. 485.

* Simias non esse menstruales, ut Buffon et nonnulli opinantur, nobis satis apparet; libidine geni-
talia tumefacta, veneris tempore instante, profluvium sanguinis interdum dimittere, ,haud negari
potest ; nihilominus hoc profluvium non esse menstruum, ni fallimur, et ad veritatem 'explorandam
curavimus, procul dubio videtur ; ideoque ad Plinii sententiam accedimus, mulierem solum esse animal
menstruale. Certe de Troglodyte, et Pitheco omnin6 nescitur.

t Monkeys are said to remain permanently attached to one or two females, rarely more ; their union
seems to be a sort of marriage ; the males are exceedingly jealous, and watch their females very
closely.

ON SPECIES, HYBRIDS, AND VARIETIES. 175

the Horse, the Ox, and the Camel, are examples ; and it is among
these animals of large size, ordinarily producing only one at a birth,
and, in a more advanced state of development than obtains among most
Mammalia, that the period of gestation is the longest. In the Elephant,
it endures for about twenty-three months ; in the Horse, upwards of
eleven months ; in the Tapir, between ten and eleven ; in the Drome-
dary, twelve ; in the Giraffe, upwards of fifteen months ; in the Cow,
nine ; in the females of the Red-deer, Fallow-deer, and Rein-deer, some-
what more than eight months. In the smaller ruminants, as the Sheep
and Goat, five months ; in the Sow, which produces a numerous litter, only
fourth months. In the Rodentia, — which not only bring forth a numerous
progeny, but those, also, with the eyes closed, and in a very helpless con-
dition, or, in other words (though their development, after birth, is very
rapid), less matured, than are the young of the Horse, Ox, or Sheep, —
the period of gestation is, comparatively, short ; in the Beaver (one of
the largest of the order), it endures for four months ; in the Rabbit and
Hare, from thirty to forty days ; in the Dormouse, thirty-one days ; in the
Guinea-pig, three weeks ; in the Squirrel and Rat, four weeks. Among
the larger Carnivora, the period of gestation is longer than among the
smaller species ; it endures for six months in the Bear ; 108 days in the
Lion ; seventy-nine days in the Puma ; nine weeks in the Arctic Fox ;
sixty-two or sixty-three days in the Dog ; fifty-five or fifty-six days in
the Cat ; in the Wolf, sixty- three days. The young of all the Carnivora
are born blind and helpless, and, like the young of the Rodentia, re-
quire a bed, or nest, for their reception ; their subsequent development
is slow ; and it is many months before they are able to rely upon their
independent exertions ; in the Dog, the eyelids begin to open about the
twelfth day ; and the permanent teeth are not fully acquired till after
the completion of a twelvemonth. Of all the Mammalia, the marsupials
have the shortest period of gestation, and produce their young in the
most rudimentary condition ; hence, the females, in most species, have
a fold of the skin of the abdomen, or a pouch, for the reception of
their young, and in which, attaching themselves to the teats, these semi-
foetal beings are fostered by her genial warmth, receive nutriment, and
grow ; nor, even when able to partake of other diet, in addition to the
mother's milk, do they, altogether, forsake this natural dormitory, but resort
to it, not only to obtain an occasional supply of milk, but, in times of
danger, as an asylum. The Kangaroo, the largest of marsupial ani-
mals, produces only a single offspring at a birth, after a period of gesta-
tion for thirty-nine days. The young, as observed by Professor Owen,
on the day of its birth, does not exceed one inch two lines from the nose
to the end of the tail ; its eyes are closed, and it resembles " an earth-
worm in the colour and semi-transparency of its integuments." At the

176 INTRODUCTION.

moment of its birth it is placed, by the mother, in her pouch ; conducted
to the nipple, to which it firmly adheres by the mouth, and continues
attached until developed to a considerable size.

The Cetacea, in general, produce only one young at a birth ; but
their period of gestation is not known. The Quadrumana produce one,
sometimes two, at a birth ;* the period of gestation, in such species as
have afforded an opportunity of determining the time, is seven months.
Nine months is the usual term of gestation in the human race ; one, some-
times two (very rarely more), are produced at a birth ; and, in a state of
utter helplessness, requiring, for many months, the mother's unremitting
care. The long infancy, the. slow growth, and the late maturity of Man, con-
stitute a marked and important line of separation between him and all the
lower animals ; and materially influence his moral and social state of being.

All the lower animals produce their young at that particular season of
the year most advantageous to the welfare of the offspring, and of the
parents : hence is the season of sexual association confined within re-
stricted periods : of the human species, the instinctive desires are solely
under the control and direction of his reason.

It need scarcely be said, that the young of all Mammalia are, at first,
nourished entirely by the milk secreted in the mother's breasts. The
breasts, teats, or mammae, are conglomerate glands (that is, a mass com-
posed of smaller glands, compacted together), invested with cellular tissue ;
they are traversed by lactiferous tubes, communicating with each other, and,
ultimately, merging in canals, which lead to the nipple (composed of a
vascular tissue, and sensitive), there to open by several orifices. The
situation of the mammae varies in different animals ; they are pectoral,
ventral, or inguinal ; and their number has reference to that of the young
produced at a birth, In the human species, in the Simiae, in the Lemurs,
and Bats, and, also, in the Elephant, the mammae are two and pectoral.
In the Ruminantia they are either two or four, and inguinal, or, in the
groin ; in the Horse, and its allies, the mammae are two, and inguinal.
The Sow has from ten to twelve mammae, in pairs, along the abdomen.
Carnivorous animals have from six to ten ventral mammae, in pairs. They
are ventral and numerous in the Rodentia.

The period of lactation, or suckling, is regulated by the growth of the
young, and the earlier or later development of their powers ; at first they
are fed exclusively with the mother's milk, but, in due time, they begin
to partake also of the food which is to constitute their aliment when adult.
Among the Carnivora, it is long before the young can procure their own
prey ; and it is not until after some weeks have elapsed, that they are
capable of taking other nutriment than that afforded by their parents;

* The Jacchus penicellatus (or Oustiti) produces two at a birth ; and so, most probably, do the
allied species.

ON SPECIES, HYBRIDS, AND VARIETIES. 177

their appetite for blood, however, gradually awakens • and, now, the mother
brings home the reeking prey, yet warm, to her den ; they lick the blood,
they endeavour to tear the flesh, and growl as they exert their efforts ;
their powers now rapidly expand, they partake less of the mother's milk,
and more of the prey, with which she assiduously supplies them ; they
gambol around their parent, and chase each other, exhibiting, in playful
frolic, the arts of surprise and attack, which they are soon to exercise in
earnest ; in due time they leave their den, and follow their parent, who
still protects them, and supplies them with food. At length, they acquire
strength and energy, enabling them to depend upon their own exertions ;
and, now, the conduct of the parent towards them undergoes a change ;
she no longer participates in their gambols, or permits their familiarity,
but drives them from her presence ; they separate, as accident may be,
in different directions ; they become strangers to each other, and to their
parent, and spread their race in other districts. With the cessation of the
strong attachment of the mother to her young, usually arise feelings of
a different order. The impulse of nature again urges her to seek a mate ;
in due time, she brings forth another progeny ; rears them with solicitude,
and, again, compels their dispersion.

The term of lactation is longest in the larger animals, bearing refe-
rence to the period of gestation, and the slow growth of the young. In
the Rodentia it is very short ; harmonizing with their fertility. Many
rodents produce young three or four times in the course of the year. The
period of gestation with the Guinea-pig, one of the most fertile of the
Rodentia, endures only for about a fortnight ; and the female reproduces
every two months during the spring and summer. The Rat, Mouse,
Hamster, &c., produce three or four litters in the course of the spring ;
hence, their period of lactation is short, and the young grow rapidly, soon
becoming independent of their parents. In some instances, the young
do not leave the society of their parent till long after they are able to
feed, and obtain their own living ; the female of the Wild Hog, for in-
stance, is often surrounded by young of various ages, the produce of
different litters : until fully mature, they are liable to become the prey
of the Wolf and Bear, and their safety consists in their herding together,
under the protection of their savage mother ; indeed, though the Boar
lives a solitary life, in the recesses of the forest, fearing no foe, several
females, with their respective young, usually accompany each other, and
unite in the defence of the common herd.

Beavers, also, associate in families, consisting of two or three pairs
of adults, and the irrespective offspring. They produce twice a year, to
the extent of three or four at a birth. The young, generally, continue
with their parents till the third year, when they begin to form separate
habitations for themselves and their own progeny.

VOL. I. 3 A

178 INTRODUCTION.

At a certain period of life, the reproductive powers of animals begin
to fail : this failure first takes place in the female ; as if, indeed, the
bearing, bringing forth, and rearing her progeny, according to the due
course of nature, had exhausted her animal energies, before the time when
those of the male decline. In general, however, the lower animals conti-
nue to be reproductive, up to a period nearer to the natural termination
of their existence than obtains in the human race ; but, nevertheless, as
age advances, the number of young at a birth (in such as produce
several) is diminished, nor are the young so strong and healthy. A Cat,
in the author's possession, had young in the fifteenth year of her age,
though labouring under a cancerous disease in one of the mammae, and
which, in a few months afterwards, terminated her existence.

The suspension of the reproductive powers of the system betokens the
failure of the vital energies ; years, in the human species, may yet elapse
before the close of life ; but the free step, the firm limb, the clear eye, the
keen relish of the pleasures of existence, the hopes and joys of youth and
manhood, are fled. Weary with the toil and trials of the way, the aged
asks only for repose and tranquillity, ere he "go hence, and be seen no
more."

That the death of the lower animals should speedily supervene on the
failure of their physical energies, is a wise dispensation. Man, in the
decline of his days, is consoled by the sympathy of those around him ; the
hands of friends and relatives minister to his wants, and he experiences
sources of comfort which are denied to the brute. But among the lower
animals there is no mutual sympathy ; the weak and the failing are deserted
by the strong and active ; unable to procure food, none supply their wants,
none regard them in their death. So sinks the Lion of the desert : age
has overtaken him ; his eye is dim, his force abated, he fails in his once
fatal spring : gaunt, and] lean, and feeble, he drags his weary limbs to the
old haunt, — the haunt from which he once went forth in the pride of his
strength, when his voice scattered terror through the desert, — there, at
length, to die. Better had he fallen by the hunter's javelin, " when his
limbs were strong, and his courage high," than thus drain to the dregs a
miserable existence. Merciful, then, is the law that subjects the brute
creation to accumulated chances of premature death ; and well is it for
them, that the term of natural existence is so seldom attained. The
scene of carnage, which the economy of nature presents, the warfare of
species with species, the never-ceasing destruction of life, are the antidotes
to misery and protracted suffering ; death comes unlooked-for, it is not
anticipated; up to the last moment the enjoyments of being are expe-
rienced, the allotted functions fulfilled, and every instinct obeyed ; death
comes unanticipated, — its bitterness passes in a moment.

179

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE MAMMALIA.

SOME explanation of the plan adopted in the arrangement of the
Mammalia is here obviously necessary ; and this without entering into
abstruse disquisitions, or perplexing details : the results, therefore, of an
investigation of the subject, rather than the steps by which such results
are attained, will alone be presented. It would, however, be unpardon-
able to omit, altogether, reference to the views of other naturalists ;
hence, a brief outline of the systems of Ray, Linnaeus, Illiger, Cuvier, and
others, will be adduced. It must, then, be premised, that every animal
has its own characters, by which it is distinguished, and which constitute
it a species. Each species consists of individuals. Individuality is the
ultimate division ; and when we designate a species, we include, in that
title, every similar individual. Thus, when we call the Tiger a species,
we include, in that word, every Tiger, one being the representative, or
prototype, of all. In the next place it may be stated, that, by a sponta-
neous act of synthesis, the mind cannot but associate, in idea, such species
as appear most nearly to resemble each other. We associate, for example,
the Tiger and the Leopard, because we perceive, at once, their mutual
affinity ; and animals, thus collocated, are regarded as forming a group,
more or less natural, according to the value of the affinities by which
it is bonded together. If truly natural, it will consist of species, agreeing
in every character, except such as merely serve to draw a line of specific
distinction between them, and which are, consequently, of a trivial or
superficial nature (as size, colour, length of fur, or shape and number of
scales, or plates, length of snout, ears, tail, &c.) ; while a sameness of
general form, habits, and manners prevails. — A group thus consisting of
closely allied animals is termed a genus.

Again, there are genera which agree, in various structural characters,
with other genera ; and these are associated into what are termed families.
But families have, again, certain structural grounds of union with other
families, and these constitute orders. The assemblage of orders, all agree-
ing in essential modes of organization, constitutes a class. The chafacters
of the class Mammalia, the subject of the present work, have been already
detailed.

Now, as is very evident, the ideas we form of an order must be more
comprehensive than those attaching to the subordinate sections, according
to their respective grades ; for the ratio of alliance, both as depending
upon external and internal structure, diminishes as we proceed from
genera upward. The progressive enlargement of groups, by the union of
genera, so as to form families, and of families so as to form orders, is
necessarily attended by a parallel diminution of the aggregate of characters

180

INTRODUCTION.

in common accordance : and in the assemblage of orders into a class, the
diagnostics are solely to be drawn from organs, and their functions.

Now it is with the formation of genera, so that they shall be natural,
and with the disposal of these genera, according to their true affinities, or,
so as to display their affinities, that the systematic naturalist is especially
concerned ; for it need not be argued, that the value of a system depends
upon its being a transcript of Nature. It must not, however, be con-
cealed, that many difficulties lie in the way of all attempts to exhibit the
scheme of Nature's combinations. Chasms interrupt the investigator;
anomalous forms perplex him ; he is apt, on the one hand, to overrate
the importance of characters, or, on the other hand, to slight them. He
often mistakes analogy for affinity, and he is, also, influenced by pre-
conceived opinions. Hence it is, that naturalists, alike aiming at truth,
differ so widely in their views. They take one set of organs, by which
to be exclusively guided, and on which to construct a system, not, indeed,
valueless, but artificial, instead of natural. Such were the arrangements of
the earlier writers ; the results of an extended series of anatomical inves-
tigations were wanting, to guide them in the establishment of groups ; and
hence do the trivial characters upon which they are founded, lead to
unnatural combinations and strange disjunctions. It is not meant, by
these observations, to depreciate the merit of the earlier naturalists ; it is
no little to their praise, that they should have done what they have, con-
sidering the limited extent of the materials within their reach ; and,
let it be remembered, that to improve is easier than to originate.

The following table presents the arrangement of " viviparous, hairy
animals, or quadrupeds," according to the system of Ray : —

UNGULATA.

(ANIMALS HAVING HOOFS.)

SOLIPEDA. Single-hoofed. As the Horse, Ass, and Zebra.

BISULCA. Double, or cloven-hoofed. Primarily divisible into ruminants and non-
ruminants.

Ruminating Bisulca — again separable into two sub-divisions ; namely, those with per-
manent, and those with deciduous, horns.

1. Those with permanent horns ; as the Ox, the Sheep, and the Goat.

2. Those with deciduous horns ; as the Deer kind.
Non-ruminating Bisulca : as the Hog.

QUADRISULCA. Four-hoofed. As the Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c.

UNGUICULATA.

(HAVING NAILS OR CLAWS.)

BIFID (Ruminants). The foot cleft in two only. As the Camel.
MULTIFID. The foot cleft in several parts.

With undivided fingers, cohering by a common skin, their extremities protruding only at

the margin of the foot, and provided with obtuse nails, as the Elephant.
With the fingers somewhat separated ; and these are either,

Wide-nailed, and anthropomorphous. As the Monkeys. Or,
Narrow- nailed. With fore or incisive teeth in each jaw.

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE MAMMALIA. 181

Analoga: — With many such teeth. These animals are all carnivorous, or insecti-
vorous, or live promiscuously on vegetables and insects. As the Lion, Dog, &c.
Carnivora. Divisible into Majora and Minora.
Majora. Separable into two portions : —

1. Those with the muzzle short, and the head round. As the Cats.

2. Those with the muzzle more produced, and the head longer. As the Dog,
Wolf, Fox, &c.

Minora. (In these the body is long and slender, and the legs short.) As the

Weasel, &c.

With two prominent. All these are phytivorous. As the Hare, &c.
Anornala: — In these the teeth are either absent or peculiar, agreeing neither in
form nor disposition with the others. As the Tamandua, Hedgehog, Mole,
Bat, &c.

The system of Linnaeus is confessedly an improvement on that of our
illustrious countryman, and displays the clear and comprehensive mind
of the immortal Swede : still its errors are not to be overlooked. We
find the Elephant and the Walrus associated with the Manis, Ant-eaters,
and Armadilloes ; and the Hyrax with the Hares and Cavies. The sub-
joined is a tabular view of the

LINN.EAN ARRANGEMENT OF THE CLASS.
MAMMALIA.

The primary sub-divisions founded on the structure of the feet ; the ordinal characters taken,

from the teeth.

Sub-division 1. UNGUICULATA.

(WITH NAILS OR CLAWS.)

Order I. PRIMATES. Characters : — With four front incisive teeth in each of the jaws ;
upper four parallel, and a canine, apart from the others, on each side of both ;
mammae pectoral ; the feet like hands, the nails flat and oval. Genera: — Homo,
Simia, Lemur, Vespertilio. (Man, Monkey, Lemur, and Bat.)

II. BRUTA. Characters: — With no fore-teeth in either jaw; the feet protected by
stout nails. Genera .-—Rhinoceros, Elephas, Trichicus, Bradypus, Myrmeco-
phaga, Manis, Dasypus. (Rhinoceros, Elephant, Ant-eater, Manis, &c.)

III. FERJE. Characters : — With two, six, or ten, but generally six, conical front teeth

in each of the jaws; one canine, separated from, and longer than, the others, on
each side, in both ; and the cheek-teeth having conical projections ; the feet
armed with sharp, hooked claws. Genera: — Phoca, Canis, Felis, Viverra,
Mustela, Ursus, Didelphis, Talpa, Sorex, Erinaceus. (Seal, Dog, Lion, Bear,
Mole, Hedgehog, &c.)

IV. GLIRES. Characters : — Two incisive front teeth in each of the jaws, approximated,

and remote from the grinders; no canines; feet adapted for running.
Genera: — Hystrix, Lepus, Castor, Mus, Sciurus, Myoxus, Cavia, Arctomys,
Dipus, Hyrax. (Hare, Beaver, Mouse, Squirrel, &c.)

Sub-division 2. UNGULATA.

(WITH HOOFS.)

V. PECORA. Characters : — No incisive teeth above ; six or eight below, apart from
the molars. Genera : — Camelus, Moschus, Cervus, Capra, Ovis, Bos. (Camel,
Musk-deer, Deer, Goat, Sheep, Ox.)

VI. BELLU;E. Characters: — Incisive teeth, obtuse and truncate. Genera: — Equus,
Hippopotamus, Sus, Rhinoceros. (Horse, Hippopotamus, Hog, Rhinoceros.)

182 INTRODUCTION.

Sub-division 3. PINNIPEDA.

(WITH FEET LIKE FINS, FOR SWIMMING.)

VII. CETE. Characters : — Spiracles, on the top of the head, pectoral fins, and a caudal
fin, which is horizontal, and destitute of nails. Genera : — Monodon, Balsena,
Physeter, Delphinus. (Monodon, Whale, Cachalot, Dolphin.)

In 1811, Illiger published his Prodromus Systematis Mammalium et
Avium ; but, previously, G. Cuvier had given his views to the world of
science, and had called in the aid of anatomy to co-operate with zoology,
in the development and elucidation of a Regne Animal distribue d'apres
son Organization. Cuvier's work, however, thus entitled, did not
appear, in its present form, till 1816-7 ; but his Tableau Elementaire
des Animaux was printed in 1798.*

The Prodromus of Illiger, though confessedly a work of great
research, nevertheless, has many imperfections. It is admitted, for
instance, as the talented writer of the Natural History of Monkeys,
Lemurs, and Opossums, has observed, that " the five families, into which
Illiger divides his second order, Pollicata,^ are neither co-ordinate
with one another, nor definitely characterized." The order, indeed, is
not natural ; it includes the Monkeys, the Lemurs, the Tarsiers, the
Cheiromys, and the Marsupials, excluding the Kangaroos. Now, the
dissociation of the Kangaroos from the marsupial group, on the one
hand, and the collocation of the rest of the marsupials, on the other, with
the Simise and Lemurs, — if, indeed, anatomy be a guide in arrangements, —
are sufficiently startling. However, even on the principles assumed, viz.,
the pedimanous structure of the hind feet, it is not very clear why the
Wombat (Phascolomys) has a station among the Pollicata. Surely, if it be
a violation of systematic arrangement to constitute the marsupials a group
per se, the Wombat should be rather referred to the rodents (Prensicu-
lantia, 111.), than to -an order of which the Monkey forms a part.J

Again, no good reason appears, why the order Salientia (Kangaroos,

* " Je dus faire marcher de front 1'anatomie et la zoologie, les dissections et le classement ; chercher
dans mes premieres remarques sur 1'organization, des distributions meilleures ; m'en servir pour arriver
& des remarques nouvelles; employer encore ces remarques a perfectionner les distributions; faire
sortir, enfin, de cette fecondation mutuelle des deux sciences, 1'une par 1'autre, un systeme propre a servir
d'introducteur et de guide dans le champ de 1'anatomie, et un corps de doctrine anatomique propre a
servir de developpement et d'explication au systeme zoologique. Les premiers resultats de ce
double travail parurent en 1795, dans un memoire special sur une nouvelle division des animaux a sang
blanc. Une ebauche de leur application aux genres et a leur division en sous-genres fit 1'objet de mon
Tableau Elementaire des Animaux, imprime en 1798, et j'ameliorai ce travail, avec le concours de M.
Dumeril, dans les tables^annexees au premier volume de mes Lemons d' Anatomic Comparee, en 1800." —
Cuvier, Pref. de la prem. edit, du Regne Anim.

t The first order, Erecta, answering to the Bimana of Cuvier, contains Man ; but this order is
merged, by some naturalists, into a mere section of an order, embracing the Apes, or Monkeys, of both
worlds, and the pedimanous marsupials.

J Illiger terms the Koala, Wombat (gen. Amblotis). Of course, we allude to the Phascolomys (Wom-
bat) P6ron, or, Phascolomys fusca (Geoffr.), which is the animal we understand by Wombat. The Tar-
siers and the Cheromys (Aye-aye) are not families of [the same value as the Quadrumana (111.), or the
Marsupialia (111.) j nor can they be removed, in this sense, from the lemurine group.

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE MAMMALIA. 183

and Kangaroo Rats) should succeed the Pollicata, excepting that Illiger
could not shut his eyes against the natural connexion between the Kangaroos
and the other marsupials, which conclude the preceding order, and which
Storr, who first placed the marsupials with Man, the Simiae, and the Lemurs,
did not dissociate from the Linnaean genus Didelphis.* In fact, he per-
ceived, that the Phalangers incline to the Kangaroos ; and it is not unrea-
sonable to expect that the immediate links between them will yet be
forthcoming. This anticipation may be, indeed, entertained with the more
confidence, as some of the Kangaroos are not absolutely terrestrial, but
even arboreal. Those who scatter asunder the marsupials, make light of
the descriptive phrase " mastotheca ventralis" (abdominal pouch), as if'
the character denoted by the expression were absolutely isolated ; while,
in fact, it is but one of many with which it is invariably associated. f
The orders of Illiger stand as follow : —

ORDER I. ERECTA. Examples: Man.

II. POLLICATA. Monkeys of the Old and New World (not distinguished

from each other), Lemurs, and the pedinaanous
marsupials.

III. SALIENTIA. The Kangaroos and Hypsiprymni.

IV. PRENSICULANTIA. The Rodents.

V. MULTUNGULA. Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Tapir, Hog.

VI. SOLIDUNGULA. Horse.

VII. BISULCA. Ruminants.

VIII. TARDIGRADA. Sloths and Prochilus.

IX. EFFODIENTIA. Orycteropus, Ant-eaters, and Manis.

X. REPTANTIA. Echidna, Ornithorhynchus (and Pamphractus ?).

XL VOLITANTIA. Galeopithecus and the Bats.

XII. FALCULATA. The Insectivora and the Carnivora, excluding Seals.

XIII. PINNIPEDIA. Seals.

XIV. NATANTIA. Lamantins, Duyongs, Whales, Porpoises, &c.J

* In the establishment of the genus Didelphis, it is very obvious that Linnaeus was guided by true
principles. Few marsupial animals were known in his time. He looked at their great characters ; he
saw that they must be associated ; and his genus Didelphis ought to be regarded in the light of an
order, or an equivalent to the Marsupialia of Cuvier.

t Supposing, for argument's sake, that we did not possess the information with which anatomists
have furnished us, as regards the internal structure of the Marsupialia, but were merely aware of the
fact, that a certain number of mammals, inhabiting a certain country, all agreed in the circumstance of
bringing forth their young prematurely; and that they all possessed a pouch, for the reception of their
young, — we might, even then, with the knowledge of the geographical distribution of animals, be led
to suppose that these mammals were nearly related to each other by affinity. Accordingly, we arrange
them together, and compare one species with another, and what is the result ? — \Ve find, variable or
adaptive as are the characters among them, that the most dissimilar species are linked together by inter-
mediate forms ; and that we cannot separate one species without doing violence to the series, nor place
one of the species in any other group, without doing violence to the affinities observable in that group.
But supposing that we now bring anatomy to our aid, as a test, what then is the result?— It proclaims
these mammals as beings of a peculiar and very low type of structure, and forbids us to associate any of
them with the mammals of a higher type, as peremptorily as it does the association of the Amphibia with
the true Lizards, or Tortoises.

I With respect to these orders, Illiger thus writes : — " Mammalium ordines fere iidem sunt, quos
Cuvier et Dumeril instituerunt, aliter tamen conjuncti. Nam Pedimana cum Quadrumanis, Digitigrada
cum Plantigradis eodem ordine comprehendi, Manatum, Halicorem et Rytinam ex amphibiorum
(Pinnipedium) ordine ad cetacea translocavi; Salientium ordinem novum condidi. In serie ordinum
in Mammalibus naturali, multum desudavi, eosque varium in modum verti et collocavi, donee ea qua

184 INTRODUCTION.

The system adopted by Cuvier, in his Regne Animal, differs, mate-
rially, on one point, from the arrangement of Illiger ; namely, in the
union of the marsupials into an order per se. Cuvier, also, regards the
seals as forming part of the carnivorous order, notwithstanding the modi-
fication of the limbs for aquatic habits (an adaptive modification, merely) :
he, moreover, places the Horse in the same order with the Elephant and
Hippopotamus, and the Sloths with the Ant-eaters ; regarding the adaptive
arrangement of the limbs of the Sloths, for an arboreal existence, as only
entitling them to the rank of a subordinate section.

The merits of Cuvier's arrangement are appreciated by all naturalists.
He divides the Mammalia into nine orders, thus : —

ORDER I. BIMANA. Examples : Man.

II. QUADRUMANA. Monkeys and Lemurs.

III. CARNIVORA. (Carnassiers) Bats, Insectivora, and true Carnivora, as

Bears, Weasels, Otters, Dogs, Cats, Seals, &c.

IV. MARSUPIALIA. All the Opossums, Phalangers, and Kangaroos.
V. RODENTIA. The Rodents.

VI. EDENTATA. Sloths, Armadilloes, Ant-eaters, Manis, Echidna, and Or-

nithorhynchus.
VII. PACHYDERMATA. Elephants, Hippopotamus, Hog, Rhinoceros, Hyrax,

Tapir, and Horse.

VIII. RUMINANTIA. The Ruminants.

IX. CETACEA. Lamantins, Duyongs, and true Cetacea, as Whales, Dol-

phins, &c.

The arrangement of Cuvier is distinguished for clearness and sim-
plicity ; and, if his^ combinations be not in every respect natural, they
evince the important advantage which has accrued from the aid of ana-
tomy, in the investigation of the relationships of living bodies ; without
which, indeed, every system, however ingenious, will fail in its great aim ;
and, instead of being the road by which to arrive at knowledge, will be,
at best, only an aid to the memory.

Within the last few years zoology has made rapid strides, and
attained an acknowledged scientific dignity, resulting from the mode of
its investigation, and the application of comparative anatomy, as a guide,
in arranging the mighty mass of material, which has poured in, and con-
tinues to do so, from quarters of the globe till lately almost unknown,
but now traversed by the inquiring and the scientific, and rewarding
their toils by discoveries of the highest interest.

To the labours of Cuvier, and of such men, zoology stands indebted

nunc est series ut maxime obvia se mihi commendabat. Homo enim illam inchoare, Cetorum gens
claudere necesse erat.* Ab Erectis ad Bisulca nexus ordinum facilis et naturalis est ; Tardigrada ver6
cum Effodientibus et Reptantibus ilium intercipiunt, quae revera nusquam aptfe collocari possunt, et
veluti discretum a reliquis Mammalibus locum sibi poscunt. A Volitantibus, rursus, series ben£ pro-
cedit usque ad Natantia" . . . . " Quod ad ordinum appellationes attinet Linnaei mos in eadem anima-
lium classi illas ex eodem fonte derivandi servatus, et motus organum, ut majorem quam alias paries
varietatem prsebens, ad eas formandas adhibitum est."

* We do not see the necessity of this, as to the Cetacea.

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE MAMMALIA. 185

for her elevation ; and it is in their footsteps that the naturalist is tread-
ing. New views, new arrangements, as facts and materials are accumu-
lated, must arise; but, in our views, and in our arrangements, we
must invoke the guidance of anatomy ; for, if anatomy demonstrate
a widely different type of organization between two living beings,
though there may be points of analogy between them, there will be
no true affinity. The science of zoology, slow in our own country till
within the last few years, has, of late, made rapid progress : our collections
already rival the finest of those on the Continent ; nor are men wanting,
who, with comprehensiveness of mind, and zealous industry, have applied
their energies to an investigation of the relationships of organic beings.
Hence has arisen a system of arrangement, professing to take the harmo-
nies and affinities of nature as its exclusive basis. It aims at unravelling
her perplexities, at interpreting her hieroglyphics : it leaves the contem-
plation of individuals, to use the words of a talented' writer, for the study
of " the wonders displayed in the extensive affinities and combinations of
the whole." It has acquired the appellation of the Circular System, because
it is based upon the principle that every natural group forms, in truth, a
circle ; in other words, that, proceeding from any given point, we follow a
series of gradations, returning to that point again : moreover, that each
circle, thus formed, impinges upon, or inosculates at, certain parts, with
the like parts of other circles in approximation to it ; so that every class is
made up of a harmonious constellation of circles, forming one vast zone ;
this zone assisting, with that of other classes, to complete one mightier
still — the zone of organic beings.

The new views developed on this theory, were first introduced and
explained by Mr. Mac Leay, in a work, entitled, Horoe Entomologies :
subsequently, they became adopted by other naturalists of great attain-
ments, and, among them, by Mr. Vigors, who applied them to ornithology,
with considerable ingenuity. Agreeing with Mr. Mac Leay, he regards
each larger group as composed of five minor or subordinate groups, viz.,
two normal, or typical, and three aberrant. The normal, or typical, are
those which exhibit the aggregate of the distinguishing' characters of the
general group or circle, in their maximum, or highest perfection — which
exemplify the marked, the outstanding features of the group, and stamp
their name upon it. The aberrant groups are such as partake, less de-
cidedly, of these prominent characters, and indicate, in their degeneracy of
form, and modification of habits, an affinity to other groups. They are,
indeed, the passage by which any given circle conducts into those conti-
guous to it, forming the osculant portions of that circle. There is, there-
fore, a gradual blending of one form into another ; and so imperceptible is
the transition, that, as day melts into night, we know not where the precise
line of distinction should be drawn. For, in like manner as the aberrant

VOL. I. 2 B

186 INTRODUCTION.

groups form the passage of orders to orders, of families to families, do the
typical groups themselves pass into these aberrant groups, and so in-
sensibly, that, at certain stages, the dividing line between them is rather
conventional than distinctly indicated by Nature. This, however, is not
all ; each natural group is not only thus circular, returning into itself, and
linked by points of inosculation to other groups, but each group has its
analogues in the groups of other orders, and of other classes. Mr. Vigors,
alluding to his researches in ornithology, observes : "I discovered, as I
advanced, that the larger, or primary groups, into which it (the system of
ornithology) arranged itself, were connected together by an uninterrupted
chain of affinities ; that this series, or chain, returned into itself, and that
the groups of which it was composed, preserved, in their regular succes-
sion, an analogy to the corresponding groups, or orders, of the contiguous
classes of zoology. I equally detected the existence of the same principle
in most of the subordinate sub-divisions, even down to the minutest, to a
degree, at least, sufficiently extensive to afford grounds for asserting its
general prevalence." In these views, as well as in those which regard a
quinary arrangement of the greater and the subordinate circles, Mr. Vigors
strictly coincides with Mr. Mac Leay ; and he elsewhere observes, com-
menting on a passage in the writings of that eminent naturalist, " If the
natural groups, into which the animal kingdom is divided, bear a uniform
analogy to each other, a principle which is among the most important of
those in the system which I wish to illustrate, it is a necessary consequence
that their number should be definite. The primary groups of those de-
partments of the animal kingdom which have hitherto been investigated,
have been ascertained to be limited to five ; and the first great divisions of
birds will be found to branch out in a similar number."

The following is a series of the orders of the Mammalia, according to
the views of Mr. Mac Leay ; adapted analogically to that of Birds, as given
by Mr. Vigors. (Part i. vol. xvi. p. 32, of Linn. Trans.)

MAMMALIA. AVES.

1. FER^E, carnivorous . . corresponding to 1. RAPTORES.

2. PRIMATES, omnivorous 2. INSESSORES.

3. GLIRES, frugivorous 3. RASORES.

4. UNGULATA, frequenting the vicinity of water . 4. GRALLATORES.

5. CETACEA, aquatic 5. NATATORES.

The reasoning, upon which these orders are paralleled as analogues,
or representatives of each other, is, in many instances, we think, totally in-
admissible. The Ungulata (or hoofed mammals), and the Grallatores (or
wading birds), are regarded, for instance, as the analogues of each other,
because we find both to " contain examples of the longest legs, in propor-
tion to the body, — witness Cameleopardalis and Himantopus (Stilt-plover).
Both orders present us, in groups, not exactly aquatic, with instances of the

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE MAMMALIA. 187

toes being soldered together, as the Horse, or connected together by a web,
as the Flamingo. Both orders present us with the greatest elongation of
muzzle, or facies ; — witness, the Myrmecophaga, or Antelope, and Scolo-
pax ; and, also, the most depressed form of muzzle, — witness, the Hip-
popotamus and Platalea. In both orders we have the most elongated claws,
— witness, Megalonyx and Parra. Both orders afford us the swiftest ani-
mals in running, as the Horse and Tachydromus ; and the most pugnacious
on account of love, as the Bull and Machetes."

Somewhat subsequently to Mr. Vigors, Mr. Swainson directed his atten-
tion to the circular system ; but with results, in many respects, widely
different from those arrived at by the preceding naturalist. The princi-
ples of his circular system are detailed, at some length, in the Fauna
B or eali- Americana (vol. ii. Birds). Mr. Swainson states his theory as
follows : —

" First. — Every natural series of beings, in its progress from a given
point, either actually returns, or evinces a tendency to return, again to that
point, thereby forming a circle.

" Secondly. — The contents of such a circle, or group, are symbolically
represented by the contents of all the other circles in the same class of
animals ; this resemblance being strong, or remote, in proportion to the dis-
tance or proximity of the groups compared.

" Thirdly. — The primary divisions of every natural group, of whatever
extent or value, are three ; each of which forms its own circle." — The
three groups consist of one typical, one sub-typical, and one aberrant.

The former writers, Mr. Mac Leay and Mr. Vigors, consider the cir-
cumstance of a group returning from any given point, into itself, as the
test of its being truly natural ; not so Mr. Swainson : he considers
that a group, if natural, must represent, and be again represented by,
other groups. " Without some other test," he observes, " for a natural
group, than the mere circumstance of its returning into itself, or even
its simple parallelism with a contiguous group, I consider demonstration
not to have been attained. The theory of representation thus steps in,
and at once dispels the illusion, or demonstrates the correctness of the
series." He also advocates the direct union of typical groups, which
the quinary modification of the circular system does not recognise ; and
he states the " direct union of typical groups, without the intervention of
those which are aberrant," to be " an unquestionable property of natural
arrangement."

Again, the mode of synthetical investigation, which is followed by the
author of the Horce Entomologicte, and by the great advocates of the
quinary arrangement, is regarded by Mr. Swainson as inadequate to accom-
plish the end in view. " I soon found," he says, " that, although this
theory (the quinary) would explain much that I desired, it would not ex-

188

INTRODUCTION.

plain all ; and a publication of a quinarian arrangement of this same
family (alluding to the Laniadae, or Shrikes), nearly at the same time, but
essentially different from my own, shewed me the necessity of looking
much deeper into the subject. Convinced that truth, if it was to be dis-
covered, would result only from minute and patient analysis, I entirely
abandoned the synthetic method, as the rock upon which others were split-
ting ; while the mutual dependance of one natural group upon another, led,
almost insensibly, from the analysis of the Laniadae, to that of the vast
order of Insessores."

With respect to the Mammalia, Mr. Swainson observes (see his His-
tory and Classification of Quadrupeds ; Cabinet Cyclop.} : " The primary
types, under which all quadrupeds appear to arrange themselves, may thus
be concisely defined. In the first (Man being excluded) the extremities of
all the four limbs perform the office of hands, one of the toes being op-
posable to the others, and acting as a thumb, capable of free motion : hence
they have been judiciously named, by M. Cuvier, Quadrumana. In the
second, this prehensile structure of the foot is not seen, the thumb being
upon the same plane with the other toes ; the claws, also, are mostly retrac-
tile. Like the Quadrumana, they possess three sorts of teeth, well deve-
loped, but the canines are particularly large ; and from this character,
which indicates their carnivorous habits, Linnaeus has termed the order
Ferae, and M. Cuvier, Carnivora. The third, or aberrant, group, is chiefly
distinguished by its imperfect and variable dentition ; the under jaw is with-
out, generally, canine teeth, properly so called ; or, they exist merely in an
abortive or rudimentary state. Like all other aberrant groups, in the animal
kingdom, this, likewise, contains three subordinate sections, thus named : —
1. The Ungulata, or hoofed order. 2. The Glires, or gnawing order.
3. The Cetacea, or aquatic order. These divisions evince a strong ten-
dency to unite into a separate circle of their own, by the Hippopotamus,
or River Cow, in the first ; and by the Manatus, or Sea Cow, in the last.

** The general course of the mammiferous circle may be thus stated ;
although there is strong presumptive evidence to believe, as will be seen
hereafter, that the aquatic type of the Quadrumana is either extinct or
undiscovered. Commencing, then, with the Ferae, Nature appears to quit
them, for the Lemurs, by such animals as the Arctitis, Temm., and the
Potto (Cercoleptes). The Lemurs naturally lead us to the Monkeys with-
out cheek-pouches (Cebidae) ; and these, to the genuine Simiadae. The
hiatus, just alluded to, occurs, therefore, between the Quadrumana and the
Ungulata, which we enter by means of the Rhinoceros, and quit by the
Anoplotherium. Arriving thus among the Glires, by means, most pro-
bably, of the Kangaroos, the Beaver evinces an affinity to the more aquatic
animals belonging to the Cetacea, which order is again left, through the me-
dium of the Manatus. The intimate connexion between this latter animal

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE MAMMALIA. 189

and the Seals, is well known to all naturalists ; and we thus return again to
die Ferae, from whence we first commenced tracing the circle.

" The analogies of these orders with the class of birds have been
variously stated. That the rapacious quadrupeds represent the rapa-
cious birds, is too obvious a fact to be questioned. The Quadrumana, on
the same principle, have been rightly compared to the insessorial order of
birds ; for both, in their respective classes, are the most highly organized.
The Ungulata, the type of which is the ruminating tribe, containing the
Oxen, Sheep, and Deer, were compared, by Linnaeus, to the Gallinacea,
or poultry ; and the analogy, until very lately, has never been questioned.
The Glires, like the grallatorial birds, have the muzzle remarkably
lengthened, and, for their size, are the swiftest runners of the whole class ;
— witness, the Hare, the Rabbit, the Cavy, &c. (See, on the other hand,
the opinion of Mr. Vigors, page 134.) Finally, the analogy of the aquatic
Cetacea to the feathered swimmers, has been admitted by every one."

Mr. Swainson's parallel arrangement of the Mammalia and Birds is
as follows : —

Orders of Quadrupeds. Typical Characters. Orders of Birds.

I. Typical group. Qimdrumana. Pre-eminently organized for grasping. Insessores.

II. Sub-typical group. Ferae. Claws retractile ; carnivorous. Raptores.

( Cetacea. Pre-eminently aquatic feet, very short. Natatores.

Glires. Muzzle lengthened and pointed. Grallatores.

III. Aberrant group. or ^ Meg Qn

Ungulata. | he^d j Rasores.*

It has been explained, that, according to Mr. Swainson, the contents of
each circle are symbolically represented by the contents of all the other
circles in the same class of animals. In illustration of this law, are sub-
joined the following examples, taken from the work of Mr. Swainson,
already quoted : —

Circle, Simiadse ; or, Old- World Monkeys.

r Grave, intelligent, inoffensive; ty--k ,_
I. Typical group. Simia. j picalofthe j Quadrumana.

II. Sub-typical group. Cercopithecus. Mischievous, malicious ; Ferae.

rPapio. Head very large, little or no tail ; Cetacea.

( Tail comparatively long; hare-)
III. Aberrant group. < Macacus. | lipped; | Glires.

Llnuus. Head conspicuously crested ; Ungulata.

* The analogies between the hoofed quadrupeds and the Rasores are thus represented (p. 183) : —

Uiisculata. Families of Rasores.

I. Typical group. Solipedes. Tail excessively long. Pavonidae (Peacock).

II. Sub-typical group. Ruminantes. Tail very short. Tetraonidae (Grouse)..

("Anoplotheres. Semi-aquatic. Cracidae (Curassows).

J Edentates. Jaws prolonged, slender ; feet short. Columbidae (Pigeons).

III. Aberrant group. < t Size, large; hair or feathers, very 3 Struthionidae (Ostrich,

^Pachydermes. ^ thin ; skin, thick. £ Cassowary).

190

INTRODUCTION.

GenUS BOS. The natural types.

I. Bos Scoticus. Fierce, untameable. Ferae, Raptores.

II. — Taurus. Pre-eminently typical. Primates, Insessores.

III. — Dermaceros. Appendages on the head greatly developed. Ungulata, Rasores.

IV. — Pusio. Stature remarkably small. Glires, Grallatores,
V. — Thersites. Fore part of the shoulders elevated. Cetacea, Natatores.

" Without attempting to verify the trinary arrangement of the domesti-
cated races (of the Dog), it will be readily perceived, that modifications
of all the primary types of Nature are to be found among them. The long
snout, which characterizes all the gliriform and grallatorial types, is seen
in the Greyhound ; the Water Dogs remind us of the natatorial structure ;
the thick tails of the Spaniels, and the large size of the Newfoundland Dogs,
exhibit the rasorial type ; while the others either arrange themselves under
a ferocious or a highly intelligent group."

The following is the symbolical parallelism of two families — Mustelidae
and Felidse : —

Mustelidas. Felidaj.

I. Typical. Mustela. Felis. Typical.

II. Sub-typical. Viverra. Hyaena. Sub-typical.

f Ryzaena. Canis. Rasorial, or Ungulated.

III. Aberrant. "\ Nasua. ? Grallatorial, or Gliriform.

^Ursus. Thylacinus. Aquatic, or Natatorial.

In this attempt to exhibit a short sketch of the views of Mr. Swainson,
the author has preferred using the words of that naturalist, and the exem-
plifications he has himself given of the theory in question, to trusting to
his own expressions, lest a false notion should be conveyed of the princi-
ples involved. To those who wish to pursue this system, the volume of
the Fauna Boreali-Americana, devoted to birds, and the History and
Classification of Quadrupeds, are recommended.

In 1838, appeared a Catalogue of the Mammalia preserved in the
Museum of the Zoological Society, London, by the author's friend, Mr.
Waterhouse (the present curator of that museum), embodying an arrange-
ment of the Mammalia, modified upon that of Cuvier, and, in many
important points, happily framed according to the indications of Nature.
Naturalists expect too much, if, in a simple collocation of the orders, they
look for a display of the multiform affinities and analogies, by which the
forms of one order are related to those of another : nor will any series of
orders run smoothly, link succeeding link ; for not only do breaks occur
in the chain, but it often happens that forms belonging to a lower type of
structure, rise in organization, if we may so express ourselves, to a mark
above that of the lower forms of a superior type ; and, indeed, in survey-
ing Nature, on an extensive scale, this is very evident. Look, for example,
at the organization of the Cuttlefish (the highest among the Mollusca),
and it will be found to rise above that of the lowest of the vertebrata, though
the structural type of the latter is far superior to that of the Mollusca ;

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE MAMMALIA.

191

while, again, the Crustacea rise higher than the lower Mollusca. Hence
it would appear, that Nature rather presents us with a system of groups,
the lower rising above the termination of the upper, than with a series of
consecutive links, in which the last form of one group blends into the first
form of the next ; and hence, moreover, arises one of the difficulties attend-
ing a linear arrangement of the whole, or of parts, of the animal creation.
With respect to the arrangement of the Mammalia, in the Catalogue of the
Mam. Zool. Soc., it is to be observed, that the Insectivora are there
placed as a tribe, or great section, of the Carnivora. M. Blainville appears
correct in considering them as strictly entitled to rank as an order per
se ; and this is now the opinion of the author of the catalogue in question.
A second alteration of the arrangement in that catalogue, consists in the
collocation of the " Cetaces Herbivores" of Cuvier (the Duyong, the La-
mantin, &c.), with the Pachydermata, of which they are the aquatic form ;
having no affinity to the true Cetacea, beyond that of being, like them,
adapted for the element which they are destined to inhabit.

In his views respecting the situation of the " Cetaces Herbivores," the
author accords with Professor Owen, to whom, he believes, is due the
merit of having first pointed out their true station.

The arrangement of the class Mammalia, then, will stand as follows : —

SUB-CLASS.

I^Placentalia.

MAMMALIA.

ORDER.

1. Bimana.

2. Quadrumana.

3. Cheiroptera.

4. Carnivora.

5. Insectivora.

6. Cetacea.

7. Pachydermata (proper).
(aquatic).

8. Ruminantia.

9. Rodentia.
O. Edentata.

l^Marsupialia. 11. Marsupialia.

Teeth simple.

Teeth compound.

Teeth variable.

Though the marsupials are here placed as an order, the author inclines
to the views of Cuvier, that this order ought to be regarded as a sub-class,
parallel to that of the placental Mammalia, and in such a light it will be
treated ; observations upon it being reserved for appropriate occasions.

As the situation assigned to the Rodentia, below that of the Pachyder-
mata and Ruminantia, may, by some naturalists, be deemed a startling
innovation, the motives by which this arrangement has been influenced
may require explanation.

The comparative anatomist will bear out the idea, that the structural
organization of the rodents is at a low ratio : this organic deterioration

192 INTRODUCTION.

is observable in the almost bird-like condition of the brain, a part of the
animal frame important to be considered, in attempting to form an esti-
mate of the rank of groups among the class Mammalia. In accord-
ance with the low structural ratio of the brain, is the ratio of their in-
telligence. We may tame them, it is true ; but they will not obey the
voice of their keeper ; — we may tame them, but we cannot educate them.
The structural inferiority of the rodents is not displayed by the brain
alone : the rudimentary condition of the skull — the original parts of the
bones, which compose it, remaining distinct, as if by an arrest of ossi-
fication, also attests the fact.* Not only is the cranium depressed below
the facial portion, but the position of the orbits, with their lateral aspect,
is anterior to the cranial cavity ; and often, by the imperfection, or
narrowness, of the septum, dividing between them internally, as in the
Hares, do they remind us of the orbits of a bird ; even in the Beaver,
where they are separated by the nasal cavity, a probe may be passed at
the bottom of the orbitar recess (above the alveoli of the molar teeth),
through the foramina, from one cavity to the opposite, without entering
that of the cranium, or of the nose.

The comparatively contracted volume of the thorax, the general feeble-
ness of the skeleton, and even the number and characters of the teeth,
which consist only of molars, and two incisors, indicate a typical inferiority.
" En un mot," to use the words of Cuvier, " 1'inferiorite de ces animaux
se montre dans la plupart des details de leur organisation." It is true, that
the rodents are unguiculate ; that many use their paws with a certain share
of address, and, consequently, that many, or most, are claviculated : but,
be it observed, that the possession of clavicles, and digitated paws, is a
circumstance, in itself, by no means indicative of elevation in the rank of
being : other qualifications are requisite ; for it is evident, that animals
having instincts leading them to choose the trees for their abode, must be
fitted for climbing ; and that animals whose instincts lead them to burrow,
must have their organs adapted for excavating the ground ; but the pos-
session of these instruments confers, in itself, no positive superiority.
When the intelligence of an animal is developed, involving habits in unison
with its intelligence, and an according modification of the structure in the
extremities, then this organization becomes the index of superiority, in a
given sense, but is not the true cause of superiority. We are, indeed,
too apt to look upon structural adaptation as the cause of superiority, or
of differences in habits and manners ; and, because we are accustomed to see
certain modes of structure combined with a superiority in the scale of
being, to mistake the result for the cause ; but it ought not to be forgotten,
that the modification of organs does not influence habits : habits are the

* The size of the foramina, for the egress of the nerves, and the magnitude of the nerves, in propor-
tion to the volume of the cerebral mass, are remarkable features in the Rodentia.

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE MAMMALIA. 193

result of instinct ; organization is adapted to instinct ; and it is thus that
instinct and organization become concomitants. Galen says, " It is not
because Man has hands that he is, therefore, the wisest of animals ; but,
because he is the wisest, therefore he has hands." The Duck is adapted for
swimming ; let the webs of its feet be removed, and still it will betake itself
to the water. The tail of the Monkey aids it in leaping with precision, and
acts as a balancer among the branches ; but, if its tail be removed, its
habits are not perceptibly altered ; it is still arboreal, and still leaps with
address. The Squirrel, because it has clavicles and digitated paws, is not,
therefore, to be regarded as higher in the scale of being than the Elephant ;
it is thus organized only that it may climb ; and, hence, to lay so paramount
a stress upon the adaptive form of the organs of locomotion, exclusive^ of
other considerations, as to make them the test of elevation or depression in
the scale, is to attach to them an importance beyond what is their due, or
what sound philosophy dictates. The division of mammals into unguicu-
late and ungulate is, therefore, worse than useless — as leading to erroneous
conclusions : upon such a principle, we must separate the Hyrax from the
Pachydermata, and restore it to its old position, among the Rodentia.

It is laid down as an axiom, by some highly-talented naturalists, that,
in animals, the common possession of organic modifications, having a
marked and influential bearing on the habits and economy of life (or, in
other words, being the cause, and not the consequence, of their instincts
and habits) — is the only philosophical principle of zoological classification.
That we are to be guided by organic modifications, in zoological arrange-
ment, no one will presume to deny ; and, cceteris paribus, it is also
granted, that a group, characterized by the common possession of cer-
tain structural peculiarities, " should present numerous important coin-
cidences, not only in other parts of the physical structure, but likewise
in the mental resources, habits, manners, and, what may be not improperly
denominated, the moral character of the animals which compose it."
But if, on this principle, carried ad extremum, some isolated adaptive
character is to be taken as the standard, without considering the bearing
of other characters, of more predominance as affecting the totality of an
animal's economy, the naturalist will, assuredly, be in danger of mistaking
analogy for affinity : and hence have arisen many of the unnatural colloca-
tions in what are termed artificial systems.

Cuvier observes : " Les caracteres variables qui etablissent les diver-
sites essentielles des mammiferes entre eux, sont pris des organes du
toucher, d'ou depend leur plus au moins d'habilite ou d'adresse, et des
organes de la manducation qui determinent la nature de leurs alimens, et
entrainent apres eux, non seulement tout ce qui a rapport a la fonction
digestive, mais encore une foule d'autres differences relatives meme a
1'intelligence."

VOL. I. 2 C

194 INTRODUCTION.

Accordingly, the names of the orders, as instituted by Cuvier, refer
sometimes to the characters of the extremities, sometimes to those of the
dentition, and sometimes to other organic peculiarities ; but, it is clear
that no one structural modification ought to be considered in an isolated
point of view, nor can the definition of a group rest solely upon a single
character. In some groups, the organs of locomotion form the most pro-
minent and tangible grounds of distinction, and suggest the appellation — as
Quadrumana, and Cheiroptera ; in others, the condition of the dental
system gives rise to the appellation — as Carnivora, Insectivora, Rodentia,
Edentata. The teeth, indeed, as connected with the form of the skull, the
state of the digestive apparatus, and the nature of the diet, and, conse-
quently, as involving the arrangement of the whole animal machine,
cannot be regarded as taking a second-rate place among the great cha-
racters by which we are to be guided in the classification of the Mam-
malia ; nevertheless, they ought not to claim exclusive attention.

It is not, then, from one point of structure that the laws are to be
deduced on which the orders and families of Mammalia are to be founded ;
but from a careful estimate of the totality of organization, and the harmony
of the parts with each other, proclaiming the direction of instincts, as
to habits, manners, and food, and indicating, also, the ratio of intelligence ;
while the subordinate division into genera is decided by characters of
minor importance, such as the number of toes or of teeth, the relative
proportions of the limbs, the quality of the external clothing, &c.

MAMMALIA.

~7 THE CLASS MAMMALIA IS DIVISIBLE INTO TWO GREAT SECTIONS,

PLACENTALIA AND MARSUPIALIA:

CONSISTING OF THE FOLLOWING ORDERS :
Order. Example.

I. BIMANA (Two-handed) Man.

II. QUADRUMANA (Four-handed) .... Monkeys, &c.

III. CHEIROPTERA (Wing-handed) . ... Bats.

IV. CARNIVORA (Flesh-eating) Dogs, Tigers, &c.

V. INSECTIVORA (Insect-eating) Moles, Hedgehogs, &c.

VI. CETACEA (Cete, Lat. Whale) ." . . . Whales, Porpoises, &c.

VII. PACHYDERMATA (proper) (Thick-skinned) . Rhinoceros, &c.

(aquatic) . Duyong, &c.

VIII. RUMINANTIA (Ruminating) Ox, Deer, &c.

IX. RODENTIA (Gnawing) Rats, Porcupines, &c.

X. EDENTATA (Toothless) Sloths, Armadilloes, &c.

XL MARSUPIALIA (Abdominally-pouched) . Kangaroos, Opossums, &c.

In the Section, PLACENTALIA, so named from a predominating feature in the
reproductive system of the animals comprehended in it, the first ten orders
are included. — Foetus ad uterum maternum annexus, per medium placentae
verse, diverse conformatae, diversis mammalibus ; vel, in loco illius, membrana
villosa, et vasculari, ^wptoi/ dicta\

In the Section, MARSUPIALIA, thus denominated from the almost universal posses-
sion of an external abdominal pouch, is comprised a group of animals
provisionally placed, by CUVIER and others, in an order to which the same
title has been given. — Foetus ad uterum maternum haud intermedio placentae
verae annexus.

197

ORDER I. BIMANA.

THIS ORDER CONSISTS OF BUT ONE SPECIES MAN.

A CONSIDERATION OF THE CLAIM OF MAN TO BE REGARDED
AS THE TYPE OF A DISTINCT ORDER.

THE example of Aristotle, who excluded Man from the pale of the
animal kingdom, has not wanted followers in the present age. Ray, Bris-
son, Pennant, Vic d'Azyr, Daubenton, Tiedemann, and Swainson, have
protested, more or less strongly, against his introduction into an arrange-
ment of the brute Mammalia.* On the other hand, Linnaeus, and the

* Mr. Swainson, after urging the " innate repugnance, disgust, and abhorrence, in every human
being, ignorant or enlightened, savage or civilized, against the admission" of any relationship between
Man 'and the lower orders of Mammalia,— proceeds to say : " Now, the very first law, by which to be
guided in arrangement, is this, that the object is to be designated and classified by that property
or quality which is its most distinguishing or peculiar characteristic. This law, indeed, is well under-
stood, and has only been violated by systematists, when they designate Man as an animal. Instead
of classing him according to his highest and most distinguishing property, REASON, they have selected
his, very lowest qualities, whereby to decide upon the station he holds in the scale of creation.
Because, as an infant, he has suckled at the breast of his mother, he is to enter into the class of
animals called Mammalia ; and, because he has nails upon his fingers and toes, he is to be placed
' among the unguiculated animals ;' and, because'some of the Apes have an hyoid bone (os hyoides,— a
bone common to all Mammalia, though differently modified in each group), Man is to be classed with
them in the same group. What are all these but secondary characters, totally unfit to designate his
true peculiarities. There is yet another argument against forcing Man to enter within the zoolo-
gical circle, furnished by the theory upon which that very hypothesis is built. We know that every
being in creation has at least two, if not three, relations of affinity ; and that these are independent
of innumerable relations of analogy. We know, also, that relations of affinity can only be determined,
where the object under consideration forms a link in an almost uninterrupted chain of beings which
gradually approach to it on one side, and as gradually recede from it on the other. Now, to prove
that Man forms a part of the animal circle, it is necessary to shew, either that he is linked to them
by these two series of affinities, or, that there is, at least, no great hiatus between him and animals.
Yet, neither of these conditions for establishing an affinity, ;strictly so termed, has been complied
with ; on the contrary, the writers in question are obliged to admit the greatness of the gulf between
Man and the Orang-outan, the nearest relation, erroneously termed an affinity, which they can dis-
cover, to Man. But where is the class to which we are related on the other side of the circle 1— where
is the double affinity ? If this cannot be made out,— if Man alone, of all the created beings on this
earth, stands thus isolated,— his relation to the Orang-outan proves to be one of mere analogy. Were
it otherwise, and we admitted this resemblance to be an absolute affinity, the presumed type of the
animal kingdom would contradict the first great law of natural classification: Man would then

198 B1MANA.

majority of naturalists, place him at the head of the mammiferous king-
dom, of which they consider him to constitute an integral part. Linnaeus,
indeed, associates Man in one great artificial group (the Primates) with
the Simiae and the Bats, observing, moreover, " nullum characterem hac-
tenus eruere potui, unde Homo a Simia internoscatur."* (Faun. Suec.,
Pref. p. ii.) Hence, it is not surprising to find him wasting his attention
on a (supposed) sort of intermediate being, between civilized or savage
Man and the brute, — " Homo ferus, tetrapus, mutus et hirsutus," —
which he raises to the rank of a species, founded either upon the accidental
occurrence of idiots, which have strayed into the forests, and lived upon
roots, berries, and frogs, f — or, as is more probable, upon the distempered
representations of the older voyagers, whose pages teem with marvellous
accounts " of long-armed, hairy men," or of men covered with yellowish
hair, navigating the ocean in boats, and bartering parrots in exchange for
iron ; a species as unreal as the superior kind of Ape dreamed of by
Lamarck, evolved, during the lapse of a countless succession of ages, out
of a monad, by the agency of two principles, a tendency to progressive
improvement, and the force of external circumstance ; and destined to a
farther degree of elevation.

The arrangement of Linnaeus has, however, been adopted by several
distinguished naturalists ; and, among them, by Mr. Mac Leay, the talented
founder of a quinary, or circular system, differing in its principles from that
of Mr. Swainson, and equally advocated, by its supporters, as the true in-
terpretation of Nature. Mr. Mac Leay regards the Primates of Linnaeus
as one of his circles, and Man as forming part of that circle ; while, on

possess but a single affinity, while the whole of organized matter presented a double one." — Swainson,
On the Nat. Hist, and Class, of Quadrupeds, pp. 8, 9, 10.

It may be observed, that it is upon the physical organization of living bodies, setting aside in-
stinctive or rational qualities, that the laws of arrangement are founded. Mr. Swainson's reasons
for the rejection of Man from the animal kingdom, because he cannot bring him into his circular
system without the violation of his assumed laws of duplex or triplex affinities, may be very
satisfactory to himself, but to others may appear nugatory. He may " know that every being in
creation has," and must have, "two, if not three, relations of affinity;" and that "if Man holds a
station in the series of unintelligent beings, he cannot enter into the circle of those that are intelli-
gent, because no being can occupy a station in two distinct circles ;" but these positions have never
been demonstrated ; and, until they be so, Man must be regarded as an animal, with a brain and
spinal chord, viviparous and mammiferous, great as is the hiatus between him and the Orang.

* In allusion to this passage, and an expression of like import in the Systema Natures — " Mirum
adeo parum diferre stultissimam Simiam a sapientissimo Homine, ut iste geodaetes naturae etiamnum
quaerendus qui hos limitet," Mr. Lawrence remarks — " If these representations were correct, zoology
would not deserve the rank of a science." — Essays, #c., p. 92.

t Of these waifs and strays of the wreck of human nature, " withered leaves, which some rude
whirlwind has shaken off from the tree of civilization," as Mr. Ogilby elegantly and aptly terms
them, many accounts have been published from time to time ; insomuch, that a goodly volume might
be made up by their collection, but as destitute of interest as of facts imparting any new views
respecting the human species ; for, what "brilliant discoveries in psychology or anthropology" could be
expected from the cases of poor idiots ? Few will think, with Lord Monboddo, that the appearance
of Peter, the wild boy, was " a much more important circumstance than the discovery of the planet
Uranus ; or than if the astronomers, to the catalogue of stars already known, had added 30,000 new
ones." It is not from such beings that the existence of innate ideas can be determined ; or the
primeval condition of Man.

MAN AS THE TYPE OF A DISTINCT ORDER. 199

the contrary, as already stated, Mr. Svvainson does not consider Man within
the pale of the animal kingdom. With more reason than the advocates
of either of the two quinary, or circular systems, other naturalists have
regarded Man as the example of an order per se ; having characters by
which it is distinguished from every other into which the mammal class
is divided. Among these, are Illiger and Cuvier. Illiger, in his Prodro-
mus Systematis Mammalium, has taken the name of this order from the
attitude of the human race, and entitled it ERECTA. Cuvier, from one of
the structural peculiarities of the race, viz., the possession of two true
hands, has termed it BIMANA ; a title which most naturalists, both Conti-
nental and British, have adopted.

The essential characters of the order Bimana may be stated as follow : —

ATTITUDE erect, the body being supported on the lower limbs only,
which are developed according to the weight to be sustained, and the mode
in which that weight is to be supported; feet plantigrade, pentadactyle
(five-toed), non-prehensile.

SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES free, claviculated, and terminating in true
hands, being organs of touch, and of prehension, and having the thumb so
developed as to antagonize with the tip of each finger separately, or with
the whole together.

THE HEAD supported by, and nearly balanced upon, the spine ; the
cranial portion greatly developed in proportion to the face ; the lower jaw
short, and its symphysis modelled into a true chin.

THE TEETH of equal length, and approximating together, without inter-
vals : incisors, J ; canines, short, \~ ; bicuspid molars, ~ ; true molars,
bluntly quadricuspid, g ;= 32.

THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES OF THE BRAIN greatly preponderating ;
the mass of the brain being voluminous in proportion to the nerves com-
municating with it.

GROWTH slow ; infancy long ; maturity acquired at a comparatively
late period.

SKIN smooth : natural weapons, offensive or defensive, denied by
Nature.

MAMMAE two, pectoral.

Os COCCYGIS abbreviated, and incurved.

Species, — Homo sapiens, Linn.

The mind of Man — as displayed in the exercise of reason, memory,
imagination, hope, retrospection, comparison, imitation, in a perception of
the sublime, the beautiful, and the ridiculous, in friendship, love, and the
various social affections, and as involving speech, contradistinguished from
mere cries or sounds — harmonizes with his physical endowments, and
proclaims him the lord of creation : " And God said, Let us make Man,
in our image, after our likeness : and let them have dominion over the fish

200

BIMANA.

of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all
the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. So
God created Man in his own image."

The right of Man to an isolated station, at the head of the animal
kingdom, is founded upon just and solid grounds. Everything connected
with his history forces the conviction upon us, that he not only differs
from the lower mammals, but is elevated above them. His physical or-
ganization accords with his mental endowments, and is befitting a being
whose hopes and views are not bounded by mortality. Who that con-
templates the personifications of human beauty, embodied in the noble
statue of Apollo, or in the lovely figures of the Graces, by Canova, or
in the Venus of antiquity, dreams of the affinity of the Orang. The
attempt to degrade Man to the level of the Ape, because the Ape has the
anterior limbs organized as graspers, or rude hands, is hardly justifiable
in true philosophy. Physical differences, of sufficient magnitude,* exist
between Man and the Simiae, to forbid his amalgamation with them ; much
less with the beings of which any other order is composed : and though
Linnaeus and others f could find no characters by which to distinguish
between Man and the Monkey, — and though the group Primates, of Lin-
naeus, has been revived by modern naturalists, — every arrangement group-
ing together Man, the Monkeys, and the Bats, carries with it (in spite
of all authority), like the statue of clay and metal, the palpable tokens of
its own incongruity ; and, as Mr. Lawrence well observes, " the principles
must be incorrect which lead to such an approximation."

The importance to be attached to the zoological characters afforded by
the slighter modifications of structure, rises as we ascend in the scale of being.
In the arrangement of Mammalia and birds, for example, minutiae which,
among the Invertebrata, would be deemed of little note, become of decided
value, and are no longer to be neglected. Even the modifications, however
slight, of a common type, now become stamped with a value, the ratio of
which increases as we advance from the lower to the higher orders. Hence,
with respect to Mammalia, the highest class of Vertebrata, every structural
phase claims attention ; and, when we advance to the highest of the highest
class, viz., Man, and the Quadrumana, the naturalist lays a greater stress on
minute grades and modifications of form, than he does when among the Ce-
tacea or the marsupials ; and hence, groups are separated upon characters thus

* " Independently of weight and size, Soemmerring observed fifteen visible "material anatomical
differences between the brain of the common tailless Ape (Magot) and that of Man." — Lawrence,
Led. p. 133.

t Lord Monboddo regarded the Orang and Man as specifically identical ; but Rousseau seems to
have hesitated in his opinion : " II est bien demontre," he says, " que le Singe n'est pas une variete de
1'Homme, non seulement parcequ'il est priv6 de la faculte de parler, mais, surtout, parcequ'on est
sur que son espece n'a point la faculte de se perfectionner, qui est le caractere specifique de 1'espece
humaine ; — experiences qui ne paroissent pas avoir etc faites, sur le Pongos et 1'Ourang-outang, avec
assez de soin, pour en tirer la mSme conclusion." — Disc, sur les Causes, #c., note 10.

MAN AS THE TYPE OF A DISTINCT ORDER. 201

derived, because they involve marked differences in the animal economy,
and because it is felt that a modification, in itself of no great extent, leads
to most important results. Carrying out the principle of an increase in the
value of differential characters as we advance in the scale of being, it may
be affirmed that, upon legitimate zoological grounds, the organic conforma-
tion of Man, modelled, possibly, upon the same type as that of the Chim-
panzee or Orang, but modified, with a view to fit him for habits, manners,
and, indeed, a totality of active existence, indicative of a destiny and pur-
poses participated in neither by the Chimpanzee nor any other animal,
removes Man from the Quadrumana, not merely in a generic point of view,
but from the pale of the Primates, to an exclusive situation. The zoolo-
gical value of characters derived from structural modifications is commen-
surate with the results which they involve : let it then be shewn that Man,
though a cheiropod (hand-footed),* possesses structural modifications leading
to most important results, and our views are at once justified. If, however,
the class Mammalia be divided into sub-classes, or subordinate sections,
each section including orders, then there is no objection to the application
of the term Cheiropoda, Primates, or any other, to a section including the
orders Bimana and Quadrumana (except that it renders an arrangement
needlessly complicated) ; as terms, in themselves, are of little importance.
It is not against these that the argument is directed; but against the
establishment of the Primates as an order including the genera Man,
Monkey, and Bat, and, consequently, also, against the inclusion in the
order Cheiropoda, of Bimana (Man), Quadrumana (the Old- World Mon-
keys and Lemurs), and Pedimana (the American Monkeys and the Opos-
sums), as coequal families. It may be answered, that the term, Order,
as applied to Cheiropoda, has a much wider, a more comprehensive signi-
fication than is allowed it by Illiger or Cuvier, and that its subordinate
groups are of the same value as Cuvier's Orders : if so, the use of the term,
in any other sense than that attributed to it by the standard authorities, can
scarcely be justified.*!"

* See " Observations on the opposable Power of the Thumb in various Mammals, by W. Ogilby,
Esq.," Proceedings Zool. Soc. L., 1836, p. 28.

t Mr. Ogilby observes, that the order Erecta, of Illiger, is " founded upon metaphysical, rather
than physiological considerations; and destroys, at once, both the harmony and simplicity of his
arrangement. The pride of intellectual superiority and moral endowments has, indeed, frequently
induced naturalists to consider Man as forming a distinct and separate order by himself, and to fancy
that it would be degrading the lord of creation to associate him in the same group with the Apes and
the Monkeys (and, also, the Lemurs and Opossums) ; but such scientific weakness cannot destroy the
numerous affinities which actually characterize the structure of these animals, as compared with our
own, or blind the unprejudiced observer to the obvious relations which subsist between the Bimana
and the Quadrumana. The metaphysician and the divine may, without impropriety, consider Man
apart from the rest of the animal kingdom, and in relation only to his intellectual and moral nature :
but the naturalist must view him in a different light : anatomical structure and organic conformation
are the only principles which the zoologist can admit as the foundations of natural science ; and, in
this respect, Man is too closely connected with the Apes, and other Simiae, to admit of being placed
so widely apart from them as he has been in some recent classifications of mammals." " Les diverses
VOL. I. 2 D

BIMAMA.

Without dwelling on these points, it remains to explain the differential
characters of Man, with a view to prove that the modifications of his struc-
ture involve consequences which draw as wide a line, zoologically consi-
dered, between him and the Quadrumana, as between the Quadrumana
and the Carnivora.

It is scarcely necessary to repeat that, >to Man alone, of all animals, is
the erect attitude easy and natural; — that the magnitude and position of
the cranium, the structure of the spinal column, the osseous and muscular
development of the pelvis and lower extremities, necessitate such an atti-
tude. One advantage gained by this arrangement is the freedom of the
superior extremities, the lower limbs being the sole organs of progression.
In the Orang and Chimpanzee, all four extremities are organs of loco-
motion. The Chimpanzee, it is true, can proceed on the ground, sup-
ported, or, rather, balanced, on the lower extremities, calling the superior
only occasionally into use, except in as far as they are needed to maintain
the equilibrium of the body : but Man walks with a free and vigorous
step, very unlike the vacillation of the tottering Chimpanzee, and with his
arms at liberty for action in any way that may be required.

It is usual to designate the graspers, which terminate the anterior
limbs of the Simiae, as hands. If, by the term hands, it is implied that
they are equivalent to the hands of Man, then their claim to the appella-
tion must be denied. Mr. Ogilby observes, that the extremities of the Qua-
drumana, " instead of being mere organs of locomotion, execute the still
more important functions of prehension and manipulation." It is admitted
that the anterior hands of the Simiae are capable of grasping ; but not in
the same way as the hands of Man ; for in none of the Simiae is the thumb
of the anterior hand fairly opposable to the fingers.* Besides, the Ape
has these graspers -j- not only terminating the anterior extremities, but the

combinaisons qui determinent rigoureusement la nature des divers mammiferes, ont donne lieu a dis-
tinguer les ordres suivants. Parmi les onguicules, le premier qui est en meme temps privilegi£ sous
tous les autres rapports, 1'Homme, a des mains aux extremites anterieures seulement ; ses extr6-
mites posterieures le soutiennent dans une situation verticale." — Cuvier. If the. end of organization
be to provide instruments capable of duly administering to the instincts, or the intelligence, or the
necessities of animals, — then must the organization of Man, which accords with the unique situation
in which he is placed in] the great plan of creation, with his intellectual superiority and moral en-
dowments (according to the " law of harmony"), elevate him, physiologically considered, no less than
metaphysically.

* While the thumb of the human hand is at a degree and perfection of structural development,
which led Albinus to characterize it as the " manus parva majori adjutrix," — the lesser hand the assist-
ant of the greater ; we invariably find its analogue in the fore-paws of the Monkey, not only compa-
ratively short, feeble, and unopposable, but manifesting a perpetual tendency to degenerate ; insomuch,
that, in the Semnopitheci it is merely rudimentary ; in the Colobi, it is reduced still farther, appearing
as a mere tubercle ; and such is also the case with the American genus Ateles. The paws of the
Marmozet Monkeys are squirrel-like : even in the anthropomorphous Gibbons, the analogue of the
thumb is on the same plane as the ringers, and is an adjunct to them ; not by way of antagonizing with
them, but by acting with them in the same direction. In short, as Sir Charles Bell observes, " these
paws are not, approximations to the hand, corresponding with a higher ingenuity, but are adaptations
of the feet to the branches on which the animals climb and walk."

t It may be objected, that this restriction of the term, hands, to the organs of touch in Man, is

MAN AS THE TYPE OF A DISTINCT ORDER.

posterior also ; and, indeed, the latter approach nearer the human hand, as,
far as the development of the thumb is concerned, than the anterior. Here,
again, an important difference, involving signal consequences, exists be-
tween Man and the Quadrumana. While the posterior extremities of the
Quadrumana are more powerfully prehensile, and have the thumb better
developed than it is on the anterior, the feet of Man are not prehensile, and
the whole form of the foot militates against the possession of a prehensile
power. The short toes, all on the same plane, the solidity of the instep,
and the firmness of the ankle-joint, are decided characteristics. Among
barbarous nations, the toes may, indeed, have more freedom than among
civilized people, and may be capable of hooking round small objects ;
but, with every allowance, the human foot is not a prehensile organ, like
the posterior graspers of the Monkey : * and a greater difference exists
between the human foot and the analogous organ of the Simiae, than
between the latter and the hind foot of any unguiculate animal, as the
Squirrel or the Dormouse. After all, it is upon modifications of one
great type of structure, that all the orders among the Mammalia are
founded : and the characters of the hands and of the feet of Man, —
regard being had to the consequences involved by their modifications, and
to the increase of value attached to even the slighter variations of struc-
ture, as we ascend the scale, — are, of themselves, sufficient to establish
Man's distinctive situation, as the representative of an order : for Man is
the only true biped among terrestrial Mammalia. Let other structural
peculiarities of the human frame be now compared with those of the
nearest anthropomorphous Simiae.

In pages 31 and 50, representations are given- of the human skull in
profile, and of the skull of the Orang. Comparative views of the skulls
of the European and the Negro (figs. 174 and 175), on the one hand, and

capricious ; that we may as well refuse to call the eye of the Monkey, or of the Dog, an eye, as
the graspers of the Monkey, hands. Not so. Were the graspers of a Monkey capable of the uses to
which the human hand is devoted, and fashioned, osteologically and as to the arrangement of
muscles, the same, we should admit the force of the objection. The paw of the Lion, the paddle of
the Dolphin, and the foot of the Squirrel, exhibit only modifications of the human hand ; yet we do
not call them hands : so the graspers of the Monkey are modifications of the human hand, adapted for
arboreal habits, and, therefore, more prehensile than is the paw of the Lion ; but they are not, on that
account (except for convenience), to be considered as hands. A simply grasping power is not the sole
characteristic of a hand ; else are the talons of the Eagle, and the prehensile feet of the Parrot, hands.
It is not, however, to the use of the term that we object, but only to the assumption, upon its use, that
because both Man and the Monkey have hands, they, therefore, stand in close affinity to each other.

« M. Bory de St. Vincent contends that, originally, Man had the great toe of the foot opposable
to the other toes, as in the Simiae ; that its loss of this power arises from the practice of wearing
shoes ; and that, therefore, our feet exhibit a structural degeneracy, from which the resin-gatherers
in the Landes of France are yet happily exempt ! It is singular that, among the naked-footed
savages of various countries, the great toe should have likewise lost this opposable power ; or, that
it should not have been perfect and undegenerate among the sandal-clad ancients, or among the
bare-footed Carmelites of more modern days. It is also equally strange, that M. Bory alone should
have observed this fortunate exemption from so universal and lamentable degeneracy, in the happy
natives of the Landes.

204

BIMANA.

of the Chimpanzee and Orang (figs. 176 and 177), on the other, are here

presented ; in order that their respective proportions may be the more

easily appreciated, and to shew that the differences between the cranium

174 175

Chimpanzee.

Orang.

of Man and of these Simiae are not limited merely to the development of
the forehead, the ratio between the face and the cranial cavity, the hiatus
between the upper canines and the incisors, the oblique position of the
incisors, the length of the canines (though circumstances of great import-
ance), but extend, also, to a variety of other points of structure.

It has been reiterated, that the skull of the Negro forms an interme-
diate link between that of the European, and of the Orang or Chimpanzee ;
and one point of approximation, between the former and the latter, is said
to consist in the situation of the foramen magnum, a. Now, in the skull
of a Negro (fig. 175), this foramen differs in position but very little from
that of the well-formed skull of a native of England (fig. 1 74) ; while the
posterior situation of the foramen, both in the skull of the Chimpanzee

MAN AS THE TYPE OF A DISTINCT ORDER.

205

and the Orang, is very remarkable. Again, the distance from this fora-
men to the incisor teeth (which is so considerable in the anthropomorphous
Simise), compared with its distance from the occiput, is nearly the same in
the Negro as in the European : and, as Dr. Prichard remarks, the antero-
posterior admeasurement of the basis of the skull is, relatively, very much
larger, in the Orang and Chimpanzee, than in Man ; as is strikingly dis-
played by the different situation which the zygomatic arch occupies in the
plane of the basis of the skull. In Man, the zygoma is included in the
anterior half of the basis of the cranium : in the head of the adult Chim-
panzee, as well as in that of the Orang, the zygoma is situated in the
middle region of the skull, and, in the basis, occupies just one third part
of the entire length of its diameter. The extent, besides, of the bony
palate, and the greater breadth between the canines than between the
last molars, both in the Chimpanzee and Orang, so as to allow of the
spreading and want of continuity of the incisors, with respect to each
other and to the canines, widely distinguish between the skulls of these
animals and those of any of the human race. Both in the Negro and
European, the base of the skull, around the foramen magnum, is boldly
convex, according to the development of the cerebrum ; whilst, in the
" Simiae, the base of the skull is flat, which form is indicative of a curtail-
ment of the volume of the brain beneath, in accordance with that of the
cerebral hemispheres at their upper and anterior aspect.

The cancellous mastoid processes, which are so large in the human
skull, are scarcely to be discovered in the skulls of the Simiae : these

178

179

Base of human skull.

Base of skull ofOrang.

processes are represented, in the Chimpanzee, by a ridge behind each
auditory foramen, the internal cellular structure of which, as Professor Owen

#06 B1MANA.

observes, is visible through the thin external table : the styloid process
of the temporal bone, also, is entirely wanting in the Simiae. It exists
in the Negro, as well as in the European. These important differences
may readily be distinguished in figs. 178 and 179, which represent the
base of the human skull, and of the Orang.

It has been observed, by Professor Owen, that, in some skulls of
Negroes, and in one of an Australian savage, he found the sphenoid bone
not impinging on the parietal at its lower anterior angle, as it does in the
skulls of Europeans ; and that, in this respect, they agreed with the skull
of the Chimpanzee, but not of the Orang. This trifling variation does
not affect either the form or volume of the cranium : and, besides, it is not
a constant character in the Negro, nor even in the Chimpanzee.

The great density of the Negro's skull has been noticed by Paaw,
Soemmerring, and other naturalists ; but it is not peculiar to the Negro
race : in most savage nations the skull is thicker and harder than among
civilized races : the ancient Egyptians also were remarkable for the
density of the cranium.*

The thickness of the skull of the Negro indicates neither intellectual
inferiority nor structural approximation to the Orang or Chimpanzee :
in fact, though the crania of the various races of mankind may vary, as
compared with each other, throughout an almost unlimited series of
minor details, they preserve inviolate their great characteristics of dis-
tinction : no intermediate condition is discoverable among them, no half-
human half-simian form, indicative of the " Homo ferus, tetrapus, mutus,
et hirsutus," — the Caliban of science, — the link which binds Man to the
arboreal Quadrumana.

It is obvious that skulls, distorted by art from their natural form,
cannot be taken into account : such, for example, as the skulls of the
flat-headed Indians, and other tribes of America, which owe their un-
natural configuration to long-continued pressure, commenced immedi-
ately after birth ; or the skulls of an ancient Peruvian race, found in the
sepulchres occurring in the great alpine valley of Titicaca ; which, though
Mr. Pentland attributes their singular contour to nature, and not to art,
have been, it cannot be doubted, subjected to the same treatment as is

* Herodotus (Thalia), who examined the bones of the Egyptians and Persians slain in one of
the battles between the former and Cambyses, and which were separated from each other, those of
the Persians lying in one place, and: those of the Egyptians in another, says, " I found the skulls
of the Persians so weak, that one might break them with the least pebble ; whereas those of the
Egyptians were hard enough to resist the percussion of a weighty stone. They told me, and I
assented to their experience, that [this difference is owing to the Egyptian custom of shaving the
heads of their children early ; by which means the bone is rendered thicker and stronger, through
the heat of the sun, and the head preserved from baldness ; and, indeed, we see fewer persons bald
in Egypt than in any other country. As, therefore, the skull of the Egyptian is fortified by this
method, so the heads of the Persians are softened by a contrary custom ; for ]they are not exposed to
the sun, but always covered with caps and turbans. And I observed the same thing at Papremis, in
those who were defeated with Achaemenes, the son of Darius, by Inarus, King of Lybia. "

MAN AS THE TYPE OF A DISTINCT ORDER. 207

still continued among the Columbian tribes, and is also practised by
the Caribs of St. Vincent's.*

However ape-like these distorted skulls may be (and the observation
applies also to the deformed skulls of idiots), they are not to be regarded
as indications of any natural approximation to the Simiae.

A distinction between the skulls of all nations and those of the Simiae,
upon which much of the character of the human face depends, and which
is not destitute of importance, may here be noticed ; namely, the eleva-
tion, in Man, of the nasal bones, which form the bridge of the nose ;
while, in the Simiae, -j" the nasal bone (for it is single) lies flat and
depressed.

Soemmerring, Camper, and Vrolik, have endeavoured to prove that,
in the pelvis of the Negro, there is an approximation, in its form, to the
lower Mammalia ; a degradation in type, imparted, as Dr. Vrolik ob-
serves, " by the vertical direction of the ossa ilii ; the elevation of the
ilia at the posterior and upper tuberosities ; the greater proximity of
the anterior and upper spines ; the smaller breadth of the sacrum ; the
smaller extent of the haunches ; the smaller distance from the upper
edge of the articulation of the pelvis, and the projection of the sacrum, or
the shortness of the conjugate diameter ; the smallness of the transverse
diameters at the spines and tuberosities of the ischium, and the length-
ened form which the pelvis derives from these peculiarities. "J All these
characters, as he says, recal to mind the conformation of the pelvis in the
Simiae ; the elongated shape of the pelvis being, in fact, the character on
which this approximation is assumed to depend. To judge by the
skeleton of the female of the Bushman tribe, who died at Paris, in 1815,
the pelvis, according to Dr. Vrolik, is inferior to that of the Negro, as
evidenced by the vertical direction, the length, and narrowness of the ilia.

* Cox, in his Travels on the Columbia River, thus describes the method by which the singular
flatness and elongation of the skull are produced : — " Immediately after birth, the infant is placed in a
kind of oblong cradle, formed like a trough, with moss under it. One end, on which the head reposes,
is more elevated than the rest. A padding is then placed on the forehead, with a piece of cedar
bark over it, and, by means of cords passed through small holes on each side of the cradle, the
padding is pressed against the head. It is kept in this manner upwards of a year ; and the pro-
cess is not, I believe, attended with much pain. The appearance of the infant, however, while in
this state of compression, is frightful ; and its little black eyes, forced out by the tightness of the
bandages, resemble those of a Mouse choked in a trap. When released from this inhuman process,
the head is perfectly flattened, and the upper part of it seldom exceeds an inch in thickness. It
never afterwards recovers its rotundity. They deem this an essential point of beauty ; and the most
devoted adherent to our first Charles never entertained a stronger aversion to a round-head than
these savages."

t Simia, from simus, flat-nosed ; and not from similis, like, or similo, to counterfeit. Hence, sima,
a rounded or blunt pillar; and simo, any person, or animal, with a flat nose.

t Vrolik has remarked, that "the pelvis of the male Negro, in the strength and density of its sub-
stance, and of the bones which compose it, resembles the pelvis of a wild beast ; while, on the contrary,
the pelvis of the female, in the same race, combines lightness of substance, and delicacy of form and
structure ; insomuch that, though the pelvis of the male and female presents, among Europeans,
marked differential characters, it does not exhibit such extraordinary differences as obtain in the Negro

208 BIMANA.

According to the same writer, the pelvis of the Javanese is remarkable
for its smallness, its lightness, and the circular form of the opening of its
upper cavity.

According to Professor Weber, the variations of the human pelvis
resolve themselves into four forms ; and he contends that examples of each
occur in all races of mankind, no particular figure being the exclusive
or permanent characteristic of any given race : in fact, that every form of
the pelvis which deviates from the ordinary type, in whatever race it may
occur, finds its analogues in other races of mankind. The four varieties
of the pelvis, according to the extensive researches of this anatomist, are
the oval, the round, the square, and the oblong ; and of each of these he
gives European examples, as well as examples occurring among the
Botocudo Indians, the Negroes, the Caffres, and the Javanese. Still,
according to his researches, it would seem that the form, most fre-
quently occurring among Europeans, is the oval ; among the American
nations, the round ; among the Mongolians and kindred tribes, the
square ; and, among the races of Africa, the oblong. Admitting, as is
doubtless the case, that the pelvis, as well as the cranium, varies among
different nations, — yet, even in the form farthest removed from that of
the European type, the genuine characters of the human pelvis are found ;
viz, those connected with the support of the trunk in the erect atti-
tude, with the direction of the thigh bones, and with the volume of the
glutsei muscles. In short, the pelvis of the human race, like the skull,
is removed by a wide interval from that of the most anthropomorphous of
the Simiae ; and the Simiae, in the form of this part, are far nearer to
the Carnivora than they are to the human species. A comparison of the
lower limbs, among the various races of mankind, might be here followed
out, for these also exhibit slight differential peculiarities ; but it is
useless to proceed farther. The question recurs — is the naturalist, upon
the acknowledged distinctions between Man and the Simiae, justified
in regarding the human being as the type of a distinct order? If
Man be the only being endowed with mind, — the only being capable
of examining his own formation, and that of other animals, — the only
being to whose intellect the paths of science are open, — to whom alone
it belongs to learn and practise arts,* and, from an investigation of the

* " We ought to define the hand as belonging exlusively to Man ; corresponding, in sensibility and
motion, with that ingenuity, which converts the being who is weakest in natural defence, to the ruler
over animate and inanimate nature. — The armed extremities of a variety of animals give them great
advantages ; but if Man possessed any similar provision, he would forfeit his sovereignty over all. As
Galen long since observed, did Man possess the natural armour of the brutes, he would no longer work
as an artificer, nor protect himself with a breastplate, nor fashion a sword or spear, nor invent a
bridle to mount the horse and hunt the lion : neither could he follow the arts of peace,— construct the
pipe and lyre, erect houses, place altars, inscribe laws, and, through letters and the ingenuity of the
hand, hold communion with the wisdom of antiquity, and, at one time, converse with Plato, at another
with Aristotle or Hippocrates."— Bell, on the Hand, p. 1 7.

MAN AS THE TYPE OF A DISTINCT ORDER. 209

laws of Nature to arrive at the knowledge of a Great First Cause ; if it be
to his mind, and not to instinct, that he has to resort for the maintenance of
his own existence, his safety, and his civil advancement ; and if his bodily
organization comport with this possession of mind, and harmonize with
it alone, — so that between his mind and body there exist a mutual balance
and correspondence ; — then, though the Ape may have an analogy to
him, in certain points of its structure, it can claim no real affinity. The
anthropoid appearance of the Chimpanzee may, indeed, startle us, — and
has led to the assignment to it of a far higher ratio of intelligence than
it really possesses ; but, it must be remembered that, from the Chim-
panzee to the stupid nocturnal Loris, there is a consecutive chain of
gradation ; whilst Man, in the most degraded condition of savage life,
stands alone, and is still a being of " large discourse, looking before and
behind."

One department of zoology is the right discrimination between the
groups into which natural objects are resolvable (and which is rather to be
accomplished by taking the totality of organization into account, than by
pertinaciously looking at only one or two points of structure) : yet, strange
to say, one naturalist places Man, the Monkeys, and the Bats together ;
and another, excluding the Bats, considers Man, the Monkeys, and the
cheiropodous marsupials, as constituting a natural order.

It may be deemed that the system which would establish Man as the
type of an exclusive order, is the result of a sort of pride, repugnant
to the fancied disgrace which the association of him with the Simiae and
cheiropodous marsupials would seem to reflect upon our species : but such
is not the case ; for Man can be neither raised by one system, nor lowered by
another. It is because the totality of his conformation, taking into account
the increase in the value of characters as we ascend in the scale, appears to
justify his exclusive situation, that it is assigned to him : while, on the
contrary, to include Man, the Simiae, and Bats, in one order, because Man
has hands, and the Simiae have hands, or hand-like paws ; or, because in the
human species the mammae are pectoral, as in Bats and Monkeys, seems
to be an effort to distort analogies of structure into proofs of direct and
positive affinity.

Again, the opinion may be expressed that, according to the law of har-
mony,— the condition of existence which ordains the mutual accordance
of organization with necessities, instinct, and intelligence, — Man, having a
situation in the great scheme of Nature, unique as to mind, destiny, and
the place in creation he has to fill, must have an organization in unison
with his intellectual exaltation — his mental isolation, — and which will
furnish data sufficient, if duly weighed, to satisfy the physiologist as to
the propriety of his being considered as the representative of an exclusive
order.

210

BIMANA.

ON THE MAIN STEMS AND PRINCIPAL BRANCHES OF THE
HUMAN RACE.

IT is, to a great extent, upon the differences which the crania of dif-
ferent sections of mankind permanently exhibit, and which thus form
important characteristics, that the division of the human race into main
stems is founded ; and these distinctions cannot be more clearly seen than
by regarding the cranium in a vertical aspect : the comparative length and
breadth, the degree of prominence in the face, and that, also, of the
malar bones and zygomatic arches, are thus at once appreciated. It is,

180

Negro.

therefore, to shew the range of variation, in these respects, between
skulls which may be regarded as patterns of four distinct varieties of our
species, that the above figures are given. The skull of the Titicacan

THE PRINCIPAL BRANCHES OF THE HUMAN RACE.

(fig. 183) is, indeed, distorted by art ; but its distortion has only pro-
duced an augmentation of its natural characters, which consist in its great
elongation, from the superior margin of the orbits to the occiput, and in
the depression of its frontal and vertical portions. -The narrowness of the
frontal portion, and the general elongation of the skull, are also remark-
able in the Negro (fig. 182) ; while, as compared with the symmetrical
skull of the Caucasian (fig. 180), the vertical outline of which approaches
an oval, that of the Mongole (fig. 181) displays the opposite character,
being nearly round, and remarkable for the great breadth between the
malar bones and zygomatic arches, which are boldly prominent.

Whether all mankind are the descendants of one common parentage,
or whether distinct primitive origins were created, is a subject which
has been often agitated, and the advocates on each side of the question
have maintained their respective opinions with a degree of dogmatism
proportioned to the difficulty and perplexity of the investigation.

While some writers positively deny the original creation of distinct
types of our species, others as confidently speak of the Negro, Eu-
ropean, Hottentot, Chinese, and American types, as if we had a certain
history of the details connected with the primeval condition of our spe-
cies ; or, as though a map of the migrations and wanderings of our race
could be accurately drawn out, and the starting-points clearly ascertained.
" II n'est permis qu'a un aveugle," says Voltaire, " de douter que les
Blancs> les Negres, les Albinos, les Hottentots, les Lappons, les Chinois,
les Americains, soient des races entierement differentes."

Nevertheless, the philosopher can only form conjectures, based upon
probabilities, deduced from an examination of languages, manners, and
customs, and an attentive scrutiny of physical peculiarities ; but, after
all, uncertainty hangs over every hypothesis, and the most positive dog-
mata are to be received with caution.

That the human race, as diffused over the globe, is subdivided into
distinct varieties, may be inferred from abundant evidences. The inha-
bitants of various regions differ from each other, not only in language
and manners, but also in certain physical traits, and in points of organic
conformation, which are transmitted pure and unaltered from generation
to generation, unless where they become modified by an intermixture
of the occupants of one region with those of another. Almost every
nation has its own peculiarities. The English, the French, the Italians,
the Spaniards, have each their national stamp of features ; but these
variations are trifling, and of a subordinate character.* It is not with

* The subordinate variations of the human species, in form, complexion, and language, are
almost infinite, and are still undergoing, as they.have undergone, continual modifications, according to
the advance of civilization, the intercourse of nation with nation, and the extent of international
alliances.

BIMANA.

these that the naturalist is immediately concerned ; nor yet with the
alterations in tribes which a change of food, the adoption of new man-
ners, or an improvement of country by draining morasses, and cultivat-
ing its surface, will produce, but which affect not their predominant
physical peculiarities ;* nor is it with accidental variations in stature or
complexion : but with the great stocks, or types of form, to which the
multitudinous branches of mankind are respectively referable, and under
which the various people of the globe are to be respectively grouped and
associated.

Great are the difficulties in the way. It is impossible to trace the
progress of the human swarms, which, in remote antiquity, have succes-
sively advanced, from various points, spreading as they have proceeded,
and mingling with other nations. History throws no light on the sub-
ject ; nor, indeed, are records extant, affording the least notice of what
must evidently have been some of the most important migrations ever
undertaken by our species : such as the red colonization of America
(to say nothing of the revolutions of states, which, at some remote epoch,
appear to have taken place on that great theatre) ; the colonization of
Australia, New Zealand, and the multitudinous islands which bespangle
the Southern Ocean, — the colonization of Europe and of our own island
— occupied, ere Greece and Rome "had writ their annals," by races
whose origin and progress are buried in oblivion. Let it also be remem-
bered, that the migrations of Man are, for the most part, not single acts,
performed by one tribe, and, so to speak, finished at once ; but they have
generally been like the waves of the advancing tide — the way once open,
swarm has followed swarm, the movement has been general, and years
have passed, till, at length, the flood has either ceased to roll on, or has
taken some new direction. Meanwhile the invaders have become amal-
gamated with the more ancient possessors of the soil, and their com-
mingled descendants again with other invaders, in their turn. Most na-
tions, besides, if even relics of their early history be by chance preserved,
have fondly claimed for themselves a romantic or heroic origin — a descent
from gods, or god-like men — have blended facts with fables, between which
it is not a little difficult to separate, and have assigned the most ex-
travagant antiquity to their commencement. Hence, then, the difficulty
of forming a clear digest of the subject, and of tracing the branches and
offsets to their primitive stocks ; hence the uncertainty which attends the
most plausible hypotheses.

* In savage countries the chiefs are, for the most part, readily distinguishable from the lower
classes, by the superiority of their stature ; owing, most probably, to an exemption from depressing
toil, and to a better supply of food. The stunted, meagre, Bushmen of Southern Africa are exam-
ples of the deteriorating effects of want, fear, and innutritious and scanty food : the relics of a
Hottentot race, their physical nature seems to have succumbed beneath the pressure of a series of ad-
verse circumstances, — but its zoological characters remain unaffected.

THE PRINCIPAL BRANCHES OF THE HUMAN RACE.

213

It will not be out of place, here, to give a sketch of the divisions or
varieties of mankind, as various physiologists have arranged them.

Blumenbach regards Man as a single species, with five great varieties ;
viz., the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, the Malay, and the
American. The Caucasian he supposes to be the primitive type; the
rest, its immediate offsets : on one side he places the Mongole ; on the
other, the Ethiopian ; the American intervening between the Mongole and
Caucasian, as an intermediate form ; the Malay between the Ethiopian
and the Caucasian.

CAUCASIAN.

I

ETHIOPIAN.

AMERICAN.

I
MONGOLIAN.

Cuvier considers the branches of mankind to be referable to three stocks,
the Caucasian, the Mongole or Altaic, and the Negro or Ethiopian. The
following table represents their respective ramifications : —

• Assyrians.
Chaldeans.
Arabs.
Phoenicians.
Hebrews.
Abyssinians.
Egyptians ?

Sanscritic race.

CAUCASIAN.

ARMENIAN.

Pelasgic ditto.

Gothic ditto.

- Sclavonic ditto.

Ancient Persians.

Hindoos, &c.

Celtic ? *

Greek.

Latin.

r German and Dutch.
J English.

L Danish, Swedish, &c.
,- Russ.
I Polish,
j Bohemian.
I Vendean.

SCYTHIAN r Parthians.

AND I Turks.

TARTAR. I Finlanders.
L Hungarians.

CALMUCS.

KALKAS.

MANTCHOUS.

JAPANESE AND COREANS.

/ Samoiedes?

SIBERIANS. < Laplanders ?
v Esquimaux ?

* With respect to the Celtic race, Cuvier seems to think that it may have been a distinct branch
of the Caucasian, which, at a very remote epoch, spread over western and southern Europe; and we
agree with him in this conjecture. The Celtic tongue was once very extensive, and the radical deriva-
tion of numerous Latin words, to say nothing of other languages, is to be traced to that source.

MONGOLE

OR

ALTAIC.

214

BIMANA.

NEGRO

OR

ETHIOPIAN.

With regard to the affinities of the Malays, the Alfourous, and the
Papuans, Cuvier is undecided ; * some doubt, he also observes, hangs over
the native races of America ; which, however, he is inclined to refer to the
Mongole stock. To this, indeed, they bear considerable affinity, as is
sufficientlytindicated by the conformation of the skull, the elevation of the
malar bones, the boldness of the zygomatic arches, the form of the eyes,
and the characters of the hair.

The arrangement of the stocks and branches of the human species, by
Fischer, as given in his Synopsis Mammalium, is as follows : —

fCaucasicus proper. Georgians, &c.
J Pelagius. Greeks, Romans, &c.

j Celticus. Gauls, Scots, Armories.

LGermanicus. Germans, English, Danes.

r Phoenicians, Numidians,
* Guanches.

f Abyssinians, ancient Egyp-
< tians, Jews, Armenians,
L and Arabs.
Hindoos, &c.

/•New Zealand, Society, Friendly, Sandwich
1 Islands, &c. Ancient Peruvians, Mexicans?
PAPUENSIS. Papous — New Guinea, Waigou, &c.

SINICUS. China, Corea, Japan, Tonquin, Sic.

HYPERBOREUS. Greenland, Lapland, Ostiacs, Esquimaux.

PAT AGON us. Patagonians.

Indigenes of North America, Eastern Mexico, Antilles, &c.

r Southern Africa, between 20° and 42°, and

CAFFER. ', ,

*• the shores ot Madagascar.
{"Madagascar, shores of New Guinea, New Eng-
MELANOIDES. <{ land, Bouka, Fejee, Van Diemen's Land, &c.
(^Papous, Madecasses.
Hottentot race of the Cape of Good Hope.

Philippines, the Virzimbirs of

HOMOJAPETICUS.
Japetic race.

H. NEPTUNIANUS.

Malay race.

H. SCYTHICUS.

Calmucs, Mongoles.
H. AMERICANUS.

Indigenes of America.
H. COLUMBICUS.

H. ETHIOPICUS.

From Senegal to the
southern tropics.

H. POLYNESIUS.

CAUCASICUS.

ARABICUS.

L INDICUS.

OCCIDENTALS.

.Atlanticus.

.Adamicus.

HOTTENTOTTUS.

Alfourous, Australia, Moluccas,
Madagascar.

* "Le midi de cette peninsule (the Malay Peninsula) est habite par les Malais, peuple beaucoup
plus rapproche des Indiens par les formes, et dont la race et la langue se sont r6pandues sur les cotes
de toutes les iles de 1'Archipel Indien. Les innombrables petites iles de la Mer du Sud sont peuplees
aussi par une belle race qui parait tenir de pres aux Indiens, et dont la langue a beaucoup de rapports
avec le Malai ; mais dans I'interieur des grandes lies, surtout dans les lieux les plus sauvages, habi-
tent d'autres Hommes a teint noir, a visage de Negre, tous extremement barbares, que Ton a nommes
Alfourous ; et sur les cotes de la Nouvelle Guinee et des iles voisines, sont d'autres Negres presque
semblables a ceux de la cote orientale de 1'Afrique, que Ton a appeles Papous ; c'est aux Alfourous
que Ton rapporte les habitants de la Nouvelle Hollande et Ton assure que ceux de la Terre de Diemen
sont plutot des Papous. Ni ces Malais, ni ces Papous ne se laissent aisement rapporter a 1'une des trois
grandes races ; mais les premiers peuvent-ils etre nettement distingues de leurs voisins des deux cotes,
les Indous Caucasiques, et les Chinois Mongoliques ? Nous avouons que nous ne leur trouvons pas
encore de caracteres suffisants pour cela. Les Papous sont ils des Negres anciennement egares sur la
Mer des Indes ?

THE PRINCIPAL BRANCHES OF THE HUMAN RACE.

215

Lesson, in his Mammalogie, gives the following arrangement : —

WHITE

OR

CAUCASIAN
STOCK.

YELLOW

OR

MONGOLE
STOCK.

BLACK

OR

NEGRO
STOCK.

Branch.

1. ARMENIAN.

j- Assyrians, Chaldeans, Arabs, Phoenicians, Jews,
* Abyssinians, and, perhaps, the Egyptians.

2. INDIAN, GERMAN, | The Celts, Cantabrians, persians, &c.
AND PELASGIC. '

3. SCYTHIAN AND
TARTAR.

Branch.

1. MANTCHOU.

2. CHINESE.

3. HYPERBOREAN, OR

ESQUIMAUX.

4. AMERICAN.

5. MONGOLE-PELAS-
GIC, OR CAROLINE.

Branch.

1. ETHIOPIAN.

2. CAFFRE.

3. HOTTENTOT.

4. PAPOU.

5. TASMANIAN.

6. ALFOUROUS-EN-

DAMENES.

,1. Malays proper.
(-Variety I. J 2. Javanese.
rScythians, Par- Malay. 1 3. Macassars.
I thians, Turks, I U. Amboyna Malays.

J Hungarians, j rA. branch of the Hindu

[^ §jc> Variety II. J family spread through

[_ Oceanic. 1 the isles of the South-
*- ern Ocean.

Bucharia, to the frontiers of Japan.
China and Japan.

} Laplanders, Samoiedes, Labadors, Aleutians, &c.

r Peruvians, Mexicans, Araucans, Patagonians, Ca-
* ribs, Canadians, &c.

^-Natives of the long chain of islands (the archi-
< pelago of the Carolines) from the Philippine to
*• the Mulgrave Islands.

Senegal, Guinea, Congo, and true Negroes.

South Africa and the shores of Madagascar.

District of the Cape of Good Hope,
r Papuan Islands, New Caledonia, Bouka, Wai-
<• gou, &c.

Van Diemen's Land ; closely allied to the Papous.
rThe Negroes "del Monte" of Mindanao, the
<• Virzimbirs of Madagascar.

7. ALFOUROUS-AUS- | The natives of Australia.
TRALIAN.

Subjoined is Lesson's later arrangement, in Species des Mammiferes : —

Branch.

Family.

r 1. Arab.

ARAB*

2. Hebrew.

{3. Caucasian.

I.

CAUCASIAN.

4. Greek.

WHITE RACE. •

5. Turk, or Tartar.

CELTIC.

6. Celtic.

r 7. Scandinavian.

TEUTONIC, OR
GERMANIC.

J 8. Sclavonic.
|_ 9. Finnic.

,-10. Indian.

I 11. Gitanian or Gipsy.

TT

HINDOO.

\ 12. Abyssinian.

BISTRE-BLACK

CAFFRARIAN.

^ 13. Ovas, or Madecasse.
14. Caffre.

OR

DUSKY RACE.

PAPUAN.

15. Papuan, or Negro- Malay.
{ 16. Alfourou.

ENDAMENE.

17. Australian.

216

BIMANA.

III.

ORANGE-CO-
LOURED RACE.

MALAYAN.

Family.

18. Malay.

r 19. Chinese.

' MONGOLE. J 2°- TongOOSC.

^| 21. Calmuc.

1 22. Esquimaux.

MONGOLE PE- -v -

LASGIC. / 23' TaSale> or Caroline.

IV.
YELLOW RACE. '

{' 24. Oceanic.
25. Dayack.

r Battas.
*• Alfourous, &c.

f Tribe Ando-Peruvian,

; Pampas.

AMERICAN. 26. American.

^ Brazilio-Guara-

nian.

C Tribe Caribs.

V.

J Senecas.

RED RACE. 27' Carib'

j Mohawks.

L Chippeways,&c.

VI.
BLACK RACE.

NEGRO.

ASIATIC-NEGRO.

NIGRITIAN.

TASMANIAN.
HOTTENTOT.
L BUSHMAN.

28. Ethiopic.

C Bhils of Malva.

29. Mihada or Pou- J Coutis of Guzerat.

j Couries beyond the

L Ganges, &c.

r Negroes " del Monte"

\of Mindanao.
Andamans, &c.

31. Tasmanian or Van Diemen.

32. Hottentot.

33. Bushman.

Aetas.

Dumeril proposes the following divisions : —

Var. 1. Caucasian, or Arab-European.

— 2. Hyperborean.

— 3. Mongole.

Var. 4. American.

— 5. Malay.

— 6. Ethiopian.

Virey divides Man into two species, each of which is again sub-divided
into greater and lesser branches : —

1. Race blanche.

r Arabe-Indienne.

{ cfacagienne>

f I. Espece.

t Chinoise.

Angle facial de 85

2.

Race basanee.

s Kalmouk, Mongole.

a 90 degres.

' o

v Lapone, Astraque.

GENRE

3.

Race cuivreuse.

Americaine ou Caribe.

HUMAINE. '

r4-

Race brun foncee.

Malaie ou Indienne.

II. Espece.

f Cafres.

Angle facial de 75 <^ °

Race noire.

tNegres.

. a 82 degres. [

Race noiratre.

f Hottentots.

1 Tk

1 Fapous.

THE PRINCIPAL BRANCHES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 217

Desmoulins' sections are as follow : —

1. Celto-Scyth- Arabs.

2. Mongoles.

3. Ethiopians.

4. Euro-Africans.

5. Austro- Africans.

7. Papous.

8. Negro-Oceanians.

9. Australasians.

10. Columbians.

11. Americans.

6. Malays, or Oceanians.

M. Bory de St. Vincent adopts a series of divisions closely approxi-
mating to those of Desmoulins : —

RACES WITH SMOOTH STRAIGHT HAIR, PECULIAR TO THE OLDER
CONTINENTS.

I. JAPETIC STOCK — HOMO JAPETICUS.* The original seat of this stock is in the moun-

tain chains which ramify nearly parallel to the 45th degree north.

Variety i. Gens togata. Dress, from the earliest time, loose and flowing. The women
generally regarded as the slaves of man. Baldness, from age, generally beginning
on the forehead.

Ramifications: 1. Caucasian, or western race. (Mingrelians, Circassians, Georgians, by
intermixtures with whom the Turks, the Persians, and the Hindoos of Cash-
mere have become improved.)
Ramifications : 2. Pelasgic race. (The ancient Greeks and Romans, together with their

colonies.)
Variety n. Gens braccata. Dress close. The women regarded as equals, or often as

superiors. The head becoming bald, from age, generally on the vertex.
Ramifications : 1. Celtic race. (Gauls, ancient British, &c.)
Ramifications : 2. Germanic race. (Sub-variety 1. Teutonic. 2. Sclavonic.)

II. ARABIAN STOCK — HOMO ARABICUS. The men of this stock generally of tall stature;

on the contrary, the women small and slender.
Variety i. Atlantic race. (The ancient Egyptians, and the people of Atlantica, North

Africa.)
Variety u. Adamicrace. (Hebrews, and other Syrian nations.)

III. HINDOO STOCK — HOMO INDICUS.

IV. SCYTHIC STOCK— HOMO SCYTHICUS. The Tartar nations of Bucharia, Daouria, and

of the country from the eastern shores of the Caspian to the Sea of Japan and Okok-
hokts. Cheek-bones prominent ; eyes small, and deeply set, and separated from each
other to a great distance ; eyelids thick ; eyebrows bushy ; nose flattened, and ren-
dered apparent only by the nostrils ; chin pointed.

V. CHINESE STOCK — HOMO SINICUS. Not to be confounded with the preceding ; original

seat, the Thibet mountains ; and separated from the Scythic nations by the vast deserts
of Gobi and Shamo.

VI. HYPERBOREAN STOCK — HOMO HYPERBOREUS. Laplanders, Samoiedes, &c.

VII. NEPTUNIAN STOCK — HOMO NEPTUNIANUS.
Variety I. Malays.

Variety n. Oceanic nations (New Zealanders, &c).

Variety in. Hybrid Papuan race, between the Neptunian stock and the Melanian.

VIII. AUSTRALASIAN STOCK — HOMO AUSTRALASICUS. Natives of Australia, &c.

PECULIAR TO THE NEW WORLD.

IX. COLUMBIAN STOCK — HOMO COLUMBICUS. Inhabitants of the plains of the St.

Lawrence to the 45th degree, of the eastern borders of Mexico, the Antilles, Terra
Firma, Guiana, and the territory of Cumana. To this stock belong also the Cana-
dians, the natives of Jucatan and Honduras, the Caribs, and the Galibis.

* Japeticus, not in allusion to Japhet, the son of Noah, but to. Japetus (audax Japeti genus. Horace),
whom the ancient classics regarded as the progenitor of the race inhabiting the western regions of the
world.

VOL. i. 2F

218 BIMANA.

X. AMERICAN STOCK— HOMO AMERICANUS. The inhabitants of the upper plains of the

Orinoco, those of the Amazon, Brazil, Paraguay, and the innermost territories of Chili.

XI. PATAGONIAN STOCK — HOMO PATAGONUS. Natives of Patagonia.

CRISP-HAIRED RACES.

NATIONS COMMONLY TERMED NEGROES.

XII. ETHIOPIAN STOCK— HOMO J£THIOPICUS. Negro, or black races of Central Africa.

XIII. CAFFRE STOCK — HOMO GAFFER. Caffre tribes of South Africa.

XIV. MELANIAN STOCK — HOMO MELANINUS. Natives of Madagascar, New Guinea, the
Fejee Islands, Van Diemen's Land, &c.

XV. HOTTENTOT STOCK — HOMO HOTTENTOTTUS, Hottentot and Bushman tribes of

South Africa.

Dr. Prichard, whose work, entitled Researches into the Physical
History of Mankind, is replete with learning, and evidences the indefa-
tigable industry of its author, considers mankind as referable to seven
primary stocks, or classes. He observes that, from a comparison of the
principal varieties of form and structure presented by the inhabitants
of different countries, seven classes of nations appear to be distinctly
separable from each other, and to exhibit strongly-marked characters
of distinction : among these, the principal, but by no means the only
characteristics claiming attention, are peculiar forms of the skull. The
seven principal classes, thus established, he considers to be — first, those
nations which, in the form of their skulls and other physical traits, re-
semble Europeans, including many nations in Asia, and some in Africa ;
secondly, races nearly similar in figure and in the shape of the head to
the Calmucs, Mongoles, and Chinese ; thirdly, the native American
nations, excluding the Esquimaux, and some tribes who resemble them
more than the majority of the inhabitants of the New World; fourthly,
the Hottentot and Bushman race ; fifthly, the Negroes ; sixthly, the
Papuas, or woolly-haired nations of Polynesia ; and, seventhly, the
Alfourou and Australian races. The two first classes he respectively
terms Iranian and Turanian, instead of Caucasian and Mongolian. Sir W.
Jones has shewn it to be extremely probable that the region of Upper Asia,
termed Iran, was the primitive seat of those families or nations who
have most extensively spread the same type and features ; and hence, Dr.
Prichard has adopted the term Iranian (instead of Caucasian), as their
general appellation. Turan corresponds with Scythia.* " The Scythians,"
says Dr. Prichard, " were the nations of the north beyond Mount Imaus,
of whom some branches, at an earlier period, had reached the neighbour-
hood of Colchis. There is enough to identify them with the class of nations
which may be comprised under the indefinite, and, therefore, more con-

* " The long and memorable quarrel of Iran and Touran is still the theme of history or romance :
the famous, perhaps the fabulous, valour of the Persian heroes, Rustan and Asfendiar, was sig-
nalized in the defence of their country against the Afrasiabs of the north ; and the invincible
spirit of the same barbarians resisted, on the same ground, the victorious arms of Cyrus and Alex-
ander. When Darius advanced into the Moldavian Desert, between the Danube and the Neister, the
King of the Scythians sent him a mouse, a frog,> bird, and five arrows— a tremendous allegory I"— Gibbon.

THE PRINCIPAL BRANCHES OF THE HUMAN RACE.

venient designation of Turanian. That term will serve the purpose of a
general appellation for all the races of men who inhabit the region
northward of the Oxus and Imaus ; and who display, more or less, the
same physical character with the Mongoles and Calmucs, and yet can
by no means be identified or connected with them by any proofs of
natural affinity. The name Turanian, but for the error of modern
writers, who have confounded the real Scythians with the Goths and
the Sclavonians, and even with the Celts, might be interchanged with
Scythian." It would appear, however, that the nomadic Scythian and
Tartar tribes, some of which are evidently of a mixed race, interme-
diate between the Sclavonic, or the Tartaric branches of the Japetic,
and the Mongole stock (see Blumenbach, Dec. xiiL, skull of a Kirguise*),
are really to be referred to the former.

The following tabular arrangement of the main stems and primary
branches of the human race, as it appears upon careful investigation to be
resolvable, is submitted by the author of this work. It cannot be ex-
pected that the views it embodies will coincide, in every point, with those
of others who have entered into this perplexing department of natural
history ; nevertheless, it is from such as know the mass of difficulties
which environ the subject, that the most allowance may be expected.

r Of this branch, various nations,
speaking different dialects of
the same tongue , were spread
over Gaul, Lower Germany,
Italy, Spain, and the British
Islands.

Greeks, Romans, and their co-
lonies.

r Various nations of this branch,
under the names of Goths,
Vandals, Allemanni, Franks,
Germans, Angles, &c., occu-
pied the north-western re-
gions of Europe.
/Russians, Poles, Croats, Bohe-
mians, Bulgarians, and Cos-

1 sacks.

_ Ancient Scythians, Parthians,

I Tartars, Kirguises, Ousbecks,

I &C\

Georgians, Circassians, Min-

{ grelians.

Arabs, Hebrews, Assyrians,
{ Chaldeans, Phoenicians, &c.

Hindoo nations.

r Ancient Egyptians and Ethio-
J pians, Abyssinians, Berber
| tribes of Atlantica, Guanches
l_ of Canary Islands.

I.— JAPETIC STOCK.

Head oval ; forehead
open ; nose prominent ;
cheek-bones either not pro-
jecting, or but slightly so,
the zygomatic arches being
moderately compressed ;
ears small and close ; teeth
vertical in their direction;
jaws moderate, with a well-
formed chin ; hair long,
flowing, sometimes crisp,
never woolly ; beard mostly
full ; colour variable.

The Japetic, Caucasian,
or Iranian section of dif-
ferent authors, the Celto-
Scyth-Arabs of Desmou-
lins.

EUROPEAN..,

Celtic.

Pelasgie.

Teutonic.

Sclavonic.

f Tartaric.

ASIATIC. < Caucasic.
Semitic.
L Sanscritic.

AFRICAN. Mizraimic.

* See, also, Dec. iv., the skull of a Don Cossack: " Habitus in totum horridus."

220

BIMANA.

II.— NEPTUNIAN STOCK.

Head rounded, sometimes compressed at
the sides ; face sub-oval, with prominent
cheek-bones and zygomatic arches; eyes
more distant from each other than in the
Japetic stock, and more elevated at the
temporal angle ; iris black ; mouth mode-
rate, with a violet tint internally; teeth
erect; hair long, straight, black; beard
scanty, somewhat rigid; limbs well formed;
soles of the feet small ; colour tawny, or ^
yellowish brown.

III.— MONGOLE STOCK.

Head large, elevated at the vertex ; face
flat, broad; the male malar bones and the
zygomatic arches boldly prominent and re-
markably large ; eyes small, narrow, ob-
lique; eyelids tumid; eyebrows arched;
nose depressed, with patulous nostrils; chin
nearly beardless ; the hairs of the head ri-
gid, straight, black ; ears large and spread-
ing; mouth wide; teeth erect; colour yel-
lowish brown.

IV.— PROGNATHOUS STOCK.*

Jaws large, prominent ; the alveolar ridge
standing obliquely forward, and giving an
oblique direction to the incisor teeth ; fore-
head narrow; head laterally compressed;
cheeks and zygomatic arches prominent ; "
lips tumid; nose more or less depressed,
with spreading nostrils ; hair, for the most
part, woolly and plicated, sometimes crisp,
sometimes harsh and long ; beard usually
scanty, stiff ; colour fluctuating /rom deep
black to yellowish brown.

MALAYS
PROPER.

POLYNE-
SIANS.

MONGOLE.

HYPERBO-
REAN.

AFRO-
NEGRO.

HOTTENTOT.

PAPUAN.

ALFOUROU.

V.— OCCIDENTAL STOCK.

Forehead flattened ; the vertex mode-
rately elevated (except when depressed by
art) ; cheek-bones and zygomatic arches
roundly prominent; eyes linear, usually
oblique ; nose moderately elevated, some-
times depressed, with spreading nostrils ; <
mouth large ; alveolar margin of the jaws
slightly oblique; hair long, rigid, black;
beard very scanty ; colour variable, dusky-
yellow, or coppery. The characters not
constant, or developed to the same degree
in every tribe.

* The term, Prognathous, is adopted from Dr. Prichard, as typically characteristic of this stock of the
human family, of which the Papous and the Alfourous are regarded as a branch. The genuine Negro
characters are restricted to a small offset.

r COLUMBIAN.

SOUTH
AMERICAN.

r Natives of the Malay Peninsula,

and occupants of the coasts of

\ the islands of the Indian

Archipelago.
*• Hovas of Madagascar.

I New Zealanders.
Sandwich Islanders.
Society Islanders, &c.
Perhaps, also, the settlers who
founded the Peruvian and
Mexican empires.

Mongole Tartars.
Mantchoux.
Calmucs.
Chinese.
Coreans.

Japanese, and natives of Thibet,
Boutan, Ava, Pegu, Siam, &c.
C Ostiaks.

Tongouse.
I Samoiedes.
j Tschutski.
I Laplanders.
v. Esquimaux, &C.
r Negro and the African varieties,
I with more or less of the Negro
j characters.
I Caffres.
C Namaquas.
J Koras.
j Gon aquas.
I Saabs.

Woolly-haired black tribes of
New Guinea, Fejee Island,
Van Diemen's Land, Mada-
gascar, termed Papous, &c.
r Straight or 'crisp-haired black
I tribes of New Guinea, and va-
S rious Islands of IndianArchi-
pelago, New Hollanders, and
Virzimbirs of Madagascar.
r North American Indians.
I Indigenes of Mexico.
\ Florida, and the Carribean Is-
lands of Yutacan and Colum-
bia, to the equator.
Indigenes of the banks of the
Amazon, and of the upper
sources of the Orinoco ; of
Brazil, Paraguay, the inte-
rior of Chili ; including the
Atures, the Ottomaques, the
Botacudos, &c.

IPATAGONIAN. / The gigantic race of Patago-
>- ma.

JAPETIC STOCK.

JAPETIC STOCK.

IT has been usual to ascribe to one type, namely, the Caucasian, Ira-
nian, or Indo-Atlantic (as various writers denominate it), a profusion of
tribes and nations, spread over Europe, certain districts of Asia, and also of
Africa, notwithstanding the many and striking differences which exist be-
tween them. They have, indeed, been all referred, by some philosophers,
to the Caucasian range of mountains, between the Black and the Caspian
Seas, as their original starting-point ; but without any definite authority*
for the assumption.

Dr. Prichard, indeed, regards the region of Upper Asia, termed Iran,
as their original seat ; and maintains that there is no truth in the assertion,
that all these nations traditionally deduce their origin from Caucasus,
which has been the immemorial seat of tribes, as their languages prove,
entirely distinct from the Indo-European, as well as from the Semitic
nations. The mountains of Asia Minor, of Thrace, and of Hellas, are all
famous in Grecian story. Mountains were, of old, in the simple and pri-
mitive ages which long preceded the erection of temples, consecrated to
the worship of the unseen Power whom all nations venerate ; and hence,
with Olympus and Mount Meru, Caucasus also claimed its share of the
general homage paid to lofty heights enveloped in clouds, and defying
access to mortals — the resting-place only of the gods, when they visited
this lower world : but there is no authority for assigning the Caucasian
range as the centre whence the human family originally radiated. The
subject, however, requires, for its elucidation, data which history does
not furnish.

The assumption, that the multitudinous tribes and nations, included
under the distinctive term Caucasian, or Iranian, are all referable to
the same type, rests upon the apparent sameness of the model upon

* "On a appele Caucasique la race dont nous descendons, parceque les traditions et la filiation des
peuples semblent la faire remonter jusqu'a ce groupe de montagnes situe entre la Mer Caspienne et la
Mer Noire, d'ou elle s'est r6pandue comme en rayonnant. Les peuples du Caucase meme, les Circassiens
et les Georgians passent encore aujourd'hui pour les plus beaux de la terre. On peut distinguer les
principales branches de cette race par 1'analogie des langues. Le rameau Arameen ou de Syrie s'est
dirige au midi ; il a produit les Assyriens, les Chaldeens, les Arabes toujours indomptes, et qui aprea
Mahomet ont pense devenir maitres du monde; les Pheniciens, les Juifs, les Abyssins, colonies des
Arabes ; il est tres probable que les Egyptiens lui appartenaient. C'est dans ce rameau, toujours in-
clin au mysticisme, que sont nees les religions les plus repandues. Les sciences et les lettres y ont
fleuri quelquefois, mais toujours avec les formes bizarres, un style figure.

"Le rameau Indien, Germain, et Pelasgique est beaucoup plus etendu, et s'est divise bien plus an-
ciennement ; cependant Ton reconnait les affinites les plus multipliees entre ses quatre langues princi-
pales : le Sanscrit, langue aujourd'hui sacree des Indous, mere de la plupart des langues de 1'Indostan ;
1'ancienne langue de Pelages, mere commune du Grec, du Latin, de beaucoup de langues eteintes, et de
toutes nos langues du midi de 1'Europe ; le Gothique, ou Tudesque, d'on sont derivees les langues du
nord, et du nord-ouest, telles que I'Allemand, le Hollandais, 1' Anglais, les Danois, les Suedois. et leurs
dialects; enfin, la langue appelee Esclavonne, d'ou descendent cellesdunord-est— le Russe, le Polonais,
le Bohemien, et leVende."— Cuvier.

BIMANA.

which the cranium and the osseous framework generally are moulded :*
for, though differences have been noticed, still no broad line of separa-
tion can be seized upon, indicating, as in the Mongole tribes, the exist-
ence of a distinct type or model. Nevertheless, the gradations of this
type, from the perfect and true model, as it is exemplified in the
Georgian, Circassian, or Greek, to the semi-barbarous Russ or rude Scla-
vonian, are not to be overlooked. It is, therefore, rather an assumption
than a demonstration, that the nations and tribes in question have
branched out from one stock, or that they are of the same type. Soem-
merring observes, that there are no well-marked differences between
the German, Swiss, French, Swedish, and Russian skulls, except that
the orbits are more contracted in the Russian, according to the exam-
ples in his collection (a peculiarity delineated, also, in the figure of
the skull of a Pole, in the Decades of Blumenbach) : still, as Law-
rence well remarks, the discovery of no striking difference between the
skulls of the Caucasian nations, from a comparison of casual specimens
of the crania of the various nations, does not authorize the conclusion
that no differences really exist ; and, he adds, " my friend, Mr. G. Lewis,
whose quickness in distinguishing forms, and whose readiness and accu-
racy in portraying them to the very life, are well known, observed, in
a tour through France and Germany, that the lower and anterior part of
the cranium is larger in the French, the upper and anterior in the Ger-
mans, and that the upper and posterior region is larger in the former
than in the latter. He was always struck with the very fine form of
the skull in Italians, which coincides completely with what I have seen
of them in this country." Every nation, moreover, has its peculiar
cast of features : indeed, if we attend only to the natives of the
British Islands, distinctions between the Scotch, the Irish, the Angle,
and the families of Norman lineage, are clearly recognisable.-)- But

* " From the mountains of Himalaya to the Indian Ocean, including the whole of Hindoostan and
the Deccan, as well as Persia and Arabia, and from the Ganges in the east, to the borders of the
Alantic, comprising the north '.of Africa and the whole of Europe, a similar configuration of body
prevails amongst all the inhabitants, with some few exceptions. Of this, the Greeks seem to afford
the most perfect model ; in which, however, they scarcely exceed the type displayed, as belonging to
the ancient Persians, by the sculptures of Persepolis. Complexion does not enter among the cha-
racters of this type, since it is of all shades, from the white and florid colour of the northern Euro-
peans to the jet black of many tribes in Lybia and southward of Mount Atlas. In many races the
type has degenerated : the ancient Celts appear, for example, to .have had by no means the same
development of the head as the Greeks, and the Indians display some differences in the configura-
tion of the skull."— Prichard, Hist. Phys. Mank. i. p. 262.

t High cheek-bones, small, deeply-set, grey eyes, a large lower jaw, and a prominent chin, cha-
racterize the physiognomy of the, shrewd, intelligent Scot. In the Irish, the face is broad, the
cheek-bones project laterally, the nose is more or less depressed, and the eyes are small and light. An
aquiline nose, thin lips, dark eyes, and a tall but slender figure, indicate the descent from a boasted
line of Norman ancestry. In the peasantry, especially of our midland counties, the Anglo-Saxon type
prevails : an athletic form, blue eyes, light hair, and an open expression of countenance, proclaim
the Angle : in the midland counties, where the dialect has not lost its original breadth, and still re-
tains the Anglo-Saxon words in purity, children of the peasantry may be seen, before toil has worn
them, which will call to mind the words of Gregory, (( Non Angli, sed angeli."

I
JAPETIC STOCK.

when a wider field of observation is taken, the distinctive characters,
as displayed in the national physiognomy, become still more obvious.
In the Jew and the Armenian, for example, a long aquiline nose, thick
lips, and a long, heavy eye, are almost constant peculiarities. The
Italian cast of countenance cannot be mistaken ; and what that of the
ancient Romans was, their busts and medallions sufficiently demonstrate.
A well-formed skull, the forehead remarkable rather for breadth than
elevation ; eyes moderately large ; a raised and usually aquiline nose ;
full and firmly moulded lips ; a large lower jaw ; and a prominent chin,
distinguish the Roman ; and an expression in which pride, sternness, and
daring are blended, complete the picture of " broad-fronted Caesar."

In like manner, correct ideas may be gained of the national features of
the ancient Greeks, whose lineaments are not obliterated among their
present descendants. In the Greek, the countenance has a more animated
expression ; the eyes are large ; and the forehead advancing, produces a
marked, but elegant, superorbital margin, on which the eyebrows are deli-
cately pencilled ; the nose, falling straight from the forehead, sometimes
inclines to an aquiline form, and is often of rather more than moderate
length ; the upper lip is short, and the mouth delicately moulded ; the lower
jaw is not so large as to disturb the oval contour of the face ; and the chin
is prominent : the general expression, with less of sternness than in the
Roman, has equal daring, and betokens intellectual exaltation.

Setting aside minor points of variation,
the typical characters of the skull in the
Japetic, or Iranian type of the human species,
may be summed up as follow : —

The cranium, of which that of a Greek
(fig. 1 84) is selected as an example, is greatly
developed, the forehead rising with a bold
sweep, indicative of the volume of the ante-
rior lobes of the brain. When viewed from
above, according to the norma verticalis of
Blumenbach, the ample swell of the anterior
portion of the cranium completely hides the
face, so that the facial angle is nearly a right angle. The face is small, its
outlines rounded, and no part preponderating so as to disturb the har-
mony of its symmetrical proportions. The cheek-bones, instead of pro-
jecting greatly, as in the Mongole, fall perpendicularly below the ex-
ternal angular process of the frontal bone, and are small and flat, with
an obliquely lateral aspect. The alveolar portion of the upper jaw is
short, and regularly arched ; the lower jaw is moderate, or rather small,
with a well-formed chin ; and the teeth are perpendicular. The depth
and extent of the zygomatic fossa are inconsiderable. Modifications of

224? BIMANA.

this normal form, and degrees of approximation in some branches to
the Mongole, in others, even to the Negro type, are, however, to be
found ; serving to shew that the different ramifications of the human
family verge, at certain points, towards each other, losing the strong and
decided characters by which the main stems are distinguished.

A few observations may now be offered on the principal branches of
the Japetic stock.

CELTIC BRANCH. — The earliest inhabitants of Gaul, Italy, Spain, and
the British Islands, as far as history enables us to judge, appear, either in
part or in whole, to have belonged to a race now reduced within the limits
of a few isolated portions of Europe, and which has received the appella-
tion of Celtic. The Galli, or Gael, the Cymri, Cumri, Umbri,* or Ombrici
(O/j,/3piKoi), the Veneti, the Osismii, the Lexovii, the Nannetes, Morini,
jEdui, Averni, &c., were all tribes of this great branch, the original seat of
which is to be traced to Asia Minor ; but of the influx of which, over the
regions it occupied in Europe, no records are extant.

The traces of the Celtic tongue are widely spread, and are to be dis-
covered in languages which might not be suspected to have the remotest
connexion with it, but with the radical structure of which, it is, neverthe-
less, interwoven ; and among these is the Latin, f The Rev. Mr.

* " Floras states, that the Umbri were the most ancient people of Italy (Antiquissimus Italias
populus, lib. i. cap. 17); Pliny, that they were deemed the most ancient nation of Italy, (Gens
antiquissima Italiae, lib. iii. cap. 17); Dionysius of Halicarnassus, that the Ombrici were a nation
of peculiar greatness and antiquity. Herodotus states, that the Lydian Tyrrhenians (according to him,
the germ of the Tuscan race), settled among the people called, by the Greeks, O/jL/3piKoi, and supposed,
by some of the writers, to have derived their name from their having survived the general deluge
(Ofjifipos, Umber, pluvia). We also learn from him, that their country was of great and indefinite
extent. In the words of Niebuhr, it stretched to the foot of the Alps, for the rivers Karpis and Alpis,
one of which is certainly represented by the Inn, flow from the Umbrici. According to Scylax,
Umbria included Picenum, as he places Ancona within its limits. From Pliny, it is farther learned, that
the Tuscans took no less than 300 towns from Umbri, or, in other words, that the whole Tuscan terri-
tory had once been Umbrian. From these authorities, it is evident that the Umbri, at a remote period,
occupied the greatest portion of northern Italy. The Ligurians, a nation confessedly Celtic, seemed to
have shared the country with them. In historical times, these are described as possessing the upper
vale of the Po, the maritime Alps, and the northern Apennines, while the Umbri were confined to the
central group, the most important natural fortresses of Italy. The whole of the original population of
eastern Italy, with the exception of those who took refuge in the central Apennines, was reduced
under the power and influence of the Hellenic colonists, who encircled the southern peninsula with a
line of Grecian cities, of surpassing wealth and magnificence, — Sybaris, Crotona, Elea, and Psestum.

"That the Ligurians were, themselves, Ambrones, or Ombrones, is evident from the story told by
Plutarch, in the life of Marius. The Ambrones came on, crying out 'Ambrones ! Ambrones !' This they
did, either to encourage each other, or to terrify the enemy with their name. The Ligurians were the
first that moved against them, and when they heard the enemy cry out ' Ambrones,' they echoed back
the word, which was their ancient name. The English reader may not know that the Cumrian name
for England, is, to this day, Loigur, or Liguria."— Rev. Archdeacon Williams, Trans. Royal Soc. Ed.
vol. xiii., 1836.

t " I speak from knowledge, when I say that the Anglo-Saxon is deeply tinged with the language
of the Britons of Wales, Cornwall, and Armorica, and that the meaning of countless words, commonly
regarded as pure Saxon, will in vain be sought in the forests of Germany, or the wilds of Scandina-
via. Even household words, the language of every-day life, without the aid of scholars acquainted with
the primitive languages of these islands, must be handed down to posterity as mystic signs, devoid of
meaning."— Rev. Archdeacon Williams.

JAPETIC STOCK.

Williams (see his very interesting paper on one source of the non-Hellenic
portion of the Latin language ; Trans. Royal Soc. Edinb. vol. xiii. 1836)
has satisfactorily demonstrated, that the original population of central and
northern Italy, was Cumrian, or Cimbrian, cognate with the Cumri of our
island; and that of this race no small part of the original population
of ancient Rome consisted.

It is remarkable that the Celtic tribes of every country in Europe
referred to Troy, or Troja, as the primitive seat of their race, and as the
place whence they originally migrated.

The claim of the Cumri of Britain, to a Trojan origin, was maintained
in the earliest ages, long before the fabrication of Geoffroy of Monmouth ;
and in this Trojan origin they agreed with the Veneti, the Sabines, the
Latins, &c. Asia Minor was, in fact, the reputed birth-place of the Celtic
stock, by common consent. With respect to Troy (a city or territory of
mystery), the name of which was familiar to nations ignorant alike of
Homer and his Iliad, the inquirer is lost in vague conjectures. In the
time of Homer, 860 years A.C., its history was veiled in fable : and it
is not improbable that the traditions, on which he founded his poems, had
been carried far and wide by the tide of wanderers from Asia Minor, at
a period antecedent to that of his existence.

Of the radical affinity between the Celtic and Latin tongues, this is
not the place to treat; those who desire to pursue the subject may
consult, with advantage, the excellent paper from which, in the notes,
some interesting extracts have been quoted : * all here aimed at is, to
prove the extent and originality of the Celtic race, and its unsuspected
connexion with a people destined to influence the fates of empires, and
to become the masters of the known world.

The physical characters of the Celtic race are as follow : — Hair,
varying from the dark brown to pale chestnut, or reddish ; eyes, brown,
or bluish grey ; complexion pale, the skin being white, verging to
brown ; stature, moderate, but robust, the body and limbs being well-
proportioned, and more hairy than in other races, — the men, without ex-
ception, and sometimes the females, having the chest and epigastric
region thus furnished. The forehead more or less prominent on the
sides, but retreating, not ungracefully, to the temples ; the nose rectilinear,

* Archdeacon Williams says (having observed that two languages may have a common voca-
bulary, but different grammars) — " although the grammars of the Latin and Cumrian thus entirely
disagree, there is a wonderful similarity in their vocabulary, by no means to be accounted for by a
supposed common descent from a Caucasian race, but approaching far nearer than the old Teutonic
(or, as it is called, Moesi-Gothic tongue) does to the Homeric language. Giraldus Cambrensis, both
a Cumrian and classical scholar, remarked this similarity nearly 600 years ago. It is to be remarked,
that almost all the words of the British tongue agree either with the Greek or Latin. It is this
strong similarity of features between their own language, and that of Greece and Italy, that has
induced so many of my countrymen to scorn all) examination which did not commence with this
confession."

VOL. I. 2G

226 BIMANA.

and separated from the forehead by a depression, more or less marked,
between the eyes ; the beard full, and slightly rigid ; the mouth
moderate. Diodorus says that the Gauls were red-haired, and that they
rendered this colour more intense by their habit of washing the head with
a sort of lime-water : according to Strabo, the ancient Britons had the
hair much less reddish, or yellow, than the Gauls, and were of taller
stature. The Celtic dress consisted of tunics, brachae or pantaloons,
and cloaks, of party-coloured woollen cloth, the colours being sometimes
in stripes, but mostly in chequers, of which the tartan, still called the garb
of old Gaul, to this day, affords an example.

PELASGIC BRANCH. — If the remote history of Italy be so obscure, and
bring us into contact with a race now almost forgotten, widely as it was once
diffused, the history of Greece is no less shrouded in darkness. The Cyclo-
pean structures, the massive ruins of which still exist, tell of a rude but
energetic people, who, ignorant of architecture as a science, trusted to
the weight of uncemented blocks of stone, for strength and durability in
the structure of their walls and temples. At a later period than that in
which the Cyclopean works were erected, we hear of the Pelasgi, and of
the Hellenic and Achaean tribes, into which the former appear ultimately
to have merged. To the Pelasgi the building of many cities is attributed.
The common name of a Pelasgian fortress was Larissa (perhaps from
Aaar, a stone, and Cpat6), Vat(raj> to hammer, or hew*), and Fynes Clinton
states, that seventeen places, bearing this name, may be traced, most of
which, probably all, were built by the Pelasgi. Herodotus says, " The
Lacedaemonians were of the Doric, the Athenians of the Ionic race,
formerly called Pelasgians and Hellenians, of whom the former had never
migrated, the latter often : for, in the time of King Deucalion, the
Hellenians inhabited the region of Phthiotis ; but under the reign of
Dorus, the son of Hellenus, they possessed the country called Histiaeotis,
beneath Ossa and Olympus ; from which being driven by the Cadmaeans,
they dwelt near Mount Pindus ; thence they passed to Dryopis ; and,
afterwards, entered the Peloponnesus, where they were called Dorians.
What language the Pelasgians spoke, cannot certainly be determined ; but,
if a conjecture were hazarded, it would be that it was a barbarian
tongue. This opinion is supported by the fact, that the remains of the
Pelasgians, who inhabit Crotona, a city beyond the Tyrrhenians, and
who formerly were neighbours to the Dorians, inhabiting the country
now called Thessaliotis, speak a language altogether different from that
of any of the surrounding people. The same may be said of those
Pelasgians who founded the cities of Placia and Scylace, on the Helles-
pont, but who once lived with the Athenians ; and of the inhabitants of

* The signification of Larissa may be, a fortress of dressed stones, in opposition to the Cyclopean
masses, which were superseded by those of the Pelasgians.

JAPETIC STOCK.

oilier Pelasgian towns, who have changed their names : all these people
speak the same language, and which is unintelligible to their neighbours.
If this conjecture be well founded, it will follow that the Athenians, who
were of Pelasgic origin, lost their original language, and adopted that of
the Hellenians, when they came among that people, while the other
Pelasgians have retained their language without alteration. Few and feeble
when they separated themselves from the body of the Pelasgians, they
augmented their numbers and strength, by incorporating with other tribes
of barbarians, which the Pelasgians, not doing, have never increased."

Again, he says, "the lonians, so long as they dwelt in that part of the
Peloponnesus now called Achaia, and before the time when Danaus and
Xuthus came into Peloponnesus, were, as the Greeks affirm, called
^Egialian Pelasgians, but afterward lonians, from Ion, son of Xuthus :"
and, further, " the Athenians, when the country now called Greece was
possessed by the Pelasgians, were also Pelasgians, and bore the name ol
Cranaans ; but, under their king, Cecrops, they were called Cecropians ;
and when Erechtheus assumed the supreme power, they changed that
name for the appellation Athenians. Afterwards, Ion, son of Xuthus,
being their general, the Athenians were, from him, called lonians ."

The Achaeans, it would appear, expelled the lonians from the Pelo-
ponnesus, or a great portion of it, usurping the twelve cantons, into which
the latter had divided it. Pausanias regards the Pelasgi as originally
Siceli, 2tKeAoi, who had passed over into Acarnania. Whoever the Pelasgi,
the Hellenes, the Achaeans, and other tribes of early Greece were, it is vain,
now, to pretend to decide. As respects the Pelasgi, indeed, Archdeacon
Williams says, that they were everywhere to be found ; viz., " in Asia, in
Crete, in the other islands, in Thrace, Thessaly, Epirus, Peloponnesus, and
Italy ; but it is impossible to prove that they were a race distinct in blood
from the older inhabitants of these countries. The word, distorted as it has
been by various attempts at etymology, seems a very simple compound
of the two words, vreXa (pela), the old Macedonian for a stone, and aorKeiv
(askein), to work or dress with care. These two words would form
7re\aa-Kos (pelaskos), which, by a slight change in pronunciation, would
become TreXao-yoy (pelasgos). It is clear that they belonged to that race
— call them Trojans, Pelasgians, Thracians, Phrygeans, or any other
equivalent name — who sunk under the superior energies of the Achaean
and Hellenic races."

Thus compounded, originally, of distinct tribes, more or less imme-
diately related to each other by consanguinity, appears to have been
the population of Greece, which long continued divided into independent
states. Of these tribes, and especially of the Hellenic, offsets branched out
into Italy, colonizing its eastern portion, and founding cities, now known
by name alone : of the earliest of these, were Arpi and Canusium ;

228 BIMANA,

of which latter the walls, as appears from the remaining vestiges,
must have embraced a circumference of sixteen miles. From the civi-
lizing influence of the Hellenic colonists, the manners, laws, language,
arts, and religion of the aborigines of ancient Italy took a deep impres-
sion ; insomuch that the Lucanians, a mountain tribe and the natural
and hereditary enemies of the Greek colonists, acquired the Hellenic
language to such a degree, that their ambassador filled the popular
assembly at Syracuse with surprise and enthusiasm by his pure Doric :
nor, as Niebuhr states, " would the authors of Pythagorean treatises
have used the titles of imaginary Lucanians, had it not been notorious
that this philosophy had found reception there, or had it been unusual for
Lucanians to write Greek." Of the influence of the Hellenic on the
Latin nothing need be said.

On the physical characteristics of the Greeks, the typical examples
of the Pelasgic section, but few observations are requisite : the beautiful
contour of the skull and of the face, and the harmony of their propor-

Head of Apollo Belvidere.

tions, have been already described : a moderate stature ; dark, flowing-
hair ; a white skin, more or less tinged with olive or dusky brown ; large
eyes, overshadowed by the superciliary ridge, which rather described a
transverse straight line, than a double arch ; a straight or gently aquiline
nose, falling directly, with but a slight depression between the eyes, from
the forehead ; and a short upper lip, — are among their distinguishing

JAPETIC STOCK. 229

features. It has been also observed, that, in the ancient statues, the feet
are proportionately larger, and the limbs less slender, than comports with
our ideas of modern European beauty. As ah illustration of the Greek
style of head, that of the Apollo (fig. 185) has been selected ; not, indeed,
that it was a copy of any individual of that nation ; but, what is far more
important, it embodies the conceptions of the Greeks themselves, with
respect to physical excellence, and intellectual greatness ; it is an exalted
or deified personification of the Greek physiognomy, such as the sculptor
contemplated it in his countrymen, and it exhibits all the peculiarities of
the Greek type. The forehead is ample and prominent ; the superorbital
line is boldly marked ; the nose, broad between the eyes, falls gracefully
from the forehead; and the nostrils, somewhat expanded, as if from
intense eagerness, or proud disdain, are large, but delicately turned ; the
eyes are large, open, and separated to a considerable distance from each
other, — this being the contrary to what is observable in the Ape tribe,
where1 the eyes approximate closely: the inner angle, besides, instead
of being the lowest, is rather the most elevated ; this conformation being
the reverse of what is seen in the Mongole style of countenance, in which
the eyes are linear and oblique, the outer angle being decidedly the most
raised. It is this elevation of the inner angle, to which their dignified
expression, so remote from that of low cunning, is mainly to be attributed ;
and it is a character essential to the pure Japetic model of physical emi-
nence. The mouth is moderate, the lips are beautifully chiseled, and
the chin is full and prominent. The lower part of the face is subordinate
to the upper part, and to the forehead, so as to produce an expression as
remote as possible from that of the brute, but yet to convey no ideas of
mental debility, which a retreating chin, an undeveloped lower jaw, and a
very small mouth, with lips destitute of a marked outline, infallibly pro-
duce. This harmony, between the upper and lower parts of the face, is
conspicuous in all the Greek representations of heroes, or of deities.

The Roman countenance was distinguished by the more aquiline form
of the nose, and by less delicacy of outline : the depression between the
nose and forehead was decided, the lower jaw was larger, and the chin
more prominent. The Romans, however, were a people of mixed races,
the Pelasgic stock having been ingrafted with offsets from other sources.
With regard to the religious rites and opinions of the Pelasgic race, they
were, to a great extent, of Egyptian origin.*

* " Almost all the names of the gods came into Greece from Egypt : for, upon inquiry, I found
them to be of foreign extraction, and, 1 think, for the most part, from Egypt ; for, as I have said,
excepting Neptune, and the Dioscures, Juno, Vesta/.Themis, and the Graces, and the Nereides, the
names of all the other gods have existed from the remotest ages in Egypt. I report, at least, what
the Egyptians themselves told me. And those gods, of whom they profess not to know the names,
received appellations, as I think, from the Pelasgians, — except Neptune ; for the knowledge of this
god came from Lybia, for the name of Neptune existed anciently among no people but the Lybians,
who have always honoured him as a god. As to the heroes, the Egyptians do not celebrate their

230 BIMANA.

TEUTONIC BRANCH. — The northern regions of Europe were anciently
occupied by various sub-divisions of the Teutonic race, which differed
from the Celtic, and was destined to overwhelm the fairest provinces of the
Roman empire. The physical traits of the Teutonic race are, blue eyes,
light hair, a fair complexion, lofty stature, and an athletic form. The
strength and courage of the men rendered them formidable in battle,
and often gave them the advantage over troops far better armed and
instructed in military evolutions. The native tribes of Germany and
Scandinavia were anciently termed Goths (Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Teu-
tones), Vandals (Heruli, Longobardi), Suevi, Allemanni, Marcomanni,
Franks, Germans, Saxons, Angles, &c. To particularize the eruptions
of these tribes from their northern fastnesses, and trace their southern
progress, is the work of the historian, rather than the naturalist. Suffice
it to say, that they have gained for their descendants the richest terri-
tories in Europe. Their language, in Germany, Holland, Denmark,
Sweden, Norway, and England, preserves more or less of its original
character ; but, in the more southern nations of Europe, it became
blended with the Latin, giving birth to the French, Italian, Spanish, and
Portuguese.

SCLAVONIC BRANCH. — Another distinct race, or nation, is the Scla-
vonic. From the earliest times the race of Sclavonians have inhabited
the regions of Russia, Lithuania, Poland, Moldavia, Wallachia, Bulgaria,
and Sclavonia, or ancient Pannonia and Noricum ; namely, the wide ex-
tent of territory between the Inn, the Danube, and the Save. The tribes
into which the Sclavonic race was anciently divided, were very numer-
ous ; but their language and physical characters bespoke an origin in
common : with regard to the former, it was harsh and irregular. As re-
spects form and appearance, the Sclavonians approached, in some degree,
to the Tartar family ; from which, however, as Gibbon states, they
deviated toward the German, but without attaining the lofty stature and
fair complexion of the latter. According to the same authority, 4,600
villages were scattered over the provinces of Russia and Poland ;
and the huts of which they consisted were hastily built, of rough tim-
ber, in a country deficient both in stone and iron. Flocks and herds
constituted their chief possessions ; but they also cultivated the ground,
and sowed millet and panic (panicum milium). As a supreme God,
they adored an invisible master of the thunder ; the rivers and the
nymphs obtained their subordinate honours ; and the popular wor-

festivals. These, and some other practices, the Greeks received from the Egyptians ; but some, also,
from the Pelasgians, who first taught them to the Athenians, and they to the rest of the Greeks.
For the Pelasgians and Athenians, who were then first numbered among the Greeks, occupied, toge-
ther, the same region ; whence it happened that the former were also reckoned to be Greeks. . . .
They designated the gods only as Theoi (founders), because by them all things were established, and
distributed throughout the world ; but, after a long course of time, they learned the names of the
gods from Egypt, and, last of all, that of Bacchus." — Herodotus.

JAPETIC STOCK.

231

ship was expressed in vows and sacrifices. The Sclavonians disdained
to obey a despot, a prince, or even a magistrate ; but their experience
was too narrow, and their passions too headstrong, to compose a system
of equal law, or general defence. Some voluntary respect was yielded
to age and valour ; but each tribe, or village, existed as a separate
republic ; and all must be persuaded, where none could be com-
pelled. They fought on foot, almost naked, and, except an unwieldy
shield, without any defensive armour : their weapons of offence were, a
bow, a quiver of small poisoned arrows, and a long rope, which they
dexterously threw from a distance, and entangled their enemy in a
running noose.* In the field, the Sclavonian infantry were dangerous,
from their speed, agility, and hardiness : they swam, they dived, they
remained under water, drawing their breath through a hollow cane ; and
a river or lake was often the scene of their unsuspected ambuscade.
Such were the ancient Sclavonians, from which the mass of the popula-
tion of Russia (in Europe) and Poland has descended.

TARTARIC BRANCH. — Under the Tartaric section of the Japetic stock
are included the Turkomanic hordes and Kirguises, in the wilds border-
ing the east of the Caspian Sea, and surrounding the Sea of Aral, ex-
tending from the north of Persia to the mountain chain (the Algydim
Schamo Mountains, lat. 50° north), and thence stretching eastward,
through Longaria, between the Little Altai Mountains and the Great
Altaic chain, which latter forms the northern boundary of the Great
Desert of Gobi. To the same section, also, the Turks are assigned, by

186

187

Skull of Don Cossack.
Skull of Kirguise.

most writers ; but this nation will be mentioned hereafter. The Cos-
sack tribes of the Don and Volga seem also to form an offset of the

This instrument, the lasso of the South American Spaniards, is still employed in the Pampas.

BIMANA.

Tartaric branch, or to be a mixed people, between the Tartars and the
Sclavonians. In physical characters, the Tartaric nations may be re-
garded as intermediate between the Japetic and Mongole stocks of the
human race. Their form is robust and athletic, with the lower limbs
short and bowed ; their complexion is deep olive ; the upper part of
the face is broad and flat ; the eyes are small, deeply set, and remote
from each other ; the eyelids are thick ; the nose is depressed, and often
apparent only by the nasal orifices, which seem as if isolated, in a face
wrinkled and furrowed, even in youth ; the cheek-bones are very promi-
nent ; the hair is long, straight, and black ; the eyebrows are bushy ;
the beard is thick, especially on the upper lip. The whole of the physi-
ognomy is repulsive.

The preceding skull of a Kirguise (fig, 186) is from the Decades of
Blumenbach (tab. xiii.) The breadth and flatness of the upper part of
the face are very conspicuous ; as is also the prominence of the zygo-
matic arches : the forehead is narrower than in most skulls of the Mon-
gole race ; the orbits are deeper, and with a more frowning superciliary
ridge ; the glabella is protuberant ; the nasal ridge is narrower and more
elevated than in the Mongole. The skull of a Don Cossack (fig. 187),
from the same work (tab. iv.), is also very remarkable : " Habitus in
totum horridus," is the expression of Blumenbach, and with justice : the
orbits are very deep, broad, and depressed ; the aperture of the nose is
broadly patulous ; the superciliary ridges meet at the glabella, which has
no smooth hollow, and are boldly prominent ; the external orbitar pro-
cesses are salient, and the marginal rim, sweeping from them, and bounding
the temporal muscle, forms an acute ridge ; the angle of the lower jaw

is turned outward, and is rough with
the marks of the masseter muscle ;
the occipital foramen is narrow ;
the thickness of the occipital bone is
enormous ; and the whole skull is
of marble-like denseness and polish :
" Hinc et pondus universi cranii
augens."

The skull of a Tartar (fig. 188),
from Blumenbach's Decades (tab.
xii.), is remarkable for its elegant
development, and the general sym-
metry of its form, which approaches
the best models of the Japetic stock,
having little of the repulsiveness of the skull of the Don Cossack,
or of the breadth and flatness of the upper part of the face, so remark-
able in the Kirguise.

Skull of Tartar.

JAPETIC STOCK. 233

The ancient Scythians, so formidable of old, may be regarded as a
branch of the Tartaric stock, together with the Alani, a fierce, pastoral
people, who, in former times, covered with their tents the plains between
the Volga and Tanais, and who penetrated into the wilds of Siberia to
the north, and pushed their southern inroads to the confines of India and
Persia ; but who, after a desperate struggle, sank at length beneath the
overwhelming power of the Huns. To the same stock the ancient Getae
and Sarmatians appear to be also referable.

" Among the various branches of the human race," says Gibbon,
" the Sarmatians form a very remarkable shade, as they seem to unite
the manners of the Asiatic barbarians with the figure and complexion
of the ancient inhabitants of Europe. According to the various accidents
of peace or war, the Sarmatians were sometimes 'confined to the banks of
the Tanais, and they sometimes spread themselves over the immense
plains which lie between the Vistula and the Volga. The care of their
numerous flocks and herds, the pursuit of game, and the exercise of war,
or, rather, rapine, directed the vagrant motions of the Sarmatians. The
moveable camps, or cities, the ordinary residence of their wives and
children, consisted only of large wagons, drawn by oxen, and covered, in
the form of tents." The military strength of the nation consisted of
cavalry : their cuirass was composed of polished slices of horses' hoofs,
laid, scale-like, over each other, and sewed on coarse linen ; their
offensive arms were daggers, lances, and poisoned arrows, the points
of which were of bone, and anointed with the venom of the viper.

Of this tribe the most numerous and warlike family was that of
the Jazygae, who, in the time of Pliny, were settled on the banks of the
Tibiscus.

The habits of the ancient Scythians are well described by Hero-
dotus : their territories, embracing a square of 4,000 stadia, or 400
Roman miles, were confined, on the west and south, by the Danube and
the Palus Maeotis ; they were a fierce nomadic people, divided into
distinct tribes, and essentially pastoral, subsisting on milk, and the flesh
of flocks and herds. According to Herodotus, beyond, or to the north-
east of the Scythian territories, after traversing a rude wilderness, a
range of mountains occurs (perhaps a branch of the Little Altai),
inhabited by a nation said to be bald (perhaps nearly beardless), " with
flat noses and broad chins, and who speak a language peculiar to them-
selves :" in short, as may be presumed, a people of Mongole lineage,
but of whom little was known. The same may be said, also, respecting
the Hyperboreans, with whose existence fthe ancients were acquainted.
Many of the usages of the ancient Scythians remind us of those of the
indigenes of America. Herodotus states, that every warrior drank the
blood of the first man he slew in battle, and cut off the heads of all

VOL. I. 2 H

234 BIMANA.

overthrown, which he carried to the king ; for, not until he had brought
a head, was he allowed to take his share of the booty : they were, also,
accustomed to scalp their enemies, preserving the skin with the hair
on; and to make drinking-vessels of their skulls, covering the outside
with a piece of leather, and lining the inside (if able to afford it) with
gold.

Modern Turkey is possessed by a people descended from the Turko-
mans, a Tartar race, the name of which, though it long slept in obscurity,
was destined to become of fearful celebrity.*

Gibbon thus records their rise, and the circumstances of their migra-
tion from the Altaic Mountains ; their original country being that now
occupied by the Calmucs.-f " At the equal distance of 2,000 miles from
the Caspian, the Icy, the Chinese, and the Bengal Seas, a ridge of moun-
tains is conspicuous, — the centre, and, perhaps, the summit of Asia, —
which, in the language of different nations, has been styled Imaus, and
Caf, and Altai, and the Golden Mountains, and the Girdle of the Earth.
The sides of the hills were productive of minerals ; and the iron-forges,
for the purpose of war, were exercised by the Turks, the most despised
portion of the slaves of the Great Khan of the Geougen. But their
servitude could only last till a leader, bold and eloquent, should arise to
persuade his countrymen that the same arms which they forged for their
masters might become, in their own hands, the instruments of freedom
and victory. They sallied from the mountain (of Irgana-Kon) ; a
sceptre was the reward of his advice ; and the annual ceremony, in
which a piece of iron was heated in the fire, and a smith's hammer was
successively handled by the prince and his nobles, recorded for ages the
humble profession and rational pride of the Turkish nation. Bertezena,
their first leader, signalized their valour and his own in successful
combats against the neighbouring tribes ; but when he presumed to ask
in marriage the daughter of the khan, the insolent demand of a slave
and mechanic was contemptuously rejected. The disgrace was expiated
by a more noble alliance with a princess of China ; and the decisive

* "Some tribes of the Turkish, or Tartar race," says Dr. Prichard, "display a conformation of
features similar to the Mongole class."— See Prichard's Researches, vol. i. p. 306.

t " The tradition of the Moguls, of the 450 years which they passed on the mountains, agrees with
the Chinese periods of the history of the Huns and Turks (de Guignes, torn. i. pt. ii. p. 376), and
the twenty generations, from their restoration to Zingis." — Gibbon. " From the spacious highlands
between China, Siberia, and the Caspian Sea, the tide of emigration and war has repeatedly been
poured. These ancient seats of the Huns and Turks were occupied, in the twelfth century, by many
pastoral tribes, of the same descent and similar manners, which were united and led to conquest by
the formidable Zingis."— Ibid. The description of Attila, king of the Huns, whose features bore
the stamp of his national origin, is that of a genuine Mongole. Gibbon speaks of an embassy, in the
reign of Justin, from Constantinople to the Turkish monarch Disabul. The duration and length
of the journey,; from the Byzantine court to Mount Altai, he observes, are not stated in the account ;
but the reception of the Roman ambassadors is narrated in detail. " After they had been purified
with fire and incense, according to a rite still practised under the sons of Zingis, they were introduced
to the presence of Disabul," &c.

JAPETIC STOCK.

235

battle, which almost extirpated the nation of the Geougen, established in
Tartary the new and more powerful empire of the Turks. They
reigned over the north, but they confessed the vanity of their conquest,
by their faithful attachment to the mountain of their fathers. The royal
encampment seldom lost sight of Mount Altai, from whence the river
Irtish descends, to water the rich pastures of the Calmucs."

The conquests of the Turks were rapid and extensive ; till, at
length, A. D. 1453, the Byzantine empire yielded to the Ottoman,*
Constantinople fell, and the victorious crescent glittered on the dome of
St. Sophia.

From this account, we should be led to conclude that the tribe, or
people, from whom the modern Turks are descended, were of mixed
blood, Tartars and Mongol es ; to which latter the Huns certainly
belonged — a conclusion warranted by the records, as far as they can be
obtained, of their earliest history. How far the characters of the Mongole
type were discernible in the tribes which first spread over Asia Minor,

Modern Ottoman.

it is impossible to say ; but, after their national consolidation, their
intermixture with the Mingrelians, Georgians, and Circassians, as well

* The founder of the Ottoman dynasty was Thaman, or Athman, whose Turkish name has become
modified into the appellation of the Caliph Othman : he was the son of Orthrogul, a soldier of Aladin.
The father of Orthrogul, Soliman Shah, was drowned, in attempting to cross the Euphrates.

236

BIMANA.

as with the natives of Greece, or the Eastern Empire, would soon
eradicate the impress of such an origin, if it existed. That the ame-
lioration of their features, as compared with those of the nomadic
Turkomans, is thus to be accounted for, there can be but little doubt.
The latter, generally supposed to be of the race, if not of the tribe of
the Ottomans, are a wild and wandering people, inhabiting the borders
of the Caspian, and distinguished by a tall, athletic figure, a flat nose,
square face, and swarthy complexion.

The preceding figure (189) gives a good idea of the physiognomy of
the modern Ottoman. The forehead is straight, and does not advance
so boldly as in the Greek, yet it is well formed ; the brow and the
interorbital space, or glabella, above the root of the nose, is prominent ;
the nose is long and aquiline, not elevated as in the Roman, but falling
more decidedly in a line with the forehead. The eyes are remote from
each other, and large, and the inner and outer angles are on the same
level ; the upper lip is short, the chin full, but the distance of the chin
from the angle of the lower jaw is very inconsiderable : the face, viewed
in front, is long, and becomes narrow below the malar bones, which are
moderately salient ; viewed in profile, the line passing the nose, from the
forehead to the chin, is vertical, the facial angle being 90°, or nearly so.
The beard, which is scanty in the Mongole, is full and flowing. The
whole style of the countenance, indeed, is Japetic, but it is neither of
Greek nor Roman mould : the expression of the physiognomy is grave
and dignified.

The skull of the Turk (fig. 190) is remarkable for its globular con-
tour, and the situation of the foramen mag-
num, near the posterior part of the basis
cranii ; the forehead is broad, the glabella
prominent ; the posterior part of the head
is high, and expanded ; the alveolar portion
of the upper jaw is abbreviated, and the
basis of the lower jaw is remarkable for
its shortness ; the general proportions of
the face are symmetrical, and the facial
line is nearly vertical. The globular form
of the Turkish skull has been attributed to
artificial pressure in infancy, in order that
skuii of Turk. *^e turban, usually worn, might be more

accurately fitted to the head. For this
opinion, however, there appears to be no good foundation.

It may here be observed that the precise distinction between the
nomadic tribes which occupied the central deserts of Asia, especially in
remote periods, is almost impossible to be ascertained ; nor much less so,

190

JAPETIC STOCK. 237

when, issuing from their wilds, in successive hordes, and all alike termed
Tartars (a word of fearful sound), they overrun the civilized world,
which was almost ignorant of their existence, till called to meet them in
arms, or purchase their forbearance. To the confusion which the common
designation of Tartars has occasioned between nomadic tribes of distinct
lineage, and physical characters, there will be again occasion to allude.

CAUCASIC BRANCH. — Under the distinctive appellation of Caucasic is
alone included the race, so celebrated for form and beauty, which occupies
the Caucasian chain, between the Euxine and the Caspian Sea, and the
territories to the south-east, almost to the Euphrates. In the perfection
of their form, and the symmetrical and graceful proportions of the skull,
the Georgians, Circassians, and Mingrelians have ever been conspicuous ;
and it is from among the females of these people that the harems of the
Turks, the Persians, and the inhabitants of Cashmere, have been supplied
with wives and concubines ; and to this intermixture these nations owe
their physical excellences.

" Le sang de Georgie (says Chardin) est le plus beau de 1'Orient, et,
je puis dire, du monde. Je n'ai pas remarque un visage laid en ce pays-
la, parmi Tun et 1'autre sexe, mais j'y en ai vu d'angeliques."

The same observations apply to the Circassians. The face is oval ;
the eyes large and dark ; the eyebrows slender and arched ; the nose
straight ; the mouth small ; the hair long, black, and fine ; the com-
plexion, especially of the females, white and clear.

SEMITIC BRANCH. — Of the Semitic nations — the Arabs, Hebrews,
Assyrians, Chaldeans, &c. — the following are the characteristics : an oval
face, with a pointed chin, and elevated forehead, a slender aquiline nose,
large dark eyes, arched eyebrows, a well-formed mouth, and long black
hair, compose the marked and noble physiognomy of the Arabs : such
were, probably, the features of the Israelites of old ; but their inter-
marriages with the females of the nations and tribes they conquered,
and of which they often exterminated all the males, doubtless, tended
materially to alter their original physiognomy ; while, from an oppo-
site cause, namely, their national overthrow, and their captivity in
Babylon, their ancient language became obsolete, and that of their
conquerors adopted. The early history of the Israelites presents us
with a nomadic race of shepherds ; and it does not appear that their
original habits were abandoned during the first period of their sojourn
in Egypt, until the establishment of a new dynasty, when they were
treated as slaves, and forced, by the power of a jealous Pharaoh, to
labour for the state, or for his pleasure. After their escape from Egypt,
they necessarily became predatory and warlike, wandering in the midst
of hostile tribes, by whom they were beset on every side, until their
establishment in Jerusalem and other cities of Judea, and their inter-

238 BIMANA.

mixture with the previous inhabitants, from which epoch their national
consolidation is to be dated. The Arabs were, originally, a fierce nomadic
race, and certain tribes * among them have never relinquished their
ancient habits : nevertheless, the Arabs founded an empire ; attained to
a high state of civilization ; extended their conquests over Persia, Syria,
Egypt, the North of Africa, and Spain. Under the Caliph, Almansor, and
his successors, they rose to eminence in arts, learning, and poetry ; and,
during the period in which Europe was immersed in ignorance, they
cultivated, with success, the sciences of astronomy and medicine ; that of
chemistry may be said to have been born and nurtured among the
Saracens. They first invented and named the alembic, for the purposes
of distillation ; tried the distinctions and affinities of alkalis and acids ; and
converted minerals into medicines. But the objects of the most eager
search among Arabian chemists were, the formation of gold by the trans-
mutation of metals, and the elixir, or balm of immortal health : in these
pursuits the reason and the fortunes of thousands were evaporated in the
crucibles of alchemy ; while the consummation of the great work was
promoted by the worthy aid of mystery, fable, and superstition,

The religion of the Arabs was anciently, perhaps, theism ; but the
worship of the sun, the moon, and the stars, was early adopted ; and
the Caaba, or celebrated temple of Mecca, was adorned with 360 idols,
of Men, Eagles, Lions, and Antelopes, among which was the statue of
Hebal, of red agate, holding in his hand seven arrows, without heads or
feathers. At length arose the founder of a new religion, Mahomet, the
success and wide prevalence of whose doctrine, in Asia and Africa, and
the fanaticism of whose followers, it is the province of history to record.

The modern Persians are a mixed race. Persia was overrun by the
Arabs, who abolished the Magian worship, and established that of
Mahomet ; it was overwhelmed by the armies of the Mogul monarch,
Holagou Khan, the grandson of Zingis, whose successors possessed the
throne till the death of Abosaid, which left the country without a lawful
sovereign, and open to the victorious arms of Timour. Of the Guebres,
or Guares, the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of Persia, little is
known. According to Chardin, they are an ill-shaped, dull race, and
of an olive complexion. Their worship is said to resemble that of the
ancient Persians, who thought it unlawful to form images, or to construct
temples or altars, not believing the gods to be allied to humanity. Hence
it was their custom to ascend the highest mountains, and there perform
sacrifices to an immortal power, visibly personified in the heavenly bodies.

The old language of Media, according to Anquetil du Perron, and
Professor Rask, was Zend, the language of Zoroaster ; afterward, the

* The roving Bedouins of the desert are true examples of the nomadic Arabs.

JAPETIC STOCK. 239

Pahlavi was spoken, and flourished during the reign of the Parthian
dynasty. The modern dialect of the Guebres is the Parsi, a language, as
Professor Rask affirms, evidently borrowed from the Zend, to which
alone the names of beings, implements, ceremonies, &c. belonging to the
Pars! religion are to be retraced. The opinion of some writers, and
among them Mr. Erskine, that the Zend was a dialect of the ancient
Sanscrit, is repudiated by Professor Rask : " The grammatical structure,
or system of inflections, in the Zend," he observes, " corresponds not
only with the Sanscrit, but, in some instances, with the Phrygian class ot
languages ; that is to say, the Greek and Latin, with their different
dialects : in others it is quite peculiar, which seems to shew that it is a
distinct language, to be arranged between the Sanscrit and Greek."

SANSCRITIC BRANCH. — Bory St. Vincent regards the Hindoos as
forming a distinct species, to which he has given the designation of Homo
Indicus. The cradle of this species he places among the sources of the
Indus and Ganges, among the high chains of the Himalaya, whence they
descended along the course of the rivers, peopling the Indian Peninsula.
Allowing this not improbable theory, it may be asked, was the Sanscrit the
language of this mountain-sprung race, or has its progress been inter-
rupted by a stream of Sanscritic wanderers from another quarter ? With
respect to the Sanscritic language, the parent of so many of the dialects
of India, Professor Rask regards it as of foreign importation ; not the
aboriginal language of India. It is remarkable, he observes, that many
learned men, amongst whom is Sir W. Jones, have supposed that Sanscrit
was introduced as a foreign language in India, from Iran ; and this is
much more likely than that it is an original language of India, on the
supposition that the great conquest, or migration, which spread Sanscrit
all over the northern and by far the most extensive part of India, had
taken place before the existence of historical records ; for, according to
Professor Rask, all the modern dialects of Hindustan, as well as the
Guzerati and Mahratta, are chiefly derived from the Sanscrit, and, conse-
quently, this must have been introduced into India before those dialects
originated, just as Latin must have existed in Spain and Gaul, long
before the modern Spanish, Portuguese, and French were formed. The
grammatical structure of the Telegu, Tamil, Carnatica, and Malayal'ma,
which he regards as those of the aboriginal tribes, agrees exactly with the
Finnish and Tartar, in Northern and Central Asia, whence he supposes
that one great race of men, which may be styled the Scythian, in the most
ancient times, extended from the Frozen Sea to the Indian Ocean, until
the chain was broken by a great inundation of people of our own race,
which he calls the Japetic, and which, issuing from eastern Persia, took
possession of somewhat more than Hindustan. It is remarkable that
the above-mentioned Indian aborigines of Malayalam, of Carnata, of

240 BIMANA.

Sholen, of Telingana, &c., are now situated in the southern extremity,
and along the eastern coast of the country ; and it appears most likely
that they were driven into that situation by the torrent of a warlike
people from the west. Another circumstance, in the opinion of Professor
Rask, tends to corroborate this hypothesis, namely, that although the
northern dialects of India are all derived from the Sanscrit, they yet
contain a number of words of uncertain origin, most of which will be
found in the Tamil and other dialects of the south ; and therefore seem
to be remnants of the language of the aborigines, who were not altogether
exterminated or expelled, although greatly overpowered. In the same
way Gallic words occur in modern French, which properly belong to
Welch or Erse. (See Prof. Rask on the Zend language ; Trans. Royal
Asiatic Soc. vol. iii. 1835.) Professor Rask's opinion is corroborated
by Arrian, who, in his Indian History, says : " The whole country of
India is divided into 122 nations, according to Megasthenes. Like
the Scythians, the Indians were, anciently, a wandering race,* and until
Bacchus, or Triptolemus, made a conquest of them, tilled no lands, and
had neither houses, towns, nor temples ; clothed themselves in the skins
of wild beasts ; ate of the fruit of the tala, a palm tree, and of the
flesh of animals of the chase. Bacchus built them cities; gave them
laws ; taught them agriculture, and the use of wine, as he had taught the
Greeks, and how to yoke their oxen to the plough. He also instructed
them in military discipline ; the worship of the gods, to be performed
with drums and cymbals ; he introduced the satyric dance, and the
custom of suffering the hair to grow." Lieut. Colonel Todd observes,
that the Adnat'h or Budha of the Jains, or Buddhists of India, the
patriarch of the Yadu race, is the counterpart of this Bacchus, or Trip-
tolemus, whom they bring from central Asia, to espouse Ella, daughter
of Surya, and sister of Manu, or Menes, the first sovereign of India :
and he further remarks that, according to the traditions of the Indians,
India was colonized by a race called Yadu, to which they trace the
foundation of their ancient cities. Pooru continued to be the patro-
nymic of the Yadu race, until a family of the more distinguished name of
Guru took the lead, whose struggle to maintain their pre-eminence, which
was contested by the sons of Pandu, another celebrated chief, caused that
civil strife termed the Mahabharat, which ended in their dispersion. The
appellation, Porus, appears to have distinguished more than one of the
kings of India, during the Macedonian invasion, and originated from the
Poor! of Yadu race.

The claim of the Hindoo, or Sanscritic family, to the Japetic, or
Iranian stock, appears to be confirmed by most writers who have

* The Bringarees of the present day are a nomadic people, moving with immense herds of cattle,
and employing bullocks to carry the grain and necessary provisions of their armies.

JAPETIC STOCK. 241

entered into the ancient records of India : their earliest legends are
interwoven with, or parallelized by, those of Greece ; insomuch that, when
Alexander invaded India, he found abundant sources of analogy, in the
19] theogonies of the Indians and of his

own country, to amuse his veterans.
(For some interesting historical de-
tails on the subject, see Lieut. Col.
Todd's " Comparison of the Hindu
and Theban Hercules," Trans. Royal
Asiatic Soc. vol. iii. p. 139.)

The annexed sketch (fig. 1 9 1 ) is the
skull of a native of Hindostan, which
can only be r.eferred to the Cauca-
sian model. It is of light and deli-
cate structure, rather globular, with

Skull of native of Hindostan. • • i n i i

a prominent occiput, and small cheek

bones. A large os triquetrum intervenes between the occipital and pa-
rietal bones, but this is merely accidental.

The characters of the Hindoo people may be thus summed up : —
In stature they are moderate, or under the middle size ; their complexion
is yellow, with a tinge of bronze ; their figure is delicate and slender ;
the nose is straight and well formed, never flattened, nor with patulous
nostrils ; the mouth is moderate, the lips are thin ; the chin is round, and
generally dimpled ; the eyes are large, with arched brows, and long eye-
lashes ; the iris is usually black ; the cornea somewhat yellowish ; the
ears are of moderate size, and well made, but often distorted with heavy
ornaments ; the hands and feet are small ; the palms of the hands are
nearly white ; the skin is fine ; the hairs of the head are long, black, fine,
and glossy ; the beard, except on the upper lip, is scanty. Of the
people inhabiting the Dukhun, Colonel Sykes states that they have the
Georgian form of skull, a low stature, and a complexion of brown,
with shades running into yellow — white in the higher classes, and black
in the lower.

MIZRAIMIC BRANCH. — The observations on this branch of the Japetic
stock, to which is here appropriated the distinctive epithet Mizraimic,
may be commenced by a brief notice of the ancient Egyptians.

The Egyptians of antiquity, respecting whose race and affinities so
many opinions have been hazarded, and who have, by some, been regarded
as of Negro lineage, or, at least, as appertaining to that division of the
human family, are to be referred — if the skulls of the mummies still
preserved, and the character of the hair, constitute a criterion — to the
Japetic stock.

Herodotus, indeed, assigns to them the physical peculiarities of the

VOL. I. 2 I

BIMANA.

Negro race ; namely, a black complexion, and woolly hair.* Other
writers, as ^Eschylus and Lucian, describe the Egyptians as being black ;
the latter, in the description of an Egyptian belonging to the crew of a
vessel trading at the Piraeus, pictures a genuine Negro, — black, with
projecting lips, very slender legs, and with the hair and curls bushed up
behind, the indication of a state of slavery. But it may be conjectured
that the individual, though, perhaps, Egyptian by birth, was of a tribe very
different from the true Egyptians, a tribe held in a state of bondage.
Ammianus Marcellinus calls the Egyptians subfusculi, or brownish, and
atrati, or .blackened ; and in certain documents of a commercial nature,
which are still extant (the fac-simile of one of these is at Berlin ; the
original of the other, at Paris), one individual is described (for the
external appearances, of the buyers and sellers are noted) as being
/ieAayxpws, of a black or dusky complexion ; the other, /AeAi'xpws, of a
tawny, or honey colour. The shape of the nose, and the general cast of
the features, are also detailed, but not in terms applicable to the Negro.

In the paintings and sculptures of the ancient Egyptians, which may
be at least regarded as national representations, nothing can be dis-
covered positively indicative of the Negro cast of physiognomy, though
its expression and contour are peculiar. The colour of the face is
usually painted of a bronze red, or light chocolate, verging to tawny
yellow in the females. The figures of the men are slender, but well
proportioned ; while those of the females are graceful and delicate.
Indeed, in the figures, both of the males and females, we are strongly
reminded of those of the Hindoos. That other people, besides the
true Egyptians, are portrayed and sculptured on the relics of Egyptian
antiquity, cannot be doubted. Blumenbach considers that three distinct
varieties of physiognomy are to be seen in these works, which may be
reduced to an Ethiopian, an Indian, and a Berberine type. The first, in
his opinion, coincides with the descriptions given of the Egyptians by
the ancients : it is chiefly distinguished by prominent maxillae, turgid
lips, a broad flat nose, and protruding eye-balls. The second is cha-
racterized by a long narrow nose ; long thin eye-lids, which incline
upward from the bridge of the nose to the temples ; ears placed high
on the head ; a short, slender, bodily contour, and very long shanks :
this he regards as resembling the Hindoos. The third class of Egyptian

* Herodotus, speaking of the Colchians, says, they plainly appear to be Egyptians, " not merely
because] they are black in complexion, and have woolly hair, for the same may be said of some other
nations ; but rather because, of all men, none but the Colchians, the Egyptians, and the Ethiopians,
originally practised circumcision; for the Phoenicians and Syrians of Palestine themselves acknowledge
that they learned this custom of the Egyptians." Respecting the origin of the oracles of Dodona and
Ammon, they are attributed, by the same writer, to two Egyptian females, allegorized, as the Dodo-
nian prophetess related the account, by two black pigeons, which flew from Egyptian Thebes, and
which, after a time, spoke with a hmnan voice. The colour of the pigeons is indicative of that of the
Egyptian people.

JAPETIC STOCK.

243

figures partakes, as he says, to a certain degree, of the traits of the
two former ; it is characterized by a peculiar turgid habit, flabby cheeks,
a short chin, large prominent eyes, and a plump contour of body ; and this
he supposes to represent the ordinary form ; the national physiognomy
of the people approaches nearly to that of the Berberines. (See Phil.
Trans. 1794.)

That this latter form is to be regarded as typical of the national
physiognomy of the Egyptians, is not very palpable. At all events, the
facial characters of the statue of Rameses, and of other personages of

Head of Rameses.

Egyptian mythology, no less than the sculptured and painted repre-
sentations of men and women, seem to us, for the most part, referable
to the Hindoo type ; and, indeed, Blumembach gives, as an example,
the female figure on the back of Captain Lethieullier's mummy, in the
British Museum. A copy of the mutilated statue of Rameses, brought
from the ruins of the Memnonium, at Thebes, and now in the British

BIMANA.

Museum (19, Egyptian Sal'oon, in Synopsis, 1839, ed. 38th), is here
given (fig. 192).

The general expression of the physiognomy of this celebrated statue
is calm and dignified ; the forehead is somewhat flat ; the eyes widely
separated from each other ; the nose is elevated, narrow, long, and gently
arched, with spreading nostrils ; the ears are high, the lips large, with
the margin broad, flat, and turned out, with sharp edges, points in which
the pure Japetic model is deviated from.

In Case Z. Z. 2 (Egyptian Room), is the mummy of a female, named
Mautemmen, a priestess attached to the worship of Amoun. The back
part of the head is exposed, and the bandages which cover the face are
so thin and close as to render the general style of the features very
discernible. The hair is short, of a dark auburn, or reddish brown, and
inclined to be wavy ; the nose is thin, elevated, and apparently aquiline ;
the chin prominent ; the face oval.

The fresco paintings in the British Museum, illustrative of the
domestic habits of the Egyptians, give us portraits both of males and
females ; the latter, for the most part, wearing large ear-rings, and their
hair in long tresses, or platted locks, down the shoulders and back ;
as we see, also, on some of the sarcophagi, and as the wig of human
hair, from a tomb at Thebes, is arranged : some of the men are repre-
sented as bald, or nearly so. The countenances, as will be seen by
the following outlines (figs. 193, 194, 195), do not appear to be referable
to the Negro, though, at the same time, they do not quite correspond with
the standard models of the Japetic type : the complexion is copper red.

194

195

As the animals, in these fresco paintings, are admirably delineated,
it may reasonably be inferred that the faces of the men and women are
faithful national representations also.

With respect to the skulls obtained from mummies preserved in the
catacombs of Thebes, and other places, though Soemmerring, out of four
examined by him, found two, which, in the extent of space occupied by
the temporal muscle, seemed to approach the Negro form, still the
united testimonies of Cuvier, Lawrence, Denon, and others, concur in

JAPETIC STOCK.

245

their general exhibition of the Japetic model ; and, as far as a judg-
ment can be formed from specimens, their opinion may be assented to.
The skulls, figured in the Decades of Blumenbach, are certainly of
Japetic mould.

Cuvier states, that he examined, in the various collections of Europe,
more than fifty heads of mummies, and that not one among them pre-
sented the characters of the Negro or Hottentot. Denon, describing the
characters of the female mummies, observes : — " Que leurs cheveux etoient
longs et lisses ; que le caractere de la tete de la plupart tenoit du beau
style. Je rapportois une tete de vieille femme qui etoit aussi belle que
celles des Sibylles de Michel Ange." The embalmed heads, figured in
the great French work on the antiquities of Egypt, present the Caucasian
character.

In the British Museum is a skull from the tombs of the quarries at
Mokattam, and of which the contour is elegant : the forehead is well de-
veloped ; the nose is elevated, the ridge, formed by the nasal bones, being
thin, or compressed ; the dental ridge of the upper jaw is short, and the
auditory foramina are in the ordinary situation. The lower jaw is wanting.
In the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, is the skull of an
Egyptian mummy, which is, also, essentially Japetic in its contour.

There is, also, in the same collection, another skull from the quarries
at Memphis, of which the annexed figure (196) is a sketch. Its contour
is oval ; the forehead is high and well-formed. Compared with the skull
of an ancient Greek, the alveolar ridge, which is short, is a little more
prominent ; its base, from one mastoid process to the other is propor-
tionately narrower ; the occiput is more prominent, and the palate nar-
rower anteriorly, the alveolar arch being more acute in front. The
auditory foramina appear in their usual situation.

To enter into any disquisition on
the language and the mythology of
the ancient Egyptians, or Mizraim,
on the palpable connexion between
them and the Hindoos, with respect
to civil and religious institutions,
social habits, and physical character-
istics, or to speculate upon the causes
of the acknowledged resemblance
between these two distant people, in
all except language, would lead from
the present design. Those who de-
sire to pursue the subject, may consult
Dr. Prichard's Researches (vol. ii.), in which the point is ably treated.
The modern Copts are generally supposed to be the relics of the ancient

Egyptian skull froin Memphis.

246 BIMANA.

Egyptians ; who, through the revolutions and changes to which their
country has been subjected, have, nevertheless, maintained a certain de-
gree of distinctness, and have never thoroughly amalgamated either with
the Greek, Roman, or Moslemin strangers, under whose dominion Egypt
has successively passed.

The general complexion of the Copts is dusky yellow ; but some,
according to Belzoni, are almost as fair as Europeans : their physiognomy,
as Denon remarks, strikingly resembles that of the heads of the ancient
Egyptians, as displayed in their statues and paintings ; but his descrip-
tion — " flat foreheads ; eyes half closed and elevated at the angles ;
high cheek bones ; a broad, flat, and very short nose ; a large flattened
mouth, placed at a considerable distance from the nose ; thick lips ; a
scanty beard ; a shapeless body ; crooked legs and long flat feet," —
does not agree, in all particulars, with the ancient monuments : it ac-
cords, however, with Volney's picture of the Copts, and, in some degree,
with that of Baron Larrey, but not with that of M. Pugnet. The last
author (see Memoires sur les Fievres Pestilentielles, fyc. du Levant] draws
a strong contrast between the Fellahs, and other Arabian people of
Egypt and the Copts : — " La taille des Arabes est de cinq pieds deux ou
trois pouces ; leurs membres sees, leur peau enfumee, et 1'irregularite de
leurs traits les font assez ressentir entre tous les habitans de 1'Egypte.
Us ont la plupart, le front saillant, les yeux petits et enfonces, le nez
droit et aigu, les joues plates et sillonnees, les levres minces, et un
aspect severe. Rien de plus frappant que le contrast qui regne entre eux
et les Qoubtes. Autant les Arabes sont petits et maigres, autant les
Qoubtes sont gros et grands. A 1'exterieur chetif et miserable des pre-
miers ceux-ci opposent un air de majeste et de puissance," &c. His
description of the Copts of pure blood, unmixed with Greek or Roman,
the supposed descendants of the Mizraim, is as follows : — " Les Egyptiens
sont en general d'une taille au dessus de la moyenne, leurs formes se
prononcent vigor eusment, la couleur de leur peau est d'un rouge obscur ;
ils ont le front large, le menton arrondi, les joues mediocrement pleines, le
nez droit, les ailes nasales fortement sinueuses, les yeux grands et bruns ;
la bouche peu fendue, les levres grosses, les dens blanches, les oreilles
hautes et tres detachees ; enfin les sourcils et la barbe extremement
noires ;" — a portraiture which calls to mind the physiognomy of the
Egyptian statues of antiquity.

According to the authority of those most capable of forming an ac-
curate opinion, the Coptic language has not the slightest radical affinity
with any of the Semitic dialects, though it contains a few words bor-
rowed from the Hebrew and Arabic. Jablonski, Lacrose, and Michaelis,
are of this opinion ; the latter, indeed, expressly states that the asser-
tions of those who have claimed the Coptic as a member of the Semitic

JAPETIC STOCK. 247

family of languages, have arisen purely from ignorance, or an extremely
superficial acquaintance with that language ; and that every person com-
petent to form an opinion, knows that Coptic and Hebrew have not the
slightest radical affinity ; and that, although some words occur in the
former which resemble Semitic vocables, they are to be attributed to the
influence which the proximity and intercourse of Semitic nations has
exercised on the idiom of the native Egyptians.

That the Coptic is essentially the language which was spoken in
Egypt before and during the time of Moses, although it has undergone
many modifications during the succession of ages, and through the influ-
ence of various causes, is generally admitted. Many Coptic words have
been recognised in the Book of Genesis, not as Hebrew words, but as
borrowed terms, to denominate some of the natural productions of Egypt,
and the local peculiarities of that country — a circumstance corroborative
of the opinion.*

If the ancient Egyptians, or Mizrai'm of the Scriptures, be regarded as
constituting a branch (though not a normal branch) of the Caucasian or
Iranian stock, to the same stock the ancient Ethiopians, or Cush, must
also be referred, since the consanguinity of the two people is allowed by
all authorities. Each nation, indeed, claimed the distinction of the elder,
— the honours of the parent stock, whence the other had branched off, —
so that Cush and Mizraim were rivals as well as brothers.-)-

« Under the general term Coptic, are included the Bashirjc, or Memphitic dialect; the Sahidic, or
Theban, and the Bashmuric. Both the Memphitic and Sahidic dialects have been long extinct ; the
latter was, however, in use in the ninth century of the Hegira, but the former had generally ceased to
be spoken in the twelfth century of our era. The Sahidic was much softer than the Memphitic, desti-
tute of harsh aspirations, and intermixed more fully with Greek words. At what period the Scriptures
were translated into Memphitic and Sahidic is not very clear. Georgi and Michaelis consider that a
translation in the dialect of Upper Egypt existed in the third century. Of the Bashmuric nothing is
accurately known ; according to the Coptic grammarians, and among them Athanasius, Bishop of Kris,
it was a distinct language from the Coptic, or, at least, had little in common with either of the above
dialects. Georgi, however, considers it to have been that of the Ammonians, and identical with a
dialect intermediate between the Memphitic and Sahidic, the only relic of which is preserved in the frag-
ment of a version of the New Testament, and part of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, now in the
library of Cardinal Borgia. Though this newly-discovered dialect may be the Ammonian, it is not
likely, if we credit the statements of the Coptic grammarians, that it is the Bashiric, or Psammyrian.
The Ammonians were converted to Christianity in the reign of Justinian, and were under the ecclesias-
tical government of a bishop, certainly in the year 553. They inhabited the Oasis of Augila, and, as
Herodotus says, were " a colony of mingled Egyptians and Ethiopians, using a language compounded
from those of both people :" their name had reference to Ammoun, or Jupiter, whom they specially
worshipped. The utter loss of an army sent against the Ammonians by Cambyses, which was over-
whelmed by a whirlwind of sand in the desert, is related by the same author.

t " The name of Cush," says Dr. Prichard, " in the Hebrew Scriptures, is rendered by the
Septuagint Ai&oTrer, or Ethiopians. The people generally so termed in Egypt were the Ethiopians
of Meroe, the subjects of Queen Can dace ; but the same name, as we learn from its use by Diodorus,
was extended to some of the neighbouring nations, but always restricted to black people. Cush, in
the older historical parts of the Old Testament, is, however, applied evidently to nations living to the
eastward of the Red Sea. Hence an ambiguity of meaning in some passages. The subject has been
discussed by Bochart and Michaelis. Among the Hebrew writers of later times, there can be no
doubt that this name belongs exclusively to African nations. The Ethiopians, who were connected
with Egypt by political relations, are termed by these writers Cush. Thus Tirkahah, the Cushite
invader of Judah, may be identified with Tearchon, an (Ethiopian chief mentioned by Strabo, and

248 BIMANA.

Of the Ethiopic language of antiquity little is accurately known ; pro-
bably it was intimately related to tbe ancient Egyptian ;* the same system
of hieroglyphics was used by both ; both people practised the art of em-
balming the dead, were divided into castes, and had similar institutions,
political and religious, and analogous festivals and ceremonies. It would
seem that the ancient Ethiopians were much darker than the Egyptians,
if not black ; and Hamilton, with others, inclines to the opinion, that the
groups of black figures, in the delineations extant on the temples of
Upper Egypt, where they often appear led in bonds by groups of red
figures, or Egyptians, are intended for Ethiopians ; in other instances it
would seem as if the design were to commemorate the relationship between
the black and red castes, or the transmission of religious observances from
one to the other ; for, in many cases, black figures are represented as
conferring on the red the symbols and instruments of the sacerdotal
office, both sets having the habiliments of the priesthood ; but the
distinction of colour is very decided. Representations, indicating the
affinity between the red and black castes, are given in the plates of
the Description de VEgypte.^

For an account of the sculptures of the ancient Ethiopians, and the
differences between those of Upper Nubia, or the kingdom of Meroe,
and of Lower Nubia, from Assouam southward to Solib, the reader is
referred to K. Ottfried Miiller, and to Dr. Prichard, who follows Miiller
in his opinions. The subject is not within the immediate province of the
naturalist.

Setting aside the Arabs, the present inhabitants of Ethiopia, or Nubia,

both are probably identical with Tarakos, who is set down by Manetho as an Ethiopian King of
Egypt. In the earlier ages the term Cush belonged to the same nation, or race ; though it would
appear that the Cush, or Ethiopians, of those times occupied both sides of the Red Sea. The Cush
mentioned by Moses are pointed out by him to be a nation of kindred origin with the Egyptians.
In the Toldoth Beni-Noach, or archives of the sons of Noah, it is said that the Cush and the Mizraim
were brothers, which means, as is generally allowed, nations nearly allied by kindred."

* The Gheez, commonly called the Ethiopic language, into which the Scriptures were translated,
and which was spoken in Tigre as late as 1300 years after the Christian era, is a Semitic dialect,
allied to Arabic and Hebrew, and is now a dead language, no longer in ordinary use, but consecrated
to religion and literature. Gheez is supplanted by the Amharic, or modern Abyssinian, an ancient
African language, into which many Gheez words, and some grammatical forms, have been ingrafted ;
but the Gheez was not the language of the ancient Ethiopians, it was only that of an Abyssinian
people of remote Arab descent, who formerly ruled in Abyssinia, Axum being the seat of government.

t M. Pugnet, in reference to the ideas conveyed by some of these delineations, says, " Quoique
je ne veuille me livrer ici a aucune conjecture sur leur origine (celle des Egyptiens), je crois devoir
retracer un tableau que m'a oifert Tun des tombeaux des Rois, Bab-el-Melouk. Stant plures virorum
effigies, a quibus plane ostendit pictor, gigni Homines e terra. Qui gignuntur colore rubro sunt,
parentes nigerrimi. Ce language hieroglyphique n'exprime-t-il pas ce que pensaient les anciens
que 1'Homme rouge est ne de 1'Homme noir ? L'Homme noir est certainement un Ethiopien, et
1'Egyptien s'est peint toutes parts sous la couleur rougeatre qu'il retient encore aujourd'hui. On
voit ailleurs des groupes de 1'une et de 1'autre couleur se rendre au meme hommage a des divinites
noirs, mais bientot les Hommes rouges se separent des autres pour se rendre, non loin d'eux, apres
d'une divinite qui leur ressemble. Ailleurs, enfin, on reconnait 1'Heliotrapeze d'ecrite par Homere :
des Hommes rouges transportent leurs dieux sur les confins des Hommes noirs et y celebrent un
festin commun." — Memoires sur les Fievres, fyc.

JAPETIC STOCK. 249

from Egypt to Sennaar, excluding Darfoor and Fezzan, are termed Bara-
bra, or Berberines, and by the Arabs, Nuba : * they are divided into
several tribes, as Kenous, Dongolawi, &c., speaking different dialects of
the same language. Their colour varies from a deep copper shade to
black, and their features have no resemblance to those of the Negroes. f

Dr. Riippell says, that the inhabitants of Dar Dongola are divided
into two principal classes; viz., the Barabra, or the descendants of the old
Ethiopians, and the races of Arabs who have emigrated from the
Hedjaz. Though the ancestors of the Barabra, who, in the course of
centuries, have been repeatedly conquered by hostile tribes, must have
undergone some intermixture with people of foreign blood, yet he consi-
ders that, on an attentive examination, the old national physiognomy, which
their forefathers have marked upon colossal statues, and the bas-reliefs of
temples and sepulchres, will not fail to be perceived. A long oval coun-
tenance, a beautifully curved nose, somewhat rounded towards the top ;
proportionately thick lips, but not protruding excessively ; a retreating
chin, scanty beard, lively eyes, strongly frizzled, but never woolly hair ;
a remarkably beautiful figure, usually of middle size, and a bronze
colour, are the characteristics of the genuine Dongolawi. The same traits
of physiognomy are generally found among the Ababdi, the Bisheri, and a
part of the inhabitants of the province of Schendi, and partly, also, among
the Abyssinians. Dr. Riippell had, as he says, no opportunity of inquiring
into the relationship which the languages of these different races bear to
each other ; but he adds, that the Barabra language, which is spoken
from Gebel Deka to Wadi Ibrim, and through the whole of the Wadi
Kenus, is to be looked upon as a Nuba or Negro tongue, both from
its words consisting of a few syllables, nearly all ending in vowels, and
from its harmonious and soft modulation ; a conclusion which is con-
firmed by the fact that some words in the Barabra tongue, and in the
Kordofan idiom of Haraza, Gebel Atgiau, and Koldagi, are identical ;
and he assigns this circumstance as, in part, the reason why the Arabs

* The natives of Kordofan are also termed Nuba, or Nouba, by the Arabs ; and Dr. Riippell con-
siders them as allied to the Berberines, an opinion which he founds on the affinity of their languages,
though, at the same time, he regards the Berberines as the descendants of the old Ethiopians*
Burckhardt says, "the name of Nouba is given to all the blacks coming from the slave countries to
the south of Sennaar, but that they are to be distinguished from Negroes by the softness of their
skin;" adding, that "their noses are less flat than those of the Negroes, their lips less thick, and
their cheek-bones not so ^prominent. Their hair is generally similar to that of Europeans, but
stronger, and always curled ; sometimes it is woolly. Their colour is less dark than that of the Negro,
and has a coppery tinge." M. Cailliaud's description of the Nouba slaves, brought from Bertat to
the south of Sennaar, is the same. They are not, in short, genuine Negroes.

t " La couleur des Barabras tient en quelque sorte le milieu entre la noir d'ebene des habitans de
Sennaar et le teint basan6 des Egyptiens du Sayd. . . . Les traits des Barabras se rapprochent
effectivement plus de ceux des Europeens que ceux des Negres ; leur peau est d'un tissue extremement
fin ; sa couleur ne produit point un effect desagreable ; la nuance rouge qui y est melee leur donne
un air de sante et de vie. Us different des Negres par leurs cheveux qui sont longs et legerement
crepus, sans etre laineux." — Costaz.

VOL. I. 2 K

250 BIMANA.

settled in the country designate the proper inhabitants of the province
of Dongola, and especially the natives southward of Assuam, whose
mother-tongue is the Barabra, by the general name of Nuba — a term
which the Barabra never use themselves, it being the national name of
the free Negroes of Kordofan.*

The origin, at a remote epoch, of the Barabra from the Kordofan
Nouba race, is an opinion, observes Dr. Prichard, countenanced by the
testimony of ancient writers. " In the time of Eratosthenes, nearly
three centuries before the Christian era, the Nubae were a distinct and
powerful race ; they inhabited the left bank of the Nile from Meroe, the
Atbara of modern geography, to the ay/ccoz/es, elbows, or angular windings
of the Nile. It is scarcely probable that a rude people, separated, so
long ago as this account would imply, from the great body of their
African kindred, could retain an oral language with such constancy that
its resemblance to the dialect of the Nouba, or Koldagi, could still be
recognised ; but we have proof that subsequent emigrations were made
from the countries in the northern desert. Procopius states, that when
the Emperor Diocletian visited Ethiopia, finding that the country above
Egypt yielded a scanty revenue, and was not worth the trouble of defend-
ing, he gave up a territory, of seven days' journey in extent, to the
Nobatae. The whole region from Auxomis (Axum), to Elephantine,
which an expeditious traveller might traverse in thirty days, was, at that
time, principally inhabited by two nations, the Nobatae and the Blemmyes,
the latter of whom harassed the Roman frontier. The Blemmyes dwelt
in the inland parts, at a distance from the Nile : the Nobatae were
brought by Diocletian from their former abode, the city of Oasis, and
were induced to settle in the valley of the Nile, immediately above
Elephantine. The Blemmyes, as we shall find, were the ancestors of
the Bishari, and there can be no doubt that the Nobatae are the Nouba,
so called by the Arabs, or the Barabra. It has been conjectured that the
Oasis, here described as the original country of the Nobatae, may have
been Abu-Haraza, where the Koldagi language and people are still pre-
dominant, — or even Kordofan itself. The difference of names between
Nubae and Nobatae is probably the result of accident."

The Bishari, or Bejawy race, is spread through the eastern deserts
of Nubia, and the mountain districts eastward of Egypt, along the borders
of the Red Sea. It is divided into different tribes, or nations, of which
one, the Hadharebe, subdivided into numerous clans, occupies the country

* " The population of Kordofan consists of three different races, who are distinct, and speak dif-
ferent languages : — 1. Bedouin Arabs from the Hedjaz. 2. Colonists from Dongola. 3. The original
natives of the country, who are Nouba, or Negroes." The latter are divided into the free Pagan
Nouba, who inhabit the hill country southward of Obeid, and the conquered Mohammedan Nouba
of the plain-country, near Obeid, and to the northward, and who, though they speak their own lan-
guage, affect the Arabic. Their native language is identical with that of Haraza and Koldagi.

JAPETIC STOCK. 251

near Souakin ; another, the Bishari Proper, occupies the country from
the north of Abyssinia along the course of the river Mareb, which flows
through the northern forests of the Shangalla, to the Belad-el-Taka
and Atbara, where dwell the Hadendoa and the Hammandab, powerful
Bisharine tribes: other tribes extend northward, as far as Gebel-el-
Ottaby ; others occupy the hilly country from Sennaar to Dar Berker
and to the Red Sea, the territory of the ancient Blemmyes ; and a tribe,
called Ababdeh,* occupies the country to the northward of the Bishari,
from the parallel of Deir to the frontiers of Egypt, extending into the
eastern desert as far north as Kossier, on the Red Sea.

These tribes are all nomadic, fierce, and inhospitable ; they speak
different dialects of one language,, and have the same physical charac-
ters. Hamilton describes the Bishari as shrewd and intelligent, of small
stature, but active, and with a prepossessing countenance, — some with
a cast of the Negro, others with a very fine profile. Their complexion is
nearly black. Riippell observes that the physical character of the Bishari
closely resembles that of Barabra ; and Burckhardt describes them as a
bold and handsome race of people, who go constantly armed, and are sel-
dom free from quarrels. The females are even beautiful, of a dark brown
complexion, with fine eyes and teeth, and of slender and elegant sym-
metry. The portrait on the succeeding page (fig. 197) represents a
Suakiny, or Hadharebe, tribe of the Bisharene family.

Sennaar, which intervenes between Ethiopia and Abyssinia, is in-
habited by true Negroes — the Shangalla, the Doba, the Shilukh, the
Faungi — and also by nomadic Arabs; but, in Abyssinia, the mass of
the population is not referable to the Negro stock. Tribes of the Shan-
galla inhabit the low forest lands, especially on the borders of the
country ; but the elevated levels of Tigre and Amhara, and the platform
of Baharnegash, are tenanted by the Habesh, or Abyssins, divisible into
several distinct tribes, speaking different languages, but intermarrying
and agreeing with each other in general physical characters. The prin-
cipal tribes of Abyssinia are the Tigrani, or Abyssins of Tigre, the Am-
haras, the Agows, the Falasha, the Gafats, and the Gongas and Enareans ;
while the Gallas occupy the southern border, the Danakil the east, the
Somauli the maritime borders of the Gulf of Aden: along the borders

* M. du Bois-Ayme thus describes the Ababdeh: "Les Ababdeh different entierement par leur
raceurs, leur language, leur costume, leur constitution physique, des tribus Arabes qui, comme eux,
occupent les deserts qui environnent 1'Egypte. Les Arabes sont Wanes, se rasent la tete ; sont vetus ;
les Ababdeh sont noirs, mais leurs traits ont beaucoup de ressemblance avec ceux des Europeens.
Us ont les cheveux naturellement boucles, mais point laineux. Us les portent longs, et ne se couvrent
jamais la tete. Us n'ont pour tout vetement qu'un morceau de toile, qu'ils attachent au-dessus des
hanches, et qui ne passe pas le milieu du corps. Us enduissent tout le corps de graisse." Belzoni
says, that these people are of small stature, but have fine eyes, and that many of the women wear their
hair in long curls, matted with grease. Their complexions are dark chocolate. ;

252

197

Suakiny chief.

of the Red Sea, north of the Danakil, tribes of the Hazinta and Shiho
tenant the mountains.

The physical characters of the Abyssinians closely approximate to
those of the Copts, and are distinct alike from those of the Arab, on the
one hand, and the Negro, on the other. The Abyssinians have large eyes,
elevated at the angle; the expression of the countenance is fine and
manly ; the lips are thick, but not protruding as in the Negro ; the nose is
raised ; the cheek-bones are elevated ; the angle of the jaw, acute and
marked ; the teeth are well formed and regular, the alveolar edges being
less projected and extensive than in the Negro: the complexion varies,
but is usually of a dark copper colour. Speaking of the crania of the
ancient Egyptians, Baron Larrey says, " Je les ai compare avec ceux des
autres races, surtout avec ceux se quelques Abyssms et Ethiopiens, et je me
suis convaincu, que ces deux especes des cranes presentent a peu pres les
memes formes." The hair of the Aby8sins is not woolly, like that of the
Negro, but crisped (which some have described as almost woolly), and
often almost straight. Pearce says the Abyssinians vary much in colour ;
some being very black, with nearly straight hair ; others copper coloured,

JAPETIC STOCK.

253

with hair not so straight ; and some much fairer, with almost woolly hair ;
and some of the same complexion, but straight haired : and he farther
observes — " In the towns of Abyssinia you may find mothers with five,
six, or more children, — the father of one having been an Amhara ; of
another, an Agow; of another, a Tigran; and of a fourth, a Galla;" —
a circumstance which, as Dr. Prichard observes, affords no explanation
of the variations of colour and hair described ; since the various tribes,
separately considered, display no remarkable difference of physical cha-
racter ; the Agows, Amharas, the Tigrans, and even the Gallas, belong-
ing to the same family. The Jesuit, Tellez, speaking of the complexions
of the Abyssinians, says that their usual colours are black, brown, and
olive ; others are red (vermelhos), and some white ; but the white is
bloodless and unpleasing (probably that of albinism). Burckhardt and
other travellers have noticed the beauty of the Abyssinian females.

The following head (fig. 198) of an Abyssinian bishop is from
Denon's work on Egypt, and presents a characteristic example of the

Abyssinian bis Imp.

254

BIMANA.

national physiognomy. It may be compared with the subjoined por-
trait (fig. 199), from Salt's Travels in Abyssinia, of an Edjow Galla.
The Gallas, who, as Bruce informs us, first appeared in Abyssinia in
1537, have been, since then, making a gradual progress northward.

199

Edjow Galla.

They are divided into numerous independent tribes, of which the Edjows
are one of the most considerable. Their national complexion is dark
brown, sometimes verging upon black ; the nose is raised and arched ;
the hair is long and black.

The Danakil (of which the Adaiel are a branch), occupy the maritime
lowlands to the east of Abyssinia, between the mountains and the Red
Sea : they are divided into many tribes, independent of each other ; as
the Dumhoeta, the Taiemela, the Hadharem, £c. ; their habits are
pastoral ; and they are said to construct their tombs in the form of rude
pyramids ; their features are well formed ; their hair is crisp, and dressed
out with grease and a brown dust. The Somauli occupy an extensive
region, from the Gulf of Aden to Magadoxa, on the coast of Ajan :
they are a pastoral people ; but, also, carry on a considerable traffic in

JAPETIC STOCK. 255

gum, myrrh, gold, ivory, slaves, and beasts of burden, procured from the
countries of the interior : they possess seaports, and apply themselves to
navigation, but they do not allow the entry of Arab vessels into their har-
bours : Barbara is their principal seaport and here they hold an annual
fair : they are pacific, and contrive, with no ordinary political address, to
maintain peace with the fierce tribes, the Gallas and. others, in their im-
mediate neighbourhood. Prichard suspects them to be of Galla origin.
M. de Rienzi describes them as a handsome race of people, with fine
features : they stain their hair, which is naturally black, soft, and flowing,
of a yellow colour, by means of lime, in imitation of the fleeces of their
sheep. Mr. Bird (" Observations on the Coast of Arabia, and Shores of
the Red Sea ;" Geogr. Journ. vol. iv.) describes the Somauli traders from
Barbara as having fine regular features, and wearing their soft hair,
artificially changed to a flaxen colour, in ringlets flowing negligently
around their shoulders ; the contrast between them and the Suhailis of
Ajan, with their jet black complexions and woolly hair, being very
striking.

The Hazorta and Shiho are pastoral wanderers ; and their language
agrees, in many respects, with that of the Danakil ; their physical cha-
racters are identical with those of the neighbouring nations.

With respect to the language most extensively spoken in Abyssinia, •
viz., the Amharic, it is a language radically distinct from the Gheez, or
old Ethiopic : the Gheez, now a dead, or learned language, and into
which the Scriptures were translated, was, formerly, the vernacular lan-
guage of Tigre ; and^ is, as competent judges assert, a Semitic tongue,
allied to the Arabic and Hebrew : this circumstance, consequently, in-
volves a Semitic, and not an Ethiopic origin for the ancient Abyssinians ;
or, at least, for the ancient inhabitants of Tigre, the capital of which was
Axum, the old seat of government : and Dr. Prichard considers them to
be a branch of the Arabs of Hamyar, who, at an early period, some
centuries antecedent to the Christian era, passed the Straits of Babel-
mandeb, and gained possession of Axum, where, through intercourse
with Egypt, and the Ethiopian cities of the Nile, they acquired some
knowledge of the arts, and of Greek literature ; but who have ultimately
become assimilated in their complexion and physical characters with the
Amharas and native races of Abyssinia. Salt, and Professor Ritter,
however, contend that the Abyssinians were an ancient people of Ethio-
pia, not immediately of Arabic origin, but a cognate branch of the same
family of which the Hebrews and Arabians were members. How-
ever this may be, Uranius, a writer on Arabic geography, cited by Eusta-
thius and others, noticed a people, called A/Sao-^i/oi, on the coast of Arabia,
nearly in the situation of Hamyar.

From Morocco to Egypt, along the northern coast of Africa, extends

256 BIMANA.

an elevated chain of mountains, or highlands, which may be termed the
Atlantic range, traversing Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and branch-
ing through Lybia : on the south, this range of highlands, intersected by
valleys and rivers, is bounded by a sea of sand, the Great Desert of
Sahara ; the Mediterranean flows to the north ; and the Atlantic Ocean,
between Spain and the Canary Isles, washes its western declivities. The
pine, the oak, and the oleander compose the noble forests of the hills ;
and on its maritime tracts flourish the olive, the orange, and the date.
Among its Mammalia are the Lion and the Panther ; and the Magot is
abundant in the woods and among the crags of the mountains.

Throughout this highland chain is spread a race of people, divided
into many tribes, distinct from the Moors and Arabs,* claiming to be the
ancient possessors of this region, prior to the settlement of the Phoeni-
cians, and which have maintained, in the remote mountain tracts, and the
bordering regions of the Desert, their lineage and their tongue, through the
reiterated revolutions to which their country has been subjected. Their
general appellation is that of Berbers, or Berebbers,f including the

* The Arabian tribes of Atlantica, and the Desert of Sahara, may be divided into two classes,
Arabs of pure blood, and Moors. The Arabs are divided into many tribes, or families, of more or less
noble descent ; their dialect is the Maughrebin Arabic, and their emigration, from the East, is referred
to the first ages after the Hegira. The Moors are partly of Arab, and partly of Berber, or of African
blood : they are extensively distributed in tribes through northern Africa, and are distinguished by
different appellations : the men are, generally, large, well-made, and vigorous ; the females would be
handsome, were it not for their superabundance of flesh, which, however, passes for perfection in
the eyes of 'the men. Arabic is the language of most of the Moorish tribes ; and where other lan-
guages are spoken, it is read and understood. " The immigration of the Arabians into Africa," says
Dr. Prichard, " is generally considered to have commenced after the Hegira, and the conquest of
Egypt and Lybia by the Mohammedans ; but there is reason to believe that the same people, or tribes
nearly allied to them in origin, had begun to direct their movements towards the same quarter, from
much earlier times. . . The migratory movements of the Semitic tribes into Africa appear thus to have
preceded the first dawning of history. The oldest account, expressly recording such a migration, is
Manetho's narrative of the invasion of Egypt by the Arabian shepherds. It appears to me clear
that Manetho connects the exode of the Beni-Israel with the departure of the shepherds : but even
before the age of Abraham, Egypt must have been already opened to the inwanderings of a nomadic
people from Asia ; otherwise the patriarch, with his horde, could not have passed so easily to the resi-
dence of an Egyptian sovereign, who, though styled Pharaoh, may have been one of the shepherd-
kings of Egypt, or a native prince reigning under their sway." After the sojourn of the Israelites in
Egypt for a considerable period, " there arose up a new king, who knew not Joseph ;" a king of a dif-
ferent dynasty— not of the Semitic race (as were the Israelites) ; and, therefore, a stranger to the
descendants of the house of Abraham, and jealous of their influence and power ; jealous, perhaps, also,
of the close connexion which existed between the chiefs of the Israelitish house and the sovereigns, or
rulers, of the preceding dynasty.

t From this word, Berber, the name of the country called Barbary, or Barbaria, seems to be derived ;
its application to the northern region of Africa is, however, of comparatively modern date, not antece-
dent to the Mahommedan conquest. On the east of Africa, a province, supposed to be Ajan, was, an-
ciently, called Barbaria, and the people, Barbari, a name still preserved in the port of Barbara, and to
be recognised in the Berberines, or Barabra of Nubia. Leo derives the word Barbar, or Berber, either
from the word, barbara, which, in the Berber tongue, means to murmur, or from the Arabic, bar, a
desert. Dr. Prichard, however, observes, that /Jep/3ep, in Coptic, signifies hot; and /3op/3ep, or
/3ep/3wp, to cast out. The term, barbari, or /3ap/3apm, barbarians, from whatever source it arose, was
used, in early times, by the Greeks, as a common appellation forjpersons who did not speak the Greek
language, or for rude nations ; according to Professor Wilson, the Sanscrit, varvvarah, means' a low
man, an outcast, or barbarian ; and, in another sense, woolly or curly hair, as the hair of an African .
Did not the Greeks borrow the word Barbari from the Egyptians, and apply it| to any rude people, re-

JAPETIC STOCK. 257

Shoulouh, the Kabyles, and the Tuaryk. The Berber language is spoken,
according to M. Venture, from the mountains of Souse, which border the
Atlantic Ocean, to those of the Olleletys, which rise above the plains of
Kairoan, in the kingdom of Tunis. The same idiom, with a slight dif-
ference, is likewise spoken in the Isle of Girbeh, at Monastyr, and in the
greater number of villages spread through the Sahara ; and, among others,
in those of the tribe of the Beni-Mozab. The tribes have different
names : those of the mountains belonging to Morocco are termed Shou-
louhs ; those who inhabit the plains of the empire, dwelling under tents,
in the manner of the Arabs, are named Berbers ; and those of the moun-
tains belonging to Algiers and Tunis call themselves Cabaylis, or
Gebalis. It is the opinion of Mr. Hodgson, and Dr. Prichard assents to
it, that the Berber language was learned by the Phoenicians, and spoken
by them, in addition to the Punic, their mother tongue ; and that it is
from this circumstance that Virgil terms them " Tyrii bilingues,"* the
secondary meaning of the word, " bilingues" (deceitful), aptly coinciding
with its primary and literal signification.

The Berbers of the higher Atlas are an athletic, hardy race, with
strongly-marked features ; they shave the fore part of the head, but suffer
the hair to grow from the crown as far behind as the neck : their dress is
a woollen garment, without sleeves, belted round the waist ; they lead an
independent life, in their mountain villages, where they feed cattle, and
occupy themselves with the chase. The Shuluh, or Shoulouh, of the
southern parts of Morocco, resemble them in manners : they speak a
dialect of the Berber idiom, which they term Amazigh. The Kabyles,
or Quabaily, who occupy the hills of the lesser Atlas, also speak the
Berber, and are said to be a hardy, industrious people, tilling the ground,
and working in the mines. To the south of Tunis and Algiers, the
country of the Gsetuli, four Berber tribes are said to exist, named, accord-
ing to Mr. Hodgson, Mozabies, Biscaries, Wadriagans, and Wurgelans.
The Tuaryk tribes are widely spread through the Desert of Sahara, where
they exist as a nomadic people, distinct, however, from the nomades of
Arabian origin. It is to M. Hornemann that the discovery of this wan-
dering race is owing : their language, as Mr. Hodgson states, is pure
Berber, differing from that of the Berbers of Atlas only in a slight accent.
The Tibboos, another wandering people, occupy the desert to the east
and south of Fezzan ; but their language is said to differ radically from
that of the Tuaryks.

The Tuaryks vary in complexion from white to black ; and a similar
difference exists among the Kabyles of the Tunisan country. Hornemann

sembling those to whom it rightly belonged, as a proper name, in the same way as we use the term
Goth, or Turk?

* " Quippue domum timet ambiguam, Tyriosque bilingues."

VOL. I. 2 L

258 BIMANA.

describes the Tuaryks as a handsome race of people, with European
features, which are preserved among the darkest tribes ; and Capt.
Denham corroborates the statement : — " The women have a copper com-
plexion ; eyes large, black, and rolling; noses plain:" they wear their
hair long and loose. In some instances he observed faces like those of
the ancient Egyptians ; the nose, especially, having the same contour as
those of the Egyptian statues.

The Tibboos, or Tibbos, are dark coloured, or black, but have not the
Negro countenance, nor the Negro hair : their figure is slender, their limbs
are well turned, and their gait free and active. Captain Lyon says, that
the Tibboo females are light and elegant in form, and wear a graceful cos-
tume, quite different from that of the Fezzaners : " they have aquiline
noses, fine teeth, and lips formed like those of Europeans ; their eyes are
expressive, and their colour is of the brightest black : there is something
in their walk, and erect manner of carrying themselves, which is very
striking : their feet and ankles are delicately formed, and are not loaded
with a mass of brass or iron, but have merely a slight anklet of polished
silver, or copper, sufficient to shew their jetty skin to more advantage :
they also wear red slippers : their hair is plaited on each side, in such a
manner as to hang down on the cheeks like a fan, or, rather, in the form
of a large dog's ear." Clapperton and Denham describe the Tibboos of
Bilma, in lat. 18°, 19°, in very similar terms.

Opposite to the coast of Morocco, at its southern extremity, is a
group of islands (lat. 28° and 29°), now termed the Canary Islands ;
anciently, the Fortunate Isles ; which, in the time of Juba, were very
partially, if at all, inhabited : on one island, indeed, Canaria, so called
from the huge dogs it contained, were found the remains of dwellings ;
but, on Ombrion, no vestiges of man appeared.* From the days of
antiquity, to the early part of the fourteenth century, the Canary Isles
were lost to the civilized world ; and their re-discovery was owing to the
shipwreck of a French vessel on the coast of one of them. They were
then inhabited, but the population has now utterly perished : at the
beginning of the sixteenth century, few or none were left to speak of the
avarice and cruelty of their merciless invaders. The extermination of the
Guanches, by the Spaniards, after a long struggle, is one of the fearful
tragedies of modern history, in which a Christian nation has acted a con-
spicuous and atrocious part. Of the origin of the Guanches we have no
authentic details : their name is said to have signified, in their own language,
the sons of men ; and they described themselves as the descendants of a
great and powerful people of antiquity. They were simple in their man-
ners, possessed of but few arts, believed in a future state, and in good and

* These islands were respectively termed Ombrion, Junonia, Capraria, Nivaria, and Canaria. They
abounded in fruits, birds and beasts, and large lizards.

NEPTUNIAN STOCK.

259

evil spirits, and had the institution of marriage, and various moral and
social observances. We learn that their stature was large, and their frames
robust and powerful : their history proves them brave and determined.
One of their customs was the preservation of their dead, by means of a
process of embalming ; and it is from these mummy relics that our know-
ledge of the physical characters of the race is obtained. They deposited
the mummies, when dry, in caves in the sides of the mountains, placing
them erect upon their feet, the chiefs having staffs in their hands, and a
vessel of milk standing by them : the bodies were decorated with small
laces, from which were suspended little discs of baked clay, and also with
strings of coral. M. Golberry, who accurately investigated the mode in
which these mummies were prepared, describes one, which he selected
from many others, in the mummy-caves at Teneriffe, as having long,
black hair : the skin was dry, flexible, and of a dark-brown colour ; the
back and chest were covered with hair, and the inside was filled with a
kind of grain, resembling rice ; the body was wrapped in bandages of
goat's skin. The complete exsiccation of these mummies is surprising.

One, described by Blumenbach, appa-
rently that of a female, weighed only
seven pounds and a half, although all
the fleshy parts and the viscera were
preserved. The entire head of this
specimen is figured in the Decades,
from which a copy (fig. 200) is here
given. It closely resembles the head
of an ancient Egyptian.

The time when, and the circum-
stances under which the Guanches
separated from the Atlantic Berber
race, traversed the intervening sea,
and peopled the Canary Isles, are
alike unknown ; but that they were a
Berber offset, is sufficiently proved by a comparison of the remains of
their language with that of the latter people.

200

Head of Guanche.

NEPTUNIAN STOCK.

MALAYS PROPER.— India, according to Prichard (Disp. inaugur. de
Variet. p. 85), is inhabited by a mixed race ; consisting of the aborigines,
and of others, whom the pursuits of war and conquest have at various times
brought there : among these latter are to be enumerated the Mongoles,
who, at a comparatively recent period, entered and conquered the country.

260 BIMANA.

These mixtures have tended to efface the peculiar characters of the ori-
ginal inhabitants, which must, therefore, be now sought for in the islands
protected by their situation from such visits. The islands of the Indian
Sea, he remarks, contain two* races of men, differing, in many respects,
from each other. In one of these, the blackness, or nearly the blackness,
of the Negro, is a marked character ; the hair is curled and woolly, the
body slender, the stature short, the disposition barbarous and cruel.
The other resembles more closely the Indians of the Continent ; has a
fairer skin, larger limbs and stature, better proportions than the former,
and exhibits some marks of humanity and civilization. Forster supposes
that the black race, whom he considers to be the aborigines, have retired
to the middle and mountainous parts of many islands, leaving the coasts
and plains to the more recent colonists. These colonists are the Malays,
a race widely distributed, occupying, not only the Malayan Peninsula, and,
though not exclusively, the islands of the Indian Archipelago, but which
has penetrated into Madagascar, where it constitutes the Hova portion of
the population, and spread itself throughout the islands of the Pacific,
from New Zealand, the Society, the Friendly Isles, and the Marquesas,
to the distant Sandwich and Easter Isles. Cuvier, as before stated, is
inclined to refer the Malays to the Hindoo and Mongole families :f and
Fischer, though, like M. Bory, he sets down the Malay race as constituting
a distinct stock, observes — " this race is very closely related to the
Indian variety of the Japetic species, from which, perhaps, it is not
radically distinct."J That the Malay ra*ce, to whatever cause we are
to attribute its occupation of the portions of the globe over which it
has spread, is of Asiatic origin, not unmixed, perhaps, with Sanscritic
offsets, there is every reason to conjecture. Whatever may have
been its starting-point, it is certainly, as M. Bory describes it, es-
sentially shore-dwelling (" riveraine "), peopling only islands, or such
portions of the Continent as border the ocean, and never penetrating
into the interior, or passing the mountains, which, running parallel with
the coast, divide the maritime districts from the inner and more fertile
regions. It is in maritime occupations that the energies of the Malay
people are most conspicuous ; and it is to this maritime predilection
that their extensive diffusion is to be attributed. Nevertheless, it
would appear that their occupation, both of the Malay Peninsula and

* If the Alfourou and Papuan be distinct, three races.

t The Malays, termed Hindo-Chinese by some, are regarded, by certain writers, as distinct alike
from the Hindoo and the Chinese ; and, though intermingled with offsets from them and other San-
scritic nations, to exhibit traces of a distinct origin.— See Dr. Lang, On the Migrations of the Poly-
nesian Nation.

% " The people termed Malays, have been hitherto grouped together under the head of a distinct
race; namely, the 'Malay race,' although they scarcely differ at all from the Hindoos, of which
people they only form a variety, presenting four types — the Malays Proper, the Javanese, the
Macassars, or Budjis, and the Amboinians, or Timorians."

NEPTUNIAN STOCK. 261

of the Indian Islands, is but comparatively recent, since, in all the
Indian Islands, with the exception of Sumatra, they occupy only the
coasts, and have made but trifling advances into the interior, which
yet continues to be possessed by tribes approaching the Negro in many
of their physical characters. With respect to the Malay Peninsula,
now the stronghold of the race, Mr. Marsden considers it to be fully
established, that their occupation of this territory is not to be dated earlier
than the twelfth century : their migratory course was from Sumatra to
Malacca; and the indigenous inhabitants, of a stock entirely different from
the invaders, and approaching, as Mr. Marsden says, to the Negroes of
Africa in their physical characters, were gradually driven by them to the
woods and mountains. These origines are, probably, Alfourous ; but
Papuan tribes* also exist in Malacca : still, the population was pro-
bably inconsiderable, antecedently to the influx of the Malays ; since,
according to Raffles, if an inconsiderable race of CafFres (Papous) be ex-
cepted, who are occasionally found near the mountains, and likewise
a few tribes of the Orang Benua (aborigines), a vestige of a nation
anterior to the Malay does not exist in the whole Peninsula. Raffles
states, that the tribes frequenting the hills are termed Semang, and are
woolly-headed ; those on the plain, Orang Benua, or people belonging to
the country.-)- " I had an opportunity," he adds, " of seeing two of these
people, from a tribe in the neighbourhood of Malacca ; it consisted of about
sixty people, and the tribe was called Jokong. These people, from their
occasional intercourse with the villages dependant on Malacca, speak the
Malay language sufficiently to be generally understood. They state that
there are two other tribes, the Orang Benua, and the Orang Udai. The
former appears the most interesting, as composing the majority ; the latter
is only another name for the Semang, or Caffres. From the vicinity of the
Jokong tribe to Malacca, and intercourse with its inhabitants, the people
of this tribe have adopted many Malay words, not originally in their lan-
guage. The men are not circumcised : they are well formed, rather short,
resembling the Malay in countenance, but having a sharper and smaller
nose : they marry but one wife, whether rich or poor, and appear to observe
no particular ceremony at the nuptials." The Malays, in fact, are not the
aborigines of the Peninsula of Malacca, or the adjacent islands ; and, of
these islands, Sumatra is the only one in which they possess an inland state,
or territory. This latter island, as well as those of Java, Jana Uyi, or
Bugesland (Celebes), Sulu, and the Moluccas, which, together with Borneo,
compose what may be properly termed the Malayan group, are peopled,

* To these races reference will be made hereafter.

t " The word Benua is applied by the Malays to any extensive country, as Benua China; but it
appears to be a sort of Malay plural to the Arabic word, ben, or beni, signifying a tribe : the early
adventurers from Arabia frequently make mention in their writings of the different tribes they met
with to the eastward : from them, most probably, the Malays adopted the term, Orang Benua."

BIMANA.

according to the same authority, by nations radically distinct from the
Malays ; speaking languages entirely different, and using various written
characters, original and peculiar to each. These nations are governed by
their several laws and institutions : and, excepting the state of Menangkabu,
in the Island of Sumatra, it is on the shores of these islands only, and in
the Malay Peninsula, that the Malays are to be found. Besides the state
of Menangkabu, in the interior, Sumatra has on its eastern side the Malay
states of Acheen, Siak, and Palembang. In the Peninsula, the principal
Malay states are, Queda, Malacca, and Johore, on the western ; Tringano,
Patani, and Pahang, on the eastern side. However the Malay nation
may have originated, it has spread itself far and widely ; and its tribes
have ever acquired a predominance, the result of mental vigour and
energy of character, over the aborigines of the districts, or islands, appro-
priated by right of conquest. At one time the Malay power in the Indian
Archipelago appears to have been far greater than at present. That the
Malays once occupied a high and commanding political station in these seas,
appears (as Raffles observes) to be beyond a doubt ; and that they main-
tained this position until the introduction of Mahometanism, seems equally
probable. " From the geographical situation," he adds, " of the more
important countries then occupied by them, they were the first to come in
contact with Mussulman missionaries, and to embrace their tenets ; to
which circumstance the dismemberment of the empire, and the decline of
their power, previously to the arrival of Europeans in these seas, may,
perhaps, be attributed. At that period, however, the authority of Menang-
kabu, the ancient seat of government, was still acknowledged ; and the
states of Acheen and Malacca long disputed the progress of the Portuguese
arms. The whole of Sumatra, at one period, was subject to the supreme
power of Menangkabu ; and proofs of the former grandeur and superiority
of this state are still found, not only in the pompous edicts of its sove-
reigns, and in the veneration and respect paid to the most distant branches
of the family, but in the comparatively high and improved state of the
cultivation of the country, and in the vestiges of antiquity which have
been recently discovered in it." At what time the people of Menang-
kabu embraced the doctrines of the prophet, Sir S. Raffles could not
correctly ascertain : the conversion of Malacca and Acheen took place in
the thirteenth century ; but it is very doubtful whether Menangkabu was
converted previously to this date ; although the Mahometan faith is said
to have been promulgated at Sumatra as early as the twelfth century. It
was about this latter period (1160), according to the same authority, that
a colony, issuing from the interior of Sumatra, established the maritime
state of Singapura, at the extremity of the Malay Peninsula, where a line
of Hindu princes continued to reign until the establishment of Malacca,
and the adoption of the Moslemin tenets, in 1276. Whatever, in more re-

NEPTUNIAN STOCK. 263

mote times, may have been the nature of the intercourse between foreign
nations and Menangkabu itself, it is known that Singapura, during the
period noticed, was an extensively maritime and commercial state ; and
that, on the first arrival of the Portuguese at Malacca, Menangkabu, as an
emporium, embraced the largest portion of the commerce between eastern
and western nations. With the progress, and ultimate supremacy, of the
Europeans, is associated the decline and fall of the Malay states of Malacca
and Acheen : but long previously had the maritime and commercial
enterprise of the people conduced to their wide dispersion through the
Archipelago : yet the power and policy of their European visitors, by
breaking down their larger settlements, contributed to their still wider
diffusion ; and, consequently, to the formation of various small establish-
ments beyond the territorial limits subjugated by their new enemies.
(See Append, to Life of Sir T. S. Raffles, for much valuable information.)
The Malays are of moderate stature, and of a bronzed or coppery
complexion, with long black hair ; the vertex is round, the face oval, the
forehead open, the zygomatic arches somewhat prominent ; the eyes are
rather more distant from each other than in the European, and the outer
angle is more elevated ; the nose is prominent ; the mouth moderate or
large, the alveolar arch but slightly oblique ; the lips are thin ; the inside of
the mouth is violet or purple ; the beard is moderately stiff, and thin ; the
general contour of the body graceful, and indicative of strength. The
Hindoos are usually of smaller stature, and of more delicate contour, with
long, black, glossy hair, a rounded vertex, and somewhat oval face ; the
eyebrows are arched and slender, the nose prominent, and the mouth
201 moderate, with thin lips, and the beard thin.

In the Malay skull, from which the represent-
ation (fig. 201) is taken, the forehead is narrow, and
laterally compressed, and the frontal sinuses are
well marked ; the external orbitar processes are
bold ; the orbits sweep downward and outward,
throwing out the malar bones ; the occiput is
prominent, whence there is an oblique ascent up
to the vertex, just behind the coronal suture,
where the cranial arch is at its greatest elevation.

Skull of Malay. T -n • rr f i_

It still remains to otter a few observations on

the Polynesian Branch of the Malays, of which the New Zealanders
constitute an example.

POLYNESIAN BRANCH. — Lesson restricts the term, Polynesian, to the
islands contained in, or immediately bordering on, the Malayan Archi-
pelago ; applying the term, Oceanic, to the numerous groups of islands
with which the Pacific is studded, from New Zealand to the remote
Sandwich Isles. Far preferable is the application of the term, Poly-

264 BIMANA.

nesian (jroXvs, multitudinous, vrjo-os, an island) to the Oceanic groups ;
and of Malayan, to the islands adjacent to the Peninsula of Malacca.

It would appear that, with certain exceptions, namely, New Guinea,
and the islands to the eastward, New Britain, New Ireland, Solomon's
Isles, New Caledonia, the Fejee Isles, and, perhaps, a few others, the
whole of these islands are peopled by a tide of Malayan origin ;
certainly not altogether unblended with streams from other sources.
Throughout this vast range the Malay language is spoken, in different
dialects, and in various degrees of corruption ; and the natives are dis-
tinguished by the bronzed, or coppery, complexion of the Malayan race.*
In New Zealand, as in other islands, traces of a mixture are to be
detected. Crozet divides the New Zealanders into whites, browns, and
blacks ; f the last being derived, as he conceives, from New Holland
(Alfourous) ; and who, by their mixture with the white race, still the
most prevalent, have produced the intermediate brown. Cook, in his
first voyage, notices the fact, that people about the Bay of Islands are
darker than those of the more southern parts ; and afterward, in his third
voyage, he states, that their colour varies from a " pretty deep black" to
a "yellowish or olive tint." J Mr. Marsden also remarks, that the people
of Shukehangou are much fairer than those on the east coast ; and both
Cruise and Crozet observe, that the dark-coloured portion of the population
are characterized by a more diminutive stature than the fairer race. Whether
the black (or Alfourou ?) portion is of more recent introduction than the
lighter, bronzed stock, or whether we behold in it the relics of a people of
ancient denizenship, which have been almost extirpated by the arms of a
race overwhelming their territories, admits of a question : the latter opinion
appears to be the most plausible.

The Malay dialect, spoken in New Zealand, is nearly the same as
that spoken in the Society and the Friendly Islands. The unfortunate
Marion, and our great navigator, Captain Cook, noticed the resemblance it
bears to the language of Tahiti (Otaheite), and its dissimilarity to that of
Solomon's Islands. On Cook's first visit to New Zealand, he found, that
a native of Tahiti could make himself perfectly understood by speaking
his own tongue ; and Omai, whom Cook brought from Tahiti, on his
second visit, easily learned to converse with the New Zealanders, as well
as with the people of Tonga ; the difference between the New Zealand

* Lesson says, that the Oceanic Branch, " which authors place in the Malay race, is only an offset
of the great Hindoo family, of which it has all the characters : it is disseminated through the islands,
scattered in the immense southern ocean, and peoples, in great part, all the Oceanic lands, from the
Sandwich Isles to New Zealand and Easter Island."

t By the term, white, is to be understood a complexion no darker than that of the swarthy inha-
bitants of southern Europe. The inhabitants of Tahiti are very fair, and instances of yellow hair are
not unfrequent among them. The fairness of the Sumatrans is also remarkable.

J A dusky black, tinged with yellow, is the complexion of several New Zealanders, from the
neighbourhood of the Bay of Islands, who had been lately in London.

NEPTUNIAN STOCK.

265

language and that of Tahiti being, as Cook states, not greater than that
between the dialects of the northern and western parts of England.*

The New Zealanders believe in the existence of spiritual powers, and,
among them, in a malignant demon, whom they term Atua,f an immortal
shadow, as a native explained it to Mr. Marsden. The custom of tatoo-
ingj is universally practised, as it is now among the most savage nations ;

202

A native of New Zealand.

* The testimony of La Perouse is to the same effect : — " At first," he says, " we perceived no
resemblance between the language of the people of the Navigator's Islands and that of the people of
the Society and Friendly Islands, the vocabularies of which we had with us ; but a closer examination
taught us that they spoke a dialect of the same tongue. A fact which may tend to prove this, and
which confirms the opinion of the English, respecting the origin of these people, is, that a young Manil-
lese servant, who was born in the province of Tagayan, on the north of Manilla, understood and in-
terpreted to us most of their words. Now, it is known that the Tagayan, Talgal, and all the dialects of
the Philippine Islands, in general, are derived from the Malay ; and this language, more widely spread
than were those of the Greeks and Romans, is common to the numerous tribes that inhabit the
islands of the South Sea. To me it appears demonstrated, that these different nations are derived
from Malay colonies, who conquered these islands at very remote periods ; and, perhaps, even the
Chinese and Egyptians, whose antiquity is so much vaunted, are modern, compared to these."

t This word, which occurs in the languages of most of the South Sea Islands, is conjectured to
come from the Sanscrit Dewa ; whence the Greek Zeus, and the Latin Deus.

t Tatooing is called moko, or amoko, in New Zealand. The word tatoo, used in most of the islands
of the Pacific, is derived from ta, to strike.

VOL. i. i M

266

BIMANA.

and, also, was among the ancient Scythians and Britons. The hair, which
is long, black, and flowing, is worn tied up on the crown of the head, as
it is among the Javanese : their weapons are spears and a stone war-
club (of hard, polished, green talc), called mery, or mearee. Tabooing,
or rendering persons or things sacred, and not to be touched, is also one
of their practices. Their cannibalism is too well authenticated to be
denied ; still, they do not devour the bodies of friends, or 01" persons
who have died from disease, but of enemies, killed either in ba.tle or
afterward, and of slaves, slaughtered on purpose to afford a banquet.
The New Zealanders are brave, warlike, intelligent, and enterprising ;
but treachery, and an indomitable spirit of revenge, cannot be excepted
from among their moral composition. When excited, their rage amounts
to frenzy, and they display it in the most frightful gesticulations and con-
tortions of* countenance. They carry all their feelings, in fact, to an
extreme ; insomuch that, when they meet friends or relations, from
whom they have been for some time separated, they cut themselves, in
token of joy, with flints, or shells, on the arms, breasts, and faces.

The following representations of the physiognomy of the natives of

203

A aativs of Tahiti

NEPTUNIAN STOCK.

237

Tahiti (fig. 203), the Sandwich Islands (fig. 204), and of Ombai Island
(fig. 205), near Timor, are interesting and characteristic. The physiog-
nomy is strongly marked in each by sternness and ferocity ; but, as is
universally found to be the case, the expression of the features becomes
ameliorated by civilization, and by mental and moral culture. Mr. Dar-
win speaks in very favourable terms respecting the natives of Tahiti,
and regards them as far superior to the New Zealanders, both mentally
and physically ; a superiority to be attributed to the humanizing influence
of British exertions, in reclaiming them from the barbarous habits and
customs which, till recently, placed them amongst the most degraded
of the human race, and which still predominate among the natives of
other islands, where cannibalism, and the most barbarous rites and
practices, are continued ; and where sanguinary deeds of revenge, and
atrocious cruelties, are incessantly perpetrated.

With regard to the conformation of the cranium, in these Oceanic tribes,

204

268

BIMANA.

Lesson remarks, that " the coronal bone of a New Zealander is less
bulging than that of a European. The external orbitary angles are
much thicker, and the crooked line, which separates them, is also more
projecting. The alveolar arches, also, are a little more developed ; and
the external occipital protuberance is more strongly marked. The
summit of the head is produced a little in the shape of a sugar-loaf,
as in that of the Alfourous. The bridge of the nose has no peculiarity ;
the anterior part of the body of the lower jaw is placed much as in
the European, from which it only slightly differs in the rounding of the
angles, and in the slight bend of the basis. Lastly, the bones of the cra-
nium of the New Zealander are remarkable for their great thickness."

205

A native of Ombai Island,

MONGOLE STOCK.

269

206

Skull of Newr Zealander.

In the skulls of the New Zealanders, preserved in the collection

of the Royal College of Surgeons,
of one of which, the annexed
figure (206) is a representation,
the following particulars were ob-
served : — They are heavy, and of
large size, compressed laterally,
with a tendency to a mesial eleva-
tion of the cranial arch, but far less
decidedly than in the Tasmanian or
Alfourou. The malar bones are
large ; the alveolar processes ob-
lique ; the nasal bones moderate, and
tolerably well elevated; the lower
jaw is broad and strong, its ascend-
ing branch is oblique, the angle somewhat rounded, and the base of
the ramus slightly arched (though less than in a skull of a Fejee Islander),
so that the chin, when the ramus rests on a plane, does not touch the
surface of it: the basilar process of the occipital bone is directed less
obliquely upward than in most European skulls, and, in this respect,
agrees with that of a native of the Fejee Isles. In all these New Zealand
skulls, the lateral compression of the frontal portion, the projection of
the parietal bones at their centre, and the ridge-like form (more or less
decided) of the mesial line of the cranial arch, the boldness of the external
orbitary angles, the amplitude of the cheek-bones, the obliquity of the
alveolar processes, and the arched form of the base of the ramus of the
lower jaw, are peculiar features. The posterior fall of the skull, sweeping
down obliquely from the vertex to the occiput, is also remarkable and
constant.

The skull of a native of Tahiti, figured by Blumenbach in his Decades
(tab. xxv.), closely agrees with those of the natives of New Zealand.

MONGOLE STOCK.

MONGOLE BRANCH. — From the Gulf of Kara, or the Karskoye Sea
(washing the eastern shores of Nova Zembla), the Uralian chain of moun-
tains runs southward to the Caspian, giving branches to the great Altaic
chain, which sweeps across the centre of Asia from Turkestan, bearing
northward to the Sea of Okhotsk. From the Altaic Mountains, in Tur-
kestan, runs a branch to Caubul, there to join the Himalaya range, which
passes through Caubul, Cashmere, and Nepal, and spreads over Thibet, send-

270 BIMANA.

ing ramifications through China, the Birman Empire, and the Malay Pe-
ninsula. Other branches run through Corea; and a continuation follows the
Coast of Manchouria, and joins the Stanovoy branch of the Altaic chain, at
the south-east extremity of Siberia. Between the Altaic and the Himalayan
chains stretches a vast desert, more or less interrupted by mountain
ramifications, extending from Bucharia to the Sea of Japan and Okhotsk,*
leaving China, Thibet, and Hindostan to the south, and bounded, on the
west, by the range termed Belur Tag, which passes through Little Bucharia.
The whole of this vast tract has been inhabited, from time immemorial, by
fierce nomadic hordes, distinguished by various titles — as Huns, Cal-
mucs, Mongoles, Mantchous, &c. ; acting independently under separate
leaders, but all appertaining to one great type — the Turanian of Dr.
Prichard, and the Mongole of most writers. Westward of the Belur Tag are
the deserts of Turkestan and Bucharia, inhabited by the Tartars, or Tatars,
regarded, by most naturalists, as appertaining to a type distinct from that
of the Mongole. Lawrence expressly states, that they belong to the Cauca-
sian, or Iranian division of the human race : he, consequently, regards the
description of the Tartari, by Matt. Paris, as applicable, not to the true
Tartars, but to the hordes of Mongole invaders, who had penetrated, with
their arms, into Europe : and Blumenbach observes, respecting the same
description, " the writer (Matt. Paris) obviously speaks, not of the genuine
Tartars, but of a people widely different from them ; namely, the Mon-
goles, or Calmucs, whose only affinity to them consisted in the name by
which then, and even now, the two races are improperly confounded. All the
characters, therefore, which naturalists have assigned to the Tartars, belong
to the wholly different Mongolian race. We know, on the contrary, that the
Tartars are a handsome people, conspicuous for the beauty and symmetry of
the countenance, as is evinced by the skull, which presents a complete con-
trast to the Mongolian characters," &c. " The Tatars, or Tartars," says
Gibbon, " were a primitive tribe, the rivals, and, at length, the subjects of
the Moguls. In the victorious armies of Zingis Khan and his successors,
the Tartars formed the vanguard, and the name which first reached the
ears of foreigners was applied to the whole nation. (Teret, in the Hist, de
VAcad. torn, xviii. p. 60.) In speaking of all, or any of the northern
shepherds of Europe or Asia, I indifferently use the appellation of Scythians
and Tartars. "•{• These tribes, however, became blended with the Huns,

* The great rivers which take their rise in the Altaic chain ; viz.— the Irtish, the Enissey, the
Lena, &c., travel northward, traversing Siberia to the Arctic Ocean. From the Himalaya range,
the Indus, the Ganges, the Ira-wadi, and the Kiulon-kien, run southward. The Kian-ku, and the
Ho-ang, or Yellow River, run eastward ; as does also the Amoor, or Saghalien River, which has its
origin partly in the Siolk mountains, but principally in the Stanovoy mountains, and traverses Man-
chouria. The Great Desert has no large rivers.

t See note, vol. iv. p. 231. 8vo. 1827. Gibbon uses the terms Tartars, Scythians, Huns, &c. indis-
criminately ; and often so as to lead to some confusion.

MONGOLE STOCK. 271

under Attila (in the fifth century), a true Mongole tribe, whose original
country was an extensive barren tract, north of the great wall of China ;
and who, antecedently to the time of Valens, when they threatened the
Roman Empire, had been formidable to that of China. (See M. de Guignes,
for the original history of the ancient Hiong-Nou, or Huns.)

In the thirteenth century, Zingis Khan, whose ancestors had been
tributary to the Chinese Emperors, with 700,000 Mongoles and Tar-
tars, spread the terror of his name through China, Persia, Hindostan,
and Europe. The destruction of independent Tartary was his last
achievement on record. By Tamerlane (in the fourteenth century),*
Hindostan was subdued; and the conquest of Persia was accomplished
by Holagou Khan, the grandson of Zingis, and the brother and general
of the two successive emperors, Mangou and Cublai. In all ages the
Mongole tribes have been renowned for their valour, and dreaded for
their ferocity : skilful as horsemen, and dexterous in the management ol
the lance and the bow; rapid in advance, sudden in retreat — at once
daring and patient — they spread terror and desolation around them ; and
even the Gothic nations succumbed, for a season, beneath their resistless
impetuosity. The terror they inspired led to the belief that they were
the offspring of witches and infernal spirits ; and their shrill voice, un-
couth figure, and strange gestures, countenanced the superstition. They
were compared to the misshapen figures, called Termini, which were
often placed on the bridges of antiquity. Distinguished from the rest
of the human species by their broad shoulders, flat noses, and small
black eyes deeply buried in their heads, their countenance was deemed
hideous ; and, as they were almost destitute of beard, " they never
enjoyed either the manly graces of youth, or the venerable aspect of
age." The portrait which Jornandes, a Gothic historian, draws of Attila,
is applicable to a Calmuc of the present day : — a large head, a swarthy
complexion, small deep-seated eyes, a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of
a beard, broad shoulders, a short square body of nervous strength, though
of a disproportioned form. Essentially similar is the account given by
Pallas, of the Calmucs : he observes, that they are generally of moderate
stature ; few being tall, and many below the medium standard : instances
of deformity are very rare among them ; but most exhibit an outward
bending of their arms and legs, which results from the practice of causing
them, when children, to rest in their cradles on a kind of saddle, and also
from their habit of riding on horseback continually, almost as early as they
are able to walk. Their neck is generally short ; their limbs are thin and
lean : even the principal and more opulent men among them are seldom
corpulent, a circumstance in which they differ from many of the Kirguise

* Tamerlane was not of the house of Zingis, except, perhaps, remotely by the female side.

BIMANA.

and other Tartar nomades. The characteristic features of the Calmucs con-
sist in the oblique position of the eyes, the inner angle of which, descending
toward the nose, is slightly open and fleshy; in the eyebrows being
black, thin, and forming a low arch ; in a peculiar formation of the nose,
which is generally flattened and crushed down toward the forehead; in
the prominence of the cheek-bones, and in the roundness of the head and
countenance. The ball of the eye is likewise very brown; the lips large
and fleshy; the chin short; the teeth very white, continuing fine and
sound, even in old age; the ears are of enormous size, and loose from
the head. These characteristics are all, more or less, apparent in every
individual. It is stated, by the same authority, as a remarkable circum-
stance, that a mixture of the Russian and Tartar, with the Calmuc and
Mongole, produces very beautiful children; whilst those of Calmuc and
M ongole origin are of misshapen figure, being, until the age of six years,
bloated and ill-complexioned : as they grow, however, their features
assume a more regular form.

The annexed portrait of Feodor Iwanowitsch, a Calmuc, educated at

207

Feodor Iwanowitsch. — A Calmuc.

MONGOLE STOCK.

273

Skull of Mongole.

209

Carlsruhe, and afterward an engraver of celebrity at Rome, well exem-
208 plifies the Mongolian cast of counte-

nance, as conveyed by the foregoing de-
scriptions.

The peculiarities of the skull of theMon-
gole race (fig. 208) consist in the globular
form of the cranium, the flatness and width
of the forehead, the breadth and depressed
form of the face — the glabella and ossa
nasi being placed nearly on the same
plane with the malar bones, which have
a great lateral projection, and incline
outward — and the boldness of the zygo-
matic arches. The orbits are large, but
the superciliary ridges are very slightly marked ; the alveolar edge of
the jaws is obtusely arched in front, and the chin is rather prominent.

Fig. 209, represents the skull of
a Chinese, in the Museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons. The
general contour is globular ; the or-
bits are ample, and their inner and
lower angles approach each other,
encroaching on the sides of the
nose, while the superior inner angle
is gently rounded ; the lachrymal
canal is very large, and open; the
cheek-bones project, being greatly
developed, and inclined outward at
the lower margin ; the forehead is narrow^ and somewhat elevated ; so
that a line, following the direction of each cheek-bone, just touches

the sides of the forehead, and, meet-
ing above, describes the form of a
pyramid ; a transverse line drawn
across the face, from angle to an-
gle, of the cheek-bones being its
base, A . The zygoma sweeps boldly
outward, with a round arch. The
breadth of the skull, between the
temporal bones, is great ; and also
between the mastoid processes. In
an Esquimaux skull (imperfect), in
the Museum of the Royal College,
of Surgeons (fig. 210), the same essential features are presented.

Skull of Chinese.

210

Skull of Esquiumux.

274 BIMANA.

In the Decades of Blumenbach (tab. xv.), is the figure of the skull of
an ancient inhabitant of South Siberia, taken from one of the burial
places found near the old mines, in the mountain districts, and ascribed,
by the natives, to Ischudae, or barbarians — a people evidently of the
Mongole family, but of whom no historic memorials exist ; their remains
and works alone surviving the lapse of ages. The skulls and bones
are said to have lost all their animal substance, — a proof of the high
antiquity of the people whose existence they attest.

It would appear, that the natives of Hungary, are, in some degree, to be
referred to a Mongole origin, blended with Scythian and Sclavonian
families. Hungary has been successively occupied by three Scythian, or
Mongole and Scythian colonies ; viz., first, by the Huns of Attila ;
secondly, by the Abares, in the sixth century ; and, thirdly, A.D. 889, by
the Turks, or Magiars, the immediate ancestors of the modern Hun-
garians, whose connexion with the two former is remote, and, perhaps,
even doubtful.

With respect to China, its ancient records are enveloped in great ob-
scurity : there is, however, little reason to doubt that the earliest tribes
occupying that region, and the adjacent province of Thibet, were of
Mongole lineage. Nevertheless, it is probable, as Mr. Davis affirms, that
a colony from India, at an early era, settled in the Chinese territory, which
became blended with the primitive race, and with the Mongole invaders.
Mr. Davis observes (see Trans. Asiat. Soc.\ that the empire of China can-
not be dated earlier than the dynasty called Tsin, about 200 years before
Christ ; and the term Wong, or Prince, instead of Hoang-ti, or Emperor, is
applied, by their own historians, to all the monarch s of the race of Chow,
which immediately preceded it. From the race of Chow, B.C. 1100
to 240, may be dated the authentic history of the Chinese, which com-
mences with the Chun-tsew of Confucius, or the annals of his own times,
in which he relates the wars of the petty states against each other. The
dynasty of Chow, from about the middle of which the records may be
regarded as authentic, was distinguished by the birth of Confucius and
of Laon-keun, the founders of two of the sects of China ; while Fo, or
Buddha, the author of the third, was born in India, about the commence-
ment of the same period, although his worship was not introduced till
long afterward ; viz., in the first century of the Christian era. The
memory and the doctrines of Confucius have met with almost uninter-
rupted veneration, down to the present time ; while the absurd supersti-
tions of the other two have been alternately embraced or despised by the
different sovereigns of the country : under the present government of
Mantchou origin, they can scarcely be said to be tolerated. With
the exception of the worship of Buddha, the Chinese appear to have
received nothing from their western neighbours, the Hindoos. Before

MONGOLE STOCK.

275

the invasion of Zingis Khan, China was divided into two empires,
or dynasties — the north, or Cathay, and the southern, or Mongi ; and
these, from 1234 to 1279, were divided between the Great Khan and
the Chinese : the northern empire, which had been dismembered by
Zingis, was finally subdued, seven years after his death. The perfect
reduction of China was reserved for the arms of Cublai, and the whole of
the country, from the great wall* (built in the third century, A.C.) to
Tonquin, submitted to his dominion. •(" The circumjacent kingdoms of

* In the third century, A.C., an immense wall, 1,500 miles long, was erected to defend the frontier
northern regions of China from the inroads of the Huns, who, nevertheless, overcame this obstacle, and
obtained from Kaote, the Chinese monarch, an annual tribute of silk and money, besides a select band of
the fairest virgins ; and this alliance between the haughty Tanjous, or chiefs of the Huns, and the
Chinese, was thus secured by their marriage with the daughters of the imperial family and other
nobles.

t Gibbon says that Cublai declined from the pure and simple religion of his great ancestor, and
sacrificed to the idol Fo ; and his blind attachment to the lamas of Thibet, and the bonzes of China,
provoked the censure of the disciples of Confucius. The attachment of the khans, and the hatred of
the mandarins, to the bonzes and lamas, seems to represent them as the priests of the same god, of
the Indian Fo, whose worship prevails among the sects of Hindostan, Siam, Thibet, China, and
Japan.

276 BIMANA.

Corea, Tonquin, Cochin-China, Pegu, Bengal, and Thibet, were also
reduced to obedience, if not absolutely conquered : 140 years after the
death of Zingis, his dynasty was expelled. In the seventeenth century,
China again yielded to the arms of an invader, Xung-ki, a Mantchou
king, whose successors still hold the sovereignty.

The Mantchou Tatars, as we are informed by Barrow, are scarcely
distinguishable from the Chinese : the latter are rather taller, and of a
more delicate and slender frame than the former, who are, in general,
short, thick, and robust. The small eye, elliptical at the end next
the nose, is a predominating feature in the cast of both the Chinese
and Tatar countenance, and they have the same high cheek-bones and
pointed chins. Their complexion is a tint between a fair and dark, ex-
pressed by the word, brunet, or brunette ; and the shades of this tint
are deeper, according to exposure to the influence of the climate. Hence,
the women of the lower class, who labour in the fields, or who dwell in
vessels, are, almost invariably, coarse, ill-featured, and of a deep or
brown complexion, like that of the Hottentots. The portrait (fig. 211)
is characteristic of the Chinese stamp of countenance.

The natives of Thibet, according to Turner, have black hair, and
small black eyes, with long pointed corners, as if extended by artificial
means ; the eyelashes are so thin as to be scarcely perceptible ; and the
eyebrows are but slightly shaded : below the eyes, the face, which is
rather flat, is broadly spread, but it narrows from the cheek-bones to the
chin : their skins are remarkably smooth ; and, even at a very advanced
age, the rudiments of a beard are scarcely perceptible : their complexion
is not so dark, by many shades, as that of the European Portuguese. (See
Turner's Account of an Embassy to the Court of the Teshoo Lama.)

Of the Persian conquest by Holagou-Khan, the grandson of Zingis,
and afterward by Tamerlane, or of the successful invasion of Hindostan
by Tamerlane, who trod in the footsteps of Alexander, but paused not
where the Macedonian stopped, and made his triumphal entrance into
Delhi, glutting his soldiers with the pillage of the city and the blood of
the Gentoos, this is not the place to treat : these events are here merely
noticed to shew the extent of the Mongole conquests.

HYPERBOREAN BRANCH. — To the Mongole type many nations, in-
habiting the wilds of Siberia, above the Altaic chain, to the borders of
the Northern Ocean, are also referable. The natives of Corea and
Kamtschatka, and the adjacent Aleutian Islands ; the Tongouses, or
Tongutski ; the Samoiedes and Ostiacs, may also be included, together
with the Greenlanders and Esquimaux tribes of North America. The
characteristic features of the Samoiedes are well represented by the
annexed^ figure (212).

The hair is long, coarse, and black ; the face flat and broad ; the

MONGOLE STOCK.

277

cheek-bones projecting ; the eyes long, narrow, and oblique ; the nose
is depressed ; the mouth large ; the beard (of the male) scanty ; the com-
plexion dusky brown. The Samoiedes are short in stature, but broad set ;
and the lower limbs, though strong, seem disproportionately abbreviated.

212

Among the tribes of the Mongole section of mankind, the Esquimaux
have been already mentioned. Although inhabiting the northern parts of
America, from Behring's Straits to the extremity of Greenland, a tract
of country remote from the abodes of the nomades of central Asia, the
characters of the race, of which they form a branch, are sufficiently pal-
pable : high cheek-bones, broad foreheads, flat faces, small narrow eyes,
with the corners elongated, and closed so as scarcely to shew the white,
wide mouths, flattened noses, dusky yellow, or brown complexion,
and straight black hair, are observed, throughout them all. The men
are of moderate stature, or low, but broad- set, and the hands and feet
are small. When, however, it is said, that the Esquimaux, the Ostiaks, or
the Samoiedes, are of Mongole blood, it is not to be inferred that they have
sprung immediately from the Mongoles, or any one of the central Asiatic
tribes, as they now exist ; but that they, with the central Asiatic nomades,

278

BIMANA.

are of the same type, and have either branched off from a given stock,
at some remote period antecedent to history, or are the descendants of
distinct stocks, having the same physical peculiarities, and being referable
to the same head, under whatever general appellation, for distinction's
sake, it may be placed. The annexed figure (213) represents the Esqui-
maux physiognomy.

It has been observed by many, that, among the nations in Asia
belonging to the present type, a monosyllabic language extensively pre-
vails — a language composed of radical words of one syllable, admitting
of no true inflexions ; and, therefore, awkward and circumlocutory in the
expression of all ideas, excepting those of the simplest modification. Such
are the languages of China, Cochin-China, Tonquin, Ava, Pegu, Siam,* and

Esquimaux.

* According to the Rev. Mr. Gutzlaff, the Siamese language, though originally monosyllabic, is not
entirely so. " The Siamese have gradually changed from the monosyllabic system, by the introduction
of words from the Pali language (which was introduced as the sacred language by Samut T'hakudum),
and even blending and forming their own words according to this model. The Siamese language is
euphonious, expressive of the subjects spoken of: it unites, in itself, the simplicity of a monosyllabic

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 279

Thibet. It is, perhaps, too presumptuous to say, with some, that in these
languages the imperfection of the first attempt at speech is to be
recognised ; an imperfection continued for thousands of years, without im-
provement, and remaining, as it was formed, in the " cradle of our species ;"
for what do we know of the state of language in the cradle of our
species ? But, it may be affirmed, that, however it arose, and from whatever
cause it continues, it opposes a great barrier to the progress of true civiliza-
tion, and the advancement of science and literature ; though it cannot
be conceded, that the people who speak such a language "must ever
remain children in understanding." The monosyllabic condition of language
is not, however, by any means a universal concomitant of the Mongole or
Turanian type of physical structure : on the contrary, the Mongoles, the
Calmucs, the Burats, the Samoiedes, and even the Mantchous, have a
polysyllabic language ; as have, also, the Esquimaux and Greenlanders :
but, as far as known, it is to nations of the Mongole type that languages of
a monosyllabic structure are limited.

PROGNATHOUS STOCK.

AFRO-NEGRO BRANCH. — This branch includes the races usually com-
prehended under the term Negro, or Ethiopian.

The indigenes of Egypt, Ethiopia, Abyssinia, and Atlantica may be
regarded as constituting a sort of link between the typical forms of the
Caucasian stock, and the races to which the term Negro, or Ethiopian,
is more or less correctly, but generally, applied. Their approximation
toward the true Negro, varying, however, in degree, may be detected in
many of their physical characters ; for example, in the form of the
eye, the elevation of the cheek-bones, the thickness of the lips, and the
texture of the hair, which, though not woolly, is more or less crisp, or
frizzled : and it would seem as if the peculiar features of the Ethiopic
and Atlantic branches of the Japetic stock (they might be denominated
Afro-Caucasian) were the first steps toward those stronger traits which
characterize the Negro, and which, in some of this race, are carried out
to their maximum. In the first receding step there is no loss of grace,
of beauty, or of intellectual expression ; yet we feel that a receding step
has taken place, and, also, that this step is toward the Negro. This fact
was perceived by Ledyard, who says, " I suspect the Copts to have been
the origin* of the Negro race ; the nose and lips correspond with those

with the advantages of a polysyllabic language. The Cambojan has many rough sounds; the Peguan
is remarkable for harshness ; the Laos, for clumsiness ; and the Burman for an abundance of nasal
sounds ; while the Siamese maintains, among them all, the same character as the Italian among the
Roman dialects. Compared to the Chinese, in regard to sounds, it is richer, because it has more initials,
diphthongs, and finals, to form them."— Gutzlaff on Siamese Language ; Trans. Royal Asiatic Soc.vol. iii.
* We do not agree with Ledyard, as to the Coptic origin of the Negroes : it is his testimony, as to
the inclination of the Coptic features towards those of the Negro merely, that we wish to notice.

280

BIMANA.

of the Negro : the hair, whenever I can see it among the people here, is
curled ; not like that of the Negroes, but like the Mulattoes."

Among the African races usually comprehended under the term Negro,
or Ethiopian (which latter term, in the sense in which it is used by most
writers, is highly objectionable), are to be found numerous grades and
varieties ; and many, except in colour, can no more be referred to the
Negro stock, than can the Copt, the Abyssin, the Galla, or the Berber.*
The characters of the genuine Negro race of Mozambique, and especially of
Guinea, are as follow : — a black complexion, with black and woolly hair ;
thick protruding lips ; prominent narrow eyes ; a retreating chin ; the incisor
teeth having an oblique direction ; a low, flat nose, depressed and spreading
at the nostrils; a meagre calf, seated high on bowed shanks ; a projecting
heel ; high shoulders ; and the skull compressed laterally, and elongated ; the
forehead being low, depressed, narrow, and retreating. The annexed
figure (214) is the portrait of a genuine Negro, in which the charac-
teristic physiognomy is admirably delineated. Our knowledge of the
indigenous races of Africa is yet in its infancy : but, we have reason

.214

Negro,

* The Berber tribes, which live 700 miles south of Algiers, in the remote parts of Atlantica, and
towards the Great Desert, differ much, both in colour and countenance, from the northern Berbers ;
they are black, and approach the Negro both in hair and features : such are the Aith-Eregaiah, and
the Aith-Ouergelah, according to the testimony of Mr. Hodgson.

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 281

to believe, that the term Negro, as thus characterized, will be found to
have only a very restricted application. Winterbottom, in his account of
the native Africans of Sierra Leone, observes, that " the sloping contracted
forehead, small eyes, depressed nose, thick lips, and projecting jaws,
with which the African is usually caricatured, are by no means constant
traits ; on the contrary, every gradation of countenance may be met with,
from the disgusting picture too commonly drawn of them, to the finest
set of European features." We may, indeed, ascend a progressively rising
scale, from the Negro of Guinea, to the Mandingo of Gambia, or the
Foulah ; from the lowest style of the human countenance, to that of
the European model. As a general rule, it would appear that the
tribes along the coast are decidedly inferior, physically considered, to
those which tenant the interior countries of Senegambia and Soudan :
these only are mentioned, because the whole of the region from
Biafra, and the Gaboon coast, to Ajan and Magadoxo on the east,
occupying a space on both sides of the equator, from Nigritia to the
tropic of Capricorn, with the exception of the countries along the coast,*
is a terra incognita. It is, indeed, only within the last few years, that the
central regions of Nigritia have been penetrated by daring and devoted
Europeans ; and the discoveries of those who have reached, or attempted
to reach, the inland lake, Tschad, or the city of Timbuktoo, have
opened to our view nations till now unheard of, advanced in arts, com-
merce, and government, to a degree we were little prepared to expect ;
having towns of great extent, governed by laws, practising agriculture,
and professing the doctrines and creed of Islam, received from men
whose enthusiasm carried them beyond the mark which bounded the
ambition of the Roman, or the commercial enterprise of the Phoenician.

To the south of Soudan, the semi-civilization which there prevails (the
result of the introduction of Islamism), abruptly ceases ; a barrier-chain of
mountains obstructs its progress. These mountains, extending from the
south of the Abyssinian Alps, below the tenth degree, north latitude, to join
the highlands of Senegambia, form the northern boundary of an elevated
table land, occasionally penetrated by adventurous natives from Soudan, with
beads and other articles of traffic, for skins and slaves ; but unmapped by the
European traveller. Major Denham, who visited the Valley of Mandaar,
to the south of the lake Tschad, approached the foot of this mountain range,
the bold sides of which overhang the level region. Its recesses contain the
abodes of numerous and barbarous tribes, whose dwellings were seen in
clusters on the tops and sides of the hills which overlook Mandara, and
whose fires, which were " nightly visible in the different nests of these un-
fortunate beings, threw a glare upon the bold peaks and blunt promontories

* Namely, Congo on the west, and the Zanguebar and Mozambique country, and the region
around the Bay of Sofallo, on the east.
VOL. I. 20

282 BIMANA.

of granite rock by which they were surrounded, and produced a picturesque
and awful appearance." The inhabitants of this wild region paint and stain
their bodies of different colours, go almost naked, and live in common,
without regard to any relationship. Lakes of large extent are found in the
interior ; and the valleys produce figs, mangoes, and other fruits. On
penetrating into this region a short distance, with some people of Mandara,
we saw, says Major Denham, " the inhabitants run up the mountains, quite
naked, with ape-like agility. On another occasion, a company of savages
were sent from a Kerdy, or Pagan village, termed Musgow, as a peace-
offering, to deprecate the Sultan, who was on the eve of making a kidnap-
ping expedition into their country. On entering his palace, they threw
themselves upon the ground, pouring sand upon their heads, and uttering
the most piteous cries. On their heads, which were covered with long
woolly, or, rather, bristly hair, coming quite over their eyes, they wore a
cap of the skin of a Goat, or some animal like a Fox ; round their arms,
and in their ears, were rings of what appeared to be bone ; and around
their necks were from one to six strings of the teeth of the enemies
they had slain in battle : teeth and pieces of bone were also pendant from
the clotted locks of their hair ; their bodies were marked, in different
places, with red patches, and their teeth were stained of the same colour.
Their whole appearance was strikingly wild, and truly savage. Endea-
vours to set on foot intercourse with them were in vain : they would
hold no communication ; but, having obtained leave, carried off the
carcass of a horse to the mountains ; and the fires that blazed during the
night, and the savage yells, which reached the valley, proved that they
were celebrating their brutal feast."

The mountain countries of Bertat and Fertit, to the west of Abyssinia,
are inhabited by a race of savage Negroes, divided into different tribes,
speaking different languages, or dialects ; and the mountain regions of Kor-
dofan are tenanted by similar tribes, but rather more advanced in some of
the ruder arts, the result of their knowledge of the use of iron, and of a
mode of obtaining it from the red oxide, with which the hills abound. On
the hills and in the valleys of the Fazoclo chain, the defiles of which are
traversed by the Bharel-Abiad, are the Shangalla tribes, a rude and savage
race, oppressed and hunted down by the Abyssinians, and exhibiting a de-
graded picture of the unimproved Negro. Elephants, Hippopotami, Rhino-
ceroses, Ostriches, Crocodiles, Locusts, Snakes, and Lizards, and various
roots of the earth, constitute their food. They are woolly-headed, jet black,
robust, with narrow foreheads, high cheek-bones, flat noses, small eyes, and
wide mouths. Bruce regards these tribes as the Rhizophagi, Elephantophagi,
Acridophagi, Struthiophagi, and Agriophagi of Ptolemy. The Dobenah,
according to the same traveller, are the most powerful of the Shangalla ;
they live near to the Tacazze, and feed upon the Elephant and the Rhino-

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 283

ceros ; in other districts their food is more promiscuous, consisting of the
flesh of Buffaloes, Deer, Boars, Lions, and Serpents. In the valley of Wal-
dubba, he notices a tribe who live upon Crocodiles, the Hippopotamus, and
on fish, and, during the summer, on Locusts, which they boil and keep dry in
baskets. Ostriches, as well as Lizards, which abound upon the Mareb,
are the food of the eastern Shangalla. In the summer, the Shangalla live
under the shade of trees, the branches of which they bend downward,
and roof them with skins, so that, until the setting in of the tropical rains,
almost every tree is a house. In the winter, they tenant the caves of the
mountains, secured from the inclemency of the season. Such is a
sketch of some of the Negro nations of the interior of the African con-
tinent : to pursue the subject in detail, is here impossible ; a condensed
review can alone be attempted.

Senegambia. — Senegambia may be divided into a bold mountain
region, with elevated table lands, occupying its central and southern
portion, whence rise the Senegal, the Gambia, and their tributary branches,
and into a flat western coast and northern district. From the promontory
of Sierra Leone, which stretches out to the southern portion of the coast,
the great mountain chain runs northward, giving off numerous ranges,
intersected by ravines, through which the rivers rush, often over tre-
mendous falls, in their passage to the level sea-coast. The most elevated
parts of these ranges are unknown ; but, to the south, they are supposed to
extend eastward, to the Kong range, and so communicate with Jibbel
Kumri (the mountains of the moon). The natives of the Senegambia
country consist of various tribes, or, indeed, nations, of which the
following may be enumerated : —

The Foulahs, a widely-spread race, of which the mountain terrace of
Timbu,'or Teembo, may be regarded as the chief abode. The town, so
called, surrounded by rocky deserts and mountain pastures, contains 9,000
or 10,000 inhabitants: they are an industrious people, who cultivate
the ground, make leather, fabricate cloth, forge iron and silver, and have
mosques and schools : they are also brave and warlike, have formidable
armies, and have founded extensive kingdoms.* According to Park, the
Foulahs (or Fiilahs) have well formed features, and soft or silky hair,
without either the thick lips or the crisp hair of the Negro : he also says,
that they are not black, but of a tawny colour, which is lighter in some
states than in others ; and M. Golberry describes them as a fine, robust race ;
courageous, strong-minded, and prudent : and states, that " they understand
commerce well ; travel in the capacity of merchants, even to the extent of
Guinea ; and are formidable to their neighbours. The colour of their
skin is a kind of reddish black : their countenances are regular, and their

* A kindred people, viz., the Felatahs of Soudan, whose capital is Soccatoo, and who are of the
Foulah lineage, will be hereafter adverted to.

284

BIMANA.

hair is longer, and not so woolly as that of the common Negroes : their
language is altogether different from that of the nations by whom they are
surrounded ; it is more elegant and sonorous." They are zealous Ma-
hometans. M. Durand gives a similar account, and, with Park, describes
their hair as silky (soyeux) and " les traits petits et agreables."

The Mandingos. North of the Foulahs, the Mandingo tribes occupy
a vast extent of alpine territory, the country between the high waters of
the Niger and Senegal being their original abode. For industry, intelli-
gence, and energy of character, the Mandingos have been universally cele-
brated by all travellers who have visited their country. They cultivate the
ground, keep flocks and herds, and engage extensively and successfully
in commerce. According to M. Golberry, their features are more akin to
those of the blacks of India than those of Africa, being regular, and expres-
sive of a generous and open disposition. Major Laing, whose description
agrees with that of M. Golberry, states that their appearance is engaging ;
their features regular and open ; their persons well formed and comely,
averaging a height rather above the common. They are strict Mahomet-
ans ; have public schools, in which the Marabouts teach the reading of the
Koran : their towns are governed by an hereditary alcaid, and a council of
elders. They have various manufactures : — they weave cotton stuffs ;
fabricate leather of beautiful texture ; use indigo and other pigments as
dies ; and have smelting furnaces for iron. The women are cheerful and
pleasing ; and instances of conjugal infidelity are very rare among them.
The conquests of the Mandingos are very considerable : they have colo-
nized the banks of the Gambia, from its sources to the sea, and established
the kingdoms of Barra, Kollar, Badibon, Upper and Lower Yani, and
Bambouk. Several nations, still in a state of Paganism, speak the Man-
dingo language, and are, probably, branches of the same family. Of these
we may notice the Koorankos, who occupy the country between the Bullom
and Immani countries on the west, and the Niger and the Kissi territory
on the east, thence stretching toward the Kong Mountains ; and the Bam-
barrans, whose country extends along the Joliba, having Sego for its
capital. The slaves, formerly brought to the French factories of Senegal
and Gambia, were mostly from Bambarra. The Foulahs and the Man-
dingos are the two most powerful and widely spread races of Senegambia.
Among the tribes of less note, are —

The Jallonkas. A tribe connected, as their language proves, with the
Mandingos, and inhabiting the high mountains in the west of Senegambia,
above Teemboo.

The Sokko, or Asokko. Of these little is known, but their language
is said to resemble that of the Jallonkas.

The Rissi. Inhabiting the mountains about the sources of the Niger.

The Sulimas. Inhabiting the mountains to the south of Foutah-jallo.

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 285

Major Laing describes them as a warlike race of Pagan Negroes : the men
are of short stature, but very muscular ; the women are often beautiful.
They trade with the Mandingos.

The Sangaras. A race allied to the Sulimas, and inhabiting the moun-
tains along the course of the Niger, where it flows from south to north.
They are bold and active ; and are celebrated for the manufacture of
cloth.

The natives of the low lands of the Senegambia, are —

The Joloffs, or Whalofs. This race, divided into numerous tribes, each
having an independent state, occupy the flat country above the Mandingos,
between the rivers Gambia and Senegal. The Joloffs are true Negroes,
of a transparent jet black, with woolly hair, round noses, and thick lips ;
but they are handsome Negroes, and, as M. Golberry states, the finest
of their race. The men are tall, and well made ; the women beautiful.
In disposition they are kind and hospitable, inclined to social habits,
and to the customs of civilization.

The Serreres. Allied, as their language appears to intimate, to the
Joloffs : they are a pastoral people, and occupy the Cape Verd territories.

The Serrawoolli. The country of Galam, on the Senegal, is occupied
by tribes of this race, which extend to the north of Bambarra. Park
describes them as Negroes of a dark brown, or bright black complexion:
Their language is guttural.

The Feloups, or Feluppes. The flat forest lands on the southern bank
of the Gambia, divided by that river from the Joloff country, are inhabited
by the Feloups, a numerous and savage tribe of Negroes, of short stature,
with woolly hair, a black complexion, and rough skins : they go nearly
naked, scarify their faces and bodies, and use poisoned arrows.

The Papels. The country south of the Feloups is tenanted by this race
of savage Negroes : their aspect is ferocious ; their habits are degraded.

The Balantes. Southward of the Papels, the coast and the Isle of
Bassi are inhabited by this race, who are even more ugly than the
Papels.

The Bissagos. The Bissagos Archipelago is inhabited by a tall, robust,
and ferocious race of Negroes, who feed on fish and palm-oil. Each island
has an independent chief.

The Biafres, or lolas. These Negroes are said to be a fine race : they
tenant the bank of the Geba.

The Bassores, the Naloubes, the Zapes, the Foulis, the Cocolis, and the
Nalez. These tribes occupy different districts along the coast, to the terri-
tories adjacent to Sierra Leone. Harsh features, flat noses, and a dirty black
colour, are their general characteristics. The country of the Bulloms, the
Timmanis, the Bajoes, and the Soosoos then succeeds. These races are
distinguished by fine features and forms ; they are endowed with excel-

286 BIMANA.

lent capabilities, and are of pleasing manners : they speak different lan-
guages ; that of the Bullom race extending as far along the coast as Shebar.

Guinea. From the Sherboo Isle to Cape Palmas extends a low coast,
termed the Grain, or Pepper, Coast. The interior is occupied by the
Quojas tribes ; on the coast are the Vy-berkomas ; the Quoja-berkomas,
the Galas, the Hondo, the Curras, and the Folgias. Cape Palmas is
the territory of the Kroos. These races are all of the true Negro stock.

Between Cape Palmas and the Cape of Three Points extends the
Ivory Coast, occupied by a rude Negro race, termed Quaquas : the inland
territories are inhabited by the Buntakoos, a powerful and numerous people.
From the Cape of Three Points to the Rio Volta extends the Gold Coast.
The chief tribes of the coast and interior region are, the Ashantees, the
Fantees, the Aminas, the Warsaws, the Akims, Assims, and Aquapims ;
still more interiorly are the Intas. According to Bowditch, the Intas
are the original stock, whence the Fantees, the Ashantees, and the rest
have branched out. Their languages are dialects of the Inta ; and the
tradition of the various tribes refers to Inta as the source from which they
emigrated. It would seem that neither the Fantees nor the Ashantees
have a thoroughly Negro physiognomy — more particularly the Ashantees.
According to Bowditch, " the men of Ashantee are very well made,
but not so muscular as the Fantees ; their countenances are frequently
aquiline : the women are generally handsomer than those of Fantee ; but
it is only among the higher orders that beauty is to be found ; and among
them, free from all labour and hardship, I have not only seen the finest
figures, but, in many instances, regular Grecian features, with brilliant
eyes, set rather obliquely in the head," the physiognomy being rather
Indian than African.

The Acras constitute another nation inhabiting the Gold Coast : they
are distinct from the branches of the Inta race, speak a language peculiar
to themselves, and are genuine Negroes. To the Gold Coast succeeds
the Slave Coast, extending to the Benin river, peopled by the Whidahs, the
Papaas, the Ardrahs, the Mahas, and the Dahameh, or Foy, tribes ; respect-
ing which, little is accurately known : they are said to speak dialects of one
common language, and to resemble each other in habits, manners, and
person. They have the Negro stamp of countenance, are tall and robust,
but of black hue, less pure and glossy than that of the Negroes of the
districts previously enumerated.

Of the natives of Benin Biafra, the Island of Fernando Po, and the
Gaboon Coast, little seems to be known. A race termed Eboes, or Ibos,
tenant the inland country on the banks of the Quorra ; and a race called
Mokos, the district of old Calabar ; behind which, according to Barbot,
are the Hackous Negroes ; of whom numbers were, in his day, brought
down to Calabar, to be sold as slaves, for transportation to the West Indies.

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 287

Soudan. The vast level region occupying central Africa, south of
the Desert, and bounded, on its south, by the Mountains of the Moon,
contains several semi-civilized independent states, and various petty
kingdoms, more or less dependant upon others, which, by policy or the
force of arms, have gained a fluctuating predominance over them. How-
ever these states or kingdoms may be divided, it would seem that three
principal races, having each a distinct language which has ramified into
many dialects, occupy this extensive country. These three races lead to
the division of Soudan into the kingdom of Timbuctoo, the kingdom of
Houssa, or Hausa, and the kingdom of Bornou, to which latter the states
of Bergu, or Dar Szalich, Begharmi, and Borgho, are tributary. Bergu
is seated to the east of Bornou, Begharmi to the south-east of the lake
Tschad, and Borgho to the south-west or the south of Houssa, having a
country termed Gourna on its northern boundary, and Yarriba, or Eyeo,
to the south, extending to Dahomeh. According to Clapperton, the
Kong chain of mountains rises in the Borgho country, north of Ashantee,
whence it stretches in a south-east direction, through Borgho, Yarriba, and
Laboo, into Benin, having an altitude of about 2,500 feet. Borgho is
divided into the petty states of Niki,* Khiama, Wawa, and Boussa, the
latter being seated on the Niger. The language of this territory and that
of Yarriba are cognate dialects. Our knowledge of the present condition
of Soudan is due to the researches of various modern travellers, among
whom Clapperton and Denham, Burckhardt, Lander, and Hornemann,
may be consulted with advantage.

Of the physical characteristics of the Negroes of Soudan, we have
only general accounts : they are said to be robust and muscular, with
coarse features, and a jet black complexion, but to differ in minor pecu-
liarities. The Houssa race are superior to the people of Bornou, War-
gera, and the Bergu, or Mobba, district, and excel them in intelligence.
Some of the females, as Jackson reports, are even beautiful ; and he
ascribes to them large expressive eyes, and a prominent nose : he adds,
that " a young girl of Houssa, of exquisite beauty, was sold at Morocco,
when he was there, for 400 ducats, the usual price of a female Negro
being 100." M. Rozet observes, that Negresses brought from the
interior of Soudan are to be seen, in the Algerine country, of a jet black
colour, but with aquiline noses, lips slightly tumid, large eyes, and
an open forehead ; and that men from the same country have often a
similar style of countenance. Dr. Seetzen (" Nachrichen, v. d. Negerlande,"
in F. Von Zach's Monathl. Corr. 1810, p. 141) describes two natives of
Bergu, or Mobba, Abdallah and Hassan (from whom he derived much

* According to Lander, the king of Niki is styled, by way of pre-eminence, the Sultan of
Borgho, and his empire includes the following states; namely, Niki, Bury Khiama, Sandero, King-
ka, Korokoo, Loogoo, and Funda. Boussa and Wawa, he adds, form a separate state, where a
different language is spoken, and different manners prevail.

288 BIMANA.

information respecting their country), who left their native place on a
pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, without a para of money, as being men
of sense and candour, and by no means inferior to Europeans. Abdallah
had a broad, flat nose, and an uneven complexion, perhaps from small-
pox, one of the scourges of the Negro race : Hassan was black, but less
so than some Negroes, his nose was less broad, and his lips were less
turned out. He was of middle stature ; of spare habit, and his beard was
short and scanty.

Throughout Soudan are scattered hordes of Felatahs, a race different,
in many respects, from genuine Negroes : they live in the forests and
desert places, in small tribes, feeding flocks, and dwelling in temporary
huts. Most have embraced the Moslem faith ; but some are still Pagans.
According to Professor Vater, from a comparison of the vocabulary of
African languages, arranged by Dr. Seetzen, they are a branch of the great
Foulah race. Soccatoo, when visited by Clapperton, was the residence
of the Felatah Sultan, Mohammed Bello, whose power was very con-
siderable. It is to this lamented traveller, who collected, in his last
unfortunate journey, much information respecting the Felatahs, that we
owe the best information. From their own account, it would appear
that they originally emigrated from Malli, under which term they include
the Foulah states in Senegambia, Foota-Torro, Foota-Bonda, and Foota-
Diallo. They dispersed themselves in hordes, wandering with their cattle
over the Soudan country, and many embraced Islamism, and became devo-
tees, performing pilgrimages to Mecca. In the course of time, a Felatah
Sheik, named Othman, or Danfodio, who had acquired the learning of the
Arabs in the north of Africa, succeeded in persuading his countrymen that
he was a prophet. At the head of his followers, he issued out from the
woods of Tadela, and built a town in the Guber country ; but, being
expelled by the natives of the province, he returned to the Tadela, or
Ader district, and founded Soccatoo : here the tribes of his race flocked
to his standard, and his victorious progress may be compared to that of
Mahomet. He appointed chiefs ; gave them white flags ; raised the
war-cry, Allah Akbar, and bade them conquer in the name of God and his
prophet, who had given the lands of the Caffres to be theirs. Thus,
inspired by religious enthusiasm, they overran Guber, Houssa, and the
adjacent states, conquered a great part of Bornou and Yarriba, and rose
at once to power and distinction, becoming the terror of the nations of
Soudan. Danfodio governed with great skill and policy ; but, in the latter
part of his life, became religiously insane. After his death, in 1816, some
of the states revolted ; but the present chief, Mohammed Bello, has
succeeded in reducing a great part of the country under his dominion.
Lander gives us a similar account of the progress of the Felatahs ; but
observes, that the tribes dispersed over Borgho, who speak the same

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 289

language as the Foulahs of Senegambia, maintain no intercourse with their
nation established in Houssa, and have no traditions of their origin : the
Felatahs, therefore, with their kindred, the Foulahs, are to be ascribed,
not to the Negro stock, but to that class of the indigenes of Africa
intermediate between the Negro and the Japetic. The characters of the
Foulahs have been already noticed.

South of the line, to the Tropic of Capricorn, our knowledge of the
natives of Africa is limited to the nations along the east and western
coasts, glimpses only of the space between having been occasionally
obtained by Europeans. From the concurrent testimony of various
authorities, it appears that the languages spoken by the tribes occupying
these opposite coasts are referable to one origin ; and, farther, that they
are intrinsically identical with the dialects of the natives of the territory
near Delagoa Bay, and of the several Caffre tribes tenanting the country
south of the tropic, — a circumstance of interest, as leading to the conclusion
that the multitudinous nations and tribes, spread over the continent of
subequatorial Africa, the Hottentots excepted, are branches of the same
stock, and that the differences in colour and physiognomy, which may
obtain among them, are to be attributed to extrinsic causes : not, indeed,
well understood, but parallel to those which have stamped the natives of the
kingdoms and provinces of Europe, derived from a common source, with
their respective national characteristics of form and features. The natives
of Congo, on the west, and Mozambique, on the east, have been usually
regarded as Negroes ; while the Caffre tribes are not generally considered
to come under that denomination : it would appear, however, that, as we ad-
vance northward, in the Caffre country, a gradual approach is observable,
both in features and complexion of the tribes, to the black or Negro races
of Congo* and Mozambique ; while, on the other hand, tribes inhabiting
certain districts of these countries approximate, both in stature and com-
plexion, to the Caffres. Among the natives of Congo, for example, whence
the Portuguese have long drained their colonial slaves, tribes occur, ap-
proaching the European in features, and of a brown olive, or sandy-red
complexion ; and the Movisas, the Monomugi, and Maravis, tenanting the
interior districts of the Mozambique region, are not decidedly black, but
of a dusky or brown complexion, and of a tall and athletic form. The
natives, however, of the districts adjacent to the coast, and along the
Zambesi river and its branches, as the Sowauli of Zanguebar, and the
neighbouring isles, the Makuanas of Mozambique Proper and the

* In the empire of Congo are comprehended the provinces of Loango, Angola, Bemba. Matamba,
and Benguela, &c. ; on the east, this extensive region, forming, by a mountain range, a line of
separation between it and the elevated table land of central Africa. The river Zaire, or Congo,
rises and flows, for some distance, among mountains rich in ore, between which and the flat
country along the coast is a district of diversified surface, fertile, and highly populous, including
the province of Bemba. The low country is pestilential in the extreme. The unfortunate result
of Captain Tuckey's expedition up the Congo river is well known.

VOL.1. 2P

290

BTMANA.

Comoro Isles, the natives of Sofala, the Bororos, and the Monomotapa, or
Mocoranga nations, are black, with thick woolly hair, and resemble the
natives of Guinea. They ornament the body with marks produced by
tatooing and superficial incisions. The annexed figure (215) is the por-

215

Of \f

Mozambique.

trait of a Mozambique, from Dr. Prichard's learned work on the History
of Man, and conveys a good idea of the national phisiognomy.

The ultratropical extremity of South Africa, that is, from the Desert
of Concritan, on the west, and the river of Inhambane, on the east, to
the line of shore between the Cape of Good Hope and Algoa Bay, includ-
ing the whole of the interior of the country, is inhabited by two races,
to which the respective terms, Caflfres and Hottentots, have been applied.

The Caffres* are divided into many distinct and independent
nations, differing in the degree of civilization, to which they have respec-
tively advanced ; differing also, to a certain extent, from each other in
physiognomy, and speaking various dialects. The range of country

* The word Caffre, or Kafir, an Arabic term for infidel, has been applied, by the Arab settlers
in various parts of Africa, to the heathen natives : the Dutch adopted the term, and conferred it
upon the hordes of savages (not Hottentots), by which the Cape colony is surrounded, and custom
has legitimatized its use as their national appellation.

PROGNATHOUS STOCK.

they occupy is very considerable ; but their tendency is to press
southward, so as to encroach upon the districts occupied by the
Hottentots, portions of whose territories have been usurped by them,
as tradition informs us, and as the Hottentot names of places and
rivers, in districts now tenanted by the Caffres, prove.

The distribution of the Caffre nations, at the present time, is, in a general
sense, as follows: — on the west, above Angra Pequena, the Damaras have
established themselves, holding a district of considerable extent. To the
east of the Damara country, the Bechuana nation occupies a large tract
in the interior, above the Orange River, of which one tribe, the Batchapis,
or Matchappees, are well known to Europeans; Lattakoo, or Litakii,
being their metropolis. To the north-east of the Bechuanas are the
Tammaha and Marootzee nations ; and to the westward of the latter, the
Wankitzee. The Mantatees, a wandering horde of warlike savages,
occupy the interior of the country above the Bechuanas. Their language
is a dialect of the Sichuana, spoken by the Bechuana, Tammaha, Ma-
rootzee, and Wankitzee nations ; which is the language, also, of the
Damaras, and of the natives of the country adjacent to Delagoa Bay.
Southward of Delagoa Bay, the Amazoolahs, a powerful people, have
usurped a wide territory, extending to the Natal Coast, and including the
Hamboona country, the Caffre natives of which they have completely
subjugated. On the Natal Coast, above the boundaries of the Cape colony,
the region formerly occupied by the Gonaqua Hottentots is possessed by
the Amakosahs.

To the superiority of the Caffre tribes, generally speaking, above the
Negro races of Guinea and other parts of equatorial Africa, travellers
have born abundant testimony. Without losing all traces of the Negro,
they rise in the scale of physical characters above him ; and have that in
their physiognomy which at once distinguishes them. The forehead is
high and ample ; the lips are thick ; the nose elevated ; the cheek-bones
prominent ; the eyes long and deeply set ; and the chin well moulded :
the hair is short, black, and woolly, growing in frizzled knots ; and such
is the character of the beard : the complexion is mostly of a clear brown ;
the stature is tall ; the figure athletic. Fig. 216, is an example of the Caffre
physiognomy.

Though revengeful and cruel, like all rude nations, the Caffres are not
utterly uncivilized : they dwell in hamlets, or towns, of circular houses ;
are governed by kings, who succeed each other by hereditary right ; hold
assemblies for the discussion of important topics ; possess herds of cattle ;
practise agriculture ; and cultivate enclosed gardens. They are acquainted
with the working of iron and copper, and the art of tanning leather.
They believe in the existence of supreme powers, and in a future state of
being ; are influenced by various superstitions ; sacrifice to imaginary

BIMANA.

spirits ; and put faith in the assurances of sorcerers, or persons pretend-
ing to supernatural endowments. The rite of circumcision is universally
practised, attended by certain ceremonies : but of its origin, or the motives
which conduce to it, they profess to know nothing. It is an established
custom, which has passed from generation to generation.

216

HOTTENTOT BRANCH. — From the Caffres we pass to the Hot-
tentot race, or, as they term themselves, Quaiquse, who occupy the
southern extremity of Africa, encompassed on the north and east by the
Caffres, who, as already said, have encroached upon and circumscribed
their original territory. The Hottentots* were once a free people, of
pastoral and agricultural habits, under a patriarchal government, and
divided into numerous and extensive tribes, of which few now remain ;
partly owing to the changes to which European colonization has subjected
their country, and partly from the pressure of the Caflfre tribes from the
north. The relics of several Hottentot tribes exist within the limits of
the colony, in a state of servitude : beyond these limits, a few independent

* The derivation of this word is not known.

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 293

nations occupy their respective territories. Of these, the principal are,
the Namaquas on the west, on both sides of the Gariep, or Orange
River ; the Koras, or Koranas, in the interior, along the higher course of
the Gariep and its tributary branches ; and a broken tribe of the once
powerful Gonaquas, which still lingers on the borders of the colony,
near the Great Fish River, in contact with the Amakosah Caffres. To
these may be added the Bushmen, Bosjemen, or Saabs, a wandering and
degraded offset of the Hottentot stock, scattered over the Karroos, and
particularly the vast barren desert, north of the Orange River, where they
obtain a scanty subsistence on roots, insects, and reptiles.

In physical characters and language the Hottentot race differs, not
only from that of the CafFres, but from every other known people of the
African continent ; and if, as Professors Vater and Lichtenstein suppose,
Southern Africa owes its population to the influx of nation after nation
from the north, one being pressed onward by another following after it
in regular rotation, the conclusion will be, that the Hottentot race must
be regarded as a relic of one of the most ancient of the human denizens
of, at least, subequatorial Africa.

Dr. Prichard considers the Hottentot and Bushman race as forming
a distinct class of the human species, distinguished from the Negro
race, with which they have been confounded, not only by their physiog-
nomy, but by the conformation of the cranium. The Hottentots,
according to Barrow, are well proportioned, erect, and of delicate rather
than muscular contour : their joints and extremities are small ; their face
is ugly, but varies in different families, some having the nose remarkably
flat, others considerably raised ; their eyes are of a deep chestnut
colour, long and narrow, distant from each other, the inner angle being
rounded, as in the Chinese, to whom the Hottentot bears a striking
resemblance ; the cheek-bones are high and prominent, and, with the
narrow pointed chin, form nearly a triangle ; their teeth are very white.
The women, when young, are graceful and well made ; the nipple is un-
usually large, and the areola much elevated ; but, immediately after
the birth of the first child, the breast becomes flaccid and pendent;
and in old age, greatly distended; the abdomen also acquires pro-
tuberance, and the posteriors are covered with a huge mass of pure fat.
Burchell's description is to the same effect ; he gives the following as
their characters : " Hands and feet little ; eyes so oblique, that lines drawn
through the corners would not coincide as being on the same plane, but
would intersect sometimes as low down as the middle of the nose ; space
between the two cheek bones, flat ; scarcely any perceptible ridge of the
nose; end of the nose wide and depressed; nostrils squeezed out of
shape ; chin long and forward ; narrowness of the lower part of the face,
a character of the race." The hair is of a singular texture ; it is not

294

BIMANA.

universally and equally spread over the scalp, but grows in small frizzled
knots, or tufts, at a certain distance from each other, and, when suffered to
grow, hangs in hard twisted tassels, the hairs forming each being so
felted together as to defy the aid of the cornjb to separate them. The
colour of the skin is tawny buff, or sickly yellowish brown. Sparrrnan
compared it to that of a person affected with jaundice. The Hottentot
physiognomy is represented in fig. 217.

217

Hottentot female.

The Bushmen, or Saabs, now generally recognised as a division of
the Hottentot race, exhibit all those characters which arise from extreme
wretchedness, and insufficient or innutritious diet, combined with a life of
incessant apprehension, being persecuted alike by the Coranas, the Caffres,
and the Boors ; they are diminutive in person, and generally ill-favoured
in countenance, though not universally so ; instances occurring, especially
among the females, of pleasing features* " A wild, shy, suspicious eye,
and a crafty expression," says Lichtenstein, " form (in the Bushman) a
striking contrast to the frank, open physiognomy of the Hottentot. The
universally distinguishing features of the Hottentot, the broad flat nose,
and large prominent cheek bones, are, from the leanness of the Bushmen,

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 295

doubly remarkable. Their figure, though small, is not ill-proportioned ;
and they would not be ugly if they had more flesh : yet the men may be
called handsome, in comparison with the women. The loose hanging
breasts, and the disproportionate thickness of the hinder parts, united
with their ugly features, make them, to Europeans, disgusting. The Hot-
tentot women, though resembling the Bushmen, are, from their greater
height, and better-proportioned limbs, in comparison with them, handsome."
Their colour is dirty yellow, and their hair resembles that of the Hottentots.
Hunted down like wild beasts, the Bushman tribes seek refuge in the desert,
dwelling in low huts, or excavations in the ground, or in natural fissures
or cavities among the rocks : concealed in these retreats, they endeavour
to escape observation, and watch the moment, in which to discharge their
poisoned arrows against the unwary intruder, whom they have been taught
to regard as necessarily their enemy. The acuteness of their sight almost
exceeds belief ; and they are subtle and active in the pursuit of game.
Their usual dress consists of the kaross, or sheep-skin mantle ; but they
are fond of ornaments, such as beads and metal rings.

The females, both of the Hottentot and Bushman tribes, are alike
conspicuous for the fatty protuberance which covers the haunches and
sacrum, reminding us of certain breeds of sheep found in Asia and
Africa. This appendage, the development of which is not easy to ac-
count for, and which does not take place until after the first pregnancy,
is elastic and tremulous, and vibrates at every step. Cuvier, who
examined its structure in the Bushman female, known under the name of
the Hottentot Venus, who died at Paris in 1815, observes, that it consists
of fat, traversed in various directions by strong cellular threads, and is
easily removed from the glutaei muscles. An examination of the same
individual enabled M. Cuvier to investigate the nature of that structural
enlargement so often alluded to by anatomists, and described by Le
Vaillant, Sennerat, Barrow, and others, as an unvarying peculiarity in
the Hottentot female ; but which, in reality, is not universal, at least, in
a conspicuous degree, being only considerable in some of the Bushman
females ; a statement, however, contrary to the assertion of Barrow.

The projection of the jaws, and the obliquity of the incisor teeth, are
by no means constant characters in the Hottentot or Bushman skull ;
and in Blumenbach's specimen,, the skull differed not in these peculiarities
from the European.

The similarity of the Hottentot physiognomy to that of the Mon-
gole, noticed by Cuvier, has been remarked by other writers. Barrow,
indeed, perceived the resemblance which the Hottentots bear to the
Chinese and other nations with broad and flat-faced skulls, in which the
prominence of the malar bones and boldness of the zygomatic arches are
considerable. The size of the foramen magnum, compared with the same

296

BIMANA.

in European and other heads ; the size and breadth of the nasal processes
of the superior maxillary bones, and, consequently, the breadth of the alae
nasi ; the obliquity of the eyes ; the broad and square contour of the head ;
the high cheek-bones, and the pointed chin, giving a triangular form to the
lower part of the face, have been also noticed as characters common
both to the Mongole and Hottentot ; and Dr. Prichard has drawn up
a list of these and other minor points of resemblance, concluding with
the observation, that the similarity between the skulls of the two races
is accompanied by a similarity of the moral condition, and of the exter-
nal circumstances under which, from time immemorial, they have existed.
" Both are nomadic races, wandering with their herds through deserts,
remarkable for the wide expansion of their surface, their scanty herbage,
the dryness of the atmosphere, and almost perpetual drought. Both
races feed upon the milk and flesh of their horses, as well as of their oxen.
No countries can be more similar than are
the vast steppes of Central Asia and the
Karroos of Southern Africa."

The subjoined are figures of the skulls
of individuals of various tribes, or people, of
the African continent.

Fig. 218. Skull of a Negro. In this charac-
teristic example of the Negro skull, in the
Royal College of Surgeons, the following
particulars are worthy of notice : — The con-
tour of the cranium is compressed laterally ;
the forehead is narrow and retreating, but
tolerably arched ; the superciliary margin, with
the glabella, projects boldly ; and the nasal bones, which are broad
and flat, seem sunk below the ridge of the frontal bone ; the interorbital
space, owing to the breadth of the nasal bones, and of the ascending
branch of the maxillary, which advances forward, almost to the level
of the bridge of the nose, is very great, — the difference, in this
point, between the Negro and the Orang, or other Simiae, being con-
siderable ; the orifice of the nares is large and broad, and almost
quadrate ; the malar bones are greatly developed and advanced, having
a deep sulcus before them (in which is the suborbital foramen of
the superior maxillary bone), and their anterior angle is deep, pro-
minent, and abrupt ; the zygoma is thick, and arched forward ; the
external orbital processes are strong and prominent ; the alveolar pro-
cesses are long, and very oblique, projecting as in the Orang ; the lower
jaw rests flat on a plane surface ; the great foramen of the occipital bone
is small, and forms a narrow oval ; the anterior projection of the upper
jaw throws the occipital condyles to a greater distance beyond a trans-

PROGNATHOUS STOCK.

297

Skull of Asbanteti.

verse mesian line, on the basis of the cranium, than in European skulls.
The skull is remarkably thick, solid, and rugose : the coronal suture only

just impinges on the sphenoid bone.
Fig. 219. Skull of a warrior
of Ashantee. This skull is well
formed ; but the transverse diameter
is less than in a well-developed Euro-
pean skull ; the frontal bone is nar-
rower, and more retreating, and the
arch of the calvarium is lower ; the
ridge, indicating the attachment of
the temporal muscle, is very dis-
tinct ; the frontal sinuses, and a ridge
continued from them over the orbits, are strongly marked ; the nasal bones,
though not rising as in the European, are less depressed, and narrower
than in the preceding, and the interorbital space is less considerable ; the
malar bones are not remarkable for amplitude, but the zygoma is strong,

and arched forward ; the alveolar pro-
cesses are shorter than in the preced-
ing, and less obliquely prominent ;
the sphenoid bone fails to reach the
parietal bones, so that the coronal su-
ture, instead of impinging upon the
former, joins the margin of the tem-
poral bone.

Fig. 220. Skull of an African
from the Gold Coast. General con-
tour elongate, with slight longitudinal

uii of African-Gold Coast. coronal eminence ; the parietal bones

bulge out, giving considerable transverse volume to the posterior part of
the cranium ; the forehead is narrow, but rises well ; the nasal bones
are broad, and quite flat ; the interorbital space is considerable, though
exceeded, in this respect, by other African skulls ; the malar bones are
large and prominent ; the alveoli of the maxillary bone project obliquely
forward ; the ascending ramus of the lower jaw is broad, and the poste-
rior angle acute and prominent, with an anterior notch adding to its bold-
ness : the sphenoid bone is united to the parietal as usual.

Fig. 221. Skull of a Mozambique Negro. This skull is singularly elon-
gated, and, at the same time, flattened laterally, with a projecting occiput,
and a longitudinal vertical eminence, bounded by a flat slope on each side :
the forehead is narrow and low, and the elevation of the arch of the cra-
nium is inconsiderable ; the nasal bones are broad, and rather flat ; the
nasal orifice is wide ; the malar bones are large ; and the alveolar processes

VOL. I. 2 Q

298

BIMANA.

Skull of Mozambique.

of the maxillary, projecting. In this skull, as in that of the Ashantee,

221 the coronal suture joins the temporal
bone, the sphenoid failing to send up
its wing so high and backward as to
meet the parietal.

Fig. 222. Skull of a Caffre. The
general contour is elongated; the
forehead is retreating ; the glabella
is arched and prominent ; the nasal
bones are flat ; the interorbital space
is very great ; the alveoli of the
upper jaw project forward ; the
lower jaw is deep at the symphysis

menti, but the posterior part of the ramus is narrow, and the angle

boldly prominent.

In the skull of a Caffre, given by Dr. Prichard (see Researches, &c.,

222 vol. i. p. 597, fig. 5), copied from
a figure in the Wernerian Transac-
tions, the amplitude and convexity
of the forehead, as well as of the
occiput, are far superior to what
obtains in the specimen in the Royal
College of Surgeons, from which
the foregoing figure was taken ; the
alveoli, moreover, are less oblique.
Doubtless, great allowance is to be
made for individual differences, and

skuii of caffre. those, also, of tribes of the same race.

Fig. 223. Skull of a Bushman. The general contour of this skull is

somewhat elongate, with a low forehead ; but the parietal bones bulge

considerably at their centre, giving
breadth to the posterior part of the
cranial cavity ; behind the coronal su-
ture they are depressed, a sort of fur-
row, or transverse channel, being thus
produced : the nasal bones are short,
and quite flat ; the nasal orifice is
broad. There is no coronal elevation ;
the face is flat and broad, with pro-
skuii of Bushman. jecthig alveolar processes, and the

interorbital space, owing to the development of the ascending, or nasal
branches of the superior maxillary, is considerable ; the cheek-bones are
high and prominent ; the lower jaw, with an acute posterior angle, is

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 299

somewhat arched at the base, and the chin is narrow and prominent. (In
this specimen, the sagittal suture is obliterated.) Comparing this with
the skull of the Negro (see page 296) first described, many traits of
distinction are perceptible. It is not only less solid and heavy, but the
general contour of the whole is different : the maxillary bone does not
present that sudden sinking, anterior to the malar bone, so remarkable
in the Negro skull ; and hence the space between the two malar bones
is flat, the nose being altogether depressed ; the jaws, though the alveolar
processes are oblique, have less of the Orang-like protrusion than in
the true Negro ; and the ascending ramus of the lower jaw is more
perpendicular.

In concluding this sketch of the principal indigenous nations of
Africa, of which we have the most authentic information, the fact must
be again reverted to, that not only some are excluded from the pale
of the Negro type, approximating to that of the Japetic, and even
Mongole, but that a great diversity of characters exists among such as
are usually referred to the Negro stock, various grades and phases of
approximation to the genuine Negro form being perpetually exhibited
among them ; but the grades of approximation in the physiognomy
are not accompanied by a constant and uniform correspondence of
other characters. Some races, for example, as the Joloffs, have a
black skin and woolly hair, combined with fine forms and almost
European features ; some, a black, or dark brown complexion, with
regular features, and crisp, but not woolly hair ; others, a Negro
colour and physiognomy, with long, or crisp hair; and others, again,
have the general characters of the Negro, with a brown or dusky
skin. The Caffres, with their ample forehead, elevated nose, high
cheek-bones, light brown hue, knotted hair, and noble figure, present us
with a notable instance of departure from the Negro type ; the Hot-
tentots with another, equally, or more decided, insomuch that they have a
claim to be regarded as constituting a class, per se. Hence, then, there
appears to be not one, but many African types of form and features, unless
we are to regard them, or most of them, as variations of one common type,
having its characters not permanent, but fluctuating. Is there, it may be
asked, a tendency in the Negro race to lose its peculiar feature — its sup-
posed badges of inferiority in the scale of the human race — a tendency
toward amelioration? Many circumstances render this not improbable.
The difference between certain of the Caffre tribes, as the Amakosahs,
and the Negro natives of Congo and Mozambique, whose respective lan-
guages prove a common origin, seems to warrant the opinion — an opinion
advocated by Dr. Prichard, who, in reference to the Caffre tribes, which
have been thought, by many observers, to resemble the Arabs rather than
the natives of intertropical Africa, states, — "they are a genuine African

300 BIMANA.

race ; and, as it appears highly probable, only a branch of one widely-
extended race, to which all the Negro nations of the empire of Congo
belong, as well as many tribes, both on the western and eastern side of
Southern Africa. The skull of the Kosah Caffre, though still retaining
something of the African character, deviates very considerably from that
type, and approaches the form of the European skull, or that of the Indo-
Atlantic nations. To the form described by Dr. Knox, as characteristic
of the Caffre, the eastern Negroes of Africa appear generally to approxi-
mate ; the skulls of the Mozambique blacks, or Makuani, filling up the
gradations that may be imagined between the depressed forehead and
strongly-marked African countenances of the Ibos, and the well-developed
heads and bold and animated physiognomy of the Amakosah and Ama-
zulah. The complexion of these tribes presents every variety, from the
dark black of the Loango, or Angola Negro, to the olive-brown, or copper
colour, of the Bechuana, who inhabit the high plains beyond the tropic.
The nature of the hair is one of the most general, as it is one of the most
characteristic peculiarities of these nations. Yet even this displays de-
viations ; and in some tribes, among whom there is no probable ground
for conjecturing diversity, or intermixture of race, the hair is positively
stated to be not woolly, but merely curled, or in flowing ringlets of con-
siderable length. Many other instances may be collected on a survey of
the African races, in which variations of a similar description are proved
to have taken place. The more accurate our researches are among the in-
digenous population of this region of the world, the less reason do we find
for the opinion, that the characteristic qualities of the human races are per-
manent and undeviating.* Among the various considerations which confirm
this view of the subject, we must not neglect to take into account the
conclusions to which we are led by a comparison of the languages of
Africa. If, as it would appear highly probable, the various idioms of
Africa constitute one family of languages, in which the language of the
Caffres and that of the Egyptians are included, this will go far toward
the proof of a common origin." The question is one of great difficulty :
our facts, after all, are too scanty, our acquaintance with the races of
Africa too limited, and our knowledge of the revolutions, migrations, and
intermixtures to which, in remote ages, the nations and tribes of this
immense Continent have been subjected, too trivial to enable us to come
to anything like a positive conclusion. Granting, however, this presumed
tendency, in the Negro race, to lose its most striking characteristics, it
does not appear, on the contrary, that any well-authenticated instances

* In all the peculiarities of organization which belong to' the African nations, the Caffres resemble
the Negroes : their skulls have, though not in an equal degree, the same characteristics of shape.
The extent of development of the upper jaw is, in the Caffre, nearly as great as in the Negro, accord-
ing to the testimony of Dr. Knox, who concludes that the Caffres are Negroes of the mountains, or
Negroes changed by inhabiting an extra-tropical climate.

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 301

can be adduced of nations, or tribes, of other races assuming the Negro
type. A darker hue, indeed, has, doubtless, in some cases, taken place,
but no alteration of physiognomy. Thus, the Tuaricks of the Sahara are
black, or nearly so, while the Berber tribes of the highlands of the Atlan-
tica, of which the former are a branch, are brown, or dusky, — " subfusci
coloris." The Arab tribes, moreover, of the same desert, and those,
likewise, who have settled in Nubia and Abyssinia, are black, or of a
much darker colour than their Asiatic brethren; even where there has
been no admixture between them and the black races around them.
Waddington describes the Sheygya Arabs of Nubia as being of a clear,
glossy, jet black. " They are distinguished," he adds, " in every respect,
from the Negroes, by the brightness of their colour ; by their hair, and the
regularity of their features ; by the mild and dewy lustre of their eyes,
and by the softness of their touch, in which last respect they yield not to
the Europeans." M. Rozet describes the Arabs of pure blood, inhabiting
the Sahara, as large and well-made men, with black hair, open foreheads,
lively eyes, a well-formed mouth and nose, an oval countenance, and long
features : — " their skin," he says, " is brown, sometimes olive; but I
have seen many as black as Negroes, yet preserving all the other charac-
teristics of the Arab race."

A degeneration, then, of the form and features of other races into those
of the Negro, among people who have long settled in Africa, but continued
unmixed, cannot be found to have occurred.

The intellectual inferiority of the African nations generally, but
especially of the Negroes, and the approximation of the latter, both men-
tally and physically, to the Simise, have been entertained as facts too strong
for contradiction, by the most celebrated writers, and gladly received by
those who, in such a theory, found some vague excuse for the acts of cruelty
and oppression involved in the lucrative traffic of the black portion of the
human race. White, Bory St. Vincent, Soemmerring, Camper, Cuvier,
and Lawrence, have lent their authority to the statement, and supported
the opinion by arguments of apparent solidity. They have measured the
skulls of Negroes, ascertained the degree of the facial angle, and hastened
to the conclusion, that the Negro brain is of less volume than that of the
European, forgetting that the peculiar configuration and extent of the facial
bones might render their modes of test fallacious. On the other hand,
Professor Tiedemann, who has published a valuable paper in the Philosoph.
Transact, (part ii. 1836), " On the Brain of the Negro, compared with
that of the European and the Orang-outan," contends, that the opinion re-
specting the cerebral degradation of the Negro race is utterly untenable. The
result of his researches is given in copious tables, shewing the comparative
capacity of the skulls of numerous individuals* of the African races, com-

* Forty-one skulls of various African tribes, not Egyptian.— Seventy-seven of Europeans, male, and

B1MANA.

pared, not only with those of Europeans of every kingdom, but, also, with
skulls of the Asiatic Caucasian tribes, and of the Mongolian, American, and
Malayan races. From these comparisons, it is proved that the capacity of the
cavum cranii of the Negro, in general, is not smaller than that of the European
and other human races. The substance of Hamilton's investigations, he
states to be the same ; and, therefore, he contends that the opinion of many
naturalists, such as Camper, Soemmerring, Cuvier, Lawrence, and Virey,
that the Negro has a smaller skull and brain than the European, is ill
founded. The mistaken notion of these naturalists, he adds, arose from
the application of Camper's facial line and facial angle on a few skulls
of Negroes living on the coasts, who, according to credible travellers,
are the lowest and most demoralized of all the Negro tribes ; the miser-
able remains of an enslaved people, bodily and spiritually lowered and
degraded by ill treatment. Camper's facial line and facial angle are
confessedly unsatisfactory as a test for determining the capacity of the
skull, the size of the brain, and the according degree of intellectual
vigour. His conclusions, drawn from an anatomical examination of the
brain, are thus detailed : —

" 1 . The brain of a Negro is, upon the whole, quite as large as that of the
European and other human races : the weight of the brain, its dimensions,
and the capacity of the cavum cranii, prove this fact. Many anatomists have,
also, incorrectly stated, that Europeans have a larger brain than Negroes.

" 2. The nerves of the Negro, relatively to the size of the brain, are
not thicker than those of Europeans, as Soemmerring and his followers
have said.

" 3. The outward form of the spinal chord, the medulla oblongata, the
cerebellum, and cerebrum of the Negro, shew no important difference from
that of the European.

" 4. The Negro brain does not resemble that of the Orang-outan more
than the European brain, except in the more symmetrical distribution of
the gyri and sulci. It is not even certain whether this is always the case.
We cannot, therefore, coincide with the opinion of many naturalists, who
assert that the Negro has more resemblance to Apes than Europeans, in
reference to the brain and nervous system."

The advocates on either side, most probably, go to extremes. Suffice
it, however, to say, that Professor Tiedemann has accumulated abundance
of proofs exonerating the Negroes from the hackneyed charge of such

twelve female ; twenty of the Mongole races ; twenty-seven of the American races ; and forty-three of
the Malayan and Oceanic races ; — besides, four of Egyptians, have their respective capacities registered
in these tables. The capacity of the Hindoos is small : — in one instance, a Brahmin, it amounts to
only 27 oz. 6 drs. 30 grs. ; in others, to 31, 32, and 33 oz.— while in the Negro skull (male) of the least
capacity, it is 31 oz. 5 drs. 16 grs. ;— in others, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 43 oz.— and in an Ibo of Congo, 54 oz.
2 drs. 33 grs. ;— so that the Negro skulls, on the average, have a capacity equal to those of
Europeans, of which the largest given (Cossack from the Don) is 57 oz. 3 drs. 56 grs. ; the smallest
(a German) 39 oz. 1 dr. 55 grs.

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 303

mental inferiority as would militate against a far higher degree of cul-
tivation than at present exists among them.

ON THE PAPUAN AND ALFOUROU BRANCHES.

Leaving the continent of Africa, and touching at Madagascar, off its
eastern coast, we there find a population consisting of various people ;* —
Hovas, an olive-coloured race, of Malay extraction, and Negroes of
Mozambique lineage ; together with a people referable to a race termed
Papuan, or Papou, the genuine Madecasse, or Malagasy ; and scattered
relics of an Alfourou race, tenanting the interior districts. It is to these
two latter races, tribes of which are widely disseminated through the islands
of the Malayan Archipelago, the Philippines, New Guinea, and the Caro-
lines, which exist in the Malay Peninsula, and divide Australia and Van
Diemen's Land between them, that we have now to direct our attention.
If the term, Prognathous,-)- of Dr. Prichard, be adopted as the descrip-
tive epithet of skulls, the agreement of which, in general contour,
necessitates a classification of certain branches of mankind under one
common section, of which the genuine Negro is the type, to that section
these races must be referred : and, certainly, with regard to the Papuan,
there is much to induce physiologists to assign it to the Negro stock, its
resemblance to which has obtained for it the name of the Oceanic Negro.
In treating upon these two races, it will be more convenient to take each
separately : and, first, the Papou.

PAPUAN BRANCH. — Under the term Papous, Papouas, or Papuans, is
included a race of men closely approximating to the Negro, and widely
distributed, from Madagascar, through the islands of the Malayan Seas ;
in many of which, as Waigou, Sallawaty, Gummin, Battenta, and the
northern shores of New Guinea, they are intermixed with the Malay
family. These are, in fact, Malayo-Papuans,J though termed Papous by
Quoy and Guimard, and must be distinguished from the genuine Papuan
tribes, inhabiting the interior parts of the north of New Guinea (in contact
with the scattered Alfourous), New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville's
Island, Bouka, Solomon's Islands, New Caledonia, and the Fidje, or Fejee,
Islands, together with Van Diemen's Land and Madagascar, which have
been already mentioned.

The Papous, according to Lesson, are not the aborigines of the Indian

* Of the Quimos, or Kimos, a nation of white dwarfs, with long arms, said to live in the interior
of Madagascar, and of the existence of which, both Commerson and the Count de Modave, governor
of the French settlement at Fort Dauphin, declared their belief, we can obtain no information. It
appears, that the governor purchased a female slave from the interior, of a pale colour, about three feet
high, and with arms reaching to the knees. On this the whole case rests. Sonnerat, who saw the indi-
vidual, regarded it as an individual formation. Le Gentil, who was at Madagascar with Commerson, dis-
credited the existence of such a race. Blumenbach considers it an instance of individual malformation,
analogous to Cretenism.

+ Having prominent jaws.

J Homo Papuensis, hybridus ex Neptuniano et Melanino. — Fischer.

304 BIMANA.

Archipelago ; but are to be regarded as a wave of population, which, spread-
ing over the northern coast of New Guinea, then over New Britain, New
Ireland, the Bouka Isles, the Admiralty Isles, those of Solomon, of Santa
Cruz, the New Hebrides, and New Caledonia, and thence over Van
Diemen's Land, failed to reach the remoter islands of the Pacific, which
had already received a tide of population from another source. The true
Madecasses, or, as Lesson terms them, Cafro-Madecasses, are allied to this
race, as their physical characters, traditions, habits, and language, according
to the same author, sufficiently prove. Their figure is handsome, the
form displaying great vigour, conjoined with activity ; and many of the
men are of fine stature. " Their hair," he observes, " is moderately woolly,
and tied over the occiput in great ringlets ; their skin is dark brown, mixed
with yellow ; their noses are slightly flattened ; their mouths large ; and the
whole of their countenances and regular features would represent the
portrait of a Papou of Dorery, of Beraae, of New Britain, New Ireland,
or of Bouka. The hair of all these people is, in general, very crisp and stiff,
and, at the same time, very thick. Some tribes of New Guinea, Waigou,
and of Bouka, give it the frizzled out, and singular form which is the charac-
teristic of the Papous : but others, as those of Bony, in New Guinea, of
New Britain, and New Ireland, let it fall upon their shoulders in long and
floating ringlets. The Papous go quite naked, and ornament their shoulders
and breasts with incisions, ranged in curved or straight lines. This custom,
which distinguishes many tribes in the interior of Africa, is practised by all
the natives of Madagascar, as well as by the black races in the western
parts of the Pacific, in Van Diemen's Land, and in New Holland. The
Papous are in the habit of covering their heads with the dust of ochre,
mixed with grease, which reddens their hair and their whole countenance :
they wear abundance of feathers on their heads ; and ornaments of shells,
as well in their girdles as on their arms. A custom, exclusively peculiar
to this race, is the wearing of bracelets, dazzlingly white, artfully made
and polished, which they, probably, fashion from the large extremity of the
great conchs found in the neighbouring seas." With regard to the Papous
of New Guinea, the same traveller states, that the woolly-haired race,
spread over its northern parts, distinguish themselves by the respective
terms, Arfaki, or mountaineers, and Papuas, or people of the sea-shore :
the latter live in scattered tribes and insulated villages, and in a continual
state of dissension and hostility. Their villages, built upon piles, by the
water's edge, consist of a few huts : authority is entrusted to the aged chiefs.
The stature of these people is generally of the moderate height j but there
are among them tall and robust men : their limbs are well proportioned,
and their figure is often athletic : the colour of their skin is black,
mixed with a small proportion of yellow, which imparts to it a clear tint
of various gradations : their hair is black, very thick, and moderately

PROGNATHOUS STOCK.

,305

woolly ; they wear it frizzled out in a remarkable manner, or let it
fail upon the neck in long twisted masses ; their countenance and fea-
tures are regular ; but their noses are somewhat flattened, and have the
nostrils enlarged in the transverse direction ; their chins are small and
well formed ; their cheek-bones are prominent ; their foreheads are ele-
vated ; their eyebrows are thick and long, and their beards are thin, and
suffered to grow upon the upper lip and chin, as is the practice among
many African nations. In the countenances of the Papous are strongly
reflected the feelings which animate them, and which arise from mis-
trust, suspicion, and all the most hateful passions. The females are
generally ugly ; yet Lesson observed, in New Guinea, some girls, who
were well made, and whose regular and soft features were conspicuous.
Born to servitude, the women, among the Papous, are subjected to
the rudest labours, in which their stern and rigorous masters disdain
to participate. The natives of Bouka, according to Lesson, as far as
was observed, display the characters and habits of the Papous of New

224

Papuan

306

BIMANA.

Guinea, and wear, like them, their long and woolly hair frizzled out. The
natives of Port Praslin, in New Ireland, and those of the Isle of York,
in the Channel of St. George, do not differ from the latter : a greater
number of tall and robust men were, however, seen among them ; and
many individuals were distinguished by the light shade of their complexion,
approaching the tawny and slightly-bronzed hue of the Oceanic nations.*
The aged men among these various tribes were generally calm and im-
passible ; yet rapid changes might be observed to pass over their
countenances. The treacherous and cunning looks of some were as
remarkable as the suspicion and mistrust indicated by others : sim-
plicity and frankness were denoted in the faces of only a small number.
The preceding sketch (fig. 224) will illustrate the Papuan physi-
ognomy, as it is exemplified in a native of New Guinea.

225

Native of Van Diemen's Land.

The characters of the Papuan race, as they exist in the natives of
Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land, exhibit a degree of deterioration cor-

* It is not improbable that, in these instances, there may have been a mixture of Malay blood.

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 307

responding to that displayed by the Alfourou race of Australia, — a
deterioration accompanied by extreme barbarism, and produced by various
causes, among which an irregular supply of food, and that of an innutritious
quality, is one. In the Tasmanian, the hair is decidedly woolly ; the nose
is broad, with nostrils spreading transversely ; the mouth wide, the cheek-
bones developed, the eyes long and narrow, the lower part of the face
preponderating, and the colour dull black. The Papuans, as already
stated, have been termed Oceanic Negroes ; and the expression perfectly
applies to the Tasmanian ramifications, as the foregoing delineation
(fig. 225) will serve to prove.

ALFOUROU BRANCH. — To a race termed Alfourous, Arafuras, or
Alfoors, are to be referred scattered tribes inhabiting the central parts of
most of the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and also of Madagascar,
where they are called Virzimbirs.* To the same race, also, probably be-
long the Battas (a cannibal tribe) of the interior of Sumatra, and the wild
Dayacks of Borneo. In the Philippine Islands they have been termed Los
Indies, by the Spaniards ; in Mindanao, Negroes del Monte ; and in the
interior of New Guinea, Endamenes (" Alfourous-Endamenes" of Lesson).
The natives of Australia are usually considered, and apparently with justice,
as a branch of the Alfourou stock, and are termed, by Lesson, " Alfourous
Australien." At some former period, the Alfourou race was widely spread ;
and it may, perhaps, be regarded as the primitive population both of the
Malay Peninsula and of the adjacent groups of islands ; but their terri-
tories, for the most part, have been usurped by more powerful races —
Papous and Malays, which have either extirpated them entirely, or
driven the relics of the broken tribes to seek refuge in the mountains and
woods of the interior ; where, almost unknown, they still linger, immersed
in barbarism. Lesson describes the Endamenes as living in the most mi-
serable manner, and involved in continual warfare with their neighbours,
from whose attacks, or snares, they are incessantly occupied in endeavour-
ing to preserve themselves. He observes : " The custom prevalent among
the Papous of the coasts, of putting their prisoners to death, and erecting
their spoil as trophies, accounts for the difficulty we find in observing
them, even in New Guinea ; and two or three men, whom we saw in a
state of slavery at Dorery, are the only individuals we have met with.
The Papous described them to us, as of a ferocious character, cruel and
gloomy, possessed of no arts, and passing their whole lives in seeking
subsistence in the forests : but we cannot regard this hideous picture,
which each people draws of its neighbouring tribes, as authentic. The
Endamenes, whom we saw, had a repulsive physiognomy : flat noses ;
cheek-bones projecting ; large eyes ; prominent teeth ; long and slender
legs ; very black and thick hair, rough and shining, without being long ;

* Virzimbirs, or Ovales.

308 BIMANA.

their beards were very hard and thick : an excessive stupidity was
stamped upon their countenances, probably the effect of slavery. These
savages, whose skin is of a very deep dirty brown, or black colour, go
naked : they make incisions upon their arms and breasts, and wear in
their noses pieces of wood, nearly six inches long : their character is
taciturn, and their physiognomy fierce ; their motion is uncertain and
slow. The inhabitants of the coasts gave us some details of the Enda-
menes ; but as they seemed to us to be dictated by hatred, and as their
accounts differed, either because the sense of what they told us was
badly understood, or because they related to us statements which they
did not themselves credit, with the intention of inspiring us with fear, we
think it useless to make a race of men known, by false or inexact descrip-
tions, whose history is still enveloped in thick darkness."

The same writer supposes that, though confined to the interior in the
northern districts of New Guinea, the Endamenes, or Alfourous, are the
sole possessors of the southern portion of the island ; and that, having
crossed Torres Straits, at some remote era, they have spread themselves
over the vast regions of Terra Australis : a theory which appears to be
supported by the physical characters, as well as by the customs, of
the Australians. The " Alfourous-Endamenes" are farther described as
having the skin blackish, the hair coarse and straight, the face broad, the
cheek-bones prominent, the beard thick and very black : their manners
are savage and repulsive.

In stature, the Australians, or " Alfourous- Australien," are moderate ;
the limbs are generally slender, and elongated ; the face is flattened ; the
cheek-bones are prominent; the nose is large and depressed, with widely-
spread nostrils ; the lips are thick ; the mouth is of disproportionate
width ; the teeth are projecting ; the eyes are half closed by the upper .
eyelids, which are lax and heavy ; the ears are loose and large ; the hair*
is black, coarse, hard, and worn in rough knots, or masses, often bound
round with a fillet, termed cambun, or bolombine ; the beard is rough and
matted ; the colour of the skin is of a dirty black, and the expression ot
the physiognomy lowering and repulsive. Many tribes perforate the sep-
tum naris, and wear in the orifice a round stick ; and the custom of
extracting one of the upper incisor teeth is practised by the males, on
arriving at manhood. -j- The annexed figure (226) is characteristic of the
features of the Alfourou- Australien.

* The females use much grease in dressing the hair. The bolombine is sometimes made from
the stringy bark of a tree, or from the tendons of the Kangaroo's tail, and daubed with pipe-clay.

t Mr. George Bennett, in his Wanderings in New South Wales, fyc., thus describes the natives of
the Bugong Mountain in the Tumah country: — "Both males and females were in a state of nudity,
wearing the Opossum skin cloaks only as a protection from the weather ; and the septum naris had
the usual perforation and ornament through it. Some of the females had tolerably pretty features,
with dark hair, short, and having a natural curl; not, however, in any respect like the frizzled hair of
the African Negro, or the spiral twist of that race so closely allied to them, the Papuan ; but having that

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 309

With regard to the crania ot the Papuan, Alfourou, and Oceanic
people, Lesson has made some very interesting observations ; but the crania
of the Papuans described, are not those of the pure race of New Guinea,
but of the Malayo-Papuans of Waigou and other islands ; and it is of
this mixed race that some skulls are figured in the atlas to the voyage of
M. Freycinet.

" The skull of the hybrid Papuan," says M. Lesson, " is remarkable
for a considerable flattening at its posterior part, which forms a square
surface, with the angles rounded. This conformation does not make the
occipito-frontal diameter (that is, the diameter from the occiput to the
forehead) much smaller, comparatively, than it is in the heads of Eu-
ropeans, Alfourous, and the Negroes of Mozambique ; the bi-parietal
diameter (the admeasurement from side to side), on the contrary, is
much larger, owing to the more considerable development of the con-
vexity of the parietal bones ; the coronal, though a little larger than that

226

of a European, does not present differences so decided as to admit of
description ; the face is likewise larger, in consequence of the great trans-
verse diameter of the orbital cavities, and of a slight flattening of the
bridge of the nose ; the nasal orifice is, in every respect, like that of a
European ; but the distance from them astoid apophysis of one side, to

curled appearance often seen in the hair of European races. Many of the females wore the front
teeth of the Kangaroo, as ornaments attached to the hair, and esteemed them for that purpose. The
native weapons are clubs, spears," the bomerang, and shields; which latter have rude ornaments,
carved with the incisor tooth of a Kangaroo, upon them."

BIMANA.

227

Skull of Tasmaniau.

that on the opposite side, is greater ; the vertical admeasurement is much
the same as in the skulls of Europeans and Alfourous."

Taking the Tasmanians, or natives of Van Diemen's Land, as ex-
amples of the genuine Papou, the following description ot a skull of one
of this race, a male, from the western coast of that country (in the
Royal College of Surgeons, London), may be compared with Lesson's

details respecting that of the Ma-
layo-Papuan, from which it recedes
by several degrees toward the Ne-
gro, and is, consequently, still more
than that of the hybrid Papuan re-
moved from the European form : —
The forehead is low, and compressed
at the sides, the space for the tem-
poral muscle being flat ; the coronal
suture only just touches the sphenoid
bone ; the orbits are quadrate, with
a strongly-marked superciliary ridge,
and large prominences, indicating
the frontal sinuses : the top of the head rises in a longitudinal ridge from
the forehead to the occiput ; and from this ridge the skull slopes, like
the roof of a house, to the middle of the parietal bones, which there
project boldly : the cheek-bones are prominent : there is an abrupt notch,
or sinking, at the union of the nasal bones to the frontal ; but the nasal
228 bones are short, and the nasal orifice

is large and wide ; as is the orifice of
the posterior nares also : the depth
of the osseous palate is considerable ;
the lower jaw is thick and deep ; the
posterior angle of the ramus, instead
of being acute, is moderately rounded ;
and the base of the ramus is arched,
so that, placed on a level surface,
neither the posterior angle nor the
point of the chin touch it ; the alve-
olar processes of the upper jaw are
skuii of Fejee islander. projecting. From the centre of the

occipital condyle to the alveolar ridge, between 'the two middle incisors,
the distance is four inches and a quarter; the posterior development
of the skull (measuring from the centre of the condyle), nearly four
inches.

The foregoing sketch (fig. 228) is from the skull of a Fejee Islander, in
the Royal College of Surgeons. The forehead is small, and laterally com-

PROGNATHOUS STOCK. 311

pressed, the space occupied by the temporal muscle being quite flat ;
but the centre of each parietal bone is boldly and abruptly convex ; the
top of the head, or coronal arch, is ridge-like, with a slope downward
on each side ; the cheek-bones are large and deep ; the upper margin of
the orbits is smooth ; and the frontal sinuses are but slightly indicated ;
the orbits are large, and rather circular ; the nasal bones are short and
depressed, and the nasal orifice is of remarkable width and extent, as
is that of the posterior nares also ; the alveolar ridge of the superior
maxillary bone projects moderately ; the lower jaw is very thick and
deep ; the posterior angle is rounded, and the base of the ramus arched,
so that the posterior angle and the chin do not touch a plane ; the basilar
process of the occipital bone is less inclined upward than in five or
six European skulls examined at the same time : the coronal suture only
impinges on the sphenoid bone by a quarter of an inch. From the
middle of the occipital condyle to the alveolar ridge between the two
middle incisors, the measurement is four inches and three-eighths ; the
posterior development of the cranium, beyond the middle of the condyle,
three inches and three-eighths.

Except in the smoothness of the superior margin of the orbits, this
skull presents the same general characters as the preceding : the coronal
ridge, the slope on each side, the convexity of the parietal bones, the
narrowness of the forehead and compression of its lateral portion, are the
same in both.

In the form of the skull, the Alfourous-Endamenes, according to
Lesson, approach nearer the Mozambique Negro than do the Malayo-
Papuans. The differences, he states, consist in a flattening of the lateral
portion of the cranial arch, giving a shelving contour, on both sides,
at the summit of the arch ; in the occipito-frontal diameter being a
little more elongated, and in the shape of the face being rather less
oblique than that of the Mozambique, in such a manner that the facial
angle is more open in the heads of the Alfourous : hence it results that
the nasal bridge is more vertical. The nostrils, also, are not quite so
large ; and the cheek-bones are less projecting among the Alfourous
than the Mozambiques, but more so than in the Papuan and the Eu-
ropean, owing to the depth of the infra-orbital fossae : the jaws of the
Alfourous, although less prominent than those of the Mozambique, pro-
ject in a greater degree than those of the Papuan and the European.
The heads of the Alfourous are intermediate, in their general form, be-
tween the skulls of the New Zealanders and those of the Mozambique
Negroes : like the latter, the two jaws are so much elongated, that they
may be compared to the face of an Orang. The lower jaw of the
Alfourou exhibits the same development as does that of the Mozam-
bique, but it is narrower than that of the Papuan : compared to the

312

BIMANA.

lower jaw of the European, they all three differ from it, in the form of
the basis, or lower edge of the bone, and in that of the chin ; the
anterior part of the body of the bone, instead of being inclined back-
ward, as in the European and New Zealander, is cut perpendicularly,
thereby contributing to the projection of the alveolar arches : the basis of
th'e lower jaw is more rounded, and raised a little forward, in the Alfou-
rou, the Mozambique, Papuan, and even New Zealander. The bend is
229 always less apparent among the Pa-

pous. Placed upon a horizontal plane,
the lower edges of the jaws do not
touch in all places, as is the case in
the European ; the lateral angles- of
the chin are, consequently, more
rounded than in the latter. For the
description of the skull of the New
Zealander, see page 269.

The annexed (229) is a figure of
the skull of an Alfourou-Endamene,
from the work of M. Duperry.
skuii of Aifourou-Endamene. The compression of the zygoma-

tic arches is remarkable in this skull, their plane being nearly level with
that of the sides of the cranium.

The following (230) is a figure of the skull of an Australian (male),
in the Royal College of Surgeons, where several other specimens also are
preserved.

The general characters of the Australian skull consist in their narrow-
230 ness, or lateral compression, and in

the ridge-like form of the coronal
arch ; the sides of which, however, are
less roof-like, or flattened, than those
of the Tasmanian skulls examined in
the same collection. The superciliary
ridge projects greatly, giving a scowl-
ing expression to the orbits, and
reminding us of some of the larger
Apes :' the nasal bones, which are
exceedingly short and depressed,
sink abruptly, forming a notch at their union with the frontal bone, which
projects over them ; the forehead is low and retreating ; and the external
orbitary process of the temporal bone is very bold and projecting, while
the space occupied by the temporal muscle is strongly marked ; the orbits
are irregularly quadrate ; the cheek-bones are prominent ; the face is flat,
and seems as if crushed below the frontal bone ; the external nasal orifice.

Skull of Australi

OCCIDENTAL STOCK. 313

and that of the posterior nares, are very ample ; the coronal suture ter-
minates as in the skull of the Fejee Islander ; the lower jaw is more
acute at its angle than in the skull just alluded to, but it is arched
upward at the chin ; the upper jaw, of which the alveolar margin pro-
jects most remarkably, wants one of the middle incisors, which has
evidently been extracted, the alveolus being obliterated. A female skull,
with the incisors perfect, presents the same characters.

OCCIDENTAL STOCK.

BESIDES the Esquimaux race, which has been already noticed as
appertaining to the Mongole type of the human family, America pre-
sents us with an indigenous population, divided into nations and tribes,
extending from the nothern latitudes, adjacent to the arctic circle, to Terra
del Fuego in the south, a range including every variety of soil, climate,
elevation, and production. The remote history of the original population
of this vast portion of the earth's surface is unknown. It was but a few
centuries ago, that their existence, or that of their wide-spread realms,
broke in as a light upon the nations of the Old World, who rushed forward
to secure each a share of the New Hesperia. Busied in the work of spolia-
tion, and eager only for gold and territory, the adventurers were utterly
indifferent to the character and history of the indigenes, whom they seemed
to regard as intruders upon their rights, and consigned to torture and death.
The extirpation of tribes and nations was carried on without remorse, —
avarice and fanaticism urging the good work ; — and, for years, the musket,
the spear, the bloodhound, the rack, and the fire, were unceasingly in
operation. Possessed by European colonists, America now contains
only the scattered remnants of her pristine tribes, and these are
gradually melting away before the march of colonial enterprise. Dimi-
nished, however, as they are, the aborigines of this vast portion of the
globe afford ample materials for the study of the naturalist and the phi-
losopher: their origin, their affinities, their differences, their physical
characters, and their languages, open a wide field for investigation.
Here, then, in connexion with the present subject, the question arises,
as to what stock, to what branch or branches, of the human family, the
natives of America and its islands are to be referred ; and, further,
whether the people, whose remains occur in tumuli, in caves, and arti-
ficial burial-places, were the progenitors of the tribes now occupying the
same localities.*

* We may, by way of note, glance at a people whose remains, mingled with works of skill,
occur in tumuli of great extent along the Mississippi, and in various districts of the United States,

Voi,. I. 2 S

314 BIMANA,

Many writers have commented on the close similarity between the
native tribes of America and the nations of Mongole lineage in the Old
World ; and some regard the former as a ramification of the latter, or, in
other words, as a branch of the Mongole stock. Such is the opinion of
Lesson, who, in his manual, places his Rameau Americain under the
Mongole section, observing, that " this branch, which constitutes the
population of the American continent, presents numerous varieties : of
these, the most remarkable are the Peruvian and the Mexican races, which,
occupying intertropical territories, founded respectively two great empires.
The second race is that of the Araucanians, which comprehends many sub-
varieties. The third is that of the Patagonians, confined, with that of the
Puelches, to the southern extremity of America. Numerous tribes, of
Brazil, Guiana, the Floridas, and of Canada, again form groups charac-
terized with difficulty : nevertheless, the Botacudos of Brazil appear to
belong definitely to the Mongole family." Cuvier states it as his opinion,
that the Americans are not distinctly referable to any of our Old World
varieties ; while, at the same time, they are destitute of a character at
once precise and constant, which would stamp them as distinct. As to
their copper-red complexion, he remarks, it is not one of sufficient
value ; but their hair, generally black, and their scanty beard, would
induce physiologists to assign them to the Mongole type, did not their
features, as prominent, their nose as well developed as that of the
European, and responding to the European type of form, oppose
such an arrangement. Their languages are as innumerable as are the
tribes ; nor have demonstrative analogies, either among them, or between
them and those of the Old World, been as yet detected. " If the Chaymas,"
says Humboldt, in his Personal Narrative, "and all the natives in general
of South America and New Spain, resemble the Mongole race, in the
form of the eye, in their high cheek-bones, their straight and flat hair,
and the almost entire want of a beard, they essentially differ from them
in the form of the nose, which is of moderate length, prominent in
every part, and thick toward the nostrils, which, as in all the nations
of the Caucasian race, are directed downward."

That the skulls of the American tribes, as is remarked by Dr.
Prichard, display the same broad and pyramidal form as the heads of
Turanian nations, has been repeatedly noticed by various travellers,
who have all insisted upon the general resemblance which certainly
exists between these two great sections of mankind. M. de Humboldt,

and who appear to have been more advanced in civilization than the present tribes, whose territories
are now the possession of the white man. It is probably of a people antecedent to the foundation of
the Peruvian empire by Manco Capac, that the elongated skulls brought from Titicaca are the relics.
In New Andalusia, near the cataracts of the Orinoco, are subterranean excavations in the granite
rock, containing both the bones and dried mummies of the ancient Aturians ; some are in baskets,
others in sarcophagi of unbaked clay, ornamented with painted figures of Crocodiles.

OCCIDENTAL STOCK. 315

in his comments on the ancient Americans, confirms the accounts of other
observers, as to a striking analogy between the American and Mongole
races ; and states, that this analogy is especially evident in the colour
of the skin and hair, in the defective beard, high cheek-bones, and in
the direction of the eyes. It cannot be denied, he adds, that the human
species does not contain races more resembling one another, than the
Americans, Mongoles, Mantchous, and Malays. Another characteristic
of the American nations is said to consist in " a facial angle more in-
clined, though straighter, than that of the Negro," an inclination resulting
from the depression of the forehead, there being no race of men upon
the globe " in which the frontal bone is more depressed backward," or
which has this part of the skull less projecting.

It may here be remarked that, though the cheek-bones are high and
bold, they have not the angular form, with an outwardly-turned lower
edge, which is so characteristic of the Mongole ; and that the zygoma is
not so arched and prominent : besides which, the peculiar flatness of
the forehead, in despite of any vertical elevation, which there is reason
to believe is far from universal, also constitutes a marked and general
distinction (though the Author has remarked it, very decidedly, in the
skull of a Patagonian, and though Dr. Prichard figures the skull of a
Chepewyan with a pyramidal vertex).* Another hypothesis is, that
many, if not all, of the American indigenes, and especially those of
Mexico and Peru, are of Malay descent. (See Dr. Lang, On the
Origin and Migration of the Polynesian Nation.) With regard to the
Oceanic branch of the Malays reaching the coasts of Mexico and
Peru, as they have extended themselves to the Sandwich Islands, there
can be no question of its possibility.

Dr. Graves (Dublin Journal of Med. and Chem. Science, No. 15) enter-
tains a very similar theory ; viz., that the Peruvians are of Asiatic extrac-
tion. " The present inhabitants of the interior of Peru," he says, " belong
to the same race which peopled the remainder of the continent of South
America, and which is distinguished by a copper colour of the skin,
a thinly-scattered beard, straight, strong, black hair, and a prominent nose.
I am of opinion, that the present inhabitants of Peru are derived from an
Asiatic stock, the last colony of whom migrated, probably, about the twelfth
century. From these latter settlers sprang the dynasty of the Incas, or
Ingas; which dynasty was overthrown by the Spaniards, after it had lasted
about twelve generations. The Asiatic emigrants had gradually spread
themselves over the western coast of South America, conquering, as they
spread, the natives of the country ; and it is to the latter, in all probability,
that the skulls in question (the elongated depressed skulls found at

* The large size of the orbits in some skulls of Americans, and especially in one of a Patagonian,
has been observed by the Author.

316 BIMANA.

Titicaca) belonged. Many sepulchres of the present race of Peruvian
Indians occur along the coast of the Pacific Ocean ; the skulls found in
which agree, in every respect, with the form of that race ; but in no
instances do they possess the peculiar characters of those found in the
interior. A careful examination of these skulls has convinced me that
their peculiar shape cannot be owing to artificial pressure. The great
elongation of the face, and the direction of the plane of the occipital bone,
are not to be reconciled with this opinion ; and, therefore, we must con-
clude, that the peculiarity of shape depends on a natural conformation.
If this view of the subject be correct, it follows, that these skulls belonged
to a race of mankind now extinct, and which differed from any now exist-
ing." That pressure was used, however, there is every reason to believe ;*
nor was the practice confined to Peru. It prevailed among the Caribs, in
Carolina, and is now continued by the Indians on the banks of the river
Columbia and Nootka Sound ; but, as it more immediately relates to the
Peruvians, after the fall of the Incas dynasty, and under Spanish legislation,
the practice was still continued, as is proved by an edict issued by the third
synod of the diocese of Lima (1585), prohibiting this unnatural custom.

Another writer, who advocates the Malayan colonization of America,
along its western coast, from California to Chili, is M. Bory St. Vincent ; and,
as he justly observes, it was by availing himself of the discord between the
aboriginal tribes of Mexico and the foreign race, by whom the empire was
founded, that Cortes succeeded in overthrowing the throne of Monte zuma.-j-
He might have added, that Montezuma himself stated, that his ancestors
came from a remote region, conquered the country, and founded a great
empire, of which the chief city was Mexico, or Tenuchtitlan ; and that,
according to an ancient tradition, the person who founded the colony
returned to his own country, promising that, at some future period, his
descendants should visit them, assume the government, and reform their
constitution and laws.J Nearly similar, if reduced to plain language, is

* The process of compressing the skull of the infant, in order to give it the form deemed
essential to beauty, has been previously noticed (p. 206.)

t Cortes was joined by the natives of Tempoalla, Quiabislau, the Totonaques, a fierce mountain
people, and the Tlascalans, a warlike nation, all impatient of the domination of the Mexican
empire.

I "According to the account of the Mexicans themselves, their empire was not of long duration.
Their country, as they relate, was originally possessed, rather than people^d, by small independent
tribes, whose mode of life and manners resembled those of the rudest savages. But, about a period
corresponding to the beginning of the tenth century of the Christian era, several tribes moved, in
successive 'migrations, from unknown regions, towards the north and north-west, and settled in
different provinces of Anahuac, the ancient name of New Spain: these, more civilized than the
original inhabitants, began to form them to the arts of social life. At length, toward the commencement
of the thirteenth century, the Mexicans, a people more polished than any of the former, advanced from
the border of the Californian Gulf, and took possession of the plains adjacent to the Great Lake, near the
centre of the country : after residing there about fifty years, they founded a town, since distinguished
by the name of Mexico, which, from humble beginnings, soon grew to be the most considerable city of
the New World. The Mexicans, long after they were established in their new possessions, continued,
like other martial tribes in America, unacquainted with regal dominion, and were governed in peace,

OCCIDENTAL STOCK. 317

the tradition respecting the origin of the Peruvian empire. The aborigines
were rude, independent tribes, wandering in the forests, without any fixed
residence, or bonds of social union ; naked and ignorant ; when there
appeared on the banks of the Lake Titicaca, a man and woman of ma-
jestic form, clothed with garments, who declared themselves the children
of the sun, sent to instruct them. Manco Capac, and Mama Ocollo, for
such were their names, became their lawgivers, and founded the Peruvian
empire. Their successors were termed Incas.* The appearance of
Manco Capac may be understood as figurative of the invasion and usurp-
ation of the country by a colony of comparatively civilized people, who
settled themselves, overawed or subdued the aborigines, extended their
conquests, and established the Peruvian empire.

Acknowledging the probability of the Malay origin of the civilizers of
Mexico and Peru, — the founders of those empires which were overthrown
by the sanguinary and avaricious Spaniards, — it is nevertheless plain, that
an indigenous race occupied the soil when they first landed upon it, and
commenced their infant colonies : with this race, doubtless, they became
more or less intermixed, and, while spreading the benefits of a certain
degree of civilization around them, gradually adopted the language of the
indigenes, or engrafted it upon their own. Certain established customs of
the old possessors of the land would be retained in the midst of improve-
ments, and in spite of attempts to suppress them ; and hence the practice
of flattening the skull, during infancy (a practice widely diffused), would
not only be continued by the indigenes, but might even be adopted by the
mixed descendants of these and the foreign colonizers, the pure race of
whom would be preserved only in the royal line, as was said to have been
the case in the line of the Incas.

Leaving, however, this hypothesis of the origin of the ancient Mexican
and Peruvian empires, as one rather of probability than as based upon
any tangible grounds, it remains now to investigate the general characters
of the original inhabitants of the New World, adopting the three primary
divisions instituted by M. Bory : —

COLUMBIAN BRANCH. — Notwithstanding the influx of Europeans, of

and conducted in war, by such as were entitled to pre-eminence by their wisdom or their valour. But
among them, as in other states, whose power and territories became extensive, the supreme authority
centred, at last, in a single person ; and when the Spaniards, under Cortes, invaded the country, Mon-
tezuma was the ninth monarch in order, who had swayed the Mexican sceptre, not by hereditary right,
but by election. From the first migration of their parent tribe, they can reckon little more than 300
years (i. e. to the invasion of the Spaniards). From the establishment of monarchical government,
not above 130 years, according to one account, or 179, according to another computation." — Robertson's
History of America.

* The Incas continued to rule in succession for twelve generations, till the year 1526. The
twelfth Inca, Huanco Capac, subdued Quito, and married the daughter of the monarch of that province,
and, after his death, a civil war between the son of Huanco Capac, by a mother of the Incas line, and
a son by the daughter of the monarch of Quito, raged with great fury ; but, opportunely for Pizarro,
whose second landing took place at this juncture.

318

BIMANA.

various nations, who have arrogated to themselves the territory of the
Red Man, — and of Negroes, dragged in as slaves of the European, who,
multiplying in the western world, still preserve their own characters, —
the Colurnbic branch of the Occidental stock (Homo Columbicus, Bory)
maintains itself, to a great degree, in purity : it is distributed through
the wild forests of Canada, over the regions to the north-west and west
of the United States, through the Antilles, Terra Firma, and Columbia, to
the Amazon ; but is everywhere encroached upon by the advances of
European colonizers.

The physical characters of this branch, subdivided into innumerable
tribes, may be summed up as follows : — The stature is moderate ; the
proportions are admirable ; the limbs are formed for activity rather than
strength ; the feet are turned somewhat inward, instead of outward, as
in Europeans ; the forehead is flattened, and this natural depression is
often increased by art, the head being a long oval, often elevated at the
vertex ; the nose is prominent and aquiline ; the lips are moderately
thin ; the cheek-bones are elevated, but not angular, giving breadth to
the face ; the teeth are vertical ; the eye is large, but lowering, the expres-
sion of the countenance, indeed, being austere, and often ferocious : the
hair of the head is long, black, harsh, and glossy ; the beard is very
scanty, and the few hairs that appear are diligently eradicated : the colour
of the skin is copper-red, varying in intensity and duskiness. The men
are said never to have their hair grey with age.

SOUTH AMERICAN BRANCH. — The South American Branch (Homo
Americanus, Bory) is thus characterized : — The head is large, and round,
with the forehead greatly depressed ; the superciliary ridge is boldly
prominent at its external angles; the cheek-bones are projecting; the
eyes are narrow and small ; the nose is depressed, with patulous nostrils ;
the lips are thick ; the mouth is large ; the teeth are vertical ; the skin
is swarthy, or dusky, rather than tinged with copper-red ; the hair of the
head is long, black, and harsh. This branch occupies the sources of the
Orinoco, the borders of the Amazon, Brazil, and Paraguay. According
to M. Bory, the Araucanians of the interior of Chili, so different from
the Malays (Neptunians) of the shore, to which the latter confine them-
selves, are probably, also, referable to it. With regard to the colour
of the various tribes, it may be observed that the Botacudos are of a
light brown, and sometimes white, even near the tropic; while the
Guayacas, almost under the line, are perfectly white. The Charruas
of Buenos-Ayres, under the fortieth degree south latitude, are, on the
other hand, almost black, and without any tint of red. The Omaguas,
under the fifth degree, are of the colour of bistre, with a tumid body, a
thick beard, and a hairy chest. The Guaranis and the Coruados, on
the contrary, are destitute of hair on the chin and chest.

OCCIDENTAL STOCK. 319

PATAGONIAN BRANCH. — The characters of the Patagonian race, till
recently, have been but imperfectly detailed. The great stature of the
men attracted the notice of the early voyagers to the southern regions
of America ; but, even on this point, the testimonies of different tra-
vellers are very contradictory. By Commodore Biron and his crew, who
sailed through the Magellanic Straits in 1764, the common height of the
Patagonians was estimated at eight feet and upward ; but the very indi-
viduals seen by Commodore Biron were measured by Captains Willis and
Carteret, in 1776, and found to be only from six feet six inches, to six
feet seven inches in height. Such is their stature, also, as given by M.
Bougainville. Other writers confirm this statement. Tribes, however,
of an inferior stature occupy the regions of Patagonia ; and the Puelches,
or gigantic Patagonians, are a nomadic people, not always to be met with
on the coast of that miserable portion of America.

According to Capt. Fitzroy, the Patagonians are divided into four
parties, each occupying a separate territory : their country extends from
the River Negro to the Strait of Magalhaens, or Magellan : they are tall
in stature, with bulky bodies, and large heads and features ; but their
limbs are neither so muscular nor so large-boned as might be anticipated
from their height and bulk. The colour of the Patagonians is of a
rich reddish-brown, between that of rusty iron and clear copper, rather
darker than copper, but not so dark as old mahogany. The colour of
the females is about that of pale copper. " Nothing," says Capt. Fitzroy,
" is worn upon the head, except their rough, lank, and coarse black hair,
which is tied above the temples, with a fillet of platted, or twisted, sinews.
A large mantle, made of skins sewed together, loosely gathered about
them, adds so much to the bulkiness of their appearance, that one ought
not to wonder at their having been called gigantic. I am not aware that
a Patagonian has appeared, during late years, exceeding in height six
feet and some inches ; but I see no reason to disbelieve Falkner's account
of the Cacique Cangapole, whose height, he says, was seven feet and
some inches." The head of the Patagonian is broad, but not high, and,
in general, the forehead is small and low ; the brow is prominent ; the
eyes are small, black, and restless ; their position is oblique ; the outline
of the face is roundish, but the cheek-bones are large and projecting,
and give great breadth to the upper part of the face ; the nose is
rather depressed, narrow between the eyes, but broad at the nostrils,
which are large and patulous ; the lips are thick and coarsely formed,
with the edges turned out ; and the mouth is very wide : the chin is
broad and prominent; the hair of the head is long, loose, harsh, and
black ; the face and body are almost destitute of hair, and, where it
appears, it is always plucked out : there are no eyebrows, though, as
stated, the superorbital ridge is very prominent ; and this deficiency pro-

320

BIMANA.

duces a peculiar expression of mingled simplicity and shrewdness, daring
and timidity, with a singularly wild look, never seen in civilized man.
The body is long and large, the chest broad and expanded, the neck
short and thick, the arms disproportionate to the body, as are also the
thighs and legs. The females, in stature and physiognomy, so nearly
resemble the men, that, unless by the hair, it is not easy for a stranger
to distinguish them.

The annexed engraving (fig. 231) is a representation of the Pata-
gonian physiognomy.

231

Patagoni

The Patagonians possess horses and dogs, which are used in the
chase, and also oxen : their principal food is the flesh of Mares, Rheas,
(or American Ostriches), Cavies, Guanacos, &c. ; but the flesh of Mares
is preferred to that of other animals. Their arms are balls, similar to
those used by the Indians of the Pampas, consisting of stone, or of
hardened clay, or of bags of skin filled with iron pyrites, and then
dried ; and of these balls, sometimes two, sometimes three, are connected
together, by means of a thong of hide, from two to four yards in length :
they can throw these with such dexterity as to entwine the thongs about

OCCIDENTAL STOCK. 321

the limbs of any animal to which they give chase, and thus bring it to
the ground. As a weapon of combat, a single ball, of about a pound
weight, is used, attached to a thong of about a yard in length ; whirling
this ball with the utmost swiftness about their heads, they hurl it against
their adversary, almost with the force of a shot : they use, also, a lance of
great length, bows and arrows, and clubs ; they have no boats or canoes
of any kind, but always travel on horseback, and are of wandering
habits. In language, disposition, and habits, the Patagonians (or, as they
term themselves, Tehuel-het) differ from the natives of Tierra del Fuego,
and its subordinate islets.

The Fuegians, or natives of Tierra del Fuego and the adjacent islets,
are divided into several tribes, speaking distinct languages, or dialects ;
but none of them, as it is believed, radically differing from the original
Chilian. Of these tribes, one termed the Yacana-kunny, inhabiting the
north-eastern part of Tierra del Fuego, resembles the Patagonians in
colour, stature, and general clothing ; they use the same weapons, but have
no horses. The Tekeenica, a tribe on the south-eastern portion, are low
in stature, ill-looking, badly proportioned, and of a dark mahogany colour :
the trunk of the body, however, is large ; but the limbs are disproportionate
and ill-formed. The Alikhoolip are a superior tribe to the latter, which
they otherwise closely resemble. Besides these, may be enumerated the
Pecheray, Huemul, and Chonos tribes : all live in low, miserable wigwams,
and have small canoes, in which they traverse the narrow straits that di-
vide the numerous islets near the shores of Tierra del Fuego. The general
characteristics of the physiognomy of these tribes indicate an alliance to
the Patagonians, than whom, however, they are in a far more degraded
condition ; they are always at war among themselves : two adjoining tribes,
it is said, seldom meet without engaging in a conflict, and those who are
vanquished and taken prisoners are killed and eaten by the conquerors.
The arms and breast are eaten, as Capt. Fitzroy learned, by the women ;
the legs by the men ; the trunk is thrown into the sea. When hard frost
and deep snow prevent their obtaining their usual food, they then, also,
resort to cannibalism; and, strangling the oldest woman of the party, they
devour every portion of the body. The Fuegians have the forehead
extremely small and low, and the superciliary ridge, or brow, very
prominent ; the eyes are oblique, small, sunken, and black ; and the eyelids
are usually in a state of continued inflammation, from the smoke of their
low wigwams ; the cheek-bones are largely developed ; the nostrils are
wide and open ; the mouth is large, and coarsely formed, with thick lips ;
the hair of the head is lank, coarse, and black ; it does not fall off, nor
does it become grey, until extreme age is attained : few, if any, hairs are
seen on the eyebrow ; and the hairs of the chin, which would form a scanty,
straggling beard, are pulled out by tweezers, made of mussel-shells*

VOL. I. 2 T

322 BIMANA.

The neck is short and strong ; the shoulders square and high; the chest
and body large'; and the trunk long, compared with the limbs and head.
The arms and legs are rounder, and less sinewy and muscular, than those
of Europeans ; the joints are smaller, and the calves of the legs less
developed : the knees are, it is stated, strained by the custom of sitting
continually on the heels, so that when straightened, the skin is wrinkled,
and thrown into folds, both above and below the joint ; the legs are also
rather bowed, and the feet turned inward. Ornaments of feathers are
attached to a fillet made of the sinews of animals, and worn round the
head. White feathers denote hostility ; red feathers are the emblem of
peace. Red ochre, as a paint, is profusely used ; but, when preparing for
war, white paint is added : daubs of black, the paint being made from
charcoal mixed with grease, are the tokens of mourning.

Among the Fuegians, as above described, individuals occur with curly
or frizzled hair, with rather high foreheads, and straight or aquiline
noses, and who, in other features, resemble the natives of New Zealand,
rather than the Fuegians. These are, probably, the descendants of Malay
stragglers, or of people of some of the Polynesian Islands, who, at no
distant period, have been driven upon this extreme portion of America,
and whose features are not lost in the mixed race which has originated
from their union with the indigenes.

In the gulf of Trinidad, lat. 50°, on the eastern coast of Patagonia,
Lieut. Skyring met two canoes of Indians, taller and more finely formed
than those of the Chonos Islands, or any of the Fuegian tribes that had
been seen : one man among them had a high leathern cap, ornamented
with feathers of gaudy colours, and was painted black from head to foot,
with a circle of white round each eye. It is a curious circumstance, that
three of the men had each lost an upper incisor tooth, which calls to
mind the custom practised among the Australian savages, of having one
of the upper incisors extracted, on arriving at manhood.

For farther interesting and valuable information respecting the Pata-
gonian tribes, and the indigenes of Tierra del Fuego, and of the various
adjacent clusters of islands, reference may be made to the Voyages of the
Adventure and Beagle, by Captains King and Fitzroy, in which works their
habits, customs, and ceremonies are graphically detailed.

The skull of a Patagonian (supposed of a female), in the museum of
the Royal College of Surgeons, is remarkable for its great breadth and
rotundity, and its posterior compression ; the depth from the vertex to
the base being very considerable. The forehead is broad and arched — an
unusual character in the Patagonian skull; the vertex, at the anterior
part of the parietal bones, is slightly elevated, with a slope, rather
flat on each side. The centre of each parietal bone is boldly pro-
minent ; the orbits are large, ample, and projecting ; and the zygomatic

OCCIDENTAL STOCK. v 323

arches stand widely out: the nasal bones are small, but form a ridge,
overhung by a bold projection, indicating the frontal sinuses. The

superior orbital foramen is peculiarly
large ; but this is, no doubt, merely
a casual circumstance. The alveolar
margin is not oblique.

The round contour of this skull,
viewed from above, and its vertical
elevation, together with its antero-
posterior contraction, and its facial
breadth, give it a remarkable ap-
pearance.

of rattan. Notwithstanding the differential

characters which have been drawn up, as separating the Columbic from
the American branch (setting aside the Patagonian), these differences
are not strictly and universally constant : there is a general similarity
between them, both in outward and moral characteristics, which many
travellers have particularly noticed, Colour, indeed, is very variable :
the tribes of South America have broader and flatter faces, and a shorter
stature, than the North Americans ; nevertheless, they both appear
referable to the same common stock. " The Indians of New Spain,"
M. Humboldt says, " bear a general resemblance to those who inhabit
Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil : they have the same swarthy and
copper colour ; straight and smooth hair ; small beard ; squat body ;
long eye, with the corner directed upward toward the temples ; prominent
cheek-bones ; thick lips, and an expression of gentleness in the mouth,
strongly contrasted by a gloomy and severe look. Over a million
and a half of square leagues, from Tierra del Fuego to the river St.
Lawrence and Behring's Straits, we are struck, at the first glance, with
the general resemblance in the features of the inhabitants : we think
that we perceive them all to be descended from the same stock, notwith-
standing the prodigious diversity of languages which separates them one
from another."

This resemblance is, perhaps, in some measure, parallel to that which
obtains between the numerous tribes of Africa : it varies in degree, and
is often indistinctly marked. Differences among tribes, all unlike ourselves
in physiognomy, are not easily seized upon by the unpractised eye of a
European, who, as the same philosopher well remarks, is liable to a par-
ticular illusion, when making his observations upon barbarous nations, in
which the physiognomy is peculiar rather to a tribe, or horde, than to any
individual. " He is struck with a complexion so different from our own,
and the uniformity of this complexion conceals from him, for a long time,
the diversity of individual features. The new colonist can, at first, hardlv

324

BIMANA.

distinguish, from each other, individuals of the native race, because his eyes
are less fixed on the gentle, melancholic, or ferocious expression of the
countenance, than on the red, coppery colour, and dark, coarse, glossy, and

233

Thayendaneega, a Mohawk chief.

luminous hair ; so glossy, indeed, that we should believe it to be in a con-
stant state of moisture."*

* The coppery red of.the skin is, however, far from being a constant character. Humboldt himself
observes, that " the denomination of copper-coloured men could never have originated, in equinoctial
America, to designate the natives." — Personal Narrative. Birkbeck remarks, of the natives whom
he saw in the western territory of the United States, that " their complexion was various : some
are dark, others not so swarthy as myself; but I saw none of the copper colour, which I had imagined
to be their universal distinctive mark." Cook states the natives of Nootka Sound to have a colour
not very different from that of Europeans, but with a pale dull cast. Molino says, respecting the
Chilians, " their complexion, like that of the other American nations, is of a reddish brown, but of a
clearer hue, and readily changes to white. A tribe, who dwell in the province of Baroa, are of a clear
white and red, without any mixture of the copper colour." — Civil Hist, of Chili.

OCCIDENTAL STOCK.

The preceding is the portrait of Thayendaneega, a chief of the
Mohawks, or Six Nations, in whom, as in the Algonquin tribes, the
Chippeways, and the natives of Florida, the nose is elevated, the eyes
are large, and the face is broad and flat.

In the Carib tribes, the flatness of the forehead is still more con-
spicuous. The Caribs, or Caribbees,* are tribes which inhabit the
missions of the Cari in the Llanos of Cumana, the banks of the Caura,
and the plains to the north-east of the sources of the Orinoco, and are
distinguished, among the American nations, by their almost gigantic
stature. It was a branch of this race which occupied certain of the West
Indian Islands at the time of their discovery by Columbus :f in physical
characters, they agreed with the Caribs still extant^on the Continent, from
whom they were originally derived. European encroachment and perse-
cution confined the last remnant of this race to the Isle of St. Vincent :
they were here distinguished under the name of Red Caribs, in contra-
distinction to a tribe termed Black Caribs, the descendants of some
Negroes, who escaped from a shipwreck, and whose numbers became gra-
dually augmented. Between these Negro-Caribs and the true Caribs an
inveterate hostility has subsisted, to the almost total extirpation of the
latter. (See Edwards's Hist. West Indies, vol. i. p. 411.) The museum
of the Royal College of Surgeons contains two skulls of the Carib race,
both of which are very characteristic.

In these specimens, one of which is shewn at fig. 234, we are struck
with the singular depression, not only of the frontal bone, but of the
upper surface altogether (which, however, has a slight rise at the vertex),
and with the preponderating volume of the posterior portion. The parietal
bones are boldly convex ; the nasal bones are tolerably prominent ; the

* These people were termed Carives by the first navigators, and are still known by this name in
Spanish America.

t " As early as the first voyage of Columbus, he received information that several of the islands
were [inhabited by Caribbees, a fierce race of men, nowise resembling their timid neighbours. In
his second expedition to the New World, he found this information to be just, and was himself a wit-
ness of their intrepid valour." — Robertson's Hist. Amer.

The following is a note upon the above passage :— " Aprobable conjecture maybe formed with respect
to the cause of the distinction between the Caribbees and the inhabitants of the larger islands. The
former appear to be manifestly a separate race. Their language is totally different from that of their
neighbours in the larger islands. They themselves have a tradition, that their ancestors came origin-
ally from some part of the Continent, and, having conquered and exterminated the ancient inhabit-
ants, took possession of their lands and of their women. . (Rochefort, 381 ; Tertre, 360.) Hence they
call themselves Bana-ree, which signifies a man come from beyond sea. (Labat, vi. 131.) Accordingly,
the Caribbees still use two distinct languages, one peculiar to the men, and the other to the women.
(Tertre, 361.) The language of the men has nothing in common with that spoken in the large islands.
The dialect of the women greatly resembles it. (Labat, vi. 131.) This strongly confirms the tradition
I have mentioned. The Caribbees themselves imagine that they were a colony from the Galabis, a
powerful nation of Guiana, in South America. (Tertre, 361 ; Rochefort, 348.) But, as their fierce
manners approach nearer to those of the people in the northern Continent than to those of the
natives of South America, and as their language has, likewise, some affinity to that spoken in Florida,
their origin should be deduced rather from the former than the latter. (Labat, 128; Herrera, dec. i.
lib. ix. c. 4.) In their wars they still observe the ancient practice of destroying all the males, and
preserving the women, either for servitude or for breeding."

326

BIMANA.

234

Skull of Carib.

malar bone, large; the superior maxillary bone is long from the orbit
to the alveolar margin, having a regular slope forward ; the lower jaw
is large and strong; the osseous structure of the whole is compact
and hard. In Blumenbach's Decades, tab. x., in the skull of a

Carib (male) from St. Vincent's,
remarkable for the great depres-
sion of the forehead, and the large
patulous opening of the orbits,
which are directed upward (sur-
sum quasi spectantes), the pa-
rietal bones are protuberant ; the
nasal, long. In tab. xx. a second
skull (female) of a Carib of St.
Vincent's is figured, in which
the forehead is still more de-
pressed.

In these instances the great depression of the forehead is, doubtless, to
be ascribed to artificial pressure ; a mode, by which the ordinary flatness
of the forehead, esteemed becoming (such is the force of habit in modi-
fying ideas of beauty), is rendered more flat, and, therefore, more ap-
proximating to the American notions of the ** beau ideal." According
to Labat, the Caribs are well made, and with agreeable features, except-
ing that the forehead appears extraordinary, from its flatness and depres-
sion. These people, he adds, " are not born so ; but they force the head
to assume that form, by placing on the forehead of the newly-born child
a small plate, which they tie firmly behind. This remains until the bones
have acquired their consistence ; so that the forehead is flattened to that
degree, that they can see almost perpendicularly above them, without
elevating the head." It would appear that this custom has been adopted
by the Negro Caribs of St. Vincent's. In the narrative of the journey
to the source of the Missouri, performed by Messrs. Lewis and Clark,
we are informed, that the practice of flattening the forehead, by pressure,
during early infancy, is almost universal among the tribes situated on
the west of the Rocky Mountains, — a great range, running nearly parallel
with the western coast of North America, whence the Missouri on the
east, and the Columbia on the west, derive their sources.

The most distinguishing part of their physiognomy (according to
these travellers) is the singular flatness and width of the forehead ; a
peculiarity, which they owe to the above-described custom, which pre-
vails among all the nations west of the Rocky Mountains. To the east
of that barrier, the fashion is so perfectly unknown, that there the Western
Indians, with the exception of the Alliatan, or Snake Nation, are desig-
nated by the common name of Flatheads.

OCCIDENTAL STOCK.

327

235

Skull of Aturian.

The process is commenced soon after the birth of the child, and the
head is kept in the pressing-machine for about twelve months. The opera-
tion is so gradual, that it is not attended with pain ; but its effects are

deep and permanent. In one tribe,
on the Pacific, this custom did not
exist ; it is, however, noticed, as being
prevalent among the Skilloots, the
Wahkiacums, the Sokulks, and the
Chinnooks.

In the skull of an ancient Atu-
rian (fig. 235), brought, by M. Hum-
boldt, from the caves on the borders
of the Orinoco, and figured by Blu-
menbach (Dec. v. tab. xlvi.), the low,
slanting forehead is, perhaps, natural.
The zygomatic arches, less prominent
than in the Mongole or Negro, are
broader than in the latter, and the
depth of the cranium and of the lower
jaw is greater ; the nasal cavity is ample ; the orbits are narrow : the
texture of the whole is compact and solid.

A male Brazilian skull (fig. 236), preserved, with the skin dried, by

means of a bituminous composition
(Dec. v. tab. xlvii.), has the forehead
depressed, and the general contour
round. The colour of the skin is
dusky copper : on the vertex is a
patch of hair, short, strong, and
black ; around this, the skin is closely
shaved ; behind the ears the hair is
longer ; a short, scanty beard ap-
pears on the upper lip, and a few
scattered hairs on the chin. It was
adorned with splendid feathers of
the scarlet Ibis, the Toucan, and
various Macaws. The skull of a
female Brazilian (tab. xlviii.) is tole-
rably well formed, with an arched forehead (frons globosa) : the nose,
however, is depressed ; the olfactory cavity ample, and the frontal sinuses
are strongly marked by prominences.

In the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons are three skulls of the
ancient Peruvians from Titicaca and Pata Camaya, near Belen, Bolivia
(17° 12' south latitude). Their frontal and vertical depression is excessive,

Skull of Brazilian.

328

BIMANA.

the skull being thrown, as it were, back, or developed only posteriorly ;
so that the foramen magnum occupies a much more forward situation than
237 in skulls moderately depressed,

forming a striking contrast, in this
particular, with the Negro cranium :
the forehead retreats at once from
the orbital margin ; the orbits are
large and quadrate ; the nasal
bones are flat ; the alveolar arch
projects; the chin is well formed;
and the posterior angle of the
lower jaw is acute : from the middle
skuii of THicacan. of the occipital condyle to the al-

veoli of the front incisors, the distance is four inches and one-eighth ;
from the same spot to the posterior extent of the skull, it is five inches
and a half (see fig. 237).

The same museum contains two skulls of Peruvians, from Pachacamac,
or the Temple of the Sun, in the valley of Rimac, together with a dried
mummy, sitting in a crouched attitude, with the chin resting on the knees,
and the hands placed on each side of the face. These remains are, pro-
bably, to be attributed to the period of the Incas dynasty.

The skulls are deserving of notice, for the inequality of their develop-
ment, or the want of harmony be-
tween their sides. In one (fig. 238),
the forehead is retreating and sub-
compressed, but the vertex is some-
what elevated ; the general contour
is round, but not regularly ; the pa-
rietal bones bulge, but one differs in
shape from the other ; and the tem-
poral and the occipital bones of one
side are not equally balanced by the
same bones of the other ; the breadth
of the frontal bone is considerable ;
the occiput is compressed; the distance from the middle of the
occipital condyle to the edge of the alveoli of the front incisor teeth
being four inches and a half ; the occipital development beyond the same
point, only three inches ; the nasal bones are small ; the malar bones are
broken. In all essentials, the second skull resembles the preceding one, but
is much less elevated, vertically ; the vertex viewed from the front being,
indeed, in the form of a slightly-depressed arch ; the malar bones are
large, and the external orbitar angles prominent ; the alveoli are some-
what projecting ; the general contour is round and deep. The skull

238

Skull of Peruvian.

OCCIDENTAL STOCK. 329

of the mummy, as far as it is possible to form a judgment, very closely
resembles the latter, excepting that its vertical elevation is much more
considerable.

In the nations of South America generally, and particularly among the
Brazilians, Von Spix and Martius, the German naturalists, traced a great
resemblance to the Chinese, the physical characters of each closely
approximating. They observed, however, that the figure of the Chinese is
more slender ; the forehead is broader ; the lips are thinner ; and the features,
in general, are more delicate and mild than those of the American, who lives
in the woods : nevertheless, — the small head, not oblong, as in Europeans,
but of a roundish contour, angular, and rather pointed, with the crown
broad ; the frontal sinuses strongly marked ; the forehead low ; the
cheek-bones pointed and prominent ; the oblique position of the small
narrow eyes ; the blunt, proportionately 'small, broad flat nose ; the thin-
ness of the hair on the chin and other parts of the body ; the long, smooth,
black hair of the head ; the yellowish, or bright reddish tint of the skin, —
are all characteristics common to both races. In both, also, a mistrustful,
cunning, and, as it is said, a thievish disposition, are to be detected.

On comparing the Mongole physiognomy with the American, traces of
the series of developments may be perceived, through which the eastern
Asiatic had to pass, under the influence, as these writers suppose, of
climate,* in order, at length, to be transformed into an American. These
anthropological investigations, it is added, lead to the important result,
that certain characteristics, which constitute the principal difference of
races, do not easily pass into others ; while those of simple degree
gradually vanish or degenerate. The same writers describe the Puris,
Coropos, and Coroados, as having an extraordinary mutual resemblance
in make and countenance ; the features of individuals, probably from
want of civilization, partaking more of one general model than is now the
case in the other tribes. The Indians are of short or middle stature ; the
men from four to five feet high, and the women a little above four : all are
of a robust, broad, compact make. It is very seldom that persons of a
taller and more slender shape are seen among them. The breast is broad ;
the neck is short and thick ; the female breast is not so pendent as in the
Negresses ; the abdomen is very prominent ; the extremities are short ;
and the legs are far from being robust, the calves, in particular, being thin,
but the arms round and muscular ; the foot is narrow behind, and very
broad before, having the great toe parted from the others : the hands are
almost always cold, and the fingers are proportionably thin ; the nails are
very short : the hue of the skin is of a copper-colour, differing a little in
depth, according to the age, occupation, and health of the individual. Infants

* That forms or modes of development are occasioned by climate. — that climate can render the
Greek a Mongole, or the Mongole an American, may well be questioned.

VOL.1. 2U

330 BIMANA.

are of a yellowish white, like Mulattoes : sick persons become of a brownish
yellow colour : it is rare to find among them Albinos, or any that are
dark spotted : on the whole, their colour is darker in proportion as they
are stronger and more active. On the lower part of the body, and on the
legs and arms, the red-brown colour sometimes changes to a blacker shade ;
at the joints it is paler, or whitish. The Indian cannot blush ; and it is
only after long intercourse with them that a change of colour, expressive ot
the emotions of their mind, can be detected. Their skin is fine, soft, and
shining, and, when exposed to the sun, inclined to perspiration ; their long,
coarse, stiff, and glossy hair, hangs down in a thick and disorderly
manner ; the beard of the men is in general thin, but some have thick
beards ; the crown of the head and cheek-bones are broad, corresponding
with the breadth of the breast ; the forehead is low ; the temples project-
ing, narrow above, and falling very much back : the back part of the
head by no means hangs so low as in the Negro, whose skull is, indeed,
narrow, and much more oblong than that of the Indian : the countenance
is broad and angular, and projects much less than in the Negro, but more
than in the Calmuc or the European ; the ears are small and neatly
formed ; rather turned outward, and not pierced and disfigured by heavy
bodies ; the eye is small and dark brown, placed sideways, the inner
corner turned toward the nose ; the eyebrows thin, and very high in the
middle ; the nose is short, slightly depressed above, broad below, but not
so spread as in the Negro ; the nostrils are wide, standing very little out ;
the lips are by no means so thick and swollen as in the Negro ; the upper,
not the lower, projects a little, or both are alike ; the mouth is smaller
and more closed than in the Negro ; the teeth are white, the front teeth
very broad and even ; the eye-teeth (canines) projecting. In general, the
contour of the Indian is robust, broad, and short; whereas that of the Negro
is tall and slender : thus it approaches nearer to the form of the other
races, especially to that of the Chinese and Calmucs ; though the latter have
lighter complexions and better-formed features. Deformed persons, or
cripples, are rare among the Indians ; and it is believed, by some, that
such are put to death immediately after birth. For many interesting
details, Von Spix and Martius (Reisen durch Brazilien) may be con-
sulted with advantage.

Don Antonio Ulloa, than whom few had greater opportunities of
observing the natives of South America in different districts,* describes
their characteristic features as consisting of a very small forehead, covered

* Don A. Ulloa visited a great part of Peru and Chili, :the kingdom of New Grenada, and
several provinces bordering on the Mexican Gulf, while employed in the same service with the
French mathematicians, during the space of ten years. Afterward he had opportunities of ob-
serving the natives of North America, of whom he says, "If we have seen one American, we
may be said to have seen them all, their colour and make are so nearly the same."

OCCIDENTAL STOCK. 331

with hair towards its extremities, as far as the middle of the eyebrows ;
small eyes ; a thin nose, small, and bending toward the upper lip ; the
countenance broad ; the ears large ; the hair very black, lank, and
coarse ; the limbs well turned ; the feet small ; the body of just propor-
tion, and altogether free from hair, until old age, when they acquire some
beard, but never on their cheeks. M. le Chevalier de Pinto, in a manu-
script in the possession of the late Dr. Robertson, well delineates the
general characters of the tribes with which he was acquainted : he describes
them as being of a copper colpur, with some diversity of shade, not in
proportion to their distance from the equator, but according to the degree
of elevation of the territory which they inhabit. Those who live in a high
country are fairer than those in the marshy lowlands on the coast. Their
face is round, farther removed, perhaps, than that of any people from an oval
shape ; their forehead is small ; the extremities of their ears are far from
the face ; their lips are thick ; their nose is flat ; their eyes are black, or of
a chestnut colour — small, but capable of discerning objects at a great
distance ; their hair is always thick and sleek, and without any tendency to
curl : they have no hair on any part of the body but the head. At the
first aspect, a South American appears to be mild and innocent ; but, on a
more attentive view, one discovers, in his countenance, something wild,
distrustful, and sullen.

The Americans, then, as all accounts tend to prove, are distinguished
from other nations by a certain combination of features, and other physical
peculiarities, entitling them to a rank as distinct from the European or
Indian as the Mongole or the Negro. They constitute a distinct stem of
the human race ; but to what extent they subdivide into clearly-marked
ramifications, analogous to the Celtic, Teutonic, or Arabic branches of the
Japetic stock, it is almost impossible to determine. Our acquaint-
ance with them is only of recent date, and their multitudinous languages
have engaged, comparatively speaking, but little attention. A rigid
analysis of these languages is, indeed, a task, to which few would devote
themselves, and the undertaking is, moreover, almost impracticable.

The traditions of the indigenes, when gleaned, are found to be
meagre, vague, and dateless. Among a wild, unlettered people, sunk in
barbarism, and roused from a state of habitual apathy, only by the desire
of vengeance, or the calls of hunger, the most important events make but
little impression : they are forgotten in a few generations, or, if preserved,
are distorted, and referred to an indefinite epoch of remote antiquity.

BIMANA.

ON THE DATE OF MAN'S EXISTENCE ON THE SURFACE OF THE GLOBE.

WHILE the researches of geologists accumulate proofs of the antiquity
of our planet, and of a long series of revolutions, by which its surface
has become modified; while they teach us, by appealing to the silent
language of their reliquia, that races of organic beings have tenanted the
globe, previously to the existence of our continents and islands, at a time
when its surface exhibited a condition, of which we can form only a
plausible conjecture, but of which these relics are the faithful records ;
while they convince us that successive eras have taken place, and, on the
fragments recovered from the buried Herculaneum of Nature, enable us
to decipher the hieroglyphics which announce the progress of creation, —
they assure us that Man is but of recent date, the ultimate of animals called
into life and being. It would appear to be now well established, that, in
none of the older strata, in none of what are termed secondary formations,
in none of the tertiary formations, in none of the regular strata of the globe,
do the fossil relics of Man occur. In the beds, which contain the remains
of ancient races, the types of forms blotted out of creation, — even in the de-
posits containing the bones of Elephants and Rhinoceroses, which have now
their living representatives, we search in vain for the fossil remains of our
species. Once, indeed, the huge bones of extinct animals were regarded as
human, and philosophers speculated upon the stature of a race more mighty
than the Anakim, of which these were deemed the relics, — an error, at which
we now smile. " Many of the labourers," says Cuvier, " in the gypsum
quarries about Paris, believe, that the bones, which occur so abundantly
in them, are, in a great measure, human ; but I have seen thousands of
these bones, and Itmay safely affirm, that not one of them has ever
belonged to our species. I have examined, at Pavia, the groups of bones
brought, by Spallanzani, from the island of Cerigo ; and, notwithstanding
the assertion of that celebrated observer, I affirm, also, that there is not
one among them that could be shewn to be human."

It is not, however, affirmed, or pretended, that no fossil relics of Man
have been found, or may be found, — for the existence of such is as-
certained ; but they do not occur in such formations, or under such
conditions, as indicate his contemporary existence with the Palseotheria,
the Anaplotheria, or the Dinotheria, — the Mammoths and the Mastodons ;
and their situation is such as to corroborate the deduction, from other
proofs, that Man is a new, and, geologically speaking, a recent denizen of
the surface of our planet.

The most remarkable fossil remains of our species are those which
occur in a tufaceous deposit, of modern date, and daily increasing, in the
island of Guadaloupe : a fine specimen of an almost entire skeleton, im-

MAN S EXISTENCE ON THE GLOBE.

333

bedded in this calcareous matrix, is in the British Museum ; another (fig.
239) is in the Museum of Paris. In both, the skull is wanting.

These fossil skeletons of Guadaloupe, as Cuvier observes, all more or
less mutilated, are found near Porte de Moule, on the north-west coast of
the, mainland of Guadaloupe, in a kind of slope, resting against the
steep edges of the island. This slope is, in a great measure, covered by
the sea at high water, and is found to be nothing else than a tufa, formed,
and daily augmented, by the very small debris of shells and corals, which
the waves are perpetually detaching from the rocks, the accumulated mass
of which assumes a great degree of cohesion in the places that are most
239 frequently left dry. It is found, on ex-

amining them with a lens, that several of
these fragments have the same red tint as
a part of the corals contained in the reefs
of the island. Formations of this kind
are common in the whole archipelago of
the Antilles, where they are known to
Negroes under the name of Ma^onne-bon-
dieu. Their augmentation is proportioned
to the violence of the surge ; and they have
greatly extended the plain of Cayes, in
St. Domingo, in which sometimes are
found fragments of earthen vessels, and of
other articles of human fabrication, at a
depth of twenty feet. Various conjectures
have been made, and even events have been
imagined, in order to account for the depo-
sition of these skeletons of Guadaloupe.
But, from all the circumstances of the
case, M. Jonnes, correspondent of the
Academy of Sciences, who has been on
the spot, and to whom Cuvier is indebted for numerous details, thinks, that
they are merely bodies of persons who have perished from shipwreck.
Their discovery occurred in 1805. In the rock, which inurns these
bones, M. Koenig detected fragments of Millepora miniacea, of several
Madrepores, as well as the fragments of shells, which he compares to
Helix acuta, and Turbo pica ; and Cuvier states that, in the specimen at
Paris, which was sent there by General Donzelot, there are embedded
shells of the neighbouring sea, and land shells, which are still found alive
in the island ; namely, the Bulimus Guadaloupensis of Ferussac. Sir
Humphry Davy subjected small portions of the skeleton in the British
Museum to chemical analysis, and found that the bones contained part
of their animal matter, and all their phosphate of lime.

Skeleton from Guadaloupe.

334 BIMANA.

Independently, however, of the existence of fossil reliquia of Man
at Guadaloupe, human bones, but scarcely to be termed fossilized, have
been found in other places. They not unfrequently occur in caverns, or
fissures of rocks, mixed with articles of human fabrication : they are
sometimes found in such places, buried in fine mud, beneath a layer of
stalagmite, and sometimes incrusted in the latter. In these caves and
fissures, where the wandering savages of a thinly-peopled country might
occasionally find refuge, or into which they might have been accidentally
precipitated, are found the remains of many extinct Mammalia ; viz.,
of extinct species of Bears, of Hyaenas, Lions, or large feline animals ;
Deer, Elephants, Hippopotamuses, &c. ; as well as of animals now extant
— Horses, Oxen, Sheep, Dogs, Wolves, and Foxes. Thus, in the cave
of Gaylenreuth, there occurred, according to Rosenmiiller, the bones of
Men, Horses, Oxen, Sheep, Deer, Roes, Mules, Badgers, Dogs, and
Foxes, besides the bones of Bears, Hyaenas, and Tigers ; but, from the
researches made by him, in the cave itself, and from the state of preserva-
tion, in which the bones of the former animals were found, it was evident
that they must have been deposited at periods much more recent than
those of the latter. In some of the grottoes of the cave of Klanstein,
M. Rosenmiiller found two human skeletons, superficially placed, and in-
crusted with stalactite, — a proof of their modern deposition. In the cele-
brated cave of Kirkdale, in Yorkshire, in which bones of the Elephant,
Hippopotamus, Tiger, Hyaena, Wolf, &c., occurred in abundance, many of
them bearing the marks of the teeth of the animals that had gnawed them,
and intermixed with the excrements of the Hyaena, no human bones
have been discovered ; but, in the caves of Paveland, in the county of Gla-
morgan, at the entrance of the English Channel, the clergyman and surgeon
of the neighbouring village of Portinan, found the skeleton of a Woman,
together with bones of the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse, Bear, Hyaena,
Fox, Rat, and, also, of birds. Many of these bones, however, were modern ;
and the diggings, made at remote and unknown periods, had displaced the
ancient bones, and not only mixed them with the modern, but also with
shells of the present sea. (Vide Notes by Professor Jameson, in his transla-
tion of Cuvier's Theory of the Earth.) It is to be regretted that, upon the
discovery of caves containing bones, persons, anxious to examine them, yet
little aware of the importance of leaving them undisturbed in their re-
spective situations, for the investigation of the geologist, begin to dig,
and collect, mixing them together, so as to prevent the possibility of
ascertaining their respective order of deposition. In the celebrated cavern
of Adelsberg, in Carniola, the Chevalier de Lowengreif discovered, in
1816, a hole in one of its walls, at the height of fourteen fathoms : this
conducted him to a series of new caves, of vast extent, and of incom-
parable beauty, from the lustre and variety of their stalactites. A part

MAN'S EXISTENCE ON THE GLOBE. 335

of these caves, however, it is proved, must have been formerly known,
and either are, or have been, accessible by some other entrance ; for
inscriptions were found in them, with dates from 1393 to 1676, together
with human bones and entire carcasses that had been buried there.
Through these caves, M. Volpi (Director of the School of Commerce
and Navigation, at Trieste) asserts his having proceeded for more than
three leagues, almost in a straight line, and that he was stopped only
by a lake, which rendered it impossible to go on. It was about two
leagues from the entrance that he discovered bones of animals, which
he describes under the name of Palaeotheria, but which belonged to
the extinct Bears, whose remains occur in the bear-caves of Germany.*
The remains of Man, therefore, found in the caves which contain, with
the bones of recent animals, those of extinct species, prove nothing in
favour of the contemporary existence of the latter and the human race ;
any more than the circumstance of finding the coins of the present cen-
tury with those of the Saxon era, or of ancient Rome, at the bottom of
a pit, or lake, would prove a coincidence of time in their fabrication.

* According to M. Bertrand du Geslin (Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1826), who visited this cave, M. Volpi
only found the bones where he did, because he had not been at the trouble of searching for them
elsewhere. The great line of chambers has the floor formed of a yellow and reddish, clayey mud,
from one to two feet thick, and more or less impregnated and covered with crusts of yeUow stalag-
mites. In this mud are the bones of Bears (Ursus spelaeus) in considerable quantities. Large blocks,
or masses, of compact white limestone also occur in some of the chambers, having their fissures and
interstices filled with clay, the whole being covered with stalactite : in an interstice, in a mass of this
kind, about fifteen feet high, and twenty in diameter at the base, the skeleton of a young Bear was
discovered. M. Geslin only advanced an hour and a quarter's progress, always finding bones, when,
the oil of his lamp failing, he was obliged to return, without reaching the block in which M. Volpi
found his specimens. He observes, that the bones occur in two different ways. First, scattered in the
clayey mud, which forms the floor of the chambers ; secondly, buried in heaps, formed of blocks of
white, secondary, compact limestone, and yellow, clayey mud : and he adds : " The hypothesis which
Cuvier admits as the most probable for explaining the presence of these bones in the caves, is that
which would make these caves to have served as a retreat to carnivorous animals. The presence of
bones in the clayey mud of the floor of the Adelsberg cave accords well with this hypothesis, but the
case is different with those which I found in the heaps of limestone blocks and clayey mud. The
bones are not at the surface of the heap, but rather toward its middle part, buried among the blocks,
and crusted by them. From this position, and the height at which the skeleton occurs from the floor
of the cave, it cannot be supposed that it formed part of the bones with which the bottom of the cave
is strewed ; nor that the blocks had fallen upon it. The bones contained in the heap in question must
have been brought into their present position at the same time, and by the same cause, as the limestone
blocks. They could not, therefore, have belonged to animals which inhabited these caves, and died
there peaceably. If it be remarked that these blocks, which are sometimes very large, heaped up
above one another, and mixed with clayey mud, have their angles perfectly fresh, and are of the
same nature as the limestone of the walls of the cave, it cannot be admitted that they have been
brought from a distance. This mode of arrangement could only have been produced by their falling
from the roof of the cave. The following facts also give support ;to this opinion. In the cave of
Galenreuth, a fissure of the third grotto was the means, in 1784, of disclosing a new one, fifteen feet
long and four broad, where the greatest quantity of Hyaena or Lion ^bones were found ; the aperture
was much too small for these animals to have passed through it. It must also be remembered, that
the surface of the secondary limestone of Carniola is covered with a layer of reddish clay ; and, more-
over, that the clayey mud of the heaps in the Adelsberg cave is mineralogically the same as that
which forms the floor of the cave : may it not be supposed, that the same catastrophe which produced
the heaps in the cave, at the same time introduced into it the reddish, clayey mud of the surface,
which, by extending itself over the floor of the cave, would have contributed to cover the bones that
were lying there ? "

336 BIMANA.

One thing, however, is clear, 'that, at the period when our Continent
had assumed its present general form, it was the abode of species of Mam-
malia which have passed away, and whose representatives now live only
in the hotter regions of the globe. The circumstances attendant upon
their deposition in these caves, where they are often found in recesses,
the entrance to which could not have admitted the living animal, involve
many speculations : but the subject is alien to our present purpose ; nor
do we profess to be ajjle to throw more light upon it than has been done
by our learned and zealous geologists.

We may here allude to the fossil human relics found near Kosritz,
and said to have been discovered consolidated in the limestone rock,
together with the remains of the Rhinoceros, Lion, Hyaena, &c. M. de
Sclotheim, by whom these organic remains were discovered, throws a
doubt upon this point, and considers the human bones to have been de-
posited at a later epoch than the bones of the animals referred to, and
in this opinion he is borne out by Dr. Buckland, who observes, that " the
case of Kosritz affords no exception to the general fact, that human bones
have not been discovered in any of those diluvial deposits which have
hitherto been examined."

The discovery of human bones in peat-bogs, in tumuli of unknown
antiquity, in mines, &c., does not bear upon the present subject.

The opinion, then, of the best informed and most observant geologists,
is, that Man is of recent creation, — that he was called into being when
the surface of the earth, having undergone a series of modifications, and
having assumed, on a broad scale, its present aspect, became fitted for
his reception. Against the opinion of his comparatively modern date,
some philosophers have brought the chronological records of the Chinese
and Brahmins, and the presumed zodiacs of the ancient Egyptians. With
respect to the fabulous chronology of the Chinese and the Brahmins, it
is unworthy of serious notice, as evidence in the case. With respect to
the zodiacs of the Egyptians, it is now, we believe, admitted, that the
great temple of Dendera, whence the celebrated zodiac, now in Paris,
was obtained, is not anterior to tjie time of Augustus : the small temple
of Esne, that of which the origin, as indicated by the zodiac there dis-
covered, was, according to the lowest calculation, near 3,000 years
anterior to the Christian era, has a column sculptured and painted in the
sixth year of Antonine, 147 years after Christ ; and it is painted and
sculptured in the same style as the zodiac which is near it.

These celebrated planispheres have been the test to which many
philosophers have, as they thought, triumphantly appealed, in favour
of the antiquity of our race. Dapius referred the construction of the
zodiac of Dendera to an era 13,000 years before the present : and others,
of no little learning, have fallen into conclusions as extravagant. After

MAN'S EXISTENCE ON THE GLOBE. 337

all, it appears, that these zodiacs have nothing to do with the precession of
the equinoxes, or with the displacement of the solstice : they are not true
zodiacs, nor were the Egyptians profound astronomers. Cuvier observes,
that " a mummy-case, lately brought from Thebes, by M. Caillaud, and
containing, according to the very legible Greek inscription upon it, the
body of a young man, who died in the ninth year of Trajan, 116 years after
Christ, presents a zodiac divided at the same points as that of Dendera ;
and all the appearances indicate, that this division marks some astro-
logical theme relative to the individual ; a conclusion which may, pro-
bably, be equally applied to the division of the zodiacs contained in the
temples."

In fact, as already observed, neither the tables of the Chinese and
Brahmins,* nor the zodiacs of the Egyptian temples, are worthy of the
slightest serious attention. Thus, neither monuments, nor the productions
of Man, discovered in tumuli, in the ruins of ancient cities, or mines,
worked at an unknown period, such as glass ornaments, weapons, tools of
brass or stone, stamped bricks, and the like, — nor tradition, extravagant
as may be its pretensions, — nor history, — throw back to a remote eralhe
commencement of the existence of the human race ; and the assignment
of 6000 years, as the average of the period during which Man has acted
his part on the surface of the globe, accords alike with the inferences of
the geologists and the cosmogony of the Mosaic writings. f

* " Mr. Bentley discovered that the tables of Tirvalour, on which the assertion of Bailley (re-
specting the great antiquity of the science of astronomy among the Indians) especially rested, must
have been calculated about 1281 of the Christian era, or 540 years ago; and that the Surya
Siddhanta, which the Brahmins regard as their oldest scientific treatise on astronomy, and which they
pretend to have been revealed upward of 20,000,000 of years ago, could not have been composed at
an earlier period than about 760 years from the present day."— See Bentley's Mem. on Antiq. of
Surya Siddhanta, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. vi. ; and on Astron. System of the Indians, ibid. vol. viii.

t Cuvier, in his Theory of the Earth, has collected together a mass of information on this point,
which may be consulted with advantage.

VOL. I. 2 X

338

ORDER II. QUADRUMANA.

THIS ORDER CONSISTS OF THREE FAMILIES

SIMIADJE J OR, MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.
CEBID.E J OR, MONKEYS OF THE NE\V WORLD.
LEMURID^l ; OR, LEMURINE ANIMALS.

THE GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE QUADRUMANOUS ORDER.

•

THE structure of the Quadrumanous Mammalia exhibits a semblance
of approach, more or less appreciable, to that of the human race ;
diminishing, however, in proportion as it is strictly examined. The
conditions of their existence, to meet which their conformation is accord-
ingly modified, involve certain structural peculiarities, which, in con-
nexion with the development of their brain, the form of their skull, their
system of dentition, and other details, justly entitle them, but not without
a wide interval, to succeed Man in the scale of animal organization.

For the most part tenants of the forest, and peculiarly qualified as
climbers, their extremities are each furnished with organs of prehension,
which, when we compare them with the analogous organs of the succeed-
ing groups, may be well defined as hands, but of which the posterior are
really the most hand-like, having the thumb more apart, more powerful,
and antagonizing more decidedly with the fingers, than is the case on
the fore-hands, where it is always feeble, and sometimes even destitute
of the quality that justifies its attribute. The extraordinary freedom
and activity, among the branches of the forest, which this modification
of the limbs bestows, become much diminished when the animals descend
to the level ground : on a plane surface,, their movements want energy
and decision : some, it is true, scamper along with tolerable speed on
all-fours ; but their gait is oblique and uneasy : others, again, are slow,
awkward, and embarrassed in the extreme.

The anterior limbs, or arms, are comparatively more vigorous than
the posterior ; arid the power of pronation and supination, enjoyed by the
fore-arms, gives them a marked advantage. The form and situation of

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE QUADRUMANA. 339

the head vary : it may be taken, however, as a rule, that the occipital
condyles are thrown far more backward than in the human skull ; in
many, indeed, their situation is rather posterior than basal ; while, at the
same time, the muzzle becomes elongated ; the spinous processes of the
cervical and dorsal vertebrae being, accordingly, developed for the attach-
ment of the muscles appointed for the retention of the head in an oblique
or, in some instances, almost an horizontal position. The orbits, as a
general rule, have the outer ring complete, and are walled within, being,
as in the human skull, separated from the temporal fossae.

The usual attitude of the Quadrumana is crouching, or more or less
diagonal, a posture intermediate between the upright and horizontal ; the
thighs are ordinarily drawn up to the body, the femur forming an acute
angle with the tibia ; whence, by the sudden extension of the knee-joints,
the animals spring with great vigour and facility.

The teeth consist of incisors, canines, and molars ; the latter crowned
with tubercles, blunt or acute.

The teats are two, and pectoral ;* and the females produce one or
two, rarely more, at a birth ; and manifest toward their offspring the
greatest attachment, nursing them with care and solicitude.

The Quadrumana are all natives of the hotter regions of the
earth : their food consists of vegetable aliment ; not, however, to the
exclusion of animal substances ; many devour insects, eggs, and small
birds and reptiles, with the utmost avidity.

The order, Quadrumana, comprehends the Monkey tribes, both of
the older continents and of America, together with the lemurine group,
consisting of a race of animals concentrated in the Island of Madagascar,
and thence spread, but sparingly, through the hotter regions of Africa,
the Molucca, and Indian islands, and also along the southern border of
the Indian continent.

The Monkeys of the Old and of the New World were formerly
regarded as constituting a single family, divisible into two or, perhaps,
three sections. •)• Cuvier, however, regards the Ouistitis, or Marmozet

* The Tarsiers have the teats inguinal ; and the Loris, in addition to two pectoral, have two
inguinal.

t Buffon, who appears to have studied the Quadrumana with much attention, divides the Monkeys
into five tribes : — first, true Apes, without a tail ; secondly, Papios, with a short tail ; thirdly, Guenons,
with a long tail, and callosities ; fourthly, Sapajous, with a tail long and prehensile, and destitute of
callosities; and, fifthly, Sagoins, with a. long but not prehensile tail, and no callosities. Erxleben,
adopted these divisions, which, after all, modern naturalists have not much improved upon,
respectively terming them Simia, Papio, Cercopithecus, Cebus, and Callithrix ; and hence it is that
the terms Cebus and Callithrix, given by the ancients to certain Monkeys of the Old World,
have been received by naturalists as the designations of Monkeys of the New. Buffon was not only
aware of the distinctions between the Monkeys of the two great portions of the globe ; namely, the
Old and New; but of their mutual bearing upon each other, as holding correspondent places in
their respective regions : "As the Apes, the Baboons, and the Guenons, are found only in the older
continents, the Sapajous and Sagoins must be regarded as their representatives in the New ; for these
animals have nearly the same form, both externally and internally considered, and have, also, much in

340 QUADRUMANA.

Monkeys, of America, as a distinct family, intermediate between the
Monkeys and the Lemurs, thus dividing his order into three primary
groups; viz., Monkeys, Ouistitis, and Lemurs; the same value being
accorded to the intermediate group as to the first and last. Geoffroy
St. Hilaire, on the other hand, with more adherence to Nature, divides
the Quadrumana into the following primary groups, or families ; namely,
I. Catarrhini (/caret, downward ; 'plv, the nose) ; or Monkeys of the Old
World. II. Platyrhini (TrXarv?, wide), or Monkeys of the New World.
III. Strepsirhini (trrpe(/>G>, to turn or twist), or Lemurs, and the genera in
alliance with them.

The names chosen by Geoffrey St. Hilaire, besides being harsh, are
otherwise unfortunate : descriptive only of certain characters, they
convey no ideas beyond ; they do not lead us to the selection of any
typical form, as the representative of either of the groups, from which
some general notion of the whole may be at once acquired ; points, in
which pure family names, or patronymics, taken from that of the normal
or typical group, have so decided an advantage. Instead of the terms
used by Geoffroy, the following appellations (having a patronymic form),
Simiadae, Cebidae, and Lemuridse, may be substituted, as being not only
more expressive and appropriate, but, also, and which is not altogether
unimportant, more easily borne in remembrance.*

As has been already expressed, it is rather by comparison, than
absolutely, that the term hands can be applied to the grasping organs of
the Quadrumana ; but, even in this modified sense, the term is not
always applicable ; and, here, allusion is made more particularly to two
forms, respecting which naturalists have widely differed, but which, not-
withstanding their structural aberration in certain details, still exhibit
such affinities to the Lemuridae as to induce the Author to remove them

common, as respects their natural habits." — Buff. Hist. Nut. 4to., vol. xiv. p. 367. We may farther
observe, that the Opossums of America were also regarded by him as the representatives of the
Lemurs ; a point in which some naturalists concur most fully ; but which, to say no more, admits
of being questioned.

* On due consideration, the termination idae, or adae, as the ultimate syllable of the word may
require, is adopted as the sign of a family name. Family names, for the sake of uniformity and con-
venience, and the principle being once known, of clearness and certainty, should have, in every case,
a similar termination. In the assumption of a patronymic form for such words, it becomes a matter
of little consequence whether or not their meaning be strictly conformable with the patronymics of
which the classics afford examples, and in which likeness to, descent from, or consanguinity with some
person, on whose name the patronymic is modelled, is implied, but in which the person himself cannot
be included. On the contrary, the family names, with a patronymic termination, adopted by the
naturalist, necessarily include the group on the name of which that of the family is constructed :
thus, Vultur, Vulturidse, the latter including the restricted genus Vultur ; Muscicapa, Muscicapidae ;
the latter including the genus Muscicapa ; Anas, Anatidae, &c. This application of a patronymic
term may not be strictly classical or correct ; nevertheless, so much precision and convenience result
from it, that few hesitate in its adoption. A rule once established should never be broken : if, for
example, family names be distinguished by the termination idae, or adae, then, to make Simiae,
Vultures, Muscicapas, the family names of groups, and Simiadae, Vulturidae, Muscicapidae, the
family names of other groups, also having a resemblance to the preceding, because of such resemblance,
is to produce confusion and misapprehension.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE QUADRUMANA. 341

from the situations assigned them by Cuvier and others, and restore
them to their true and legitimate station. The animals in question are,
the Aye-Aye (Cheiromys Madagascariensis), and the Colugo (Gen.
Galeopithecus, Pallas). With respect to the Aye-Aye, though pedi-
manous, or with the feet having a true thumb, the fore-hands are not
thus organized, nor is its dental system such as generally exists in the
Quadrumanous order ; yet Schreber appreciated the affinities of the
Aye-Aye ; and though Cuvier placed it among the rodents (as did
Gmelin, under the title of Sciurus Madagascariensis), he, at the same
time, acknowledges its relationship to the Lemurs, to which family
Schreber referred it.

The Colugo is neither furnished on the fore nor hind feet with
an opposable thumb : notwithstanding this circumstance, however, the
totality of its characters sufficiently vindicates its claim to a place
among the Lemuridse ; to which group it was referred by Linnaeus,
under the title of Lemur volans. It may farther be observed, that it is
not in the typical, but in the aberrant families of an order, that the great
fluctuations of characters, which pervade it as a whole, are to be looked
for : in every aberrant, or abnormal family, extreme links in the chain
are often found to depart so much from the type, that it is only by a
careful analysis of the whole group, that the naturalist can detect their
affinities, follow the gradual loss of some characters, or the rise and
progress of others, and, at length, confidently assign the group to its true
situation. The non-opposable condition of the thumb in the fore-hands
of the Aye- Aye, and in all the extremities of the Colugo, is an exception
to the general rule among the Lemuridae : not so, however, is it among
the Cebidse, or Monkeys of the New World, in which, as affecting the
fore-hands, this peculiarity becomes a standard character.

Some naturalists of eminence object to the application of the term
hands, to organs which, furnished, as they may be, with flexible and
hand-like fingers, have the thumb incapable of antagonizing with them ;
and hence they deny the title Quadrumana to all the groups included
by Cuvier in the order thus denominated. It is true that Cuvier was
not aware of the universality of this fact in the Cebidse ; nevertheless,
he perceived it in the Ouistitis, and observes : " All their nails are com-
pressed, or pointed, with the exception of those on the thumbs of the
hinder hands ; while the thumbs of the fore-hands are separated so little
from the other fingers, that one hesitates to give to these animals the
name of Quadrumana."

The non-opposable character of the thumb was long since observed
and pointed out by Azara, as a characteristic in certain species of the
genera Cebus, Mycetes, and Pithecia ;* but was universally overlooked

* Azara, Quad, du Parag., torn. ii. pp. 213. 233. 214.

QUADRUMANA.

by subsequent naturalists, and so continued, till, in the year 1838, in an
article on the " Zoology of America," in the Penny Cyclopaedia, vol. i.
p. 442, Mr. Ogilby published the results of his personal observations,
unaware, at the time, of Azara's statements, which independent investiga-
tion thus tended to confirm. Without any knowledge of the observations
made either by Azara or Mr. Ogilby on the subject, the non-opposability
of the thumb of the fore-hands in the American Monkeys was also observed
by the Author of this work, and alluded to in a paper on the Ouistiti,
published, Dec. 1835, in the Penny Magazine, as follows: — "It is
among the forms of this section (the American section of Simiae) that
the prehensile tail, given as an accessory organ for grasping, is met with ;
together with a departure, in the structure of the hand, from its perfect
model. In the genus Ateles, embracing the Spider-Monkeys, with pre-
hensile tails, the thumb is wanting, or reduced to a mere rudiment beneath
the skin ; while, in other genera, the hand can no longer retain this
appellation."

In a valuable memoir, read before the Zoological Society, March 8,

1836, and published in the Magazine of Natural History for September,

1837, but of which an abstract had previously appeared in the Proceed-
ings of the Zoological Society, Mr. Ogilby pursues, at some length, the de-
ductions which he conceives necessarily to result from a discovery, " one
of the most important," as he remarks, " that has been made of late
years in mammalogy, more especially in regard to its connexion with the
principles of natural classification in this department of zoology."

To this paper, which embodies the results of his investigations, (and
in which a new arrangement of the Monkeys and Lemurs, comprehending
also the pedimanous marsupial animals, as the Opossums and Pha-
langers, is proposed,) the attention of the scientific reader is directed. An
examination of the principles upon which the arrangement in question is
based is here inadmissible, as it would lead to a long discussion, irrele-
vant to the plan of the present work. If the views of the learned
author are not adopted in the present instance, it is not because they
have not been maturely considered. Few naturalists entertain precisely
the same views ; but their differences of opinion, happily, tend to the
advancement of the science cultivated ; they stimulate to farther re-
searches and observations ; to a more extended application of assumed
principles, in order to test them ; and they open the door to improvements
and modifications.

The Quadrumana, as before stated, are primarily divided into three
families, answering to the Catarhins, Platyrhins, and Strepsirhins of
Geoffroy ; namely, the SIMIAD.E, or Monkeys of the Old World ; the
CEEIDJE, or Monkeys of America ; and the LEMURID^E, or lemurine
animals of Madagascar, Africa, and Asia. The following figures (240,

MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD. 343

241, and 242,) represent the features, and the position of the nostrils,
characteristic of each family ; and, as far as these parts are concerned,
convey a clear idea of the distinctions between them.

240 241 242

Illustration of the Illustration of the Illustration of the

family, Shniadae, or Monkeys family, Cebidae, or Monkeys family, Lemuridae, or

of the Old World. of the New World. Lemurs.

FAMILY, SIMIAD.E; OR, MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

FORE-HANDS with a thumb (except where rudimentary), capable of
antagonizing more or less thoroughly with the fingers.

DENTITION anthropoid. Incisors, \ ; canines, {5i ; molars, bicuspid,
g ; true molars, g ; = 32.

NOSTRILS divided by a narrow septum, and converging obliquely
downward.

ISCHIATIC CALLOSITIES generally present, but not absolutely universal.

CHEEK-POUCHES often present, but not a universal character.

MEMBRANEOUS LARYNGAL SACCULI, not a universal character.

The Simiadae are divided between the hotter regions of Asia and
Africa ; each of these sections of the Old World having its own peculiar
genera. It is doubtful whether any species is indigenous in Madagas-
car,* near as it is to the shore of Africa ; the place of the Simiadae
appears to be occupied, in that island, by the Lemurs, which tenant its
forests in their stead : in the island of Fernando Po, however, they are
very numerous ; and, as respects India, the islands are even more de-
cidedly the stronghold and nursery of the Asiatic Simiadae than is the
continent. Borneo and Sumatra may be termed their metropolis, and
" dilecta Cypros."

From the Indian Islands the Simiadae do not extend to Australia ;

* One species (Simia Aygula, Linn,), is said, by M. Julien Desjardins, to exist in the Island of
Mauritius (see Proc. Zool. Soc. 1831, p. 45) ; but, like all the Mammalia of that island, it is,
doubtless, a naturalized importation. Two examples of a Monkey (Cercopithecus albogularis) have
been brought from Madagascar, but it is not clear that they were natives of that island.

844 QUADRUMANA.

none tenant the woods of that immense Continent. With respect
to Europe, there is one isolated point, the rock of Gibraltar, where
a single species, the Magot, or Barbary Ape, dwells in freedom, and
continues to breed : it is, however, very probable that it must be
regarded in the light of a naturalized colonizer of the place, to which
accident or design may have introduced it, and not as an aborigi-
nal ; if, indeed, there were not, at some ancient period, as many con-
jecture, a connexion, at this point, between the shores of Europe and
Africa, which the sea has dissolved, gradually widening the interval, till
the straits have gained their present breadth. Under these circumstances,
the rock of Gibraltar may have been the primitive abode of the ancestry
of the troops of Apes that now find refuge and food among the crags : in
which case it ought to be regarded, zoologically speaking, as a portion,
not of Europe, but of Africa.

However this may be, the Barbary Ape is common along die
northern shores of Africa, extending even to Egypt. It was known to
the ancients, under the title of Pithecus (TTI^KOS), which seems to have
been a general appellation for the larger Monkeys, or Baboons ; the
discrimination of species being but little attended to. The organic
adaptation of the Monkeys for their climbing habits has already been
explained. The arms of all the Simiadse are much longer, in proportion
to the body, than in Man ; in the Orangs and Gibbons, their length is
at its maximum, as is also the length of the hands, which, when the
animals raise themselves erect on their hinder limbs, nearly touch the
ground. In the semi-terrestrial Baboons, on the contrary, the arms but
little, if at all, exceed the lower limbs in length ; and the hands, also, are
much more abbreviated, the length of these organs being in a cor-
responding ratio to that of the arms. The arms, it may be stated, differ,
to a certain extent, both as to length and muscularity, even among allied
species ; and this is particularly the case in the genera Cercopithecus and
Macacus.

It has been stated, by some authors, that the inner condyle of the
humerus is usually pierced with a foramen, for tlie passage of the
median nerve and brachial artery, as in the Cat, Badger, Mole, and
many other Mammalia, in which either violent or long continued action
of the arms is habitual. In the skeleton of the Orang, Chimpanzee,
Mandrill, White-eyelid Monkey, Proboscis Monkey, and many others,
which have been purposely examined, no such foramen exists : it does
not appear to exist in any species of Old World Monkey ; but is ob-
servable in some of the American genus, Cebus, and in some of the
Lemurs.

The fore-arm and humerus are generally nearly equal ; but, in many
species, the fore-arm greatly exceeds the humerus ; of the ulna and

•MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD. 345

radius (the two bones constituting the fore-arm), the radius is the
stoutest, a condition the reverse of that which obtains in the human skele-
ton. This inferiority of the ulna is carried through all the Quadrumana,
till, in the Galeopithecus, its humeral extremity alone is free, being con-
tinued from the olecranon, a feeble slender bone, soon anchylosing with
the radius, into which it ultimately merges, to the restriction of the
power of the rotatory motion, which, in the Monkeys, that bone so
eminently possesses.

The fore-hands are narrow and elongated ; and the palm is flat,
instead of being gently concave, as in Man. The carpal bones occupy
but little space, and consist of nine, instead of eight, as in the human
subject, owing to a division of the os trapezoides. The metacarpal
bones are long ; that supporting the fore-finger is the longest ; whence
they gradually decline to that of the little finger. The metacarpal bone
of the thumb is not much more than half the length of that of the first
finger ; and the phalanges, added to it, scarcely make the thumb pass
beyond the first finger's basal joint . but, in this respect, there is
some variation. In the Macaques and the Baboons, the fingers are
shorter, and the thumb is better fashioned, than in most of the long-
tailed Monkeys, and especially those from India. The independent
action of the fingers is much more restricted than in Man: it has
been said, that none have the power of dividing the fingers from each
other ; but this is not universally the case : the power, however, is too
limited to increase, in any important degree, the capability of the hands
to serve as mechanical instruments. The lower limbs differ, both in their
osseous and in their muscular structure, from their analogues in the
human subject, far more than the arms. Professor Owen has well
remarked, in speaking of the Orang, that " no anatomist can contemplate
the lower extremity of a quadrumanous animal, or experience the
degree of mobility, of which the several parts of it are susceptible in
the living or undissected body, without being prepared to find cor-
responding modifications of the muscular system, and consequent devi-
ations from the structure of these parts as they exist in Man." Varying
in length and muscular development, in different genera, the lower limbs
never equal, much less exceed, the arms, as in Man. In the Orang, they are
very disproportionate, and are the same, also, in the Gibbons. In other
Monkeys, the proportion between the fore and hind limbs is not so con-
siderable. The admeasurements of these parts, in a skeleton purposely
examined, are as follow : Humerus, seven inches and three quarters ;
femur, from the top of the trochanter to the lower end, seven inches and a
quarter; radius, eight inches and three quarters; tibia, six inches and
a quarter.

In the Macaques, and the Baboons more especially, the proportions

VOL. I. 2 Y

346 QUADRUMANA.

are more equal : being semi-terrestrial in their habits, and inhabiting,
as many do (the Chacma and Magot, for example), the recesses and
summits of rocks, the extent of reach possessed by the truly arboreal
species is not needed ; and, besides, arms disproportionately long would
render their movements on the ground slow and embarrassed : as it is,
their shuffling canter enables them to escape, except from enemies of
tolerable fleetness. The shape of the pelvis has been previously de-
scribed : it may here be added, that the thigh-bone (or femur) is straight,
and the interspace between the tibia and fibula, greater than in Man. The
os calcis projects ; the foot is narrow, and the fingers are slender ; but
the thumb is well developed, and its metatarsal bone, though shorter
than that of the first hind finger, far exceeds it in stoutness.

The sole of the foot is obliquely inward, owing to the mechanism of
the ankle-joint, of which the motion is very free. As may be easily con-
ceived, this position of the foot, or posterior grasper, is of the greatest
advantage to a quadrumanous climbing animal, inasmuch as it renders

Skeleton of Mandrill.

the application of the sole to the trunk of a tree, or to a branch rising
perpendicularly, unforced and natural. Hence is it that the Monkey
grasps a pole so readily with his hind feet, while climbing up, or while
descending.

The position of the skull, with respect to the spine, preponderating, as
it does, anteriorly, requires a far greater development of the trapezii, serrati,
rhomboidei, and the other muscles inserted into the occipital bone, as well
as a larger attachment of them : hence the'T neck appears short and
thick, especially in some species (the Mandrill, for example), which have
a large head, an elongated snout-like muzzle, and which habitually move
on all-fours, carrying the body horizontally. In the Mandrill, and other

MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD. 347

Baboons, there is, as in the Tiger, or Hyaena, a bold, rugged, occipital crest,
denoting the power and extent of the muscles supporting the skull. The
preceding sketch of the skeleton of the Mandrill (fig. 243) will render these
observations at once intelligible. The shoulders are very muscular, and
the chest is capacious, but compressed laterally, so as to be deeper, from
the spine to the sternum, than from the centre of the arch of one rib to the
centre of its fellow. In this respect, however, there is considerable differ-
ence ; and in the Orang and Chimpanzee, the chest is broader than it is deep.

The flexures of the spinal column, so decided in Man, are very slight
in the spine of the Simiadae generally, but not in the Orang and a few
others.

Ischiatic callosities (that is, a coarse, naked, thickened, callous skin,
covering the tuberosity of the ischium) are universal, except in the
Orang : in the Gibbons, they are very small ; in the Baboons, of large
extent.

The larynx, in many species, communicates, by means of an opening
at the base of the epiglottis, with a membranous sack, sometimes double,
occupying the anterior part of the neck, below the skin, and often extend-
ing beneath the clavicles : this sack can be filled with air at pleasure, but
its use is not very apparent.

The greater number of Simiadae have cheek-pouches, carried back
from the inside of the cheeks, below the ears, which serve as a receptacle
for the conveyance of grain and fruits.

The tongue is thick and fleshy, and three or four papillae are seated
on its upper surface, near the base, so as to form the points of a triangle,
its apex being directed forward.

The Monkeys of the Old World have generally been accounted
frugivorous ; and though to a certain point this is correct, few are ex-
clusively so ; and jmany are truly omnivorous, animal food being received
with a satisfaction not to be mistaken. With respect to the Mandrill, for
example, this is peculiarly the case ; receding, in form, from the more typical
Simiadae, and approaching (with its congeners) to the Carnivora in general
structure, it equally approaches them in instincts and appetite. It has
been known to destroy and devour living prey with the avidity of a Tiger.
Most of the Simiadae relish insects : the Dog-faced Baboon, or Chacma, of
South Africa, hunts greedily in quest of Scorpions, which it devours alive
by multitudes ; having first, by an instantaneous action, almost too quick to
be perceived, broken off the latter part of the tail, which is terminated by
a sting. In trials made upon different species of Monkeys, with a view
to discover the extent and predilection of their carnivorous appetite, wide
differences have been observed, not only in the selection of animal food,
but in the manner of taking and devouring it. The quadruped, or bird,
which some would pounce upon, and tear to pieces with quickness and

348 QUADRUMANA.

ferocity, others would either shrink from, in apparent fear, or simply
examine with inquisitive playfulness : the insect, which would be eaten by
one group, would be rejected by another ; and several, which cast meat
from them, with an appearance of disgust, would eat a Fly or a Spider
with every sign of gratification. It would, therefore, appear, as might
reasonably be anticipated, that the different groups, or even species, are
endowed with gradations of the carnivorous appetite, or with modifications
of it, both as to extent and direction,

The dentition of the Simiadse accords with the nature of their food :
in the Orang, which feeds on hard or shelled fruits, as the cocoa-nut, the
outside fibrous bark of which it has to tear away, the teeth, and espe-
cially the incisors and canines, are of prodigious size and thickness, and
must prove formidable weapons in combat : in most Monkeys, and
especially in the Baboons, the canines remind us of those of a Tiger,
excepting that they are more compressed. Compared with that of the
human subject, the dentition of the Monkeys exhibits many charac-
teristic differences. The incisors are more obliquely projecting in the
244 upper jaw ; the two middle incisors,

parted at their roots, converge toward
each other ; and the outer incisors follow
their direction, to the increase of the
space between them and the upper ca-
nines — a space for the reception of the
lower canines, when the mouth is closed :
the upper canines are long, sharp, and
compressed, with a posterior cutting
edge, and usually an anterior groove, or
channel : the bicuspid molars are two
on each side ; the 'first small, and, with the outer tubercle, acutely
pointed : the true molars are three on each side, and each is crowned by
four tubercles, more acute than in Man.

In the lower jaw, the incisors are small and compressed, but deep from
front to back ; the canines are large, and assume a tendency to follow
the direction of the incisors ; being also placed, from the narrowness of the
latter, more anteriorly than are the canines above : this tendency is
carried out in the Lemurs to its maximum ; the lower canines nearly re-
sembling the incisors in form, and quite so in position. The molars are
as above ; but the first bicuspid, or, rather, false molar, is large, simply
conical, and compressed ; it leans back from the canine, and has, moreover,
a certain semblance to the canine tooth, as it exists in many Mammalia :
it has, however, double fangs. In most of the genera, the posterior
molar below has an additional, or fifth tubercle, beyond the four, in pairs.
In the Mandrill, this tubercle is not only very marked, but it terminates a

MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD. 349

distinct fifth lobe, or division of the tooth. It occurs in the Barbary
Ape, in all the Macaques, in the Semnopitheci and the Colobi, and in the
White-eyelid and Mangabay Monkeys ; but it is wanting in the true
Cercopitheci. The figure (244) will convey a clear idea of the general
characters of the dentition of the Simiadae.

With respect to the digestive organs, it may be observed, that the
stomach is simple, as in Man, except in the Semnopitheci, in which this
organ is highly complicated. The caecum is moderate, and sacculated, but
destitute of the appendix vermiformis, excepting in the Orang, Chim-
panzee, and Gibbons, which, in this point, resemble the human subject.

Of the habits of the Simiadae, in a state of nature, little is correctly
known : unfortunately, the observations of most travellers are super-
ficial ; and even these have been narrated in a style too exaggerated
to enable us to form a just estimate of the degree of intelligence dis-
played by these animals in their native condition. Most, if not all, are
gregarious ; individuals of the same species associating together in large
troops, which act in concert : warned, by the cries either of a leader or
sentinels, of the approach of an enemy, they unite in annoying or repel-
ling their aggressor, or collectively betake themselves to flight. Among
their natural enemies, the Leopard, the Panther, and other feline animals,
together with large Serpents, are the most formidable. They do not
construct nests,* but it is probable that the females retire to a hollow place,
in some aged tree, in which to bring forth their young. They produce
one or two at a birth, and manifest the utmost attachment to their
offspring.

When sleeping, the Simiadae sit on their hams, grasping the branch,
or perch, with their feet, for security, the arms crossing the front of the
chest, and the head bent forward, so as to rest between the knees, which
are thus elevated.

Though there can be no doubt but that a great portion of the
celebrity which the Simiadae have obtained, for an apparent possession of
superior rationality, may be fairly attributed to the approach which their
figure displays to that of Man, still their actions sufficiently prove that,
with the superiority of their organization to that of the lower Mammalia,
is associated a corresponding ratio of intelligence. A Monkey, foiled in
his endeavours to break a nut, by striking it against the floor, or the bars
of his enclosure, will take up a stone (using both hands for the purpose),
and hammer with it till he succeeds. Even in their frolics and
gambols with each other, they often exhibit the most diverting traits of
intelligence.

In the manifestation of their passions, good or evil, the Simiadae are
quick and violent in the extreme : both their attention and feelings, how-

* It appears that the Chimpanzee and Orang form exceptions to this general observation.

350 QUADRUMANA.

ever, are very transient ; and the playful liveliness, and the gentleness,
not, indeed, unmixed with petulance, which they exhibit, while young,
gradually disappear, and ultimately become replaced by ferocity and
indomitable obstinacy. The disgusting habits, the ungovernable rage,
and the malice of some of the larger Monkeys and Baboons, when
fully adult, are conspicuous features of their character.

When numbers tenant the same enclosure, though perpetually squab-
bling, they are less vindictive toward each other than might be expected ;
and it often happens that one, the youngest and weakest of the party,
becomes the object of care and solicitude to the rest, who, when menaced,
will huddle together, with their protege in the middle, and threaten with
grimaces their supposed enemy.

The curiosity and amusing mimicry of these animals, especially while
young, appear to be the result of an excessive irritability of temperament,
inconsistent with that kind of tractability so eminently displayed by the
Dog. "They seem," says Mr. Bennett (Tower Menagerie Quad. Lond.
8vo. 1829, p. 141), " to give a momentary — and but a momentary — atten-
tion to every remarkable object that falls in their way ; but never appear
to remember it again ; for they wilj examine the same object, with the
same rapidity, as often as it occurs, and apparently without in the least
recognising it as that which they had seen before." They never become
thoroughly domesticated and reclaimed. It is true, that the perseverance
and ingenuity of Man, stimulated by necessity, have, as is well known,
conquered their indocility, to a certain extent, for the purposes of exhibi-
tion : they have been trained, not without cruelty, to perform various
tricks and feats of address or agility, at the command of their master ;
having been disciplined to connect the word of command with the feat to
be performed. But it is only in their adolescence that they will thus
bend to discipline, or brook chastisement : in their fully adult state they
are, with very rare exceptions, savage, malicious, dirty, and indomitable.
Indeed, it may decidedly be said, that, to whatever extent disciplined, —
however aptly they may learn, and adroitly practise, the most cunning tricks,
and apparently affectionate as they may be to those who feed and
indulge them, — their innate disposition remains unaltered : an inherent
love of mischief, a dangerous capriciousness of temper, and a proneness
to disgusting habits. Unlike the numerous valuable animals, in the other
orders of the Mammalia, which have been reclaimed by Man, they appear
incapable of obedience beyond the moment during which they are
actually under the fear of punishment ; the instant their keeper is out of
sight, the same offence, for which they have just been corrected, is
committed, with the same daring impudence as before. It would seem,
indeed, as if it were impossible to render them sensible, in the smallest
degree, of the mischief they have perpetrated. Hence, though a few

MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD. 351

individuals may be tolerated, or even admired, for their beauty, or con-
sidered philosophically interesting from their intelligence, the whole of
them are, still, repulsive and obnoxious.

The voices of the Simiadae are very various, in the several groups ;
and different tones are uttered by each species, under the excitement of
different passions. Moaning, whining, a hoarse, guttural barking, squeak-
ing, screaming, and chattering, are heard, by turns, wherever these ani-
mals are congregated, according as they are influenced by grief, pain,
love, or anger. Of all the passions, anger, or rage, is that expressed with
the utmost intensity, both in look and gesture. Some, when irritated,
pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and savage glare on their foe, and make
repeated short starts, or abrupt movements of the body, as if about to
spring forward, uttering, at the same time, inward guttural sounds, ex-
pressive of malevolence. Many display their anger by suddenly ad-
vancing, making abrupt starts, at the same time opening the mouth, and
pursing up the lips, so as to conceal the teeth, while the eyes are daringly
fixed on the enemy, as if in savage defiance. Some, again, and princi-
pally the long-tailed Monkeys, or Guenons, display their teeth, and ac-
company their malicious grins with a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry, or
chattering; while others, as the larger Baboons, jabber, by rapidly
moving the under lip, uttering no other sound than that which the lip
itself makes, in striking against the gums and teeth.

In their native woods, the Simiadae are all diurnal. With the first
beams of the sun they emerge from their retreats, and, active, lively,
and chattering, begin their search for food : it is then that the troops,
haunting woods which skirt the cultivated grounds reclaimed by human
industry from the wilderness, visit the garden and the plantation, and
commit their depredations. They are now all alert ; but, as the oppres-
sive heat of the day comes on, lulling into unbroken silence the thickly-
peopled forests of the torrid zone — when the busy, feathered tribes have
sought a shelter from the sun's fierce glare, and when the murmur of
the insects has ceased — then do these lively beings retire to take their
siesta in the shady recesses of the wood, or in the rifts and chasms of
the rock, till the meridian heat be past ; at which period they resume
their activity, and again venture forth in quest of food : but when the
shadows of evening commence, and the Leopard and the Tiger rouse
from their lair, they betake themselves to their leafy fastnesses till
the dawn of morning.

Endowed with quick sight, and acute hearing, and vigilant in the
extreme, they are not to be surprised without difficulty ; nor is it easy
to lure them into traps. Most that are taken alive, and brought to
Europe, are the young, or nurslings, of parents shot by the bow or
rifle : such is the way in which the young Chimpanzees and Orangs,

352 QUADRUMANA.

which, within the last few years, have been exhibited in London, are
said to have been procured ; and in this manner, we are told, are the
young Baboons and Monkeys obtained, which stock our menageries.
The climate of England is uncongenial to the Simiadae ; and the observa-
tion also applies to all the more northern parts of Europe : some, how-
ever, bear it far better than others ; and several species have produced
young, not only in France, and the more temperate parts of the neigh-
bouring Continent, but even in England, — a circumstance which has
occurred several times at the Gardens of the Zoological Society. Still
it is very evident, that our changeful climate is unfavourable to
their health : their constitution is peculiarly susceptible of transitions
from heat to cold ; and a wet and murky day evidently produces depress-
ing effects throughout all the tenants of the Monkey-house, who may
be seen huddled together, for the sake of warmth. Hence, without
much care and attention, few struggle through a severe winter ; fewer
survive two or three years ; and but a small proportion attain to the
natural term of their existence. One cannot help feeling a sort of sym-
pathy for them, the more especially as the disease, under which most
sicken and die, is pulmonary consumption ; the symptoms of which
correspond with those too often witnessed among our own species ; as
do, also, the morbid appearances of the lungs.

The acquisition of the second, or permanent teeth, is a period of con-
siderable danger to the Simiadae : their development is accompanied by
much irritation of the system, and a great determination of blood to
the brain ; and numbers are suddenly carried off, unable to struggle
through the ordeal. It would appear to be during the growth of the
canine teeth that the greatest mischief arises ; and this the more so, in
proportion to the magnitude these teeth attain. In the large Baboons,
for example, whose canine teeth are enormous, and with huge fangs
deeply implanted in protuberant alveoli, the development of these parts
is often attended by violent convulsions, which usually have a fatal
termination. Of several young Mandrills which, from time to time,
have been brought under the Author's notice, not one survived this criti-
cal epoch. If a collection of the skulls of Monkeys, which have died
in our menageries, be examined, in a great proportion of them it will
be found that the canines are but partially evolved, and were, conse-
quently, in progress at the time of death. That the Simiadae, in their
free and natural condition, are much more exempt from this danger than
when kept in a state of confinement, and that, too, in an unpropitious
climate, may readily be imagined.

Another disease, to which the Simiadae are subject, has not been
hitherto noticed by naturalists. It consists in a softening of the bones,
from the composition of which the calcareous particles are absorbed, or,

MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

353

perhaps, into which they are not duly deposited. Several instances have
been noticed, in which the bones of all the limbs have been mere cartilage,
capable of being bent in any direction ; while the texture of the bones of
the skull has been so soft as to be little firmer than coarse blotting-paper ;
and, when macerated and dry, capable of being reduced to powder, by
rubbing between the fingers. This disease may be rationally imputed to
cold, innutritious food, and confinement, by which the vital energies of
die system become enfeebled.

What extent of knowledge the Greeks and Romans had, respecting the
Simiadae, is not very easy to determine : still, however, though the Chim-
panzee, the Orangs, and Gibbons may be regarded as modern discoveries,
several species, at least, must have been well known ; especially those
tenanting continental India, and, still more so, those indigenous in the
north-western regions of Africa. Nearly 1000 years before the Christian
era, Apes were among the exports of India : Apes, ivory, and Peacocks,
together with gold and silver, were brought, we are told, by the ships
of Tarshish, to Solomon, as worthy the purchase or acceptance of the
monarch of Judea. (2 Chron. ix. 21.)

Among the Egyptians,* the Ape was a sacred animal : figures of one

or two species of large Baboon oc-
cur abundantly among the sculp-
tured emblems which decorate their
pillars and temples ; and are also
depicted on mummy-cases. From
the earliest ages to the present,
the Brahmins of India have held
one or more species (the Entellus
particularly) in reverence, as a
sort of deity ; nor, among the en-
lightened inhabitants of our western
world, have there been wanting
those who, arrogating to them-

Monkey represented on an Egyptian tomb. Selves the name of philosophers

have regarded, or pretended to regard, these animals t as but one stej.
removed (and that not insurmountable) from the human race. The annexed
figure (245) is an outline of a Monkey, represented on an Egyptian tomb :
it is, apparently, a Cercopithecus.

245

* " Quis nescit, Volusi Bithynice, qualia demens
^gyptus portenta colat ? Crocodilon adorat
Pars haec : ilia pavet saturara serpentibus Ibim :
Effigies sacri nitet aurea Cercopitheci."

Juv. Sat. xv.

You enter, says Lucian, into a magnificent temple, every part of which glitters with gold and silver.
There you look attentively for a god, and are cheated with a Stork, an Ape, or a Cat.

354

QUADRUMANA.

Till very lately, the Simiadae (and, indeed, the Quadrumana generally)
were regarded as having no fossil prototypes ; an opinion now proved to
be erroneous. M. Lartet, in a communication published in the Proceed-
ings of the Academy of Sciences, January, 1836, and also read at a meet-
ing of the Geological Society of France, announced his discovery of fossil
bones of a large Monkey. They were found at Sanson, two leagues
south of Auch (in the department of Gers), in a tertiary formation, ex-
tending from the south of Auch to the foot of the Pyrenees, and appa-
rently the result of a long succession of water alluvia : they consist of
a lower jaw, with its dentition complete ; a molar tooth, with four tuber-
cles ; a bone of one of the fingers ; a portion of the thigh-bone ; toge-
ther with the bones of the instep, &c.

246

Above (fig. 246) are sketches of the almost perfect lower jaw, in
two views.

According to M. Blainville (Osteographie Fasc. iv. p. 54), the per-
fection of the teeth in the lower jaw, their number, and the slight degree
in which they are worn, prove that the animal must have perished in the
prime of maturity. The incisors are four in number, somewhat oblique,
and, which has never been seen in any Ape existing, so elongated as to
have their points on a level with the points of the canines : they are
of a conical, or cuneiform figure, with long, sharp roots, and touch each
other only at the base, above the neck of the root. The canines are
short, with a furrow on the posterior surface, to the base, indicating that
the upper canine did not pass beyond the lower, as is usual. The last
molar, besides the usual four tubercles, as in the Semnopitheci, Ma-
caci, &c., has a fifth tubercle,' having two or three cusps. There can

MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

355

be no doubt that the animal belonged to the Old World section of the
Simise ; but it is probable that it is referable to a genus no longer extant.
M. Lartet has named this fossil species Pithecus antiquus. A portion
of another lower jaw, containing the canine and molar teeth, presents the
same characters.

With these relics occurred, also, those of the Mastodon, Deinotherium,
Rhinoceros, Palaeotherium, gigantic Manis, Antelopes, Deer, and a large
carnivorous animal.

The discovery of M. Lartet is not a solitary instance. Within the
last few years, the fossil reliquia of three species have been discovered
in the Sewalik Hills (a portion of the Sub-Himalayan range), imbedded
in a tertiary stratum. (See Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. v.
p. 739, vol. vi. p. 357.) Two of these species are due to the researches
of Captains Falconer and Cautley, and one to the labours of Lieutenants
Baker and Durand. Figure 247 represents a portion of the upper jaw,
with the teeth, in two views, of the fossil species discovered by Baker and
Durand. Figure 248, a portion of the lower jaw of ^the two species
which we owe to the researches of Falconer and Cautley : — they are given
of half the natural size.

248 *

Of these fossil Simiadae, one, as the fragments would indicate, probably
exceeded, in size, any living species of the present day ; the second was
also a large animal, far superior to the Entellus in size, but still inferior
to the first ; the third appears to have been about equal to the Entellus,
and was probably an Orang.

Fossil remains of extinct Quadrumana have 'been discovered by Dr.
Lund, a Swedish naturalist, in the basin of the Rio des Velhas, in South
America ; and it is worthy of observation, that they evidently belong to

356 QUADRUMANA.

a form allied to the group of American Monkeys termed Sapajous ; but
these extinct species were, as their reliquia prove, more than double the
size of any of this group existing in the present day. The fragments
in question were, with those of other animals, imbedded in a red earth, at
the bottom of a series of caverns, hollowed out in a secondary calcareous
deposit. To the larger of the animals, which must have exceeded four
feet in height, he gives the name of Protopithecus Brasiliensis, regarding
it as the type of a distinct genus ; to the other, that of Callithrix
primsevus.

It is not, however, only on the continents of Europe, or in Asia and
America, that quadrumanous relics have occurred : geologists have been
surprised and interested by the discovery of the fossil remains of extinct
Monkeys found in some of the series of tertiary deposits of our

own island. The first example is that of
249

the last molar teeth, and a portion of

the lower jaw, as seen in the annexed
sketches (fig/ 249) of a Macaque, which,
with the teeth of sharks, were found, in
1827, by Mr. Colchester, in a deep layer
of whitish sand, beneath a stratum of blue
clay, on the banks of the river Deben,
at Kingston, near Woodbridge, in Suffolk.
The clay was used for the purpose of
making bricks ; and it was from the pit

whence the clay was taken, that the relic in question was obtained.
This bed of tenacious clay is in many places overlaid by crag, and is
continued over a great portion of the eastern side of the county of Suf-
folk, but is itself destitute of fossils ; and, as Mr. Charlesworth considers,
may be assigned, without hesitation, to the age of the London clay. (See
Mag. Nat. Hist. 1839, p. 448.) The bed of sand, according to this
geologist's opinion, probably intervenes between the clay and the chalk.
It is interesting to find that, in this bed, not only the relic of a fossil
Monkey has been found, but that Mr. Colchester has also discovered
fossil teeth and portions of the lower jaw of an Opossum, which are figured
in the Magazine of Natural History for 1839, p. 450. That the relic
assumed to be that of a species of Monkey (Macacus), is truly so, there
cannot be the slightest doubt. It has been rigorously examined by Pro-
fessor Owen, who, in the above publication, has given a detailed account
of it. The tooth, it may be here observed, is somewhat narrower than in
any recent species of Macacus ; but the posterior fifth tubercle (one of
the characters of the -genus) presents, as in most of that group, two cusps,
instead of being simple, as in the genus Semnopithecus. In the Annals
of Natural History, for November, 1839, Professor Owen describes a

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIMIAD^E. 357

second tooth, found in the same locality, which he indentifies with the
second molar of a Macacus ; and which evidently belonged to an aged
animal. It differs, he observes, from the corresponding tooth of a recent
Macacus, of the same size, in having a slight ridge along the base of the
anterior part of the crown ; and the same characters, he adds, distinguish
the posterior molar of the Macacus described in the September Number
of the Magazine of Natural History, 1839. Thus, then, is the fact
established, of the existence of Quadrumana in our island (if then an
island) at some remote epoch.

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIMIAD^.

WHEN Linnaeus framed his Systema Natures, the limited number of
Simiadae and Qebidae, then known, enabled him to do little more than
throw them all into a single genus, viz., Simia ; with a triple subdivision
of it, into Apes, Baboons, and Monkeys. Buffon, who, as already stated,
first clearly pointed out the distinction between the groups peculiar to
the Old World, and those of the New, divided the former into — 1. Apes,
or Singes propre, sans queue ; 2. Baboons, or Papions a queue courte ;
and, 3. Monkeys, or Guenons — Guenons a queue longue ; between which
latter and the Baboons, he considered the Maimon, or Pig-tailed Mon-
key, and the Rhesus, or Patas a queue courte, with other allied species,
to constitute an intermediate group.* These subdivisions, founded on
the absence, or, where present, on the comparative length of the tail,
Erxleben stamped with the formality of genera ; viz., — Simia, includ-
ing the Orang, Chimpanzee, and Gibbons ; Papio, including the Baboons
and the Pig-tailed Monkey ; and Cercopithecus, including the Long-
tailed Monkeys of Asia and Africa. But these genera, which a farther
acquaintance with the structure and economy of the animals has led
naturalists to subdivide and re-arrange, serve only to shew the futility of
taking generic characters from one organ, to the exclusion of others.
For, though the tail, where well developed, in the Old World Monkeys,
takes a decided part in their economy, it does not, therefore, follow that
all species with long tails come under one group ; and that all with
short tails, again, belong to one genus ; neither is it a proof of generic
unity : for few, it is to be supposed, would place the Orang, the Chim-
panzee, and the Gibbons in one genus, any more than they would asso-
ciate the Semnopitheci with the Cercopitheci.

* Cuvier erroneously observes, that the Macaque a queue courte of Buffon (Supp. vii. pi. xiii.)
appears to be merely a true Macaque ^Macacus cynomolgus) with the tail cut off.

358 QUADRUMANA.

In the Journal de Physique, Messrs. Cuvier aud Geoffrey announced
their discovery of a method whence, as they conceived, correct and
philosophical data could be obtained, upon which to institute an arrange-
ment of the animals under discussion : this was by measuring the degree
of the facial angle (a process originally invented by Camper), and of
making the degree, thus ascertained, the test both of rank in the family
and of natural affinities. But a plan of this kind cannot be adopted
with precision ; and is, at best, calculated only to mislead. In their
progress from youth to maturity, the skulls of the Simiadae universally
undergo very marked changes ; and, besides, there is much difference be-
tween the crania of males and females. It happens, also, that the most
anthropoid species, the Chimpanzee, has, when adult, the muzzle more
produced, and, consequently, the facial angle more acute, than the
Gibbons or the Semnopitheci ; in fact, as much so as the Baboons ;
so that the facial angle, even where correctly ascertained, will be found
to be nearly the same in species widely differing from each other in
structure and general economy. The fallacy of this rule being felt,
naturalists, without abandoning it (and the same observation applies to
the tail), have sought for other characters, by which, in conjunction with
this facial angle, the natural groups of this family might be distinguished.
Of these, the shape of the teeth ; the presence or absence of laryngal
sacculi, and of cheek-pouches ; the presence and magnitude of callosi-
ties ; the condition of the thumb ; and the length of the tail, — are the
principal ones upon which naturalists have founded the modern sub-
divisions. There is, however, a want of fixedness in these characters ;
they do not accompany each other in the same unvarying order, but are
often perplexingly interchanged ; so that it becomes impossible to gene-
ralize on them. If, for instance, it be laid down as a rule, that all the
Monkeys with callosities and tails possess laryngal sacculi, and a fifth
tubercle on the last molar below, we shall find it, though of extensive,
not of universal application ; for the Cercopitheci, with two exceptions,
have the last molar destitute of the fifth tubercle ; and many, certainly,
want laryngal sacculi.

Again, the Gibbons, allied as they are to the Orang, possess small
callosities ; and the Chimpanzee, placed by Cuvier in the same genus
with the Orang, is destitute of those external laryngal sacculi which, in
this latter animal, and in the syndactyle Gibbon, are remarkable for
development. The fact is, that the very variableness of these charac-
ters proves their non-importance beyond a certain point, no less than
the impossibility of taking them, unitedly or singly, as the standard of the
natural groups composing the family. With these difficulties around
him, the naturalist will find them vanish, if he proceed at once to analyze
the family, and to determine, according to the results of his analysis, the

ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIMIADJE. 359

affinities of the members composing it. He will meet, at the outset, with a
group nearer to Man, in certain structural details, than the rest; viz., the
Chimpanzee, the Orangs, and the Gibbons, forming three genera, obviously
allied to each other, and as obviously separate from all that succeed.
Amidst the numerous genera still remaining, he will discover that some
present a strange and, indeed, unexpected structure of the stomach,
accompanied by an exclusively frugivorous appetite. Instead of being
simple, the stomach is complex and sacculated ; and the molars, as if to
keep up the analogy to the ruminant form, are deeply indented by
re-entering folds of enamel ; so that, when worn, they remind us of
those of the deer or sheep. In addition to 'these characters, he finds
great elongation of the organs of prehension, and an abbreviated or
even rudimentary condition of the fore-thumb.

The importance of these structural characters, accompanied, as they
are, by corresponding habits, and minor details of organization, will
indicate at once the distinctness of such a group. Hence, the genus
Semnopithecus of India, and, provisionally, the genus Colobus of
Western Africa, will constitute a second sub-family. The remaining
Simiadse he will find to consist of several omnivorous genera, beginning
with the genus Cercopithecus, and advancing gradually through a series
of transitions to the Baboons (Cynocephalus), which in carnivorous pro-
pensities, ferocity, and canine-like development of muzzle, exceed all
the rest ; but, as he traces the gradation of form, the manner in which the
Cercopitheci approximate to the Macaci, and how, again, these seem, as it
were, to merge into the Cynocephali, he will conclude that they form a third
natural group, or sub-family ; and he will perceive the discordance of the
divisions of Buffon with those indicated by Nature. The following repre-
sentations (figs. 250, 251, 252, 253) shew the transition, as far as physi-
ognomy and the form of the head are concerned, from the Cercopitheci,
through the Macaci, to the Cynocephali. Such, then, is the general
result of an analysis of the Simiadae. It must, indeed, be acknow-
ledged, that the views of many writers differ from those here expressed ;
for the Semnopitheci are still placed, by some, among the " long- tailed
Guenons," or group of which the genus Cercopithecus constitutes a
leading part ; while, on the contrary, the Macaques and Baboons* are
regarded as forming a group per se. The very remarkable and import-
ant structural peculiarities, however, of the Semnopitheci, separate them
(and their immediate allies) as distinctly from the Cercopitheci as they
do from the Gibbons.

* Some writers prefer associating the Macaques with the Cercopithecine group, reserving the
Baboons (Cynocephalus, Cuv., and Papio, Bris.) as a sub-family by themselves. Mr. Ogilby refers the
long-tailed Macaci to the genus Cercopithecus, and founds a new genus, termed Papio, for the Ma-
caques with short or with tuberculous tails.

360

QUADRUMANA,

251

252

253

Fig. 250. The Malbrouck Monkey, a genuine representative of the genus CercOpithecus.
Fig. 251. The Bonnet Monkey, of the geuus Macacus, closely allied to the Cercopitheci.
Fijf . 252. The Pig-tailed Monkey, also a Macacus, but more widely removed from the Cercopitheci, and

approaching the Cynocephali.
Fig. 253. The African Baboon, or Chacma, one of the Cynocfpluili, with the muzzle developed to the

With respect to the Baboons, it will be easy to shew a regular grada-
tion between them and the Cercopitheci. In some of the Macaques, with
a moderately produced muzzle, the tail is elongated, as in the Cer-
copitheci, to which they also approximate in the form and contour of
the limbs and body. Others of the Macaques, on the contrary, as
the Pig-tailed Macaque, with a dog-like muzzle, have an abbreviated
tail, and, as already shewn, closely approach the genus Cynocephalus.
The genera Cercopithecus, Macacus, and Cynocephalus (including the
sub-genera into which naturalists may divide them), are, in fact, merely
modifications of one type : and it may be added, that it is in such a
group, the most remote from the highest of the family, that the fluc-
tuations and extremes in external characters are to be expected ; such
as in the length of the tail and the projection of the muzzle ; while, at
the same time, it may be observed, that, in proportion to the distance
of a group from the highest (whether that group be one of sub-family,

SIMIAD.E. 361

family, order, or class), the value of these fluctuating characters dimi-
nishes ; for it may be laid down as a rule, that the importance of charac-
ters increases as we ascend the scale, and vice versa. Hence, in the
third sub-family of the Simiadae, the variations of Nature, on one model,
ought neither to startle us nor disguise the affinities of the members
composing it.

The arrangement of the sub-families and genera of the Simiadae will
stand as follows :

FAMILY, SIMIADAE.

SUB-FAMILY I. Genera.

Tail wanting ; arms long ; general figure anthro- t Troglodytes,
poid ; stomach simple ; caecum with vermi- I Pithecus.
form appendix. t Hylobates.

SUB-FAMILY II.

Tail long; no cheek-pouches; stomach complex: e 0

.. ' 1 Semnopithecus.

figure slender; laryngal sacculi ; no vermi- J r 1 h O\

form appendix. (.

SUB -FAMILY III.

Tail variable; cheek-pouches; stomach simple; f Cercopithecus.
laryngal sacculi variable ; general figure I Macacus.
more robust, often massive. V. Cynocephalus.

SUB-FAMILY I. — At the head of the Simiadse is the sub-family con-
sisting of the anthropoid Apes ; viz., the Chimpanzee, the Orangs, and
the Gibbons ; the mutual affinities of which have not been overlooked ;
so far from it, indeed, that, from this very circumstance, much discrepancy
is to be found in the arrangement of them by different naturalists, each
taking different views as to the value of their distinguishing characters.
Thus, for example, the Gibbons, though possessing small ischiatic callo-
sities, are included, by M. Geoffrey, together with the Orang-outan, in
his genus Pithecus ; while for the Chimpanzee he institutes a distinct
genus, under the title Troglodytes. On the other hand, Illiger regarded
the Gibbons as distinct from the Orangs, and established the genus
Hylobates for their reception, — a genus adopted by Cuvier, who, again,
refers the Chimpanzee to the genus Pithecus, as an Orang, differing only
in the comparative shortness of the arms, and in the absence of an ele-
vated forehead, which falls back immediately behind the superciliary
ridge. (Cuv. Reg. An. 1829, p.. 89.)

In the present work, the members of this group are arranged under
three generic heads, adopting, for the reception of the Chimpanzee,
the term Troglodytes, Geoff, which Cuvier has subsequently applied
to a genus in ornithology (the true Wrens). These three genera will
therefore stand as follow — Troglodytes, Pithecus, and Hylobates ; and it is
among the members of these genera that the nearest anatomical
approach to the human subject exists. This is exemplified less in

VOL. I. 3 A

362 QUADRUMANA.

'the shape of the teeth, except that the molars are bluntly tuberculate,
than in the condition of the lungs and liver; the position and appear-
ance of the intestinal canal ; the attachment of the vermiform appendix
to the caecum ; the structure of the stomach, which, however, is thicker
and narrower at the pylorus ; and in the disposition of the arteries arising
from the arch of the aorta. They differ, moreover, from the succeeding
groups, in a certain superiority of cerebral development, connected with
a grave demeanour, and a degree of intelligence, at one time, perhaps,
too highly estimated ; but, with every abatement, exalting them to the
head of the Simiadae. The most remarkable external characters in
which they agree, consist in the absence of a tail and of cheek-pouches,
arid in the extraordinary length of the anterior extremities, compared
with the posterior. Of the three genera in question, the Orangs (Pithe-
cus) and the Gibbons (Hylobates) approach, in some points, the closest
together, and more particularly in the presence of extensive laryngal
sacculi, in the extreme length of the anterior extremities, and in the
narrowness of the hands and feet ; but not in general anatomical struc-
ture, aspect, or clothing. A small, round head, a compressed face,
a narrow under-jaw, slender proportions, deep, woolly fur, and ischi-
atic callosities, distinguish the Gibbons both from the Orangs and
the more anthropoid Chimpanzee. On the other hand, the Chimpanzee
and Orang are less immediately related than Cuvier seems to have con-
sidered them. In most respects, the Chimpanzee approaches more nearly
to the human type of structure ; and particularly in the presence of a pen-
dulous uvula at the back of the palate, which is wanting in the Orang ;
and in the structure of the larynx, in which the laryngal sacs are not
developed, as in the Orang, but are produced into a cavity in the body
of the os hyoides, " presenting the first indication," as Mr. Owen has
observed (Zool. Proc. 1830, p, 5), "of the excavation which is carried
to so great an extent in the Monkeys of the genus Mycetes" (family,
Cebidac). Still, however, the Chimpanzee and the Orang are more
closely related to each other than the Gibbons are to the latter. They
are, moreover, the representatives of each other in their respective por-
tions of the globe ; the one tenanting the secluded depths of the forests
of Western Africa, the other the recesses of the still denser forests of
Borneo and Sumatra.

The Chimpanzee and Orang are the largest of the Simiadae, and the most
powerful : but the Orang is more exclusively arboreal, and, therefore, not
so much at ease on the ground as the Chimpanzee, which is less decidedly
organized as a climber. With respect to the limbs of the Orang, the inferior
extremities are not only very short, but, also, bowed inward at the ankles ;
and the foot so articulated to the tibia as to allow of little more than
the outer edge being fairly applied to the ground ; and there is not only

SIMIAD.E. 363

a want of development in those peculiar muscles which enable the
human subject to walk with ease and vigour, but the ligament (ligamen-
tum teres) which binds the head of the thigh-bone to the bottom of the
socket, is altogether wanting ; an arrangement which diminishes the
firmness of the joint, while, at the same time, it adds very considerably
to its freedom and flexibility. Thus, the short, ill-turned, and loosely-
jointed legs < of the Orang render its movements on the ground tottering
and unsteady, when, as it sometimes does, it balances itself upon them,
and waddles awkwardly along : in ordinary locomotion on the ground,
its arms are its principal agents ; these are of enormous power and
length ; they actually touch the ground, and serve as crutches ; for,
resting his weight on the bent knuckles, the Orang swings, or drags, the
body along, the legs performing only a secondary part in the efforts of
progression. Among the trees, however, this awkwardness is exchanged
for great activity and freedom ; there, its long arms, its hook-like hands
and feet, its obliquely fixed and flexible hinder limbs, and the strength
of its thickset shoulders, combine to its advantage. But, in the Chim-
panzee, its adaptive structure for arboreal habits is less in the ex-
treme. In the first place, its lower limbs are larger in proportion than
in the Orang ; and though their tournure is obliquely inward, the palms
of the feet, or hinder graspers, are capable of being applied fairly to the
ground, and the hip-joint is secured by the ligamentum teres ; whence
the action of the lower limbs is more firm and steady. The arms,
though long, reach only a little way below the knees, and both the hands
and feet are broad, comparatively short, and have less of that hook-like
character which is so remarkable in the Orang. The thumb of the
hand has not, it is true, the same development as in Man ; otherwise,
this organ nearly resembles, in form, that of the human hand ; and the
thumb of the foot is of considerable development ; while, in the Orang,
it is short, and often destitute of the terminal phalanx. With respect to
other external differences, it inay be observed that, in the Orang, the ears
are small, and lie flat on the skull ; while, in the Chimpanzee, they are
large, and stand out from the head. In both there is a similarity in the
face, which is grave, and even melancholy, especially that of the Orang ; but
in the Chimpanzee the cheeks are more furrowed with wrinkles than in
the Orang; while the muzzle, being furnished with thinly-scattered white
hairs, gives to the young individual a grotesque appearance of age, in
contrast with the playful habits of a child. In both animals the lips are
endowed with great mobility, and are capable of extraordinary protrusion ;
but the chin is larger and more prominent in the Chimpanzee than in
the Orang ; in which latter, this part retreats at once from the protruding
lips, and over these no white hairs are scattered. In the Chimpanzee
the hair of the head radiates from a centre, and the back of the fore-

364

QUADRUMANA.

hand is naked to the wrist ; in the Orang the hair of the head is. ail
directed forward, there being no centre of radiation on the vertex, and the
back of the fore-hand is covered with hair ; in both animals the hair of the
fore-arm is reverted to the elbow. In the young living Chimpanzee the
forehead is low and flat ; in the young Orang, large and convex, with a
slight, perpendicular, elevated line, indicating the suture between the
two frontal bones. In the voices of the two animals (judging always
from the young individuals of which opportunities of examination have been
afforded) there exists a remarkable difference. The young Chimpanzee
lately living in the Gardens of the Zoological Society was capable of
uttering deep guttural sounds of considerable power, as well as louder
cries : but the ordinary voice of the young Orang (in the same Gardens),
was a feeble, plaintive whine ; when, however, the animal was irritated
or disappointed, it uttered a shrill querulous scream, which it would
reiterate until pacified.

254

THE CHIMPANZEE.

(Troglodytes niger, Geoff.)

THE CHIMPANZEE (YOUNG MALE).
(Troglodytes niger. Geoff.)

SIMIAD.E. 365

GENUS.— TROGLODYTES.

Troglodytes GEOFF. Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

Simla in part, ERXL. Syst. Regni An. 1777.

Pithecus in part, Cuv. Regne An. 1829.

Mimetes LEACH.

GENERIC CHARACTERS. — MUZZLE long, and truncated anteriorly; SUPRA-
ORBITAL RIDGES prominent, behind which the forehead recedes di-
rectly backward ; no CRANIAL RIDGES ; FACIAL ANGLE 35° ; EXTERNAL
EARS large and standing out; TAIL wanting; ISCHIATIC PROTUBER-
ANCES covered with naked callous skin, in the adult ; ARMS reaching
below the knee-joint ; FEET wide, the thumb extending to the second
joint of the adjoining toe, and always furnished with a nail; DENTITION
normal ; CANINES large, overpassing each other, their points being
lodged respectively in intervals of the opposite teeth; INTERMAXILLARY
BONES anchylosed to the maxillaries during the first dentition ; RIBS,
thirteen pairs ; no CHEEK-POUCHES ; LARYNGAL SACCULI small.

COUNTRY. — Western Africa, bordering the torrid zone, between lat. 12°
or 14° north, and 10° south.

THE CHIMPANZEE.

TROGLODYTES NIGER. (Troglodytes niger, GEOFF. Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.)

Pongo and Engeco. . . . BATTEL, in Purchas's Pilgrims, ii. ' 1625
Barys, Baris, and Quojas Morrou, BARBOT, DAPPER. 1670, et aliorum.

Homo Sylvestris TYSON, Anat. ofaPigmie, c. fig. 1699.

Smitten^.} BOSMAN, Reise nach Guinea. 1708.

Quimpese (?) M. DE LA BROSSE, Voy. 1'Angola. 1738.

Chimpanzee SCOTIN'S Print. 1738.

Baris or Barris, Pigmeus, Guineensis, and Chimpanzee, Descr. of some curious Creatures, &c.

London, 1758, p. 6, c. fig.

Troglodytes, Homo nocturnus, LINNAEUS, Syst. Nat. 12th ed. 1766.
Simia Troglodytes .... SCHREBER, Mamm. fig. I. c. 1772.

Simla Satyrus SCHREBER, fig., n. fig. n. B.

Simla Agrlas SCHREBER, fig. IT. c.

Simia Troglodytes .... GMELIN. 1788.

Pongo BUFFON, Hist. Nat. Suppl. vii. 1789.

Jocko AUDEBERT, Fam. i. sect. i. fig. 2. 1797.

Pongo, or Great Black Orana, SHAW, Gen. Zool. 1800, vol. i. p. 9, c. fig.

Simla Troglodytes .... BLUMENBACH, Handb. 1803.

Simia Troglodytes .... KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

Troglodytes niger .... DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 49. 1820.

Simia Pan DONOVAN'S Natural Repository, No. 19. 1821 to 1828.

Simia Troglodytes . . . . F. CUVIER, Diet, des Sc. Nat. xxxvi. p. 285, c. fig. 1825; et

" Mammiferes."

Simia Troglodytes .... FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 9. 1829.
Pithecus Leucoprymna . LESSON, Illust. de Zool. pi. 31. 1836. (young).
Troglodytes niger .... LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 37. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Fur rigid and black; the hairs of the fore-arm reversed; hands
naked to the wrist ; ears large and patulous ; face naked, wrinkled, and blackish ; lips
and chin sprinkled with short white hairs.

LOCALITIES. — Sierra Leone, Guinea, Congo, Loango.

DESCRIPTION. — The skin of an adult male, not quite perfect, in the
Museum of the Zoological Society, presents the following characters : —

366 QUADRUMANA.

The fur is coarse, harsh to the touch, long, and of a black colour,
moderately glossy ; that on the fore-arms is reverted. On various parts
grey hairs are intermixed with the black, and prevail especially on the
lower part of the back, the haunches, and thighs ; and, being equal in
number, on the lower part of the back, to the black hairs, produce there a
grizzled appearance. The cheeks are furnished with thinly set grey hairs,
with black intermixed ; the ears are large and naked ; there are decided
ischiatic callosities (in their greatest breadth about two inches and a half),
— a fact which most naturalists have overlooked, or denied. M. Isidore
Geoffrey, however, in his interesting paper on the genus Eriodes (in Mem.
du Mus. d'Hist. Nat. 1828), points out their existence; and the correct-
ness of his observation is verified by the specimen in question.

The length of the head and body is two feet six inches.

The hand (fig. 255), which is preserved entire, in spirits of wine,

255

measures, in length, nine inches and a half; its breadth across the palm is
three inches and four lines ; the thumb is one inch and ten lines ; the
middle finger three inches and six lines.

The total height of the animal, in the erect attitude, is about four feet.

The following description was taken from a living specimen (very
young), which died in 1826, in the Menagerie of the Zoological Society.

General figure short and stout ; chest broad ; shoulders square ; abdo-
men protuberant ; forehead retreating behind the supra-orbital ridge, the
cranium otherwise well developed; nose flat; nostrils divided by a very
thin septum ; lips extremely mobile, and traversed by vertical wrinkles ;
ears large and naked ; eyes lively, deep set, and chestnut-coloured ; neck
short; arms slender, but muscular, and reaching, when the animal stands
as erect as possible, just below the knee; all the four hands well de-
veloped, and with opposable thumbs ; the nails human-like ; the hair mo-
derately coarse and straight, longest and fullest on the head, down the
back, and on the arms ; thin on the chest and abdomen ; on the fore-arm

367

it is reverted to the elbow; backs of hands naked to the wrist; muzzle with
a scanty beard of very short white hairs; skin of the face dusky black,
darker round the eyes; ears and palms a dusky purplish black; hair
glossy black.

Height from heel to top of head . . . . . . . .2

Length of arm from shoulder to end of fingers .... 1

Height from heel to extremity of thigh-bone . . . . . 0

Hand, from wrist to end of middle finger .....0

Circumference of hand .......... 0

Breadth of palm .......... 0

From heel to extremity of longest toe (middle) ..... 0

Breadth of sole at origin of thumb ....... 0

Length of ear upward .......... 0

Transverse diameter of ear ........ 0

5?

4£

2

5£

2 j

2|

If

256

Skull of young Chimpanzee.

In the young Chimpanzee, during the first few years of its life, pre-
viously to the acquisition of the permanent teeth, the cranium (fig. 256),
owing to the early development of the brain, greatly preponderates

over the face ; hence the facial angle is
more open than in the adult : the depth of
the lower jaw is also proportionally less,
and the zygoma more slender. The
cranium arches well from the supra-
orbital ridge, and, altogether, its simi-
larity to the human skull is very close.
With the process of the second dentition
a change takes place, both in the relative
proportions and position of the parts com-
posing it. The forehead sinks below the
bold supra-orbital ridge; the jaws ex-

the volume of the face enlarges, and preponderates over that of the
cranium ; and the zygomatic arch becomes robust. A great, and, in many
particulars, an unexpected difference exists between the skulls of the adult

male and female. In the adult female, the
cranium (fig. 257) is of an ovate form,
depressed above, narrow, and destitute of
the strong frontal and interparietal crests,
so conspicuous in the Orang ; the extent
of the temporal muzzle is, however,
marked by an osseous border, commenc-
ing boldly from the outer part of the
supra-orbital ridge, but soon diminishing
skuii of aduit f^ie chimpanzee. to *• rough and slightly raised line, which

traverses the parietal bone, and joins the

lambdoidal ridge, which latter is not developed in the immature animal,
and is never so strong as in the Orang. The volume of the cranium

pand

257

368 QUADRUMANA.

posterior to the auditory foramen is very considerable, the occipital por-
tion of the skull appearing as if drawn out ; so that the occipital foramen
is farther removed from the posterior projection of the cranium than in the
immature male, and its plane is less oblique. The muzzle projects in an
obliquely straight line from the interorbital space to the alveolar margin of
the upper incisor teeth, at an angle as acute as in the Baboons, and, to a
great extent, the face being produced anteriorly : hence the ascending ramus
of the lower jaw slopes backward, at a considerable angle ; the base of the
lower jaw is slightly convex from the posterior angle to the symphisis of
the chin.

The supra-orbital ridges continued into each other, across the glabella,
form a sort of barrier between the cranium and the face, and, in a front
view, almost hide from sight the cranium, which falls back, and is de-
pressed behind them.

The sutures of the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital bones are
all distinct and unobliterated.

The skull of the adult male presents such extraordinary distinctive
characters, compared with that of the adult female, as, independently of

its rarity, to render a figure of it (258) of
the highest importance. At the first
glance, it will be perceived, that it is
much shorter than that of the female;
it is, also, much broader, and has the
vertex higher and more vaulted. The
occiput is abruptly compressed, in-
stead of being elongated; and the
muzzle, instead of being greatly pro-
duced, and sloping in an obliquely

I of aduit male cinmpanzee. straight line from the interorbital space,

is abbreviated ; and its fall from the orbits to the alveolar margin of the
upper incisors is gently concave ; the interorbital space is prominent and
convex ; the orbits are large, and nearly circular ; and the supra-orbital
ridge is thick, bold, and greatly developed ; the zygomatic arch is thrown
over a very deep temporal cavity, for the lodgment of an enormous mass
of temporal muscle ; the temporal bones are remarkably convex, adding
to the great and singular breadth of the posterior and basal parts of the
skull. From the external angle of the supra-orbital ridge, as in the
female, a raised osseous boundary to the temporal muscle commences;
which, however, sinks immediately into a rugged line, sweeping over the
parietal bone to the occipital ridge, which is more conspicuous than in the
female, but still not boldly prominent : the rugged lines do not coalesce on
the vertex, but only approach each other, an inch intervening between them
where they approximate the closest : the nasal orifice is somewhat oval,

SIMIAD^E. 369

one inch and one-eighth long, by one inch in 'the broadest part. If
the skull is shorter than in the female, it is greatly deeper from the vertex
to the base of the lower jaw, being six inches thus measured ; in the
female, not above five. From the shortness of the muzzle, the form of
the lower jaw is materially affected ; the posterior ascending branch,
instead of sloping backward, rises up perpendicularly from the angle, and
is of great breadth, measuring two inches across ; and the articulating
condyle rises higher than the coronoid process, which advances rather
forward ; the lower margin of the ramus, from the posterior angle to the
symphisis of the chin, is concave, instead of convex ; and the distance
between the posterior angles, owing to the breadth of the skull, is very
considerable ; the osseous palate is remarkably flat, the alveolar margin
scarcely rising, except at the posterior molars : the texture of the whole
skull is dense and solid, and all trace of sutures is obliterated ; the
breadth of the skull, from one auditory foramen to the opposite, is five
inches ; the length of the skull, from the glabella to the occiput, five
inches and a quarter ; the total length, from the front teeth to the occiput,
seven inches and one-third ; the orbits, one inch and a half in diameter ;
the vertex rises, at its highest part, three-quarters of an inch above the plane
of the supra-orbital ridge ; the length of the osseous palate is two inches
and two-thirds, its breadth, between the posterior molars, being one inch
and a half; from the angle of the lower jaw to the articulating condyle
the distance is three inches (in the female, two inches and a quarter) ; the
length of the lower jaw, from the alveolar margin of the incisor teeth to
the angle, is four inches and three quarters ; the distance, from angle to
angle of the lower jaw, three inches and two lines.

The incisor teeth have their depth, from front to back, far greater
than their breadth, and are much worn.

The bones of the rest of the skeleton agree, in their form and mea-
surement, with those of the female Chimpanzee described by Professor
Owen.

It has been stated, by Tyson, that the os hyoides both of the Chim-
panzee and Orang resemble the same bone in the human subject; but,
with respect to the os hyoides in the Chimpanzee, that it differs in having
the cornua minora more developed, and the body of the bone expanded
into a triangular form, and hollowed out posteriorly for the reception of
a laryngal sacculus. In the Orang the os hyoides has a broader body, and
shorter cornua, than in the human subject; but the body is not concave
posteriorly, as in the Chimpanzee.

It may not be out of place here to offer a few general observations on
the skeleton of the Chimpanzee, the most man-like in its form of all the
Simiadae ; and to contrast with it that of the Orang, its Indian representa-
tive. The general differences will be at once perceived by a comparison

VOL I. 3B

370

QUADRUMANA,

of the following sketches ; fig. 259 being the skeleton of the Orang,
distinguishable at once by the extreme length of the arms; fig. 2GO, that
of the Chimpanzee.

In the Orang, the backward position of the occipital condyles, and the
weight of the face, which is thus thrown forward, require a commensurate
development of the spinous processes of the cervical vertebrae ; added to

259 260

Skeleton of the Oranp.

Skeleton of the Chimpanzee (female) .

which, the general anterior inclination of the vertebrae themselves^ ren-
ders the length and robustness of these processes the more imperative.
In the Chimpanzee, the spinous processes, though necessarily developed,
are so in a less degree than in the Orang ; the anterior inclination of the
cervical vertebrae being less decided, and the weight of the face less op-
pressive. In both animals (and, indeed, in all the Simiadae) the cervical
region is shorter than in Man, and, therefore, better fitted for sustaining
the weight of the head, which preponderates anteriorly.

In the Chimpanzee the dorsal vertebrae are thirteen, and the ribs,
consequently, consist of thirteen pairs ; the lumbar vertebrae are four in
number, being one less than in Man ; their bodies are smaller, in propor-
tion, than in the human subject ; but the spinous processes are compara-
tively longer than in the Orang. In this latter animal the number of the
dorsal vertebrae is twelve, as in Man ; and the number of the lumbar

SIMIAD.E. 371

vertebrae four, as in the Chimpanzee ; occasional differences, however,
occur in the number of the vertebrae, both in Man and the Orang, for the
skeleton of a Pongo, or adult Orang, in the museum of the College of
Surgeons, has five lumbar vertebrae instead of four ; as is the case, also,
with the skeleton of an Australian man, in the same museum. In both
of the animals the amplitude of the chest is conspicuous.*

The following are the admeasurements of the adult skeleton of the
Chimpanzee (female) :

ft. in.

Total length from vertex to heel 310

Length of humerus 0 10f

Ditto fore-arm 0 10|

Ditto hand, to tip of middle finger 0 8£

Ditto femur 0 11

Ditto tibia 0 8£

Ditto foot, from heel to the end of toes 0 8|

Mr. Owen gives the following admeasurements of the skeleton of a
female Orang, in the College of Surgeons, which appears to have scarcely
arrived at its complete growth.

ft. in. lines.

Total length from vertex to heel 416

Length of humerus . . . . . • • • 114

Ditto radius 117

Ditto hand 0 10 5

Ditto femur . 0 10 3

Ditto tibia 090

Ditto foot 0 10 0

GENERAL HISTORY. — Little is known of the habits and manners of the
Chimpanzee ; it is an animal of comparatively recent discovery, though,
probably, alluded to in a work of great antiquity — naturalists are indebted
to Mr. Ogilby for directing their attention to a passage in thePeriplus Han-
nonis^ respecting the discovery, in an island near the African coast, of wild
men who were, in all probability, animals of this species. It appears that a
Carthaginian navigator, named Hanno (A. c. 500, or about that period),

* "The agile and powerful locomotive actions of the Chimpanzee," observes Mr. Owen (Trans.
Zool. Soc. i. p. 353), " require a proportionally ample development of the respiratory system, and the
size and expansion of the thorax is accordingly a prominent character in its skeleton. The trans-
verse exceeds the antero-posterior diameter of this cavity, but not to the same extent as in Man.
The chest has the same amplitude of development in the Orang as in the Chimpanzee ; it equals in
size that of the human subject, and the transverse diameter is greater than the antero-posterior."

t The original, of which only a Greek translation is extant, was written in Punic by Hanno, and is
a narrative of a voyage he made, by order of the Carthaginian senate, with a fleet, along the African
coast, for the establishment of colonies in that part of the world. Many celebrated men of the name of
Hanno have lived at different times ; but who the Hanno in question was, and what the exact date of
his voyage, are not well ascertained. Mr. Dodwell has endeavoured to prove the work spurious, and to
be the composition of a Greek who assumed that name ; but M. de Montesquieu and M. de Bougainville
have done much towards proving its authenticity.

372 QUADRUMANA.

sent on an expedition of discovery, coasted Western Africa, and sailed
from Gades to the Island of Cerne (Arguim ?) in twelve days, and thence,
following the coast, he arrived, in seventeen days, at a promontory called the
West Horn (Cape Palmas ?), thence, skirting a burning shore, he arrived,
in three days, at the South Horn, and found an island inhabited by what
were regarded as wild men, called, by the interpreters, Gorilloi,* who
were covered with long black hair, and who fled for refuge to the moun-
tains, and defended themselves with stones. With some difficulty three
females were captured, the males having escaped ; but so desperately did
they fight, biting and tearing, that it was found necessary to kill them ;
their preserved skins were carried by Hanno to Carthage, and hung up
in one of the temples, as. consecrated trophies of his expedition, and as
specimens of a wild tribe in the remote regions of Africa, ever reputed
a " tellus monstrorum ferax." From this remote epoch a long interval
elapses before any definite or tangible accounts of the Chimpanzee are to
be collected. In the fifteenth century the western coast of Africa was, it
may be said, re-discovered ; and, in the following century, through the
medium of Europeans visiting Western Africa for the purposes of traffic,
the existence of an anthropomorphous Ape became known, about the
same time that the Orang-outan was discovered in the Islands of Borneo
and Sumatra. Under such circumstances, it is not surprising that these
animals were, for a long time, regarded as the same, and that their re-
spective histories have been commingled. It is, indeed, only within the
last few years that they have been extricated from the maze of confusion
and misrepresentations with which travellers and naturalists concurred in
surrounding them, and, even now, much that concerns them is unknown.
With regard to the Chimpanzee, though Europeans have been long in the
habit of visiting, — nay, though numbers permanently reside on the coast
of that portion of Western Africa which it inhabits, a full and lucid
account of its manners and economy, in a state of nature, is yet a desi-
deratum.

The regions of Western Africa, to the extent of ten or twelve degrees
north, and as much south, of the torrid zone, including Guinea, Benin,
Congo, Angola, &c. constitute the habitat of the Chimpanzee,"'and, in
some districts, it would seem to be tolerably common. Bowditch (see
his Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, &c. Lond. 1819. 4to.
pp. 440-1) informs us that it is not rare at Gaboon, and that it is known
to the natives, under the names both of Inchego and Ingeno. From the
Negroes, whose accounts, coloured by fear and ignorance, are not to be
received without some allowance, he also learned that these animals, when

* It is very probable that the word Gorilloi may be identical with the terms Drill and Mandrill— old
African names still given in some districts to the Chimpanzee, and, therefore, belonging to it, rather than
to the Baboons,— BO called by European naturalists.

SIMIAD^E. 373

adult, generally attain the height of five feet, the breadth of the shoulders
being very considerable ; that their paw is disproportionate in size to the
breadth of their bodies, and that one blow from it is fatal ; that they are
seen commonly, by those who travel to Kaylee, lurking in the bush to
destroy passengers ; that their food consists principally of wild honey ;
and that they possess so little sagacity as often to sacrifice themselves, by
imitating men carrying burdens of wood, or Elephants' teeth, under which
they sink exhausted. The same traveller also describes a half-grown
individual, which he saw at Gaboon, in a state of captivity, as having the
cry, visage, and action of a very old man ; as being obedient to the voice
of its master ; and as evincing great agony at the sight of a panther.

Among the earlier travellers, in whose works some accounts of this
animal are to be found, may be noticed Andrew Battel, Jobson, Dapper,
Bosnian, and others, who visited the inter-tropical parts of Western
Africa. The details of its manners and habits, as represented by these
writers, might well startle the most credulous ; yet they appear to have
been received as truth, and have even influenced the reasoning and
opinions of philosophers. Whether these travellers were themselves
deceived — whether from ignorance, or misled by their imagination, they
mingled together the manners of some savage tribes, inhabiting the forests,
with those of the Chimpanzee, Mandrill, or other large species of Mon-
key, so as to produce a tissue of utter disorder — or whether they purposely
invented their stories, or magnified into the marvellous, details which,
when viewed in their true light, have little of the wonderful, it is now
impossible to ascertain.

One of the most trustworthy of these writers, Andrew Battel, a sailor,
who was taken prisoner in 1589, and lived many years in Congo (Pur-
chas's Pilgrims, ii.), distinguishes two animals, one under the name of
Pongo, the other under the name of Enjeco ; * the former as high as, and
stouter than, a Man ; the latter much less, being, as there is reason to sus-
pect, the young of the former. The Pongo (or Chimpanzee), he states,
had sunken eyes, long hairs on the sides of the head, a naked face, ears,
and hands, and the body slightly covered ; the limbs differed from those of
Man, in being destitute of calves, but the animal walked upright. In its
disposition it was grave and melancholy, and even, when young, far from
being frolicsome ;• — -at the same time it was swift and agile, and was some-
times known to carry away young Negroes. He further states, that these
animals constructed arbours among the branches of the trees, in which they
slept ; and that, in walking upright, they generally carried the hands
clasped on the hinder part of the neck, — an attitude assumed, no doubt,
to counterbalance the tendency of the body to fall forward, and thus to
maintain an equilibrium. He adds, also, that they subsisted wholly upon

* Perhaps the same word as Inchego, or Ingeno.

374 QUADRUMANA.

fruits and nuts, and possessed such muscular power, that the strength of ten
men was insufficient to hold one of them ; and that, upon the death of a
member of their community, the survivors covered the body with leaves and
branches of trees. According to the same traveller, they were known, in
the neighbourhood of Angola, to crowd shivering around the remains of the
fires lit at night by those who travelled through the forests of that country,
for the purpose of keeping off the more ferocious wild beasts ; but they
retreated into the woods when the last embers had expired, without at-
tempting to renew the source of comfort.

Bosnian * (who calls them Smitten) affirms that they attacked and
destroyed such Negroes as they met with in the woods, carried off the
women, pelted with stones those who disturbed them in their retreats, and
drove away even Elephants, either with sticks, or with their fists alone.
Once, he states, a number of them attacked, overpowered, and were pro-
ceeding to poke out the eyes of two slaves, when a party of Negroes
arrived to their rescue.

Froger (see Relation du Voyage de Gennes) states that, on the shores
of the river Gambia, are Apes of greater size, and more wicked, than in
any other place of Africa ; the Negroes fear them, and cannot go alone
into the country without running the risk of being attacked by these
animals, which present them with a stick, and oblige them to fight. Often
have they been seen to carry children, of seven or eight years old, up
the trees ; and it has required incredible trouble to rescue them. The
common opinion of the Negroes is, that these animals are a strange
people, which have come down to settle in their* country, and that if they
do not speak, it is because they fear being made to work. Francois
Pyrard (Voyage de Fr. Pyrard de Laval., Paris, 1619, torn. ii. p*. 231,)
relates that, in the province of Sierra Leone, is found a species of animal
called Baris, very stout and muscular, and so industrious that, when taken
young and educated, it may be made to work. These animals, he adds,
generally walk on the hind limbs only. Whatever is given them to pound
in a mortar, they pound ; and they will take small vessels to the river
for water, bringing them back full, on their head ; but as soon as they
arrive at the door of the house, if the vessels are not immediately taken
from them, they let them fall, and, on seeing them broken, commence
weeping and lamenting. Le Pere du Jarrie, quoted by Nieremberg
(Hist. Nat. Peregin., lib. ix. cap. xlv.), says the same; and Schoutten
(Voyages de G. Schoutten), and Le Guat (Voyages de Fr. Guat, torn, ii.),
speak in terms as extravagant of the Indian Orang.

In Barbot's Guinea the Chimpanzee is called Barrys, and Quojas

* " A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea, &c. Written originally in Dutch, by W.
Bosman, and now faithfully done into English." London, 1721.

SIMIAD^E. 375

Morrou, which titles are given to it, also, by Dapper,* in his Description
of Africa. The latter name is adopted by Tulpius, who also terms it the
" Satyre of Angola;" but he confounded the Orang-outan of India with it.
(See his figure and description in Obs. Medic. 1. iii. cap. Ivi.) The same
animal, which was brought from Borneo, and presented to Frederic
Henry, Prince of Orange, and died in 1777, was also described by Vos-
maer in 1776.

Linnaeus, who appears to have given credit to the exaggerated accounts
of the travellers alluded to, introduced an imaginary being — half Man,
half Ape — into his Sy sterna Naturae, under the title of Troglodytes, Homo
nocturnus (Linn. Syst. Nat. 1766, 12th ed.) ; which Gmelin, in his edi-
tion, 1788, sunk into Simia Troglodytes.

Edwards, in his Gleanings, plate 213, figures an animal which he
terms, Man of the Woods, Wild Man, Pigmy, Orang-outang, Chimpan-
zee, &c..; this figure is accompanied by the sketch of a head in profile,
which, short as are the arms in the figure, proves the animal in question
to have been the Orang of the Indian Islands. He says, indeed, it is
the same as Tyson's ; but it must not be forgotten, that the distinctions
between the Indian and African species were not then (1757) ascertained.

Buffon, who adopted the terms Pongo and Jocko (from Pongo and
Inchego, or Engeco, or Enjocko), in vol. xiv. of his great work (1756),
gives a sketch, in many respects very erroneous, of a living Chimpan-
zee which he saw at Paris in the year 1 740, and which died, the following
year, at London. After being opened, it was sent back to Paris in spirits
of wine, and placed in the Museum. It was taken in Gaboon, on the
coast of Angola, and was larger than that described by Tyson, in 1699,
being two feet four or five inches high, while Tyson's specimen scarcely
exceeded two feet. At that time Buffon was not aware of any distinc-
tions between the African and Indian species ; in his Supplement, how-
ever (Supp. vii.), he clearly distinguishes between the two ; and even notices
the absence of the last joint of the thumb of the foot (which is a com-
mon occurrence) in the one from India. To the African animal, or Chim-
panzee, he applies the term Pongo, and regards the Indian species as the
Jocko ; a confusion in nomenclature, rather than in facts : at all events,
the term Pongo, to whichever species it of right belongs, is now, by
common consent, appropriated to the Indian Orang. f Following Buffon,

* " Description de I'Afrique, traduite du Flamand, d' O. Dapper, D.M. a Amsterdam," 1686.

" On y trouve de trois sortes de singes, et il y en a d'une certaine espece qu'on nomme Bans,
qu'on .prend etant petits, qu'on eleve, et qu'on apprivoise si bien, qu'ils rend presque autant des ser-
vices qu'un esclave," p. 249. " On trouve dans les bois une espece de Satyre, que les Negres appel-
lent Quojas-Morrou, et, les Portugais, Salvage. Us ont la tete grosse, le corps gros et pesant, les
bras nerveux, &c." p. 257.

t Buffon's figure of the Orang-outan, Supp. vii. pi. i. is altogether fictitious, and unworthy of
our notice.

376 QUADRUMANA.

Shaw (Mammalia, 1800, vol. i. p. 9) observes, that " there are two dis-
tinct species of this animal ; viz., the ' Pongo, or great black Oran-
otan,' which is a native of Africa, and * the reddish-brown, or chest-
nut Oran-otan,' called the 'Jocko,' which is a native of Borneo, and
some other Indian islands." The latter is distinguished, he adds, "by
having no nails on the great toes ; whereas, in the Pongo, or black species,
they are conspicuous." He does not, however, notice the more important
distinctions between them in the comparative length of the arms, the
characters of the skull, and the length of the ears.

That the Chimpanzee and the Orang should have been confounded
together, is, after all, not to be wondered at ; in addition, however, to
this confusion, the history of the former has been confused with that
of the Mandrill. It must be borne in mind, that the travellers who
visited Western Africa, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, were not
naturalists ; and, consequently, did not, generally speaking, care to gain
a knowledge of these animals by personal examination ; besides which,
had opportunities so fallen in their way, most of them were but
indifferently qualified as describers ; and were, therefore, very likely,
not only to overlook specific distinctions, but also to attribute the man-
ners and habits of one large Ape to another. The vagueness of the
native names, or rather, perhaps, the mistaken application of them, may
have also contributed to error. It would appear that the terms, Smitten,
Baris, Boggo, &c., which have been applied by the early travellers,
apparently, to the Chimpanzee, refer, as there is reason to believe,
really to the Mandrill. At all events, the supposed Chimpanzee,
described by Capt. May, of the Dutch service, to Professor Alla-
mand, and which was brought from Guinea to Surinam, where it lived
for twenty-one years, was, undoubtedly, a Mandrill ; and Buffon's idea,
that it was some variety of the "Pongo," or "Great Orang-outang," has
not the shadow of a foundation. Though it is stated to have been destitute
of a tail, — which was, perhaps, lost by accident, — its long, blue snout, fur-
rowed cheeks, and large, naked callosities, at once indicate its real character.
It was a large Mandrill (its size, doubtless, is somewhat exaggerated) ;
and Professor Allamand considers it to be identical with the Smitten of Bos-
man, and the Quimpese of M. de la Brosse ( Voyage to the Coast of Angola,
1730); which, however, is not very probable. M. de la Brosse describes
the Quimpese as attaining the height of six or seven feet, and being pos-
sessed of matchless strength and courage. These animals, he also states,
endeavour to surprise the Negresses, whom they carry into the woods
and force to live with them, feeding them plentifully ; but, otherwise, doing
them no injury. An instance of this kind came under his own observa-
tion : " I knew," he says, " a Negress, at Lowanjo, who had lived three
years amongst these animals. They build huts, and arm themselves with

SIMIAD.E. 377

clubs ; their face is smooth ; their nose flat ; their ears without inverted
rims ; their body covered with long hair, thinnest in front ; their heel
elevated about half an inch from the ground ; and they walk either upon
two feet or four, just as their fancy prompts them."

Notwithstanding all the confusion and exaggeration, too palpable in
the accounts of the early travellers, it cannot be doubted that with
their descriptions is mixed a considerable portion of truth ; but the dif-
ficulty is, to separate it from the fiction which obscures it.

Were we to judge from the young individuals which have been
brought to Europe, we should attribute not only great intelligence, but
also docility, to the adult Chimpanzee ; it is, however, most probable,
that, on arriving at maturity, its disposition undergoes that change for the
the worse which is so remarkably the case with the Simiadae generally.
It may, indeed, be reasonably concluded, in the absence of positive in-
formation, that the conditions of its existence require the perpetual ex-
ercise of caution ; and that it is frequently involved in desperate com-
bats with its natural enemies, to overcome which requires great force
and determined resolution. As maturity, therefore, approaches, and the
animal begins to live independently of its parents, the protectors of its
youth, — caution, distrust, cunning, ferocity, and untameable obstinacy
may be engendered, and, becoming habitual, take the place of that gen-
tleness and docility which render the young so interesting.

Lieutenant Matthews, R. N., who resided at Sierra Leone during the
years 1785-6-7, and whose letters, describing this part of Africa, appeared
in 1 788, informs us that the Chimpanzees, or Japanzees, are social animals ;
and that they " generally take up their abode near some deserted town or
village, where the papau-tree grows in abundance, of the fruit of which
they are very fond ; and build huts, neatly in the form in which the natives
build their houses, which they cover with leaves ; but these are only
for the females and young to lie in ; the males always lie on the outside.
If one of them is shot, the rest immediately pursue the destroyer of their
friend ; and the only means to escape their vengeance, is to part with
your gun, which they directly seize upon, with all the rage imaginable,
tear it to pieces, and give over the pursuit."

In the foregoing description, confirmatory, in the main, of the details
given by the more trustworthy of the older voyagers, two circumstances
are peculiarly forced upon our attention : first, the terrestrial, rather
than the absolutely arboreal habits of the animal in question ; secondly,
the construction of huts, or arbours, for places of residence. With re-
spect to the terrestrial habits of the Chimpanzee, the observation may be
repeated, that its anatomical conformation renders the erect, or, perhaps,
rather semi-erect, attitude far more easy for it to assume, than for the
Orang. Not only are the limbs more developed, more firm and mus-

VOL. I. 3 C

378 QUADRUMANA.

cular themselves, but the hip-joint is secured by the ligamentum .teres;
so that they constitute organs of support and progression, which, aided
more or less by the arms, render the animal alert and active on the
ground. Besides, the soles of the feet are fairly applied to the ground,
the Chimpanzee being, in this respect, an exception to the Simiadse
generally, and especially to the Orang, which latter animal treads on the
outsides of its folded, narrow, hook-like feet. The breadth of these organs
in the Chimpanzee tends to render its footing stable ; indeed, in the form
of these parts (setting aside the opposableness of the thumb), but espe-
cially in the form of the hands, this animal is far more human-like than
the Orang ; and, therefore, far more capable of handling objects with
adroitness and precision.

With respect to the construction of huts, recollecting the labours of
the Beaver, we might, perhaps, be disposed to regard that point as of
little importance in leading us to an estimate of the intelligence and
capabilities of the animal ; but, combining this with its more truly biped
mode of progression than is enjoyed by any mammal, excepting Man, — with
its pre-eminently social habits, with its adoption of artificial weapons,
with its mode of putting its dead out of sight, added to what is
known positively of the habits of its race in captivity, — we must ac-
cord to the Chimpanzee the highest rank, subordinate to Man, in the
scale of creation.

Many points, however, it must be confessed, are yet desiderata, to be
obtained, ere we can give a complete history of the Chimpanzee.

The period of gestation ; how frequently the female produces young ;
at what age the fulness of maturity is completed ; and the average length
of the animal's existence, are all problematical.

In a young male Chimpanzee, of two feet in height, lately living in
the Gardens of the Zoological Society, London, the dentition corre-
sponded to that of our own species, from about the third to the seventh
year ; the incisors being f, the canines J, the molars J, all of which be-
longed to the deciduous series.

This Chimpanzee was brought over to England in September, 1835,
having been procured on the Gambia coast, about 120 miles in the in-
terior. It was a nursling in the arms of its mother, who was shot by its
capturers. Her height is stated to have been four feet six inches. The
young individual, at the time of its capture, was supposed, by the
natives, to be about two years old ; hence, therefore, it is improbable
that the female should produce young oftener than once in two years ; a
mother may be surrounded by three or four young ones of different
ages, forming a family, which continue long together in company. We
learn that the Chimpanzees are usually seen in small troops, con-
sisting of two or three families ; and it is said that the females are

SIMIADJL. 379

devotedly fond of their young, which they nurse with tender assiduity ;
and that the adult males protect the females and their offspring with
great resolution. It is, perhaps, when the females have retired to bring
forth young, or when they are engaged with their newly-born progeny,
that the males, guarding the precincts of their habitations (which are
reported to be left, at this season, entirely to the females), have attacked
persons unwarily venturing within their territorial limits. After all, it
is with the disposition and manners of the young only that we can pre-
tend to have a tolerable acquaintance. From the time of Tyson to the
present day,* six of these animals (including the one which he dissected,
in 1698) have been imported into England ; and it is from these, princi-
pally (not omitting the individual seen by Buffon, in Paris), that our
knowledge has been derived.

The first living Chimpanzee known to have been brought into this
country, namely, that dissected by Tyson, was a young male, brought
from Angola, in 1698. He is described by Dr. Tyson as having com-
pletely assumed the erect attitude ; but, from various passages in the
account, it is evident that he often went on all fours.f He alleges that
it had calves on its legs, though " not large, being much emaciated ;"
the delineation, however, not only contradicts this statement, but displays
the lower limbs much bent; the animal, in one plate (fig. 261), supporting
himself by a rope ; and, in the other (fig. 262), resting on a staff; for,
" being weak," says Tyson, " the better to support him, I have given him
a stick in his right-hand."

The second specimen, of uncertain locality, was exhibited in 1738. In
reference to this individual, Shaw (Mammalia, vol. i.) notices the mildness
and docility of the " Oran-otan," and its aptitude for learning a " variety
of actions in domestic life." Thus, he adds, " it has been seen to sit at
table, and, in its manner of feeding and general behaviour, imitate the
company in which it was placed ; to pour out tea, and drink it without
awkwardness or constraint ; to prepare its bed with great exactness, and

* Since writing the above, other young specimens have been imported.

t " The fierceness of the Cynocephali is taken notice of by all : our Pygmie was quite of another
temper — the most gentle and loving creature that could be. Those that he knew on ship-board he
would come and embrace with the greatest tenderness, opening their bosoms and clasping his hands
about them ; and, as I was informed, though there were Monkeys aboard, yet 'twas observed he would
never associate with them; and, as if nothing akin to them, would always avoid their company," (p. 7.)
" After our Pygmie was taken, and a little used to wear clothes, it was fond enough of them ; and what
it could not put on himself, it would bring in its hands to some of the company to help him to put on.
It would lie in a bed, place his head on the pillow, and pull the clothes over him, as a Man would do •
but was so careless, and so very a brute, as to do all nature's occasions there," (p. 8.) " I was told by
the owners, that once it held the bason itself to be trimmed." " As it uses its hinder feet, upon any oc-
casion, as hands, so, likewise, I observed, in our Pygmie, that it would make use of its hands to supply
the place of feet. But when it went as a Quadruped, on all fours, 'twas awkwardly, not placing the
palm of the hands flat to the ground, but it walked on its knuckles, as I observed it to do, when weak,
and had not strength enough to support its body."— Tys. Anat. Pyg. p. 13.

380 QUADRUMANA.

compose itself to sleep in a proper manner." Buffon gives a similar
account of the one (a male) which he saw in Paris, in the year 1740.*

261 262

The third individual, a female, was brought, in 1818, from the banks
of the Gaboon. Dr. Traill, who dissected it, states, from the information
of Captain Payne, in whose vessel the animal had been conveyed from the
Isle of Princes, in the Gulf of Guinea, to Liverpool, that, when first taken
on board, " it shook hands with some of the sailors, but refused its hand,
with marks of anger, to others, without any apparent cause. It speedily,
however, became familiar with the crew, except one boy, to whom it was
never reconciled. When the seamen's mess was brought on deck, it was
a constant attendant ; would go round and embrace each person, while it
uttered loud yells, and then seat itself among them to share the repast.
When angry, it sometimes made a barking noise like a Dog ; at other

* The male observed by Buffon, he says, " always walked upright on his two feet, even when carrying
heavy articles. His air was melancholy, his deportment grave, his movements measured, his temper
mild, and quite different from that of the other Simiae ; he displayed neither the impatience of the
Magot, the wickedness of the Baboon, nor the extravagance of the Guenons. He had been, one may say,
perhaps, instructed and well taught. The others I have just cited, and compared with him, had also their
education : but while a sign or a word was sufficient to direct our Orang-outang, a cudgel was required
for the Baboon, and a whip for the Guenons, which nothing but blows scarcely could render obedient.
I have seen this animal present his hand to shew out persons who had come to visit it, and walk gravely,
and as one of the company, with them. I have seen him sit at table, unfold his napkin, w.ipe his lips
with it, make use of a spoon and fork when eating, pour out his drink himself in a glass, touch the
glass of a person with his own when invited to do so, fetch a cup and saucer, place them upon a table,
put sugar in the cup, pour out some tea, leave it to cool before drinking it, — all without any instigation
but a sign or a word from his master, and frequently of his own accord. He did no mischief to any one,
advanced to persons with circumspection, and presented himself as though he desired to be caressed.
He was prodigiously fond of sweetmeats, and took such quantities, for everybody presented them to him,
that, no doubt, as he had a frequent cough and an affection of the chest, they contributed to abridge his
existence. He ate almost everything, but preferred ripe and dry fruit to any other kind of food. He
drank wine, but only in small quantities, and willingly abandoned it for milk, tea, or other mild
liquors."

SIMIAM. 381

times it would cry like a pettish child, and scratch itself with great vehe-
mence. It expressed satisfaction, especially on receiving sweetmeats, by
a sound like hem ! in a grave tone ; but it seemed to have little variety in
its voice. In warm latitudes it was active and cheerful, but became
languid as it receded from the torrid zone ; and, on approaching our
shores, it shewed a desire to have a warm covering, and would roll itself
carefully up in a blanket when it retired to rest. It generally walked on
all fours ; and it was particularly remarked, that it never placed the palm
of the hands of its fore extremities to the ground ; but, closing its fists,
rested on the knuckles : a circumstance also noticed by Tyson. This
animal did not seem fond of the erect posture, which it rarely affected ;
though it could run nimbly on two feet, for a short distance. In this case,
it appeared to aid the motions of its legs by grasping the thighs with its
hands. It had great strength in the four fingers of its superior extremity ;
for it would often swing by them on a rope upwards of an hour, without
intermission. It ate readily every sort of vegetable food ; but, at first,
did not appear to relish flesh, though it seemed to take pleasure in
sucking the leg-bone of a fowl. At that time it did not relish wine ; but
afterwards seemed to like it, though it never could endure ardent spirits.
It once stole a bottle of wine, which it uncorked with its teeth, and began
to drink. It shewed a predilection for coffee, and was immoderately fond
of sweet articles of food. It learned to feed itself with a spoon, to drink
out of a glass, and shewed a general disposition to imitate the actions of
Men. It was attracted by bright metals ; seemed to take pride in cloth-
ing, and often put a cocked-hat on its head. It was dirty in its habits,
and never was known to wash itself. It was afraid of fire-arms, and, on
the whole, appeared a timid animal." — Memoirs of the Wernerian Nat.
Hist. Society, vol. iii. p. 4, et seq.

The fourth specimen was brought from the Gold Coast, in 1819. The
fifth, from the neighbourhood of the River Gambia, in 1832. Both these
became the property of Mr. Cross ; the former died very shortly after its
arrival at Exeter Change ; the latter, which was a male, also died after a
short residence in our uncongenial climate.

In the fifth volume of the Magazine of Natural History, p. 305, et
seq., will be found an account, by Mr. Warwick, of this individual, and
also of a female Orang-outan, its companion in captivity.

The sixth specimen, and the most interesting of all, is the one already
alluded to as having lived in the menagerie of the Zoological Society. It
reached our shores in good health, in September, 1835; and, for some
months, continued in so favourable a state as to lead to the hope that it
would prove an exception to its predecessors, and, by escaping their
early fate, enable the scientific world to form a correct and thorough
estimate of the capabilities, manners, and instincts of its species. These

382 QUADRUMANA.

hopes were, however, frustrated by its death, in September, 1836. (See
Proc. Zool. Soc. April 12, 1836, p. 41, et seq.)

In the Zool. Proceedings for 1835 (p. 160, et seq.\ will be found an
account of the habits of this individual, by W. J. Broderip, Esq. ; some
observations by the Author of this work, also, appeared in the Penny
Magazine for February 13, 1836, accompanied by a very tolerable
wood-engraving, erroneous only as representing the hair of the fore-arms
directed forward, instead of being reverted to the elbow.

On entering the room in which the Chimpanzee was kept, the first
thing that struck the attention of visitors, was its aged appearance, and
its resemblance to an old, bent, diminutive Negro. This appearance of
age was much increased by a spare beard of short white hairs, which
was spread over the muzzle, and by the deep wrinkles which furrowed
the cheeks. It was not until being informed of its age, which, as proved
by its dentition, was, in all probability, about two years and a half, that a
person, ignorant of the natural history of the Chimpanzee, would have
considered this specimen in the light of an infant ; its actions, however,
were those of a child, capable of running about and amusing itself;
lively and playful, yet neither mischievous nor petulant ; it was alive to
everything which took place about it, and examined every object within
its reach, with an air so considerate and thoughtful as to create a smile
on the face of the gravest spectator. In its cage, or den, to which it
was occasionally restricted, was a swing, upon which it delighted to
exercise, throwing itself into a variety of attitudes, which at once be-
spoke its security and its fitness for the waving branches of the forest.
Sometimes it would stand in the swing, grasping the rope by its hind feet,
and holding by one hand ; then it would swing suspended by one foot, or
hand, or throw itself over the rope in an easy and frolicsome summerset.
When tired with this play, it would roll about the floor, or climb the bars,
or run hobbling about, which it did very quickly, generally assisting itself
by resting the knuckles of the two first fingers of the hands on the ground,
to do which, it stooped its shoulders a little forward ; it could, however,
and did, frequently, walk upright (the limbs being somewhat bowed and
straddling), and independently of the assistance of the arms, except as
balancers. Its pace was a sort of waddle, and not performed, as in Man, by
a series of steps, in which the ankle-joint is brought into play at each suc-
cessive step, the heel being elevated, and the body resting on the toes ; on
the contrary, the foot was raised at once, and set down at once, in a
thoroughly plantigrade manner, as in stamping ; an action, which it
often exhibited, first with one foot, for some time, then with the other ;
sometimes with both, in alternate strokes ; at other times with one only.
Mr. Broderip says : He leaped upon the top of a cage, in which were
some Marmozets ; and, when there, continued jumping furiously, evi-

SIMIAD^E, 383

dently with a mischievous intention to astonish the inmates, who huddled
together in consternation. The Author of this work has often seen him
jump in the same manner as a child ; an action indicative of a firmness of
limb adequate, at least, for a semi-erect attitude and terrestrial progression.
It was curious to observe how firmly he grasped with his hind feet, which
were broad and strong ; and how easily, while thus resting on the back of
a chair, or on a perch, he could throw himself completely backward, and
raise himself again into his previous position ; a feat indicating great bodily
power. This, indeed, the animal evidently possessed ; for its frame was
thick-set and broad ; but the abdomen, as in the Orang-outan, was protube-
rant. With its keepers it was on the most familiar terms, and would play
with them like a child, now running round them, now dodging them, now
climbing up, and throwing its arms round their necks. Laughter is said
to be peculiar to our race ; and, certainly, if this animal be not an excep-
tion to the rule, in none does the face so much display the emotions of
pleasure or mirth. It has more than once been observed, with surprise,
that, when at play with its attendants, and tickled smartly, the counte-
nance of this individual exhibited what most would call a decided laugh ;
its eyes twinkled, the angles of the half-open mouth were drawn upward,
and the teeth displayed ; while, at the same time, it uttered a chuckling
noise, sounding like that of smothered laughter. Still, if the expression of
laughter be conceded to the Chimpanzee, it must be restricted to that
which is created by agreeable bodily sensations ; by an excitement of the
nervous sympathies of the frame, acted on by external causes ; for laugh-
ter, from mental emotions, from mirth or pleasure of mind, created by the
imagination alone, is peculiar to Man : in this respect he stands isolated.
The propensity of the Chimpanzee in question, to put everything into
his mouth, was very remarkable. On being presented with a tin rattle, he
took no notice of the noise of the instrument, made by shaking it, but at
once tried to crush it between his teeth. After carrying it about, he
would abandon it, take up something else, leave that, and return to it
again. He was, however, always very anxious to obtain what was out of his
reach; and which, when obtained and examined, was soon neglected. From
the gentleness of his disposition, he was not easily put out of temper ; but
when this was the case, as occasionally happened, he evinced his displea-
sure by a hoarse guttural sound, and by protruding the lips, at the same
time looking intently, and with an expression of anger, at the offender.
This expression was rendered more marked by the vivacity of the eyes ;
which, though small and deeply set, were quick and piercing : their colour
was dark hazel. Mr. Broderip, describing his appearance, says : " His
aspect was mild and pensive, but that of a little, withered, old man ; and
his large eyes, hairless and wrinkled visage, and man-like ears, sur-
mounted by the black hair of his head, rendered the resemblance very

384 QUADRUMANA.

striking, notwithstanding the depressed nose and the projecting mouth."
The accuracy of this picture, in every respect, excepting the large eyes,
may be readily admitted.

The subjoined figure (263) is a very spirited portrait of this individual,
taken during its life ; it well depicts the furrows of the lips and face, and
the expression and characters of the physiognomy.

263

Head of young Chimpanzee.

In the various antics and sportful play of this lively little Chimpan-
zee, there was nothing of that brusquerie, and that restless quickness, which
are so observable in the actions of the Monkey ; nothing of that chat-
tering and grinning on every surprise ; and it is in these minutiae that
we recognise its superiority, and the approximation of its manners,
however distant, to those of the young of our own race.

Farinaceous food, fruit, cooked meat, milk, &c. constituted the diet
upon which the interesting little Chimpanzee was fed. It was also fond of
tea, but refused wine, beer, and spirits. It was, certainly, amusing to
see the creature take a cup of milk, or tea, in its hand, and, as if in
imitation of our actions, sip the contents, and set down the cup with due
propriety. The Author has seen him apply his protruded lips to the
orifice which had been bored through the shell into a cocoa-nut, and thus
suck out the milk, holding up the fruit with both hands ; which, after
the juice was drained, he gently laid down. Sometimes, however, he
was less orderly. Mr. Broderip says : " I presented him with a cocoa-
nut, to the shell of which some of the husk was still adhering ; the tender

SIMIAD.E. 385

bud was beginning to push forth ; this he immediately bit off and ate.
He then stripped off some of the husk with his teeth, swung it, by the
adhering knot of husk-fibres, round his head, dashed it down, and
repeatedly jumped upon it with all his weight. He afterwards swung it
about, and dashed it down with such violence, that, fearing his person
might suffer, I had it taken away. A hole was afterwards bored through
one of the eyes, and the cocoa-nut was again given to him. He imme-
diately held it with the aperture downward, and applied his mouth to
it." It is, doubtless, by thus violently dashing down this fruit, after
stripping the fibrous covering, by means of its strong teeth, that the adult
Chimpanzee fractures the shell, which he then wrenches in pieces, to
obtain the kernel. The young animal in question failed in doing what
he would have easily effected when grown up ; but he exemplified the
manner of doing it.

Like most animals in a reclaimed state, the Chimpanzee had his
favourites : among these was the cook (for he was kept in the kitchen,
where the meals of the keepers were dressed), and also the person appointed
to take immediate charge of him. On their approach he testified the
most unequivocal signs of pleasure ; he recognised even their footsteps,
and watched for them with evident impatience ; the moment he saw
them, he would pout his lips, utter a low sound of satisfaction, and, if at
liberty, at once make toward them, climb upon them, and com-
mence a fondling, sportful play. The cook, indeed, sometimes found
the little creature's attachment troublesome ; for it was difficult to dis-
engage herself from him ; and, if not prevented, he would go about the
place with her, holding by her gown, like a child. On one occasion, he
opened the lattice-window of the kitchen, and was seen looking very
composedly about him, as if in admiration of the novelties offered to his
view. On the supposition that he might escape into the garden, and not
be induced, without some difficulty, to return, he was ordered to come
away (for he felt the force of a command, from the tone in which it is
uttered) ; and he not only obeyed, but closed the window, and descended
to his attendant.

The Monkey tribe have, as is well-known, a horror of the larger
kinds of Snakes ; the Pythons, for example, to which they often fall a
prey. It was considered worth the trial to ascertain whether, in an animal
so young, and which, most probably, had never seen a formidable Snake,
this feeling was fairly displayed. Accordingly, under the direction of
Mr. Broderip, a Python was so placed that the Chimpanzee should come
upon it unawares ; on seeing it, the poor animal shrunk back with
terror, and hastened to his keeper for protection ; nothing would tempt
him to approach the dreaded object ; nor, when the lid of the basket, in
which the Snake lay coiled, was closed, and an apple was placed upon

V«»L. I. 3D

386 QUADRUMANA.

it, much as he desired the fruit, would he venture to approach the lurk-
ing-place of his foe. At last, the basket and snake were removed, and
the apple placed upon a chair ; then, after a most cautious and keen
scrutiny, and many doubts and misgivings, the timid creature at length
ventured to take the offered prize. " He manifested," says Mr. Broderip,
" aversion to a small living Tortoise ; but nothing like the horror which
he betrayed at the sight of the Snake. I was induced to shew him the
former, by the account of the effect produced by the Testudinata on the
Asiatic Orang, whose habits are so admirably described by Dr. Abel
and Captain Methuen, who brought the animal to England." It may
here be observed, that the surprise, or fear, which the first sight of a
Tortoise produces on these animals, soon wears off: Tortoises were
kept in the room both with the Chimpanzee and the Orang; and,
though the first impression produced was surprise, not unmixed with fear,
they soon became indifferent to the presence of the crawling reptiles. The
Chimpanzee did not manifest toward other animals the same fear as he
did toward the Snake. In the same room was a Maltese, or hairless,
female Dog, with a litter of young ; and, notwithstanding the snarling and
barking of their mother, he would often intrude upon her kennel, take up
the puppies, one by one, gravely look at them, and replace them with the
utmost gentleness. When tired with his exertions, his usual custom was
to retire to a bed of blankets, in a corner of his cage, and there cover-
ing himself up, and crossing the arms over the chest, bury the face upon
them, and thus settle to sleep.

In 1839, the Zoological Society obtained possession of another
specimen (a young male), procured in the Bullom country, the mother
having been shot in the capture : it, however, lived only for a short
time. An account of its manners and habits, while in the possession
of Lieut. Sayers, who brought it to England, is published in the Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1839, p. 28 : to this account is added a notice of the man-
ners of the Chimpanzees in a state of nature, according to the informa-
tion collected by him in their country. He observes, that trees are
ascended (as he is led to conclude) by these animals, only for food or
observation : from the natives he learned that " they do not reach their
full growth till between nine and ten years of age ; which, if true, brings
them extremely near to the human species ; as the boy or girl of West Africa,
at thirteen or fourteen years old, is quite as much a man or woman as at
the age of nineteen or twenty in our more northern clime. Their height,
when full grown, is said to be between four and five feet : indeed, I was
credibly informed that a male Chimpanzee, which had been shot in the
neighbourhood, and brought into Free Town, measured four feet five
inches in length ; and was so heavy as to form a very fair load for two
men, who carried him on a pole between them. The natives say that, in

SIMIAD.E. 387

their wild state, their strength is enormous ; and that they have seen them
snap boughs off the trees with the greatest apparent ease, which the united
strength of two men could scarcely bend. The Chimpanzee is, without
doubt, to be found in all the countries from the banks of the Gambia, in
the north, to the kingdom of Congo, in the south ; as the natives of the
intermediate parts seem to be perfectly acquainted with them. From my
own experience, I can state that the low shores of the Bullom country, situ-
ated on the northern border of the River Sierra Leone, are infested by them,
in numbers quite equal to those of the commonest species of Monkey. I
consider these animals to be gregarious ; for, when visiting the rice farms
of the chief, Dalla Mohammadoo, on the Bullom shore, their cries plainly
indicated the vicinity of a troop, as the noise heard could not have been
produced by less than eight or ten of them. The natives also affirmed,
that they always travel in strong bodies, armed with sticks, which they use
with much dexterity. They are exceedingly watchful ; and the first one
who discovers the approach of a stranger, utters a protracted cry, much
resembling that of a human being in the greatest distress. The first time
I heard it, I was much startled : the animal was, apparently, not more than
thirty paces distant ; but had it been but five, I could not have seen it,
from the tangled nature of the jungle ; and I certainly conceived that such
sounds could only have proceeded from a human being, who hoped to
gain assistance, by his cries, from some terrible and instant death. The
native who was with me laid his hand upon my shoulder, and, pointing
suspiciously to the bush, said, ' Massa, Baboo live there ;' and in a few
minutes the wood appeared alive with them ; their cries resembling the
barking of Dogs. My guide informed me that the cry first heard was to
inform the troop of my approach, and that they would all immediately
leave the trees, or any exalted situation that might expose them to view,
and seek the bush : he also shewed evident fear, and entreated me not to
proceed any further in that direction. The plantations of bananas, pa-
paws, and plantains, which the natives usually intermix with their rice,
constituting the favourite food of the Chimpanzees, accounts for their
being so frequent in the neighbourhood of rice-fields. The difficulty of
procuring live specimens of this genus arises, principally, I should say,
from the superstitions of the natives concerning them, who believe they
possess the power of ' witching.' "

GENUS.— PITHECUS.

Pithecus GEOFF. Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

Simla in part ERXL. Syst. Regni Anim. 1777.

Pithecus Cuv. Regn. An. 1829.

GENERIC CHARACTERS. — MUZZLE large, elongated, somewhat rounded
anteriorly ; FOREHEAD sloping backward ; SUPERCILIARY RIDGES

388 QUADRUMANA.

slight; MARGIN OF ORBITS prominent; FACIAL ANGLE 30°; no CHEEK-
POUCHES ; LARYNGAL SAC extensive, double ; EARS small ; TAIL
wanting; no CALLOSITIES ; ARMS reaching to ankle-joint ; FEET long,
narrow ; THUMB not extending to the end of the metacarpal bone of
the adjoining toe, and often destitute of the ungueal phalanx ; CANINES
very large, their apices extending beyond the intervals of the
opposite teeth ; RIBS, twelve pairs ; BONES of STERNUM in a double
alternate row ; INTERMAXILLARY BONES anchylosed to the maxillaries
during the second, or permanent dentition ; LIG AMENTUM TERES of
hip-joint wanting.
COUNTRY. — Borneo, Sumatra.

THE ORANG-OUTAN, OR PONGO.

PITHECUS SATYRUS. (Pithecus Satyrus, GEOFF. Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.)

Simla Satyrus . . . ,~ LINX.ZEUS. 1766, ei aliorum.

Simla Agrlas SCHREBER, pi. 2. n. B. et n. c. 1775.

Singe de Wurmb AUDEBERT, Singes et Makis, Fam. i. p. 18, fig. 2; et Tab.

Anat. fig. 3, cran. 1797.

Papio Wurmbii LATREILLE, Singes, i. p. 196.

Pithecus Satyrus DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 50. 1820.

Simia Wurmbii KHUL, Beitr. 21. 1820.

Orang Pandak of the Malays of Sumatra, RAFFLES, Linn. Trans, xiii. 1822.

Simia Satyrus FISCHER, Syn. Mamm. p. 9. 1829.

Simia Abellii Idem, p. 10.

Simia Wurmbii Idem, p. 32.

Satyrus rufus LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 40. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Head large ; body robust ; the hinder limbs very short ; the arms
of great length, reaching to the ankle ; the ears small ; the fur long, and somewhat
rigid ; abdomen thinly 'covered ; hairs of the fore-arms reversed ; chin bearded ; face
and forehead naked ; cheeks, in the adult male, with callous protuberances ; colour
varying from rufous to chestnut-black.

LOCALITIES. — Borneo, Sumatra.

DESCRIPTION. — No species of Simia has been, till lately, so little
understood as this ; nor is there any respecting which notions so erro-
neous have been entertained : and hence, previously to entering into
descriptive details, a few observations are imperatively necessary. So
different are the characters, dependant upon age, which the Orang assumes,
at various periods of its growth, and so much, in many respects, do the
males differ from the females, that the errors of naturalists, without oppor-
tunities of inspecting either a series of preserved specimens or of skulls,
or, indeed, other portions of the skeleton, may be well pardoned. It may
be observed, then, at the outset, that three animals are described ;
namely, the Simia Satyrus, of Linnaeus ; the Pongo Abellii, of Clark, or
Red Orang of Sumatra ; and the Pongo Wurmbii, Geoff., or Black
Orang of Borneo ; which appear, in reality, to be one species, of which
the Simia Satyrus, Linn., is the young. Leaving out of the question, for the

THK ORANG-OUTAN (YOUNG
( Pithecus Satyrus. Geoff.)

SIMIAD/E. 389

present, the identity or non-identity of the Red Orang, and of the Black
Orang, it is necessary to clear up, in a summary manner, the difficulties
with which it has been environed. That the Simia Satyrus was identical
with the Pongo, appears first to have been suspected, and asserted, by
Cuvier : his opinion, however, was opposed by many naturalists ; and,
among others, by Dr. Harwood, who published a paper, in vol. xv. of the
Linncean Transactions, on the subject. There is, however, no longer any
doubt as to the correctness of Cuvier's opinion, which has been abundantly
substantiated by Professor Owen ; who, availing himself of favourable
opportunities, has set the matter at rest. (See paper on the " Osteology
of the Chimpanzee and Orang-utan," Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. i. 1835.)

With respect to the specific identity of the Pongo Wufmbii, and the
Pongo Abellii, some difficulty still exists. Of the Sumatran Orang (P.
Abellii), the cabinets of Europe possess only adult female specimens,
and immature specimens both of the male and female, but not of the adult,
male ; but of the Bornean animal (P. Wurmbii), adult male specimens
enrich the Museums both of Leyden and Paris : there is, therefore, no
opportunity of comparing these with specimens of adult males from
Sumatra ; and it is only from a comparison of their crania that some
eminent naturalists have provisionally regarded the two animals as dis-
tinct, at the same time admitting that the differences in the character of
the skulls in question might depend upon sex or age, or be individual
variations ; for, as the skulls of the young confessedly differ so materially
from those of adults, so may a certain ratio of difference exist between
the skulls of the latter at various epochs of their mature condition, or
even characterize individuals specifically the same, inhabiting different
islands. Thus, according to Professor Owen, the cranium of the Bornean
Orang is distinguished by the more oblique plane of the orbits, whence
the line from the glabella to the incisor teeth is straight, instead of being
concave, as in the Sumatran animals; and the symphisis of the lower jaw
is proportionally deeper.

More recently (1838) M. Dumortier has given attention to the present
subject at issue ; and, having the means of comparing together sixteen
skulls, of various 'ages, has thrown a new light upon it. His unpretending,
yet valuable paper, entitled, Notice sur les Modifications du Crane de
I 'Orang-outang, was published at Brussels, and presents us with a sum-
mary of the modifications which the cranium assumes through six succes-
sive stages, from infancy to old age. The result of his researches is, that
both the presumed species of Orang are one. The extent of this change
may be appreciated by reference to the following sketch (fig. 264), of
which the original unpublished drawing was obligingly communicated by
Professor Owen. This figure represents, at a single view, the variation
in the form of the skull, and in the development of the muzzle, which

390

QUADRUMANA,

has taken place during the transition of the animal from adolescence to
maturity. 264

The skull of the Orang, in three stages, from infancy to maturity, exhibiting the gradual development of
the facial outline, and progressive change in the form of the cerebral portion.

The skull of the young Orang has a considerable resemblance to
that of the human subject. Not only does the volume of the cranium
preponderate over that of the face, but it is dignified with a tolerable
forehead. The jaws are comparatively moderate, and the teeth (deci-
duous) are small. The cranium is smooth, and regularly convex. But,
as maturity advances, and during the process of the second dentition,
the face becomes developed and protruded, the jaws expand, the lower
increasing amazingly in breadth, and the zygomatic arch alters in form,
and becomes stouter. The persistent teeth are large and strong, the
incisors are enormously thick, and the canines are of vast strength and
magnitude, constituting most formidable weapons. This development of
the face tends to throw back the forehead, — and the more so, as the
cavity of the cranium, instead of enlarging in a commensurate ratio,
scarcely increases at all after the acquisition of the first permanent
molars ; but its walls become thicker, and a bold ridge, commencing at
each external angular process of the temporal bone (or at the outside of
each orbit), passes obliquely upward, enclosing a smooth triangular por-
tion of the frontal bone : on the posterior margin of the frontal bone these
ridges, which, until complete maturity, do not coalesce, but remain sepa-
rate throughout all their extent, ultimately meet, and form an elevated
interparietal crest, as in carnivorous animals, betokening the vast
extent and power of the temporal muscles that act on the lower jaw. At

SIMIAD^. 391

the vertex this crest divides, and forms an occipital ridge, passing on each
side posteriorly to the lambdoidal suture, till it reaches the mastoid ridge.
The face increases in breadth by the still farther increase of the zygo-
matic arches, and presents, as Dumortier well observes, " les caracteres
de 1'abrutissement le plus complet." He adds, also, that the nail of the
hinder thumb, which, till now, had existed in a rudimentary condition,
completely disappears.

The preceding observations apply more exclusively to the male. In
the female the vertical ridges never coalesce, and are less elevated than in
the male ; nor do the zygomatic arches attain to such an enormous degree
of magnitude. The female, in short, according to the general laws of
sexual development, exhibits, in the skull, the characters of the male on
the eve of maturity, but not mature. It may be here remarked that M.
Dumortier regards the Pithecus Morio of Prof. Owen, as identical with the
Great Orang (P. Satyrus) in its fourth stage ; but he has subsequently
conceded this opinion ; and admits that it arose from his never having
examined the skull from which Prof. Owen derived his details. To
this skull there will again be occasion to allude. The latter anatomist,
speaking of the cranium of the Orang, states that, in all the peculiarities
independent of the changes consequent upon the second dentition, the skulls
of the young and mature animals agree : as for example, in the position
and number of the various foramena ; in the contraction of the inter-
orbital space ; in the absence of superciliary ridges ; the great breadth and
height of the rami of the lower jaw ; and the depth of the symphisis ;
together with the totally depressed condition of the nasal bone, which is of
an elongated triangular figure, having a ridge along its centre ; and the more
anterior aspect of the outer boundary of the orbits than in the Chim-
panzee. In the contracted forehead, the flattened occiput, the formidable
canines, the huge jaws, the strong, expanded, zygomatic arches, and largely
developed cranial crests, the skull of the Orang approximates to that of
the Mandrill. In the Mandrill, hftwever, the heavy beetling superciliary
ridges, which are wanting in the Orang, give a horribly scowling ex-
pression to the hollow sockets, which, orbless though they be, seem as
though fraught with revolting malignity.

But, setting aside the crania, it may be contended that the great Bor-
nean and Sumatran Orangs differ in other points ; that is, in external cha-
racters ; and that, upon these grounds, a specific distinctiveness may be
established. It is presumed to be only in the adult male of the Bornean
Orang that the large protuberances of callous flesh occur on the malar
bones, which call to mind the Sus larvatus, and give so strange an aspect
to the countenance. It should, however, be observed, that the adult male
Sumatran Orang remains to be examined ; at least, an opportunity of com-
paring the two together, preserved or alive, has not yet occurred. Both

392 QUADRUMANA.

in the Sumatran and the Bornean animals, the ungueal phalanx of the
hind thumb is sometimes absent, sometimes present, in both sexes. In
a specimen described by Camper, the thumb on one foot was perfect ;
on the other, destitute of the last joint ; and M. Temminck states
that he has examined six individuals, of different ages, all shot in
their natural state of freedom, without being able to discover the least
trace of a nail on the posterior thumbs ; a seventh individual, which he
had known in captivity, had a nail on the left posterior thumb, but not on
the right ; and two skeletons of young individuals which died in mena-
geries, and form part of the anatomical collection of the Museum of the
Pays Bas, have nails on both the posterior thumbs.

It has been asserted that the Bornean Pongo is furnished with
cheek-pouches, as well as with laryngal sacculi ; and the genus Pongo, of
Lacepede, is thus characterized ; but this is a palpable error.

It has farther been stated, that the Sumatran Pongo differs from
the Bornean, in being of a much lighter colour, namely, sandy rufous, and
also in great superiority of size : the description of specimens examined
by the Author of this work will prove how little reliance is to be placed
on the former distinction. With regard to the latter, some observations are
requisite. Five feet is assigned as the greatest height of the Bornean
Orang ; the male in the Paris Museum would not exceed four feet, if
placed in an upright attitude ; and the skeleton of an adult female, in
the Royal College of Surgeons, London, is only four feet one inch and
a half. According, however, to Dr. Abel, the male Orang killed at
Ramboom, on the north-west coast of Sumatra (the account of which
is in the Asiatic Res. vol. xv. 1826), exceeded seven feet. It is remark-
able, however, that the span of the arms and hands of this specimen
was only eight feet two inches, and the length of the foot, from the heel
to the end of the middle toe, fourteen inches. Now, in the specimen of
the Sumatran female, in the museum of the Zoological Society, the span
of the arms and hands is about seven feet two inches, and the length
of the foot, ten inches and a half; while the height of the animal, when
alive, could not have exceeded three feet six inches. In the specimen
of a young female Orang, from Sumatra, which the Author had an oppor-
tunity of examining (Oct. 1836), the length of which, from the top of
the head to the heel, was three feet seven inches and three quarters,
the span of the arms, across the chest, was six feet ; and the foot, from
the heel to the end of the middle toe, nine inches and three-quarters.

In this specimen, the incisors and canines were deciduary ; and, of the
four molars on each side, the two first were deciduary, the two last, per-
manent. The hind thumbs were destitute of the ungueal phalanx. The
feet, as already stated, measured, in the specimen described by Abel,
fourteen inches ; but, to shew that the Bornean Orang is as large, it may

SIMIAD^E. 393

be here noticed, that a pair of the hinder hands of an Orang, said to have
been brought from Borneo, in 1821, have been found to measure, in
length, fifteen inches and a quarter : these parts are described by Dr.
Harwood, in the Linn. Trans, vol. xv. ; and the absence of the nail of the
thumbs is particularly alluded to. If, then, the Ramboom Orang, described
by Dr. Abel, with hinder hands of fourteen inches, was seven feet high,
the individual from which these, measuring fifteen inches and a quarter,
were obtained, must have been still larger. It may, however, be con-
cluded, that some mistake respecting the stature of the Ramboom indi-
vidual must have taken place.* It cannot be denied, however, that the
Orang varies in size. Dr. Solomon Muller, after an absence from Europe
of fourteen years, spent in India and the islands of Borneo and Sumatra,
has lately returned to Germany, bringing home, among other valuable
acquisitions, several specimens of Bornean Orangs, none of which at all
equal the Sumatran specimen, as described by Dr. Abel ; though one, which
he procured, also, from Borneo, is of comparatively large admeasure-
ments. M. Temminck, in his Monograph of the genus recently published
(Monog. de Mamm. p. 119, 1835), says, " Our travellers inform us, by let-
ters from Banjarmasing (in the island of Borneo), that they have recently
procured others, of five feet three inches in height," French measure ; five
feet nine inches, English ; whereas the largest described by Temminck
(a male), is but four feet, French measure ; four feet four inches and three
quarters, English. A second male, but smaller, he adds, " has been
given to the Museum of Paris ;" — it is the same which the Author exa-
mined when at Paris, and it stands three feet eight inches. To what
these variations in size, among the Orangs confessedly from Borneo, are
to be attributed ; — at what period of existence they are thoroughly mature ;
— or whether, as with the human race, a difference of stature be permitted
to the species, within certain limits, are points yet to be ascertained. One
fact, however, seems clear, namely, that the Bornean and the Sumatran
animals attain to a similar magnitude.

The following descriptions were taken from various specimens which
the Author has personally examined.

1 . Characters of an adult, or nearly adult, male, from Borneo, in the
Paris Museum, which has been previously mentioned. The head is
large ; the forehead naked, retiring, and flat : large fleshy callosities, in the
form of elevated and somewhat crescentic ridges, occupy the malar bones,

* The span of the arms was eight feet two inches, and the chest was " broad and expanded;" and
the skin, from the top of the shoulder to the part where the ankle was removed, measured, according
to Dr. Abel, five feet ten inches. Now, as the fingers of the Orang reach to the ankle, it is evident
that the total length of each superior extremity must have measured as much, or nearly so : then, to
this, let one foot six inches be added, as the presumed breadth of the chest (an admeasurement too little),
and we shall find the span of the arms to be between twelve and thirteen feet, instead of eight feet two
inches ; so that the very statements given evidently contradict each other, and prove the fallacy of the
assertion as to the animal's stature.
VOL. I. 3E

394 QUADRUMANA.

extending from the temples, and giving a singular, and even hideous, ex-
pression to the physiognomy. The eyes are small, and set closely together ;
the rims of the orbits are prominent ; the nose is depressed ; the septum of
the nostrils thin, and carried out to blend with the skin of the upper lip ;
the nostrils are oblique ; the ears are small, and lie closely on the head ;
the lips are thick and fleshy, and the upper one is furnished with scanty
moustaches ; the chin is furnished with a long and peaked beard ; the
hair is very long and thick on the back, shoulders, arms, and legs ;
very scanty on the chest, the abdomen, the inside of the thighs, and the
anterior aspect of the humerus ; the hair of the fore-arms is reverted to
the elbow ; the hair of the head is directed forward, from a common
centre of radiation on the back of the neck, or, rather, between the shoul-
ders ; the contour of the body is heavy, thick, and ill-shapen ; the arms,
with the hands, reach to the heel ; the thumb of the hind feet is nail-less ;
the general colour is deep chestnut.

ft. in.

Total height of the animal, standing . . .; -».,"• .3 8
Breadth of face, across tuberosities . ,., . . + . . ,0 9

2. The following are the characteristics of a young female Orang, also
from Borneo (in the Museum, Paris), and presented, as was the above,
by the Royal Museum of Leyden.

The cheek callosities are wanting ; the colour is chestnut, paler than
in the the adult male ; the hind-thumb is furnished with a well-developed
nail.

3. Description of adult male, exhibited at one of the scientific meet-
ings of the Zoological Society.

The cheek callosities are large, and elevated in the form of a sub-
acute ridge ; the hind thumbs are destitute of nail ; the hair falls in large
masses on the back, and is a foot in length ; the arms, also, as well as
the lower extremities, are clothed with long hair ; the chest is thinly
clad ; the colour is mahogany brown, darkest on the back, but assuming
a redder tint on the arms.

ft. in.

Length from head to heel of extended specimen . . * ,. . 4 6
Ditto of arms from axilla to end of fingers . . ... 28

Breadth of face across callosities . . . . ' . j . 0 8|

4. The following is the description of an adult female from Sumatra,
in the museum of the Zoological Society (Collect. Rafflesian.), No. 2, in
Catalogue, 1838.

The general contour of the body is thick- set and robust ; the face, fore-
head, and ears are naked ; the sagittal crest is moderate ; the lambdoidal
crest more elevated ; the orbital margins are prominent ; the laryngal sac-
culi, extending to the cheeks, give the appearance of cheek-pouches, but

SIMIAD^E. 395

there is no vestige of cheek callosities ; the face is surrounded with long,
flowing hair, but no beard depends from the chin ; the hind thumbs are des-
titute of the ungueal phalanx ; the mammae are very apparent ; the hair
of the head is long, and directed forward, from a common centre of
radiation, in the nape of the neck, between the shoulders ; the hair on
the back, sides, and limbs is very full and long, being from eight to ten
inches in length, but on the inside of the thighs it is very scanty, and also
on the anterior aspect of the humerus (along the biceps muscle), as well
as on the chest and abdomen ; the colour is bright sandy rufous, with
a slight vinous tinge, and inclining to chestnut on the back.

ft. in.
Length of head and body . . . . . . • .26

Ditto thigh . . . .,,... . . . 0 lOf

Ditto from knee to heel ........ 1 1

Ditto of hand * • ,'-V • 0 6|

Ditto foot ;v «>•.•»«'» . . 0 10|

Reach of arms and hands across chest 72

Length of arm and hand . . . . .. . .211

5. Description of a female (young), presumed to have been brought
from Sumatra, lately living in the menagerie, Paris, and now preserved in
the Museum there.

In this specimen, the hinder thumbs are perfect, and furnished, each,
with a well-formed, neatly-rounded nail : the colour is palish sandy red
on the chest, a little deeper on the abdomen ; and chestnut red on the
head, on the exterior of the arms and of the lower limbs, and also on the
back. u . H

ft. in.

Length of head and body ..*.;; '......./: •* , • • 2 H

Ditto from groin to heel . . . » • • 1 OJ

Ditto from wrist to axilla . . . r .. , v. ,* . 1 5|

It still remains to notice an Orang to which reference has already
been made, and which has been announced, by Professor Owen, as
a distinct species, under the title of Simia Morio, though solely upon
characters derived from a unique skull in his possession. (See Proc.
Zool. Soc. Oct. 25th, 1836; and, also, Trans. Zool. Soc., 1838, c.
fig. cran.) This species will stand thus, in the present series of the
Quadrumana.

THE MORIO ORANG.

PITHECUS MORIO.
Simla Morio, OWEN, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1836, p. 92, and Trans. Zool. Soc. 1838, c. figuris cranii.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — External specific characters, unknown; size, much inferior to

that of the P. Satyrus.
LOCALITY. — Borneo.

396

QUADRUMANA,

265

The annexed figure (265) is a representation of the skull, on which
the distinctiveness of the species is founded ; and which, as is proved

by its state of dentition, belongs to an
adult, or, perhaps, aged animal ; though,
from the condition of its ridges, and
from its size and form, it might be
inferred that it belonged to an indivi-
dual of the Pithecus Satyrus, in an in-
termediate state of growth ; as, indeed,
was, at one time, the opinion of M.
Dumortier.

The teeth, however, of the skull in
question, all belong to the permanent
skuii of Morio Drang. series,* and are even considerably worn.

The intermaxillary sutures are obliterated ; and the great temporal
ridges indicate the extent of the temporal muscle, the interval between
them, on the crown, being small. The frontal and sagittal crests, so re-
markable both in the Bornean and Sumatran Orangs, are here merely
indicated ; and though the lambdoidal and mastoid ridges are developed,
they are less so than in those animals ; the situation of the occipital
foramen is less posterior than in them, but more so than in the Chimpan-
zee ; the proportion between the volume of the face and the cerebral
portion of the skull is more anthropoid than in either of the Great
Orangs ; the cranium, equal in capacity to that of the Sumatran Orang,
rises above the orbits ; while the face, instead of projecting to the great
extent seen in the other Orangs, when adult, is far less voluminous and
prominent, presenting, therefore, a more obtuse angle ; and, with this
diminished facial development is connected a marked inferiority in the
magnitude of the canine teeth. -f

* " The teeth in the jaws of a quadrumanous cranium may be known to belong to the permanent
series, by the absence of the foramina, which, in an immature cranium, are situated behind the deci-
duous teeth, and which lead to the cavities containing the crowns of the permanent teeth. This
character is very conspicuous on comparing the cranium of Simia Morio with that of a young Simia
Satyrus, in which the deciduous series are present, together with the first permanent molars. The
deciduous teeth in the young Orang, besides their smaller size, are more or less protruded from their
sockets, and thrust apart from one another by the vis a tergo of their huge successors, while the
teeth of the S. Morio are lodged firmly in the jaws ; and, with the exception of the characteristic
interval between the canines and incisors, are compactly arranged in close contiguity with each
other."— Prof. Owen, Proc. ZooL Soc. Oct. 25th, 1836.

t " The main and characteristic difference, then, between the Simia Morio and the Pongo, whether
of Borneo or Sumatra, obtains in the size of the laniary, or canine teeth, to the smaller development
of which, in the S. Morio, almost all the other differences in the cranium are subordinate or conse-
quent. The laniary teeth, it may be observed, have little relation to the kind of food habitual to the
Orangs ; had they been so related, they would have been accompanied with a structure of the glenoid
cavity fitting them, as in the true Carnivora, to retain a living prey in their gripe, till its life was extin-
guished, or resistance effectually quelled. But the flattened surfaces on which the condyles of the
lower jaw rotate, are in subserviency to the flattened tuberculate molars, shewing the mastication
of vegetable substances to be the habitual business of the jaws, and the application of the laniaries to

THE ORANG-OUTAN (ADULT MALE).
(Pitbccus Satyrus. Gcofl.)

SIMIAD.«. 397

GENERAL HISTORY. — As nothing is known of the Pithecus Morio,
and but little of the adults of the large Pongo, whether of Borneo or
Sumatra, all details must necessarily be general, rather than particular.
The organization of the Orang renders him far more unfitted than the
Chimpanzee for progression on the ground ; and, consequently, more
exclusively arboreal. Among the mighty forests of his native climate
only, he is free and unembarrassed ; the vast reach of his sinewy arms
enabling him to seize branches at an apparently hopeless distance; the
long grasp of the hands and feet, and their gigantic strength, combining to
qualify him pre-eminently for His destined situation. Added to this, the
shortness of his thick-set body ; and, especially, the still more remarkable
abbreviation of the inferior extremities, their inward tournure, and their
freedom, tend yet farther to his advantage. The great length and narrowness
of the hands and feet render them hook-like in character ; while the short
266 267 thumbs (see the annexed figures, 266

267) have a backward situation, so as
to act as a fulcrum against the pres-
sure of the fingers while grasping
the branch to which the animal may

Hand of Oranjf. Foot of Orang. 1 i • " TM- 11 * • A. ' '

be clinging. The ankle-joint is re-
markably free ; the foot exceeeds, in length, the tibia (or leg) ; and its
thumb (sometimes perfect, sometimes destitute of the ungueal phalanx),
divaricates from the edge of the sole at a right angle. The power of the
adductor muscles of the thumb is extraordinary ; but as the fingers, in
grasping a branch, are brought round, and only meet its apex, this, though
it certainly acts as a firm opponent, or fulcrum, against which they may
bear, cannot overlap them, and, in this manner, fortify their grasp, as
does the thumb in the human hand : see the following sketch (fig. 268),
displaying the muscles and tendons of the soles of the foot. In this
figure, the direction and volume of the adductor muscles of the thumb,
qualifying it for close and firm application to objects grasped, are very
conspicuous ; as are also the strength of the tendons, and the magnitude

be occasional and, probably, defensive, in most cases. We perceive the utility of formidable canine
teeth to the Orangs, whose stature makes them conspicuous, and of easy detection, to a carnivorous
enemy ; such weapons, in connexion with the general muscular strength of the Pongos, enable them
to offer a successful defence against the Leopard, and may render them formidable opponents even to
the Tiger ; but in the smaller species, which we have been describing, to which concealment would
be easier, the canines are of relatively smaller size, and those of the lower jaw are so placed as to be
worn down by the lateral incisors of the upper jaw ; they were reduced in the specimen described,
to the level of the other teeth ; and the points of the upper canines were also much worn. The
size, forms, and proportions of the teeth, which relate more immediately to the food of the Orangs,
viz., the molars and incisors, shew, indisputably, that the Simia Morio derives its sustenance from the
same kind of food as the larger Orangs. The singular thickness, or antero-posterior diameter of the
incisors, which are worn down to a flattened surface, like molar teeth, shews that they are put to
rough work ; and it is probable that their common use is to tear and scrape away the tough fibrous
outer covering of the cocoa-nut; and, perhaps, to gnaw through the denser shell."— Professor Owen,
in Proc. Zool. Soc., 1836.

QUADRUMANA.

of the. flexor muscles of the fingers ; the whole of the muscular struc-
ture, indeed, is such as to render the foot a most vigorous organ of
prehension.

Dissected foot of Orang.

The conditions of the posterior limbs and feet of the Orang, which
render the animal so free among the trees, produce the very opposite
effect when on the level ground. Here the Orang is awkward, con-
strained, and vacillating in his movements. Instead of resting fairly on
the soles of the feet, as the Chimpanzee does, he treads on their external
edge, doubling up the fingers, as if the instinctive impulse to grasp could
not be overcome, and the limbs are bowed, like those of a cripple, be-
neath him ; leaning forward upon his knuckles, the arms acting like
crutches, he swings the body forward between them, raising the legs
for that purpose, and replacing them on the ground again, only in order
to advance the arms for the next effort. This, however, is not his
exclusive mode of progression. He can walk on the hind limbs
alone, touching the ground with his knuckles, first on one side and then
on the other, partly to give impulse to his movements, and partly to
keep his body balanced. Sometimes, also, he elevates the arms, throw-
ing them back as a counterpoise to the forward inclination of the body,
whilst he waddles briskly along. This attitude, however, cannot be long
sustained.

The physiognomy of the Orang, of which figure 269 is characteristic,
is grave, melancholy, and even apathetic ; but, in the adults, not unaccom-
panied by an expression of ferocity ; the huge callous protuberances on the
sides of the face adding an air of brutish grossness. The head leans
forward on the chest ; the neck is short ; and loose, folded] skin hangs
round the throat, except when the extensive laryngal air-sacks are in-
flated ; this loose skin is then swollen out, like a naked, shining tumour,
extending up along the sides of the face, under the small angular ears,
filling up the interspace between the chin and chest, and encroaching upon
the latter ; the lips are wrinkled, and possess extraordinary mobility ;
the animal can protrude them in the form of a snout, or proboscis, con-
tracting the mouth to a circular orifice, or, on the contrary, draw them
back, or turn them in various directions ; the breadth of the chest and

SIMIADJ5,

399

Head of male Orang.

shoulders conveys an idea of great strength ; the abdomen is very pro-
tuberant ; the hair, which falls on the back and shoulders, in loose, long
masses, forms a covering to the animal crouching in repose ; necessary as
a protection, by day, against the burning rays of the sun, — by night,
against the heavy dews, and also as a shelter to the body during the
rainy seasons : the palms of the hands have the same lines and papillae
as in the human subject. All the naked parts of the body, with the
exception of the orbits and lips, are of a silvery grey.

As in the case of the Chimpanzee, our knowledge of the habits of
the adult Orang, in a state of nature, is very limited. It tenants the
secluded recesses of the forests, which cover the hilly districts in the
interior of the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, where it is much dreaded
by the native tribes of those unpenetrated regions, with whom we are
as little acquainted as with the adult Orang itself. From what can be
ascertained, it appears that the Orang is not gregarious, like the Chim-
panzee ; nor does it build huts ; but, in accordance with its arboreal
predilections, it constructs arbours among the top branches of the highest
trees, with a covering of leaves and twigs, in which it takes up its abode.

Each male is said to appropriate to himself a certain extent of forest
territory, and jealously to protect his empire from the encroachments of
a rival. Here, in solitary seclusion, he will sit, as is said, for hours
together, in listless apathy, in his arbour, his habitual dwelling-place.

400 QUADRUMANA.

Unless when roused, his movements are slow and indolent ; but, when at-
tacked, he performs the most astonishing feats among the forest branches ;
and if at last driven to extremity, he defends himself with determined reso-
lution. His bodily powers are prodigious ; and his prowess and activity
are strikingly exemplified by Dr. Abel's narrative of the death of the
individual killed at Ramboom, to which we have already alluded.

A boat's crew having landed to procure water, at a place called Ram-
boom, on the north-west coast of Sumatra, where there were but few
trees, they discovered, on one of them, a gigantic animal of the Monkey
tribe. On their approach, he came to the ground, and when pursued,
sought refuge in another tree at some distance, exhibiting, as he moved,
the appearance of a tall, man-like figure, covered with shining, brown
hair. On being driven to a small clump of trees, he gained, by one
spring, a very lofty branch ; and so rapidly did he bound from one bough
to another, that, had the country been covered with wood, it would have
been almost impossible to have prevented his escape. Even among the
few trees that were on the spot, his movements were so quick that it was
very difficult to obtain a settled aim at him ; and it was only by cutting
down one tree after another, thus confining him within a very limited
range, that his pursuers were ultimately enabled to destroy him. Having
received five balls, his exertions relaxed, and reclining, apparently ex-
hausted, on one of the branches of a tree, he vomited a considerable
quantity of blood. The ammunition of the hunters being by this time
expended, they were obliged to fell the tree in order to obtain possession
of their victim, and did this in full confidence that his power was so far
gone that they could secure him without further trouble ; but they were
astonished, as the tree was falling, to see him effect his retreat to. another,
with apparently undimished vigour. In fact, they were obliged to cut
down all the trees before they could drive him to combat his enemies on
the ground, against whom he still exhibited surprising strength and
agility ; until, at length, he was overpowered by numbers, and destroyed
by the thrusts of spears and the blows of stones and other missiles.
When nearly in a dying state he seized a spear, made of a supple wood,
which the strongest man could not have broken, and shivered it to pieces.
Those who assisted to destroy this fine animal, have stated, that the
human-like expression of his countenance, and piteous manner of placing
his hands over his wounds, distressed their feelings, and almost made
them question the nature of the act they were committing. (See Asiatic
Researches, vol. xv. p. 489.)

Respecting animals of such high interest, and of which so little is
really known, every authentic fact that tends to illustrate any trait of their
habits or disposition, is doubly valuable. For this reason, the following
account of the destruction of another specimen, in the same locality, is

SIMIAD^E. 401

added, as it beautifully and incontestably proves the strong affection of
the species for their offspring. A few years since, Captain Hull repaired
to Sumatra, purposely to obtain one of these animals ; but, at his outset,
he experienced a serious obstacle, in the difficulty of procuring guides to
conduct him to their usual haunts : this proceeded from the superstitious
fears of the natives, who not only believe that the Orangs, whom they
call Mawys, possess a natural dominion over the great forests, but that
they are animated by the souls of their own ancestors. Succeeding, at
length, in this preliminary part of the undertaking, the Captain soon met
with one of the objects of his search, a female, which he describes as
having been five feet in height. When first discovered, she was sitting
on a branch of one of the highest trees, with a young one in her arms.
Upon being wounded, she uttered a piercing cry ; and immediately lifting
up her little one as high as her long arms would reach, let it go among
the topmost branches. While the party approached to fire again, she
made no attempt to escape, but kept a steady watch, glancing her eye
occasionally toward her offspring, and at last seemed to wave her hand
to hasten its departure, which it safely effected. (Brewster's Edinburgh
Journal, vol. vi. p. 161.)

We are informed, by Le Compte, that in Borneo it is a favourite
amusement of the native princes and nobility to hunt these Apes, as Stags
are hunted in Europe.

Gemelli Careri* (Voyage du Tour du Monde, traduit de Vltalien
de Gemelli Careri, par L. M. N., &c. Paris, 1719) says, that he has
seen one which would weep like a child, and that it walked on its hind
limbs, and carried its mat under its arm to lie down upon and sleep.
He adds, that these Apes appear to have more sense, in some respects,
than Men ; for, when they no longer find fruits on the mountains, they go
to the sea-shore, where they catch Crabs, Oysters, and the like. There is
a sort of Oyster, called Taclovo, which weighs many pounds, and which
often lies open on the beach ; but the Ape, fearing to be caught by the
hand, when it commences its attack, introduces a piece of stone between
the shells, so as to prevent their closing, when it demolishes the Oyster
without fear.

D'Obsonville communicated to Buffon an account of a male adult
Orang, four feet six inches in height, which he had an opportunity of
seeing about two months after its capture : it is described as evincing, in
the expression of its countenance, and the sound of its voice, inquietude,
listlessness, pain, and impatience. He was informed, by the natives, that
these animals pine in confinement, and soon die.

According to M. Relian, a surgeon, resident at Batavia (who informs
us that M. Palavicini, in 1759, took two living adult Orangs, a male and

* Careri visited Turkey, Persia, Hindostan, China, the Philippine Islands, &c.

402 QUADRUMANA.

female, on board ship, intending to bring them to Europe), these animals,
to judge by the individuals referred to, are very bashful ; insomuch
that the female, when earnestly gazed at, would throw herself into the
arms of the male, and hide her face in his breast. He adverts to their
intelligence, so different from instinct, which, together with their actions,
has gained for them the name of Wild Men : and he adds, that they are
said to be found in the inaccessible mountains of Java, but are most
abundant in Borneo.

The Orang, in a very immature condition, has been imported into
Europe far more frequently than the Chimpanzee. The first living spe-
cimen, of which we have any record, was that which belonged to the
Prince of Orange, in 1776. It was brought from Borneo, and was figured
and described by Tulpius. (Obs. Med. 1. iii.) Vosmaer, also, gave an
account of it.

It was a female, two and a half Flemish feet in height ; gentle, fond
of human society, active and intelligent. Its usual mode of walking
was on all fours ; but it could walk on its hind feet alone. As the
winter came on, its hair, which was previously scanty, except on its
back and arms, increased in length and thickness ; its colour was of a
chestnut red. The skin of the face was mouse-coloured, passing into
dull flesh about the eyes and mouth. It lived seven months in Holland.

In 1808, a young female Orang was brought to Paris, by M. Decaen,
an officer in the French navy. M. F. Cuvier, who described it, and
recorded its habits and manners, notices particularly the mobility of
its lips ; its perpetual use of the sense of smell, as a test by which to
judge of the qualities of articles of food with which it was previously
unacquainted ; the indiscriminate nature of its diet, but its preference
for bread, coffee, and oranges ; its jealousy toward children, whom it
.was disposed to strike and bite; its otherwise affectionate and social
disposition ; its sudden fits of anger, during which it would roll on the
ground, uttering loud and harsh yells ; and its mode, when on the
branches of a tree, of shaking them violently on the attempt of a pursuer
to mount after it. He also mentions, as proofs of its intelligence, that,
when it could not manage to fill the spoon properly with food, it would
hand the instrument to some one, with an expression that well conveyed
its meaning. It drank from a glass, holding it in both hands ; and, on one
occasion, having replaced the glass on the table, but perceiving that it
was in danger of being thrown over, the animal put its hand under the
glass, so as to prevent it from falling ; thus evidently shewing that it was
not only aware of the consequence, but, likewise, of the means of pre-
venting it. To this is added an account of the animal's care in ad-
justing its bed ; and in covering itself up warmly, with blankets and other
materials, when retiring to rest. Its fondness for two kittens is also

SIMIAD.E. 403

mentioned ; which, notwithstanding the pain of their scratches, it per-
sisted in placing upon its head: the propensity to put things on its
head was very marked ; whatever it got hold of, was treated in this
manner. On board ship, during its passage to France, the motion of
the vessel rendered it timid, or distrustful of its own powers ; and it
was not until its owner, to whom it was strongly attached, had set it the
example, and induced it to follow, that it would venture to ascend the
rigging. On the whole, its docility, gentleness, and intelligence were of
a high order ; in which respects it agrees with the individuals which the
Author has had opportunities of observing.

In the year 1817, a young male Bornean Orang, procured by Dr. Abel,
at Java, was brought to London, and survived his importation from the
August of that year to April, 1819 ; during which period he was in the
custody of Mr. Cross, at Exeter 'Change. His height, from the crown
of the head to the heel, was two feet seven inches ; his hair was of a
brownish red ; on the back six inches long, and on the arms five. On
his first arrival, the breast and abdomen were nearly naked, but subse-
quently became covered with hairs ; the face had no hair, except at the
sides, somewhat in the manner of whiskers, and a very thin beard ; the
head, viewed in front, was pear-shaped, the cranium being much the
larger end ; the eyes were close together, oval, and of a dark brown ;
the eyelids fringed with lashes; the nose was confluent with the face,
except at the nostrils, which were a little elevated ; nares, narrow and
oblique ; lips, narrow ; the chin was less projecting than the mouth ;
below it, a pendulous membrane gave the appearance of a double chin,
and swelled out when the animal was angry or much pleased ; the pre-
vailing colour of the skin, beneath the hair, was bluish grey ; the eyelids
and margin of the mouth, light copper-colour ; the inside of the hands
and feet, deeper copper ; and two copper-coloured strips extended from
the arm-pits down each side of the body.

His progression on a flat surface was accomplished by placing his bent
fists on the ground, and drawing his body between his arms ; thus resem-
bling a person decrepit in the legs, supported on stilts. He was utterly
incapable of walking in a perfectly erect posture : he betrayed this in his
whole exterior conformation, and never, willingly, attempted to counteract
its tendency : his head leaning forward, and forming a considerable angle
with the back, threw the centre of gravity so far beyond the perpendicular,
that his arms, like the fore-legs of other animals, were required to support
the body. So difficult, indeed, was it for him to keep the upright position
for a few seconds, under the direction of his keeper, that he was compelled,
in the performance of his task, to elevate his arms above his head, and
to throw them behind him, to secure his balance.

While resting on a flat surface, the animal turned his legs under him.

404 QUADRUMANA.

When sitting on the branch of a tree, or on a rope, he rested on his heals,
with his body leaning forward against his thighs.

The following is the substance of the account given by Dr. Abel, of this
animal's habits and manners, while resident in Java, and during the voyage
thence to England. (Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, <^c.)
He neither practised the grimaces and antics of Monkeys, nor displayed
their perpetual proneness to mischief. Gravity, approaching to melancholy,
and mildness, were sometimes strongly expressed in his countenance, and
appeared to be the characteristics of his disposition. When among
strangers, he would sit for hours with his hand upon his head, looking pen-
sively at all around him ; and, if much incommoded by their examination,
he would hide himself beneath any covering that was at hand. He dis-
played much forbearance under injuries, but avoided those by whom he
had been often teased. To the persons who treated him with kindness he
soon became much attached : he was fond of sitting beside them ; and,
getting as close as possible to their persons, would take their hands
between his lips. But, though usually gentle, he was susceptible of being
excited to great rage, which he expressed by opening his mouth, dis-
playing his teeth, and seizing and biting those who were near him.
On being confined in a bamboo cage, he grasped the rails, and violently
endeavoured to break them ; finding they did not yield generally, he
tried them separately ; and, discovering one weaker than the rest, worked
at it constantly, until he succeeded in breaking it, and so making his
escape. He was always very impatient for food, and became passionate
if it were not soon supplied. " Sometimes," says Dr. Abel, " I fastened
an orange to the end of a rope, and lowered it to the deck from the
mast-head, and, as soon as he attempted to seize it, drew it rapidly up :
after being several times foiled in endeavouring to obtain it by direct
means, he altered his plan : appearing to care but little about it, he would
remove to some distance, and ascend the rigging very leisurely for some
time, and then, by a sudden spring, catch the rope which held it. If de-
feated again, by my suddenly jerking the rope, he would, at first, seem
quite in despair, relinquish his effort, and rush about the rigging, scream-
ing violently : but he would always return ; and, again seizing the rope,
disregard the jerk, and allow it to run through his hand till within reach
of the orange ; but, if again foiled, would come to my side, and, taking
me by the arm, confine it whilst he hauled the orange up." Sometimes
he seemed to be almost driven to desperation ; and, on two or three occa-
sions, committed an act that, in a human being, might have been denomi-
nated a threat of suicide. If repeatedly refused an orange, he would
shriek violently, and swing furiously about the rigging ; then return, and
endeavour once more to obtain the fruit : if again refused, roll for some
time, like an angry child, on the deck ; and, at length, suddenly starting up,

SIMIAD.E. 405

rush over the side of the ship. When he first did this, it was thought
that he had thrown himself into the sea ; but, on search being made, he
was found concealed under the chains.

One of his favourite amusements consisted in romping with. the boys
of the ship. He would entice them to play, by striking them with his
hand as they passed, then bound from them, but allow them to overtake
him, and engage in a mock scuffle with them, in which he used his hands,
feet, and mouth. " If any conjecture could be formed," our author
remarks, " from these frolics, of his mode of attacking an adversary, it
would appear to be his first object to throw him down, then to secure him
with his hands and feet, and then wound him with his teeth."

He took but little notice of some small Monkeys that were on board,
while under observation ; but, when such was not the case, there was
reason to suspect him of being less indifferent to their society. On one
occasion Dr. Abel was called to the top-gallant yard of the mizen mast,
to watch him playing with a young male. Lying on his back, and partly
beneath a sail, the Orang for some time contemplated, with much gravity,
the gambols of the other, while bounding over him ; but, at length, caught
the Monkey by the tail, and tried to envelop him in his (the Orang's) own
covering. " The Monkey seemed to dislike the confinement, and broke
from him ; but again renewed its gambols ; and, although frequently
caught, always escaped. The intercourse, however, between them did not
seem to be that of equals ; for the Orang-outang never condescended to
romp with the Monkey as he did with the boys of the ship." Once, he
openly attempted to throw a cage, containing three Monkeys, overboard ;
because, probably, it was suggested, he had seen them receive food, of
which he had failed to obtain a share.

He displayed great alarm at the sight of some live Turtles : climbing,
with all possible speed, to a higher part of the ship than he had ever
before reached, he looked down upon them, projecting his long lips into
the form of a Hog's snout, uttering at the same time a sound which, our
author says, " might be described as between the croaking of a Frog and
the grunting of a Pig." After some time he ventured to descend, but with
much caution, peeping continually at the Turtles ; but could not be induced
to approach within many yards of them. He ran to an equal height, and
uttered similar sounds, on seeing some men bathing and splashing in the
sea ; and, subsequently to his arrival in England, displayed a degree of fear
at the sight of a Tortoise.

His food, while in Java, consisted chiefly of fruit, particularly man-
gostans, of which he was excessively fond. On board ship his diet was
miscellaneous : he sucked eggs, which he often employed himself in seek-
ing, with voracity ; ate readily of all kinds of meat, especially of raw ; and
was also very fond of bread ; but always preferred fruit, when he could

406 QUADRUMANA.

obtain it. In Java, his drink was water ; but on board ship it was no less
diversified than his food. He was more partial to coffee and tea than
any other beverage ; " but," says Dr. Abel, "would readily take wine;
and exemplified his attachment to spirits by stealing the captain's brandy
bottle." After his arrival in London, he drank wine and other liquors ;
but, in preference to them, or anything else, beer and milk. From the
boatswain of the Alceste, who shared his meals with him, although he
sometimes purloined the grog and biscuit of his benefactor, he learned to
eat with a spoon ; and might be often seen sitting at his cabin door,
enjoying his coffee, quite unembarrassed by those who observed him,
and with a grotesque and sober air, that seemed a burlesque on human
nature.

He slept, while at Java, in a large tamarind-tree, where he had
" formed a bed, by intertwining the small branches and covering them with
leaves." He retired to rest at sunset, or even earlier if he had been well
fed, and rose at sunrise, to visit those from whom he was accustomed to
receive food. In the day-time he would lie with his head projecting
beyond his nest, watching those who passed below ; and, on perceiving any
one with fruit, he would descend, for the purpose of obtaining a share of
it. On board ship he commonly slept in a sail, at the mast-head. He
took the greatest pains to remove anything that would render the surface
on which he intended to repose uneven, then spread out the sail, placed
himself on his back upon it, and drew the sides over his body. " Some-
times," says Dr. Abel, " I pre-occupied his bed, and teased him by
refusing to give it up : on these occasions he would endeavour to pull the
sail from under me, or to force me from it, and would not rest until I had
resigned it. If it was large enough for both, he would quietly lie by my
side. If all the sails happened to be set, he would hunt about for some
other covering, and either steal one of the sailors' jackets or shirts, that
happened to be drying, or empty a hammock of its blankets. Off the
Cape of Good Hope he suffered much from a low temperature, especially
early in the morning, when he would descend from the mast, shudder-
ing with cold, and, running up to any one of his friends, climb into their
arms, and, clasping them closely, derive warmth from their persons,
screaming violently at any attempt to remove him."

His agility and strength were remarkable. At Java, his favourite
amusement consisted in passing from tree to tree, swinging from their
branches, and climbing over the roofs of houses. On board ship the
sailors often chased him about the rigging : at first starting, he would
endeavour to outstrip his pursuers by mere speed ; but, when much pressed,
he would seize a loose rope, and swing out of their reach. On some occa-
sions he would wait on the shrouds, or at the mast-head, until his pursuers
approached almost near enough to touch him, when he would bound along

407

the mainstays from one mast to another, swinging by his hands, which he
moved one above the other ; or suddenly lower himself to the deck by any
rope that was near him. When playful, he would sometimes swing within
arm's length of his pursuer, strike him with his hand, and swing away
again. " The men," our author says, " would often shake the ropes by
which he clung with so much violence as to make me fear his falling ;
but I soon found that the power of his muscles could not be easily over-
come." He was in the habit of chasing Dr. Abel himself, for the pur-
pose of obtaining from his pockets, when caught, sweetmeats or fruit.
" Sometimes," he observes, " I endeavoured to evade him by ascend-
ing to the mast-head ; but was always overtaken, or intercepted in my
progress. When he came up with me on the shrouds, he would secure
himself by one foot to the rattling, and confine my legs with the other
and one of his hands, whilst he rifled my pockets. If he found it im-
possible to overtake me, he would climb to a considerable height on the
loose rigging, and then drop suddenly upon me ; or if, perceiving his in-
tention, I attempted to descend, he would slide down a rope and meet
me at the bottom of the shrouds." An attempt having been made, soon
after he was brought on board ship, to secure him by means of a chain
fastened to a strong staple, he instantly unfastened it and ran away, drag-
ging it behind him, until finding himself embarrassed by its length, he
coiled it once or twice, and threw it across his shoulder. " This feat
he often repeated ; and, when he found that it would not remain on his
shoulder, he took it into his mouth."

After his arrival in England he learned to walk upright, or, rather, on
his feet, unsupported by his hands ; and, also, to kiss his keeper. Dr.
Abel states, " I have before remarked with how much difficulty he
accomplished the first ; and may add, that a well-trained dancing-dog
would far surpass him in the imitation of the human posture."

In 1830, a young male Bornean Orang (presented by G. Swinton,
Esq.) lived a short time in the menagerie of the Zoological Society,
London. Its habits on ship-board were represented as being very similar
to those detailed by Dr. Abel. It is of this individual that the anatomy
is given in the Proceedings Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 28, et seq. The prepared
skin is in the museum of the Society (No. 3, in Catalogue, 1838). In
1832, a female (alluded to as the companion of the Chimpanzee) was pur-
chased by Mr. Cross, from whom it passed into the possession of Mr.
Wombwell. It was brought from China, but its native locality was not
decidedly ascertained. The fracture of one of the thighs, occasioned by
some accident, put an untimely period to its existence.

In the same year a male Orang was received into the Tower mena-
gerie. This individual was brought direct from Borneo, by Captain
Blair, who had shot the mother and captured her offspring, when the latter

408 . QUADRUMANA.

was, probably, but a few months old. With the usual quiet, and even
melancholy deportment, of his race, he combined a playful spirit, and was
affectionate and good-tempered ; but he disliked to be left alone, and was
fond of being nursed and caressed. He did not long survive his importa-
tion to our island.

In January, 1838, the menagerie of the Zoological Society of London
was enriched by the acquisition of a young female Orang ; but whether
from Borneo or Sumatra could not be ascertained. On its first arrival,
its height was two feet two inches ; but it afterward grew considerably.

The following notes respecting its habits were made by the Author, a
few weeks after its introduction to its new domicile. All, who have had
opportunities of observing the Orang on the ground, record its slow and
vacillating mode of progression — a motion dependant rather on the arms,
which, from their length, act as crutches, supporting the body between
them, than upon the hinder limbs, which are ill calculated for such service.
Thus, when left entirely to itself on the floor, this little inmate of the
Zoological Gardens, if incited to walk, supported its weight on its arms,
applying the bent knuckles to the ground ; and so long were the arms
that it stooped far less, in this attitude, than did the Chimpanzee : in-
deed, it was very nearly erect ; the hinder limbs were, at the same time,
bowed outward ; and the outer side, rather than the sole of the foot, was
placed upon the floor. Thus supported, it waddled along, the movements
of its hinder limbs resembling those of a rickety child, just able to walk
alone : it was plain that the arms had the most to do in this exercise :
often, indeed, and that the more especially when it wished to move
quickly (as when following its keeper), it fairly swung the body forward
between the arms, as if impatient of the hobbling gait to which the
structure of its lower limbs restricted it. That its lower limbs, however,
with slight assistance, were not incapable of supporting the body, and
that it could waddle along very fairly, using these alone, was repeatedly
witnessed. For instance, it would walk, at a tolerable pace, compara-
tively speaking, by the side of a person holding it by the hand ; and in
the narrow space between the outside railing and the front bars of the
Giraffe's house (the apartment in which it was kept), it walked with
great facility, availing itself of the railing on one side, and the edge of
the elevated floor on the other, along which it ran its hands by way of
steadying itself. In the Giraffe's house it had an inclosure, or large
cage of its own, railed off from the rest of the apartment by a
fence-work of bamboos. Here were two artificial trees, with numerous
branches, among which it might climb at pleasure. Remembering
the activity and the merry antics of the Chimpanzee, we expected to see
far more liveliness and celerity in the climbing movements of this
little Orang than were displayed. It was, it is true, perfectly at its ease,

409

and confident of its security. Sometimes it would suspend itself by the
hand and foot of the same side, the head hanging down, and the dis-
engaged hand playing with various articles within its reach ; sometimes it
would swing with the body horizontally, and in this attitude the hip-joint of
the hinder limb in use was bent at a right angle, laterally, shewing how
freely the head of the thigh-bone rotates in its socket. Still, however,
though its attitudes were as varied as can be imagined, its actions were slow
and deliberate ; excepting, indeed, on one or two occasions, when it wished
to follow its keeper, who had opened the door of its cage : even then,
it did not bound from branch to branch like a Monkey, but, stretching out its
arms, and grasping the branches within its reach, it swung itself onward, and
so descended to the floor, along which it hobbled awkwardly and unsteadily.
One thing, as respects both the hands and feet of this Orang, could not
be overlooked; namely, that their mode of application to the branches,
during the arboreal evolutions of the animal, was hook-like ; and, from the
power of the adductor muscles of the thumb, and flexor muscles of the
fingers, tenacious and enduring, rather than tight and fixed. This observa-
tion is especially applicable to the feet: in these, the shortness of the
thumb, though capable in itself of firm and close application, renders it
rather a fulcrum, against which the long fingers oppose their stress, than,
by folding upon them, an adjunct to them in the act of prehension; and
hence, though admirably fitted for the movements of the animal among the
trees of the forest, and the kind of hold necessary for freedom and security,
the foot of the Orang is, perhaps, less energetic in its grasp than that of
the semi-arboreal Chimpanzee, in which the hind thumb is proportionately
longer, and the foot broader, than in the Orang. At all events, it was in
this manner that the young Orang used both its hands and feet ; its fingers
forming hooks, suspended by which, it could swing backward and forward
with the greatest facility, secure in the unyielding power of their muscles.
The observations of M. Fred. Cuvier, respecting the progressive movements
of the Orang, as noticed by himself, agree very closely with those which an
attention to the habits of the present living animal have suggested. (See
Annales du Museum, torn, xvi.)

Though this animal was naturally and habitually dull and inanimate,
it had its times of sportiveness, when it readily engaged in play with those
to whom it was attached, following them to court their notice, or pursuing
them in mimic combat. Perhaps, indeed, there was a latent disposition in
it to attack those whom it deemed itself capable of overcoming. A young
gentleman pretended to be afraid, and retreated gradually before it,
whereon it perseveringly followed him for a considerable period, and gave
chase to him completely round the apartment ; but, when it found its
efforts vain, it waddled to its keeper, whom it evidently regarded as its
protector, and to whom it manifested the utmost attachment. The

VOL. I. 3 G

410 QUADRUMANA.

next moment it suffered him to approach it, and take it by the hand,
without the least sign of displeasure. One of its favourite attitudes
was to sit " a la Turque," in a low chair, or on the floor before the
fire, with a blanket wrapped comfortably around it, and which it
arranged without assistance, drawing it over the shoulders and around the
body. Thus at ease, it would remain, if its keeper were near, without any
change, regardless of all that passed around ; for, unlike the lively, inqui-
sitive Chimpanzee, which was interested in all about it, and fond of
seizing everything with child-like eagerness, it seemed to take but little
interest in the novelties on every side. The sight of the Giraffes, on its
first introduction to them, excited neither surprise nor fear. It, how-
ever, tried, occasionally, to lay hold of a Giraffe's nose, as it bent its long
neck over the rails of the enclosure, and lowered its head toward the
Orang, attracted by the food in its hand ; but, in general, it took not the
slightest notice of them, though, from time to time, their necks were
arched above it. Like its unfortunate predecessor, the Chimpanzee, it
recognised its name, and obeyed the command of its keeper ; and it
would frequently wrap itself up in the blanket at his bidding, and seat
itself in its chair. If, however, he moved to a distance, it immediately
followed. The only instance of curiosity, which it manifested on ordinary
occasions, was to examine the pockets of its keeper, in search of bread, or
some article of diet ; but it seemed to be incited by no spirit of inquisitive-
ness. A bystander put a cane, or slender walking stick, into its hand ; it
held the stick listlessly, gently applied its teeth as if to try its texture,
and easily relinquished it, neither playing with it, nor appearing disposed
to retain it. Fond as it was of its keeper, it received his attentions with less
apparent pleasure than the Chimpanzee did under similar circumstances.
On purpose to incite it to a game of romps, he frequently played with it
as with a child, and tickled it in various places about the side and chest,
rousing it into momentary mirth: its face at that time assumed the
expression of laughter ; it grinned with evident pleasure, its eyes twinkled,
and it uttered a half-suppressed, feeble sort of noise, with less, however,
of the "chuckle" in it — less decidedly laughter -like — than were the
tones uttered by the Chimpanzee under like treatment ; and when its
keeper ceased, it did not invite him to a renewal of the play, but settled
into its habitual state of seeming apathy.

Confinement, which is irksome to all animals, was evidently distressing
to this little Orang : it could not bear to be separated by intervening bars
from its keeper; and on some attempts to confine it for a short time
to its bamboo-latticed enclosure, there being wire between each bamboo, to
narrow the interspaces, — it strained the latter apart, with its arms, and
readily forced itself through, so that cross-wires were subsequently inter-
twined with the former, to prevent its egress.

SIMIAD^E. 411

Dressed in its Guernsey jacket and trousers, a sort of clothing whicli
it needed in our climate, its appearance, seated on its chair, or at the table
with its keeper, in his private room, was very amusing ; nor less so the
expression of its countenance, when soliciting a share of the food before
it. It looked at its keeper, then at the tempting11 morsel, and protruded its
flexible lips into the form of a conical proboscis : when offered any liquid
to drink, in a cup or saucer, it did not, however, dip its lips into the
fluid, but, holding the cup in its hand, put the rim between its lips, and
so drained up the contents, exactly as a child would, and with all due
gravity and decorum. Disappointment is trying to all, and the little
Orang is not an exception to the general rule. Mr. G. Bennett (see his
Wanderings, &c., vol. i. p. 367), speaking of an Orang, which he had the
opportunity of seeing, in the possession of Mr. Davies, of Java, observes,
that, when a large bamboo cage was constructed, and in which it was
attempted to confine him, "he screamed with rage on being placed
in it, and, exerting his muscular power, soon demolished it, and was
then quiet as before." The same author notices also the rage mani-
fested in a species of Gibbon, which he was endeavouring to bring
home, and which, as he says, " when refused or disappointed at any-
thing, would display the freaks of temper of a spoiled child, lie on
the deck, and dash everything aside that might be within his reach ; walk
hurriedly, and repeat the same scene over and over again." Much in
the same manner this little Orang displayed its passion, throwing itself
about on the floor, and uttering its whining cry, till satisfied, which it
would always be before it resumed its ordinary composure. The person
who brought it to England intimated that it had exhibited several violent
paroxysms of passion while on board ; and, occasionally, after its intro-
duction into the Zoological Gardens, it indulged in fits of anger : but,
as kind treatment was the uniform course pursued toward it, occasions of
such an out-burst but rarely occurred ; unless, indeed, when it was con-
fined in its enclosure, and necessarily separated from the person in charge
of it. One of these scenes was witnessed : its keeper having fastened
the door of its bamboo-latticed enclosure, and gone about his other duties,
it gave way at once to a paroxysm of violent passion ; it traversed the
bamboo frame-work with the utmost celerity, for it was roused to unusual
activity, striving to force the rods apart, and escape into the room :
screaming with disappointment, it swung itself to the branches of the trees,
and, descending thence to the floor, it dragged its chair (a heavy one) to
the door, and, using it as a sort of battering-ram, endeavoured, by violent
and repeated blows, to force open the unyielding hinges : foiled in its
efforts, it again swung itself from branch to branch, and, screaming with
passion, traversed the lattice-work, and again tried at the door with its
chair. Nothing but the return of its keeper pacified it.

QUADRUMANA.

The disgust or fear entertained by the Orang (at least, while young)
toward Tortoises is well known ; and it will be remembered that the
young Chimpanzee recoiled with horror from a large Snake introduced
into the room by way of experiment, and that Tortoises, also, were regarded
with aversion. The present Orang was not made the subject of a Snake
experiment, but was tried with a small Tortoise, at the sight of
which, as the animal crawled along, it stood aghast, in an attitude of
amazement ludicrously theatrical : nothing could induce it to pass the
crawling object of its distrust. It would appear, however, that familiarity
with the sight of Tortoises easily removed the apprehensions of the Orang ;
for, after this had seen a Tortoise a few times, it exhibited less and less
annoyance at the creature's presence. Whatever instinctive fear the Orang
or Chimpanzee may entertain toward the larger Snakes, or, indeed, Snakes
of any size, some of which are to be dreaded for their poison, it cannot
be imputed to such an instinct, that the Orang is amazed or alarmed at
the presence of a Tortoise, inasmuch as that creature is utterly incapable of
inflicting the slightest injury : the amazement of the young Orang must,
therefore, be attributed rather to the strange appearance of the animal, so
unlike that of any living thing which it had hitherto witnessed, — a creature
of suspicious aspect, the qualities of which it had yet to prove, — than to any
innate fear implanted as a preservative. It was a fear connected with in-
telligence, or intellect, rather than with instinct. A child would exhibit
the same kind of feeling.

It is not many years since that the character, habits, and form of the
Orang, were among the desiderata of science. Ignorance and credulity
had invested it with faculties and intellects bordering upon those peculiar
to the human race : it was accounted but little lower than Man, and, like
him, capable of abstract ideas. The earlier travellers and voyagers had
filled their pages with descriptions teeming with the marvellous ; and men
of learning had indulged in the wildest speculations respecting its capabi-
lities of progressive refinement, and its affinity to our race. These puerile
fancies have all dispersed before true science ; and we now know that,
extraordinary as the Orang may be, compared with its fellows of the brute
creation, still in no respect does it trench upon the moral or mental pro-
vince of Man.

To this account may be added, that the hinder thumbs were destitute
oftheungueal phalanx; its hair was long and thick, especially over the
back, the sides, and the outer aspect of the limbs. The general colour,
dark blackish chestnut.

In the summer of 1838, the Zoological Society of London became
possessed of a young male, evidently in ill health : it died in the course
of a few weeks. In this specimen the hinder thumbs were also nail-less.

A young specimen, at present (1840) living in the Gardens of the

SIMIAD^l. 413

Zoological Society, is also destitute of a nail on the hinder thumbs : the
fore-hands are brown above ; the palms tanned flesh colour ; the circle
round the eyes, the nostrils, and the lips, are livid yellow ; the upper part
of the nose, the forehead, and cheeks, are livid brown. Its habits and
manners precisely resemble those of the individual Orang before described.
The annexed figure (270) represents this individual in the act of
hobbling along, supported on its arms, and is very characteristic of its
attitude.

270

Orang outan (young1 female) .

GENUS.— HYLOBATES.

Hylobates . , ILLIGER, Prodrom. Syst. Mamm. 1811.

Pitkecus in part, GEOFFROY, in Ann.du Mus.xix. 1812.

GENERIC CHARACTERS. — MUZZLE depressed; nostrils small; forehead
retreating ; HEAD small ; BODY slender ; ARMS extremely long, reaching
to the heel ; THUMB separated to the wrist from the fingers, and
scarcely opposable to the latter; PALM very narrow ; POSTERIOR
EXTREMITIES bowed, small ; FEET long, narrow ; index and second toe
sometimes united; ISCHIATIC CALLOSITIES present, but small ; TAIL want-
ing; CHEEK-POUCHES wanting ; LARYNGAL SACCULI present or absent ;
FUR deep, full, woolly.

COUNTRY. — Java, Borneo, Sumatra, Malacca, Siam.

The affinities of the Gibbons to the Orangs are too decided to be
overlooked or misapprehended. In general form ; in the absence of a

414 QUADRUMANA.

tail ; in structural adaptation for an arboreal mode of life ; in intelligence
and docility, — the accordance of the two groups is evident to the most
casual observer. The Gibbons, however, have their exclusive distin-
guishing characters, which draw a clear line of demarcation between them
and the preceding Apes, and justify the establishment of the genus
Hylobates. The presence of small ischiatic tuberosities (the commence-
ment, as it were, of that structural peculiarity which we find carried out
to its maximum among the inferior Simiadae), indicates a link of attach-
ment between them and the succeeding groups, and a move of one step, at
least, below the Orangs, in the scale of animated being. But the small-
ness of these callosities, and the circumstance of their being almost
hidden by the woolly fur with which the Gibbons are clothed, would seem
to militate against the attachment of much importance to them, as
regards their influence upon the habits of the animals. Probably the
Gibbons occasionally, or even habitually, rest, and also sleep, seated on
them, as do the lower Simiadae invariably.*

The Gibbons differ from the thick-set Orang in the slenderness of
their form : the chest, indeed, is tolerably broad ; but the abdomen is con-
tracted, and the hips are extremely narrow ; the arms are of excessive

Hand of Gibbon.

length, reaching, in the erect attitude, to the ankle-joint ; and the hands (see
fig. 271) are remarkably long and slender ; the naked palm is linear, expand-
ing as it proceeds from the wrist ; the fingers are covered, down the backs,
with fur ; the thumb of the fore-hands resembles the fingers in form
and direction, and it is scarcely or not at all opposable to them ; it seems to
rise from the wrist, owing to the almost complete separation of its meta-
carpal bone from that of the first finger ; and the ball formed by its
adductor muscles is trifling. The feet are long, and their hinder thumb is
so greatly developed (see fig. 272) as to form an equal antagonist to

* Mr. George Bennett, in his description of a Siamang, which he calls Ungka (a generic term for
the race), observes : " When sleeping, he lies along, either on the side or back, resting the head on the
hands. Frequently, when I awoke, I have seen him lying on his back, his long arms stretched out,
and with open eyes, appearing as if buried in deep reflection." — Wanderings in New South Wales, $c.
vol. ii. p. 152. London: 1830.

415

the other toes conjointly. In some species, the first and second finger
(of the foot) are, more or less, united together ; this union, in the Sia-
mang, is carried to the last joint. Sir T. S. Raffles, who first pointed
272 out this peculiarity in the

Siamang, conceived it to
be restricted to this spe-
cies, which is certainly not
the case. Much less cor-
rect, therefore, is the asser-
tion of M. Duvaucel, that
it is a sexual difference
peculiar to the female, as
he remarks more particu-
larly with reference to the
Ungka-puti and the Ungka-
etam. It appears, how-
ever, in the latter animals,
to be a variable character,
Foot of Gibbon sometimes present, some-

times not to be discerned ; and hence, probably, Sir. T. S. Raffles denied
its existence in any species, except the Siamang.*

With regard to the lower extremities in the Gibbons, they are very
short, and bowed in ; and the ankle-joint has that inward tournure so
advantageous to an arboreal animal ; but the hip-joint is secured by the
ligamentum teres.

The Gibbons are clothed with deep, thick fur, softer in some species
than in others ; on the chest and abdomen it is much thinner than on any
other part of the body ; that on the fore-arms is mostly reverted to the
elbows, where, meeting the hair of the humerus, it forms a peak. In the
Ungka-puti, however, the hair of the fore-arms is inclined forward in the
ordinary manner ; in the white-handed Gibbon it is nearly erect, with an
inclination forward, but less decidedly than in the Ungka-puti.

In one species, the brown whiskered Gibbon (H. Choromandus), the
hair of the head radiates from a centre on the crown ; in the rest, it falls
back from the forehead, without any radiating point. In the white-
handed Gibbon (which has scarcely any whiskers), it is somewhat erect,
from its shortness and closeness. The prevailing colours in the animals
of the present genus are black, more or less intense, dull grey, and dirty
straw yellow : white occurs only in a limited degree.

It is very remarkable that, as far as is known, one species only, the

* It is interesting to find a recurrence of this character in the tree-climbing Phalangers of Australia.
The syndactylous group of birds (Kingfishers, Todies, &c.) also present an analogous conformation;
but in these the outermost or middle of the three anterior toes are thus conjoined.

416 QUADRUMANA.

Siamang, has the larynx furnished with a sacculus. This point, however,
must not be insisted on; our acquaintance with the anatomy of these
animals being but partial. There are no cheek-pouches.

In all the individuals yet examined (viz., the H. leuciscus, by Camper ;
the S. Lar, by Daubenton, see Buflfon, xiv., pi. iv. p. 108 ; and the H.
agilis, by Mr. Yarrell, see Zool. Journal, vol. v. for 1835 ; the H. Hoo-
lock, and H. concolor), the vermiform appendix to the caecum was present.
In their osseous structure the Gibbons resemble the Orang, excepting
that the bones are more slender, and the skull is of a different form, com-
paratively smaller, and of a less solid construction. The cranium (fig.
273) is somewhat of an oval figure ; the forehead retreats, almost as in the
Chimpanzee, but the supra-orbital ridge is not prominent, as in that animal ;
273 nor does the skull exhibit the elevated

crests so remarkable in the Great Pongo.
The occipital portion of the cranium is
far more voluminous than the frontal, which
is both low and narrow. The orbits are
very large, with a prominent margin ; and
the interorbital space is depressed and broad,
averaging half an inch, and throwing the
of Gibbon. orbits apart, so that their outer margin

projects very boldly from the cranium. The nasal bone rises gently from
its junction with the frontal, exhibiting an attempt at a bridge, in which
respect it approaches far more nearly to the human form than it does
either in the Chimpanzee or Orang. In one specimen (adult) the Author
found the nasal bone partially divided by a longitudinal suture. The
osseous aperture of the nares is wide and oval. The upper jaw is not large
or prominent, as in the Orang ; and the rami of the lower jaw are remark-
ably narrowr, deepening at the symphisis, which is vertical (not retiring),
so as to form a tolerable chin, at least, for a Monkey. The superficies of
the coronoid process, indeed the whole space for the lodgment of the
masseter muscle, is very inconsiderable ; the posterior angle is acute,
and more or less produced, instead of being rounded ; the incisors are
small, moderately oblique, and thick ; the canines are slender, but long,
especially in the males ; the molars are small, with the crown broad, and
bluntly tuberculate ; there is no true fifth tubercle on the last molar
below ; the humerus is straight, or with a very slight twist ; its head is
large ; the radius and ulna are both very long and slender ; the femur is
straight ; the tibia arched and compressed, with an acutely-elevated anterior
ridge ; the fibula is very slender ; the pelvis is peculiarly long and
narrow ; and the tuba ischii flat and rough, indicating the presence of the
callous pad which covers it ; the clavicles are long, and rather simply
curved than sigmoid ; the scapulae are long and narrow ; the ribs are

SIMIAD^E. 417

slender, and vary in number in different species. In H. agilis, H.
leuciscus, and H. syndactylus, they consist of thirteen pairs (seven true,
six false); in H. Lar, of twelve pairs ; in H. concolor, of four teen pairs.
The number of vertebrae in the latter are stated, by Dr. Harlan, as follow :
cervical, seven ; dorsal, fourteen ; lumbar, five ; sacral, five; coccygeal, five.
Daubenton gives the vertebrae of the H. Lar as, cervical, seven ; dorsal,
twelve ; lumbar, six ; sacral, three ; coccygeal, three : he states, also,
that the carpus consists of eleven bones, — four in the first rank, four in the
second, and three supernumerary.

Though the Greek words, KCIITOS or Kj?/3os (in Latin, cebus or cephus),
are, undoubtedly, the origin of the modern terms, Guibon, or Gibbon, we
have no reason to believe that they indicated the animals which are now
intended.* With respect to the Choromandae and Scyritae, described by
Pliny, upon the authority of Tauron and Megasthenes, and which are said
to have inhabited India,f we can form but a very superficial judgment: they
are called people ; and the last, moreover, are a people among the nomadic
Indians, " gentem inter nomados Indos." Other people, also, are noticed;
of which the men have their feet a cubit long ; while those of the women are
so small that they are called sparrow-footed. The Satyri, mentioned by
Pliny, " as dwelling among the tropical mountains of India," and which he
describes as being " very swift, going indifferently on all fours or upright,
having a human countenance, and not to be captured, unless enfeebled by
age or sickness, on account of their velocity," may have reference to some
species of Gibbon, of which vague reports had travelled westward : but
such passages are matters rather of curiosity than of utility : they prove
nothing determinately.

Though some of the earlier navigators notice the existence of the
Gibbon, among whom the first, in point of time, was Marco Polo, a Vene-
tian traveller, of the thirteenth century (see Travels of Marco Polo, &c.
translated from the Italian, with notes by W. Marsden, F. R. S. London:
1818), it is only lately that we have gained a satisfactory knowledge of
the animals to which this term, Gibbon, is restricted.

The first accredited account is that by Buffon ; the fourteenth volume
of whose Natural History, in 1766, contains a description of two
Gibbons ; namely, the " Grand Gibbon," and the " Petit Gibbon," accom-
panied by figures of the animals, and, also, of the skeleton and viscera of
the former, which was dissected by Daubenton. This animal, it cannot be
doubted, is the Lar of Linnaeus, and the Simia longimana of Schreber. In
the fifty-ninth volume of the Philosophical Transactions, for 1769, De

* Dalechamp, in his notes on Pliny, says that Strabo (lih. xv.) has designated the Cephus by the
word KelTror ; and adds : " II me paroit que le Cebus des Grecs, et le Cephus de Pline, qu'on doit pro-
noncer Kebus et Kephus, pourroient bien venir originairement de Koph ou Kophin, qui en Hebreu et
en Chaldeen est le nom du Singe."

t Plinii His I. Nat. lib. vii. cap. ii.
VOL. 1 . 3 H

418 QUADRUMANA.

Visme described and figured a Gibbon, regarded by most naturalists as
the Hoolock ; but the details are so meagre, and the figures so bad, that it
is impossible to identify the species with any degree of certainty. To this
brief list the celebrated Camper added the H. leuciscus, or Wou-wou, as
he terms it; of which he published an account, both descriptive and
anatomical.

Such, then, to the close of the eighteenth century, was the extent of
the information possessed regarding these animals. Within the last few
years, however, our knowledge of the Gibbons, in consequence of our con-
tinued intercourse with Borneo, Sumatra, and Java, has greatly increased.
The Siamang, the Ungka-puti, and Ungka-etam (the two latter being varieties
of one species, according to Miiller) are due to the researches of the late
Sir T. S. Raffles : the H. concolor rests on the description published by
Dr. Harlan, of Philadelphia, who, also, redescribed the Hoolock ; and two
species (in 1839 and 1840) have been added to the list by Mr. Ogilby.
The Gibbons inhabit, respectively, Malacca and Siam, Assam, and the islands
of Borneo, Sumatra and Java ; the species being restricted each to their
exclusive province or island. It has not been ascertained that any inhabit
continental India within the Ganges. That described by Buffon was,
indeed, brought, as is stated, from Pondicherry ; but was, most probably,
conveyed there from Malacca, of which the Lar is known to be a native.
Mr. Ogilby, however, in his work on "Monkeys, Lemurs, and Opossums,"
states, that he has been informed, by "an Indian officer of high rank and
celebrity, that there is, unquestionably, a real Ape (probably the Lar) in
the forests of the Malabar coast : he had often heard the natives speak of
it, and not unfrequently heard its cry, woo-woo, in the woods, though he
had never actually seen it." If the Lar be, indeed, found in Malabar, its
residence, also, on the Coromandel coast, where Pondicherry is situated,
will then appear to be very probable ; and, in this case, its range of habitat
will be more extensive than that of any other Gibbon.

Pre-eminently qualified for arboreal habits, and displaying among the
branches amazing activity, the Gibbons are not so awkward or embarrassed
on a level surface as might be imagined : they walk erect, with a waddling
or unsteady gait, but at a quick pace ; the equilibrium of the body requiring
to be perpetually kept up, either by touching the ground with the
knuckles, first on one side, then on the other, or by uplifting the arms, so
as thus to poise it. As with the Chimpanzee, the whole of the narrow,
long sole of the foot is placed upon the ground at once, and raised at once,
without any elasticity of step ; the short legs have the crooked contour
noticed both in the Chimpanzee and Orang. It is, however, in the trees
that they are seen to the most advantage. : there, free and unembarrassed,
they appear almost to fly from bough to bough, and assume in their
gambols every imaginable attitude : hanging by their long arms, they

SIM1AD.E. 419

swing themselves forward, with admirable facility, seizing, in their rapid
launch, the branch at which they aimed ; they throw themselves from a
higher to a lower perch with consummate address, and again ascend to
the loftiest with bird-like rapidity. In all these movements, their long
arms are of the utmost advantage; and it is to these, rather than the
lower extremities, that they trust, in all their feats of agility, and in all
their arboreal evolutions. In their ordinary mode of arboreal progression,
they launch themselves from bough to bough, swinging, by the hands, from
ench in succession, without calling the feet into play, until they choose to
rest, when, by a quick, abrupt movement, they draw the body up, seize
the branch with their feet, and rest on the callosities. Still, there is much
in the economy of these animals which is imperfectly known.

M. Duvaucel (see Hist. Nat. des Mamm. by M. Fred. Cuvier) states,
that the Siamang is gregarious, and that each troop is conducted by a chief,
whom the Malays believe to be invulnerable. They salute the rising and
the setting sun with the most terrific cries, which may be heard at the
distance of several miles ; and which, when near, stun, if they do not
frighten. This is the morning call of the mountain Malays ; but to the
inhabitants of the towns, visiting the country, it is an insupportable
annoyance. During the daytime, however, by way of amends, they
preserve a profound silence, unless disturbed in their sleep or repose.
They are, farthermore, stated, by the same authority, to be extremely
vigilant, and to possess a most acute sense of hearing ; but to want courage,
activity, address, and intelligence. The latter part of this account is
somewhat questionable, seeing that it is contradicted by other parts of the
statement; which, besides attributing to them habits of vigilance, repre-
sents the maternal care and solicitude of the females for their offspring as
" so tender and refined, that one would be almost tempted to attribute the
sentiment to a rational rather than to an instinctive process." Moreover,
Mr. George Bennett (see Wanderings in New South Wales, &c. vol. ii. p.
142, et seq. London: 1834) describes a Siamang (H. syndactylus), which
he possessed, as exciting the astonishment and admiration of the crew, by
his extraordinary agility. His intelligence was no less remarkable than
his activity ; and his playfulness and merry antics rendered him the
universal favourite of the ship's company.

Sir T. S. Raffles, in his account of the Siamang, states it to be bold
and powerful, but docile and affectionate. Gentleness, intelligence, and
docility may be regarded, indeed, as characteristic of the Gibbons generally.
Most appear to live in troops, or families ; the Ungka-puti is said
to live in isolated couples ; and to be so active as to escape, with the
rapidity of a bird upon the wing, from danger ; taking leaps, or, rather,
swings, of forty feet and upwards among the branches. Excepting the
Siamang, which, according to SirT. S. Raffles, is bold and powerful, the

420 QUADRUMANA.

Gibbons, and especially the Ungka-etam and the Ungka-puti, are timid ;
but, in captivity, they soon become familiar. All utter discordant, guttural
cries, resembling the term, Wou-wou, which is the name given, according
to Duvaucel, by the natives of Sumatra to the Ungka-puti (Hylobates
agilis), but- which is rather of general than specific signification. Camper
has appropriated it to the Hylobates leuciscus. According to Dr. Miiller,
the Gibbons live in mountain districts, where their range is limited by the
forests of fig-trees ; beyond which they do not ascend. They are com-
monly found in little troops, on the brows of the hills ; but as soon as they
ascertain the presence of Man, they disappear, in a few moments, among
the dense woods of the valleys : some appear to inhabit the tops of the
trees, never coming down to the ground, but traversing the forest by
springing from tree to tree in their passage. Their cry is loud, and may
be often heard resounding through the mighty woods, and re-echoed in
the grottoes of their wild and solitary territories.

THE SIAMANG GIBBON.

HYLOBATES SYNDACTYLUS. (Hylobates syndactylus, F. CUVIER, Diet. Sci. Nat. xxxvi. 287.)

Hylobates syndactylus LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 50. 1820.

Pithecus syndactylus DESMAREST, Mamm. Suppl. 531. 1822.

Simia syndactyla Siamang of Malays, RAFFLES, in Linn. Trans, xiii. p. 241. 1822.

Simla syndactyla HORSEFIELD, Zool. Res. No. 3, fig. 3/1824.

Simia syndactyla FISCHER, Syn. Mamm. p. 11. 1829.

Hylobates syndactyla ..._... Appendix to Life of Sir T. S. RAFFLES. 1830.
Hylobates syndactylus GEOFFROY, Cours d'Hist. Nat.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Body robuSt; fur woolly, black; first and second fingers of the
feet united together, to the last joint ; laryngal sac.
LOCALITY. — Sumatra.

DESCRIPTION. — The general colour is deep black ; the fur is deep, full,
and woolly ; on the chest and abdomen it is scanty ; the face is nearly
naked, exhibiting only short, close, thinly scattered hairs, of a white colour,
which become fuller and longer on the chin. The huge throat-pouch is
naked, and, when distended, the skin is smooth and shining, as if oily;
the mammae of the females naked, and large ; the colour of the skin is
universally black ; the ears are small, and concealed by the thick, deep
fur on the sides of the head ; the orbits are circular and prominent ; the
eyes sunk ; the iris hazel ; the index and middle toes are united to the
ultimate phalanx ; the mouth is wide ; the canines are large ; the forehead
is flat ; the head small ; the chest broad, and indicative of great bodily
vigour.

The original specimen exists in the museum of the Zoological Society,
London; others, from Sir T. S. Raffles, exist in the British Museum,
the museum of the East India Company, and in the Musee du Roi,
Paris.

THE SIAMANG GIBBO'N.
(Hylobates syndactylus. F. Cuv.)

SIMIAD^E.

Sir T. Stamford Raffles describes an individual of this species, in his
possession, as having been upwards of three feet in height, robust, and
muscular. Dr. Horsefield gives the following as admeasurements of the
largest of the three specimens in the collection at the East India Com-
pany's museum :

ft. in.

Height 32

Length of upper extremity . 28^

Ditto lower extremity 1 10

Of an adult male and female, in the Parisian Museum, the female, which
was somewhat larger than the male, measures three feet in height ; the
length of the upper extremity being two feet five inches, of which the
hand, from the wrist-joint to the end of the middle finger, measures six
inches.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The Siamang is the largest of the Gibbons ; it
has the index and middle toes the most completely syndactyle ; and it
approaches the Orang in the possession of a laryngal pouch, which, though
of great volume, is single ; whereas it is double in the Orang. Of the
use of this apparatus little is definitely known : it has been supposed
to influence the intonation of the voice ; and Mr. George Bennett ( Wan-
derings, &c. vol. ii. p. 151) observes, that when the individual in his
possession was irritated, he inflated the pouch, uttering a hollow,
barking noise, the lips being at the same time pursed out, and the air
driven into the sac, while the lower jaw was also a little protruded. M.
Duvaucel most probably alludes to this noise, when he describes the
Siamang as rousing occasionally from its lethargy to utter a disagreeable
cry, approaching in sound to that of a turkey-cock, and which, as he takes
upon himself to say, expresses no sentiment, declares no wants, and, in
fact, means nothing. Mr. Bennett noticed that the inflation of the pouch
was not confined to an expression of anger; but occurred, also, when
the animal was pleased, and when it was yawning ; and that, in all
instances (except when excited by anger), it would gradually empty the
sac, as if it derived a pleasure from the action. When the sac was
distended, pressure on it, so as to force the air contained within it into the
mouth, produced no sign of annoyance.

The Siamang is exclusively a native of Sumatra, in the forests of
which it is very abundant, especially in the neighbourhood of Bencoolen,
where it congregates in large troops, which make the woods resound with
their loud, discordant yells. Of the intelligence, qualities, and habits of
this animal, we have the most contradictory statements. M. Duvaucel,
who says that he had frequent opportunities of observing it, both in a wild
state and in captivity, asserts (see Hist. Nat. des Mammif. by F. Cuvier)
that it is slow, inanimate, and destitute of activity and confidence among
the trees ; and that, when surprised on the ground, it is so overwhelmed by

QUADRUMANA.

fear as to be incapable of resistance ; that stupidity, sluggishness, and
awkwardness are its prominent characters, unmodified during captivity ;
and that even its gentleness and submission are rather the result of extreme
apathy than confidence ; that all its senses are dull and imperfect, nothing
being regarded with interest ; good or bad treatment being alike received
with insensibility ; while gratitude and revenge are both alien to its nature ;
in short, that its days are passed in lethargic repose, as, seated on its
hams, with its long arms twined round it, it buries its head between its
legs ; that hunger scarcely rouses it, and its very food is received with
indifference. Strangely inconsistent, however, with the foregoing character,
is his account of its extreme vigilance and acuteness of hearing; and of the
affection of the mothers for their young : — If a young one be wounded, the
mother, who either carries it, or follows it closely, remains with it, utters
the most lamentable cries, and rushes upon the enemy with open mouth
and extended arms ; but, being unfitted for combat, knows neither how to
deal nor shun a blow. It is not only in moments of danger that this affec-
tion is displayed. " It is," says Duvaucel, " a curious and interesting
spectacle, which a little precaution has sometimes enabled me to witness,
to see the females carry their young ones to the water, and there wash
their faces, in spite of their childish outcries, bestowing a degree of time
and care upon their cleanliness, which, in many cases, the children of our
own species might envy." He also relates, that, according to the Malays,
the young are nursed and carried respectively by adults of their own sex ;
and, also, that the Siamang frequently becomes the prey of the Tiger, under
the influence of that sort of fascination which Snakes are said to exercise
over birds, Squirrels, and other small animals.

Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, who kept several individuals of this
species in captivity, describes the Siamang as bold and powerful, but easily
domesticated; gentle, and so confident and sociable, as to be "never happy
but when allowed to be in company with some one."

The interesting account of an individual, by Mr. George Bennett, to
which reference has been previously made, gives us a still more favourable
impression of the disposition and intelligence of the animal. The substance
of his narrative is as follows. The individual in question, a male, was pro-
cured at Singapore, 1830, having been brought to that place by a Malay
lad, in a proa, from the Menangkabau country, in the interior of Sumatra.
He was young, only two feet four inches in height, and covered with beau-
tiful jet black, coarse hair. The form of the feet and hands gave them great
prehensile power ; but he was not able to take up small objects with
facility, on account of the disproportion of the size of the thumb to the
fingers. The metacarpal bone of the thumb had the mobility of a first
joint.* His common position, when at rest, was squatting, with his arms

* It has been already said, that it wants the power of antagonizing with the fingers.

crossed before his breast, his hands placed at the back of his neck, and his
head bowed but a little forward : he slept lying at full length, and, indif-
ferently, on his side or back : he walked erect, without effort, but with a
waddling gait, sometimes with his arms hanging down, and occasionally
assisting his progression with his knuckles ; but more frequently with them
thrown upward, ready to catch at a rope, or any object, by means of which
he might, in a moment, climb out of the reach of fancied danger : in tread-
ing, he stretched the thumbs of the hinder hands to a right angle with the
soles. The adroitness and rapidity of his movements, the variety of
attitudes into which he threw himself, when climbing about the rigging of
the vessel in which he was brought from Singapore, and the vigour and
prehensile power of his limbs, indicated his adaptation to the branches of
the forest: he would pass, for instance, down the backstays of the ship,
sometimes hanging by his hands, sometimes walking down them in the erect
posture, like a rope-dancer, balancing himself by his long arms ; and, at
other times, he would spring from one rope to another at a long distance,
or drop from a higher to a lower rope, with great address. His disposition
was gentle, but lively and animated ; and he delighted in playing frolics.
With a little Papuan child, on board, he became very intimate : they might
be often seen sitting near the capstan, the animal with his long arm round
her neck, lovingly eating biscuit together. In his gambols with the child,
he would roll on deck with her, as if in mock combat, pushing with his feet
(in which action he possessed great muscular power), his long arms entwined
round her, and pretend to bite : sometimes, seizing a rope, he would swing
toward her, and, when attempts were made to secure him, would elude the
grasp by swinging away : he would often, also, drop suddenly on her from
the ropes aloft, and then engage in various playful antics. With the Monkeys
on board he also seemed desirous of establishing amicable companionship,
evidently wishing to join them in their gambols ; but, as they avoided his
company, probably from fear, he revenged their unsociableness by teasing
them, and pulling them by the tail, at every opportunity. He possessed the
same gravity of appearance as the rest of the Apes ; but was far more active
than any of them, though equally deficient in the love of mischief. He soon
learned his name, and would, when called by it, readily approach those
whom he knew. He was so exceedingly engaging, that he speedily became
a general favourite ; yet he formed an attachment for three grown per-
sons only on board : to these it was as strong as it had previously
been for the Malay boy, from whom he had been purchased. With all his
liveliness and engaging qualities, his temper was extremely irritable ; and,
when refused anything, disappointed, or confined, he would indulge in fits
of anger, which he manifested by screams ; or he would lie on the deck,
roll about, throw his arms and legs in various directions, dash everything
aside that might be within his reach, walk hurriedly, repeat the same scene

424 QUADRUMANA.

over and over again, uttering deep, guttural sounds, expressive of his
feelings : nor when his rage was over, did he always abandon his purpose ;
but sometimes had recourse to stratagem, when his violence was of no
avail.

Among his modes of amusement, displaying both strength and agility,
it is mentioned, that he would frequently hang from a rope by one arm,
and, thus suspended, writhe and twist about, with his eyes shut, — so as to
represent a person hanging, and in the agonies of death.

The picture thus given delineates anything but apathy or sluggishness.
Mr. Bennett expressly notices, as an instance. of his curiosity, which novel
objects always excited, that when a ship was spoken with at sea, he would
invariably mount up the rigging, in order to command a good view of the
vessel ; and sometimes take up his position on the peak haulyards, just
under the flag, and there remain, gazing after the departing ship, until she
was out of sight ; when he would descend to the deck, and resume his
accustomed sports.

The following instance of his intelligence is, also, narrated. It would
appear, that he had a peculiar inclination for disarranging articles in the
cabin ; and, among these articles, a piece of soap would especially attract
his notice ; and that, for the removal of this, he had been once or twice
scolded. One morning Mr. Bennett was writing, the Ape being present,
in the cabin ; when, casting his eyes towards the animal, he observed him
taking the soap. " I watched him," adds the narrator, " without his
perceiving that I did so : he occasionally would cast a furtive glance to-
ward the place where I sat. I pretended to write ; he, seeing me busily
occupied, took the soap, and moved away with it in his paw. When
he had walked half the length of the cabin, I spoke quietly, without
frightening him. The instant he found I saw him, he walked back again,
and deposited the soap nearly in the same place from whence he had taken
it;" thus betraying, both by his first and last actions, a consciousness of
having done wrong.

With respect to food, the individual in question gave preference to
a vegetable aliment, as rice, plantains, £c. He was ravenously fond of
carrots ; on the appearance of which his usual placidity was lost in his
eager desire for them. A portion of carrot would attract him from one
end of the table to the other ; over which he would walk, without
disturbing a single article, although the ship was rolling at the time ;
so admirably could he maintain his balance. He would drink tea,
coffee, or chocolate, but neither wine nor spirits. Animal food was not
altogether rejected ; and of this he preferred fowl. On one occasion,
a lizard, which was caught on board, was placed before him, when he
seized the reptile instantly in his paw, and greedily devoured it. It is
not improbable that reptiles, small birds, &c. may form a portion of the

SIMIAD.E. 425

food of the Siamang in his wild condition. Sweetmeats of all kinds,
and also onions, though their acridity caused him to sneeze, and loll out
his tongue, were sought after and eaten with great satisfaction. His
method of drinking was awkward and wasteful : he first applied his lips
to the liquid, and then threw his head up ; which action, Mr. Bennett
considers, may be occasioned by the prominence of the lower jaw ; but
if the vessel were shallow, he only dipped in his hand, and held it over
his mouth, for the liquid to drop between his lips. When tea or coffee
was given to him, the tongue was carefully protruded, for the purpose of
ascertaining its temperature.

This interesting individual died on nearing our shores, from the
effects of disease induced by cold east winds, to the regret of all the
crew. In comparing the account of the habits of this animal, as detailed,
on the one part, by Sir T. S. Raffles, and, more particularly, by Mr. G.
Bennett, with that, on the other, given by M. Duvaucel, there is some
difficulty in reconciling their direct opposition. There is, indeed, reason
for suspecting that the latter naturalist has done the Siamang some wrong,
as his own details are contradictory in themselves.

THE AGILE GIBBON.

HYLOBATES AGILIS. (Hylobates agilis, F. CUVIER, Mamm. lith. liv. 32. c. fig. male and female.

Sept. 1821.)

Ungka-puti RAFFLES, Linn. Trans, vol. xiii. p. 242. 1822.

Ungka-etam RAFFLES, Linn. Trans, vol. xiii. p. 242. 1822.

Pithecus agilis DESMAREST, Mamm. Supp. p. 523. 1822.

Oungka, Hylobates Lar . . . . F. CUVIER, Mamm. lith. June, 1824.

Simla Lar VIGORS and HORSEFIELD, Zool. Journal, vol. iv. p. 106. 1828.

Hylobates Rafflesii GEOFFROY, Cours d'Hist. Nat. Lect. 7. 1828.

Hylobates variegatus MULLER, Over der Zoogdieren van den Indischen Archipel. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Fur full and soft, varying in colour from black or grey-black to
pale flaxen brown ; the loins and lower part of the back always paler than the rest ;
the chest and abdomen dark ; superciliary stripe white or whitish ; whiskers and
beard sometimes white, or of a flaxen colour.

LOCALITY.— Sumatra.

The confusion in which the present species has been involved, renders
the following observations absolutely unavoidable.

Sir T. S. Raffles brought, among other Simiae, to Europe, from
Sumatra, what he regarded as two species of Gibbon, respectively called
Ungka-puti, or Hylobates agilis, and Ungka-etam ; which latter was
referred, by himself, and also by Messrs. Vigors and Horsefield, to the
Simia Lar of Gmelin, as well as by Fred. Cuvier :* subsequently, its

* Lesson, in his Manuel de Mammalogie, 1827, observes, that the Hylobates agilis of Fred. Cuvier
is the Simia Lar of Sir T. S. Raffles, — an assertion utterly unfounded : for Sir T. S. Raffles accurately
distinguishes between this animal, his Ungka-puti, and that termed Ungka-etam ; which latter, and
not the Ungka-puti, this accomplished naturalist regarded as the Simia Lar, — a point in which
he was, undoubtedly, mistaken. Geoffrey St. Hilaire, in his Court d'Histoire Nat. ties Mammiferes,

VOL. I. 3 I

426 QUADRUMANA.

distinctness was pointed out by M. Geoffroy, who, in compliment to Sir
T. S. Raffles, termed it H. Rafflesii ; and under this title it appears in
the Natural History of Monkeys, Lemurs, and Opossums, by Mr. Ogilby ;
part i. p. 172. More recent observations, however, tend to prove that
this title cannot be sustained, and that the Ungka-etam is only a dark
variety of the Ungka-puti.

M. Miiller, whose opportunities of investigating the characters of
the Gibbons, in their native regions, were almost unlimited, and whose
judgment is entitled to our confidence, distinctly and positively asserts
their identity ; though he gives to them the specific title of Hylobates
variegatus, under the impression (also entertained by other naturalists)
that they are both referable to the Petit Gibbon of Buffon (Hist. Nat.
xiv.), which is the Hylobates variegatus of Kuhl. The H. variegatus,
however, as will be* more fully stated (see H. Lar.), is really a young
and pale variety of the H. Lar. " Of the five distinct species," ob^
serves Miiller, " known at this moment, four inhabit the occidental
regions of the .Indian Archipelago, where each species is limited to its
exclusive island : thus, we have only found H. syndactylus and H.
variegatus (H. agilis) in Sumatra ; but, if it be possible to believe what is
said by other authors, the H. variegatus inhabits also Malacca : but that
requires confirmation. The H. leuciscus is found only in Java ; and H.
concolor, in Borneo." His observation, " the H. variegatus should be
found in Malacca," shews, at once, that he confounded his species with
one totally distinct. This, then, on reading the following valuable note,
must be borne in mind : " The H. agilis of F. Cuvier, and H. Rafflesii
of GeofFroy, are, undoubtedly, synonyms of H. variegatus of Kuhl ; and
most of the descriptions lately given of H. Lar have relation to the
black variety of this species ; being the Oengko-itam of the Malays,
which Sir. T. S. Raffles has erroneously taken for the Lar of Gmelin.
The proper Lar, or Great Gibbon, of Buffon (S. longimana, Schreber),
has been, on the other hand, described by Messrs. Vigors and Horse-
field under a new name, S. albimana. The last-named species (S.
longimana) is only observed on the continent of India, in the neighbour-
hood of Malacca and Siam, where it appears to be common."

In reference to the colour of the agile Gibbon, the author already
quoted states, that it is curious to observe its numerous variations. " Two

regards the Ungka-puti as indentical with the Petit Gibbon of Buffon, the H. variegatus of Desmarest.
This is certainly not the case. Whether the Petit Gibbon, or Hylobates, be separable or not from the
H. Lar, is another question : at all events, it is distinct from H. agilis.

The term, Wou-wou, which is of general rather than specific import, has been given by Cam-
per, in a restricted sense, to a Gibbon described by himself, the H. leuciscus; but F. Cuvier has
applied the same term to the present species (H. agilis), on the authority of M. Duvaucel, as being
its native name; considering it identical with the animal described by Camper. With regard to
the term, Wou-wou, it would be better to drop it altogether : it is a word of common, and not specific,
import.

SIMIAD^E. 427

individuals are never precisely the same; and we were disposed, there-
fore, to conclude, during the early part of our stay at Sumatra, that there
were really different species of what, as it proved, is but one, Hylobates ;
for it was only after the examination of individuals of different colours,
and after we had killed many of both sexes, and various ages, that we
came to the conclusion, that the Oengko-itam, or black Oengko, and
the Oengko-poetih, or white Oengko, of the Malayans, were the same
species. Of the great number of skins which we collected, fifteen have
been displayed in the Museum of Leyden, all differing, more or less, in
colour : for example, this beautiful series, containing individuals of
different ages and sexes, includes some of a yellowish white colour, others
of a brownish yellow, and others quite black : and it is from this varia-
tion that some naturalists of Europe have been induced to assign to them
the rank of distinct species, thereby producing much confusion."

" In all the individuals, whether of light or dark colour, that we
examined, we invariably found the following characters ; viz., a white
stripe across the forehead, or brow : many of the males, likewise, having
the sides of the face and the throat white : in black subjects, the lumbar
region and crupper are always of a paler colour than the other parts of
the body, and are usually of a rusty or pale yellowish brown : in the
pale individuals, which have a yellowish, or brownish-yellow colour,
the throat, the chest, and the abdomen are of a darker brown, as are,
sometimes, the hands also. It is interesting to find that the yellowish
females frequently produce black young ; and the black, as often, young
of a pale colour."

To this account, by M. Miiller, it may be added, that a beautiful
straw-white specimen (7. c in Catalogue, 1838) is preserved in the
museum of the Zoological Society, London.

Having thus pointed out the specific identity between the Ungka-
puti and the Ungka-etam, it remains to fill up the account by a descrip-
tion of the characters, which a few individuals of each variety present,
drawn from an examination of specimens in different museums.

VARIETY : UNGKA-PUTI. — The orbits are prominent, the eyes sunk ;
the index and middle toes are united together at the base ; the fur
is soft, deep, and woolly, being of a finer texture than that of the
Siamang ; the hair of the head is inclined back from the forehead ; that
,if the fore-arm is directed forward, not reverted ; the general colour of
the head, back, and outer aspect of the extremities, is flaxen, somewhat
tinted with brown, and passing into a pale yellowish white on the crupper ;
the chest, the abdomen, and the axillae are of a dark umber brown ; as
are also the arms and thighs internally, and the hands and feet, though
less intensely ; an indefinite superciliary line, and the whiskers, which are
full in the male, are white ; the hairs of the eyebrows are black ; a few
reddish hairs are scattered around the ischiatic callosities.

428 QUADRUMANA.

A fine male specimen, in the museum of the Zoological Society, Lon-
don, measures two feet ten inches in total length ; the length of the arm
and hand is two feet five inches.

In a beautiful adult female specimen of H. agilis, examined January
7th, 1839, at the museum of the Zoological Society, the toes were not
at all united. The fur of this specimen was glossy, and of a silky tex-
ture ; its colour was pale golden yellow, like raw silk, deeper at the roots ;
a straw-white superciliary stripe passed across the forehead ; the chest,
abdomen, inside of the humerus and of the thighs, were pale umber
brown ; the back of the thighs was of a deep golden hue ; length, from
vertex to heel, two feet five inches.

In the Museum of Paris is a specimen of a female Gibbon, which
appears to be of the variety Ungka-puti. Above the eyebrows, which
are long and black, are perceptible indications of a pale superciliary line,
and the full hair round the face is decidedly paler than that of the
body ; the general colour, straw-white, with a dusky brownish hue, the
straw-white being purer on the back, especially at its lower part ; on
the throat and chest the hairs are washed with brown ; the face is black,
with scattered black hairs ; head and body, seventeen inches and a half ;
hind limbs, to heel, thirteen inches ; arms and hands, twenty-four inches.
According to Sir T. S. Raffles (Linn. Trans, xiii. p. 243), the
Ungka-puti is from two to three feet in height, of a slender and delicate
figure ; covered with soft hair, somewhat woolly, and of a dull yellowish
white, darkening to brown on the under and inner surfaces ; the shades,
however, varying much in different individuals ; * the face and hands,
naked and black. Messrs. Diard and Duvaucel state the face of the male
to be bluish black ; that of the female, to have a slight tint of brown.

VARIETY : UNGKA-ETAM. — The following is the description of an
adult male specimen in the Paris Museum (de Sumatra, par M. Duvaucel,
1821):—

The fur is deep, soft, close, and woolly ; the general colour is black,

tinged with brown, passing into a chocolate -brown on the loins (in

another specimen, the loins and lower part of the back are still paler) ;

the hands and feet are black ; a superciliary band, and the whiskers,

which are full and bushy, are white ; the eyebrows consist of black, stiff

hairs ; the total length, from the head to the heel, is about two feet nine

inches ; the length of the arm and hand is nearly twenty-four inches.

In another male specimen, the beard is grey, with a flaxen tint.

A female specimen, in the same museum, presents the following

characters : the general colour is brownish black, the brown prevailing

" The uncertain colouring of this Ape, and the want of precise terms of expression for the
various tints, prevent the possibility of giving a precise idea of it to those who have not seen the
animal."— Fred. Cuv. Mamm.

THE AGILK GIBBON.
(Hylobates agilis. F. Cuv.)

SIMIAD.E. 429

on the lower half of the back ; a narrow white line, almost obsolete over
the nose, runs across the brow ; the hands are gradually, and the feet
abruptly, black ; the mammae are large ; the size, that of the male.

In a second female, brought byM. Duvaucel from Sumatra, 1821, the
general colour is umber brown, passing into sandy brown on the lower part
of the back, where, however, the hairs are dark brown at the roots ; a
narrow stripe of white runs across the brow ; the face is surrounded by a
full, soft, brown beard. A third female, of an umber-brown colour, has the
whiskers of a whitish or flaxen tint, as in one of the males.

GENERAL HISTORY. — According to the observations of M. Duvaucel,
the Ungka-puti, or pale variety, of this species, is far rarer than the dark :
it usually lives in pairs, and possesses extraordinary activity ; at the same
time, it is gentle and timid. The velocity of its movements is wonderful ;
it escapes like a bird on the wing : scarcely does it perceive danger, but it
is already far away : ascending rapidly to the top of a tree, it there seizes
a flexible branch, swings itself two or three times, to gain the requisite
impetus, and then launches itself forward, repeatedly clearing, in succes-
sion, without effort and without fatigue, spaces of forty feet. The same
traveller states that, when domesticated, it does not display much intel-
ligence : but Sir T. S. Raffles informs us, " that it is a general belief,
among the people of the country where it resides, that it will die of grief,
if, when in captivity, it sees the preference given to another : in confirm-
ation of which, I may add, that the one in my possession sickened under
these circumstances, and did not recover until relieved from the cause of
vexation, by his rival, the Siamang, being removed into another apartment."

An interesting female of this species, now exhibiting (August, 1840)
in London, displays such agility, power, and address, as to confirm all
that M. Duvaucel has remarked respecting the activity of the animal in its
native forests : but its intelligence is of a far higher order than he is
willing attribute either to this or any Gibbon.

Previously to its arrival in England, this animal had lived for four years,
at Macao, in captivity, where, as the Author was informed, she had so
severely injured a man, by lacerating him with her long canine teeth, as to
occasion his death ; and that, subsequently, she has inflicted on persons
wounds so serious, that it was found necessary to file off the points of the
canines, by way of precaution against further mischief. Her countenance,
surrounded by a full brown-black beard, displays cunning and mistrust ;
her dark eyes are expressive, and her gaze is often earnest and inquiring.
When at rest, her favourite position is that of sitting in a crouched
attitude, at the fork of one of the branches of the tree in her spacious
apartment, so as almost to shroud herself from view ; and from this post
she watches intently everything that passes around, or the motions of any
person endeavouring to gain a sight of her. It is not without impatience

430 QUADRUMANA.

that she submits to discipline : she has often turned upon her keeper with
every demonstration of anger, and engaged with him in a struggle for
the mastery. It is almost impossible to convey in words an idea of the
quickness and graceful address of her movements : they may, indeed, be
termed aerial, as she seems merely to touch, in her progress, the branches
among which she exhibits her evolutions. In these feats her hands and
arms are the sole organs of locomotion ; her body hanging, as if suspended
by a rope, sustained by one hand (the right, for example), she launches her-
self, by an energetic movement, to a distant branch, which she catches with
the left hand : but her hold is less than momentary ; the impulse for the
next launch is acquired : the branch then aimed at is attained by the right
hand again, and quitted instantaneously, and so on, in alternate succession.
In this manner, spaces of twelve and eighteen feet are cleared with the
greatest ease, and uninterruptedly, for hours together, without the slightest
appearance of fatigue being manifested : and it is evident, that if more
space could be allowed, distances very greatly exceeding eighteen feet
would be as easily cleared ; so that Duvaucel's assertion, that he has
seen these animals launch themselves from one branch to another, forty
feet asunder, startling as it is, may be well credited. Sometimes, on
seizing a branch in her progress, she will throw herself, by the power of
one arm only, completely round it, making a revolution with such rapidity
as almost to deceive the eye, and continue her progress with undiminished
velocity. It is singular to observe how suddenly this Gibbon can stop,
when the impetus, given by the rapidity and distance of her swinging
leaps, would seem to require a gradual abatement of her movements. In
the very midst of her flight a branch is seized, the body raised, and she
is seen, as if by magic, quietly seated on it, grasping it with her feet. As
suddenly she again throws herself into action.

The following facts will convey some notion of her dexterity and quick-
ness. A live bird was let loose in her apartment ; she marked its flight,
made a long swing to a distant branch, caught the bird with one hand in
her passage, and attained the branch with her other hand ; her aim,
both at the bird and the branch, being as successful as if one object
only had engaged her attention. It may be added, that she instantly bit
off the head of the bird, picked its feathers, and then threw it down,
without attempting to eat it.

On another occasion, this animal swung herself from a perch, across
a passage, at least twelve feet wide, against a window, which it was
thought would be immediately broken ; but not so : to the surprise of all,
she caught the narrow frame-work between two panes with her hand, in
an instant attained the proper impetus, and sprang back again to the
cage she left — a feat requiring, not only great strength, but the nicest
precision. She is fond of fruit, and often displays her dexterity in

SIMIAD/E.

431

catching apples or plums, purposely thrown at her : however quickly
they may be propelled by a vigorous arm, and although pretended
throws may be made, to deceive or balk her, she never fails to catch the
fruit, and that almost without an effort.

Toward men, this animal is reserved ; and it is only by degrees that
she becomes familiar with them: she is much less distrustful towards
females, and seems greatly to prefer their presence. It is not unlikely that
circumstances subsequent to her capture may have caused this peculiarity
of disposition. This aversion to men has not been observed in any of the
Gibbons living in the menagerie of the Zoological Society of London ;
and, in this instance, it is undoubtedly the effect of severe treatment by
those who, at some period, have had the care of her.

The voice of this Gibbon is extraordinary, not only for its power and
volume, but for the succession of graduated tones in which its cry is
uttered. In a room, it is overpowering and deafening : it consists
of a repetition of the syllables oo-ah, oo-ah, at first distinctly repeated,
and ascending in the scale, but at last ending in a shake, consisting of a
quick vibratory series of descending notes, during which the whole of the
animal's frame quivers with the effort to produce them : after this, she
appears to be greatly excited, and violently shakes the netting or the branch
to which she may be clinging ; which action being finished, she again
traverses her cage, uttering the preliminary syllables oo-ah, oo-ah, till the
shake again concludes the series. It is principally in the morning that the
animal thus exerts this modulated cry, which is, probably, its natural call
to its mate, and which, from its strength, is well calculated for resounding
through the vast forests. The following observations on the voice of
this animal were obligingly presented to the Author, by Mr. Waterhouse : —

" I should endeavour to give an idea of the whooping of the Gibbon (as
far as the music is concerned, but not as regards the quality of sound),
by comparing it to the tuning of a harp ; first beginning with an E string,
and repeating it at short intervals ; then being altogether silent for a little
time, and then beginning again ; next, two strings, as it were, are struck,
E and E sharp (or F natural) : the second string is then screwed up,
by half-notes, until it reaches the octave ; the E and F natural, E and
F sharp, E and G natural, &c., being struck nearly together. It must
be observed, that, before the upper note arrives at the octave, the animal
amuses herself by occasionally descending a few semitones, then ascend-
ing again, and so on. But when the octave is once gained, and has been
sounded a few times, we may imagine the upper string to be very rapidly
let down by semitones ; the lower note remaining the same as at first,
and the two strings being always struck together.* The rapidity of the

* It appears, all through this rapid chromatic passage, as if the animal emitted two notes at a
time, as in the music ; but this is the effect of the rapid transition from the lower note to the upper.

432

QUADRUMANA.

descending passage is equal to that of an extremely brilliant shake.
The animal then remains quiet for a short time; after which follow two
barks, each composed of the low and high E, sounded nearly together.

" It appeared to me that, in ascending and descending the scale, the
intervals were always exactly half-tones ; and I am sure that the highest
note was the exact octave to the lowest. In this passage the lips were
engaged, and rapidly vibrated during its execution.

" The quality of the notes is very musical ; and I do not doubt that a
good violinist would be able to give a correct idea of the Gibbon's com-
position, excepting as regards its loudness. The Gibbon's voice is, cer-
tainly, much more powerful than that of any singer I ever heard.

" One more fact I noticed, viz., that the Gibbon is usually a long time
before she comes to the rapidly-descending passage ; but when she has
given it once, she soon runs through the preliminary part of her compo-
sition, and again comes to the descending passage."

Allegretto. Accellerando. Crescendo.

. ,11 ' '

ill I J ~ZT.jQ^/n .'^i /fi

J JjJJeUj4*tnr?ir77tTHl 'r '
w¥w r r r v f v i ^—

Prestissimo.

With regard to the intelligence of this Gibbon, it is, certainly, far
superior to that of the lower Monkeys ; though, perhaps, not so high
as that of the Chimpanzee. She disengages, with judgment, the loops of
a rope or chain, which, by being entangled, would impede her progress ;
and she ascertains the direction of each coil before attempting to untwine
it, performing the task with great precision. In the apartment where
she is now confined, she is not secured by a rope or chain ; but a small
chain hangs from a collar round her neck : as this would swing about,
in her movements, and thus incommode her, she holds it with her foot,
while performing her feats of agility, so as to prevent it from being agi-
tated; and, when she rests, she throws it over a branch, or otherwise
disposes it, that she may not be troubled by it. She is observant of
everything : she notices the actions of those about her, and will often
watch them with an appearance of interest. Slight as is the contour of this
animal, her strength is very great : the muscles of the shoulders are very
voluminous, and indicate the ease with which long-continued dependence
from the branches is maintained. The reach of the extended arms is said
to be six feet. The colour of this individual differs somewhat from

THi WHITE-HANDED GIBBON
(Hylobates Lar.)

SIMIAD^E. 433

that of other specimens which have been noticed. The face is black ; the
arms, hands, and feet, together with the lower part of the back, and a line
between the shoulders to the occiput, are of a greyish hue ; an obscure
greyish-white stripe runs over the eyes ; the ears are hidden by the full
whiskers, which, together with the chest, abdomen, and inner parts of
the limbs, are brownish black ; the toes of the feet were carefully
examined, and found to be all free.

Fruits of various kinds, bread, lettuces, and eggs, compose the diet
upon which the animal is fed: she is said to be partial to blades of
grass also, which she will pick and eat with avidity.

THE WHITE-HANDED GIBBON.

HYLOBATES LAR.

Grand Gibbon BUFFON, xiv. p. 92, c. fig. fern. t. i. 1766.

Homo Lar LINNJEUS, Mantiss. Plant. Append, p. 521 1771.

Simla longimana SCHREBER, Saugth. p. 66, pi. 2. fig. 1. 1775-9.

Simla longimana, Grand et Petit Gibbon, ERXLEBEN, Regn. An. p. 10. 1777.

Simla Lar LINN^IUS, Syst. Ed. Gmelin. 1788.

Le Gibbon AUDEBERT, Fam. i. 2. fig. 3. 1797.

Pithecus Lar GEOFFROY, in Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

Pithecus Lar DESMAREST, Mamm. 1820.

Simla albimana VIGORS and HORSEFIELD, Zool. Journal, iv. p. 107. 1828.

Simla Lar FISCHER, Syn. Mamm. 1829.

Hylobates Lar LESSON, Species des Mamm. 1840.

Petit Gibbon BUFFON, xiv. c. fig. 3. 1766.

, Simla Lar, /3 LJNNJEUS, Syst. Ed. Gmelin. 1788.

Pithecus variegatus GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. p. 88. 1812.

Pithecus variegatus KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

Pithecus variegatus DESMAREST, Mamm. 1820.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Fur soft and woolly ; colour brown, or black brown ; superciliary
stripe ; circle round face ; hands and feet white, or yellowish white ; the first and
second finger of foot sometimes united at the base.

LOCALITIES.— Malacca, Siam.

DESCRIPTION. — Description of an adult female, in the Musee du Roi,
Paris, brought from Java by M. Diard. Hair of hands and feet close
and stiff; the hands, to just above the wrist-joint, and the feet, including
the ankle-joint, are abruptly white ; a decided white superciliary line ; the
circle round the eyes is naked and brown ; the rest of the face and the
nose are sparingly covered with white hairs, which increase in length and
thickness along the sides of the face, forming whiskers, so that, looking
in front, the whole face appears encircled by a white border ; the fur
of the head, body, and limbs, is full, long, soft, and of a deep umber, or
blackish brown, paler on the back ; soles and palms black.

ft. in.

Length from vertex to callosities 15

Ditto hip-joint to heel 1 If

Ditto top of shoulder to wrist 16

A second specimen, in the same Museum, is similar to the preceding.

VOL. 1 :5 K

434 QUADRUMANA.

Description of 'a specimen (female) in the possession of Mr. Gould.'
General colour deep uniform brown, shaded into black on the top of
the head ; a white line, about half an inch wide, runs over the forehead,
passes down the sides of the face, and joins the whiskers and beard,
which are also white ; this colour extends back to the throat and sub-
auricular region, where it is intermixed with pale brown hairs; eye-
brows black ; hands and feet yellowish white, this colour being extended
on to the wrist and ankle ; fur long, soft, thick, and woolly ; palms and
soles black ; index and second toe not joined.

ft. in.

Total height . . . . ' 24

Length of foot 05

Ditto hand 0 5§

A male specimen of H. Lar, adult, examined at the museum of the
Zoological Society, London (January 7th, 1839), agreed with the above
description, both as to colour and the disunion of the toes.

Description of a young female from Sumatra, in the Rafflesian collec-
tion of the museum of the Zoological Society, London (No. 4, in Catalogue,
Mamm. &c. 1838). General colour black, assuming a brownish tinge on
the crupper, chest, and abdomen ; a band of white across the forehead
passes round the face, extending over the chin to the throat ; hands and feet
white above the wrist and ankle-joints ; the fur is firm, woolly, and rather
short on the head ; the eyebrows consist of long black hairs ; ears, palms,
and soles black ; index and second toe united, by a broad web, to the end
of the first phalanx ; slight webs appearing also between the rest. Total
height about two feet one inch.

Description of a young female specimen in the Musee du Roi,
Paris, brought from Java by M. Diard, 1826. Face surrounded with
white, which extends as far back as the ears, along the angle of the lower
jaw, and over the throat. The white of the hands and feet is neither abrupt
nor pure (as in the adult specimens). The general tint of the fur is dark
brown, paler on the crupper, and passing into a dusky straw colour around
the ischiatic callosities, where the hair is of a firm texture, and glossy.
Height, twenty-eight inches.

The Author has been thus particular in the description of Hylobates
Lar, because a pale variety (as Daubenton, Linnaeus, and others conceived
it to be) is now regarded, by several eminent naturalists, as distinct from
it, and has been characterized under the title of Hylobates variegatus ; the
degree to which the union between the index and middle toes is respectively
carried, and a difference in the intensity of general colouring, being assumed
as the evidences of distinction. Now, with respect to the union of the
toes in question, which is asserted to be as complete and close in H.
variegatus as in the Siamang, it is to be observed, that, unless this
character have been traced, without deviation, through a numerous series

SIMIAD.E. 4o5

of examples, much stress cannot be laid upon it. In H. Lar, the index
and middle toes are said to be united by a broad web, but not carried
quite throughout the whole of the first phalanx : and such is the case in
the specimen in the museum of the Zoological Society, London. Out
of six specimens, however, examined with particular care by Mr,
Waterhouse (and which formed part of a collection sent to London
for sale), one only, and that a female, had the toes united: in another
female, and in four male specimens, this peculiarity was absent. Hence
we are led]_to conclude, that in H. Lar, at least, the union varies in
degree ; and its being rather more decided in the only specimen of H.
variegatus, in which it has been observed, than in a specimen of H. Lar,
is no proof that, therefore, the two are specifically distinct.

With regard to colour, the H. Lar is said to be of a deep black ; the H.
variegatus of a dirty light brown, passing on the abdomen, loins, and crupper,
into dirty yellowish white (the facial circle, hands, and feet, being white
in both). The " Grand Gibbon" of Buffon (brought, as he states, from
Pondicherry), is, indeed, described as being black ; and such may be said
to be the colour of the young specimen in the Rafflesian collection of the
museum of the Zoological Society (No. 4, in Catalogue, 1838); but in no
other specimens which the Author has examined has this been the general
colour. Of the six specimens (already referred to), examined by Mr.
Waterhouse, viz., four males and two females, one was of a dirty, yel-
lowish white colour, the hands and feet being white : in other respects it
agreed with the rest, which were brown-black, with dirty-white feet and
hands ; but, in one male, the lower part of the back was of a very pale
brown, like white-brown paper.

The specimens in the Museum at Paris are of a deep umber-brown, be-
coming paler on the crupper. Mr. Gould's specimen was deep brown,
shaded into black only on the top of the head. In the specimen of H.
variegatus, in the Rafflesian collection of the museum of the Zoological
Society (No. 9, in Catalogue, 1838), though the tints are all lighter, their
character is the same. The general hue is pale brown, becoming still paler
on the crupper, but deepening, on the top of the head, into blackish brown;
the arms and inferior extremities being almost as intense. The Petit Gibbon
of Buffon (from Malacca), is described as having been grey, mingled with
brown, and with a grey crupper. As, then, we find among acknowledged
specimens of H. Lar, a variation in colour, from black to umber-brown,
those of the latter colour having the top of the head darker, and the loins
and lower part of the back paler than the general hue, it is not assuming too
much, to consider specimens differing only in being of a still lighter tint,
and that rather in parts than generally, to be nothing more than varieties.*

* Since writing the above, the Author has had an opportunity of examining a specimen of the H.
variegatus (H. Lar var.) : it was a young female. The general colour was brown, darkest on the top

436 QUADRUMANA.

The preceding views have been recently confirmed by Dr. Miiller, who
notices a variation in the colouring of the H. longimanus (H. Lar), similar
to that which prevails in the Ungka'puti, or H. agilis. " The proper Lar
or Great Gibbon of Buffon," he states, " has been described by Messrs.
Vigors and Horsefield, under a new name — that of S. albimana. This
species is only observed on the Continent of India, in the neighbourhood
of Malacca and Siam, where it appears to be common. It is rather larger
than the Oengko of Sumatra, and is distinguished by a more slender
figure, and by longer arms. Of this species, also, individuals are found,
both of a dark and of a paler hue ; but those of the darker colour seem to
be most common. Generally, the yellowish-white individuals, less abundant
than the dark, prove to be females of this species (the true S. longimana,
Schreber). The adult male is commonly of a dark brownish black colour,
with the exception of a circle round the face ; and of the hands, which are
of a pale yellow-ochre tint. Generally, the aged female is coloured in the
same manner ; but the tint of the body is a little paler, and approaches a
yellowish brown."

GENERAL HISTORY. — Of the habits and manners of the white-handed
Gibbon, or Lar, no details have been received : it may, however, be safely
presumed, that they resemble those of the agile Gibbon, and other species.

SILVERY GIBBON, OR WOU-WOU OF CAMPER.

HYLOSATES LEUCISCUS. (Hylobates leuciscus, KUHL, Beitr. p. 6. 1820).

Wou-wou CAMPER, in Allgemeene, vaterland'sche Letteroefeningen,

i. p. 18.

Simla leucisca SCHREBER, Saugth. tab. iii. b. 1775.

Moloch Audebert Fara. i. sec. i. fig. 2. 1797.

Pithecus leuciscus GEOFFROY, in Ann. du Mus. xix. for 1812.

Pithecus leuciscus DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 51. 1823.

Simia leucisca FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 12. 1829.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— Fur long, soft, woolly; colour grey, paler on the loins; vertex
dusky ; a frontal stripe more or less conspicuous ; and the hairs round the face
whitish, or paler than the fur of the body.

LOCALITY.— Java.

DESCRIPTION. — The fur is fine, long, close, and woolly. The general
colour is ashy grey, sometimes slightly tinged with brown, paler on the
lower part of the back ; the top of the head, and the backs of the hands

of the head, where it was nearly black, and whence it extended, a little paler, over the shoulders and
upper part of the back, thence gradually fading to pale brown on the haunches and rump ; the legs and
arms were pale brown; the abdomen was brownish grey; a white frontal band, extended over the
whiskers, at the sides of the face, and over the beard beneath the chin, but with a tinge of yellow; the
hands, including the wrist and the feet, were yellowish white ; the short hairs on the face were dirty
white ; under the chin the beard was full, but at the sides of the face rather shorter ; the chin itself
was only scantily clad with hair ; the long superciliary hairs were black ; the fur was generally paler at
the base. On the top of the head the fur was rather short, wavy, or wool-like, and directed backward
from the forehead. The index and second toe, but partially united, at the base of the first phalanx.

SIMIAD^E.

437

and feet are brown ; the sides of the face are white, or whitish ; the eye-
brows, black ; a superciliary stripe of white is sometimes distinguishable, as
in three specimens in the Museum at Paris ; one of which has the whiskers
and beard white, so that the face is encircled by this colour. The soles
and palms are black ; all the hind toes free. An adult female, in the Paris
Museum, has the top of the head washed with black ; the superciliary
mark is dusky white ; the full whiskers round the face are whitish
grey ; the general colour is ashy grey, passing into a blackish brown on
the chest, around the mammae ; the face is thinly covered with black hairs ;
on the chest the hair is thin and straight ; on the rest of the body
wavy, soft, full, and deep. Miiller, who met with this species in Java,
where he states that it is called Oa-oa, describes it as being somer
times of a, darker, sometimes of a paler grey ; sometimes of a yellowish,
rarely of a brownish grey, with a circle of white, or light grey, round the
face : in aged animals, he adds, the chest becomes of a blackish colour.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The recognition of the Silvery Gibbon, or
Wou-wou, as a distinct species, is due to the celebrated anatomist,
Camper ; the specimen dissected by him, was brought from one of the
Moluccas: in these islands it is said to haunt the tall cane jungles,
among which it displays extraordinary activity.

Two specimens in the museum of the Zoological Society of London
(Nos. 8 and 8 a), are stated, in the Catalogue of Mammalia for 1838, to
have been obtained in Java. Three specimens in the Museum of
Paris are said to have been brought from Sumatra by M. Diard ; but
they were, most probably, brought to that island from Java. It would
appear that two, if not three, living individuals have, at different times,
existed in England : the first of these is described by Pennant ; it belonged
to Lord Clive ; and was lively, good-tempered, and frolicsome. In 1828,
a young male existed in the menagerie of the Zoological Society of London,
where, however, it soon died a victim to the influence of our uncongenial
climate. The following notes respecting it have been obtained.

" The shoulders of this animal were broad, but the rest of the body
was slender and short ; he seemed melancholy, and very timid, generally
squatting down by the fire, with his long arms and hands resting on his
knees : in this position, on account of his small stature when sitting, and
his dusky colour, he was frequently overlooked. He never appeared to
walk erect without support : before he arose, he would stretch out his
hand, and grasp some neighbouring object ; and, even with such assist-
ance, he leaned forward very much, and was obliged to stride, bend his
knees, and spread out the extremities of his hinder limbs, particularly the
thumbs, in order to gain a secure footing. Although usually gentle, he was
rather uncertain in temper, and would, occasionally, attempt to bite a
stranger. To those whom he knew, he was very affectionate, and

438 QUADRUMANA.

would cling round them for warmth and protection. The' expression
of his countenance was melancholy. He ate almost any vegetable sub-
stance ; but apples and oranges seemed to be his favourite food. The
vivacity and playfulness of the Monkeys appeared to annoy him exceed-
ingly. When irritated by the caresses of his next neighbour, a green
Monkey, he would give it a short, quick snap with his teeth, and retreat
instantly to his corner. His usual cry was pensive ; and, whilst uttering
it, he would often turn up his large eyes towards the face of a bystander^
in a most expressive manner, apparently indicative of pain, or, at least,
of great uneasiness. He had two other kinds of voice : — one may be
described as a sort of indistinct muttering ; and the other, which he used
when angry, as a quick chattering."

THE HOOLOCK.

HYLOBATES HOOLOCK.

Fefe of the Chinese Frontier (?), RECUEIL des Voyages, &c. Rouen, vol. iii. p. 168. 1716.
Golock DE VISME, Phil. Trans, vol. lix. p. 72, 1769, communicated Jan.

7, 1768.
Simla Hoolock HAKLAN, Trans, of Amer. Phil. Soc. iv. New Series, p. 52,

1830, and in Phys. Res. 1830.
Hylobates Scyritus OGILBY, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1837, and in Monkeys, &c. pt. i.

p. 170. 1838.

Hoolock MCCLELLAND, Cat. of Assam Animals, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1839.

Hylobates Houloch ....... LESSON, Species des Mamm. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Fur crisp ; glossy black, with a white superciliary stripe.
LOCALITY. — Assam.

DESCRIPTION. — Description of a specimen (young female) in the mu-
seum of the Zoological Society, London (No. 5, in Catalogue of Mammalia,
1838). — Fur rigid, frizzly, shining, and of a black colour, with some-
what of a vinous tinge ; a narrow band of white crosses the forehead,
scarcely extending beyond the eyes, leaving the whiskers of the same black
colour as the rest of the body. The hair of the fore-arms is reverted to the
elbows ; the hind-toes are free ; the face is dusky plumbeous ; the height is
about two feet six inches. It was presented to the Zoological Society by
the late Major-General Hardwicke, who received it from India, — probably
from the Malay Peninsula.

In the intensity of the colouring of this species, at least during its
immaturity, there is, probably, some degree of variation, as is the case
with some of the other species, even when they have attained maturity.
Dr. Harlan, to whom is owing the first distinct and accurate description
(with figures of the adult, of the young, and of the cranium), observes
that, in the young, the frontal band is broader than in the adults ; that the
general colour of the fur is blackish brown ; the middle of the breast and
the buttocks, greyish ; and the beard, or tuft on the chin, grey ; and that
the backs of the hands and feet are spotted with this colour also. Three

439

of these animals, two of them adult males, the third a young female, all
captured on the Garrow Hills, in the vicinity of the town of Goalpara,
Assam, between lat. 25° and 27° north, died in the possession of Dr.
Burrough, whose description of them is replete with interest. The skull
of one male, the skin of the other, and that of the young female (from
which Dr. Harlan's figures are taken), were deposited in the Museum of
Philadelphia. The following are the admeasurements of the adult
male, as given by Dr. Harlan. Total length two feet six inches.

in.

Length of humerus . . , . . . . . • : 8 JL
Ditto radius ...::..•. 9

Ditto inferior extremity .' 13

Ditto foot 6

GENERAL HISTORY. — Previously to Dr. Burrough, Col. Gordon trans-
mitted to Professor Allamand a description of the habits of this species, which
appeared in Latreille's Bujfon, vol. xxxv. p. 140. Professor Allamand, in
his additions to the Dutch translation of Bujffbn, says : " Mr. Gordon has
sent me the drawing of an Orang, which the King of Assam presented to
Mr. Harewood, whose brother brought it to the Cape, where it died, and
Mr. Gordon made a drawing of it." The information Mr. Gordon acquired
is, in substance, as follows. The animal is called Voulock in its native coun-
try : the individual in question, a female, was mild^and gentle, disliked small
Monkeys, walked always in the upright attitude, and could even run very
fast ; when walking on a table, or among China ware, she was careful not
to break anything ; when climbing, she used only her hands ; her knees
were simliar to those of Man ; her cry was sharp and deafening, resembling
the syllables Yaa-hoo, Yaa-hoo, with the emphasis on the last syllable.
A low guttural sound expressed her feelings of content or satisfaction.
Her food consisted of vegetables and milk ; she refused animal food of
every kind, to which she manifested great repugnance ; when thirsty, she
plunged her fingers into water and then licked them. She could not
endure to be dressed in clothes, but, to keep herself warm, would cover
herself with pieces of sail-cloth, or other materials.

Dr. Burrough, in his description, remarks, that Hoolock is the
Assamese name of this Gibbon, and that a full-grown one lived in his
possession from January to May. " They inhabit, more particularly, the
lower hills, not being able to endure the cold of those ranges of the
Garrows of more than 400 or 500 feet elevation. Their food consists,
for the most part, of fruits common only to the jungle in this district of
country ; and they are particularly fond of the seeds and fruits of that
sacred tree of India, called the peepul-tree, and which, on the Garrow
hills, attains a very large size. They likewise partake of some species
of grass ; and also the tender twigs and leaves of the peepul and other

440 QUADRUMANA.

trees, which they chew, swallow the juice, and reject the indigestible part.
They are easily tamed ; and, when first taken, shew no disposition to
bite, unless provoked to anger, and, even then, manifest a reluctance to
defend themselves, preferring to retreat to some corner rather than to
attack their enemy: they walk erect; and, when placed upon a floor,
or in an open field, balance themselves very prettily, by raising their
hand over their head, and slightly bending the arm at the wrist and
elbow, and then run tolerably fast, rocking from side to side ; and, if
urged to greater speed, they let fall their hands to the ground, and assist
themselves forward, rather jumping than running ; still keeping the body,
however, nearly erect. If they succeed in making their way to a grove
of trees, they then swing, with such astonishing rapidity, from branch to
branch, and from tree to tree, that they are soon lost in the jungle, or forest.
" The individual in question (an adult male, with long canine teeth) be-
came so tame and manageable, in less than a month, that he would take
hold of my hand and walk with me, helping himself along, at the same
time, with the other hand applied to the ground, as described above. He
would come at my call, and seat himself in a chair by my side, at the break-
fast table, and help himself to an egg, or the wing of a chicken, from my
plate, without endangering any of my table furniture. He would partake of
coffee, chocolate, milk, tea, &c. ; and, although his usual mode of taking
liquids was by dipping his knuckles into the cup, and licking his fingers ;
still, when apparently more thirsty, he would take up the vessel, from
which I fed him, with both hands, and drink, like a man, from a spring.
His principal food consisted of boiled rice, boiled bread and milk, with
sugar, plantains, bananas, oranges, — all of which he ate, but seemed best
pleased with bananas : he was fond of insects, and would search in the
crevices of my house for Spiders ; and if a Fly chanced to come within
his reach, he would dexterously catch him in one hand, generally using
his right hand. Like many of the different religious castes of this country
(India), he seemed to entertain an antipathy to an indiscriminate use of
animal food, and would not eat of either the flesh of the Cow or Hog, but
would sometimes taste a little piece of beef, but never eat of it. I have
seen him take fried fish, which he seemed to relish better than almost
any other description of animal food, with the exception of chicken ; and
even this he would eat but very sparingly of, preferring his common diet.
In temper he was remarkably pacific, and seemed, as I thought, often
glad to have an opportunity of testifying his affection and attachment for
me. When I visited him in the morning, he would commence a loud
and shrill whoo-whoo, whoo-whoo, which he would often keep up from
five to ten minutes, with an occasional intermission, for the purpose of
taking a full respiration ; until, finally, apparently quite exhausted, he
would lie down, and allow me to comb his head, and brush the long hair

SIMIAD.E. 441

on his arms ; and seemed delighted with the tickling sensation produced
by the brush on his stomach and legs. He would turn from side to side ;
first hold out one arm and then the other ; and, when I attempted to go
away, he would catch hold of my arm, or coat-tail, and pull me back
again, to renew my little attention to him, daily bestowed. If I called
to him from a distance, and he could recognise my voice, he would
at once set up his usual cry, which he sometimes gradually brought
down to a kind of moan, but, generally, assumed his louder tone when
I approached him."

It is not improbable that the Gibbon, termed Fefe in the frontiers
of China, may be identical with the Hoolock, notwithstanding the difference
between the two names. " In the kingdom of Gaunaure, frontier of China,
there exists an animal very rare, which they call Fefe. It has almost
the human form : the arms are very long ; the body black and hairy : it
walks lightly, and very fast." — Recueil de Voy. &c. : torn. Hi. p. 168.
Rouen: 1716.

Two specimens of this Gibbon have recently (1840) died in the
menagerie of the Zoological Society, London ; and are now preserved in
the museum. In one individual (both were young), the hairs around the
face had a brownish tinge ; on the top of the head, the hairs lay flat and
close, and were directed backward ; around the face they formed full
whiskers. The following figure (274) is a characteristic portrait of one
of these animals.

274

Head of Hoolock.
VOL I 3 I.

442 QUADRUMANA.

Their activity and address, while alive, was astonishing : they
launched themselves, by means of their long arms, from branch to
branch, in their spacious compartment, with the greatest ease, and with
an air of nonchalance, as if the most apparently difficult feats were
merely trifles. They were extremely gentle, and rather timid ; it was
only occasionally that they exerted their voice, which was a loud, disso-
275 nant, monosyllabic cry, continued for

some time without intermission.

The annexed figure (2 75) represents
the skull of one of these individuals,
preserved in the cabinet of osteology
in the museum of the Zoological
Society.

According to Mr. McClelland (see

Proceedings Zool. Soc. p. 148, 1839),

uii of Hooiock. the Hoolock inhabits the Cossiah moun-

tains and valley of Assam : its colour is uniformly black, except the
eyebrows, which are white. Some individuals are greyish yellow. " It
is possessed of the most wonderful activity, making use of its arms in
swinging from tree to tree ; nor is the female in any way restrained in
her movements by the young, which she carries suspended to her body."

THE CHOROMANDUS GIBBON.

HYLOBATES CHOROMANDUS. (Hylobates Choromandus, OGILBY, in Proceed. Zool. Soc. Lond.

for 1837, p. 68.)

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Fur full and woolly ; that on the head elongated and erect; colour,
pale yellowish brown ; beard full ; this, with the chest, axillae, and abdomen, brown ;
nose elevated ; face covered with short, yellowish grey hairs.

LOCALITY. — Continental India, probably the Malay Peninsula.

DESCRIPTION. — The head is large and rounded ; the nose is prominent
at the end, with broad septum between the nostrils ; the toes are all free ;
the fur is full, deep, woolly, and glossy, that on the head forming an
upright, bushy wig. The general colouring resembles that of H. agilis,
and may be described as of a pale yellowish brown, or tawny white ; full
whiskers surround the face ; and these, together with the beard below the
chin, are of a dark chocolate brown, which colour, but of a paler tint,
tinges the chest, the axillae, and the abdomen ; the hairs on the fingers and
toes are black to the nails, but the rest of the hands and feet are of the
same hue as the arm and leg, &c. ; the face, which is covered with close,
minute hairs, particularly about the nose, is of a pale greyish brown,
instead of being naked and black, as in H. agilis.

THE CHOROMANDUS GIBBON.
(Hylobates Choromandus. Ogilb.)

SIMIAD.E. 443

Height, when erect, two feet eight inches and a half,

Original specimen (female), in the museum of the Zoological Society,
No. 6 of Catalogue of Mamm. for 1838.

The recognition of the H. Choromandus, as a distinct species, is due
to Mr. Ogilby, whose observations on it will be found in the Proceedings
of the Zool. Soc. of London, for 1837, p. 68; the museum of which society
contains the only known example. This, together with a specimen of the
Hoolock, obtained from the same locality, was presented, many years since,
by the late General Hardwicke ; and both were regarded as specifically
identical, — the one (H. Choromandus) as the female, and the other as the
male. The identity, however, of the H. Choromandus, and of the Hoolock,
as Mr. Ogilby well observes, is " sufficiently disproved, not only by the
fact, that both specimens in question are of the same sex (females), and from
our being perfectly acquainted with both sexes of the Hoolock, but, like-
wise, by the marked difference of colour and external structure exhibited
by the two animals. The greater height of the forehead, and prominence
of the nose, in the new species, are alone sufficient to distinguish it from
all the other Gibbons ; while its ashy brown colour, and large, black
whiskers, render it impossible to confound it with the Hoolock, which has
fur of a shining black, and a pure white band across the forehead."

GENERAL HISTORY. — The circumstances attendant upon the capture
of the specimen from which the description is taken, and all details
respecting the habits of the animal in its native region, are alike utterly
unknown.

HARLAN'S GIBBON.

HYLOBATES CONCOLOR.

Simla concolor HAKLAN, in Journ. of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences of Philadel-
phia, vol. v. p. 229. Oct. 1826.
Hylobates Harlani LESSON, in Bull, des Sciences Nat. torn. xiii. p. 111.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Fur full, crisp, and universally black.
LOCALITY. — Borneo.

DESCRIPTION. — The hair is black, thick, woolly, and frizzled, covering
all parts except the palms, the soles, the face, and ears ; these, and the
skin generally, being also black ; the orbits are prominent ; the nose is
elevated ; the arms are very long ; the guttural sac is wanting.

In the year 1826, Dr. Harlan published the first and only account of
this singular Gibbon, from a specimen which had then recently died at
New York, after having lived in that city four or five months. In figure
it resembled the rest of the genus ; in height it measured two feet two
inches ; and its arms were one foot six inches long. It was said to be
rather less than two years of age at its death. The countenance of this

444 QUADRUMANA.

animal was more human in appearance than that of any other Ape (the
Chimpanzee, perhaps, excepted), the nose having a greater prominence
than that of the Orang ; the orbits, also, were more projecting, and the
facial angle of a higher degree. The rudiments only of callosities were
perceptible. The example in question was an hermaphrodite ; the species,
therefore, cannot be held as positively determined, until specimens more
regularly formed shall have been examined. This Gibbon was a native of
Borneo : its habits, in a state of confinement, were very gentle ; and it
manifested much intelligence and docility. It was fond of fruits, particu-
larly grapes. When standing erect, the fingers nearly touched the ground.
The ribs were fourteen pairs ; the cervical vertebrae, seven ; the dorsal,
fourteen ; the lumbar, five ; the sacral, five ; the coccygeal, five.

GENERAL HISTORY. — Miiller, in his work on the Zoology of the Indian
Archipelago, describes a Gibbon found in Borneo, under the name of H.
concolor, but which does not agree with the species thus designated by Dr.
Harlan. He informs us that it is called Kalawet by the Dayaks of the
interior and meridional parts of Borneo, and Oea-oea by the Malays. Not-
withstanding great differences between them, it is, he says, nearly allied
to H. leuciscus, the ground colour being the same in both. This varies
from a pale to a dark yellowish-brown colour; the chest and abdomen arc-
frequently of a lighter tint than the other parts, and of a brownish yellow.
This description applies to the individuals found on the west coast of
Borneo ; for those inhabiting the meridional parts of that island have the
hands and forepart of the body of a black brown, or sometimes of a rusty
black colour. Both the males and females have, on the forehead, a trans-
verse stripe of yellowish white ; but the woolly hair on the sides of the
face never becomes of this pale colour. It is impossible to say decidedly
to what species the Gibbon thus characterized is referable ; or whether, or
not, two species are indicated. Had not Miiller expressly asserted the
Ungka-puti, and its variety the Ungka-etam (H. agilis), to be found only
in Sumatra, it might be taken for that animal. In some respects it agrees
with the Choromandus ; but, besides having no pale superciliary stripes,
this latter Gibbon is from some part of continental India. The Hoo-
lock, which is black, with a white superciliary stripe, is from Assam.
Perhaps it will be best, until farther information be obtained, to give to this
Bornean Gibbon the provisional name of Hylobates Mulleri ; but without
admitting it into the list of accredited species.

With regard to Harlan's Gibbon, nothing is known of its habits and
manners. Lesson, on what authority does not appear, considers the ani-
mal to be identical with the Ungka-etam (Hylobates Rafflesii, Geoff'.),
which he terms Hylobates Unko. (See Species des Mammifcrcs, p. 53,
1840.)

THB WHITE-CHEEKED GIBBON.
( H ylo bates Leuco s enys . 0 glib . )

SIMIADJE. 445

THE WHITE-CHEEKED GIBBON.

HYLOBATES LEUCOGENYS. (Hylobates Leucogenys, OGILBY, in Proceed. Zool. Soc. Feb. 1840.)

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Fur full and black ; face black, surrounded by white whiskers,

and a white beard ; hair of the head erect.
LOCALITY. — (?)

DESCRIPTION. — Description of a specimen (immature female) in the
museum of the Zoological Society, London. Form very slender ; fur
thick, deep, and woolly, with a gloss ; the hair on the head is straight,
and rises up vertically erect, adding to the apparent height of the cranium,
and giving an oval contour to the face, viewed in front ; the general colour
is deep black, as is the face, including the chin and ears ; this colour
contrasts with a frill-like border of long white hairs, forming whiskers
and a beard, encircling the face ; the whiskers consist of long hairs
running back from the face, met by others advancing from the neck,
and thus standing out in the frill-like manner described ; the hairs on
the throat are white, and directed upward to the whiskers ; the palms
are black ; the index and second finger of the foot are not united.
Height, when erect, about two feet four inches.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The specimen from which the foregoing descrip-
tion is taken, was living, for some time, in company with the two Hoolocks
previously mentioned, in the gardens of the Zoological Society. It dis-
played the same activity and gentleness as its companions, with whom it
was perfectly familiar, gamboling with the utmost freedom. Its mode of
276 progression was by a series of swinging

leaps, or, rather, launches, from branch to
branch, from which it hung suspended by
its arms, except when reposing, or during
sleep. No information respecting its habits
in a state of freedom has been collected;
nor has the precise locality, where it was
captured, been ascertained.

of white-cheeked Gibbon. The annexed figure (276) represents

the skull of this Gibbon, which is remarkable for its vertical elevation.

SUB-FAMILY II. — Under the term Monkey (a word derived, according
to Dr. Johnson, from Monikin, a little Man ; but most probably from the
Egyptian term, Monichi), are popularly comprehended all the Simiadae
(and, indeed, the Cebidae also,) provided with long tails ; the term,
Baboon, being applied to the short-tailed Simiadae, as a distinctive title.
The application of a term, sanctioned by long usage, to things having cer-
tain characters in common, though always loose, and often leading to erro-

446 QUA DRUM AN A.

neous ideas, cannot be altered ; and it is worse than useless to attempt
its restriction. In the present instance, it is incumbent on the naturalist
to guard against the mistake, into which many have fallen, of conceiving
that all the Old World Simiadae with long tails, that is, Monkeys, con-
stitute a group per se, separate from the Baboons, on the one side, and
from the tail-less Apes on the other. The fact is, that two genera, from
among the Monkeys alone, form a distinct group, founded upon characters
of the utmost importance, and influencing alike the nature of their regi-
men, their habits, and manners ; while the rest of the genera pass by so
gradual a transition into that of the Baboons, that it is impossible to point
out a line of demarcation between them. All have the stomach and
teeth of the same structural type ; the tail, ever variable, is long in some,
moderate in others, and in several very short ; the muzzle varies in
its degree of elongation, and its form, from the Cercopithecus, through
the Macaques, to the rib-nosed Baboon. In these points, however, we
behold only variations of degree, connected, no doubt, with certain modi-
fications of habits and manners, though not important structural changes,
necessarily influencing the whole economy.

The present group, or sub-family, consists of Monkeys having a
complex, highly sacculated stomach, with a long intestinal canal, a slender
form of body, and elongated extremities. Two genera exhibit these cha-
racters ; viz., Semnopithecus, peculiar to India and its islands ; and, as
we have every reason to believe, Colobus, peculiar to Africa.

GENUS.— SEMNOPITHECUS.
Semnopithecus F. CUVIER.

GENERIC CHARACTERS. — MUZZLE depressed; HEAD round; SUPERCI-
LIARY RIDGE prominent, and with a row of long, stiff hairs projecting
forward, and slightly upward ; MOLARS crowned with obtuse tuber-
cles ; the last molar of the lower jaw with a fifth tubercle, seated
posteriorly ; CHEEK-POUCHES wanting ; LARYNGAL SAC large ; ISCHI-
ATIC TUBEROSITIES moderate ; BODY slender ; LIMBS long ; the thumb
of the hand small, and short ; STOMACH large, and highly sacculated ;
INTESTINES long ; TAIL slender and elongated ; FUR soft, flowing, and
often glossy.

COUNTRY. — India and its islands, and the Malay Peninsula.

When Fred. Cuvier established the genus Semnopithecus, he was not
aware of the complex structure of the stomach, but he drew his distin-
guishing characters from external form alone : anatomy has confirmed the
justice of his views ; and if the data, upon which the genus now rests,

447

are more definite and satisfactory, his discrimination merits not the less
praise.

Notwithstanding the presence of a long, slender, but muscular tail, which
serves as a guide and balancer in their movements, the Semnopitheci
have that, in their general form, which cannot fail to remind us of the
Gibbons. As is the case in these latter animals, the contour of their body
is spare and slender, the head is small and round, and the face depressed ;
the callosities are small, when compared with those of the Cercopitheci
and Baboons ; and the limbs are thin and elongated, as are also the hands
and feet. In the Gibbons, however, the arms only are greatly elongated ;
and these far exceed, in length, the posterior extremities : in the Semno-
pithecus, on the contrary, the posterior limbs are well developed ; the
length of the femur being more than equal to that of the humerus, and
the length of the tibia fully equalling that of the radius ; so that the pos-
terior extremities, reversely to those of the Orangs and Gibbons, exceed
the anterior.

The hands in the Semnopitheci are remarkable for their elongation
and narrowness, and for the almost rudimentary condition of the thumb,
which cannot be brought into action as an antagonist to the fingers. The
feet, also, are narrow and elongated ; but the thumb is stout and well
developed, its metatarsal bone equalling that of the first toe in length,
and far exceeding it in thickness ; while the whole thumb of the hand
scarcely passes beyond the basal joint of the first finger.

The Semnopitheci are destitute of cheek-pouches ; but they have a
large largyngal sacculus, extending over the whole throat, and advancing
even below the clavicles : this sac communicates with the larynx, by
means of a single large aperture, capable of being closed by the broad
body of the os hyoides, drawn over it by means of a muscle extending
from the anterior apex of the os hyoides, down the central aspect of
the trachea, to the sternum : when drawn down, the os hyoides presses
upon the thyroid cartilage.

The approach, in the form of the head of the Semnopitheci, to that of
the Gibbons has been noticed. The skull (fig. 277), varying in minor
details in each species (while, between the young and adult of the same
species the difference is even more decided), may be characterized, in
general terms, as round ; the orbits are large and squared, with an ab-
ruptly prominent superciliary ridge, and with boldly projecting margins ;
the interorbital space is broad, and the face depressed : the lower jaw,
however, is very deep, and the space for the masseter muscle consi-
derable ; while the chin recedes obliquely.

The teeth, especially the molars, possess peculiar characters, as might
be expected from the structure of the stomach. The incisors are small,
but stout; the canines are very large, broad, and compressed; the posterior

448

QUADRUMANA.

edge of those above being very acute. The molars are bluntly tuberculate,
instead of being crowned with sharp mammillary points, as in the Cerco-

pitheci and the Macaci : at an early
age they begin to wear down, in con-
sequence of the subrotatory action
(partly a forward, and partly a lateral
movement) of the lower jaw, the
mode, apparently, in which the food
is triturated : in this condition, the
worn surface shews the enamel very
distinct and deeply indented ; or re-
entering, in folds, into their substance,
reminding one of the teeth of the rumi-
nant. The characters thus presented
simii of semnopithecus. by tne molar teeth are in accordance

with the sacculate structure of the stomach. This remarkable structure
was first properly described by M. Otto, in the Nova A eta Academic
Ccesarece, vol. xii. 1825; but had previously been noticed by Wurmb,
in an account of the anatomy of the Kahau, or Proboscis Monkey,
published in the Memoirs of the Society of Batavia, and quoted by
Audebert, in his Histoire des Singes. He, however, merely observes,
that " the stomach is extraordinarily large, and of an irregular form,"
without entering into particulars. To M. Otto, therefore, belongs
the real merit of the discovery. The species, in which he detected
the structure in question, was the Semnopithecus leucoprymnus (re-
garded by him as a Cercopithecus) ; but its value, as a generic-
character, was not established until Professor Owen demonstrated its
existence in the S. Entellus, and the S. fascicularis, Raffl. (Proceed-
ings Zool. Soc. Lond. for 1833, p. 74)', and, also,
in the S. Maurus (Proceedings Zool. Soc. Lond. for
1834, p. 6); see, also, the Transact. Zool. Soc.
Lond. vol. i. p. 65, c. fig.) The same structure
obtains in the Douc, and in the S. cucullatus (see
Magazin de Zoologie, 1836), and in the Kahau,
S. Nasalis (see Proceedings Zool. Soc. Lond. for
1837, p. 70).

The stomach of the Semnopitheci (see the an-
nexed figure, 278) consists of three divisions : first,
of a cardiac pouch, with smooth and simple parietes ;
Secon(ily5 of a middle portion, of considerable am-
plitude, and sacculated ; and, thirdly, of a narrow, elongated pyloric canal,
sacculated at its commencement, and for the greater part of its length,
but becoming of a simple structure toward its termination. It is in

stomach of S

SIMIAD.E. 449

this latter division that the process of digestion appears to be carried
on : it is not only more vascular than the other divisions, but is more
abundantly supplied with nerves, from the eighth pair : the cardiac and
sacculated portions are, in all probability, preparatory receptacles, or
reservoirs.

The left, or cardiac compartment, into which the oesophagus enters, is
separated* from the middle sacculated portion, by a septum, or decided
constriction, produced by circular fibres, which, when the stomach is not
distended, may be so contracted as completely to intervene between these
two divisions, and thus render the cardiac pouch a distinct cavity ; for, even
when the stomach is distended, the orifice of communication is found not
to exceed two inches in diameter. From the entrance of the oesophagus,
a muscular band is continued round the cardiac compartment, so as, in
some instances, to pucker, or corrugate it into slight sacculi, as in the
Kahau ; in others, to produce a somewhat bifid termination of its apex,
as in the Entellus, the stomach of which animal, as Professor Owen has
observed, reminds us, in this respect, of that of the Kangaroo, which is,
also, complicated. The second, or lower, division of the stomach consists
of a double series of sacculi (varying in depth and distinctness in different
species), puckered upon a band of muscular fibres, continued from the
oesophagus to the division-band, and parted from each other by internal
septa, of a semilunar form, and of different degrees of depth : in the
Entellus, the septa average half an inch, or more.

The pyloric portion of the stomach is a long canal, commencing from
the cardiac pouch, to the right of the oesophagus, and becoming gradually
narrower. It is corrugated into sacculi by three longitudinal muscular
bands, of which one is continued from the cardiac band. The sacculi
thus formed are, however, much smaller and shallower than those of the
middle compartments, and become less and less distinct, till, at the dis-
tance of about five inches from the pylorus, they cease entirely. Thus
formed, the pyloric portion of the stomach sweeps round the cardiac
pouch, its smooth termination making an abrupt and complete turn upon
itself, as seen in the sketch (fig. 278.)

The three divisions of the stomach in the Semnopitheci, though dis-
tinct from each other, are not characterized by any essential differences
of structure ; and, in this respect, are not to be compared to those in the
stomachs of the Ruminantia or Cetacea. In the Semnopitheci the
stomach is simply complicated,-)- and of great size ; and, from the latter

* The tendency of the cardiac portion, in stomachs of the simplest structure, to form, by means
of a central contraction, a compartment more or less distinct from the pyloric, has already been
noticed ; this tendency exists in Man, and in the Carnivora generally.

+ The Sloths exhibit a parallel conformation of stomach ; but, as Professor Owen observes, the
Sloths, in the complication of this viscus, approach more nearly to the ruminants ; nevertheless, " the
chambers into which the stomach of the Sloth is divided, are not characterized by the difference of

VOL I. 3M

450 QUADRUMANA.

circumstance, some peculiarities occur in the arrangement of the abdomi-
nal viscera. The small intestines are, it may be observed, longer, in
proportion to the body, than in either the Cercopitheci or Macaci ; the
ratio being, in the Semnopitheci, on the average, as eight to one ; in the
Cercopitheci, six and a half to one ; in the Macaci, four to one. In a
specimen of Semnopithecus Entellus, measuring, from the nose to the root
of the tail, one foot eight inches, the length of the small intestines was
thirteen feet six inches ; of the large, two feet ten inches ; of the caecum,
four inches : the stomach, along the greater curvature, beginning at the
left extremity, measured two feet seven inches ; along the lesser curva-
ture, one foot : the length of the pyloric division was one foot six inches.
In an adult female Proboscis Monkey, measuring, from the top of the
head to the root of the tail, one foot nine inches, the admeasurements
were as follow : —

ft. in.

First compartment of stomach, round the greater curve . .16
Second compartment, measured in same way . . . . 1 8§
From the entrance of the oesophagus, round the second compart-
ment, to the division-band 11

The same measurement round the first compartment . . 0 8|
Length of pyloric portion . . . . . . . .21

Circumference of ditto, at base ...... 0 9^

Ditto just above pylorus 0 5g

Length of small intestines . . . . . . . 18 0

Ditto large intestines 62

Ditto caecum ......... 0 5

Circumference of ditto, at base . . . . . • . 0 5j

With respect to the purposes to be served by the complicated struc-
ture of the stomach in the genus Semnopithecus, we are not able to offer a
positive opinion. The specimens of the Entellus which have been seen
alive in our country have never been observed "to ruminate ; it is well
known, however, that the food of these animals, in their native regions,
consists exclusively of vegetable aliment (such as fruits, grain, leaves
and buds) ; and it is probable that, wanting cheek-pouches, the cardiac

texture of the lining membrane which exists in the ruminants ; they present only a difference in the
degree of vascularity and villosity ; and, in that respect, are analogous to the complicated stomach of
the quadrumanous genus."

In the Pteropine group of Bats, a similar modification of the stomach again presents itself. These
Bats are fruit-eaters. The author just quoted says, that, in a species of this group (Pteropus rubri-
collis, Geoff.), he " found the cardiac moiety divided into two dilated compartments, of which the left
is again subdivided and plicated within, while the pyloric moiety is extended in an elongated, tortuous
form, proportionately exceeding, in length, that of the Semnopithecus Entellus. It is to a Pteropus,
doubtless, and not to a Vampyrus, that is to be attributed a similarly complicated stomach, described
and figured by Sir Everard Home, as belonging to the Vampyre Bat, and from which he draws the
rather hasty conclusion, that ' the Vampyre Bat lives on the sweetest of vegetables ; and all the
stories, related with so much confidence, of its living on blood, and coming in the night to destroy
people, while asleep, are entirely fabulous.' I suspect that the stomach of the true Vampyre Bat will
be found to accord with the blood-thirsty habits so repeatedly ascribed to it."

SIMIAD&. 451

and middle sacculi serve as receptacles for a great mass of aliment (quantity
making up for relative deficiency of nutriment) taken in at once, and so
carried off to be digested at leisure ; in order to which, being a soft mass,
it would be gradually transmitted into the true digestic portion, there to be
elaborated. It is possible, indeed, that, under some circumstances, regur-
gitation* and rumination may take place, as is occasionally observed in
the Kangaroo.

It has been long known that bezoar stones have been obtained from
the stomachs of Monkeys ; but it is in the stomachs of the Semnopitheci
only (especially of the Douc) that these concretions are found ; a point
of interest, as we meet with them again in the stomachs of the Rumi-
nantia. In Deer, Goats, Antelopes, &c., bezoar stones are far from
being uncommon ; and it is in complicated stomachs alone that we have
reason to suppose their formation. The coincidence, in this point,
between the Semnopitheci and the Ruminantia, seeing that there is
an analogy between them, in the complicated form of the stomach, is
very interesting. The bezoar stones obtained from Monkeys are
deemed more valuable in the East than those of any of the ruminants ;
and are believed to possess peculiar medicinal properties.

As regards the absence of cheek-pouches throughout the Semnopitheci,
it may be here observed that Geoffroy St. Hilaire, among the characters
laid down by him, of the genus Nasalis, for the reception of the Proboscis
Monkey (a Semnopithecus), enumerates these organs as present. (See
his Tableau des Quadrumanes, in Annales du Mus. d'Hist. Nat. 1812).

It does not appear on what authority he founded his opinion ; unless,
indeed, on the observations of Wurmb, that " there is beneath the skin a
sac which extends from the lower jaw to the clavicles ;" evidently meaning
the laryngal sac ; but to this Geoffroy makes no allusion, and of the true
nature of the structure alluded to by Wurmb, from his silence respecting it,
he was evidently unaware. That there are neither cheek-pouches, nor traces
of them, in the Proboscis Monkey, the Author's dissection of the animal has
enabled him to affirm. In his Cours de VHistoire Naturelle, published
in 1828, Geoffroy consents to merge his genus Nasalis into Semnopithecus,
observing, " Cependant, il ne nous parait encore demon tre que le singe
nasique soit une veritable Semnopitheque, et il est fort possible que

* Such an action, obser'ves Professor Owen, 'is " likely to take place, occasionally at least, in
animals which possess the complicated stomach here described ; and there is a provision in these
stomachs, for the passage of ruminated food, or of such as is of a fluid, or easily digestible nature, directly
into the second, or sacculated division. A ridge is continued along the pyloric side of the cardiac ori-
fice, obliquely, to the fold in the middle division, which is situated next beyond the constriction ; a
second ridge is continued from the right side of the cardiac, into the lower part of the septum that
separates the cardiac from the middle compartment, and, consequently, between these ridges a shallow
canal is continued, from the oesophagus to the middle division of the stomach. Supposing the circular
fibres, which form the two ridges, to contract simultaneously with those forming the constriction above,
then the communication between the oesophagus and middle division of the stomach would be cut off;
but, on the other hand, if these fibres were relaxed, the food, and especially liquid food, would pass
along the oblique canal directly into the middle compartment."

452 QUADRUMANA.

lorsque 1'espece sera moins imparfaitement connue, on soit oblige de
retablir le genre Nasalis, dans lequel on 1'isolait autrefois, mais que n'est
pas ete admis par la plupart des auteurs modernes."

While adverting to the genera which have merged into Semnopithecus,
notice of the genus termed Pygathrix by Geoffroy, and Lasiopyga, byllliger,
cannot be omitted. The apparent want of callosities in the Douc Monkey,
induced both Geoffrey and Illiger respectively to found a genus for its recep-
tion : but it happened, unfortunately, that the specimen from which both took
their characters, was mutilated ; the callosities having been cut away. Perfect
skins, of which several now exist in the Paris Museum, and others in Eng-
land (one in the museum of the Zoological Society, London, No. 12, Cata-
logue, 1838), have enabled naturalists to correct the error thus occasioned,
and the genus Pygathrix, or Lasiopyga, becomes annihilated. The genus
Presbytis of Eschscholtz, of which the only species (Presbytis mitrata)
appears to be the Croo, has, also, no foundation ; whether it was for the
Croo, or an allied species, that the genus was proposed, is of little import ;
there is no hesitation in merging it into Semnopithecus.

F. Cuvier calls the Semnopitheci, Slow Monkeys ; but it is only to
a certain extent that they merit the title. The length and slenderness of
the limbs and body, detract, if not from their agility, at least from the
energetic abruptness of their movements, which have a more sweeping
character than we see in any of the Cercopitheci. Nevertheless, they
leap and bound among the branches of their native forests with great
ease, and to vast distances, their long tail acting as a director, or balancer,
in their motions. Less lively, less petulant, and, at the same time, less
inquisitive, than the Cercopitheci, they appear, at times, as if even
oppressed with melancholy, and sit in listless apathy. While young, they
are very gentle ; but when adult, they are sullen, morose, and vindictive ;
and their long canines render them truly formidable. In their native
regions they associate in troops ; several species, but more particularly the
Entellus, are held in veneration by the worshippers of Brama, and are
not only tolerated, but protected as sacred. This blind superstition is
not, however, universal.

Many species attain to considerable dimensions ; most, if not all, are
distinguished by the length, softness, and glossiness of their fur ; and
some by the richness and beauty of their colouring. In all, the eyebrows
are well marked, consisting of long, stiff hairs, directed nearly forward,
and giving a peculiar and distinguishing character to their physiognomy.

279

THE KAHAU, OR PROBOSCIS MONKEY.

SEMNOPITHECUS LARVATUS.

Cercopithecus larvatus WURMB, Verhand, Batav. Genootsch.iii. 145.

Simia nasica SCHREBER, Saugth. 46, c. fig. 1775.

Guenon a longue nez BUFFON, Hist. Nat. Supp. vii. c. fig. tab. xi. xii. 1789.

Proboscis Monkey PENNANT, Quad. ii. 232, c. fig. Buff. 1793.

Kahau AUDEBERT, Hist, des Singes, &c. fig. 1797.

Proboscis Monkey SHAW, Gen. Zool. i. 55, c. fig. Buff. 1800.

Nasalis larvatus GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

Cercopithecus larvatus KUHL, Beitr. Zool. 12. 1820.

Cercopithecus nasicus DESMAREST, Nouv. Diet, et Mamm. 1820.

Semnopithecus nasicus GEOFFROY, Cours d'Hist. Nat. lect. vii. 1828.

Nasalis recurvus (young?) . . . VIGORS and HORSEFIELD, in Zool. Journal, iv. p. 109, c. fig.
faciei. 1828-9.

Simia larvata. FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 16. 1829.

Nasalis larvatus LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 66. 18-10.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Tail shorter than the head and body; nose produced into a sort
of proboscis, with large nostrils opening downward, and separated from each other by
a thin septum; head, and upper parts of back, chestnut, the rest ochre-yellow; the
crupper, tail, fore-arms, and legs, greyish yellow ; chin, bearded ; face, ears, and palms,
dusky leaden coloured.

LOCALITY.-— Borneo.

454 QUADRUMANA.

DESCRIPTION. — The nose of this singular Monkey is enormously
developed, forming a sort of proboscis, capable of dilatation, with the nasal
apertures large, oblong, placed as in Man, and divided from each other by a
thin cartilage, continued to the end; along the upper surface of this singular
organ runs a longitudinal depression, indicating the division between the two
canals ; the ears are small, and these, with the naked face, and the palms and
soles, are of a leaden colour, or dusky black, with a slight wash observable
in some parts, of reddish yellow ; the eyes are of tolerable size, and at con-
siderable distance from each other ; the neck is short, and the throat
goitre-like, from the magnitude of the laryngal sac ; on the sides of the
face, the neck, and shoulders, the hair is long, compared with that of the
rest of the body, which is rather short, or moderate ; the top of the head,
the occiput, and the scapular portion of the back, are of a rich chestnut
brown ; the sides of the face, and a stripe over the shoulders, are yellow ;
the general colour of the body is a fine sandy red ; the rump, the tail, the
fore-arms, legs, and feet, are cinereous ; the under parts of the body are of
a pale yellow (individuals varying in the intensity and richness of
the colouring) ; the tail is somewhat tufted at the tip ; a full beard
advances forward, and curls up under the chin, almost to the long nose.

ft. in.

Length of the head and body 20

Ditto tail 24

It is to be observed that a fine male in the museum of Paris, brought
from Borneo, agrees precisely with the preceding description ; and that
a male specimen, in the museum of the Zoological Society, London,
is, in all respects, ^similar, excepting that its colours are less bright,
and that the chin is destitute of a beard. It was obtained in Borneo ;
and forms part of the Rafflesian collection (No. 23, in Catalogue,
Mamm., 1838).

In the museum of the Zoological Society of London is a specimen
(No. 24, in Catalogue, 1838), forming part of the Rafflesian collection,
and stated to have been procured in Borneo, through the medium of a
collector acting under the late Sir T. Stamford Raffles, which Messrs.
Vigors and Horsefield have regarded as constituting a species distinct from
the S. larvatus, and which they have described in the fourth volume of the
Zool. Journal (p. 109, cum figura faciei), under the title of Nasalis
recurvus, assigning to it, as distinctive characters, the possession of a
beard, or tuft, under the chin, and a recurved form of nose ; whence the
title, recurvus.

Now, respecting this specimen, it is to be observed that it is a young
female, as is proved by the condition of the bones of the phalanges;
in the Paris Museum, a specimen exists exactly agreeing with the one

455

already referred to, excepting that its colours are brighter ; it was sent
from Borneo, by M. Diard, in 1802, and is also a young female,
measuring eighteen inches in the length of the head and body ; the tail
being seventeen inches. That the adult female has the nose of the same
form, and relative proportions, as the adult male, has been verified by an
examination of the specimen dissected, in which this organ was elongated
and recumbent. Nevertheless, reasoning from what is known of the
changes which take place, not only in the skull, but in the fleshy parts of
the face in the Simiadae9generally (as for example the acquisition of callous
protuberances on the cheeks of the adult male Orang, and the develop-
ment of ribs and deep furrows on the sides of the muzzle in the adult
Mandrill), we are justified in regarding the comparative shortness and
upturned contour of the nose in these specimens, as the indications of
immaturity, and in concluding that, in process of time, the organ in
question undergoes that not very great degree of modification requisite to
its agreement, in all respects, with what we see in the specimens of
acknowledged adults. Perhaps, indeed, it is rather in the immature
female, than in the immature male that the difference is most marked ;
in very young individuals, however, of both sexes, its development is
said to be but little more than in ordinary Semnopitheci. As to the absence,
in the Kahau, of a beard, which, in the Nasalis recurvus, is very distinct,
a circumstance on which Messrs. Vigors and Horsefield lay some stress,
the fact is, that, in the Kahau, a beard not only exists, but it is long, and curls
upward ; and the mistake on this point arose from their having taken the
specimen in the museum of the Zoological Society as their standard of
comparison, which specimen is, in this respect, imperfect, and otherwise
not in first-rate condition.

In the specimen at Paris, referred to, and in that in the museum of
the Zoological Society, the naked skin of the face is of a pale orange, or
yellowish colour ; whilst, in the adult male Kahau, as well as in the adult
female, it is of a dark or leaden blue, not, however, without partial clouds
of brown, and traces of orange. The leaden, or blackish tint, most probably,
does not spread over the face until the age of maturity.

The following is a description of the specimen in the Paris Museum:
face nearly naked, and of an orange colour ; beard distinct ; top of the
head, occiput, and shoulders, of a deep rich chestnut ; the hairs of the head
radiating from a centre ; the general colour very bright foxy red, deepening
to chestnut along the sides of the face, down the back of the humerus
and the outside of the thighs, and fading, on the abdomen, into yellow ;
the fore-arms, inside of the limbs, the ankles, hands, and feet, of a dirty
straw white; the rump and tail of a pale ashy brown. Length of head and
body, eighteen inches ; of the tail, seventeen. Note on the stand — " De
1'envoi fait par M. Diard, 1802."

456

QUADRUMANA.

The following figures (280 and 281) are given, in order to shew the
difference in the development of the nose, in which the distinction, sup-
posed by some writers specific, mainly consists.

281

Head of adult Proboscis Monkey.

Head of young1 Proboscis Monkey.

For the details of the anatomy of the Kahau we refer to the Proceedings
of the Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 70, et seq. The number of ribs in this species
is twelve on each side ; cervical vertebrae, seven ; dorsal, twelve ; lumbar,
seven; sacral, three"; caudal, twenty-three : the bones of the arms and legs
are slender (in the specimen dissected) ; the humerus measured six inches
and a half; the radius six inches and a half; the femur, from the top of
the trochanter to the condyles of the knee, seven inches and a quarter ;
the tibia, six inches and a half.

M. GeofFroy remarks that the cerebral capacity, and the development
of the forehead, beyond what obtains in other] Semnopithici, betoken a
superior degree of intelligence. Neither the cerebral capacity, nor the
development of the forehead, are comparatively greater in the specimen
existing in the museum of the Zoological Society of London, than in others
of the same genus (see fig. 282).

GENERAL HISTORY. — It would appear that Wurmb, to whom we
owe our knowledge of the habits of the Kahau, and who described it in the
282 Memoirs of the Society of Batama, from

specimens which he shot in Borneo, is not
the first describer ; for the great anatomist,
Daubenton, had previously read a memoir
respecting it, before the Academy of Sciences
at Paris; but this paper was never pub-
lished : there is no allusion to it in the Sup-
plement to Buffon's Nat. Hist, vii., where
the animal is figured and described under
the title of " Guenon a longue nez ;" and
whether the memoir on the " Nasique," by
Daubenton, be still in existence, and, if so, what may be the details and
statements it contains, we have no means of ascertaining. It is, however,

Skull of Proboscis Monkey.

SIMIAD.E. 457

by no means improbable, that both M. Geoffrey and Desmarest have
consulted it.

The male Kahau is remarkable for size and strength; and, from
the magnitude of his canines, he must be a formidable animal. The
female, however, is considerably smaller, a difference in size to which
Wurmb expressly alludes, in the following description, which comprises
all we really know respecting the habits of this species — a descrip-
tion which appeared in the Memoirs of the Society of Batavia, and
is quoted by Audebert in his Histoire des Singes et Makis. These Apes,
he informs us, " associate in large troops ; their cry, which is deep-toned,
distinctly resembles the word, Kahau ; and it is, without doubt, by
changing the letter H into B, that some Europeans name them, Kabou.
The natives of Ponteana give to this Ape the name of Bantanjan, in con-
sequence of the peculiar form of its nose. These animals assemble,
morning and evening, at the rising and setting of the sun, along the
border of rivers ; they are to be seen on the branches of lofty trees,
where they offer an agreeable spectacle, darting, with great rapidity,
from one tree to another, at the distance of fifteen or twenty feet. I have
not observed that they hold their nose while leaping, as the natives
affirm ; but I have seen that they then stretch out their paws in an
extraordinary manner. Their food is unknown ; whence it is impossible to
preserve them alive. They are of different sizes ; some, indeed, are seen
which are not above a foot in height, but which, nevertheless, have young."

With regard to the inferiority in size of the females, it is to be
observed, that an aged female, dissected by the Author, measured one
foot nine inches from the vertex to the callosities ; and was a slender,
meagre animal, very unlike, in this respect, all the preserved specimens
which he has examined ; and in which robustness forms a principal
characteristic. The nose of this female exactly resembled that of the
male ; the teeth were greatly worn down.

The purposes to be fulfilled in the economy of the Kahau, by the
development of the nose, in a mode parallelled by none of the Simiadae
besides, are altogether problematical. It may be connected with an
increase in the function of smelling, on the acuteness of which the
animal may depend, as a means of obtaining some particular kind of food ;
but this is a mere supposition ; and until an opportunity is afforded of
observing the Kahau in confinement, which appears never to have occurred,
even in its native country, many conjectures may be formed, all wide of
the truth. It would appear that the development of this organ only takes
place upon the approach of maturity ; and Wurmb asserts that the animal
has the power of distending or inflating its capacious nostrils with air, to the
extent of full an inch, or more ; but whether this distention be a sign of
anger, fear, or pleasure, we are not informed. Desmarest states that the

VOL. I. 3 N

458 QUADRUMANA.

Kahau is of a violent and savage disposition, defending itself with courage
and ferocity. His authority for this statement is not given ; but, as ferocity
is the character of all the Semnopitheci when adult, there is no reason to
believe that this, one of the largest and strongest of the genus, yields to
any, in those moral traits which are common to the race.

Notice may here be taken of the shortness of the tail in the present
species, compared with what it is in the Semnopitheci generally, in which
it usually much exceeds the length of the body. In the specimen measured
by the Author, at Paris, the tail was two inches longer than the body ;
but the latter might be somewhat shortened in the process of preserving.
Desmarest, however, gives one foot eleven inches nine lines (Fr.) as the
length of the head and body ; and two feet one inch nine lines, as that of
the tail. Mr. Ogilby assigns the length of two feet six inches to the body,
and of two feet three inches to the tail. That the tail should only equal
the body, or exceed it by a mere trifle, is contrary to the general rule
among the animals of this genus.

The Kahau, as far as known with certainty, is only an inhabitant of
Borneo. , Geoffrey St. Hilaire, however, states it to be a native, also, ot
the Malay Peninsula ; but we are not aware that it has ever been seen
there, or that specimens have been brought from that quarter of the
East ; nevertheless, it is not unlikely that it is found in that region ; and
that M. Geoffroy obtained his information from an authentic source.
Indeed, this might be admitted at once, had he not, by implication, added
the western parts of the Peninsula of India to the range of its habitat ;
for he informs us that the ambassadors sent by Tippoo Saib to France,
on their visit to the Museum, recognised the Kahau, and pointed it out as
a native of their country, describing it as an animal of high moral and
intellectual qualities. That the ambassadors might have seen it, or heard
of it, is not denied ; and by " their country" they might allude to the
East generally ; but it is certainly not found wild in the Peninsula of India.
Mr. Ogilby informs us that a specimen, in the Leyden Museum, is said to
have been brought from Sumatra ; but that all the other specimens of this
animal in that collection were obtained from Borneo. This latter island
is, in fact, at present, its only authenticated habitat.

283

THE DOUG MONKEY.

SEMNOPITHECUS NEMCEUS. (Semnopithecus Nemceus, F. CUVIER, Mamm. lith. fig. 1825.)

Simia Ntmceus
Cercopithecus Nemceus
Simla Nemceus
Douc

Cochin-China Monkey
Douc

Lrtsiopyga Nemceus
Pygathrix Nemceus ..
Cercopithecus Nemceus
Cercopilhecus Nemceus
Simia Nemceus
Semnopithecus Nemceus

LINNJEUS, Mantiss. Plant. Append. 1771.

ERXLEBEN, Syst. Regn. An. 1777.

LINNAEUS, Syst. Nat. ed. Gmelin. 1768.

BUFFON, Hist. Nat. xiv. c. fig. pi. 41, 1766 ; et Supp. vii. fig.
pi. 23. 1789.

PENNANT, Quad. 1793.

AUDEBERT, Singes, Fam. iv. sect. i. fig. 1. 1797.

ILLIGER, Prodrom. Syst Mamm. 1811.
. GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 54. 1820.

FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 13. 1829.
. LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 55. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour delicate grey ; throat white ; a transverse chest-
nut-coloured mark on the upper part of the chest, and, below this, a black stripe
extending to the shoulders; fore-arms, crupper, and tail, snow-white ; the knees,
legs, and insteps, of a chestnut colour ; the thighs and toes black ; the face and palms
of an orange colour.

LOCALITY. — Cochin-China.

460 QUADRUMANA.

DESCRIPTION. — The face of an adult male, in the Museum 01
Paris is naked, orange-coloured, and surrounded by full, long whiskers,
of a glossy whiteness ; the forehead is blackish, passing into delicate
grizzled grey, which is the colour of the whole head, the back, the
sides, and the abdomen, each hair having annulations of white and
obscure black, to the number of eleven or twelve ; from the eyebrows to the
ears extends a pencil of chestnut-red ; the throat is white ; a band, or
gorget, of chestnut-red extends across the top of the chest, from shoulder
to shoulder, succeeded by a band of black, spreading over the top of
each shoulder ; the fore-arms, the tail, and a square sacral patch, are of
a snowy white ; the knees, the legs, and the tarsal portion of the feet,
are of a rich chestnut ; the fingers, toes, and thighs, are black ; the
groin and space round the callosities are white ; the callosities and the
naked skin of the palms are yellow ; the fur is full, and very delicate.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 21

Ditto tail (imperfect)

Ditto arm and hand . . . . . . . .20

Ditto hind limb to heel 16

Five specimens of this richly-coloured Monkey (three adult, two
young,) adorn the Museum at Paris ; and a good specimen exists in the
museum of the Zoological Society of London (No. 12, in Catalogue, 1838),
forming part of the Rafflesian collection. The males, females, and
young have the same colouring.

GENERAL HISTORY. — Of the habits and manners of the Douc, in a
state of nature, we have no definite information. Bezoar stones are said
to be frequently found in its stomach. The Douc has never been brought
alive to Europe. In the Magazin de Zoologie ("Voyage autour du
Monde de la Corvette la Favorite,") class i. p. 345, 1836, it is stated
that these animals " live in troops, more or less numerous^ in the vast
woods which cover the country along the shore ; and their manners are
certainly far from being wild, as has been supposed. They are, indeed,
little troubled by the presence of Man, and often come very near to the
habitations of the Cochin-Chinese, who appear to offer them but little
molestation, and do not attempt to draw from the beautiful fur of the
Doucs all the advantages which might be obtained from such a source.
However, the incursions of the sailors of the Corvette la Favorite, in a
very short time, inspired these animals with terror ; and so rapid was
their flight, that, numerous as they were, they were not procured without
difficulty."

Though Buffon, on the authority of M. de Poivre, gave the name of
Douc to this species, as its native appellation, nevertheless, it would
seem that such is not the term by which it is known in Cochin-China.

THE ENTELLU3 MONKEY.
(Semnopithecus Entellus. F. Cuv.)

SIMIAD^E. 461

According to M. Rey, the captain of a French merchantman, who
visited that country in 1819-20, these animals are there called Venam,
which signifies Men of the Woods. It does not appear that M. Rey had any
difficulty in killing numbers of them, though he experienced much in obtain-
ing living specimens. So numerous were they, that, on one occasion, in the
course of a few hours, a hundred were slaughtered. Desirous, however, of
procuring living specimens of this animal with the intention of taking them
to France, it was with great difficulty that he succeeded ; and, in the attempt,
many of them fell ; and still as more were wounded, more collected
around the dead and dying, endeavouring to carry them off into the woods.
Three young ones were ultimately captured, which held so fast round
the bodies of their dams, that it required no small effort to detach them.
M. Rey remarks, that this species of Monkey greatly resembles the
Orang-outan in stature and inoffensive manners, inhabiting the mountains
and the tops of the loftiest trees, and living on fruit. The similarity, he
adds, of this creature to Man is strikingly mortifying. Its fur, he
describes as being exceedingly fine : with regard to colouring, he says,
the hands and feet are black ; the shoulders and legs, deep red ; the
belly, white ; and the back, grey ; the face is flat, and of a white colour ;
the cheeks, red ; and the eyes large and black. Some of the males
measured, when standing upright, above four feet four inches in height.

THE ENTELLUS MONKEY, OR HOONUMAN.

SEMNOPITHECVS ENTELLUS. (SemnopUhecus Entellus, F. CUVIER, Mamm. lith. fig.
juv. et adult. 1820, 1825.)

Rollewai WOLF, Residence at Ceylon, edit. Berlin. 1782 (?)

Rollewai and Wanderoo .... THUNBERG, Travels, edit. Upsal. 1793.

Simla Entellus DUFRESNE, Mag. Encyclop. torn. iv. 1797; et Bull. Soc.

Philom. 1797.

Simia Entellus AUDEBKRT, Singes. Fam iv. Sect. ii. pi. 2. 1797.

Cercopithecus Entellus GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

Cercopithecus Entellus KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

Cercopithecus Entellus DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 59. 1820.

Simia Entellus FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 15. 1829.

SemnopUhecus Entellus LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 56. 1840. 1

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour, straw yellow, more or less inclined to ashy grey ;

superciliary hairs black ; hands and feet washed with black.
LOCALITIES.— India and the adjacent islands.

DESCRIPTION. — The fur is moderate in length, soft, but not
very full; the hair of the head radiates from a centre, and the super-
ciliary bristles which project forward, are thickly set, long, and black ;
the general colour is ashy grey, with a tinge of straw-yellow, passing
into dull yellowish on the whiskers, occupying the sides of the face ;
the under parts of the body are of a dingy white, with more or less of a
straw tint. In young individuals, the hands and feet are washed with

462 QUADRUMANA.

dusky black, but this is not always the case in adults, which have a
paler colouring altogether than the young, often verging upon dingy
white, tinted with straw colour ; the face is black, with a slight
violet hue.

ft. in.

Length of adult male, from head to root of tail 22

Ditto tail to end of hairs (which run into a sort of pencil,

but do not form a tuft) ....... 3 1

Although Thunberg described this species, in his Travels in Europe,
Asia, and Africa (Upsal, 1793), as a native of Ceylon, under the country
appellation of Rollewai, confounding it, at least as regards the name,
with the Wanderoo ; still, our first real knowledge of the animal is due
to M. Dufresne, who published a description of it from a skin in his
possession, under the title of Simia Entellus ; which skin was the original
of Audebert's figure, in the Hut. des Singes et des Makis. From the
time in which M. Dufresne's description appeared (in Bull. Soc. Philom.
1797), till the year 1820, nothing farther was added to our information.
The arrival of a young male at Paris, in that year, enabled Fred.
Cuvier to give an original figure of it from the life ; subsequently
(1825), the drawing of an adult, sent home by M. Duvaucel, served as
the copy of an aditional, and very characteristic representation.

GENERAL HISTORY. — In England, the first living example on record
was that which existed in the year 1829, in the gardens of the Zoological
Society of London, and from which the excellent portrait was taken,
which heads the description of the Entellus in the Gardens and Menagerie
delineated. Since that period, several individuals have, from time to
time, enriched the menagerie of the Zoological Society ; none, however,
have long survived their arrival ; the humidity and changes of our
atmosphere speedily inducing disease, or hastening its career. It was
from the dissection of one which died in 1833, that Professor Owen
ascertained the condition of the stomach in this species, as already
intimated ; and, subsequently, the Author of this work has dissected
others. Till within the last few years, the museums of England and
Continental Europe could scarcely muster, among them, more than two
or three specimens ; indeed, the only preserved specimen in the British
Islands, till the year 1829, was one of a young individual in the museum
of the Zoological Society. At present there are four excellent specimens
in this museum (Nos. 11, 11 a, 11 6, 11 c, of Catalogue, 1838), besides
others not exhibited. Specimens are, also, in the British Museum, and in
that of the East India Company. Four specimens, also, are exhibited in the
Museum at Paris.

In a catalogue of the Mammalia of Dukhun, by Colonel Sykes, pub-
lished in the Proceedings Zoo L Soc. for 1831, p. 99, the Entellus is stated

SIMIAD^E. 463

to occur in large troops in the woods of the western Ghauts ; but it
is not venerated by the Mahratta people ; nor do they object to its being
killed. Its Mahratta name is Makur. In other parts of India, however, the
Entellus is regarded with profound veneration, and is often to be met with
tame, in the houses of the natives, into which, even wild ones, assured by
experience, sometimes enter in search of food ; while gardens and fields
are frequently devastated by troops of them with impunity.

M. Duvaucel,in a communication to Fred. Cuvier, says : " This species
is much venerated by the Hindoos, who have deified it, and who give it one
of the first places among their thirty millions of deities. Its appearance in
Lower Bengal takes place principally towards the latter end of winter ;*
but I have not been able to procure one ; for, zealously as I devote myself
to my researches and pursuits, they have always been of no avail, in
consequence of the assiduous care, with which the Bengalese have prevented
my killing so revered an animal, the destruction of which is followed
within the year by the death of the party. The natives drove away the
Monkeys as soon as they saw my gun ; and, for more than a month, during
which seven or eight individuals dwelt at Chandernagore, and which came
even into the houses to seize the offerings of the sons of Brama, my
garden was surrounded by a guard of pious Brahmins, who played on the
tom-tom (a sort of gong, or drum) to drive away the deity when he came to
eat my fruits. The most that I know about this species is its mythological
history ; but, as this will be too long to relate here, I will only say that
the Houlman (for such is its Bengal name) was a hero celebrated for
strength, spirit, and activity, in the voluminous collection of the mysteries
of the Hindoo people. They owe to it, here, one of the most valued fruits,
the mango, which it stole in the gardens of a famous giant established at
Ceylon : as the punishment of this theft, it was condemned to be burnt, and
it was in extinguishing the fire that it singed its face and hands, which have
ever remained black since that time. At Gouptipara (a sacred place on
the Hoogly, inhabited by Brahmins, and covered with pagodas, in one of
which is preserved the hair of the goddess Dourga) I saw the trees
covered with long-tailed Houlmans, which took to flight, uttering frightful
cries. The Hindoos, on seeing my gun, guessed the cause of my visit, as
well as the Monkeys, and twelve of the former approached me in order to
apprize me of the danger I incurred by firing on creatures which were
nothing less than metamorphosed princes. I had no great fancy to listen
to these charitable advocates ; nevertheless, pretending to be half
convinced, I was going forward, when I met on my road a princess, so
seductive, that I could not resist the desire to contemplate her more
nearly. I fired, and I then beheld a scene truly touching ; the poor
animal, which carried a young one on her back, was shot near the heart ;

* It appears to migrate from the upper to the lower provinces of this part of India.

464 QUADRUMANA.

she felt herself mortally wounded, and, collecting all her strength, she
seized her young one, suspended it on a branch, and fell dead at my feet.
An act so maternal made more impression on me than all the discourses
of the Brahmins ; and the pleasure of possessing a fine specimen, could
not, for once, take away the regret I felt at having killed a creature which
seemed to have a claim upon life, by sentiments and feelings which most
strongly excite our esteem." — F. Cuv. Mamm.

Mr. Ogilby informs us that the name, Houlman, by which the animal,
according to Duvaucel, is known to the Hindoos, is misspelt, the real or-
thography being Hoonuman ; and that by Gouptipara is meant the city of
Goalpara. According to Colonel Sykes, " Makur" is its name among the
Mahrattas of the western Ghauts ; and, according to Mr. Ogilby, it is
called " Lungar" by the hill tribes.

The history of the Entellus is interwoven with the mythology of the
Hindoos ; this wonderful Monkey is a god among their gods ; and Hoonu-
man, king of the Monkeys, figures as one of the heroes in the wild epic
poem of the Ramayan, the Iliad of the East ; next to Rama (the Achilles
in courage, the Menelaus in circumstances), he was the greatest of the
warriors, performing, in combats with demons, prodigies of valour. The
poem may, perhaps, be regarded as an allegory ; but the introduction of
Hoonuman into it as a hero, is sufficient to prove the veneration paid to
these animals from the remotest periods. The Entellus, moreover, is one
of the sacred animals, into which the souls of their departed friends are
believed, by the faithful Hindoos, to pass. Considering these circum-
stances, the details of European residents in India, respecting the conduct
of the Hindoos towards this animal, are the less surprising. Not only
are their ravages and mischief tolerated, but, in the excess of religious
zeal, the Hindoos erect temples to their honour, build hospitals for the
sick or maimed, bequeath large fortunes for their support, and denounce
the punishment of death upon the impious wretch who dares to kill one
of so divine a race. Emboldened by indulgence, these Monkeys become
daring and troublesome, and resent, in a body, the slightest injury
inflicted on one of their companions. Forbes, in his Oriental Memoirs,
gives us the following account of the Monkeys at Dhuboy ; an
account, equally applicable, as far as these animals are concerned, to a
thousand other places. The durbar, or governor's mansion, where he
resided, with its courts and gardens, occupied, as he states, seven acres ;
it was almost surrounded by the lake, except near the principal gate,
communicating with the town ; a pavement of large flat stones admirably
united, formed a dry walk at all seasons, above the steps of the tank,
shaded, in most parts, by lofty trees, and adorned with fragrant shrubs,
through which only a few houses and towers on the walls were visible ;
so that, from the windows of the durbar, overlooking the lake, everything

SIMIAD^E. 465

had more the appearance of a rural village than a fortified city. Near
the durbar was a small woody island, affording a nightly roost for Cranes,
Kites, and Crows ; and shelter for a number of those immense Bats, not
improperly called flying Foxes. To finish this picturesque scene, a
ruined Hindoo temple, nearly covered with moss and clematis, in great
variety, terminated the terrace -walk in the garden, where the animal
creation had hitherto been so unmolested that the orange and lime trees
were filled with Peacocks, Doves, and Bulbuls ; Monkeys and Squirrels
feasted on the pomegranates and custard-apples ; while Pelicans, Spoon-
bills, and other aquatic birds occupied the lake. " The intrusion of the
Monkeys, " adds the narrator, " I could have dispensed with ; their
numbers were often formidable, and their depredations serious. I
believe there were as many Monkeys as human inhabitants in Dhuboy ;
the roofs and upper parts of the houses seemed entirely appropriated to
their accommodation. While the durbar was repairing, on my first arrival,
I resided a short time in one of the public streets : the back of the house
was separated by a narrow court from that of a principal Hindoo. This
being the shady side, I generally retired during the heat of the afternoon,
to a veranda, and reposed on a sofa with my book ; small pieces of mortar
and tiles frequently fell about me, to which, supposing them to be occa-
sioned by an eddy of wind, I paid no attention ; until one day, when I
was much annoyed by their repetition, accompanied by an uncommon
noise, and a blow from a larger piece of tile than usual, I arose to
discover the cause ; and, to my astonishment, saw the opposite roof
covered with Monkeys, employed in assaulting the white stranger who
had unwittingly offended, by intruding upon their domain. Although
my new situation invested me with considerable power, and made me the
first man in the city, yet, as I knew I could neither make reprisals, nor
expect quarter from the enemy, I judged it most prudent to abandon my
lodging, and secure a retreat. I do not imagine the inhabitants of Dhuboy
protect the Monkeys from any other motive than that of humanity to the
brute creation, and their general belief in the metempsychosis ; but, in
Malabar, and several other parts of India, Dr. Fryer's assertion is very
true that, to kill one of these Apes, the natives hold " piacular," calling
them half -men, and saying that they once were men, but, for their
laziness, had tails given them, and hair to cover them. Toward Ceylon
they are deified, and at the Straits of Balagat they pay them tribute." In
Dhuboy, according to the same author, if a man wish to revenge
himself on his neighbour, for any insult or injury, he takes the opportu-
nity, just before the periodical rains (about the middle of June) set in,
and when the tiles have been adjusted to meet that season, of repairing to
his neighbour's roof, and scattering over it a quantity of rice, or other
grain : this is soon discovered by the Monkeys, who not only devour it,

VOL. I. 3 O

466 QUADRUMANA.

but pull up all the tiles in search of what has fallen througli the crevices.
At this critical juncture the rain commences ; no one can be found to
reset the tiles ; the house is deluged, the furniture ruined, and the
depositories of grain, generally formed of unbaked earth rubbed over
with cow-dung, soaked through, by the falling torrent.

The celebrated banian tree, called Cubbeer-bur (from the name of a
saint), which grows on the banks of the Nerbuddah, and is supposed to
be the largest specimen of that tree in India, measuring round the
principal stems 2,000 feet in circumference, is tenanted, among other
animals, by hosts of Monkeys, and myriads of Snakes. The over-
hanging branches of this extraordinary tree cover an astonishing space,
like a vast canopy, under which grow custard-apple, and other fruit trees ;
and as it is constantly sending forth hanging branches to the ground, to
form other trunks, it is continually increasing. Tt has not only sheltered
the native chiefs, with their magnificent tents, arranged as saloons, dining
and drawing-rooms, baths, chambers, kitchens, &c., together with their
carriages, horses, camels, guards and attendants, but has even received
an army of 7,000 men beneath its pavilion.

In this strange wood, the Monkeys, says Mr. Forbes, often diverted
him with their antic tricks, and especially with the displays of their
parental affection for their young offspring, in teaching them to select
food, to exert themselves in jumping from bough to bough, and then
in taking more extensive leaps from tree to tree ; at the same time
encouraging them by caresses when timorous, and menacing, and even
beating them, when refractory. Knowing, by instinct, the malignity of the
Snakes, these Monkeys are most vigilant in their destruction ; they seize
the reptiles, when asleep, by the neck, and, running to the nearest
flat stone, grind down the head by a strong friction on the surface,
frequently looking at it, and grinning at their progress. When convinced
that the venomous fangs are destroyed, they toss the writhing Snake to
their young ones to play with, and seem to rejoice in the destruction of
the common enemy. Once, a friend of Mr. Forbes, on a shooting
party, killed a female Monkey, under this tree, and carried it to his tent,
which was soon surrounded by forty or fifty of the tribe, who made a
great noise, and, in a menacing posture, advanced toward it ; on presenting
his fowling-piece they hesitated and appeared irresolute. But one, which,
from his age and station in the van, seemed to be at the head of the
troop, stood his ground, chattering and menacing in a furious manner ;
nor could any efforts, less cruel than firing, drive him off. He at length
approached the tent-door, and, finding that his threatenings were of no
avail, he began a lamentable moaning, and, by every token of grief and
supplication, seemed to beg the body of the deceased, which was then
given to him. With tender sorrow he took it up in his arms, embraced it

SIMIAD.E. 467

with conjugal affection, and carried it off, in a sort of triumph, to his
expecting comrades. The artless behaviour of this poor animal wrought
so powerfully on the sportsmen, that they resolved never again to level a
gun at one of the Monkey race.

Protected and reverenced as the Entellus is by the Hindoos, its
godship meets with no such respect from the larger beasts of prey ; it is
especially obnoxious to the attacks of the Tiger ; and the terror of these
Monkeys, at his appearance, so overcomes their presence of mind and
activity as to lead to their destruction. "While the mischievous
Monkey, and the innocent Dove," says the instructive writer above
quoted, " found an asylum within the walls of Dhuboy, the adjacent
country was infested with Tigers and savage beasts, which, in defiance
of Pythagorean systems, and Brahminical tenets, waged perpetual war
against the Antelopes and innocent animals near the villages : even the
Monkeys, with all their wily craftiness, could not escape them."
The peasants in the wilds of Bhaderpoor confirmed the stratagem
used by the Tiger to effect his purpose, as mentioned by Dr. Fryer.
" The woodmen assert that, when the Tiger intends to prey upon the
Monkeys, he uses this stratagem : the Monkeys, on his first approach,
give warning by their confused chattering, and immediately betake
themselves to the highest and smallest twigs of the trees, when the Tiger
seeing them out of his reach, and sensible of their fright, lies couchant
under the tree, and then falls a roaring ; at which they, trembling, let go
their hold, and, tumbling down, he picks them up to satisfy his hunger.
That Monkeys are their food, their very ordure declares, scattered up and
down, where is visible the shaggy coats of these creatures." The Entellus
is very extensively spead over India, inhabiting, not only the hot lowlands,
or plains, but the elevated and colder mountain ranges ; viz., the Ghauts,
the Nepal Hills, the Himalaya, and the high table lands of Bootan.
Hence it would appear to be capable of enduring a considerable degree
of cold with impunity, though not the changes and moisture of our
climate.

Those which the author has had opportunities of 'observing in
captivity have been remarkable for apathy, approaching even to melan-
choly, mixed with distrust and malice. The playful tricks of the
Cercopitheci, confined in the same cage, appeared rather to annoy than
interest, or induce them to take part in the game ; and they bore the
teasing of their companions with an air of impatience, but, at the same
time, as if they were too listless to retaliate.

468 QUADRUMANA,

THE CROO.

SEMNOPITHECUS COMATUS. (Semnopithecus comatus, F. CUVIER, Mamm. lith. fig. 1825.)

Semnopithecus comatus DESMAREST, in Supp. Mamm. p. 533. 1822.

Croo *.* F. CUVIER, Mamm.yith. fig. tab. 11. 1825.

Presbytes mitrata ESCHSCHOLTZ, in Voyage de Kotzebue, iii. p. 353.

Simia comala FISCHER, Syn. Mamm. p. 16. 1829.

Semnopithecus comatus LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 61. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Fur, soft and long; general colour, fine leaden grey; head, with
a vertical compressed crest, of a blackish colour ; hands and feet, whitish ; tail
tufted, and white at the tip.

LOCALITIES. — Sumatra, Java.

DESCRIPTION. — The face of an adult male in the Paris Museum
is short, and of a brownish tint, with short, thinly - set grey hairs ;
the fur of the body consists of a soft, woolly, fine, but not very
full, undercoat of greyish-white hairs, and of an outer vest of long,
fine, silky hairs, loosely flowing (many of the length of five inches),
and of a blackish colour, the general tint, resulting from the mixture,
being a fine plumbeous grey ; the hairs of the head form a compressed,
ridged crest, somewhat peaked anteriorly ; the top and sides of the head
and the crest are dull black, with a brownish tint, losing itself in the
plumbeous grey of the back ; the shoulders and arms, externally, are of a
deeper grey ; the hands and feet are nearly white, with dark hairs inter-
spersed ; the tail is dark grey above, white beneath and at the tip, which
is somewhat tufted ; the inside of the arms, and of the thighs and legs,
is abruptly pure white ; which is the colour of the chin, whiskers, throat,
and under surface of the body.

ft. in.
Length of head and body ....... 1 9

Ditto tail 2 6£

An adult female, in the same museum, is similar, in colouring, to the
male. Both were brought from Java, by M. Diard.

A nursling, also from Java, covered with delicate woolly fur, is alto-
gether white, excepting a patch on the vertex (where the crest indicates
itself), and down the spine, and along' the upper surface of the tail, the
hue of these parts being leaden black, or black with a tinge of grey.

It is, probably, to the present species that the " Guenon gris-blanc,"
or " Cercopithecus albo-cinereus," of Desmarest (Supp. p. 534'), is refer-
able ; though, in some points, certainly, his description does not agree
with it. Desmarest's characters and description are as follow : —

" GUENON GRIS-BLANC, Cercopithecus albo-cinereus (not figured).
A new species, from the collection preserved in the Museum, and brought
by MM. Diard and Duvaucel.

" Specific Characters, — Fur, grey above, and of a deeper tint on the
loins than elsewhere ; the under parts whitish ; a line of stiff black

SIMIAD.E. 469

hairs traverses the forehead ; the hands and feet are blackish ; the tail is
brown ; size, that of the Diana Monkey.

" Description. — The face is but little elongated, blackish and naked ;
a row of stiff, black, and very long bristles is observable on the super-
ciliary ridge ; these are erected upward and forward, and some are placed
on the margin of the cheeks, rigid in texture, and directed laterally ;
the cheeks, the top of the head, the back of the ears, and the chin are
thinly covered with whitish hairs ; the ears are large, naked, angular, and
black ; the shoulders, flanks, and outer surface of the humerus and
of the thighs, are of a light grey ; the middle of the back is of a
deeper grey, expanding and becoming more dusky towards the lumbar
region ; the abdomen is white, and but thinly covered with hairs ; the
limbs, externally, are of a deepish grey ; the top of the hands and feet
blackish ; the tail is longer than the body, slender, and of a greyish brown.

" Country. — The island of Sumatra."

Respecting the C. albo-cinereus, M. Isidore says that no such animal
was ever brought from India by MM. Diard and Duvaucel, answering
to Desmarest's description, nor does any Guenon, agreeing with it, exist
in the Museum of Paris. During the Author's recent visit to Paris, he
examined, separately, every Monkey in the Museum, and, certainly,
could discover no species to which the description can be said to be
fairly applicable. Moreover, every specimen brought over from Java
or Sumatra, and obtained there by MM. Diard and Duvaucel, is well
known, and the species are not to be mistaken.

In the Catalogue of Zoological Specimens, appended to the Life of
the late Sir T. Stamford Raffles, is introduced the Semnopithecus (?)
fascicularis (Simia fascicularis, Raffl. Linn. Trans, vol. xiii. p. 246), with
this observation : " No specimen of this species, although it appears to be
frequent in the forests of Sumatra and the Malay Islands, was found in
Sir Stamford's collection. It is, of course, doubtful whether it is a true
Semnopithecus." By way of comment upon this passage, it may be
stated, that the Simia fascicularis of Raffles, of which two specimens exist
in the museum of the Hon. East India Company, and were thus entitled
under the surveillance of Sir Stamford, is, certainly, the Macacus car-
bonarius ; and it is impossible to imagine on what grounds, with Sir
Stamford's description before him, Fischer could have given the S. fas-
cicularis as a synonym of S. comatus, an error which has led to no
little confusion. There will be occasion to refer to this subject in the
description of the Macaque alluded to.

GENERAL HISTORY. — Of the habits of the Semnopithecus comatus,
or Croo, we have no definite accounts. So closely, however, do the
Semnopitheci resemble each other in manners and general economy,
that the details respecting one species are, to a great extent at least,
applicable to all.

470 QUADRUMANA.

THE BLACK -CRESTED MONKEY.

SEMNOPITHECUS MELALOPHOS. (Semnopithecus melalophos, F. CUVIER, Mamm. lith. 1821,

Cimepaye F. CUVIER, Mamm. c. fig. tab. vii. 1821.

Semnopithecus melalophos . . . DESMAREST, Supp. 533. 1822.

Simla melalophos FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 14. 1829.

Semnopithecus melalophos . , . LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 61. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Contour, slender ; fur, long and silky ; vertical crest, compressed;

general colour, fine fulvous red, paler on the under parts ; a frontal stripe, and the

crest, blackish.
LOCALITY. — Sumatra.

DESCRIPTION. — Description of an adult male (No. 15, of Catalogue,
Mamm., 1838), in the museum of the Zoological Society, London. The con-
tour of the body is long and slender ; the head is small ; the fur is long,
soft, falling, and glossy ; the head is ornamented with a long, compressed,
peaked, vertical crest ; the general tint is a fine, bright, golden rust
colour, pure and rich on the limbs, but slightly washed with a dusky
tint on the back ; the lower part of the abdomen and the inside of the
limbs are straw yellow ; the crest is washed with a fuliginous tint, passing
into black at the tip ; a black or blackish line, beginning over the eyes,
passes across the temples, and, turning up over each ear, merges into the
colour of the crest; the occiput on each side of the crest, and the
whiskers, are sandy red ; the skin of the face is dusky blueish ; the
palms, soles, and nails are black ; the form of the head and face is as in
S. cristatus.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 18

Ditto tail 28

A specimen examined in the Museum of Paris, differed slightly from
the foregoing, in being somewhat more purely and brilliantly coloured.
The general hue was deep rich red, without any wash of black on the
back ; a semilunar streak, over the temples from the superciliary ridge,
was faintly perceptible ; the crest was washed with black ; the throat,
abdomen, and inside of limbs were red, a little paler than the back.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 17

Ditto tail 21

Ditto foot 0 5|

In the description of the following species, some remarks will be
made relative to a confusion in the nomenclature of the present animal,
which, it must be observed, is not the S. melalophos of Sir T. S. Raffles ;
his melalophos being, in fact, the S. flavimanus of Isidore Geoffroy.

GENERAL HISTORY. — This beautiful Monkey is said to be extremely
active, and to tenant the deep retreats of the forest ; but of its exclusive
habits and manners no details have been received.

281

THE SIMPAI, OR CIMEPAYE.

SEMNOPITHECUS FLAVIMANUS. (Semnopithecus flavimanus, ISIDORE GEOFFROY, in Voyage

Belanger, Supp. 38-74.)

Semnopithecus melalophos (Simpai), RAFFLES, in Linn. Trans, xiii. p. 242. 1822.
Semnopithecus flavimanus . . . LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 60. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— Contour, slender; fur, long, silky, and of a sandy rufous tint
above, washed with black ; head with a vertical crest; forehead and occiput, yellowish
white; throat, under parts, and limbs, internally, abruptly white ; a line from each
ear, losing itself on the crest, black ; fore limbs, externally, pale yellow ; hind limbs,
of a pale rufous tint.
LOCALITY. — Sumatra.

DESCRIPTION. — The fur is long and silky, and the hairs are elevated
into a peaked crest on the top of the head ; the contour is very slender ;
the hands and tail are long ; the general colour of the upper parts and of
the tail is sandy red, or pale reddish brown, slightly washed with dusky
black, the ends of the hairs being thus tinted ; the forehead and occiput
are of a pale yellowish white ; and a blackish shade, from each ear,
spreads on the long, peaked vertical, crest, becoming more decided at its
apex ; the fore-arms and the posterior limbs, externally, are of a pure,
pale, sandy yellow ; the throat, the chest, abdomen, and inside of the

472 QUADRUMANA.

limbs, are white, with a slight tinge of yellow ; the palms, soles, and
nails, are black.

ft. in.

Length, from forehead to root of tail 17

Ditto of tail 23

Two specimens, in the museum of the Zoological Society, London
(Nos. 14 and 14 a, of Catalogue, Mamm., 1838), brought from Sumatra,
by Sir T. S. Raffles, have furnished the preceding description.

The following was taken from the specimen of S. flavimanus, in
the Paris Museum, the original of M. Isidore's description: — The
general contour is slender ; the fur is long, soft, silky ; the head is orna-
mented with a long, peaked crest, or toupet ; the back is of a sandy red,
with a wash of black tinging the ends of the long hairs ; the forehead
and occiput are of a whitish yellow, with a brown wash, more decided
on the crest ; the tail is sandy red above ; the beard is white ; the belly
and inside of the limbs are abruptly white ; the hands and hind feet are
of a straw yellow.

A figure will be found in Lesson's Cent. Zool. tab. xl.

The present species is very closely allied to the former (S. melalo-
phos, F. Cuv.), with which it may be easily confounded, on a superficial
glance ; but from which it, however, differs in many particulars. Both the
hands and feet, as well as the tail, are, in this species, proportionately longer,
and the colouring is invariably destitute of the rich, golden red, so conspi-
cuous in the S. melalophos ; and, besides, there is a marked contrast
between that of the upper parts, and that of the chest and abdomen.

The S. flavimanus is, undoubtedly, the S. melalophos of Raffles,
as the specimens brought by himself, and placed under that name, in the
museum of the Zoological Society of London, sufficiently prove ; but the
naturalists of the Paris Museum conferred that title upon another, also
inhabiting Sumatra, and regarded, by them, as identical with the species
described by Raffles, which latter, when it came into their hands, M.
Isidore Geoffroy perceived to be distinct from the former, the S. mela-
lophos of the French naturalists ; and, accordingly, he described it in
the Supplement to Belangers Voyage, under the name of flavimanus.
Hence the term, flavimanus, might be merged into a synonym of S.
melalophos, Raffles ; while to the S. melalophos of F. Cuvier and
the French naturalists a new title might be given. This, however, would
tend rather to increase than to disentangle the confusion ; the term
melalophos is, therefore, retained for the bright golden red species, and
flavimanus for that to which M. Isidore has appropriated it; viz., the
melalophos of Raffles, the Simpai of the Malays.

GENERAL HISTORY. — As in the instance of the preceding species, no
account of the habits of this animal, in its native woods, has been recorded by
travellers. It prefers the forests of the hilly districts to those of the plains.

473

THE KALASIE.

SEMNOPITHECUS RUBICUNDUS. (Semnopithecus rubicundus, MULLEB, in Tydschrift voor
Natuurlijke, &c. vol. v. parts i. ii. 1838.)

Kaluhie apud Banjirmalsing.

Kalasie Bejadjoo Dayaks.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour, rufous brown, deeper on the hands and feet, black
hairs being intermixed with the others; on the vertex the hairs form a circular
corolla ; occiput crested.

LOCALITY. — Borneo.

DESCRIPTION. — The whole of the body, and the tail are of a dark
reddish brown ; the hands and feet are uniformly of a darker hue, blackish
hairs being intermixed with the reddish brown fur ; on the top of the
head the hairs form a circular crown, a peculiarity by means of which this
species is readily distinguished from all other Semnopitheci of the Indian
Archipelago ; the occiput is decorated by a rather high crest, which falls
down on the neck, in the form of a comb.

ft. in.

Length of body in adult male about 1 9

Ditto tail 24

Ditto head 04

GENERAL HISTORY. — Our knowledge of this remarkable species, of
which we have never seen a specimen, is due to Dr. S. Miiller ; and it
would appear, from the account which he has given, to be closely related
to the S. melalophos, and the S. flavimanus ; the difference, however, in
the arrangement of the hairs of the head, and the tendency to black in the
hands, independently of the browner tone of the general colouring, are
sufficient to distinguish it from either of those Monkeys, which appear,
besides, to be confined to the Island of Sumatra ; while the Kalasie is
found only in Borneo. Miiller's description is accompanied by a charac-
teristic figure.

According to its discoverer, this species inhabits the elevated south-
eastern parts of Borneo ; and, like the S. melalophos of Raffles, which
tenants the high lands of Sumatra, prefers mountain districts to low
situations, being rarely found in the plains which border the sea-coast.

The inhabitants of Banjirmalsing give to this Monkey the name of
Kalahie, and the Bejadjoo Dayaks, that of Kalasie ; which latter name
is here adopted as its ordinary appellation.

474 QUADRUMANA,

THE LUTUNG, OR GOLDEN MONKEY.

SEMNOPITHECUS A URA T US.

Cercopithecus auratus GEOFFROY, Ann du Mus. xix. 1812.

Cercopithecus auratus KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

Cercopithecus auratus DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 56. 1820.

Semnopithecus pyrrhus .... HOKSEFIELD, Zool. Research, c. fig. 1824.

Simla aurata FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 15. 1829.

Semnopithecus auratus, et Semn. pyrrhus, LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 63-4. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Furlong, soft, and of a glossy, golden, fulvous colour, paler on the

under parts ; a diffuse crest on the head.
LOCALITIES. — Java and the Moluccas.

DESCRIPTION. — The fur of a specimen from Java, presented by Dr.
Horsefield to the Zoological Society, London, as his S. pyrrhus, is long,
silky, and delicate, and falls gracefully down the sides ; the head is
ornamented with a full, diffuse, not peaked, crest of long hairs ; the
hair on the abdomen is soft, thin, and curled ; the general colour is
fulvous, or bright sandy red, with a golden gloss on the head, back, and
tail ; that of the under parts is pale golden, or yellowish ; the palms of
the hands and feet are of a pale yellow ; the nails are tinted yellowish
white.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 17

Ditto tail 20

The present species was first described by Geoffroy (Ann. du Mus.
xix. 1812), under the title of Cercopithecus auratus; and, as a com-
parison of examples will prove, it is identical with the S. pyrrhus of
Horsefield, notwithstanding some little difference of colouring.

The original specimen of S. auratus exists in the Museum at Paris,
and was carefully examined by the Author during his visit to that city.
The head is furnished with a full, but not peaked, crest, the hairs being
long and erect. The general colour is golden yellow ; this hue being
the most intense at the roots of the hairs, which are of a rusty yellow ;
the fur is long, straight, full, and glossy. A large, dusky, black patch, of
an oval shape, two inches and a half long, is placed on each knee ; and
one or two little spots, of the same colour, are scattered on the toes of the
feet ; several marks, of a similar tint, occur also along the tail ; the skin of
the face has been painted dull pink, but that of the chest has-evidently
been orange. Excepting the dusky black patches, the general colour is
the same as in S. pyrrhus, Horsefield, with which it agrees in form and
general appearance. With respect to these patches, their position and
irregularity prove them to be accidental ; probably, the animal is subject
to variations of this nature. The specimen described by M. Geoffroy is
stated to have been brought from the Moluccas.

THE LUTUNG, CR GOLDKN MONKEY.
( S emnopithecus auratus . )

SIMIAD/E. 475

ft. in.

Length of head and body 19

Ditto tail . 24

Admitting that the species, described by Geoffroy as C. auratus, is
identical with the S. pyrrhus of Horsefield, it will follow that the latter
term must merge into a synonym ; but the black marks which Geoffroy
describes as characteristic of the S. auratus are no longer to be con-
sidered in such a light, and cannot be received as specific distinctions.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The habits and manners of this beautiful species
present the same features as those of the other Semnopitheci ; but the
animal is little known, and has never been brought alive to Europe.

THE BARE-FRONTED MONKEY.

SEMNOPITHECUS FRONT ATUS (Semnopithecus frontatus, MULLER, in Tydschrift voor
Natuurlijke, &c. vol. v. parts i. ii. 1838.)

Sampoolan of the Bejadjoo Dayaksofthe south coast of Borneo.

Djiranyan gunung of the Malays.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS — General colour, fine red, paler on the back ; limbs and apical part
of tail, blackish red; throat and abdomen, greyish yellow; vertical crest very long;
a naked mark on the forehead, of a livid white; face black, surrounded by a black
beard.

LOCALITY.— Borneo.

DESCRIPTION. — The limbs of this species are very slender ; and it is
characteristically marked, not only by this meagreness of form, but also
by the presence of a high but narrow crest, which rises over the top of
the head like a comb, and then falls over the occiput as far as the neck ;
it has, besides, above the nose, on the forehead, a large, naked spot, which
is of a bluish white, or milky tint, contrasting very strongly with the
small, dull, black face, surrounded by a long black beard on both sides of
the cheeks. The fur, in adults, is generally dark red, but on the back,
especially toward its anterior portion, the colour is lighter, inclining more
or less to a yellowish grey ; on the extremity of the tail, and toward the
lower portion of the limbs, the general colour assumes, gradually, a dark,
rusty-black tint, which on the hands of the anterior extremities becomes
almost pure black ; the throat, breast, and entire abdomen are yellowish
grey ; the iris is brown.

ft. in.

In the adult male, the length of the body amounts to about . .19
Ditto ditto tail . . ..26

GENERAL HISTORY. — This beautiful species surpasses, in the elegance
of its form, and in the agility and quickness of its movements, most of the
others of the genus. The Bejadjoo Dayaks, on the south coast of Borneo,

476 QUADRUMANA.

know this Monkey by the name of Sampoolan ; and the Malays who live
there, by that of Djirangan gunung, which means Djirangan of the moun-
tains, to distinguish it from the Semnopithecus cristatus of Raffles, which
the natives designate simply Djirangan. From this difference of denomi-
nation, it is apparent that the present species (S. frontatus) inhabits, by
preference, the higher districts; while the S. cristatus selects for its
abode more especially the woods of the plains or lowlands.

285

Head of the Bare-fronted Moukey.

THE HOARY, OR CRESTED MONKEY, OR CHINGKAU.

SEMNOPITHECUS CRISTATUS.

Simla cristata RAFFLES, in Descript. Cat. in Linn. Trans, (xiii. p. 244), read

Dec. 5, 1820.

Chingkau of Malays, RAFFLES, ut supra.

Semnopithecus pruinosus . . . DESMAREST, Mamm. Supp. p. 533. 1822.
Semnopithecus pruinosus . . . LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 62. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Contour slender; colour black, grizzled with white; fur long;

hairs on the forehead diverging ; occipital crest long.
LOCALITY. — Sumatra.

DESCRIPTION. — Description of an adult specimen (No. 19, Catalogue,
Mamm., 1838), in the museum of the Zoological Society, London, forming
part of the Rafflesian collection. The general form is peculiarly slender ;
the ears are large and rounded, and, together with the face, which is
nearly naked, are of a black colour ; the orbits are large ; the beard is
scanty ; the neck is short ; the hair of the body is long and falling ; the
universal colour is silvered, or hoary black, the hairs, which are black
throughout the greater part of their length, having white tips ; on the

SIMIAD.E. 477

under surface of the body the hairs are iron-grey ; the hairs of the fore-
head diverge over the face ; those on the top of the head are elevated into
a long, peaked crest.

ft. in.

Length of head and body, nearly 20

Ditto tail 26

The Chingkau, when very young, is of a reddish fawn colour, with
blackish hands and feet ; when half grown, of a greyish brown, with
black hands and feet ; the frontal hairs, at this stage, diverge forward,
and the peaked vertical crest is very apparent. Specimens (Nos. 19 a,
19b, 19c. 19d, 19e), in the museum of the Zoological Society, London,
exhibit the progress of the animal from infancy to maturity.

Sir T. Stamford Raffles observes, in Linn. Tr. vol. xiii. p. 145 : " A
variety of this animal is described, by the natives, to be of a light grey or
whitish colour ;" and it is, probably, on the strength of this observation
that Baron Cuvier, in his Regne Animal, refers the Simia cristata of
Raffles to the Semnopithecus comatus, or Croo, which he would not have
done had he been acquainted with the specimens of the Chingkau brought
home by that zealous naturalist. Cuvier, also, supposes the S. maurus to
be the Tchincou (Chingkau) ; observing, however, in a note, that there is
some confusion in the application of these Malay names, the term, Ching-
kau, being applied by Raffles to the Simia comata.

Other naturalists, on the contrary, consider the Simia cristata of
Raffles to be identical with the Simia maura of Schreber. An examination
of the specimens of the S. cristata, presented by Sir T. S. Raffles to the
Zoological Society, London, will afford evidence of its distinctness. It
differs from S. maurus, not only in colour, but in being a much more
slender animal ; in having the ears large, and exposed ; and in the
presence of a long, peaked, vertical crest. Desmarest, who must have
been aware of Sir T. S. Raffles's name and account (since, in the descrip-
tion of the Cimepaye, Suppl. p. 533, he quotes this writer), failed to
recognise, in the characters of the S. cristata, so clearly detailed (Linn.
Tr. xiii.), the animal to which he applied the specific term, pruinosus,
and with which it is identical. As to the priority of the two names, it is
evident, from the reference made by Desmarest to Sir T. S. Raffles's
paper, that the term, cristata, was applied to the species in question, before
that of pruinosus.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The Crested Monkey, or Chingkau, inhabits the
forests covering the flat districts of Sumatra ; and, as it appears from
Miiller, also of Borneo : it is active and graceful ; but nothing more is
known respecting it.

478 QUADRUMANA.

THE BUDENG, OR MOOR MONKEY.

SEMNOPITHECUS MAURUS.

Middle-sized Black Monkey . . EDWARDS, Gleanings, pi. 311. 1750 (?).

Simia maura SCHREBER, Saugth i. pi. 22, B. 1775 (?).

Cercopithecus maurus ERXLEBEN, Syst. Regn. An. 1777.

Simia maura LINNJEUS, Syst. Nat., ed. Gmelin. 1788.

Guenon negre BUFFON, Hist. Nat. Suppl. vii. p. 83. 1789.

Negro Monkey PENNANT, Synops. 1771, et Quadruped. 1793.

Cercopithecus maurus GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812,

Cercopithecus maurus DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 55. 1820.

Tchincou F. CUVIER, Mamm. lith. fig. Nov. 1822.

Budeng of Javanese HORSEFIELD, Zool. Research, c. fig. 1824.

Simia maura et S. Edwardsii . FISCHER, Synops. p. 15. 1829.
Semnopithecus maurus .... LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 63. 1840.
Cercopithecus Afer LATREILLE, in Buff. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. (?)

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour black ; fur long and silky, the hairs diverging

from the vertex and concealing the ears.
LOCALITY.— Java.

DESCRIPTION. — In an adult specimen (No. 20, Catalogue, Mamm.,
1838) in the museum of the Zoological Society, London, the general
colour is deep black, with a decided silvery grey patch on the under
surface of the tail at its root ; the hairs of the head radiate from a centre,
and those on the sides of the head and face are long and bushy, com-
pletely overhanging the ears ; the fur is full, soft, long, and glossy ;
the face is flat ; the length of the head and body is twenty inches ; the tail
is imperfect.

In the Museum at Paris is an adult specimen apparently identical
with this species, of which the following is a description : —

The hair on the forehead is reverted forward ; that on the sides of
the cheeks is very full ; on the body, the fur falls down over the sides ;
the general colour is black, grizzled about the face, on the shoulders and
thighs, and also toward the end of the tail ; but there is no white spot
at the root of the latter, beneath.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 18

Ditto tail 22

In two middle-aged specimens, of a uniform black, agreeing in form,
no white is perceptible at the root of the tail, nor yet in a nursling, which
is also black, with the tail rusty beneath, and at the tip. In a young
specimen (No. 20, in Catalogue, 1838) in the museum of the Zoological
Society, there is no white spot at the root of the tail, but only a few grey
hairs. On the head the hair radiates, that of the forehead being directed
forward ; and there is no crest : on the sides of the face the hair is full,
long, and bushy, obscuring the ears ; the fur is full and soft ; the colour
is glossy black ; length, eighteen inches ; tail, twenty-two inches and a
half. Were it not for the absence of a peaked vertical crest, the adults
of this species might be confounded with the S. cristatus (Simia cristata,
Raffles), from which, however, it appears to be quite distinct. With

SIMIAD^E. 479

respect to the white, or whitish spot at the root ol the tail underneath,
and which is so distinct in the adult specimen in the museum of the Zoo-
logical Society, it cannot hut be considered as a variable character. This
species must not be confounded with the Lotong, or Simia maura (?) of
Raffles, which is the S. femoralis of Horsefield ; it is, however, most
probably, identical with the S. Edwardsii of Fischer, which, in his
Synopsis, he regards as synonymous with the "Middle-sized Black
Monkey " of Edwards, and also with the Cercopithecus maurus ol
Erxleben, and the C. Afer of Latreille, in Buff. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. ; at
the same time he considers it as a doubtful species. He gives Guinea,
with a query, as its habitat ; doubtless, on the authority of Edwards,
who states that the Monkey, figured by him under the name of " Middle-
sized Black Monkey," came, as he was informed, from Guinea ; but
he does not assert it as an ascertained fact. In his description of this
Monkey, Edwards observes that the hair above the eyes was long, and
also on the temples, partly covering the ears ; and adds, that he had
an opportunity of seeing a Black Monkey, something like his species,
called a Spider-Monkey, from the thinness and length of his limb, with
four fingers, and a prehensile tail ; in short, a species of the American
genus Ateles. Now we gain, from this statement, an important fact ;
viz., that the long and slender limbs of this Ateles struck him as being
like those of his " Middle-sized Black Monkey," thereby almost demon-
strating that this animal must have been a Semnopithecus (in which
genus the character of the limbs is much the same as in Ateles), and not
one of the African genus, Cercopithecus ; indeed, the figure given by
Edwards, though rude, has all the appearance of a young species of
Semnopithecus. That it was not an Ateles, is proved by its non-prehensile
tail, and by the presence of a thumb on the hands. The Guenon negre
of Buffon, is founded partly on this Monkey described by Edwards, and
partly on a Monkey entitled Simiolus Ceylonicus, by Seba ; its specific
appellation indicating it to be a native of Ceylon ; and Edwards observes
that, " in Siam, is a large species of Monkey, probably different from
this ;" viz., the ** Middle-sized Black Monkey." Shaw, combining the
accounts of Edwards and Seba, states the Simia maura to be a native both
of Ceylon and Guinea ; but he only refers to Edwards. What the " Middle-
sized Black Monkey" was, or whence it really came, is of course impos-
sible to be determined ; and, in considering it as identical with the
Semnopithecus maurus, the Author is to be understood only as assuming a
probability, based upon the coincidence of his description with that of the
present species, or, rather, upon its agreement with the specimens of S.
maurus which he has examined. Dr. Horsefield, in his Zool. Res. (1824),
states that, in the S. maurus, or Budeng (of which he gives the figure of
an adult and young), the ridge of the nose is elevated ; the chin short

480 QUADRUMANA.

and small ; the tail somewhat tufted at the apex ; the lips thin, and the
irides dark brown. He also notices that the young, after birth, are
fulvous, or reddish yellow ; and that, afterward, a grey discoloration,
first appearing on the hands, gradually extends to the neck, shoulders,
and flanks ; and, as it spreads, becomes darker, passing gradually into
jet. Sir T. S. Raffles observes the same with respect to the young of the
Simia cristata (Linn. Tr. xiii. p. 244), which appears to be synonymous
with S. pruinosus, Desm.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The Budeng, according to Dr. Horsefield, is
grave, sullen, and morose ; it is found in abundance in the extensive
forests of Java, where it forms its dwelling on the trees, and associates in
numerous societies. Troops, consisting of more than fifty individuals,
are often found together. In meeting these Monkeys, it is prudent to
observe them at a distance. They set up loud screams at the approach
of man ; and, by the violent bustle and commotion excited by their
movements, branches of decaying trees are not unfrequently detached,
and precipitated on the spectators. They are often chased by the natives
for their fur ; and great numbers are wantonly destroyed with cudgels and
stones. The fur is simply dressed in the European manner ; it is jet
black, silky, and usefully employed in riding equipages, and military
decorations. They are neglected and despised by the natives, as much
time and patience are required to improve the natural sullenness of their
temper. For many months they are grave and morose ; and, as they
contribute nothing to amusement, they are seldom seen domesticated in
villages or dwellings. When young, they feed on the tender leaves of
plants or trees ; and, when adult, on wild fruits of every description.

THE WHITE-THIGHED MONKEY.

SEMNOPITHECVS FEMORALIS. (Semnopithecus femoralis, HORSEFIELD, Appendix to Life of
Sir T. S. Raffles, 1830, and Catal. of Mus. Zool. Soc. 1829).

Simia maura Sir T. S. RAFFLES, Linn. Trans, xiii. p. 247. 1822.

Semnopithecus chrysomelas . . . MULLER, Tydschrift voor Natuurlijke, vol. v. parts i. ii. 1838.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— General colour, black ; the inside of the humerus, and of the
thighs, white or yellowish ; as is also a line down the centre of the abdomen ;
occiput tufted.

LOCALITIES. — Borneo, Java (?), Sumatra (?).

DESCRIPTION. — Description of a specimen in the museum of the
Zoological Society, London (No. 18, of Catalogue, 1838), forming part of
the Rafflesian collection. The general colour is black, fading on the top
of the head, on the occipital tuft, on the back and shoulders, into dusky
brown : the hairs of the forehead project forward, and are rather long ; short
white hairs are scattered over the chin ; and the fore-arms are grizzled
with white hairs, intermingled among the black ; the inside of the humerus,

SIMIAD.E. 481

from the axilla to the elbow, and the inside of the thighs, are white, with
an abrupt margin ; and a white line runs down the chest and abdomen to
its lower part : the sides of the face are not tufted, but a line of short
black hairs occupies the malar bones ; the skin of the face, ears, and
palms is black.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 17

Ditto tail . ': 1 10|

The present species, regarded by Sir T. Stamford Raffles as the
Simia maura, was first described as an addition to the genus Semno-
pithecus^ by Dr. Horsefield, in the Appendix to the Life of Sir T. S.
Raffles, under the specific title of femoralis, in allusion to the conspicu-
ous mark of white which runs down the inside of the thighs.

The museum of the Zoological Society has been recently enriched by
another adult example (female) of this rare Monkey from Borneo, and
a young Semnopithecus, presumed to be specifically the same.

The adult female closely agrees with the individual from which the fore-
going description is taken, excepting that, not only the inside of the thighs
is white, or, rather, yellowish white, but that, this colour is continued in
a distinct line, tapering down the inside of the legs to the ankle-joint.

The presumed young has the face of a reddish black colour, with
black superciliary hairs ; the fur is short ; the general colour is white,
with a black mark beginning on the vertex, and continued along the back,
where it is broader, and thence along the upper surface of the tail. The
outer side of the shoulders and arms are washed with black, as are also
the posterior limbs, but less decidedly.

The young specimen of a Semnopithecus, in the collection of the Earl
of Derby, presents the same characters ; it is the Semnopithecus dorsatus,
Waterhouse, in MSS. The following is an accurate description :

The general colour is white, with a very faint yellow and grey tint ;
the back of the head, the middle line of the back, the tail, and the
external aspect of the fore limbs, together with the fore feet, are of a
brownish black ; there are a few longish black hairs on the fore part of
the forehead ; the tail is of a dirty yellow white beneath, for two-thirds of
its length, and a few greyish hairs are intermingled with the black ; toward
the tip it becomes more full, and ends in a tuft ; the hind feet are blackish,
with grey hairs thickly intermingled on the toes ; toward the hinder part
of the foot the hairs assume the same pale colour as that of the legs,
interspersed, however, with blackish hairs in about equal proportions ;
the dusky black colour of the anterior limbs is extended on the lower
part of the fore-arm, so as nearly to surround the wrist ; the face appears
to have been brownish, or dusky, passing into dull flesh-colour around
the eyes.

VOL. I. 3Q

482 QUADRUMANA.

in. lines.

Length from nose to root of tail 110

Ditto of tail 16 6

Ditto hind foot 35

From base of thumb to end of longest finger . . . 1 11

Miiller, in his Tydschrift voor Natuurlijke, figures and describes a
Semnopithecus, which he met with in Borneo, under the title of S.
chrysomelas, but which, there can be little doubt, is identical with the S.
femoralis of Horsefield. The subjoined details, given by the former
traveller, agree with those afforded by the specimen (also from Borneo),
which has been already mentioned, as recently added to the collection of
the Zoological Society, London.

This species, in size, and the slenderness of the limbs, resembles the
Entellus. The body throughout, with the tail, is uniformly black,
excepting the interior of the arms, the lower part of the abdomen, and
the basal portion of the tail, on all of which the fur is of an ochreous
yellow tint. Of the latter colour, a well defined streak descends, tapering
along the posterior sides of the inner margins of the hind legs, from the
top to the heels ; on the hands, also, as well as on the breast, silvery
yellow hairs are mixed with the black colouring ; on the top of the head
the hairs form a comb-like crest, which extends from the occiput to the
neck ; the black hairs, both on the crown of the head, and also behind
and under the ears, are elongated, by which means a sort of whisker is
constituted on each side of the face ; the colour of the face, of the ears,
and of the palms, is sooty black, as in S. maurus.

ft. in.

Length of the body about 16

Ditto tail 24

Miiller states that his description was taken from the prepared speci-
men of an adult female ; which, however, perfectly agreed in colouring
with another adult female, and also with a male, of the same size, pro-
cured by M. Diard. A third example, obtained by the same traveller, at
Pontianak, and, according to Miiller, evidently belonging to this species,
was found to differ in some degree from the other individuals, being of
a dirty-reddish tint over the whole body, with many black hairs mixed
among the yellow ones on the head and neck ; while, on the outside of the
limbs, and especially on the hands, smaller or larger spots of black were
scattered. This specimen had a very imperfect covering of fur, and
appeared to have been in a diseased state when killed.

GENERAL HISTORY. — In its habits, the White - thighed Monkey
resembles the rest of the genus : it tenants the forests, living in troops,
and is active in escaping from pursuit. It has never been imported alive
into Europe.

I

THE WING-WHISKERED MONKEY.

SEMNOP1THECUS CEPHALOPTERUS.

Lion-tailed Monkey /3 PENNANT, Synopsis, p. 109, tab. xiv. fig. 2. J771.

Cercopithecus cephalopterus . . ZIMMERMANN, Geograph. Gesch. ii. pi. 185. 1780.

Guenon a face pourpre BUFFON, Supp. vii. p. 80, pi. 21. 1789.

Purple-faced Monkey ...... PENNANT, Hist. Quad. vol. i. p. 187, pi. 21. 1793.

Simia dentata SHAW, Gen. Zool. i. p. 24. 1800. (?)

Cercopithecus latibarbatus . . . GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. p. 96. 1812.

Cercopithecus latibarbatus . . . KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

Cercopithecus latibarbatus . . . DESMAREST, Mamm. 1820.

Cercopithecus leucoprymnus . . OTTO, Nova Acta Acad. Nat. Cur. xii. 1825.

Semnopithecus fulvo-griseus . . DESMOULINS, Diet. Classique, vii.

Simia leucoprymna, et Simia cephaloptera, FISCHER, Syn. Mamm. p. 16, 17. 1829.

Semnopithecus Nestor BENNETT, in Proceed. Zool. Soc. p. 67. 1833.

Semnopithecus leucoprymnus, et Semnopithecus Nestor, LESSON, Species des Mamm. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Colour fuliginous, becoming black on the limbs ; beard large,
pointed, and whitish ; head, brownish grey ; crupper and tail, grey ; the latter, at
the apex, whitish, and tufted ; face blackish, with a tinge of purple.

LOCALITY. — Ceylon.

DESCRIPTION. — The general colour of this species is fuliginous, or deep
blackish grey, passing into black on the hands and feet; the lower part of

484 QUADRUMANA.

the back, the crupper, and the tail are of a pale grey, with a tinge of lake-
brown ; the end of the tail, which is somewhat tufted, becoming almost
white ; a large pointed or triangular beard, of soft, long, whitish hairs,
occupies the sides of the face ; the top of the head and the back of the
neck are of a greyish brown ; the under parts are paler than the back,
being of a dusky grey ; a ridge of stiff black hairs, as in the Semnopitheci
generally, runs over the eyes ; the palms and soles are of a dull black,
as is also the skin of the face, with a tinge of purple.

ft. in.

The length of the head and body, about 19

Ditto tail, about 27

The above details are taken'from a specimen (16 a, in Catalogue, 1838)
in the museum of the Zoological Society, London, and which died in the
menagerie. A smaller specimen (16, idem) is the original of Mr.
Bennett's Semnopithecus Nestor, in Proceedings of the Zoological Society,
London, 1833, p. 67.

The present species was first described by Pennant, in his Synopsis
(p. 109, tab. xiv. fig. 1771), under the name of the Lion-tailed Monkey;
and it is on this figure and description, that Zimmermann (Geogr. Gesch.
ii. 1780) founded his Cercopithecus cephalopterus. Subsequently, from
a drawing communicated to him by Mr. Loten, Pennant, in his History of
Quadrupeds (vol. i. p. 189, tab. 21, 1793), figured and re-described it as the
Purple-faced Monkey ; and from this authority Buffon derives the delinea-
tion and account of the Guenon a face pourpre, in the Supplement to his
great work (vol. vii.). In Pennant's Quadrupeds, the face and hands
of this Monkey are stated to be purple ; but, most probably, these parts
were too highly coloured in the drawing mentioned ; for, in a young
example living in the menagerie of the Zoological Society, London, 1838-9,
the purple tint on the face was very slight ; and in specimens preserved in
the museum, it is not to be discerned. In the Annales du Musee, 1812
(vol. xix.), M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire characterized the Purple-faced
Monkey under the title of Cercopithecus latibarbatus, in allusion to the
long, wing-like whiskers of white hairs, which garnish the sides of the
face; whence also the title, cephalopterus, proposed, long before, by
Zimmermann.

The next original description of this Monkey is by Otto (in the
Nova Acta Acad. Nat. Curios, xii. 1825), under the title of Cerco-
pithecus leucoprymnus, that naturalist failing to recognise in his specimen
the characters either of C. latibarbatus, as detailed by Geoffrey, or of
C. cephalopterus, as drawn by Zimmermann, from Pennant's Lion-tailed
Monkey, var. /3. In Lesson's Manuel, while no notice is taken of C.
cephalopterus, the C. latibarbatus and the C. leucoprymnus are given as

485

two distinct species, without a suspicion, on the part of the author, as to
their identity.

In 1833, Mr. Bennett, from a young specimen in the museum of the
Zoological Society, London, as already stated, characterized his Semno-
pithecus Nestor (in Proceedings of the Zoological Society, London) ;
observing, that " the moderate length of the hairs, the somewhat lighter
colour, and especially the white of the lower part of the sides of the face,
distinguish this species from the S. leucoprymnus." But neither to the
C. latibarbatus of Geoffrey, the " Purple-faced Monkey" of Pennant, nor
to the C. cephalopterus of Zimmermann, does he make any allusion.

M. Desmoulins in the Diet. Classique d'Histoire Nat. describes a
species under the title of Semnopithecus fulvo-griseus, at the same
time assigning Java as its habitat; the species, however, is, un-
doubtedly, the S. latibarbatus, or leucoprymnus, or Nestor. Very
recently, the Author of this work carefully examined the specimen (a
young female, with the tail imperfect) of the S. latibarbatus in the
Museum of Paris, and which, as there is reason to believe, is the one
from which M. Desmoulins took his external characters. Underneath the
stand was written, "De M. Leschenault, 1822. Semnopitheque de Ceylon;
espece nouvelle. 11 n'y avait pas de crane dans la peau. C'est le C. leu-
coprymnus Otto (jeune) ; Semn. fulvo-griseus Desmoulins, Diet. Clas-
sique." It is also added, in reference to M. Desmoulins : " II parait qu'il
a pris un des squelettes du Cabinet d'Anatomie, appartenant au Croo
(Semn. comatus), pour le squelette de cette espece."

The description of this specimen is as follows : — Young female ; tail
imperfect ; the sides of the face are bearded ; the top of the head is of a
vinous grey-brown ; theg eneral colour is smoky brown ; the crupper is
of a dull grey, with a tinge of lake-colour ; the tail is of the same tint,
but a little darker ; the colour of the body deepens on the hands and feet
to black, with a tinge of brown ; the whiskers, beard, and throat are white.
Length, from the top of the head to the root of the tail, nineteen inches.
This description may be compared with that of the specimen, No. 16 a, in
the museum of the Zoological Society, London, and with the description
of C. latibarbatus in Desmarest's Mammalogie, p. 57, No. 16.

It would appear that, as respects intensity of colour, the S. latibar-
batus is subject to some variation ; the colour of the adults being the
deepest : M. Temminck, indeed, describes it as black. The Author,
however, has seen no specimen in which the general hue of the body is
deeper than fuliginous, or deep blackish-grey, passing into black on the limbs.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The individual of the present species which
lived for some time in the menagerie of the Zoological Society, London,
resembled the Entellus in its general manners : it was extremely active,
and sometimes lively, playing with its companions in captivity ; it was

486 QUADRUMANA.

tolerably gentle and confiding, as far as concerned those from whom it
was accustomed to receive its food ; but toward strangers it manifested
moroseness and distrust, and threatened with its teeth, when attempts were
made to court its familiarity. This moroseness, had the animal completed
its maturity, would, doubtless, have increased, as is the case with all the
Semnopitheci, which, in adolescence, are sportful, fond, and pleasing ; but
which, when adult, and especially when advanced in life, become savage,
and, from their long canines, very dangerous.

No information relative to the economy of the Semn. cephalopterus in
a state of natural freedom has been obtained. It may be presumed,
however, that, in the vast forests of Ceylon, it associates in troops, feeding
on the fruits which abound in that luxuriant island.

THE DUSKY MONKEY.

SEMNOPITHECUS OBSCURUS. (Semnopithecus obscurus, REID, in Proceed. Zool. Soc. p. 14. 1837.)

Semnopithecus leucomystax . . . TEMMINCK, in MSS. (?)
Semnopithecus obscurus Cat. Mamm. Zool. Soc. 1 838.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour, sooty black, passing into dusky grey below ;

occiput with long hairs of a greyish brown colour ; tail, dusky grey; hairs of upper

lip and chin, white.
COUNTRY. — District adjacent to Singapore, in the Malay Peninsula.

DESCRIPTION. — The following details are taken from the original spe-
cimen, on which Mr. Reid founded the species, in the museum of the
Zoological Society, (No. 21, of Catalogue, Mamm., 1838), and also from
some fine specimens brought, in 1840, from Singapore, by H. Cuming,
Esq., and presented by him to the same museum, (No. 21 a & b, of
MS. App. to Cat.) The general colour is sooty black, inclining, on
the shoulders, haunches, and central line of the back, to greyish, or to
brownish black ; the fur being long, flowing, and rather glossy : the hair
of the head is directed backward ; that on the occiput being very long,
and lying like a crest, on the neck ; the colour of this occipital crest is
always of a paler hue than that of the body and forehead, and is some-
times of a greyish, sometimes of a pale brown tint ; on the forehead the
hairs are nearly black, and a row of long, stiff, black hairs runs along
the superciliary ridge ; the whiskers on the sides of the face are long, and
directed backward ; they are of the same colour as the body generally,
or, perhaps, a little paler : the upper lip is furnished with scanty hairs, of
a dirty white colour ; but those about the angles of the mouth are black :
a small tuft of dirty white hairs occupies the chin ; the under parts are of
a dusky or brownish grey ; the hands and feet are black ; the tail is
always of a pale tint, sometimes grey, sometimes of a flaxen or yellowish
hue. In a young, half-grown specimen, the general colour is sooty grey,

THE HOODED MONKEY.
(Semnopithecus Johnii.)

487

with a pale brown wash down the middle of the back ; the limbs are grey ;

the abdomen is dirty yellowish white ; the hands and feet are black ; the

tail, and the occipital crest are of a yellowish grey.

ft. in.

Length of an adult male, about 19

The tail, about 28

A specimen in the Paris Museum agrees precisely, in all respects, with
the above description of the adult. It is a male. According to Mr.
Cuming, this species, which he found to be very common at Singapore,
varies greatly in the depth of its colouring, no two specimens being pre-
cisely the same. The general hue ranges from greyish black, or smoke
grey, to black ; the occipital crest and the tail being always paler than
the other parts.

The present Monkey is closely allied both to Semn. latibarbatus
and Semn. Johnii. In Semn. Johnii, however, the chest and under parts
are black, as is also the tail, while the whole of the head is brown ; but
in Semn. obscurus, the fore-part of the head is always dark, the occipital
crest alone being pale. In Semn. latibarbatus the whiskers are white,
and the whole of the upper surface of the head is of a uniform greyish
brown. In the present species the whiskers are of the same colour as the
rest of the body generally.

GENERAL HISTORY. — Of the habits of this species no particular details
have been received : its manners and modes of life are similar to those
of the Semnopitheci generally ; but naturalists have had no opportunity
of observing it in captivity.

THE HOODED MONKEY.

SEMNOPITHECUS JOHNII.

Simla Johnii FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. 1829.

Semnopithecus cucullatus . . . ISIDORE GEOFFROY, in Voyage de Belanger, Supp.
Semnopithecus cucullatus . . . LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 59. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Contour, robust; general colour, black; fur, glossy, long, and
somewhat coarse ; the head clothed with undulating greyish brown hairs ; the crupper
more or less inclining to grey, or chestnut brown.

LOCALITIES. — Malabar, and the neighbourhood of Madras.

DESCRIPTION. — Description of a specimen in the Paris Museum,
brought by M. Leschenault, " des montagnes des Gates " (Ghauts) : —
The general contour is stouter than in the Semnopitheci generally, and the
limbs and hands are robust and powerful ; the fur is full, long, and rather
coarse, with a good gloss ; the hairs of the head fall back from the fore-
head ; the whole of the head, whiskers, and beard are of a smoky greyish
brown ; the eye-brows are long, full, black, and very distinct ; the face
is black, with a few black hairs, especially about the angles of the

488 QUADRUMANA.

mouth ; the general colour of the body is dark brownish black, or, rather,
black, with a tinge of chestnut, more apparent on the sides of the crupper ;
the tint of the body passes gradually, on the fore-arms and legs, into jet
black ; the hair on the hands and feet is rough, and coarse ; on the back
the hairs are from three to four inches long, and longer still on the sides.

ft. in.

Length of the head and body 1 10

Ditto tail 32

A young specimen of the preceding, ticketed, " Du nord de la cote de
Malabar, par M. Dussumier, 1830," agrees precisely with the adult,
excepting that its hair is not even tinged with chestnut, but is black, with
greyish-black roots, the grey being a little more apparent about the hip-
joint ; the tail is slightly grizzled ; the hair of the hands and feet is rough.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 0 11

Ditto tail 18

Of two specimens in the museum of the Zoological Society, London,
the adult (No. 17 a, of Catalogue, Mamm. 1838), is black, the top of the
head being covered with long, bright, flaxen- brown, undulating hairs ;
the occipital portion of the head is of the same colour as the body ; the
whiskers are bushy, and brown ; the hairs of the face are black ; the
crupper and outside of the thighs are grizzled, as is the tail, but more
obscurely.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 24

Tail imperfect

Length of feet 0 7£

Ditto hands 0 5|

From Madras.

The younger specimen (No. 17, Catal., Mamm.) also from Madras,
presented by J. M. Heath, Esq., differs from the preceding, in having
the whole head and back of the neck of a flaxen-brown ; the hairs on the
top of the head, and the whiskers, are comparatively shorter, and there is
no decided grey on the crupper ; but the outside of the thighs is suffused
with sooty brown.

Length .

ft. in. lines.
180

250

Ditto foot
Ditto hand

. . . .054
.040

This species was first characterized and named by Fischer, in his
Synopsis Mammalium, p. 25, 1829, from a description by John (Bes-
chreib. einiger Affenarten in Neuen Schriften der Gellesch. Naturf.

SIMIAD.E. 489

Freunde i., p. 25), who gives Tellichery (Malabar) as its locality ; and
it is, doubtless, identical with the S. cucullatus of Isidore Geoffrey,
whose specimens were obtained in the range of the Ghauts, which extend
from Bombay along the whole of the Malabar coast.

In the Paris Museum a specimen exists, which is here referred,
though with some degree of doubt, to the S. Johnii ; as it differs
considerably in the general tone of its colouring, from any of the
examples of this species hitherto examined. It is an aged female
from Malabar, and is accompanied by a nursling, considered to be
her own offspring. The fur resembles that of an adult Entellus ; the
back is of a fuliginous grey, becoming darker on the shoulders and thighs,
and still more so on the arms and legs, where the colour is nearly black ;
the hands and feet being quite black : the head, whiskers, and beard, which
latter is conspicuous, are of a dirty straw colour, passing insensibly into
the hue of the back ; the long eyebrows, and hairs continued from them
over the sides of the cheeks, are black, as are also those scattered on the
upper lip ; the face is black ; the tail is dark brown, its apical third being
much paler ; the inside of the humerus, and of the thighs and the under
surface of the body, are of a dusky straw-colour.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 20

Ditto tail 32

The nursling is covered with close, soft, soot-coloured hairs.

It has been already stated that, in the Semnopithecus obscurus, the
intensity of the general colouring is subject to great variation ; and in the
present species such also would appear to be the case ; at least, if this
specimen be truly referable to it.

GENERAL HISTORY. — Of the Semnopitheci it unfortunately happens
that few species have been studied by naturalists in their native forests.
Our knowledge of the habits of the Entellus only, is full and satisfactory ;
and this results from its extensive range of habitat, its numbers, and its
veneration by the Hindoos, in the districts of India where so many Eu-
ropeans reside, and on whose attention it may be said to have forced itself.
But the Hooded Monkey, like many others inhabiting the remote forest
regions of a wild and mountain country, is only to be seen occasionally, by
such persons as venture into the woods in quest of game, and from whom
it precipitately retreats. It may, indeed, be chased and shot; but the
sportsman or traveller who preserves the skin, and transmits it to Europe,
has no information to communicate, besides the locality where the animal
was found. The Entellus, on the contrary, in the districts where it is
held sacred, emboldened by toleration, instead of seeking remote abodes,
throngs around the settled dwellings of man, devastates his gardens and
cultivated fields with impunity, and divides with him the possession of the

VOL. I. 3 R

490 QUADRUMANA.

territory. But with respect to other Semnopitheci, the interest which
attaches to them, in the eyes of the man of science, cannot be fully parti-
cipated in by the general reader, who is anxious to learn, principally, the
economy of the species presented to his notice ; a desire experienced also by
the naturalist ; but which, unfortunately, will not always be gratified. Let
it, however, be recollected that our knowledge of the animals of this genus
is but of recent date ; that, of all now described, two or three only have
been imported alive into Europe ; and that, of the rest, excepting as far as
is to be gained by an examination of preserved specimens, no information,
or but little, has been acquired. At the same time, so closely are these
Monkeys related to each other in form and structure, that it is not pre-
suming too much to say that their manners and habits agree in every
essential. Some may prefer the forests of elevated tracts, and others
those which cover sultry lowlands ; but all are essentially arboreal, all
frugivorous, and all, when adult, indocile and morose. The Entellus, in
fact, may be taken as a type of the rest.

GENUS.— COLOBUS.
Colobus ILLIG. Prodrom. Syst. Mamm. 1811.

GENERIC CHARACTERS. — Form and DENTITION as in Semnopithecus ; STO-
MACH and CAECUM as in Semnopithecus; (?) LARYNGAL SACCULI ; (?)
CHEEK-POUCHES ; (?) THUMB of the fore-hands reduced to a nail-less
tubercle, but with the bones in a rudimentary condition beneath the
skin.

COUNTRY. — Africa, exclusively.

The genus Colobus may be described, in brief, as a repetition of Sem-
nopithecus, with the thumb of the hand (see fig. 287) still more reduced,
9g7 and useless ; and it is upon this charac-

ter, viz., the absence of a thumb, that it
was founded by Illiger, in his Prodro-
mus. As to the value of this negative
character, remembering the almost ru-
dimentary condition of the thumb in

Haud of Colobus. ,-1 o • -i • j ,-1 . n .

the bemnopitheci, and the very trifling

share of influence it exerts in their economy, we should not be disposed
to lay much stress upon it, were not some extraneous importance given
to it, by geographic distribution ; a consideration which, in most in-
stances, will avail little ; but yet, which often corroborates the propriety
of generic separations founded on characters of minor value. It is,
indeed, true, that cheek-pouches, which cannot be said to exist in the
Semnopitheci, are assigned, as a distinguishing character, to the Colobi ;

S1MIAD.E. 491

but upon this point there is some uncertainty. M. Riippell, the only
naturalist who has dissected one of these animals (see his account of
the Col. Guereza, in Neue Wirbelthiere Sdugethiere, i. 1835), does not
make any mention of them. Mr. Ogilby, however, in his description of
Colobus fuliginosus, C. Temminckii, (see Proceedings of Zoological
Society, London, 1835, p. 98), observing that the face is short, the
head round, and the whole form and habit those of the Semnopitheci,
says, " the teeth are of the usual form and number, and there are
large and very distinct cheek-pouches ;" and he adds : " I was the
more particular in making this last observation, because the organs in
question had not been previously recorded as existing in the Colobi ;
and because M. Geoffrey St. Hilaire, in his valuable lectures, of which
it is a matter of great regret that so small a portion has been given
to the public, even doubts their existence. Of this, however, there can
be no longer any reasonable doubt ; they are extremely apparent, and
rather capacious, in the specimen now under description." It may here
be remarked, that Illiger, who established the genus, and that Desmarest,*
who drew up its characters from Geoffrey, expressly affirm the presence
of cheek-pouches ; and M. Geoffroy, in his lectures, says, " leurs aba-
joues sont assez developpees." Setting aside, however, Illiger, Desma-
rest, and M. Geoffroy, it is to be observed that the Author of this work
has carefully examined the specimen, in which Mr. Ogilby considers the
cheek-pouches to be both apparent and capacious ; and though he hesitates
in differing from so judicious a naturalist, yet he cannot help confessing
that he felt by no means satisfied as to their real existence. It is true
that there is a vacuum between the skin of the cheeks and the jaw-bones, —
a vacuum not bounded posteriorly, as cheek-pouches are, but communi-
cating with the hollow skin of the neck. Now, in effecting the preparation
of the specimen, — and the remark applies to others also, — the skin of the
head has, evidently, been separated from the bones, and, after the applica-
tion of the ingredients used in preserving it, returned to its former position ;
hence, in drying, the skin no longer adhering to the bones of the jaws, a
space between the skin and jaws would naturally be the result ; and in a
specimen so prepared, it would be difficult to say whether the vacuum,
thus presented, indicated capacious cheek-pouches, or was merely a con-
sequence of the flaying of the head, and the subsequent contraction of the
skin, in drying. The fact is, that in dried specimens, as they are usually
prepared, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to ascertain precisely,
whether, in the living animals, cheek-pouches were present or not, and in
this predicament stands the genus Colobus.

* Desmarest also gives cheek-pouches as characteristic of the genus Semnopithecus, a palpable
error (see Mammalogie, Supplement, p. 532), proving how cautiously the assertions of the most accurate
naturalists are to be received.

492 QUADRUMANA.

With respect to the presence of laryngal sacculi, some doubt still exists.
Though the account of the stomach given by M. Riippell (see his
description of the Guereza) is very superficial, it is sufficient to satisfy us
that this viscus approaches, if it does not quite resemble, in its sacculated
character, that of the Semnopitheci. With respect to the caecum, he states
it to be rather small, and shaped like a nine-pin ; if this account be
correct, the difference between the Colobi and Semnopitheci, as far as this
is concerned, is very considerable. The length of the intestinal canal in
the Colobi, taking the Guereza as the standard, agrees with that of the
intestinal canal of the Semnopitheci. The small intestines of the Guereza
measured nine feet seven inches and a half ; the large intestines three feet
eleven inches ; total, thirteen feet six inches and a half. The dentition
of the two groups is precisely similar, as also is the form of the
cranium (see fig. 288), which is remarkable for the boldness of the
supra-orbital ridge, the distance between the orbits, the angularity and
lateral projection of their osseous margin, and the depth of the lower
288 jaw- As regards external characters, in

physiognomy, in the presence of a pro-
jecting row of superciliary bristles, in the
slenderness of the body, and length of the
limbs and tail, the Colobi are repetitions, as
before stated, of the Semnopitheci. Even
in the fur may be traced their mutual
resemblance ; it is generally long, flow-
ing, and glossy; and its character and
colouring serve, as in the Semnopitheci, to
subdivide the Colobi into sets or sections.
Of these, one section contains the species, either wholly black, or black
ornamented with white ; and with the hair, either of the whole body or
of certain parts, peculiarly long and flowing ; another section contains
a set with long glossy hair, but not so long, on an average, as in the
former, and remarkable for the mixture of black and bright maroon, bay
and yellow, or dark and light bay, with which they are coloured ; in size,
too, they are scarcely equal to the former. A third section may be
added, in which the fur is comparatively short, and, though still soft,
partaking more than does that of the others, of the texture of the fur of
the Cercopitheci : it also agrees in colour with that of a numerous group
of the Cercopitheci, being olive, varying from a brownish to a greener tint,
the hairs being annulated with black, a peculiarity not found in either of
the foregoing sections, nor yet in the Semnopitheci. Of this section one
example only is known ; viz., the Colobus verus of Van Beneden ; if,
indeed, it be a Colobus.

Till within the last few years the genus Colobus comprised only

SIMIAD^E. 493

two species; viz., the Full -bottom Monkey of Pennant (Colobus
polycomus), and the Bay Monkey of Pennant, (Colobus ferruginosus),
neither of which have been seen by naturalists since the time of their
describer. Recently, Kuhl, Riippell, Ogilby, Waterhouse, and Van
Beneden have added to the list, which now consists of ten accredited
species; and of these, setting aside the Colobus polycomus, and C.
ferruginosus, which do not appear to exist in any museum, and the
Colobus verus of Van Beneden, which is only in the Museum of Paris,
fine examples enrich the museum of the Zoological Society of London.

It is scarcely necessary to add, that the Colobi are as exclusively
peculiar to Africa, as are the Semnopitheci to the hotter regions of Asia.
Of the exact locality of one species, we are still ignorant ; with regard
to the rest they belong, respectively, to the borders of the Gambia, to
Sierra Leone, and the island of Fernando Po, on the west, and to Abys-
sinia, on the east of that mighty continent.

THE KING MONKEY.

COLOBUS POLYCOMUS. (Colobus polycomus, GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812).

Full-bottom Monkey PENNANT, Quadr. i. 212, c. fig. tab. xlvi. et synops. 17.71.

Simla polycomos SCHREBER, Saugth i. 94, c. fig. Penn. tab. x D. 1775.

Cebuspolycomos ZIMMERMANN, Geogr. Gesch. 1778.

Guenon a camail BUFFON, Supp. vii. 65, c. fig. Penn. tab. xvii. 1789.

Simla comosa SHAW, Gen. Zool. I. p. 59, c. fig. Penn. tab. xxiv. 1800.

Cercopithecus comosus LATREILLE, Hist. Nat. Buff. ed. Sonnin. xxxvi. 286.

Aleles comatus GEOFF ROY, Ann. du Mus. vii. 273. 1806.

Simla polycomos F. CUVIER, Diet. Sc. Nat. xx. 34.

Simla polycomos DESMOULINS, Diet, class.

Colobus polycomos KUHL, Beit. Zool. 1820.

Colobus polycomos DESMAREST, Mamm. 1820.

Simla polycomos FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 13. 1829.

Colobus polycomos LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 67. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour, black ; the hairs of the head and shoulders being
full, and very long, and of a yellowish white ; tail, white ; tufted at the extremity ; fur
of the body, short.

LOCALITY. — Sierra Leone.

DESCRIPTION. — The head is small; the face is short, black, and
naked ; the head and shoulders are covered with long, coarse, flowing
hair, of a dirty-yellowish colour, mixed with black ; the body, arms, and
lower extremities, are covered with short hair, of a fine glossy blackness ;
the tail is very long, of a snowy whiteness, with long hair at the end,
forming a tuft. Length of head and body, about three feet.

GENERAL HISTORY. — Our knowledge of this species is exclusively
derived from Pennant, who is its only original describer ; and it is from
his figure and account, both taken from a skin which came under his
notice, and which formed part of the celebrated Leverian Museum,

494 QUADRUMANA.

that all subsequent naturalists have copied. The most remarkable
feature in this animal is the profusion of very long hair falling from the
head and shoulders, of a dirty yellowish colour, and which is compared,
by Pennant, to a " full-bottomed perriwig ;" while the hair on the limbs
and body is short. In the snowy whiteness of the tail, it agrees with two
species described by Mr. Ogilby: one under the title of Colobus ursinus,
the other under that of Colobus leucomeros. Both of these, however,
have their distinguishing characters. In both, the hair of the body is very
long, fine, and glossy, and not at all exceeded by that of the shoulders ;
the reverse of which is the case in C. polycomus.

Pennant gives no account of the habits and manners of this species ;
but observes that, in Guinea, it is called Bey, or King Monkey, and that
the Negroes hold its skin in high estimation, using it for pouches, and for
coverings to their guns.

THE GUEREZA MONKEY.

COLOBUS GUEREZA. (Colobus Guereza, RUPPELL, in neue Wirbelthiere Saugethiere i. c. fig.

tab. 1. 1835.)

Guereza of the Abyssinians.

Colobus Guereza LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 68. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour, black; sides of the body and top of the loins
ornamented with long pendent white hairs, forming a fringe-like mantle ; face
encircled by white ; tail ending in a white tuft.

LOCALITIES. — Godjam, Kulla, and Damot, South and West Abyssinia.

DESCRIPTION. — The contrast of deep black and snow white, and the
mantle of long flowing hairs which adorns the sides of this Colobus,
render it at once beautiful and remarkable. Beginning on the shoulders,
a series of long, flowing silky hair runs along each side of the body,
meeting over the loins, and forming a mantle, which falls gracefully from
the body, and hides the haunches and the thighs ; its colour is white ; a
white bar crosses the forehead and spreads over the sides of the face, the
throat, the sides of the neck, and the chin ; the colour of the body and
limbs, the outside of the thighs excepted, (this part being grizzled with
white), is glossy black ; the tail, at its basal half, is black, the apical half
white and full- tufted ; the skin of the face is black, but it is thinly covered
with short white hairs.

ft. in.

Length of adult from tip of nose to root of tail .... 2 4
Ditto tail 2 4J

Specimens of this rare species are preserved in the British Museum ;
the museum of the Zoological Society, London (No. 25, in Cat. Mamm.
in Mus. Zool. Soc. 1838); the Museum of Paris; and the Museum of
Frankfort.

THE GUEREZA MONKEY.
(Colobus Guereza. Rupp.)

SIMIAD.E. 495

GENERAL HISTORY. — According to Riippell, the Guereza lives in
small families, tenanting the lofty trees in the neighbourhood of running
waters. It is active and lively, without being unruly ; and its disposition
is gentle and inoffensive. Its food consists of wild fruits, grain, insects,
&c. Its habits are diurnal — during the day it feeds, and it passes the night
in sleep under the branches. It is only found in the provinces of Godjam,
Kulla, and Damot, more especially in the latter, where it is hunted by the
natives, who consider it a mark of distinction to possess a buckler covered
with the skin of this animal ; the part used being that from which flow the
long white hairs.

Guereza is the Abyssinian name of this species of Monkey, and
Ludolph (in the Hist. JEthiopica, lib. i. cap. 10), has made express
allusion to it ; the animal, however, which he figures under this name is
not the Guereza, but another species. Salt, in his Second Journey \in
Abyssinia, also speaks of the Guereza ; but, according to Riippell, it does
not exist in those parts of the country visited by the former learned
traveller.

THE URSINE COLOBUS.

COLOBUS URSINUS. (Colobus ursinus, OGILBY, in Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 98).
Colobus ursinus LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 70. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— Fur very long, glossy, and black ; head, greyish white ; tail

white, tufted at the extremity.
LOCALITY. — Western Africa, Sierra Leone.

DESCRIPTION. — The fur is long and glossy, and of a jet black, over
the whole of the body and limbs ; the head, the back of the neck, and
the throat, are of a silvery greyish white, becoming grizzled and inter-
mixed with black, as this colour merges into the black of the body ; the
tail is long, and snowy white, with short hair, and slightly tufted at the
end. The length of the fur on the back is about six inches.

The above description was taken from a fine skin, brought from Sierra
Leone, by Major Henry Dundas Campbell, late governor of Sierra Leone,
and exhibited at one of the scientific meetings of the Zoological Society
(See Proceedings for 1838, p. 61). It is now in the Museum, 27 c, in
Suppl. to Cat. Mamm. 1839.

Previously to the arrival of this skin three imperfect specimens only
existed in the museum of the Zoological Society. (Nos. 27, 27 a, 27 b,
of Cat. of Mamm. 1838). Two of these, which were said to have been
obtained from Algoa Bay, were exhibited before the scientific meeting of
the Zoological Society, June 26, 1832, and were regarded by Mr. Bennett
as referable to the Colobus polycomus ; the long milk-white tail, he
observes, contrasted with the bright black fur of the body, being fully

496 QUADRUMANA.

sufficient to characterize it. The only discrepancy, he adds, observable
between the specimen and the description of the species (Col. polycomus,
or Full-bottom Monkey) given by Pennant, was in the great length of
the hairs of the body, which were generally four or five inches long :
this might be dependant on age or locality.

The value of the white tail, as an evidence in favour of Mr. Bennett's
views, falls to the ground, when we know that this is also a character in
the Col. leucomeros ; besides which, the fur of the body, in no one
specimen yet examined, has been otherwise than long ; and there is no
reason to presume that it is ever different.

Mr. Ogilby, when he described this species in the Proceedings of the
Zool. Soc. London, 1835, p. 98, had not then seen a perfect skin; those
from which he took his description wanting the head. Hence he
observes : " Whether or not this species, like the polycomus, has the
head of a different colour from the body, is a subject for farther observa-
tion ; the white or silvery hairs, about the neck and shoulders, render it
extremely probable that it has ; but in no case can it form the striking
contrast in length, nor present the long flowing mane, or wig-like appear-
ance ascribed to the animal observed by Pennant." The correctness
of Mr. Ogilby's remarks has subsequently been amply confirmed.
Respecting the locality of the present species, he adds, " Mr. Gould,
who procured these skins (viz., the originals of his description) for the
society, reported them as coming from Algoa Bay ; we know enough of
the zoology of that part of Africa, to render this account extremely
doubtful ; and the probability is, either that Mr. Gould was misinformed,
or that he may have mistaken Delagoa Bay for Algoa, which, from the
similarity of sound, might readily happen. If this conjecture should
prove correct, it would follow that the Colobus ursinus was the analogue
of the Colobus polycomus on the opposite coast ; and the conjecture
receives further countenance from the fact of many other known species
of mammals having such analogues in the same localities." Very for-
tunately, the locality of the species is now ascertained, so that all specu-
lation is at an end. The perfect skin, which we have described, was
brought from Sierra Leone, by the late governor (Major H. D. Camp-
bell), and Mr. Gould must have been misled.

GENERAL HISTORY. — Of the habits and manners of this beautiful
Monkey, no accounts have been obtained ; nor does it appear to have
been seen alive by European travellers ; the skins being purchased from
the natives of the wooded districts, who bring them to Sierra Leone for
the sake of barter.

SIMIAD^E. 497

THE WHITE-THIGHED COLOBUS.

COLOBUS LEUCOMERUS. (Colobus leucomerus, OGILBY, in Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1837. p. 69.)

SemnopiihecKs vellerosus .... ISIDORE GEOFJROY, Voyage de Bellanger, p. 37.

Semnopithecus bicolor WESMAEL, Bull, de 1'Acad. Royale des Sciences, July 4, 1835,

volii. p. 236. 1836.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Fur very long, silky, and of a shining black; a frontal stripe,

the beard encircling the face, the throat, the thighs externally, and the tail, white.
LOCALITY.— Banks of the Gambia, Western Africa.

DESCRIPTION. — The fur is long, fine, silky, and shining ; the general
colour is black ; a white frontal band spreads from the forehead over the
whiskers on the sides of the face (which are large), and, passing down,
occupies the throat; so that the face is surrounded with white, which is
narrowest on the forehead ; the hairs, covering the thighs externally, are
white, more or less mixed with black, especially where the white begins
to merge into the latter colour ; the tail is long, and of a snowy white :
size equal to that of the Guereza.

A perfect specimen, seen by the Author at an animal preserver's in
Paris, 1838, furnished the details of this description.

An imperfect skin (No. 28, of Catalogue of Mamm. 1838), the original
of Mr. Ogilby's description in the Proceedings of the Zool. Soc. 1837,
exists in the museum of the Zoological Society, London. It was brought
from the River Gambia. Imperfect skins exist in the Museum of Natural
History of Paris.

This remarkable species has received three different specific titles;
viz. Semnopithecus vellerosus, Isid. Geoffrey; Semnopithecus bicolor,
Wesmael ; and Colobus leucomerus, Ogilby : in Lesson's Species des
Mammiferes these stand as the names of three distinct Monkeys. In
the present work, that given by Mr. Ogilby is adopted ; for to this
naturalist belongs the credit of having correctly characterized it.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The White-thighed Colobus, like the two
preceding, has never been observed by European travellers in its native
forests ; and nothing is ascertained respecting its habits and instincts,
which, it may be believed, resemble those of the other species.

THE BLACK COLOBUS.

COLOBUS SAT ANAS. (Colobus Satanas, WATERHOCSE, in Proceed. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1838. p. 58.)

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour black ; the fur very long, and but slightly glossy.
LOCALITY. — Fernando Po.

DESCRIPTION. — The fur is extremely long, rather coarse, intensely
black, and but slightly glossy ; there is no under fur ; on the back the
hairs measure, on an average, fully ten inches.

498 QUADRUMANA.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 27

Ditto tail 30

Three skins, one imperfect, the other two perfect, with the exception
of the hands, the originals of Mr. Waterhouse's description, exist in the
museum of the Zoological Society, London (Nos. 28 A, 28 A, a, in Suppl.
Catalogue Mamm. 1839). They were presented by G. Knapp, Esq. The
uniform black colour of this species will at once distinguish it from Col.
ursinus, and Col. leucomeros, its nearest allies.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The specimens, from which the original descrip-
tion was taken, were brought from Fernando Po ; but no details regarding
the history of the species accompanied them ; and, consequently, the habits
and manners of this species are among the desiderata of the naturalist.

THE BAY MONKEY.

COLOBUS FERRUGINOSUS. (Colobus ferruginotus, GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812..>

Bay Monkey PENNANT, Quad. i. 218. 1771.

Autre guenon BTJFFON, Hist. Nat. Suppl. vii. GG. 1789.

Simia ferruginea SHAW, Gen. Zool. i. 59. 1800.

Simla ferruginea DESMOULINS, Diet. Class.

Simla ferrug inea F. CUVIER, Diet. Sc. Nat.

Simla ferruginea DESMAREST, Mamm. 53. 1820.

Simia ferruginea FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 13. 1829.

Colobus ferruginea LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 68. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— General colour ferruginous ; the top of the head, the tail, and

limbs, externally blackish.
LOCALITY. — Sierra Leone.

DESCRIPTION. — The crown of the head is black ; the back is of a
deep bay colour ; the outside of the limbs are black ; the cheeks, the
under part of the body, and the legs are of a very bright bay ; the tail is
very long, slender, and black.

The above is, in substance, Pennant's description of a specimen
formerly in the Leverian Museum, brought by Mr. Smeatham, from
Sierra Leone. Several species, agreeing more or less closely with the
above description of the Bay Monkey, by Pennant, but still affording good
grounds on which to regard them as distinct, have to be noticed, and in
the account of each respectively, these specific differences from the pre-
sent species will be pointed out.

GENERAL HISTORY. — This species rests solely upon Pennant's brief
description of a specimen formerly in the Leverian Museum ; but, with the
fact of its having been brought from Sierra Leone, our information ends ;
with respect to the habits and manners of the animal in its native country,
nothing was collected by its first describer, nor has anything been sub-
sequently ascertained.

SIMIAD^E. 499

TEMMINCK'S COLOBUS.

COLOBUS TEMMINCKII. (Colobus Temminckii, KUHL, Beitr. 1820.)

Colobus Temminckii DESMAHEST, Mamm. p. 53. 1820.

Colobus fuliginosus OGILBY, in Zool. Proceedings, p. 97. 1835.

Colobus Temminckii LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 69. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— General colour of the upper parts sooty black, darker on the
head; sides of the body, limbs, and tail, ferruginous; under parts yellowish white,
sometimes whitish.

LOCALITY.— Gambia, Western Africa.

DESCRIPTION. — The top of the head is black, as is also the occiput,
which latter is slightly sprinkled with rufous ; the back, and the outside
of the humerus, and of the thighs, are fuliginous, or of a sooty black colour,
with a slate-blue tint ; the sides of the face, the chest, the sides of the
humerus, and the whole of the fore-arms are of a rufous colour, which be-
comes deeper and brighter on the hands : the anterior part of the thighs,
the knees, and the legs, are also rufous, the feet being of a deeper hue ;
the throat, together with a line along the sides of the chest and of the
abdomen, are of a sandy yellow ; the middle of the chest, and of the abdo-
men is abruptly of a dirty yellowish white, varying to white ; the tail, at
the base, is black, with rufous hairs intermixed ; it then assumes a chest-
nut red, or rufous colour, becoming darker at the extremity, where black
hairs are numerously intermixed : an obscure dusky line runs along the
whole of its upper surface ; the tip is somewhat tufted. The naked skin
of the face is brown, with a tinge of red purple ; the palms and soles are
of a purplish black.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 22

Ditto tail 26

The preceding description of this remarkable species, is taken from a
fine specimen in the museum of the Zoological Society, London (No. 26
of Suppl. Cat. Mamm. 1839).

Fischer, induced, probably, by the authority of Temminck, has united
this animal (the Colobus Temminckii) with the Colobus ferruginosus,
or Bay Monkey of Pennant, which he would not have done had he
attended to the description of Pennant, who states the back of the Colobus
ferruginosus to be of a deep bay colour; whereas Kuhl describes the
Colobus Temminckii as having the head, neck, back, shoulders, and outer
face of the thighs black ; the hands, face, and tail, purplish red ; the rest
of the members clear red ; the belly reddish yellow.

It was on a very pale coloured and aged female of this species, in the
museum of the Zoological Society, London (No. 26, in Cat. Mamm.
1838), brought from the river Gambia, that Mr. Ogilby founded his

500 QUADRUMANA.

Colobus fuliginosus, which term sinks into a synonym of Colobus Tem-
minckii, Kuhl.

The original of Kuhl's description was formerly in Bullock's Museum,
but is, at present, in that of Leyden. With respect to the locality of this
species, it is now ascertained to be Gambia, whence the specimen described
by Mr. Ogilby was brought by Mr. Kendall (1835); others have been also
received from the same district ; the settlement of this point is of the
more value, inasmuch as the locality whence Kuhl's original specimen
was obtained is unknown.

In a very young example of this Colobus, recently examined, the
fur of the back, which is of a deep, sooty, slate colour, is obscurely
freckled with yellowish, each hair having a minute annulation of this
tint : on the occiput) as in the adults, a marked transverse line is seen,
where the hairs are more freely annulated with rust colour, communicat-
ing to this part a general rufous tinge : an abrupt yellow streak runs
down each side of the body. The under parts are very thinly clad with
silky white hairs ; the tail is a dirty yellow at the base, rust coloured at
the apex ; the hind toes are all united as far as the first joint.

GENERAL HISTORY. — Nothing has been collected relative to the history
of this species as it exists in a state of freedom.

THE RED AND BLACK COLOBUS.

COLOBUS RUFO-NIGER. (Colobus rufo-niger, OGHBY MSS.)
Colobus rufo-niger Catalogue Mamm. Zool. Soc. Suppl. 26 A, and 26 A, a. 1839.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— Colour of the upper parts, and of the sides of the humerus and

thighs, black ; sides, and under part of body, chestnut red.
LOCALITY. — Gambia, Western Africa.

DESCRIPTION. — The head and the back are black, which colour
extends over the outer side of the humerus, and of the thighs ; the tail
is black, with a tinge of chestnut ; the whole of the under surface is
maroon, or chestnut red ; the knees are also chestnut red ; and, as far
as admits of being traced, this is the colour also of the fore-arms and
legs ; the specimens, however, being imperfect in the extremities, it is
impossible to say whether the colour is pure and bright, as in Colobus
Temminckii, and, according to Pennant's description, in Colobus ferru-
ginosus ; or more or less clouded with black : the fur of the body is long
and soft ; size that of Colobus Temminckii.

Three distinct specimens, imperfect in the limbs, exist in the museum
of the Zoological Society of London : one is a late acquisition to the
museum ; it was presented by Edward Rudge, Esq., and obtained in the

SIMIADJE. 501

district of the Gambia, Western Africa ; and it is from this (No. 26 A,
Catalogue Mamm. Suppl. 1839) that we have taken our description.

The other two are the skins (No. 26 A, a, Catalogue Mamm.
Suppl., 1839) referred to by Mr. Bennett in the Proceedings of the
Zool. Soc. Lond. 1832, p. 122, and considered by him to be those of
the Colobus ferruginosus (or Bay Monkey), when, as he adds, at the par-
ticular stage in which it is " described by M. Kuhl, under the name of
Colobus Temminckii," Mr. Bennett, evidently regarding the latter as a
mere variety of the former. To the same specimens Mr. Ogilby also
subsequently alludes in the Proceedings of the ZooL Soc. Lond., 1835,
p. 99, observing, "notwithstanding some slight discrepancies, I agree with
Mr. Bennett, in referring to the Colobus Temminckii, Kuhl (regarding it,
however, as truly distinct from Colobus ferruginosus), the two other skins
noticed by him in the part of the Proceedings already referred to. These
skins were procured at the same time, and, most probably, in the same
locality as those of the Colobus ursinus ; they were equally imperfect ;
the hair of the shoulders and back is dead black, and without the beautiful
gloss so conspicious in the Colobus ursinus ; on the ^flanks, and over
every part of the limbs, the colour is uniform maroon, or clear purple
red ; the head and hands are wanting ; but the maroon of the tail is
much deeper than that of the legs and flanks, approaching almost to
black ; and in the older of the two specimens it is actually replaced by
that colour on the terminal half of the tail."

Recently, however, Mr. Ogilby has had reason to alter his opinion,
and to regard the skins in question as belonging to a species equally as
distinct from the Colobus Temminckii, Kuhl, as this is from the Colobus
ferruginosus.

The locality in which they were said to be obtained, viz., Algoa, or,
with a query, Delagoa Bay, is evidently incorrrct. The specimen pre-
sented by Mr. Rudge, came, without doubt, from the region of the
Gambia, which may be regarded as the habitat of the species.

GENERAL HISTORY. — As is the case with all the Monkeys of this
genus, one alone excepted, nothing is known of the habits and manners
of the present Colobus.

PENNANT'S COLOBUS.

COLOBUS PENNANTII. (Colobus Pennantii, WATERHOUSE, in Proceedings Zool. Soc. Lond.

p. 57, 1838.)

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Head, and central line of back, black; the sides, fulvous red;

under parts, yellowish ; tail, blackish brown ; cheeks and throat, whitish.
LOCALITY. — Fernando Po.

DESCRIPTION. — The prevailing colour is a bright rusty-red ; the head,
back of the neck, and the central portion of the back, are black ; the

502 QUADRUMANA.

cheeks and throat are white, or dirty white ; the chest, the fore part of the
shoulders, the under parts of the body, and the inner side of the limbs, are
dirty yellow ; the inner side of the thighs is whitish ; the hairs of the tail
are brownish black. The fur is long and not very glossy ; that on the
head and fore parts of the body is the longest. There is no soft under
fur ; the hairs are of a uniform colour to the base, or, at least, are but very
slightly paler at that part. The portion of the back, which is described as
black, partakes in some degree of the rusty hue which prevails over the
other parts of the body ; it occupies only a narrow stripe of the dorsal
region, and blends indistinctly into the rust colour. The lower parts of the
limbs are removed, but as they are black at the knee, and also assume a
deep hue below the elbow, it is probable that the remaining portions are
black externally ; but internally, as far as can be seen, the limbs are
yellowish, or yellow white.

ft. in.
Length of head and body ....... 23

Ditto tail 25

Two specimens exist in the museum of the Zoological Society, Lon-
don, Nos. 26 B, 26 B, a, of Suppl. to Cat. Mamm. 1839. Mr. Water-
house, in his account of this species, observes, that it is " the nearest yet
found to the Bay Monkey of Pennant, but that it differs in having the
throat and cheeks white, and in having three distinct shades of colour on
the body ; while in Pennant's animal, the cheeks are of a pale bay colour,
and the body is deep bay above, and pale bay beneath. It might be
argued that, by * deep bay,' Pennant meant to designate the peculiar
colour described by me as black with a rusty hue : if so, he could scarcely
apply the term ' very bright bay' to the parts which I call yellow. If,
however, even this were the case, there is still another distinct tint which
he has not mentioned, and that is the bright rusty-red colour of the sides
of the body and limbs. On the whole, therefore, I think I am right in
applying a name to the animal here described, which, it must be remem-
bered, is from a different locality ; viz., Fernando Po ; that of the Bay
Monkey being Sierra Leone. There is another circumstance which
should lead us to be cautious in pronouncing any species, which differs as
much as that here described, to be identical with Pennant's animal, since
it so happens that each red Colobus discovered has, in its turn, been
referred to the Bay Monkey, or to the Simia ferruginea of Shaw, which
is the same animal, and has had one or both of these names applied, and
subsequently changed upon the discovery of the next species ; in con-
sequence of which much confusion has arisen. I think we had better let
the Bay Monkey stand until we can find an animal agreeing with Pen-
nant's description."

GENERAL HISTORY.— It need scarcely be said that nothing is known
of the habits and manners of this species.

503

BENEDEN'S COLOBUS.

COLOBUS VERUS. (Colobus verus, BENEDEN, " Notice sur une nouvelle espece de singe d'Afrique,"
in BULL, de 1'Academie Royale de Bruxelles, torn. v. No. 6, c. figura. 1838.)

Colobus verus LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 70, 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour, greenish, or olive brown; the hairs round the

callosities, rust coloured ; throat, grey.
LOCALITY. — Africa, district unknown.

DESCRIPTION. — General contour, stouter than in the ordinary Colobi ;
the limbs are tolerably robust, and the tail is very long. The head, the
neck, the back, and the base of the tail are covered with hair of an olive-
brown ; this colour approaches that of the Sphinx Baboon, and of some
of the Green Monkeys. The hairs on all the above parts are finely
annulated with black. On the back of the neck, and particularly below,
and to the outside of the callosities, the hairs assume a rusty brown tinge.
The tail is long and grey throughout the whole of its length ; the apex
being a little deeper coloured. On the shoulders the colour of the back
changes insensibly to pale greyish green, which is spread over the whole
of the anterior extremities. On the hinder extremities, the colour of the
back descends to the knees ; but the legs and feet are of the same tint as
the anterior extremities ; the colour of the flanks is paler ; and the abdo-
men is covered with dull grey hairs, as are the sides of the neck. The
thumb of the anterior hands is so rudimentary, as not even to appear ex-
ternally, in the form of a tubercle : the original of this description is
deposited in the Museum of Natural History of Paris. (Vide Bull, de
V Academic Royale de Bruxelles, torn, v.)

GENERAL HISTORY. — Neither the precise locality, nor the habits of
this animal, have been ascertained.

Here concludes the history of the genus Colobus, of which the two
original species described by Pennant have never, as it is presumed, been
since met with by naturalists ; the others are all recent additions to the
list of the Simiadse ; and, unfortunately (one species excepted), all that
concerns their habits has yet to be discovered. It is to be hoped that
this deficiency will, at no distant date, be supplied ; and that, as our
acquaintance with Western Africa enlarges, not only other species will be
found, but that the economy of those already described, will be investi-
gated by enlightened explorers of the rivers and forests of the regions
they inhabit.

SUB-FAMILY III. — A section of the Simiadse now presents itself, con-
sisting of several genera, agreeing with each other in the structure of all
the more important points of their organization, insomuch that, in some
instances, the lines of division between them are scarcely discernible, and

504 QUADRUMANA.

are often more artificial, or convenient, than strictly natural. On the one
hand, among the Cercopitheci are to be found species (the Malbrouck and
White-throated Monkey, for example) which, as far as form is concerned,
have as good a claim as the Macaque (Macacus cynomolgus), or the
Macacus carbonarius, to the genus Macacus, or, on the other hand, these
latter might, with equal propriety, be referred to the genus Cercopithecus.
On the contrary, the genus Macacus presents us with examples closely
approaching the Cynocephali, as the Macacus nemestrinus ; while, again,
the Gelada of Abyssinia, which appears referable to the genus Cynocepha-
lus, was placed by Riippell, its discoverer, in the genus Macacus.

From the long-tailed, active, and lively Cercopitheci (or Guenons of
the French), to the short-tailed, heavy, ferocious Baboons, there is a
gradual and uninterrupted series of transitions, and it is rather by taking
locality into the account, and by tracing out a tendency to the same modi-
fications of form in other species, that the several genera can be settled.
The absence of a fifth tubercle, indeed, on the last molar tooth of the
lower jaw throughout the Cercopitheci, has been regarded as an index by
which to be guided, and as an important diagnostic mark of the genus.
It certainly cannot be overlooked ; and though it happens that in the three
species, viz., the Collared, the Sooty, and the Lunated White-eyelid
Monkeys (which may be justly separated from the genus Cercopithecus,
as the representatives of a sub-genus), the fifth tubercle on the molars in
question is present, the value of the character, as a diagnosis, is not
materially affected. With regard to the possession of laryngal sacculi,
which are considered, by most naturalists, to be wanting in the genus
Cercopithecus, it may be stated that, if not truly characteristic of the
animals of that group, they are not absolutely so either of the genera
Macacus,* or Cynocephalus ; but it is ascertained that some species, even
of Cercopithecus, possess them, as the Malbrouck and White-throated
Monkey ; while, on the other hand, the Author has failed to detect them
in specimens of the Toque (Macacus) radiatus, of the Pileated Monkey
(Macacus pileatus), of the Black Macaque (Macacus niger), and of the
Common Macaque (Macacus cynomolgus) ; and, farther, in an immature
female of the Cynocephalus Papio. Setting this point aside, a simple
stomach and large cheek-pouches are common to all.

The tail, indeed, offers great variation in stoutness and length ; and
the muzzle is more developed in some species than in others ; and in

* Cuvier says, speaking of the Macaques : "Us ont tous un sac qui communique avec le larynx
sous le cartilage thyro'ide, et qui se remplit d'air quand ils crient," which assertion is not confirmed,
in an absolute sense, by the author's investigations. It appears that these sacculi do not become de-
veloped until a certain age, and that in the females, of many species at least, they never acquire the
magnitude -which they assume in the males ; and hence it happens that, in the same species, they are
sometimes absent, sometimes present.

SIMIAD^E. 505

some of the Baboons (Cynocephali) but not in all (the Mandrill and the
Drill for example), the nostrils are terminal and abrupt, giving a dog-like
appearance to the extremity of the upper jaw. Where the tail is
elongated, it acts an efficient part as a balancer to the animals in their
arboreal evolutions ; but where it is short, or only reaches to the heel,
its utility appears to be more limited, and it is carried in an arched form,
first rising from its base, and then sweeping down to, or toward, the
ankle. The characters, however, derived from this organ, considered with
regard to its length, are comparative, not positive ; and, on the circumstance
of the tail of one species being a few inches longer, or shorter than that
of another, no generic divisions can be established.

An attentive and repeated examination of an extensive series of the
skulls of various species, assigned by naturalists to the several genera, Cer-
copithecus, Cercocebus, Macacus, and Cynocephalus, for the express purpose
of endeavouring to draw from them diagnostics, clearly distinguishing
each genus respectively, — definite characters by which the generic place
of any species might be at once ascertained, — has ended in no satisfactory
results. Setting aside the fifth tubercle on the last molar of the lower
jaw, common to the Cynocephali, the Macaci, and to the Collared and
Sooty Monkeys, assigned, by most naturalists, to the genus Cercopithecus,
the skulls failed to furnish, as they do in the Gibbons and Semnopitheci,
positive data of separation. It is true that, if a skull of one of the Cerco-
pitheci and of the Mandrill be placed together, the difference between them
is striking ; but these are two extremes of the chain, and the intermediate
links consist of a series of forms passing by gradations from the Cerco-
pitheci to the Cynocephali ; the depression of the skull and the develop-
ment of the muzzle, appearing, in a first stage, in some of the Cercopitheci,
exhibiting a progressive advancement in the Macaci (in several of which,
indeed, the depression of the cranium and the development of the
muzzle are extraordinary), and carried to an ultimatum in the Cynoce-
phali. With such a chain of links before him, the naturalist, looking at
the skulls alone, will find some difficulty in drawing his lines of generic
division, unless, indeed, he take into the account the character of the
last molar tooth of the Cercopitheci (with three exceptions), and their
habitat, in opposition to the character of the last molar of the
Macaci, and to their habitat (with one exception; viz., the Magot).
Habitat, it must be confessed, is in itself no generic character ;
nevertheless, by taking it into the account it aids the naturalist in
doubtful cases, and so far becomes valuable, as an adjunct, to trivial
or unimportant physical characters. Thus, independently of the
consideration of these points, several Indian Monkeys, of the genus
Macacus, as already stated, might be referred to the genus Cerco-
pithecus.

VOL. I. 3 T

506 QUADRUMANA.

Rejecting, however, these trivial characters, and influenced in
his views by the part which the long tail of the species in question,
exercises as a balancer in their arboreal movements, a talented naturalist*
separates them from the Macaci with short or tuberculous tails, and
places them in the genus Cercopithecus, while, sinking entirely the term
Macacus, he substitutes a genus, termed Papio,-}- for the reception of the
remaining species. The principle by which this naturalist is here
guided, is briefly this : — that no characters can, with propriety, be received
as generic, except such physical modifications as are palpably subservient
to some design, and, therefore, are attended by a corresponding modifica-
tion of habits and manners, a proposition which would have irresistible
weight, could the real value of structural modifications be always
determined; and did not anatomical minutiae necessarily guide the
naturalist, even where the express results of these minutiae cannot be
demonstrated. Hence it is that genera are founded upon the presence or
absence of lachrymal sinuses, or inguinal pores, though their use and
influence in the animal economy are not understood ; and hence it is that,
upon the number of toes, genera are established, though no results from
a variation in this particular are to be perceived. Moreover, it would
appear that characters, trifling in themselves, gain, from their universality
and permanence, a value which they might not otherwise possess, and
thus, notwithstanding the presence of the fifth tubercle in the lower
jaw of the Collared and Sooty Monkeys (which may justly be placed
under a sub-generic head), the genus Macacus, confined to India, with
the exception alluded to, but containing certain sub-genera, may be
received as based on sufficient warranty. The long-tailed Macaci, con-
stituting a sub-genus, may be, indeed, regarded as the representatives of
the African Cercopitheci ; and the short- tailed species, of the Cynocephali ;
while, among these latter, the Magot, a native of the North of Africa and
its districts, most adjacent to Asia, may form the type of a sub-generic
section.

GENUS.— CERCOPITHECUS.

Cercopilhecus ERXLEBEN, in part Syst. Regni Anim. 1777.

GENERIC CHARACTERS. — MUZZLE moderately prominent; the FACIAL
ANGLE 45° — 50° ; HEAD round ; SUPERCILIARY RIDGE moderate ; MOLARS
crowned with acute tubercles ; LAST MOLAR of the lower jaw with only
four tubercles; CHEEK -POUCHES usually ample; LARYNGAL SAC

* See Menageries in Library of Entertaining Knowledge, vol. xlii. part ii.

t This term, as a generic title, has been previously applied by Geoffrey, to the Cynocephali, in Ann.
du Mus. vol. xix. ; and also by Kuhl and Erxleben.

SIMIAD^E. 507

variable; ISCHIATIC CALLOSITIES moderate ; GENERAL CONTOUR light
but vigorous ; LIMBS muscular ; STOMACH simple ; TAIL long ; FUR
moderate, the hairs annulated.
COUNTRY. — Africa.

The Cercopitheci are all restricted to the African Continent,* and are
exclusively arboreal in their habits ; they tenant the wild forests that skirt
the rivers, and associate in large troops, being (as far as is known) all
gregarious in their habits. Their actions are full of energy ; restlessness,
petulance, and inquisitiveness mark their disposition. During infancy
they are gentle, but they become irascible and malicious with age.
Though their form is light, it is muscular and vigorous ; and the limbs
are well proportioned ; hence they differ very materially from the Semno-
pitheci, having neither the meagre contour of body, the long slender
limbs, nor the depressed face of the latter ; nor have they the bold
angular superciliary ridge so characteristic of the animals of that genus.
The chest is deep ; the loins are narrow ; the limbs of moderate length,
and muscular ; the muzzle is moderately prominent, giving a facial angle
of about 45° ; the tail is long, and acts, though not so decidedly as in the
Semnopitheci, as a rudder and balancer in their motions, which are
characterized by abruptness, energy, and decision.

They express their displeasure by grinning and chattering, and
though seldom venturing to make a decided attack, yet, headed in large
numbers, inj their native woods, they harass and annoy, with missiles,
intruders within their bounds, and are not to be repelled without difficulty.
Their diet is almost exclusively frugivorous, and they often commit great
havoc in the fields of grain, in the vicinity of the wooded parts of the
country ; and that, not only by what they devour upon the spot, but, also,
by what they carry away in their cheek-pouches, which extend below the
angle of the lower-jaw, and which, when an opportunity happens, they
cram with food, to be eaten at leisure. In this respect we at once
perceive a material difference between the Cercopitheci and the Semo-
pitheci. The former have cheek-pouches and a simple stomach ; the
latter no cheek-pouches, but a complex stomach, consisting of various
compartments. The teeth of the Cercopitheci, independently of the
absence of the fifth tubercle on the crown of the last molar of the lower
jaw, differ from those of the Semnopitheci, by being more boldly tuber-
culate, and by not presenting, when worn, any appearance of re-entering
enamel. In the Cercopitheci, the thumb of the fore-hands is also more
developed, and the hands themselves are shorter, broader, and have
better pretensions to the title, than the long slender graspers of their

* One species of Cercopithecus only, viz., the C. pygerythrus, or Vervet (with one species of
Baboon, the Cynocephalus porcarius, or Chacma), inhabits Africa, south of the Tropic of Capricorn

508 QUADRUMANA.

Asiatic relatives. The general absence of laryngal sacculi has been
already noticed ; the os hyoides, however, is always expanded anteriorly,
with its inner surface concave. The fur in the Cercopitheci is moderately
full and soft ; and its colours are often elegantly disposed and contrasted ;
it may be laid down as a rule, that the hairs are always annulated with
two or more tints ; and though the Patas may, at first, seem an exception,
it is not so in reality.

The skull in the Cercopitheci (see fig. 289), compared with the skull
in the Semnopitheci, differs in several details. In the first place, the

orbits are thrown less outwardly ; they
approach each other more closely, the
inter- orbital space being very narrow ; in
the next place, the superciliary ridge is
less bold, depressed, and angular; it
gives a less frowning aspect to the orbits,
the outer margin of which is far less
projecting, and squared. Again, in the
Cercopitheci, the facial bones project

Skull of Cercopithecus sabams. .. . . r /

more sensibly, giving an acuter angle to

the face ; but the lower jaw is less deep ; and the chin retracts more
obliquely. The skull is rounded and slightly flattened in front; the
dentition need not be recapitulated ; the incisors, especially the middle
pair above, are large and oblique ; the canines, which are of considerable
magnitude, are compressed, with a sharp cutting edge, posteriorly.

The Cercopitheci resolve themselves into several small groups, or sets,
according to the mutual alliances of the species ; these are respectively
represented by the Patas, the Green Monkey, the Talapoin, and the
Pogonias ; while for the three White-eyelid Monkeys a sub-generic rank is
adopted. The sub-genus is here termed JEthiops, and is characterized
by the presence of a fifth tubercle on the last molar of the lower jaw,
by the magnitude of the upper middle incisors, and by the hairs being
destitute of annulations.

THE RED MONKEY, PATAS, OR NISNAS.

CERCOPITHECUS RUBER. (Cercopithecus ruber, GEOPFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.)

Patas a bandeau noir, et Patas a bandeau blanc, BUFFON, Hist. Nat. xiv. tab. 25 and 26. 1766.
Cercopithecus barbatus rufus . BRISSON, Regn. An. 1756.

Red Monkey PENNANT, Synops. 1771, et Quadrup. 1793.

Simla Patas SCHREBER, Saugth. 1775.

Simla rufa SCHREBER, Supp.

Cercopithecus Patas ERXLEBEN, Syst. Regn. Anim. 1777.

Simla rubra GMELIN, Syst. Nat. Linn. 1788.

Simla rubra CAILLAUD, Voy. & Meroe. 1827.

Cercopithecus ruber KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

Cercopithecus ruber DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 59. 1820.

Le Patas F. CUVIER, Mamm. 1820.

Le Patas a bandeau blanc . . . F. CUVIER, Mamm. 1829.

Simla rubra FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 24. 1829.

Nisnas, Cercopitheouspyronotus HEMPRICH and EHRENBERG, Symbolae Physicse. 1838.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour red, passing into whitish on the under parts ;

superciliary stripe black, whence a black line is carried down the nose to its tip ;

face surrounded with ample whiskers. t

LOCALITIES.— Senegal, Ethiopia.

DESCRIPTION. — Description of an adult male in the Paris Museum : —
Form compact, denoting strength and activity ; the teeth are large ; the
upper canines are deeply furrowed anteriorly ; the head is broad and
flattened ; the nose depressed ; the muzzle but slightly prominent ; and
the eyes rather sunk, and dark ; the hands are small, the fingers being
short and hairy above, to the nails ; the fur is moderately long, and rather
coarse and glossy ; the general colour of the top of the head and back is
bright foxy red, passing into grizzled grey on the shoulders (where the

510 QUADRUMANA.

hairs are annulated with black and white), which colour fades into white
on the wrists and hands. This is also the colour of the legs below the
knee, and of the feet. A line of stiff black hairs forms a distinct arch over
each eye, whence a band, or patch, extends to each ear : from the super-
ciliary double arch, a narrow line of black is carried down the raised ridge
of the nose, to the tip, where it expands, forming a patch, conspicuous*
from its contrast with the flesh colour of the orbits, cheeks, and muzzle.
Bushy whiskers, commencing on the malar bones, below the orbits, extend
back, and form a full margin on the sides of the face below each ear,
limiting the naked part of the face to a narrow space between the eyes
and upper lip. These tufts begin of a grizzled grey, and pass into buff,
about the sides of the neck and throat ; the lips and chin are furnished with
white hairs, which are rather long, but not, however, so much so, nor so
thick, as to form a beard. The abdomen and inside of the limbs are
white ; the tail is red above, white below ; the palms are blackish ; the
ears are moderate dusky.

Length from the superciliary ridge to the root of the tail, 2ft. lin. ;
tail imperfect.

In the specimen of a female nearly as large as the preceding (also in
the Museum of Paris'), the shoulders are red, like the rest of the body ;
but the fore-arms and hands are white. In young and semi-adult speci-
mens, the shoulders are less purely grey, often washed with reddish, and
the limbs are yellowish buff, or pale sandy red.

The following is the description of a semi-adult female, lately living in
the menagerie of the Zoological Society, London.

Length of head and body, 1ft. Sin.

The coat was generally short, but in some parts, as on the occiput, for
instance, between two and three inches long. The upper and outer sur-
faces were brownish ruddy, brightest on the head, tinged with grey on the
arms, approaching to fawn on the legs, and blending into a yellowish grey
toward the end of the tail ; the hairs being mostly annulated with grey,
reddish yellow, and black. The under and inner surfaces were ashy, washed,
in parts, with a slight tinge of yellow ; on the brow there was a band of
stiff, black hairs, forming an arch over each of the eyes, and terminating
above their outer angles, on the sides of the head, in patches of some
breadth, and of the same colour. From the centre of this band, or double
arch, a black line passed down the raised and narrow ridge of the nose,
rapidly expanding, as it approached the tip of that part, into a broad,
black, hairy patch, which (the muzzle, orbits, and cheeks being of a pale
flesh- colour) was remarkably conspicuous; the lips were furnished with
dusky hairs ; and the whiskers, which commenced on the front of the
cheeks, and terminated behind the ears, were rather long, straight, and
projecting; their colour was yellowish posteriorly, ashy in the middle, and

511

blackish at their anterior edges ; whence the hair was continued of the
same hue downward to the chin, beneath which it formed two short,
slender pencils.

It will be evident that the Patas a bandeau noir, and the Patas
a bandeau blanc, are here regarded as the same animal, notwithstanding
the differences pointed out by Fred. Cuvier, which appear to be de-
pendant upon age or season. The male, with its white moustaches, its
grey shoulders, and white arms and legs, from which the first description
is taken, closely agrees with that of the Patas a bandeau blanc, in F.
Cuvier's Mammalogie.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The Red Monkey, or Patas, common as it now
is in our menageries, has not often been either figured or described from
nature. Prosper Alpinus (Rerum Mgypt. iv.) gave the first account of
it under the name of Simius Callitrichus, accompanied by an indifferent
figure. From that time, to the time of Buffon, it appears to have been
unnoticed. This naturalist described and figured it under the title of
Patas a bandeau noir, et Patas a bandeau blanc. Schreber next de-
lineated it : recently it has been figured and described by F. Cuvier, and
again by E. T. Bennett, in the Gardens and Menagerie delineated. The
figure given in this work is from a specimen living in the menagerie of
the Zoological Society, London. In its native woods of Senegal, the Patas,
as it is denominated by the natives, associates in large troops, which
according to De la Brue, are in the habit of uniting together in the common
cause against an enemy. As he passed along the river, with his party, in
boats, they descended from the tops of the trees and advanced to the
extremity of the lower boughs, for the purpose of examining more closely
the objects below. Having, for some time, attentively watched the boats,
and no longer satisfied with remanining merely spectators, they began a
system of offensive operations, casting dry branches, and other missiles at
the party, who, in return, fired and killed several of the assailants. Upon
this, the survivors began to utter the most frightful cries, and undauntedly
redoubled their efforts at annoyance ; some gathered stones, others sticks,
and various missiles, for the purpose of hurling them at their enemies ;
and it was not until severely taught the inequality of the contest, that
they terminated it by a retreat.

In captivity, the Patas is lively, but very spiteful and capricious ;
as with its race in general, its evil qualities become more developed, the
more it advances in age, when its liveliness degenerates into irascibility,
and its temper becomes morose and vindictive. Mr. Bennett observes,
that the young individual which he figured, had a habit, when pleased, of
dancing on all fours, in a peculiar and measured step, which was far from
being ungraceful, though, after a time, it became ludicrous from its

512 QUADRUMANA.

monotony. We have noticed the same action in young Monkeys of other
species.

Riippell observed this species in Kordofan and Darfur, and it is un-
doubtedly the Nisnas of Hemprich and Ehrenberg. The term Nisnas,
seems a word of general application, in Egypt, to Monkeys ; for the
Hamadryas and the Anubis are thus denominated. According to Dr.
Riippell, this species is less frequently tamed in Egypt than the Tota
(Grivet, Cere, griseo-viridis), with which the Egyptian peasantry confound
it under the common name of Abellan. We learn, from the same autho-
rity, that its native appellation, in Kordofan, is Nango.

M. Ehrenberg, in his description of the Nisnas, as it is called by the
Arabs of Ethiopia, remarks, that the adult male, when in full health, is
furnished with a copious mane. This character has not been observed in
the specimens which have fallen under the Author's observation ; probably,
by the expression, a copious mane, is only intended that the hair on the
neck, or shoulders, is longer than that on the limbs and back ; but that it
has a copious mane, truly so called, as we see in the Gelada or the Hama-
dryas, must be regarded as very doubtful.

Representations of the present species, occur on the tombs of the
ancient Egyptians ; and Mr. Ogilby considers that it is " unquestionably
the Cepus, which ^Elian, on the authority of Pythagoras, describes as an
inhabitant of the countries bordering on the Red Sea," as, indeed, the
description, remarkable for its accuracy, proves. The Kebos of Aristotle
is probably the Gelada of Abyssinia.

THE WHITE-THROATED MONKEY.

CERCOPITHECUS ALBOGULARIS. (Cercopithecus albogularis, SYKES, in Proceedings, Zool. Soc.

p. 18. 1832.)

Semnopithecus (?) albogularis . . SYKES, in Proceedings Zool. Soc. p. 105-6. 1830-1.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— Fur of upper parts freckled with black and yellow,— of under
parts with white and black ; throat, white ; limbs, black ; full whiskers hide the ears ;
long superciliary bristles.

LOCALITY.— (?)

DESCRIPTION. — Description of a specimen (No. 36, Cat. Mamm.
1838), in the Museum of the Zoological Society, London: — General
contour stout and muscular ; the fur is soft and adpressed ; but on the
fore-limbs the hairs become more rigid and shorter ; on the back they
measure from two to three inches in length; the canine teeth are re-
markably long (nearly three quarters of an inch), slender, and sharp ; the
incisors very short and even ; the head is rounded and short ; the ears
are very small, nearly rounded, and, for the most part, concealed in the

SIMIAD.E. 513

long hair about the head ; the eyes are deeply seated, and shaded by a
continuous arch of long hairs directed forward ; the irides are broad, and
of a brown ochre colour ; the hair forms a bunch on each cheek, re-
sembling whiskers ; there is no beard ; the cheek-pouches are rudimen-
tary only, and not observable externally, even when filled, being
concealed by the bushy hair of the cheeks ; the thumbs of the anterior
hands are short ; those of the posterior hands are long ; the general
colour is deep grey, washed on the back with olive green, the whole of
the upper surface of the animal is of a mingled black and yellowish
ochre colour, each hair being banded black and ochre ; the black prevail-
ing on the shoulders, the ochre on the back and flanks ; the under
surface is grizzled white and black ; the anterior limbs are of a uniform
black ; the posterior are black, tinted with a little of the dorsal colour ;
the chin and throat are of a pure white ; the tail is black, and half as
long again as the body.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 19

Ditto tail 27

An account of the visceral anatomy of this species, by Prof. Owen,
will be found in the Proceedings Zool. Soc. for 1832, p. 19. "The
larynx was, as usual, in the Cercopitheci and Macaci, viz., with two
wide lateral sacculi, and a middle pouch, continued forward, between the
os hyoides and thyroid cartilage, and extending about three inches under
the skin of the neck. The aperture by which it communicated with the
larnyx was large enough to admit the little finger."

The first specimen known of this interesting species is that preserved
in the Museum of the Zoological Society, London, and which died in the
Society's menagerie. According to Col. Sykes, by whom it was
presented to the Society, the animal " was obtained at Bombay, where
it was believed to have been taken from Madagascar." Most probably,
however, it was originally brought from the African coast ; no well
authenticated instance, indeed, occurs in which any Monkey has been
found to be indigenous in that island ; for, though both the Mangabey and
Sooty Monkey were supposed, by Buffon, to be natives of Madagascar,
it is now ascertained that they are exclusively peculiar to the African
Continent.

The White-throated Monkey is closely allied to the Malbrouck and
the Grivet, but has its own characters too decided to allow its being
confounded either with one of these, or with any others of the genus ;
the uniform black colour of the anterior limbs, and also of the posterior
extremities and tail, and the grizzled white and black of the under
surface, sufficiently distinguish it.

GENERAL HISTORY. — With respect to the habits of this animal, in a

VOL.1. * U

514 QUADRUMANA.

state of nature, nothing has been ascertained. Its manners in captivity,
as observed by Col. Sykes, " are grave and sedate. Its disposition is
gentle, but not affectionate : and though free from that capricious petulance
and mischievous irascibility characteristic of so many of the African species,
still it quickly resents irritating treatment, and evinces its resentment by
very smart blows with its anterior hands. It never bit any person on board
ship, but so seriously lacerated three Monkeys, its fellow passengers,
that two of them died from the wounds. It readily ate meat, and would
choose to pick a bone, even when plentifully supplied with vegetables
and dried fruits."

Mr. Ogilby informs us, that he has seen a second individual of this
species in the possession of a travelling showman, and that it " strongly
exhibited the same antipathy to other Monkeys that Col. Sykes has
recorded in the case of his specimen. It even flew upon a stuffed skin
which its owner threw down to it, and worried it with all the hatred and
fury of a Terrier against a Rat. In other respects, and toward its
master and visitors, it appeared to be as docile and good-natured as the
individual observed by Col. Sykes, and this is, no doubt, the natural
character of the species."

The country whence this second specimen was brought, could not be
ascertained.

A third specimen has very recently (1840) been added to the living
inmates of the menagerie of the Zoological Society, London, and is
said to have been brought from Madagascar, — a singular coincidence,
as the specimen obtained by Col. Sykes was also reported to have
been obtained there ; still, as no Monkeys have been hitherto observed
by European residents in the woods of Madagascar, where the Lemurs
supply their place, we are inclined to doubt the correctness of the
inference, as to that island being the native locality of this species,
and to consider the Comoro Islands, or the Mozambique coast, as its
true habitat. The individual in question is tolerably gentle, but seems
reserved and unsociable, avoiding the other inmates of its cage, or
driving them from it, as if indisposed to gambol with them ; it appears,
indeed, to be more apathetic than the Cercopitheci generally are ; and,
if destitute of the malice of some, it has nothing of the liveliness and
inquisitive disposition of others.

291

THE MALBROUCK MONKEY.

CERCOPITHECUS CYNOSURUS. (Cercopithecus Cynosurus, GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.)

Simla Cynosurus SCOPOLI, deliciae florae et faunae, p. 44, tab. 19— male(?)

Simla Faunus LINN^US, Syst. Nat. Ed. 10. 1758 (?)

Malbrouck BUFFON, Hist. Nat. xiv. c. fig. 29— female. 1766.

Callitriche Var AUDEBERT, Hist. Sing, and Mak. Fam. iv. sect. 2, pi. 7. 1797.

Dog-tailed Baboon SHAW, Gen. Zool. i. p. 32. 1800.

Le Malbrouck F. CUVIER, Mamm. pi. 22. 1819.

Cercopithecus Cynosurus .... KHUL, Beitr. 1820.
Cercopithecus Cynosurus .... DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 60. 1820.

Simla Cynosurus FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 22. 1829.

Cercopithecus Tephrops BENNETT, in Proceedings Zool. Soc. p. 109. 1833.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Colour of upper parts, greenish brown, or olive, — of under parts
whitish ; limbs, externally, greyish ; face, of a pale flesh colour ; nose and cheeks,,
covered with scattered, short, dusky -black hairs; muzzle, thick ; scrotum, blue, sur-
rounded with rust-coloured hairs.

LOCALITY. — Western Africa. (Guinea?)

DESCRIPTION. — Description of an adult male (No. 40, a, Cat. Mamm.
1838), in the museum of the Zoological Society, London. The colour
of the top of the head and upper surface is olive green, and resembles that
of the Green Monkey (Cere, sabseus), having the separate hairs, which are
cinereous at the roots, ringed with black and yellow ; on the outside of the
fore-arms and legs the olive passes into a grizzled greyish hue, the rings
on the hairs of these parts being black and white. The under surface is
nearly pure white, and this colour extends to the insides of the limbs and to
the sides of the neck anteriorly, where the hairs do not attain a sufficient

516 QUADRUMANA.

length to constitute moustaches ; an obscure whitish bandeau crosses
the forehead ; the superciliary bristles are black ; the ears are large,
rounded, naked, and dusky ; the naked skin of the face is of a light
flesh colour, but covered on the nose and cheeks with short, dusky
black hairs ; the hairs about the lips are white, with longer black hairs
intermixed; the tail is dusky grey above, whitish below; callosities
red ; scrotum fine turquois blue ; hairs beneath the tail, and around
the scrotum, rust red ; the head is broad and rounded above, and the
muzzle thick and obtuse, the expression of the countenance being very
peculiar, and unlike that of any of the other Cercopitheci ; the fore-
hands are short and small, and the thumb is almost rudimentary.

Length of head and body, 1ft. 6 Jin. Tail imperfect.

This specimen was procured on the West coast of Africa, and pre-
sented by Lieutenant Rainer.

Dauben ton's description of a young female in Buff. Hist, Nat. (vol. xiv.
c. figura, fpl. 29) is very accurate, and closely agrees with the above.
The figure is excellent, except, perhaps, that the hand is too large.

The identity of the Simia Cynosurus of Scopoli with the Malbrouck
of Buffon, may, perhaps, admit of some doubt. Mr. Bennett has, indeed,
observed that the figure and description of the Simia Cynosurus are so
imperfect as to apply, with almost equal justice, to any of the species
related to the Malbrouck of Buffon. Nevertheless, it appears to us that
the description is more applicable to the present animal than any other ;
the transverse whitish mark over the eyes, and the elongated face, are dis-
tinctly noticed. Scopoli's description, taken from a living male specimen
in the Jardin des Plantes of the Marquis of Andrioli, at Milan, and pre-
served after death in the museum of St. Alexander, is as follows : — Size
that of a middling dog ; length almost two feet ; tail dependant, hairy,
and proportionate ; fingers and thumbs on the hind hands larger than
those of the fore ; face elongated ; chin and lips clothed with rather
longish hairs ; eyes moderately large ; forehead high, and adorned with
a transverse tuft, whitish near the eyes, but red and black elsewhere ;
back and sides reddish and dusky ; under part of neck hoary ; breast and
belly white ; arms red ; scrotum bluish, and on each side of it are two
round spots of a yellowish colour, which, however, totally disappear after
death ; hands, on the upper parts, of a variegated dusky and ashy hue ;
palms, naked and white. It is stated to have been extremely fond of
eating Spiders and the Scarabaeus Melolontha; it would also devour
Lizards, first skinning them and tearing them to pieces. Snuff was
received with pleasure, and this it would rub over its body in a very
ludicrous manner. In its temper and habits it agreed with its race.

After all, it is of little consequence whether the Simia Cynosurus of
Scopoli be identical with the Malbrouck of Buffon or not ; nor would we,

SIMIAD.E. 517

on a merely doubtful point, add to the list of confusing synonyms, by
changing the specific name (Cynosurus), applied by common consent to the
Malbrouck, for another, without any definite advantage. Buffon regards
the Malbrouck as identical with the Simia Faunus of Linnaeus (Syst. Nat.
ed. x. p. 26) which is founded on a figure given by Clusius in his Exotica,
taken, not from any animal (for the animal itself Clusius never saw), but
altered from a painting. To this figure (Cercopithecus Primus Clusii
Exotic, p. 371) Buffon also alludes, and as he considers the Simia Faunus
of Linnaeus to be referable to his Malbrouck, so does he equally consider
this figure. It cannot, however, be doubted that the figure in question is
of no authority ; and that the Simia Faunus of Linnaeus will not stand as the
accredited title of the present species. We know not on what information
Buffon assigns Bengal as the native country of the Malbrouck, nor yet the
grounds of his assertion that such is its name among the inhabitants of
that country. The Macaque and the Egret Monkey, he observes, are
"natives of the southern countries of Africa;" the Malbrouck and Chinese
Bonnet Monkey are from Bengal. Into the origin of errors so glaring it is
useless too curiously to inquire. Information on points of locality, when
Buffon wrote, was neither so precise nor so attainable as in the present day.
The Malbrouck, as is now known, is a native of Western Africa, whence,
as already said, one of the specimens in the museum of the Zoological So-
ciety, London, was brought, which died in the menagerie. Desmarest follows
Buffon in assigning it to Bengal. Fred. Cuvier, in his Mammalogie
(1819), gives a good figure of the species, which he identifies with the
Malbrouck of Buffon, and the Simia Faunus of systematic writers. With
respect to its identity with the Malbrouck of Buffon there can be only one
opinion, as, indeed, an examination of the specimens in the Paris Museum
will prove, and which agree in all respects with those in the museum of the
Zoological Society, London, of which one specimen (No. 40, in Catal.Mamm.
1838) was regarded by Mr. Bennett as identical with the Malbrouck of
Buffon, but not of Fred. Cuvier, Mr. Bennett considering F. Cuvier's
Malbrouck to be specifically distinct from the animal figured under that
name by Buffon. In this point, however, he was certainly mistaken.
The specific name of Tephrops, therefore, must sink ; indeed, as Buffon
considered his Malbrouck to be the Simia Faunus of the systematic
writers, its adoption, granting the specific distinctness contended for, would
scarcely be justifiable.

In retaining the title of Cynosurus, as the specific appellation of the
present species, in preference to Faunus, we are influenced by the follow-
ing considerations. In the first place, it is the name generally adopted
by modern writers ; it is applied to this animal by F. Cuvier, Desmarest,
Fischer, and others ; and it was given by Scopoli to the animal which
he examined alive, and of which the description is more applicable to

518 QUADRUMANA.

this species than any of the other green Cercopitheci. In the next place,
the title of Faunus was not given to the animal itself, living or dead,
by Linnaeus, but to a figure by Clusius, which, though regarded by
BufFon, as that of his Malbrouck, is far from being proved to be so ;
indeed Mr. Bennett asserts, that, if correctly drawn, it represents a
species nearly related to the Diana. As, then, we do not know posi-
tively that the S. Faunus, is the Malbrouck, nor, indeed, what it is, we
receive it only as a doubtful synonym.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The Malbrouck is far less frequently brought
to Europe than others of the Cercopitheci more immediately allied to it.
We have only seen two living specimens in the menagerie of the Zoolo-
gical Society, London.

In its disposition, this Monkey combines a certain degree of slug-
gishness, with a savage and vindictive temper ; but there is much dif-
ference in various individuals. One of the specimens in the menagerie of
the Zoological Society, London (an adult male), was gentle, familiar, and
pleased to be noticed, or caressed ; but, at the same time, it was neither
lively nor playful. The other was deceitful, and, though apparently
calm, very suspicious ; it was roused by the slightest provocation to
anger, and would turn upon its disturber, with the utmost malelvolence
depicted in its countenance, making every possible effort to assault him ;
exhibiting its teeth, and gazing fixedly in his face. One which Fred.
Cuvier notices, was extremely restless, and very active ; but it was also
sly and malicious. It would not make an open attack, but always
watched for an opportunity of springing unawares upon the object of its
hatred; it would then as suddenly fly from him, and effect its retreat;
then, again, make an unexpected assault, and so continue a system of
treacherous warfare, seizing every opportunity of gratifying its revenge
or malice. On the whole, indolence and ferocity form the character of
the adult, at least in captivity ; of their manners, in their native state of
freedom, nothing is known.

Specimens, in the Leyden Museum, are said to have been brought
from Guinea.

THE GRIVET.

CERCOPITHECUS GRISEO-VIRIDIS. (Cercopithecus griseo-viridis, DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 61.

1820.)

Simla Engythithia HERMANN, Obs. Zool. i. 1804.

Le Grivet F. CUVIER, Mamm. 1, fasc. 7, pi. 20. June, 1819.

Simla subviridis F. CUVIER, Diet. Sc. Nat. xx. 26.

Simia subviridis DKSMOULINS, Diet. Class.

Cercocebus griseo-viridis .... LESSON, Man. de Mamm. 1827.

Simia subviridis FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 22. 1829.

Cercopithecus cano-viridis . . . RUPPELL, neue Wirbelthiere, Saugethiere. 1835.
Cercopithecus griseus LESSON, in Species des Mammiferes. 1840.

SIMIAD.E. 519

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour, grey, the head and back being washed with olive ;
whiskers very long and full ; a frontal band, and the body below white ; tail, blackish,
becoming white at the tip ; face, black ; scrotum, blue, surrounded with long white
hairs.

LOCALITIES.— Nubia, Abyssinia.

DESCRIPTION. — Description of a specimen (No. 42, Cat. Mamm. 1838)
in the museum of the Zoological Society, London : — The general colour is
grey ; the top of the head and back are washed with olive, the hairs
being annulated with black and yellow ; a white band crosses the fore-
head and joins the white whiskers, which consist of long hairs directed
backward, and spreading so as to conceal the ears ; the under surface, and
inside of the limbs, are white ; the tail is black, intermixed with grey hairs
above, passing into white at the termination ; the hands and feet are dusky
black ; the face is black, becoming livid around the eyes, an angle of
black facial hairs pointing behind them, to the ears ; the ears and palms
are black ; scrotum, of a turquoise colour, surrounded with long white
hairs ; the hands are short and small.

ft. in.

Length of head and body ..18

Ditto tail, imperfect 18

In general form the Grivet approaches the Malbrouck, its head, how-
ever, is less rounded, and the muzzle less thick ; a triangular mark of
black hairs behind each eye points to the top of the ears ; and the whiskers,
instead of being short, form full and long cheek-tufts. The ears, also, are
smaller in proportion. From the Green Monkey it may at once be
distinguished by its greyer hue, by the white frontal band, the white
colour of the whiskers, and by the grey termination of the tail.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The disposition of the Grivet is similar to that
-of the Green Monkey ; but of its habits in a state of nature nothing is
ascertained.

Our first knowledge of the species is due to Fred. Cuvier, who figured
it in his Mammalogie, under the title of Grivet. Riippell informs us that
it is common in the low lands of Abyssinia, in Sennaar, and Kordofan, to
an elevation of 4,000 feet above the sea. It is called Tota in Abyssinia,
and Abellan in Sennaar and Egypt.

THE GREEN MONKEY, OR CALLITHRIX.

CERCOPITHECUS SABJEUS. (Cercopithecus sabceus, ERXLEBEN, Syst. Regn. An. 1777.)

St. Jago Monkey EDWARDS, Glean, i. c. fig. tab. 215. 1743.

Simla sabcea LINNAEUS, Syst. Nat. ed. 12. 1766.

Le Callitriche BUFFON, Hist. Nat. xiv. c. figura, tab. xxxvii. 1766.

The Green Monkey PENNANT, Syn. 1771.

Le Calliiriche AUDEBERT, Fam. iv. sect. ii. p. 7, c. fig. tab. iv. 1797.

Tim Green Monkey ....... SHAW, Gen. Zool. 1800.,

520 QUADRUMANA.

Cercop 'fiecus viridis HERMANN, Observ. Zool. i. p. 2. 1804. (?)

Cercocetus sabeeua GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

Le Callitriche F. CUVIEK, Mamm. fas. 1. c. fig. 1819.

Cercopithecus sabceus KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

Cercopithecus sabceus DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 61. 1820.

Simla sabcea FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 21. 1829.

Cercopithecus sabeeua LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 79. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— Colour above, olive green,— beneath, whitish; head, pyramidal;

whiskers, long ; scrotum, copper green, surrounded with yellow hairs ; tail, yellow at

the tip ; face, black.
LOCALITIES. — Senegal and the Cape, Cape de Verd Isles.

DESCRIPTION. — An adult male (No. 37, Cat. Mamm. 1838) in the
museum of the Zoological Society, London, presents the following cha-
racters : — The superciliary ridge is bold and depressed ; the muzzle is
long ; the ears are large and naked ; the general hue of the upper parts is
olive green, the hairs being annulated with black and yellow ; on the outer
side of the limbs a greyish tint prevails, the hairs of these parts being
annulated with white, or yellowish white and black ; the hands arid feet
are grey ; the under surface of the body, and the inside of the limbs, are
white, with a faint tinge of yellow ; the hairs on the side of the face are
long and full, and are directed up toward the ears, spreading in the
manner of a frill ; their colour, with that of the hairs of the throat is
bright but delicate yellow ; the scrotum is green, and the circumjacent
hairs are yellow ; the tail is olive green above, passing into bright yellow
at the tip ; the face, ears, and palms are black ; the hands and feet are
long.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 20

Ditto tail 2 4£

GENERAL HISTORY. — It is probably to this species that Adanson refers,
under the name of Singe Verte, as being abundant in the woods of Podor,
along the Niger ; and of which he says, " it was only by the branches which
they broke on the tops of the trees, whence they fell upon me, that I became
aware of the presence of these Monkeys ; for, otherwise, so silent were
they, and so light in their gambols, that it would have been difficult to have
perceived them. Here I stopped, and killed first one, then two, and even
three, without the others appearing frightened ; but when most were
wounded they began to seek shelter, some concealing themselves behind
the thick branches, others descending to the ground ; but the greatest
number darting from the top of one tree to that of another. It was very
interesting to see a bough, when several of them leaped together on it,
bend under them, and the outermost Monkey drop to the ground, while
some cleared their way onward, and others were suspended in the air.
In the meantime I continued firing, and killed twenty-three in less than an
hour, and in the space of twenty fathoms, without one of them having

SIMIAM. 521

uttered a single cry, although they collected together several times,
knitting their brows, gnashing their teeth, and making demonstrations of
an intended attack upon me." (Voy. au Senegal,Tpa.r M. Adanson, p. 178,
1757.)

The Green Monkey is one of the species most commonly brought to
this country, and is distinguished for intelligence and activity. At the
same time it is savage, and treacherous, and disposed to resent the
slightest injury. When young it is much more gentle and familiar, and is
then diverting from its antics and grimaces ; but, as it acquires age, it
becomes very malicious and irascible. So decidedly is this the character
of the Green Monkey, as far, at least, as the observations of the Author of
this work extend, that the adult specimen described by Fred. Cuvier must
have been an exception to its race ; he informs us that it was good tem-
pered, gentle, and familiar, courting the notice of persons with whom it
was acquainted, and exhibiting signs of pleasure on being caressed ; it
expressed its feelings of satisfaction by a low purring noise ; and it
seldom became excited by anger, or attempted to bite. The purring
noise, mentioned as having been uttered by F. Cuvier's specimen, does not
appear to have attracted the notice of other naturalists ; and, though the
Author has observed many of these animals in captivity, he never heard it.

The Green Monkey, indigenous as it is in a hot climate, is one of the
hardiest of the Cercopitheci, and bears our changeful seasons better than
most.

The name of Callithrix (Callitriche, French) is given, by Pliny, to a
Monkey of Ethiopia, which Cuvier, erroneously supposes to be the
Wanderoo, but which was, probably, the Guereza. Buffon first applied
it to the present species, and, though it is a misnomer, it is generally
adopted.

THE VERVET.

CERCOPITHECUS PYGERYTHRUS. (Cercopithecus pygerythrus, F. CUVIER, Mamm. Jan. 1821.)

Le Vervet, Cercopithecus pygerythrus, F. CUVIER, Mamm. lithog. c. fig. 1821.
Guenon Vervet, Cercopithecus pygerythrceus, DESMAREST, Suppl. p. 534. 1822.
Cercopithecus pusillus, Delalande, DESMOULINS, Diet. Class, vii. 568.
Guenon naine, Delalande . . . ISIDORE GEOFFROY, Voy. Belang. Zool. 49.

Simla pygerythra FISCHER, Synop. Mamm. p. 22. 1829.

Cercopithecus pygerythrus . . . LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 83. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— Colour above, grey, slightly tinged with olive; whiskers very
long; a frontal stripe, and the under parts of body white; feet, black; tail, largely
black at its terminal portion ; face, sprinkled with black hairs ; scrotum, turquoise
coloured, or greenish blue, surrounded with bright rust-red hairs.

LOCALITIES. — Cape of Good Hope and Southern Africa.

DESCRIPTION. — The general colour of a very fine specimen (No. 29,
Cat. Mamm. 1838) in the museum of the Zoological Society, London,

Vol. I 3 X

522 QUADRUMANA.

is palish freckled grey, the top of the head and upper part of the back
having a general slight wash of olive green; the limbs, externally, are of a
fine freckled grey ; the whiskers are white, and of considerable length ;
they commence on the malar bones, and are increased by long hairs coming
from the throat ; their direction is upward and backward, so as partially
to conceal the ears ; and a white band traversing the forehead, merges
into the white of the whiskers, anteriorly to the ears ; the superciliary
bristles are long, black, and erect ; the under parts and inner sides of the
limbs are white ; the hands and feet are black ; the tail is largely black
at the tip, or all black ; beneath the tail, and about the callosities, the
hairs are brightly rust coloured ; the face is covered with black, long
hairs ; the general fur is full, long, and coarse ; the scrotum is of a
turquoise colour, or rich greenish blue ; the eyelids are of a pale flesh
colour ; the face and chin are black ; the ears are black ; the iris is hazle :
in its contour the body is robust, and the hands are long.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 1 10

Ditto tail 23

The Vervet is closely allied to the Malbrouck and Grivet, so that a
little care and attention are necessary to enable the observer to discriminate
between them. It differs, however, from both, in having the fur long,
and rather coarse, and of a much greyer tint, the wash of olive being less
decided ; in the tail being black, nearly throughout its whole length ; and in
the superciliary bristles being very conspicuous : from the Malbrouck
it may be distinguished by the muzzle being less thick and heavy, and
from the Grivet by the rust-red hairs on the space below the root of the tail.

GENERAL HISTORY. — Two fine adult specimens were lately living in
the menagerie of the Zoological Society, London. The female was
smaller than the male, but both had large sharp canines, and both were
intractable and malicious. They uttered a guttural, barking noise, when
irritated ; fixed an intense look upon the object of their displeasure ; dis-
played their teeth ; and took every opportunity of making a sudden attack.
It was dangerous to come very near to the cage in which they were con-
fined, unless due precaution was taken ; and, had they been at liberty,
the Author is convinced that, on more than one occasion, they would not
have hesitated to spring upon him ; yet no cause of offence had been
given. They seemed, indeed, to entertain capricious feelings of animosity
toward some persons, while toward others, if not gentle, they were
much more indifferent. Their ferocity (especially that of the male) was
equalled by their audacity; and their strength was such as to render them
sufficiently formidable. From the daring which they manifested, it
might be concluded that, in their native woods, the troops of this species

SIMIAD.E. 523

would not tamely endure the attack of a single hunter ; but experience
proves that these animals, at large, however they may grin and gnash
their teeth at the sportsman, whose gun is dealing slaughter among them,
hesitate, or have not sufficient intelligence, to commence a simultaneous
onset, but sooner or later make a hasty retreat.

The Vervet is common in the forests along the Great Fish River, and
other streams, between Algoa Bay and Cape Town. Its range extends
also along the Natal coast, throughout the Amakozah country, and
Caffre land generally, where most travellers through these regions have
met with it. Its food consists of fruits, and particularly of the gum
which exudes from various species of acacia. Though abundant in the
Cape colony, it is rarely imported alive into Europe, much less so, indeed,
than the Chacma, probably because it is not so easily captured; the
young, when the parents are shot, having better opportunities of escape
among the forest branches, than the Baboon among the rocks.

THE DIANA MONKEY.

CERCOPITHECUS DIANA. (Cercopithecus Diana, ERXLEBEN, Syst. Regn. An. 1788.)

Exquima cere. barbatus\Guineensis, MARCGKAVE, Hist. Rer. Nat. Braz. 227, c. figurS. 1648.

Simla Diana LINNJEDS, Stockholm Trans, c. figura, for 1754, 210, and Syst.

Nat. ed. 12. 1766.

Spoiled Monkey PENNANT, Synops. Quad. 1771.

Palatine vel Rolowai ALLAMAND, Hist. Nat. BUFFON, ed. Sonn. xv. pi. 77. 1779.

Le Roloway ou la Palatine . . BUFFON, Hist. Nat. Suppl. vii. 77. 1789.
Palatine and Spotted Monkey . PENNANT, Quad. 1793.

La Diane AUDEBERT, Singes et Mak. Fam. iv. sect. ii. pi. 6. 1797.

Palatine and Spotted Monkey . SHAW, Gen. Zool. 1800.

Cercopithecus Diana GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

Cercopithecus Diadema .... KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

Cercopithecus Diana DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 60. 1820.

Simla Diana and Roloway . . FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. pp. 19, 20. 1829.
Cercopithecus Diana LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 72. 1840,

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— General colour, dark freckled grey, passing into black on the
limbs ; a long stripe down the back, chestnut coloured ; a frontal semilunar mark,
and the beard, which is peaked, white ; throat, chest, and anterior part of shoulders,
white ; inside of thighs, fulvous, or orange red ; outside of thighs marked with an
oblique white stripe ; face and ears black.

LOCALITIES. — Guinea, Congo, Fernando Po.

DESCRIPTION. — The top of the head, the back of the neck, the
shoulders, the sides, and the middle of the body beneath, are of a deep,
grizzled, ashy grey, each hair being annulated with white and black, and
tipped with white. On the outside of the limbs, the colour thus produced,
becomes darker, and, finally, passes into black on the hands ; the tail is
grey, becoming darker to the tip, which is black ; a semilunar line, of
long projecting white hairs, surmounting a less conspicuous one of black,
passes across the forehead, and from its resemblance to " Dian's silver

524 QUADRUMANA.

bow," has suggested the animal's name ; the sides of the face are covered
with long, bushy, white hairs, which terminate on the chin, in a long, thin,
flat, and pointed beard, of two or three inches in length ; the front of
the neck and chest, and the anterior part of the humerus, are also white,
the latter with an abrupt line of demarcation ; on the middle of the back
commences a mark of deep chestnut, which gradually widens as it passes
along to the root of the tail, forming a defined elongated triangle with the
base on the crupper ; a line of white, commencing at the root of the tail,
runs obliquely along the outer side of each thigh to the knee ; the lower
part of the abdomen and the inner side of the thighs are abruptly of an
orange yellow, orange red, or bright rust colour ; the face is long and
triangular, and, together with the ears, intensely black.

ft. in.

Length of head and body about 2 0

Ditto tail 24

The following observations on this richly coloured and elegant species,
from the pen of the late E. T. Bennett, Esq., contain so excellent an
eclaircissement of the confusion with which it has been surrounded, that,
in justice to his memory, we cannot withhold them. " The Diana Mon-
key, so called by Linnaeus, from the fancied resemblance of the crescent-
shaped bar, which ornaments its brow, to the ancient poetical represen-
tations of the goddess of the silver bow, was first figured by Marcgrave,
in his Natural History of Brazil, under the name of Exquima, by which,
according to him, it was known to the Negroes of Congo, its native land.
No subsequent naturalist appears to have observed it, until Linnaeus
carefully described and figured it, in the Stockholm Transactions for
1754, from a living specimen, and gave a'tlong and highly interesting
account of its habits and behaviour. But this paper, probably on account
of its being written in Swedish, or, perhaps, in consequence of the affected
contempt with which the great French natural historian was wont to
treat the still greater naturalist of the North, seems to have been so
little known to Buffon, that the latter, setting aside the positive assertion
of Marcgrave, whom alone he quotes, maintains that the Exquima must
have been one of the prehensile-tailed Monkeys of the western world.
From this strange assertion, to which he was probably induced by the figure
of one of these being erroneously inserted into the text, in place of that
of the African Monkey, which was given on another page, and from his
making no farther mention of the animal, it appears that he had never
seen a specimen. Allamand, however, in the Dutch edition of Buflfon's
Natural History, gave an excellent account of two living individuals
which had fallen under his notice at Amsterdam, which he imagined to
belong to a new species, and to which he first assigned the name of
Palatine, on account of the peculiar ruff of the fore part of the neck, but

SIMIAD.E. 525

changed, afterwards, for that of Roloway, by which he was informed it was
called in Guinea, whence his specimens were brought. By this latter
title it was received into the posthumous Supplement to Buffon, published by
Lacepede ; and Gmelin, Pennant, and other compilers have adopted it, as
forming a distinct species from the Diana, a distinction without a
difference. We cannot, however, agree with M. Fred. Cuvier, in con-
sidering the Monkey figured by him under the name of Diana, in his
splendid Histoire Nat. des Mammiferes, as belonging to this species, of
which it has none of the characteristic marks. It appears to us to be
entirely new ; but, at the same time, to be much more closely allied to the
Cercopithecus Mona, than to the subject of the present article."

With respect to the animal figured by Fred. Cuvier, under the title of
Diana (the original specimen of which, in the Paris Museum, the Author
of this work has carefully examined), it is, without hesitation, to be
assigned to the C. leucampyx of Fischer, a species which has usually
been considered as doubtful, and which, together with the Semnopithecus
Johnii, has been recently named afresh.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The Diana is rarely brought alive to Europe ;
nor, indeed, are its skins very common in collections. The author only
observed one specimen in the Paris Museum from the Gold Coast, Africa.
Three are in the museum of the Zoological Society of London ; of these,
one specimen (No. 32, Cat. Mamm. 1838) died, some years since, in the
menagerie of the Society, and is the original of the figure and description
in the Gardens, fyc. delineated, p. 34. The other two, 32 a, 32 b, Sup.
Cat. Mamm. 1839, are from Fernando Po. Of the habits of the Diana
in a state of nature nothing is correctly ascertained. In captivity, like
the rest of its tribe, it is gentle, lively, active, and familiar, while young ;
but, as age advances, it becomes reserved and treacherous. The beauty of
its colouring, and the gracefulness of its form, render it one of the most
attractive of the genus ; but its frontal crest of white hairs, and its white
peaked beard, " of formal cut," give a singular aspect to its physiognomy.
This latter ornament it has been observed, as Mr. Ogilby states, to be
solicitous in keeping neat and clean ; when about to drink it takes the
beard in its hand with amazing gravity, and holds it back, in order to
prevent it from dipping into the fluid. On one of these occasions, when
that naturalist laughed at the action, which struck him with a sense of the
ludicrous, the animal suddenly looked up in great astonishment, but
instantly penetrating, as it appeared, the cause of what it considered a
personal insult, flew at him with great malice, and was only prevented
from revenging the indignity by the shortness of the chain which attached
it to a pole for security. In the same room, fastened by a chain
and running ring to an adjacent pole, was a small prehensile-tailed
American Monkey (Cebus) ; the distance between the two animals being

526 QUADRUMANA.

such as to prevent their biting each other, still they could reach each other
with their hands, and would often play together, and claw at each other
with their hinder paws ; sometimes the Cebus would hook his tail round
the limbs of the Diana Monkey, and endeavour to drag him toward him-
self; when, by way of retaliation, the latter would seize hold of this unfair
lasso of entanglement, and, mounting his pole, drag up the owner after
him. Except when irritated by casual causes of annoyance, this Diana
Monkey was good tempered, and its movements light and graceful ; but,
unfortunately, its constitution soon gave way under the effects of our
climate.

Considering the range of habitat which the Diana enjoys, and that it
is indigenous in districts abundantly frequented by Europeans, the
scarcity of this Monkey, whether in our collections or vivaria, may
appear to be not a little surprising. We have no reason to believe it
rare in its native regions ; and its beauty is sufficient to attract attention.
Perhaps it frequents the wilder and more wooded parts of the country,
avoiding the spots tenanted by Man, and habitually dwelling among the
topmost branches of the gigantic trees, composing vast and almost
untrodden forests, bordering the course of rivers, and thus escapes observ-
ation. Judging from what we know of the few individuals which have
been brought alive to Europe, none of its race are better qualified for an
arboreal mode of existence ; and we may well believe that a troop of
these animals would escape from the hunter, whether European or native,
with such celerity, bounding from tree to tree in their course, as t(
render pursuit hopeless.

That the skins of this, and of other beautifully furred Monkeys,
might be advantageous, in a commercial sense, and used as are those of
the Chinchilla, the Sable, and the Ermine, could they be obtained in
sufficient numbers, is not to be doubted ; it is, perhaps, only the dif-
ficulties to be overcome in collecting them, which have deterred persons
from the attempt.

MONA MONKEY.

CERCOPITHECUS MONA. (Cercopithecus Mona, ERXLEBEN, Syst. Regn. An. 1771.)

La Mane BUFFON, Hist. Nat. xiv. p. 258, c. figura, tab. xxxvi. 1766.

Varied Ape PENNANT, Quadrup. 1793, and Synops. 1771.

Simla Mona SCHREBER, Saugth. 1775.

Sitnia Mona GMELIN, Syst. Nat. Linn. 1788.

Le Mona BUFFON, Supp. vii. pi. 19. 1789.

La Mone AUDEBERT, Sim. et Makis, Fam. iv. sect, ii, 12. 1797.

Cercopithecus Mona GF.OFFROY, in Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

La Mone F. CUVIER, Mamm. fig. 1819.

Cercopithecus Mona KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

Cercopithecus Mona DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 58. 1820.

Simia Mona FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 17. 1829.

Cercopithecus Mona LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 74. 1840.

Simia Mona F. CUVIER, Nouv. Diet.

Simia Mona DESMOULINS, Diet. Class.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Head of a yellowish olive colour; a black frontal stripe above the
eyebrows is surmounted by another of a whitish tint; back, chestnut brown;
haunches and limbs, externally, dusky black ; tail, black with a white spot on each
side of its origin, on the crupper; under parts, and inside of the limbs, white; whiskers
very full, of a yellowish tint, slightly washed with black.

LOCALITY. — Western Africa (Guinea).

DESCRIPTION. — Description of a specimen (No. 30, Cat. Mamm. 1838),
in the museum of the Zoological Society, London : — The top of the head
is of a greenish yellow, mingled with black, each hair being black at the
base and point, and yellow in the middle ; the neck, back, and sides, as
far as the shoulders and haunches, are of a deep chestnut brown, minutely
speckled with black, the hairs being grey at the base, and then annulated

528 QUADRUMANA.

with alternate rings of red and black, the latter being the colour of the
apex ; the shoulders, the haunches, the anterior and posterior limbs, ex-
ternally, and the tail, are of a deep dusky black, a white spot being seated
on each side of the base of the latter, and the thighs being slightly freckled
with red ; the under surface of the body, and the inside of the limbs, are
of a pure white, separated from the adjoining colours by an abrupt line of
demarcation ; above the eyebrows a transverse black band extends on each
side, as far as the ears ; and this, again, is surmounted by a whitish, narrow,
crescentic stripe, more apparent in some individuals than in others ; the skin
of the orbits and cheeks is bluish purple, the upper and under lips flesh-
coloured ; on the sides of the face, large bushy whiskers, of a straw
yellow, slightly tinged with black, advance forward, and extend over a
considerable portion of the cheeks ; they also cover the sides and lower
part of the neck ; the ears and hands are of a livid flesh colour.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 1 8|

Ditto tail 1 11

GENERAL HISTORY. — The term Mone, or Mona, is of Arabic origin,
and is the Moorish name for all the long-tailed Monkeys indiscriminately.
" Reperiuntur in Mauritania sylvis simiarum varies species, quarum quae
caudam gerunt Monae dicuntur," \Leo Afric. Desc. Afric., vol. ii. p. 757.
In Egypt, according to Prosper Alpinus, the same animals are termed
Monichi, evidently a corruption of the Moorish name.* From Northern
Africa the term Mona passed into Spain, Portugal, and Provence, where
it is the common name for any of the long-tailed Monkeys ; nor has it
stopped here ; it is evidently the root of our word Monkey, which has
exactly the same meaning, being only applied to the long-tailed species
of Simia, but which is supposed, by some, to be a corruption of the word
Monikin, or Manikin, in which case it would be more appropriately applied
to the tail-less species. -\

Be this as it may, the exclusive application of the title Mone, as
Buffon has corrupted it, or Mona, to the present species, is entirely
arbitrary ; nor can any stress be laid on his opinion that the Mona is the
Cebus, or Kebos, of the ancients. (See observations in description of Patas.)
Of the habits and manners of the Mona, in a state of nature, nothing
is definitely known. It bears our climate better than most of its

* " Simii caudati et barbati qui vulgo Monichi vocantur. Monichi, Simii caudati, et barbati, ex
JEthiopiae locis conterminis in jEgyptum deducunter." Prosper Alpinus, Hist. JEgypt. lib. iv. p. 242.

t It is not too much to suppose that with the animals imported by sailors from various parts of
Northern Africa, was also imported the name by which they were known to the people from whom
they were obtained. Nor must we forget the influence which the Moorish nation exercised upon
Southern Europe in the middle ages ; nor the influx of Arabic words, into all parts of Europe, with the
return of the Crusaders Besides, it seems to be going out of the way to seek, in our own language,
for the origin of the name of a foreign animal, with which our Saxon forefathers, and, indeed, our-
selves, till at a comparatively late period, were unacquainted.

SIMIAD.E. 529

congeners ; and from what observations the Author has been able to make
upon living individuals, it is, when adult, as savage and irritable as the
rest. Buffon and Fred. Cuvier, however, commend it for its gentleness,
intelligence, and the absence of those evil passions so prevalent through-
out the tribe. It is from young individuals, most probably, that they
have formed their opinions ; but we well know how the temper and
disposition of all the Simiae alter with their age, and how the most lively
and good-tempered, while in adolescence, become irascible and revengeful
when arrived at maturity ; such is the case with the Mona, of which the
males in particular are malicious and petulant ; the adult females are less
so ; and the young of both sexes are playful. Fred. Cuvier, however,
is correct in attributing to it gracefulness of movement and beauty of
colouring, and, for these, it claims our admiration.

DIADEM MONKEY.

CERCOPITHECUS LEUCAMPYX.

La Diane, Cercopithecus Diana. F. CUVIER and GEOFFROY, Mamm. vol. iii. June, 1824. Faem.

(Simla leucampyx FISCHER, Syn. Mamm. p. 20. 1829.)

Cercopithecus Diademetus . . . ISIDORE GEOFFROY, in Voy. Belang. Zool. 51.

Cercopithecus dilophos in Mus. Lugd. Bat. and OGILBY, in Menageries, partii. 1838.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour black, finely grizzled on the back and sides with
white, or yellowish white ; a white frontal semilunar mark ; tail black at the apex ;
whiskers hoary.

LOCALITY. — Western Africa.

DESCRIPTION. — Fur full, and rather harsh ; teeth large ; form, robust
and powerful ; the top of head, the occiput, the back of the neck, the
shoulders, the belly, and all the limbs, inside and out, are of a deep
black ; a white semilunar streak (with the convex edge above) crosses
the forehead, its breadth, in the middle, being three quarters of an inch ;
the hairs on the cheeks are close, and grizzled with black and white annu-
lations ; the back, beyond the shoulders, the sides and haunches, and the
posterior margin of the thighs, are of a beautiful grizzly grey, each hair
being ringed, alternately, five or six times with black and white ; the tail
is grey at the base, becoming darker towards the apex, which is black and
pencilled ; the hairs on the upper lip and chin, are white and short,
with a few black intermixed ; the face is of a violet black.

ft. in.

Length of head and body Ill

Ditto tail 2 8£

The preceding details were taken from the orignal specimen in the
Paris Museum (an adult female, which lived many years in the Jardin des
Plantes), described and figured by F. Cuvier, under the title of Diana,
though with considerable hesitation.

VOL. I. 3Y

530 QUADRUMANA.

Fred. Cuvier informs us, that, when young, its head, its neck (on the
upper part), its arms, fore-arms, hands, chest, belly, and tail, were black,
but of a deeper tint on the under parts, and on a considerable portion of
the tail, than elsewhere ; the back was speckled, each of the hairs being
annulated with black and while ; the whiskers, also, were speckled, though
not with white and black, but black and yellow ; on the forehead there
was a yellow band, in the shape of a crescent reversed ; and about the
chin a small quantity of white hair, but not forming a long beard ; a few
yellowish hairs garnished the callosities ; the face was of a violet tint,
blue predominating on the cheeks, and red on the muzzle and eye-lids.
The eyes were fawn-coloured, and the hands quite black. " At present,"
our author, speaking of the animal in a mature state, says " the general
distribution of the colours is the same, but the white rings of the dorsal
hairs have become yellow : this colour, too, has augmented on the
whiskers ; the hairs on the higher internal parts of the thighs have become
annulated with grey and white, so that the coat there is of a delicate
ash colour ; the hairs on the tail are similarly annulated, except that, on
this organ, the darker rings are nearly black ; on the upper surfaces the
coat is abundant, but very scanty on the under, where, as on the other
parts of the body, the skin is bluish."

It may here, by way of note, be added, that the annulations of the hairs
of the back appeared to be white ; but the yellow tint may have faded
since death. Two specimens, entitled Cercopithecus dilophos, exist in
the Museum of Leyden, and are said to have been brought from Guinea ;
in one, the lunate stripe over the eyes is slightly sprinkled with brown ; in
the other, it is purely white.

GENERAL HISTORY. — All we know respecting the habits of the present
Monkey, is derived from the only living specimen ever seen in Europe ;
namely, that now in the Paris Museum. According to Fred. Cuvier,
they closely resemble those of the Diana and the Mona ; but the C.
leucampyx is far larger, and more robust and powerful than either of
these two species, and must be, when irritated, more formidable. Fred.
Cuvier does not particularize any traits of its disposition, and, being a
female, the evil features of its character were, probably, far less prominent
than would be the case in the male. Excepting, perhaps, in certain
limited districts, this animal must be very rare, for no example has been
hitherto imported into our island.

TEMMINCK'S MONKEY.

CERCOPITHECUS TEMMINCKTI. (Cercopithecus Temminckii, OGILBY, in Menageries, Mon-
keys, Lemurs, and Oppossums, part ii. p. 345. 1838.)

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— General colour, ashy grey, freckled with white; limbs, black;

chin and throat, white ; face, naked, and of a pale lead colour.
LOCALITY. — Guinea.

531

DESCRIPTION. — In this newly-discovered Monkey, the head, back,
and cheeks, are ash-coloured, with a slight mixture of brown on the
hips and rump, the hairs being every where annulated with white, and
thus partially speckled ; the arms, fore-arms, thighs, legs, and paws, are
black ; the whole of the chin and throat are of a pure, unmixed white ; the
cheeks, the whiskers, and head, are of a grizzled ash-colour, like the
back and sides ; the face is apparently of a greyish blue ; the belly is
ash-coloured ; the tail is about the length of the body, but has lost the
greater part of the hair : what remains, however, is of the same colour as
that of the body ; size, that of the Diana.

The only known specimen exists in the Leyden Museum ; it was
purchased at Amsterdam, in 1824, and is said to have been brought
from the Coast of Guinea, but remained undescribed till the year 1838,
when Mr. Ogilby published, in his work on Monkeys, Lemurs, &c., a
clear and concise summary of its characters ; and, as a tribute of respect to
the celebrated naturalist, M. Temminck, proposed for it the name of
C. Temminckii.

GENERAL HISTORY. — After what has been stated, it is almost useless
to say that the habits and manners of this animal are utterly unknown,
as far, at least, as they are peculiar to the species. As, however, it is
clearly allied to the Diana, the Mona, and the Diadem Monkeys, its
instincts and disposition are probably similar.

293

THE MOUSTACHE MONKEY.

CERCOPITHECUS CEPHUS. (Cercopithecus Cephus, ERXLEBEN, Syst. Regn. An. 1777.)

Cercopithecus alius Guineensis MARCGRAVE, Hist. Rer. Nat. Braz. 1648.
Cercopithecus alius Guineensis RAY, Syn. 1693. (Quad.)
Cercopithecus Guineensis barbd flavesc, BRISSON, R. An. 1756.

Simla Cephus(?) LINNJEUS, Syst. Nat. ed. 12. 1766.

Moustac BUFFON, Hist. Nat. xiv. c. fig. tab. xxxix. 1766.

The Moustache Monkey PENNANT, Synops. 1771, and Quadrup. 1793.

Moustac AUDEBERT, Hist. Sing, et Mak. Fam. iv. sect. ii. tab. xii. 1797.

Cercopithecus Cephus GEOFFROY, in Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

Cercopithecus Cephus DESMAREST, Mamm. p, 57. 1820.

Cereopithecus Cephus KUHI,, Beitr. 1820, aliorumque auctorum.

Moustac F. CUVIER, Mamm. c. fig. vol. ii. March, 1821.

Simla Cephus FISCHER, Synops. p. 20. 1829.

Cercopithecus Cephus LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 77. 1840.

Simla Cephus F. CUVIER. Diet. Sc. Nat.

Simla Cephus DESMOULINS, Diet. Class.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour above, golden brown, freckled with black ; on the
head and thighs a greener tint prevails; tail, fulvous orange; under parts, whitish;
whiskers full, and of a yellow colour ; face, violet blue ; upper lip, with a white
triangular mark, above a black margin.

LOCALITY.— Guinea.

DESCRIPTION. — The muzzle is rather short ; the nose moderately ele-
vated ; the margin of the upper lip is black, this colour extending back to
the whiskers ; the under lip and chin are black also ; between the black
margin of the upper lip and the nose, is a white stripe, somewhat in the
form of a " broad arrow," also advancing to the whiskers ; the whiskers
form full cheek-tufts of rich golden yellow hairs, directed backward and

SIMIAD^E. 533

downward, and becoming paler at their termination ; the general tint of
all the upper surface, is golden reddish brown, grizzled, or freckled with
black, the hairs being olive grey at the roots, then ringed with bright
fulvous and black ; on the top of the head, a rather greener tint prevails,
and also on the outer side of the thighs ; on the hands and feet, the golden
hue gradually passes into grizzled dusky brown, or dull black ; the tail is
fulvous orange, above and below, except at the base, the under surface
of which is dull grey ; the face, with the exception of the lips, is of a
fine violet blue ; the throat, below the chin, is white, as are also the
chest and abdomen, but less purely ; the ears are black, with yellowish
white hairs.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 17

Ditto tail about 2 2

The preceding description agrees closely with a fine male specimen,
in the Museum of Paris, which died at the menagerie, July, 1822, and
subsequently examined with others, among which may be noticed one
(No. 34, Cat. Mamm. 1838) in the museum of the Zoological Society,
London, which died in the menagerie.

Though the specific title of Cephus, is generally applied to this
animal, it is not clear that it is the S. Cephus of Linnaeus, who founded
his species on a vague description, by Marcgrave, of a Monkey which
he termed Cecopithecus alius Guineensis, and of which we know nothing.
In his twelfth edition of the Sy sterna Naturae^ Linnaeus refers the Simia
jEthiops, originally described by himself in his Museum Adolphi
Frederici, to the Sjmia Cephus, as a variety, and hence both the Simia
Cephus, and Simia ^thiops of Linnaeus, are involved in inextricable
obscurity ; a circumstance of little moment, provided naturalists are
agreed as to what species shall now be termed Cephus, and what $)thiops,
setting the Linnaean descriptions out of the question.

GENERAL HISTORY. — This beautiful Monkey is seldom seen alive in
Europe ; two or three opportunities of observing it in captivity have
been afforded the Author, and, from these examples, he is induced to form
a favourable opinion of its temper and disposition. It appears to com-
bine great intelligence, with familiarity and playfulness, and is lively,
active, and graceful ; at the same time, it is not destitute of spirit, and
will immediately resent an injury, but soon becomes reconciled : inqui-
sitive and prying, the Moustache Monkey is not obtrusive; and an
abrupt movement, or action, is sufficient to make it retire. Unfortunately
its constitution is extremely delicate, and it suffers in our climate from
the changes of temperature, and soon dies. Of its habits in its native
forests, of which it is a great ornament, nothing has been ascertained.

THE TALAPOIN MONKEY, OR MELARHINE.

CERCOPITHECUS TALAPOIN. (Cercopiihecus Talapoin, ERXLEBEN, Syst. Regn. An. 1777.)

Talapoin BCFFON, Hist. Nat. xiv. tab. xl. 1766.

Simla Talapoin GMELIN, Syst. Nat. Linn. 1788.

Talapoin Monkey PENNANT, Synops. 1771, and Quadrup. 1793.

Cercopithecus Talapoin GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

Cercopithecus Talapoin KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

Cercopithecus Talapoin DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 56.

Melarhine, or Talapoin F. CUVIER and GEOFFROY, Mamm. vol. iii. August, 1824 .

Simia Talapoin FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 21. 1829.

Cercopithecus Talapoin LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 78. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour above, olive green, — below, whitish ; upper lip,
yellow, sprinkled with black hairs ; skin below the eyes, orange coloured ; above the
eyes, whitish ; rest of the face black ; whiskers, short, and of a pale straw, golden colour.

LOCALITY.— Western Africa.

DESCRIPTION. — In a good specimen of this Monkey (No. 41, Cat. Mamm.

1838), in the museum of the Zoological Society, London, the nose and

cheeks are black ; the upper lip is yellow, or yellow-white, sprinkled with

black hairs, a few white ones also being scattered ovef the margin ; the naked

skin round the eyes is orange-coloured ; the upper eyelids to the^super-

SIMIAD^E. 535

ciliary ridge are white ; the whiskers, or cheek-tufts, which are not full, as
in the Moustache Monkey, are directed downward, and are of a delicate
golden straw colour ; the top of the head, and the upper surface generally,
are of a bright olive green, the hairs being plumbeous grey at the roots,
then olive green, and then blackish at the tips ; the olive green tint
becomes paler on the anterior hands, and on the hind hands, or feet, passes
into yellowish olive ; the tail is of an ashy grey ; the chin is dusky ; the under
surface, and the inside of the limbs, are white ; the ears are black, large,
and naked. This species differs, among other things, from the Moustache
Monkey, in having the ears comparatively larger, and in the hairs of the
back not being ringed so often, nor so strongly ; in the Moustache Monkey
they are annulated three times with fulvous, and the ears are covered with
yellowish white hairs.

Length of head and body 1ft. l|in. ; tail imperfect.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The Talapoin is by no means identical with the
Grivet, as has been suspected, but is a species closely allied to the
Moustache Monkey, from which, however, it is sufficiently distinguishable.
Fred. Cuvier has figured a young female, which he obtained in Paris, but he
could gain no information as to the country whence it was brought : it was
gentle and lively.

From the name Talapoin, which is that of a sect among the Budd-
hists of India, Buffon was led to refer the present species to that country
as its native habitat. How it obtained this name does not appear ;
most probably it is a misnomer, and might, as Mr. Ogilby suggests, be
changed for that of Melarhine, as used by Fred. Cuvier. Certainly, it
is not a native of India.

A specimen of the Talapoin was living, a few years since, in the
menagerie of the Zoological Society, London. It was remarkable for
intelligence, good nature, and the elegance of its movements ; it was very
lively, but timid, and, though disposed to be familiar, was neither obtru-
sive nor mischievous. Like the Moustache Monkey the constitution
of this species is very delicate ; and it is rarely seen in the menageries of
Europe, the climate of which it does not long endure.

THE RED-EARED MONKEY.

CERCOPITHECUS ERYTHROTIS. (CercopWiecus erythrntis, WATERHOUSE, in Proceedings Zool.

Soc. p. 5y. 1838.)

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — General colour, grey; the hairs of the upper parts being annu-
lated with black and yellow ; throat and cheeks, white ; arms, blackish; tail, rufous,
with a black line on its upper surface, and with the tip black ; ears, rufous.

LOCALITY. — Fernando Po.

DESCRIPTION. — Description of original specimen (No. 33 A, Suppl.
Cat. Mamm.) in the museum of the Zoological Society, London : —

536 QUADRUMANA.

The hairs on the upper parts of the body are black, annulated with
yellow ; on the hinder part of the back the yellow assumes a deep golden
hue, but, unlike what occurs in the Moustache Monkey, the black
prevails over the yellow. On the sides of the body and the outer side
of the hinder legs, the hairs are greyish ; and on the belly and inner side
of the limbs, they are greyish white. The fore legs are blackish ex-
ternally ; a dark mark extends backward from the eye to the ear ; below
this, on the cheeks, there is a tuft of white hairs, beneath which the hairs
are grizzled black and yellow, there being, in these respects, a close
resemblance to the Moustache Monkey. The ears are furnished, in-
ternally, with bright ferruginous hairs ; the tail is bright rufous, with a
dusky black line extending down its upper surface. The face is imperfect,
and the feet have been removed from the skin ; these parts, therefore,
cannot be described.

ft. in.

Length of head and body i . 1 5

Ditto tail 1 11

This beautiful little species is about the same size as the Moustache
Monkey (Cere, cephus), and has undoubtedly a close affinity to that
animal ; it may, however, be distinguished by the bright rusty-red hairs,
which cover the ears internally, by its brilliant red tail, and by the hairs
below the root of the latter being also of a bright red.

GENERAL HISTORY. — Of the habits and manners of this species
nothing is known. It is a native of the forests of Fernando Po ; and a
single specimen, presented to the museum of the Zoological Society,
London, by G. Knapp, Esq., is the only one in the collections of Europe.

THE WHITE-NOSED MONKEY, OR HOCHEUR.

CERCOPITHECUS NIC TITANS. (Cercopithecus niclitans, ERXLEBEN, Syst. Regn. An. 1777.)

Cercopithecus Angolensis alius . MARCGRAVE, Hist. Rer. Nat. Braz. 227. 1648.

Simla niclitans LINN^US, Syst. Nat. ed. 12. 1766.

Winking M onJcey PENNANT, Synops. 1771.

Guenon a nez blanc preeminent BUFFON, Hist. Nat. Supp. vii. c. fig. tab. xviii. 1789.

White-nosed Monkey PENNANT, Quadrup. 1793.

Hocheur AUDEBERT, Hist, des Sing, et Mak. Fam. iv. sect. i. pi. 2.

1797.

Cercopithecus nictitans GEOFFROY, Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.

Lasiopyga nictitans ILLIGER, Prod. Syst. i. 1812.

Cercopithecus nictitans KUHL, Beitr. 1820.

Cercopithecus nictitans DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 58. 1820.

Hocheur F. CUVIER, Mamm. c. fig. 1825.

Simla nictitans FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 18. 1829.

Cercopithecus nictitans LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 75. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— General colour, black, freckled with white ; limbs, black ;

whiskers, ample ; chin, beardless ; nose, white.
LOCALITY.— Guinea.

SIMIADyE. 537

DESCRIPTION. — A specimen in the Paris Museum, presents the
following characters : — The head is round, the forehead elevated, the
face depressed ; the nose is broad, and prominently convex, and
of a clear white from between the eyes to the nostrils, where the
white ends, without infringing on the lower lip ; this white is produced
by short, smooth, closely-set hairs ; the colour of the rest of the lace is
bluish black ; the chin and throat are without a beard, but have a few
scattered, close, white hairs ; the upper lip ; is sprinkled with black hairs ;
very full bushy whiskers, arising immediately below the eyes, spread back-
ward and downward ; the hair of the head is very full, boldly over-
reaching the eyes, obscuring the ears, and adding to the breadth and
elevation of the top of the head ; the colour of the whiskers and of
the head is grizzled black, as is that, also, of the back, sides, thighs, and
legs (but darker on the latter) : this hue is produced by each hair being
grey at the root, then ringed with black and straw ; the shoulders, the
chest, the arms, fore-hands, and feet, are black ; the tail, also, is black; the
abdomen is of a dirty blackish grey ; on the back, a few long hairs are
completely black ; and the edges of the whiskers below the ears, indicating
the division between them and the long hair of the head, are black also ;
the ears are dusky : the orbits are of a flesh colour ; the hands and feet are
long.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 1 44

Ditto tail 25

Ditto hind foot . . . 05

The fine specimen from which the preceding description was taken,
in the Museum of Paris, was obtained from the master of a travelling
menagerie, November, 1818; a somewhat larger specimen, in an indifferent
condition, presents exactly the same characters and colouring, but the
eyes are painted round with orange red.

The physiognomy of this Monkey is very different from that of
Cere. Petaurista, from which it may be distinguished, independently of
the general colouring, by the white being restricted to the nose ; by the
absence of a beard below the chin, which is nearly naked ; by the
fulness of the whiskers and hairs of the head, and by the comparatively
greater length of the hands and feet.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The White-nosed Monkey, or Hocheur, was,
originally, indicated by Marcgrave. Linnaeus, again, under the denomina-
tion of Simia nictitans, gave a brief account of it from Alstroemer's
description of a living individual belonging to a Professor of Botany at
Amsterdam. Buffon not only described, but figured it ; so, also, did
Audebert : each, however, merely from a cabinet specimen. The former
gave it the name of Guenon a blanc nez preeminent, and considered it

538 QUADRUMANA.

as being, perhaps, identical with the Blanc-nez of Allamand (Cere.
Petaurista) ; while the latter, from whom it received the name of Hocheur,
deceived by the imperfect condition of his specimen, erroneously
alleged the species to be destitute of callosities. Pennant, too, gave an
account of it, derived principally, as it would seem, from his observa-
tions on a specimen in the Leverian Museum. Finally, it has been
minutely described, and beautifully figured, from an adult living female,
in his magnificent work on the present class, by Fred. Cuvier, from whom
we learn that its disposition was mild and gentle, and that, in its habits,
it closely resembled the Diana. The individual described, while alive, by
Fred. Cuvier, is, as there is reason to believe, the same from which the
present account is also taken.

THE LESSER WHITE -NOSED MONKEY, BLANC-NEZ, OR

ASCAGNE.

CERCOPITHECUS PETAURISTA. (Cercopithecus Petaurista, ERXLEBEN, Syst. Regn. An. 1777.)

Simla Petaurista

Simia Petaurista

Blanc-nez

Simia Petaurista, and Simia

Blanc-nez and Ascagne . . .
Cercopithecus Petaurista . . .
Cercopithecus Petaurista . . .

Ascagne

Lesser While-nosed Monkey .

Simia Petaurista

Cercopithecus Petaurista . . .

Simia Petaurista

Simia Petaurista

Blanc-nez

. SCHREBER, Saugth. c. fig. tab. xix. B. 1775.
. GMELIN, Syst. Nat. Linn. 1788.
. BUFFON, Hist. Nat. Supp. vii. p. 67. 1789.

Ascanius, LATREILLE, in Buffon Hist. Nat. ed. Sonn. Sing. ii.

Nos. 12, 13. 1797.

. AUDEBERT, Sing, et Mak. Fam. iv. sect. ii. pp. 14, 15. 1797.
. GEOFFROY, in Ann. du Mus. xix. 1812.
. DESMAREST, Mamm. p. 59. 1820.
. F. CUVIER, Mamm. c. fig. Feb. 1820.

. BENNETT, in Gardens and Menag. del. c. fig. 1829.

. FISCHER, Synops. Mamm. p. 18. 1829.

. LESSON, Species des Mamm. p. 76. 1840.

. F. CUVIER, Diet. Sc. Nat.

. DESMOULINS, Diet. Class.

. ALLAMAND, in BUFFON ed. Holl. xiv. pi. 39.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— General colour above, olive brown ; a black frontal stripe runs
over the eyes, and a blackish mark crosses the vertex from ear to ear ; a similar stripe
runs below the ear, bounding a streak of white ; face, black ; nose at its apex, and the
contiguous part of the upper lip, white ; whiskers, beard, and under parts, white ; limbs,
olive grey.

LOCALITY — Guinea.

DESCRIPTION. — The form of the head is as in the Hocheur; the
lower half of the nose, and the anterior portion of the upper lip are white ;
the face is covered with short black hairs, those on the cheek-bone having

540 *v

a tinge of fulvous ; the whiskers are short, and arise from the sides o
the face ; these, together with a conspicuous beard on the chin, and the
throat, chest, and abdomen, are white ; a streak of black hair runs from
the face, below the ear, and loses itself on the top of the shoulder ; and
between this black line and the hairs of the head, a conspicuous streak of
white runs below the ear ; the general colour of the back and head is
reddish olive brown, the hairs being grey at the base, and then ringed
fulvous and black ; a band across the forehead, above the eyes, and a
band traversing the vertex, from ear to ear, are black ; on the limbs, a
grey tint prevails, deepening to dusky black on the hands and feet ; the
tail is of a dusky grey above, white beneath ; the hands are short.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 15

Ditto tail, imperfect 19

Ditto hind foot 04

Some degree of confusion exists, with respect to the present species,
created by Audebert, who, under the title of Ascagne, has figured a variety of
the Blanc-nez, distinguishedjby the prevalence of a violet tint on the naked
parts of the face. Audebert conferred this appellation (viz., Ascagne), on
a living specimen, the original of his figure and description, which was
kept, for a short time only (having been the property of a private indi-
vidual), in the menagerie at Paris. Latreille afterwards, in Sonnini's
edition of BufFon, gave a figure of the same animal, from a drawing by
Marechal, accompanied by a description founded on that of Audebert.
Cuvier subsequently published a new account of this identical Guenon,
with a much superior figure than that given by Latreille, but from the
same original drawing. A second living specimen has been beautifully
figured and described by Frederic Cuvier. Audebert pronounced it to be
specifically distinct from the Blanc-nez of Allamand ; so, again, though
not without some scruples, did Latreille. By Frederic Cuvier, it seems
to have been regarded as a variety ; but his brother, the Baron, deemed
it identical with the preceding Guenon, and, rejecting Audebert's pro-
posed denomination, described it under Allamand's term, as rendered by
BufFon, in his Supplement, of Blanc-nez. In the last edition of his
great work, however, he has adopted the name Ascagne for the species,
but without indicating the Blanc-nez of Allamand as a variety. Des-
moulins again notices the species under the appellation Ascagne, yet so
far differs from Cuvier, as to make it a variety of the Blanc-Nez. Erxleben,
Gmelin, GeofFroy, Desmarest, and Bennett, like Cuvier, appear to have
considered the Blanc-nez and Ascagne completely identical.

GENERAL HISTORY. — The present species, like the Hocheur, is
gentle, graceful, and intelligent ; perhaps, however, not without a mixture

541

of the usual petulance and caprice of its race. The individual figured by
Mr. Bennett, in the Gardens and Menagerie delineated, was by no means
familiar, and appeared to be particularly anxious to conceal its face,
crying out, and kicking with all its might, when handled for the purpose
of inspection. Several living specimens have been, at different times,
observed by the Author of this work : all were extremely lively, and as
amusing from their antics, as attractive by their beauty, and the lightness
and grace of their actions ; they were in perpetual motion, gambolling
with their companions, and pursuing, or pursued by them, in the exuberance
of playfulness. They were, at the same time, docile and familiar, but
disliked to be taken hold of, or interfered with. Allamand says, that the
Blanc-nez which lived in his possession, and which was remarkably
gentle and sportive, became angry when interrupted while eating, or when
mockery of it was made, but that its displeasure was very transient.
The dislike of being the subject of ridicule, appears to be a feeling in
which most Monkeys participate (it has been noticed in the instance of
the Diana) ; and it is one of the proofs of their intelligence, that they
are capable of appreciating ridicule, or mockery, and are sensitive of
the injury.

The present species is evidently common in Guinea, and is frequently
brought to Europe ; but its constitution is not proof against the rigours of
our climate, under which it soon begins to succumb. It is of this Monkey,
that Barbot, as Allamand thinks, makes mention, when he describes certain
Monkeys of Guinea, which have a white beard and chest, a white mark
over the tip of the nose, and a black stripe across the forehead. The
annexed figures of the heads of the Hocheur and the Ascagne, convey a
clear idea of their distinguishing characteristics.

296 297

Head of Hocheur. Head of Ascagne.

542 QUADRUMANA.

MARTIN'S MONKEY.

CERCOPITHECUS MARTINI. (Cercopithecus Martini, WATERHOTTSE, in Proceedings Zool. Soc.

1838, p. 58.)

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Hairs of the body above, annulated with black and pale yellow;

top of head, arms, and tail, blackish; throat and under parts, brownish grey.
LOCALITY. — Fernando Po-

DESCRIPTION. — Of this animal two skins (No. 33 B, 33 B, a, in Suppl.
Cat. Mamm. 1839), exist in the museum of the Zoological Society : both
very nearly agree in colouring, but differ slightly in size ; the dimensions
are from the larger specimen. The face, hands, and feet, are, unfortu-
nately, wanting. It appears to be most nearly allied to Cere, nictitans ;
the hairs of the upper part of the body, however, are more distinctly
annulated, and the general tint is somewhat greyish ; each hair is grey at
the base, and has the apical portion black, with, generally, three yellowish
white rings ; the crown of the head and the fore-legs are black ; the
hind-legs are blackish, the hairs being but obscurely annulated; the
throat is dirty white ; the belly and inner side of the legs, at the base,
are of a brownish colour ; the tail is black above, and somewhat grizzled
at the sides ; at the base of the tail beneath there are some deep reddish
brown hairs ; the naked callosities are small ; the hairs on the fore-part
of the crown of the head are black, annulated with brownish white, and
so are those on the side of the face immediately below the ear ; the fur
is tolerably long, and but loosely applied to the body.

In the smaller specimen the under parts of the body are somewhat
paler than those in the larger, being brownish grey.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 1 10

Ditto tail 22

GENERAL HISTORY. — The habits and manners of this species, which
has but recently been added to the list of the Simiadae, are not ascertained.
The original, and, indeed, only specimens known, were obtained at
Fernando Po, by G. Knapp, Esq., and presented to the museum of the
Zoological Society, London.

298

THE BEARDED MONKEY.

CERCOPITHECUS POGONIAS. (Cercopithecus Pogonias, BENNETT, in Proceedings Zool. Soc.

1833. p. 67.)

Cercopithecus Pogonias

. LESSON, in Species des Mamm. p. 74. 1840.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS.— General colour blackish, freckled with white; the middle of the
back, the crupper , the tail above and at the tip, and a stripe on the temples, black ;
forehead and limbs, externally, yellowish, punctulate with black ; whiskers long and
full, and of a yellowish white ; under parts generally, rufous yellow.

LOCALITY. — Fernando Po.

DESCRIPTION. — Description of specimens (No. 33, Catalogue, and 33
a, Suppl. Cat. Mamm. 1838-9) in the museum of the Zoological Society,
London : — The hairs of the upper surface are black, ringed with whitish,
producing a grizzled appearance, which occupies the back part of the
head, the fore-part of the back, the sides, the outer surface of the
anterior limbs, and the posterior hands ; in the middle of the back com-
mences a broad black patch, which extends to the tail, and is continued
along its upper surface for about two-thirds of the length of that organ,
the remaining portion being black both above and below ; on the fore-

544

QUADRUMANA.

head the hairs are yellowish, ringed with black; a few black hairs
occupy the middle line ; and on each side, passing from above the eye to
the ear, is a broad patch of black ; the whiskers expand very broadly,
forming a large full tuft on each side of the face, commencing close under
the eye, and covering the whole cheek, their direction being downward
and outward ; the hairs composing them are of a dirty yellowish white,
occasionally, but very sparingly, ringed with dusky black ; the ear has
internally a long tuft of hairs of the same colour with those of the
whiskers ; the outer side of the hinder limbs, the hands excepted, is
yellowish, grizzled with black, the colour being intermediate in intensity
between the lightest portion of the -sides, and the whiskers ; the under
surface of the body, the insides of the limbs, and the under surface of
the proximal two-thirds of the tail, are reddish yellow.

ft. in.

Length of head and body 15

Ditto tail 20

GENERAL HISTORY. — The original of Mr. Bennett's description (No.
33, in Cat. Mamm. 1838) was, for many years, the only example known
of the present species. Recently, however, a second specimen has been
added to the museum of the Zoological Society, London. It was
obtained in Fernando Po, and presented, with other interesting skins, by
G. Knapp, Esq. No account of the habits of the animal has been yet
procured.

CAMPBELL'S MONKEY.

CERCOPITHECUSCAMPBELLII. (Cercopithecus Campbellii, WATERHOUSE, in Proceedings Zool.

Soc. 1838. p. 6.)

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS. — Fur, very long, rather silky, and divided down the middle of
the back ; head, and anterior part of body, olive grey ; the hairs being annulated with
black and yellow ; the posterior part of the body, and the thighs, externally, of a deep
grey ; under parts, white ; arms, externally, black ; tail, black , intermixed with yellow ;
pencil, at the extremity, black.

LOCALITY.— Sierra Leone.

DESCRIPTION. — Description of specimen (No. 33 c., in Suppl. Cat.
Mamm. 1839) in the museum of the Zoological Society, LondDn : — This
species appears to be most closely allied to the Cercopithecus Pogonias of
Mr. Bennett ; but it has not the black back which serves to distinguish
that animal.

The most remarkable characters, of the Cere. Campbellii are its long fur,
and the division of the hairs on the back, as in most of the species of the
genus Colobus. The average length of the hairs of the back is about
two inches and a half; on the hinder half of the back, however, they
exceed three inches. These hairs are grey at the base, and the remaining

SIMIAD.E. 545

portion of eacli hair is black, with broad yellow rings, the latter colour
prevailing. On the posterior half of the body, and the outer side of the
hinder legs, the hairs are of an almost uniform deep slate grey ; but some
of those on the middle of the back are obscurely freckled with deep yel-
low, and those on the thigh are very indistinctly freckled with white. The
belly, inner sides of the limbs, fore part of the thigh, chest, and throat,
are white. The hairs of the cheeks and sides of the neck are very long,
and of a greyish white, grizzled toward the ends with black and yellow.
Some whitish hairs, tipped with black, are observable across the front of the
forehead. The inner side of the ear is furnished with very long light grey
hairs, obscurely annulated with grey and pale yellow. The fore legs are
black externally, and the hair here is comparatively short. The hairs of
the tail are grizzled on the upper surface with black and dirty yellow, on
the under surface with black and brownish white. The point of the tail
is black, and the hairs are long. The black portion of the tail occupies
about one-third of its entire length.

The animal is named after the late Governor of Sierra Leone, Major
Campbell.

FINIS.

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